LATIN D'OOGE Jtljars, BJem $nrh BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF HENRY W. SAGE 1891 Digitized by Microsoft® Cornell University Library PA 2085.D69 Concise Latin grammar. 3 1924 021 612 787 All books are subject to recall after two weeks Olin/Kroch Library DATE DUE DEG-=^ Hwfr— s, and bt like pt. 17. The Greek combinations ph, th, ch, known as aspirates, were in that language equivalent to p, t, k, respectively, followed by a rough breathing or aspirate h (as in up-hill, hot-house, ink-horn). In Latin they are confined almost exclusively to words of Greek derivation, and in the classical period were probably sounded like simple p, t, c. 18. Between consonant i and a preceding a, e, 0, or u a vowel i was developed, thus producing diphthong ai, ei, etc., before the con- sonant i. In such cases, however, but one i was written : as, aio for ai-io, maius for mai-ius. 19. In compounds iacio was spelled -icio (not -iicio) : as, conicio, pronounced coniicio (con-yicio, consonant i preceding vowel i). 20. Doubled letters, as tt, pp, 11, should be pronounced with a slight pause between the two articulations. Thus, pronounce tt as in rat- trap, not as in rattle ; pp as in hoppole, not as in upper. SYLLABLES 21. A Latin word has as many syllables as it has vowels and diphthongs. Thus, aes-ta-te has three syllables, de-lu-de-re has four. 22. Words are divided into syllables as follows : a. A single consonant between two vowels is pronounced with the following vowel : as, a-ma-bi-lis, me-mo-ri-a, a-best, pe-re-git. Note. The combination qu is treated as a single consonant: as, e-quus. The double consonant x (= cs) is joined sometimes with the preceding, sometimes with the following, vowel : aux-it or au-xit. Digitized by Microsoft® 6 QUANTITY 6. A mute and a liquid are pronounced with the following vowel except in the case of prepositional compounds : as, pu-blicus, a-gri ; but ob-litus, ab-rumpO. Note. In poetry when a long syllable (cf. § 29) is needed, the mute may in all cases be joined with the preceding vowel : as, ag-ri. c. In all other combinations of consonants the last of the group is pronounced with the following vowel : as, mag-nus, il-le, sanc-tus, su-bac-tus, hos-pes, sump-tus. Note. In dividing a word at the end of a line of writing or printing, prepositional compounds are separated into their component parts : as, ab-est, per-egit, sub-actus, circum-sto. 23. A syllable ending in a consonant is called closed, one ending in a vowel or dipththong, open. Thus, the first syllable of re-git is open, the second closed. 24. The last syllable of a word is called the tdtima ; the next to the last, the penUlt ; that before the penult, the ante- penult. Thus, amantur consists of a- (antepenult), -man- (penult), -tur (ultima). QUANTITY 25. The quantity ' of a vowel or a syllable is the time occupied in pronouncing it. There are two degrees of quantity, long and short. Note. Technically, a long vowel or syllable is regarded as having twice the length (in time) of a short one. Correct pronunciation, accent, and the scansion of verse depend upon the proper observance of quantity. 26. A vowel or a syllable that may be either long or short in quantity is said to be common. 1 The rules for quantity are given with greater detail under Versification. Only a few of the leading facts are here stated. Digitized by Microsoft® QUANTITY 7 I. QUANTITY OF SYLLABLES 27. A syllable is long if it contains a long vowel or a diph- thong (as, cu-ro, poe-nae, aes-ta-te) or if it ends in a consonant which is followed by another consonant (as, cor-pus, mag-nus). 1 In the former case it is said to be long by nature ; in the latter, long by position. Note. The vowel in a long syllable may be either long or short and should be pronounced accordingly. Thus, in ter-ra the first syllable is long, but the vowel is short. In words like saxum the first syllable is long because x has the value of two consonants (§ 1 6). 28. A syllable is short if it ends in a short vowel : as, a-mor, pi-gri. 29. A syllable is common if its vowel is short and is fol- lowed by a mute and a liquid (1 or r). Note. The quantity here depends upon the way in which the word is divided into syllables. Thus, in pig-rl the first syllable ends in a conso- nant and is long; but in pi-gri the first syllable ends in a short vowel and is short. In prose the latter is the regular division (§ 22. b) and such syllables are regarded as short, but poets often find it convenient to divide the other way. 2 30. A syllable ending in a, e, 0, or u, and followed by conso- nant i, is long whether the vowel is long or short : as, aio, peius. 31. In compounds of iacio, the first syllable, if ending with a consonant, is long by position, the consonant i of the simple verb being pronounced though not written : as, in-icio (for in-iicio). 32. In determining quantity by position, h and consonant u in qu, gu, su (§ 16), are not counted as consonants. 1 When two consonants belonging to different syllables concur, the first is obstructed in its pronunciation by the presence of the second and is called an obstructed consonant. Length by position is due to the time consumed in pronouncing the two consonants and in passing from one to the other. 1 2 The first syllable of prepositional compounds of this nature is always long (§ 22. b) : as, ob-litus, ab-rumpo. Digitized by Microsoft® 8 ACCENT II. QUANTITY OF VOWELS 33. Vowels are either long (-) or short (*>) by nature and are pronounced accordingly. Note. In this book long vowels are marked, and short vowels are, as a rule, unmarked. Vowels marked with both signs at once (-) occur some- times as long and sometimes as short. 34. While there are no comprehensive rules for determining vowel quantity, the following statements are of practical value : a. A vowel is long before nf, ns, nx, and net (as, infero, regens, sanxi, unctus) or when it is the result of contraction : as, nil for nihil. b. A vowel is short before another vowel in the same word or before h (as, ru-l-na, tra-ho) ; before nt and nd, before final m or t, and (except in words of one syllable) before final 1 or r : as, portant, portSndus, portabam, portabat, animal, amOr. Note. A long vowel occasionally appears before nt or nd as the result of contraction (§ 34. a) : as, contio (for conventio), niintius (for noventius), prendo (for prehendo). c. Diphthongs are always long by nature and are not marked. ACCENT 35. In Latin, as in English, accent is a stress of voice which makes one syllable more prominent in utterance than another. 36. Original Accent. In the earliest times every Latin word was stressed strongly on the first syllable. This fact led to phonetic changes which will be discussed later (§§ 42 ff.). 37. Later Accent. Before the beginning of the classical period there had become established the " three-syllable law," by which the accent is restricted to the last three syllables of the word. Thus : a. Words of two syllables are accented on the first : as, men'sa, Cae'sar. Digitized by Microsoft® ACCENT 9 b. Words of more than two syllables are accented on the penult if that is long, otherwise on the antepenult : as, mo-ne'mus, a-man'dua, re'gi-tur. Note. Observe that the position of the accent is determined by the length of the syllable, and not by the length of the vowel in the syllable. c. Compounds follow the same rules as simple words. 38. Exceptions. a. Facio when compounded with other words than prepositions retains the accent of the simple verb : as, benef&'cit, satisfft'cit. b. Genitives in -i (instead of -ii) and vocatives in -I (instead of -ie ; see § 88. c) accent the penult, even if it is short : as, ingg'ni, Vergl'li. c. Certain words which have lost a final vowel or have suffered contraction are accented on the last syllable : as, illic' (for illi'ce), tanton' (for tanto'ne), produc' (for produ'ce), addic' (for addi'ce), audin' (for audis'ne), Arpinas' (for Arpina'tis), Quins' (for Quiri'tis), munit' (for muni'vit). 39. Enclitics. An enclitic is a word which has no separate existence, but is joined to the word that precedes it. The commonest enclitics are -que, and ; -ve, or ; -ne, the sign of a question ; -ce, -met, -nam, and -te, used merely for emphasis. 40. When an enclitic is joined to a word, the accent falls on the syllable next before the enclitic, whether that syllable is long or short : as, populus'que, dea'que, regna've, audit'ne. Note. This rule rests on the authority of Latin grammarians of the fourth and fifth centuries of our era, and, while valid for that period, may not .have been followed in the Augustan age. a. In some combinations -que has lost its meaning of and, and forms a real part of the word to which it is attached. Such words are accented regularly: as, de'nique, un'dique, i'taque (accordingly). Note. Utra'que, each, and plerS'que, most, from uter'que and plerus'que, accent the penult, though -que is not enclitic. Digitized by Microsoft® IO PHONETIC CHANGES 41 . Adjacent words pronounced together are sometimes writ- ten as one, the second sometimes assuming the character of an enclitic. The resulting combinations may show changes in form (cf. English I'm for I am, I've for I have). Note. Such combinations are most frequent in colloquial Latin, and occur especially when es or est is preceded by a word ending in a vowel, m, or s : thus, homost (homo est), periculumst (periculum est), auditas (audita es), qualist (qualis est), vin (visne), scin (scisne), sis (si vis), sodes (si audes), sultis (si vultis). PHONETIC CHANGES 42. Classical Latin often differs in form from that of the earlier periods. Such changes are due to the working of cer- tain laws of speech {phonetic laws) which, in general, had the effect of weakening, shortening, or dropping vowels in un- accented syllables and of changing or dropping consonants difficult to pronounce. I. CHANGES IN VOWELS A. Weakening of Vowels 43. Most of the changes in vowels were due to the strong stress accent which, in early Latin, fell on the first syllable of every word. (Cf. § 36.) This tended to preserve a vowel or diphthong of the accented syllable, but to weaken it in other syllables not accented. 44. Weakening of vowels in syllables originally unaccented regularly took the following direction : a. 8 before two consonants became 8, except that before ng it became 1 : as, confectus for *con-factus, 1 but contingo for *con-tango. b. S before a single consonant became 1 : as, conficio for *con-faci5, cecidi for *cecadi. m 1 Assumed forms are marked by an asterisk. Digitized by Microsoft® CHANGES IN VOWELS II c. 8, usually retained before two consonants or r, became 1 before a single consonant : as, adimo for *ad-emo ; miles for *milets, but militis for *miletes. d. ae became i : as, existimo for *ex-aestimo. e. au became u : as, includo for *in-claudo. 45. Long vowels and diphthongs in syllables originally accented suffered no weakening, but in classical Latin the old diphthongs ai and oi were written ae and oe : as, quaestor, early quaistor ; poena, early poina. In the second century b.c. the diphthong oe became u, but oe was retained in some words. Thus, in poena and panio, moenia and munio, both forms go back to an original spelling with oi. In late Latin oe became e : as, fSderatus. t B. Contraction of Vowels 46. Two concurrent vowels were often contracted into one long vowel. a. Two like vowels might be contracted into the corresponding long vowel : as, nil from ni(h)il, copia from *coopia, prendo from pre(h)endo. b. Two unlike vowels were usually contracted into the long form of the first : as, dego from *de-ago, cogo from *co-ago, debeo from *de-(h)abeo, amasse from ama(v)isse, consuesse from consue(v)isse. c. Many concurrent vowels remained uncontracted : as, audio, maria, tuus, deleo, etc. C. Dropping of Vowels 47. a. A short vowel following an accented syllable was sometimes dropped : as, valde from va'lide, rettuli from *re'tetuli, dextra from dex'tera. This is called syn'co-pe. b. A final short vowel was sometimes dropped : as, due from duce, animal from *animali. This is called a-poc'o-pe. Digitized by Microsoft® 12 CHANGES IN CONSONANTS' II. CHANGES IN CONSONANTS 48. dt, tt became ds, ts, then s or ss (§ S3.«) : as, sessus from *sedtus, clausus from *claudtus, passus from *pattus. 49. An original s between two vowels became r : as, honoris from *honosis, amare from *amase, eram from *esam. This is called rho'tacism from the Greek letter rho = r. Note. Words like mlsl and causa are from original missi and caussa. 50. g, c, or h combined with a following s to form x : as, rex from *regs, dux from *ducs, traxi from *trahsi. 1 51. When two consonants came together, they tended to as- similate, that is, become like each other. Note. Sometimes the assimilation was complete : as, sella from *sedla, siccus from *sitcus, collis from *colnis, summus from *supmus. Sometimes the assimilation went only so far that one letter became like the other in character : thus a voiced consonant might change to a voiceless one ; or, when the concurrent consonants were sounded with different vocal organs, one of them might be changed to another using the same vocal organ as its neighbor. Thus *scrlbtus became scriptus, the voiced consonant b be- coming voiceless to agree with the voiceless t ; and *primceps became princeps, the labial nasal m changing to the palatal nasal n to agree with the palatal mute c. 52. Complete or partial assimilation occurred both in inflec- tions and in composition, and was especially marked in the last consonant of prepositions in composition. 53. Complete Assimilation : a. ds and ts became ss, which was simplified to s after a long vowel or diphthong: thus, *cedsi became cessi,*dlvldsi became divlsi,*claudsi became clausi, *concutsi became concuss!. b. A mute was often assimilated to a following mute, liquid, or nasal : thus, *adger became agger, *sedla became sella, *supmus 1 The h in traho represents an original gh. Digitized by Microsoft® VOWEL GRADATION OR ABLAUT 13 became summus, *sitcus became siccus, adligo became alligo, ad- pell5 became appellS, *obcurr5 became occurrS, *subplico became supplied. Note. In prepositional compounds the final consonant of the preposition was often assimilated (cf. the' last four examples above); but usage varied, and in many compounds the assimilated form was found rarely, if at all, in the classical period. 54. Partial Assimilation : a. Voiced b or g before voiceless s or t was usually changed to corresponding voiceless p or c : thus, *scribsi became scrips!, *scribtus became scriptus, *augtus became auctus. b. Labial m before dental mutes was regularly changed to dental n, and before palatal mutes was often changed to palatal n : thus, *tamtus became tantus, *eumdem became eundem, *primceps became princeps. c. A labial mute before n became m : thus, *sopnus became somnus. 55. Dropping of Consonants : a. In final syllables a d or a t before s was dropped : thus, *lapids became lapis, *milets became miles. b. Final consonants were often dropped : thus, *virgon became virgo, *cord became cor, praedad became praeda, habetod became habeto. Note. When several consonants formed a group difficult to pronounce, one or more were sometimes dropped : as, ostendo for *obstendo, quintus for *quinctus, misceo for *migsceo. But when the group could be easily pro- nounced, no consonants were lost : as, iunxi, rostrum, stringo, unctus, spretus. III. VOWEL GRADATION OR ABLAUT 56. The Indo-European parent speech, of which most of the languages of Europe are descendants, showed a regular system of vowel variation in the same word or kindred words. This variation is called vowel gradation or ablaut. Plain traces of ablaut remain in all the languages derived from the Indo-European. Compare, for example, English drink, drank, drunk ; steal, stole ; bind, bound. Digitized by Microsoft® 14 VOWEL GRADATION OR ABLAUT 57. Vowel gradation in Latin appears sometimes as a mere dif- ference of quantity in the same vowel (as, i, i ; u, u ; etc.) and sometimes as a difference in the vowel itself (as, e, o ; i, ae ; etc.). rggere, rule rex, king ducere, lead dfix, leader d3re, give donum, gift tSgere, cover tBga, robe tegula, tile fidere, trust fides, faith foedus, treaty mfinere, remind mens, mind miser, wretched maestus, sad sedes, seat sedere, sit sfidalis, companion sido (for *si-sd-6), sit nficere, harm nSx, murder Digitized by Microsoft® PART II. FORMS 58. Parts of Speech. Latin has eight parts of speech : nouns, adjectives, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, con- junctions, and interjections. Latin has no article. This must be supplied by the context. 59. Inflections. Words may change their forms to show some change in sense or use. This change is called inflection In Latin, nouns, 1 adjectives, pronouns, and verbs are capable of inflection. Adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and inter- jections are not inflected, and are called particles. a. Inflectional changes sometimes take place in the body of a word, or at the beginning, but oftener in its termination. vox, a voice voco, / call vocet, let him call tangit, he touches vocis, of a voice vocat, he calls vocavit, he has called tetigit, he touched 60. Declension and Conjugation. The inflection of nouns, adjectives, 2 and pronouns is called declension ; that of verbs is called conjugation. 61. Roots. Words are built up from roots. A root is the simplest form to which a word can be reduced. It is always a monosyllable, and contains the fundamental meaning of the word, but ca\inot, as a rule, be used as a part of speech without modification. Thus from the root sta- we form the adjective sta-bilis by adding to it an ending called a suffix. x A few nouns are incapable of inflection. These are called indeclinable nouns: as, fas, right; nihil, nothing. 2 Adjectives are sometimes said to have inflections of comparison. The forms of comparison are, however, really new stems and are not strictly to be regarded as forms of inflection. IS Digitized by Microsoft® 1 6 FORMS 62. Stems. The stem or theme is the body of a word to which terminations are attached. Sometimes the stem is the same as the root, but usually the stem is formed from the root by the addition of a suffix or by changing or lengthening its vowel. Thus the root due- is also the stem of due-is, of a leader; but from the root voc- we may form voc-a-, stem of vocare, call ; voc-ato-, stem of vocatus, called; voc-ation-, stem of vocationis, of a calling; etc. By lengthening the vowel of this same root we get voc-, the stem of voc-is, of a voice. Note. The root itself may have various forms. See § 57. 63. Bases. The base is that part of a word which remains unchanged in inflection : as, serv- in servus, mens- in mensa, am- in amem. a. The base and the stem are often identical, as in many consonant stems of nouns (as, reg- in reg-is). If, however, the stem ends in a vowel, the latter does not appear in the base, but is variously com- bined with the inflectional termination. Thus the stem of servus is servo-, that of mensis is mensa-, and that of ignem is igni-. GENDER 64. Latin, like English, has three genders : masculine, femi- nine, and neuter. 65. The gender of Latin nouns is either natural or gram- matical. I. NATURAL GENDER 66. Natural gender is determined by sex and belongs only to animate beings. puer, m., boy vir, m., man equtfs, m., horse puella, f., girl mulier, f., woman equa, f., mare Digitized by Microsoft® GENDER AND PERSON 17 a. Many nouns may be either masculine or feminine according to the sex of the object denoted. These are said to be of common gender : as, civis, citizen (male or female) ; parSns, parent (either father or mother). II. GRAMMATICAL GENDER 67. Grammatical gender belongs. to names of objects and qualities having no sex distinction. Such words may be either masculine, feminine, or neuter, and their gender is usually indicated by the termination of the nominative singular. fluvius, m., stream ripa, f., bank caelum, n., sky a. Names of months are masculine, being really adjectives agreeing with mensis, m., month, understood. So names of winds and many names of rivers are masculine (perhaps through the influence of ventus, m., wind, and fluvius or amnis, m., stream). b. Many names of countries, towns, islands, and trees are feminine. c. Some names of animals have grammatical gender. The same form is then used for either sex : as, vulpes, f., fox, of either sex ; anser, m., gander or goose. Nouns with but one gender for both sexes are called epicene. 68. Indeclinable nouns, infinitives, and all expressions, phrases, or clauses used as nouns are neuter. fas, right mane, morning nihil, nothing scire tuum, your knowledge 69. Words borrowed from the Greek or from other lan- guages usually retain the gender of the original. Lethe, f., Lethe (a river) Bibracte, n., Bibracte (a town in Gaul) PERSON 70. In Latin, as in English, there are three persons. The first person denotes the person speaking ; the second person, the person spoken to ; the third person, the person spoken of. Digitized by Microsoft® FORMS NUMBER 71. Latin, like English, has two numbers, the singular and the plural. The singular number denotes one, the plural number more than one. NOUNS AND THEIR DECLENSION 72. A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea. Caesar, C&sar Roma, Rome domus, house virtus, virtue Note. The term substantive is often applied to a noun or to any word or expression used like a noun. a. Names of individual persons or places are called proper nouns : as, Caesar, Roma. Other nouns are called common nouns. , b. Nouns are either abstract or concrete. i . An abstract noun is the name of a quality or idea : as, virtus, virtue; metus, fear. 2. A concrete noun is the name of something that has physical existence and can be seen, touched, or handled : as, domus, house ; aqua, water. Note. Nouns that are abstract are often used in a concrete sense and vice versa. c. A collective noun is a concrete noun denoting a group or class of objects. exercitus, army grex, herd populus, people 73. Declension. Nouns are declined by adding certain ter- minations to a common base or stem. The resulting form is called a case. Each case form, therefore, consists of two distinct elements, the base or stem and the case ending. If the stem ends in a consonant, the base and the stem are identical and the case endings appear distinct and unchanged. But if the stem ends in a vowel, this vowel may so combine with the case endings that the stem and real endings are hard, to distinguish. The suffix produced by the combination of i Digitized by Microsoft® DECLENSION OF NOUNS 19 the final vowel of the stem and the case ending is called a case termination, and this term may be conveniently extended to all inflec- tional suffixes added to the base. Thus due-is consists of the consonant stem or base due- and the case termination -is, which is also the actual case ending ; but iugo (base iug-, case termination -6) goes back to an original *iugo-ai, which shows the stem to be iugo- and the actual case ending -ai. 74. The Cases. There are six cases in Latin : Nominative, case of the subject. Genitive, case of the possessor or of the object with of. Dative, case of the object with to or for, especially the indirect object. Accusative, case of the direct object. Vocative, case of address. Ablative, case of the object with from, with, by, in, or at. a. The Locative Case. Forms of another case, the locative, denoting the place where, appear in some names of towns and a few other words. b. The Oblique Cases. All the cases except the nominative and the vocative are called the oblique cases. THE FIVE DECLENSIONS OF NOUNS 75. Nouns are inflected in five declensions, distinguished by the final letter of the stem and by the case termination of the genitive singular. Declension Final Letter of the Stem Termination of the Genitive First Second Third Fourth Fifth a- b- i- or a consonant. u- e- -ae -i -is -us -li Digitized by Microsoft® 20 GENERAL RULES OF DECLENSION a. The base of a noun may always be found by dropping the case termination. In consonant stems the base and the stem are identical. In vowel stems the stem is formed from the base by adding the final stem-vowel. Thus the base of domin-I, the genitive singular of dominus, a noun of the second declension, is domin-, and the stem is domino-, formed by adding 0-, the final stem-vowel of the second declension, to the base. GENERAL RULES OF DECLENSION 76. a. The vocative is always the same as the nominative except in some Greek nouns and in the singular of nouns in -us of the second declension. It is not included in the paradigms unless it differs from the nominative. b. In neuters the nominative and accusative are always alike and in the plural end in -a. The first and fifth declensions have no neuters. c. The accusative singular of all masculines and feminines ends in -m, the accusative plural in -s. d. The dative and ablative plural are always alike. e. In the third, fourth, and fifth declensions the accusative plural is like the nominative plural. /. Final -i, -o, -u in case forms are always long ; final -a is always short, except in the ablative singular of the first declension. THE FIRST DECLENSION — A-STEMS 77. The stem of nouns of the first declension ends in a- : as, domina-, stem of domina, lady. 78. The Nominative Singular. Latin nouns of the first or 5- declension end in -5 in the nominative singular, and they are regularly feminine unless they denote males. a. Examples of masculine nouns in -a are : scriba, scribe verna, slave agricola, farmer nauta, sailor also some proper nouns : as, Mutena, Murena Belgae, the Belga Hadria, the Adriatic Digitized by Microsoft® FIRST DECLENSION 21 79. Declension. Nouns of the first declension are declined as follows : domina, r., the (a) lady Stem domina- Base domin- SINGULAR Terminations -a -ae -ae -am -a -ae -arum -Is -as -is Cases Meanings Nom. domina the lady (subject) Gen. dominae of the lady or the lady's Dat. dominae to or for the lady Ace. dominam the lady (direct object) Abl. domina with, from, by, etc. the lady PLURAL Nom. dominae the ladies (subject) Gen. dominarum of the ladies or the ladies' DAT. dominis to ox for the ladies Ace. domin as the ladies (direct object) Abl. dominis with, from, by, etc. the ladies Peculiar Case Forms in the. First Declension 80. a. An old genitive singular in -as is sometimes preserved in the form familias, used in the combination pater (mater, films, filia) familias, father (mother, son, daughter) of a family ; plural, patres familias or familiarum. b. In early Latin the genitive singular ended in -ax (pronounced in two syllables) : as, aula'!. This ending is sometimes found later in poetry. ' aula! medio libabant pocula Bacchi, in the midst of the court they poured libations of wine c. The singular of names of towns in -a and of a few common nouns has a locative case in -ae (for -ai) to denote the place where. Romae, at Rome militiae, in military service Names of towns that are plural in form and belong to the first declension have a locative in -Is not distinguishable from the ablative. Athenis, at Athens Thebls, at Thebes Digitized by Microsoft® 22 GREEK NOUNS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION d. A genitive plural in -urn instead of in -arum is sometimes found in poetry, especially in Greek nouns denoting descent. Aeneadum, of the descendants of ^Eneas caelicolum, of the heaven dwellers e. The dative and ablative plural of dea, goddess, and f ilia, daughter, and of some other words take the ending -abus instead of -is to dis- tinguish them from corresponding masculine forms. Thus deabus and filiabus are distinguished from dels and flliis, corre- sponding forms of deus, god, and filius, son, respectively. Greek Nouns of the First Declension 81. Most common nouns of the first declension borrowed from the Greek have Latin forms throughout (as, aula, cotirt ; philosophia, philosophy) ; but proper nouns generally retain traces of their Greek case form's in the singular. Such Greek proper nouns end in -a or -e, feminine, and -as or -es, masculine. In the singular they are declined as follows : Electra Andromache Nom. Electra (-a) Andromache (-a) Gen. Electrae Andromaches (-ae) DAT. Electrae Andromachae Ace. Electran (-am) Andromachen (-am) Abl. Electra Andromache (-a) Voc. Electra (-a) Andromache" (-a) Aeneas Anchises Nom. Aeneas Anchlses Gen. Aeneae Anchlsae Dat. Aeneae Anchlsae Ace. Aenean (-am) Anchlsen (-am) Abl. Aenea Anchlse' (-a) Voc. Aeng a (-a) Anchlse (-a) In the»plural no Greek forms of declension occur. Digitized by Microsoft® SECOND DECLENSION 23 THE SECOND DECLENSION - O-STEMS 82. The stem of nouns of the second declension ends in 0-. domino-, stem of dominus, master viro-, stem of vir, man puero-, stem of puer, boy pilo-, stem of pilum, spear 83. The Nominative Singular. The nominative singular of Latin nouns of the second or 0- declension ends in -us, -er, -ir, masculine ; and in -urn, neuter. Note. The terminations -us and -urn were originally -os and -om, and after u and v these old endings were retained until the Augustan age : as, equos, equom ; servos, servom. 84. The masculines in -us and neuters in -um are declined as follows : dominus, m. ., master pilum, n. , spear Stem domino-; Base domin- Stem pilo-; Base pil- S.INGULAR Cases Terminations Cases Terminations Nom. dominus -US . pilum -um Gen. domini -i pili -i DAT. domino -0 pilo -6 Ace. dominum -um pilum -um Abl. domino -0 pilo -0 Voc. domine -e PLURAL pilum -um Nom. domini -i plla -a Gen. dominSrum -orum pllorum -orum Dat. dominis -is pllis -is Ace. dominos -OS plla -a Abl. dominis -is pills -is a. Nouns in -us of the second declension have a special form with the termination -6 for the vocative singular. Digitized by Microsoft® 24 SECOND DECLENSION 85. Nouns of. the second declension in -er and -ir are declined like dominus, except for the loss of the terminations -us in the nominative and -6 in the vocative singular. Thus we have puer (for *puerus) in the nominative singular ; puer (for *puere) in the vocative singular. puer, m., boy Stem puero- Base puer- Nom. puer Gen. pueri Dat. puero Ace. puerum Abl. puero Voc. puer ager, m., field Stem agro- Base agr- SINGULAR ager agri agro agrum agro ager vir, m., man Stem viro- Base vir- vir viri viro virum vir 6 vir Terminations (-U8 lost) -i -o -um -o (-6 lost) Nom. pueri Gen. puerorum Dat. puer is Ace. puer 5s Abl. puer is PLURAL agri agrorum agris agros agris viri virorum vir is vir os vir is -l -orum -is -os -is a. With nouns in -er, if e belongs to the stem (as in puer), it is retained throughout ; otherwise it appears (as in ager) in only the nominative and vocative singular, where it is inserted before the -r after -o, the stem vowel, has been dropped. Most nouns in -er are declined like ager, but the following are declined like puer : i. Compounds in -fer and -ger: as, signifer, signiferi, standard bearer ; armiger, armigeri, armor bearer. 2. Gener, son-in-law ; Liber, Bacchus ; liberi, children ; socer, father- in-law ; vesper, evening ; and a few others. Digitized by Microsoft® SECOND DECLENSION 25 Exceptions to Gender in the Second Declension 86. Feminine nouns in -us are : a. Some names of countries, towns, islands, and trees (§ 67. b). Aegyptus, Egypt Rhodus, Rhodes Corinthus, Corinth malus, apple tree b. Some nouns of Greek origin. arctus, bear methodus, method c. These four nouns : alvus, belly colus, distaff carbasus, linen humus, ground 87. Neuter nouns in -us are : pelagus, sea virus, poison vulgus, crowd Their accusative singular (as in all neuters) is the same as the nominative and they have no plural, except that pelagus has a rare accusative plural, pelage. Rarely vulgus is masculine. Peculiar Case Forms in the Second Declension- 88. a. The locative singular ends in -1, like the genitive. humi, on the ground Corinthi, at Corinth The locative plural ends in -is and is not distinguished in form from the ablative : as, Delphis, at Delphi. b. The genitive singular of nouns in -ius and -ium ended in -i (not in -ii) until the Augustan age, and the accent was on the penult (§ 38. b). fill, from filius {son) praesi'di, from praesidium (garrison) c. The vocative singular of filius, son, and of proper nouns in -ius ends in -i, instead of in -ie, and the accent is on the penult. fill, O son Vergi'li, O Vergil In such words, therefore, the genitive and the vocative are alike. Digitized by Microsoft® 26 SECOND DECLENSION d. The genitive plural sometimes retains the original -um (or -om) instead of using -orum, especially in poetry. deum, divom, superum, of the gods sestertium, of sesterces duumvirum, of the duumviri minimum, of coins This is the regular form in early Latin, the later -orum being merely an imitation of the genitive plural of the first declension. e. The declension of deus, god, shows several peculiarities. The vocative singular does not occur in classic Latin. In late Latin the nominative is used as a vocative. The plural is declined as follows : Nom. del, dii, di Gen. deprum, deum Dat. dels, dils, dls Ace. deos ' Abl. dels, dils, dls The forms dii and dils are pronounced like di, dis. Greek Nouns of the Second Declension 89. Greek nouns of the second declension end in -os, -6s, masculine or feminine, and in -on, neuter. They are mostly proper names, and are declined as follows in the singular (the plural, when found, being usually regular) : mythos, m. Androgeos, m. Delos, f. Ilion, i fable Androgeos Delos Ilium Nom. mythos Androgeos Delos Ilion Gen. mythi Androgeo (-1) Deli Ilii Dat. myths Androgeo Delo Ilio Ace. myth on Androgeon (-S) Del on (-um) Ilion Abl. mytho Androgeo Dels Ilio Voc. mythe Androgeos Dele Ilion a. A rare genitive in -u (Greek ou) sometimes occurs : as, Menan- dru, of Menander. b. The name Panthus has vocative Panthu. Digitized by Microsoft® THIRD DECLENSION 27 c. The termination, -oe (Greek oi) is sometimes found in the nominative plural, and -on in the genitive plural. Adelphoe, the Adelfthi (a play of Terence) ■ Georgicon, of the Georgics (a poem of Vergil) d. For the declension of Greek names in -eus (like Orpheus) see § 112. THE THIRD DECLENSION — CONSONANT AND /-STEMS 90. Stems of the third declension are classified as follows : (A. Mute stems I. Consonant stems-! B. Liquid stems [ C. Nasal stems TT T _ ■{ A. Pure i-stems II. I-stems-^ • ,,. , . [ B. Mixed i-stems III. Irregular nouns 91. In consonant stems the stem is regularly the same as the base. In i-stems the stem is formed by adding i- to the base. I. CONSONANT STEMS A. Mute Stems 92. Masculine and feminine nouns with stems ending in a mute (§ 10) form the nominative singular by adding s to the stem. Neuters use as nominative the simple stem, dropping the final mute. 93. In forming the nominative singular from the stem the following changes occur : a. A lingual mute (t or d) is dropped before -s : as, miles (stem milit-), custos (stem custod-). b. A palatal mute (c or g) unites with -s to form -x : as, dux (duc-s), r5x (reg-s). Digitized by Microsoft® 28 THIRD DECLENSION c. In stems of more than one syllable an original unaccented e, retained in the nominative singular (§ 44. c), is regularly changed to i in the other cases : as, princeps, principis. 94. Mute stems are declined as follows : princeps, m. chief Bases "1 or ^princip- 1 Stems J Nom. princep s Gen. principis Dat. principi Ace. principem Abl. principe Nom. prlncipes Gen. prlncipum Dat. principibus Ace. prlncipes Abl. principibus miles, m. soldier mint- 1 SINGULAR miles militis militi militem milite PLURAL mllites militum militibus milites militibus lapis, m. stone lapid- lapis lapidis lapidi lapidem lapide lapidSs lapidum lapidibus lapides lapidibus Terminations M. and F. -S -is -i -em -e -um -ibus -es -ibus Bases 1 or V Stems J r6x, m. king reg- Nom. rex Gen. regis Dat. regi Ace. regem Abl. rege iudex, m. judge iudic- SINGULAR iudex iudicis iudici iudicem iudice virtus, f. manliness virtut- virtus virtutis virtuti virtutem virtute Terminations M. and F. -S -is -i -em -e The original form of these stems was princep- and milet-. See § 44. , Digitized by Microsoft® THIRD DECLENSION 29 Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Abl. reges regum regibus reges regibus PLURAL iudices iudicum iudicibus iudices iudicibus virtutes virtutum virtutibus virtutes virtutibus Terminations M. AND F. -€s -um -ibus -es -ibus Bases or Stems cor, n. heart '1 > cord- caput, n. head capit- poema, n. poem poemat- Nom. cor cordis cordi cor corde SINGULAR caput capitis capiti caput capite poema poematis poemati poema poemate Terminations Neut. Gen. Dat. Ace. -is -i Abl. -e PLURAL Nom. Gen. cord a capita capitum capitibus capita capitibus poemata poematum poematibus poemata poematibus -a Dat. Acc. Abl. cordibus cord a cordibus -um -ibus -a -ibus 95. Note the following irregularities : a. The stem capit- becomes caput in the nominative singular, and does not drop the final mute (§ 92). An ablative capiti is found. b. A number of monosyllabic nouns with mute stems are like cor in having no genitive plural. Among these are : crux, cross fax, torch lux, light nex, death pax, peace vas, bail Digitized by Microsoft® 30 THIRD DECLENSION B. Liquid Stems 96. The nominative singular of stems ending in a liquid (1 or r) is the same as the stem. But observe that — a. Stems in tr- have -ter in the nominative : as, pater, stem patr-. b. Stems in 11- or rr- lose one of the liquids in the nominative : as, far, farris ; mel, mellis. c. Stems in or- have short o in the nominative : as, amor, amoris (§ 34- b)- d. Many stems in r- originally ended in s-, which still appears in many nominatives : as, mos, custom ; flos, flower. Some nominatives end in either -r or -s : as, honor or honos, arbor or arbos. In the other cases original s regularly became r between two vowels (§ 49) : as, genitive floris (for flosis), moris (for m5sis). e. Most neuter stems in er- and or- (originally es- and os-) have -us in the nominative : as, genus (stem gener-), corpus (stem corpor-). 97. Liquid stems are declined as follows : consul, m. flos, M. pastor, m. mater, f. Bases or Stems consul i c5nsul- J flower flor- shepherd pastor- SINGULAR mother matr- Terminations Nom. consul flos pastor pastor is mater matris M. AND F. Gen. consul is floris -is Dat. consul! flori pastor i matr I -i Ace. consul em florem pastor em matr em -em Abl. consul e flore pastor e PLURAL matre -e Nom. consul es flores pastor es matres -es Gen. consul urn florum pastor urn matrum -um DAT. consul ibus floribus pastor ibus matr ibus -ibus Ace. consul Es flores pastor es matr 5s -es Abl. consul ibus • floribus pastor ibus matr ibus -ibus Digitized by Microsoft® THIRD DECLENSION 31 tempus, n. opus, N. aequpr, n. time work sea Bases ~\ or y tempor- oper- aequor- Stems J SINGULAR ' Terminations Neut. Nom. tempus opus aequor Gen. tempor is operis aequoris -is DAT. tempor I operi aequor i -i Ace. tempus opus aequor Abl. tempore opere PLURAL aequor e -e Nom. tempor a opera aequor a -a Gen. temporum operum aequor urn -um DAT. tempor ibus operibus aequor ibus -ibus Acc. tempor a opera aequor a -a Abl. tempor ibus operibus aequor ibus -ibus C. Nasal Stems 98. The nominative singular of stems ending in a nasal (h or m) is the same as the stem, with the following slight modifications : a. Stems in 5n- drop n in the* nominative : as, legio, stem legion- ; ratio, stem ration-. 6. Stems in din- and gin- drop n and change i to : as, ordo, stem ordin- ; virgo, stem virgin^. So also homo (stem homin-), nemo (stem nemin-), Apollo (stem Apollin-). r ■ c. Neuters and a few masculine stems in in- (not in din- or gin-) have the nominative in -en : as, nomen, n., stem nomin- ; flamen, m., stem flamin-. - Note. There is. only one . stem in m-, hiems (stem hiem-), genitive hiemis, winter. This nasal stem is peculiar also in adding -s to form the "nominative singular. Digitized by Microsoft® 32 THIRD DECLENSION 99. Stems ending in a nasal are declined as follows : Bases or Stems Crd5, m. row I ordin- legiO, f. legion legion- SINGULAR nomen, n. name nomin- Terminations M. AND F. Terminations Neut. Nom. 5rdo legio nomen Gen. ordin is legion is -is nominis -is DAT. ordin 1 legion i -I nomini -i Ace. ordin em legion em -em nomen Abl. ordin e legion e -e nomine -e PLURAL Nom. ordin 5s legion Ss -«s nomina -a Gen. ordin um legion um -um nominum -um Dat. ordin ibus legion ibus -ibus nominibus -ibus Ace. ordin 6s legion es -Ss nomina -a Abl. ordin ibus legion ibus -ibus nominibus -ibus II. I-STEMS 100. The original distinction between the declension of con- sonant stems and that of i-stems is shown by the following comparison of case terminations^: CONSONANT STEMS f Accusative (m. and f.) -em Singulars . v ' l Ablatwe (m., f., and n.) -e Plural Nominative (n.) -a Genitive (m., f., and N.)-um Accusative (m. and f.) -gs, (N.)-a - I-STEMS Accusative (m. and f.) -im Ablative (m., f., and n.) -i Nominative (n.) -ia Genitive (m., f., and n.) -ium Accusative (m. and f.) -is, (n.) -ia This distinction was maintained throughout by relatively few words, the tendency being to displace the i- forms by the Digitized by Microsoft® THIRD DECLENSION 33 corresponding forms of -the consonant stems. Along with this went a tendency of certain consonant stems to assume i- forms in the plural. The i- forms which persisted most strongly were : The ablative singular in -i and the nominative and accusative plural in -ia for all neuters. The genitive plural in -ium. The accusative plural (m. and f.) in -is. A. Pure I-Stems 101. Pure i-stems are those that have retained some or all of the i- forms in the singular and all of them in the plural. 102. Masculines and Feminines — Pure /-Stems. Masculine and feminine nouns of this class regularly end in -is in the nominative singular, in -ium in the genitive plural, and in -is or -es in the accusative plural. They are declined as follows : tussis, f., cough turris, f., tower ignis, m., fire Stem tussi- Stem turri- Stem igni- Base tuss- Base turr- SINGULAR Base ign- Terminations M. AND F. Nom. tussis turris ignis -is Gen. tuss is turris ignis -is Dat. tussi turri igni -i Ace. tussim turrim(-em) . ignem -im (-em) Abl. tussi turri (-e) PLURAL igni (-e) • -i(-e) Nom. hisses turrSs ignes -es Gen. tuss ium turrium ignium -ium Dat: tussibus turribus ignibus -ibus Ace. tussis (-es) turris (-es) ignis (-es) -is (-5s) Abl. tussibus turribus ignibUs -ibus Digitized by Microsoft® 34 THIRD DECLENSION a. Four i-stems end in -er in the nominative singular. These are imber, rain ; linter, boat ; uter, skin ; venter, belly. b. Declined like tussis (ace. -im, abl. -I) in the singular, but lacking the plural, are names of towns and rivers in -is, and sitis, thirst. c. Declined like turris (ace. -im, -em ; abl. -i, -e) are : febris, fever ; navis, ship ; puppis, stern ; sementis, sowing ; and a few others. d. Declined like ignis (ace. -em ; abl. -i, -e) are: avis, bird; civis, citizen; classis, fleet ; collis, hill; ixsn&,end; orbis, circle; ovis, sheep; and a few others. e. Messis, crop ; restis, rope ; and securis, ax, have the accusative singular in -im or -em, and in the ablative messe, reste, and securi respectively. 103. Neuters — Pure /-Stems. Neuter pure i-stems end in -e, -al, or -ar in the nominative singular. They have -i in the ablative singular, -ium in the genitive plural, and -ia in the nominative and accusative plural. a. In the nominative singular the final i- of the stem, if retained, is changed to -e : as, insigne, stem insigni-. But most neuters in which the i- of the stem is preceded by al or ar lose the final stem vowel and shorten the preceding a (§ 34. b) : as, animal, stem animali-. 104. Neuter pure i-stems are declined as follows : insigne, n. animal, n. calcar, n. decoration animal spur Stems Insigni- animali- calcari- Bases Insign- animal- calcar- SINGULAR Termxnations Nom. insigne • animal calcar -e or — -0EU- Insignis animal is calcar is -is Dat. insigni - animal i calcar i -i Ace. msigrie animal calcar -e or — p , ABL t insigni animali calcar i -I Digitized by Microsoft® THIRD DECLENSION 35 Terminations Nom. Insign ia animal ia calcaria -ia Gen. Insign ium animal ium calcarium -ium DAT. insign ibus animal ibus calcaribus -ibus Ace. Insignia animal ia calcaria -ia Abl. Insign ibus animal ibus calcaribus -ibus a. Geographical names in -e (as, Praeneste, Soracte) have the ablative in -e. Rete, net, has rete or rarely reti. B. Mixed I-Stems 105. Mixed i-stems are either original i-stems that have lost their i- forms in the singular, or consonant stems that have assumed i- forms in the plural. It is often impossible to distin- guish between these two classes. Masculines and Feminines. Mixed i-stems are masculine or feminine. They are declined like consonant stems in the singular and like i-stems in the plural, and have — -em in the accusative singular -e in the ablative singular -ium in the genitive plural -is or -es in the accusative plural 106. Mixed i-stems include the following : a. Nouns in -es, genitive -is : as, caedes (gen. caedis), nubes (gen. nubis). 6. Monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by a consonant: as, ars, pons, arx. c. Polysyllables in -ns or -rs : as, cliens, cohors. d. The plurals fauces, optimates, penates, Quirites, Samnites ; the monosyllables fraus, lis, mus, nix, nox ; and sometimes nouns in -tas (gen. -tatis), as, civitas (genitive plural generally civitatum, but some- times civitatium). Digitized by Microsoft® 36 THIRD DECLENSION 107. Mixed i-stems are declined as follows : nubes, f. cloud Stems nub(i)- Bases nub- Nom. nubes Gen. nub is Dat. nub I Ace. nub em Abl. nube urbs, f. city urb(i)- urb- urbs urbis urbi urbem urbe nox, f. night noct(i)- noct- SINGULAR nox noctis nocti noctem nocte cliens, m. client client(i)- client- clien s client is client! client em client e aetas, f. age aetat(i)- aetat- aetas aetatis aetati aetatem aetate PLURAL Nom. nubes urbes noctes clientes aetates Gen. nubium urbium noctium clientium 1 aetatum 2 Dat. nubibus urbibus noctibus clientibus aetatibus Ace. nub is (-es) urbis (-es) noctis (-es) client is- (-es) aetatis (-es) Abl. nubibus urbibus noctibus clientibus .aetatibus a. Auris, ear, and a few other pure i-stems have lost their i- forms in the accusative and ablative singular and are declined like nubes. b. Canis, dog, and iuvenis, youth, are consonant stems that have assumed some i- forms. They have -em in the accusative singular, -e in the ablative singular, -um in the genitive plural, and -es or -is in the accusative plural. c. Fames, hunger, always has the ablative fame. 108. The declension of i-stems was unstable at all periods of the language and was confused even among the Romans themselves, early Latin having i- forms which afterwards disappeared. Thus an old nominative plural in -is was completely lost. Lost in most words was the accusative singular in -im. Somewhat more stable was the abla- tive singular in -i, while the genitive plural in -ium and the accusative plural in -is were retained in nearly all words. • 1 Rarely clientum. 2 Also aetatium. Digitized by Microsoft® THIRD DECLENSION 37 III. IRREGULAR NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION 109. Among the nouns showing irregular case formations are the following : senex, m. cars. , F. OS, N. vis, F. b5s, c. old man flesh bone force ox , cow SINGULAR Nom. senex caro OS vis bos Gen. sen is cam is oss is vis (rare) bo vis DAT. seni carni ossi vl (rare) bovi Ace. sen em camera OS vim bovem Abl. sene came osse VI bove i PLURAL Nom. senes carnes oss a vlrSs bovSs Gen. senum carnium ossium vlrium bourn DAT. senibus cam ibus oss ibus vlribus bo bus (bubus) Ace. senes carnes oss a viris (-6s) boves Abl. senibus cam ibus oss ibus vlribus bo bus (bubus) sus, c. : [uppiter, m. nix, f. iter, n. swine Jupiter snow march SINGULAR Nom. sus Iuppit er nix iter Gen. suis Iovis nivis itineris Dat. sui Iovi nivi itineri Ace. suem Iovem nivem iter Abl. sue love PLURAL nive itinere Nom. sues nives itinera Gen. suum nivium itinerum Dat. subus (sv. libus), nivibus itineribus Ace. sues niv6s itinera Abl. subus (sv libus) nivibus itineribus Digitized by Microsoft® 38 GREEK NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION a. Like sus is declined grfis, crane, except that the dative and ablative plural are always gruibus. Iecur, n., liver, has genitive iecoris or iecinoris. Supellex, f., furniture, has genitive supellectilis, ablative supellectili or -e ; there is no plural. The Locative Case 110. The locative singular for nouns of the third declension ends in -i or -e. ruri (rarely rure), in the country Carthagini or Carthagine, at Carthage The locative plural ends in -ibus and is not distinguished in form from the ablative : as, Trallibus, at Tralles. Greek Nouns of the Third Declension 111. Greek nouns of the third declension are often entirely regular, but many, especially proper names, show Greek ter- minations in the following cases : a. , Genitive singular in -os : as, tigridos. b. Accusative singular in -n or -a : as, basin, tigrida, aethera. c. Vocative singular like the stem : as, Pericle, Orpheu, Atla. d. Nominative plural' in -6s : as, hero8s. e. Accusative plural in -Ss : as, lampadas. 112. Examples of these peculiarities are seen in the following : heros, M. lampas, f. basis, f. tigris, c. nais, f. hero torch base SINGULAR tiger naiad Nom. heros lampas basis tigris nais Gen. hero is lampados baseos tigris (-idos) naidos DAT. hero I Iampadi basi tigri naidi Acc. hero a lampada basin tigrin (-id a) naida Abl. hjroe lampade basi tigri (-ide) naide Digitized by Microsoft® GREEK NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION 39 PLURAL Nom. heroes lampades bases tigres naidgs Gen. heroum lampadum basium (-eon) tigrium naidum D., A. heroibus lampadibus basibus tigribus naidibus Ace. hero 5s lam pad as basis (-eis) tigris (-id 5s) naidSs Capys Capyos Capyi Capyn Capye Capy Paris Paridis Paridi Paridem Parim (-in) Paride (Pari) Pari Note. The regular Latin forms may be used for most of the above. a. Like Simois are declined stems in ant- (nominative in -as) : as, Atlas, -antis. b. In a few Greek titles of books -on is found in the genitive plural : as, Metamorphoseon, of the Metamorphoses (Ovid's well-known poem). Gender in the Third Declension 113. There are no rules for gender in the third declension that do not present numerous exceptions. The gender of many nouns is determined by the general principles laid down in §§ 64 ff. The most important rules for the others, with their principal exceptions, are the following : GREEK PROPER NAMES Nom. Dido Simois Gen. Didonis (Did us) Simoentis Dat. Dldoni (Dido) Simoenti Ace. Didonem (Dido) Simoenta Abl. Didone (Dido) Simoente Voc. Dido Simois Nom. Orpheus Pericles Gen. Orphei (-eos) Periclis (-1) DAT. Orphei (-eo) Pericli (-i) Ace. Orphea (-um) Periclem (-ea, -en) Abl. Orpheo Pericle - Voc. Orpheu Pericles (-S) Digitized by Microsoft® 40 GENDER IN THE THIRD DECLENSION 114. Masculine are nouns in -or, -6s, -Sr, -6s (gen. -itis), -ex (gen. -icis) : as, color, fl6s, imber, gurges (gurgitis), vertex (verticis). Exceptions a. Feminine are arbor, tree; linter, skiff. b. Neuter are aequor, sea ; cor, heart ; marmor, marble ; 6s, mouth ; cadaver, dead body ; iter, way ; ver, spring ; and names of plants and trees in -er : as, acer, maple. 115. Feminine are nouns in -5, -is, -x, and in -s preceded by a consonant or by any long vowel except 6 : as, legio, avis, arx, urbs, nubes, civitas, virtus. Exceptions a. Masculine are : i. sermo, talk ; cardo, hinge; margo, edge; 6rd5, order; turbo, storm ; and nouns in -io denoting material objects : as, pugio, poniard. 2. Nouns in -nis or -guis : as, ignis, fire ; sanguis, blood. Also : axis, axle fustis, club piscis.^fo^ collis, Mil lapis, stone postis, post ensis, sword mensis, month pulvis, dust fascis, bundle orbis, circle sentis, brier 3. Nouns in -ex (gen. -icis), and grex, gregis, herd, and rex, regis, king. 4. dens, tooth ; f 6ns, fountain ; mons, mountain ; pons, bridge. 5. aries, ram; paries, wall; pes, foot. 6. mus, mouse. b. Neuter are vas (vasis), dish ; crus, leg; ius, law; rus, country. 116. Neuter are nouns in -e, -al, -ar, -n, -ur, -us : as, mare, animal, calcar, n5men, robur, corpus ; also lac, milk, and caput, head. Exceptions a. Masculine are tibicen, fiztte-player; vultur, vulture ; lepus, hare. b. Feminine is pecus (gen. -udis), beast. Digitized by Microsoft® FOURTH DECLENSION 41 THE FOURTH DECLENSION - 17-STEMS 117. The stem of nouns of the fourth declension ends in u- : as, fructu-, stem of fructus. 118. The nominative singular of nouns of the fourth declen- sion ends in -us, masculine ; or in -u, neuter. In masculines the nominative is formed by adding -3 to the stem : as, fructu-s, fruit. The nominative singular of neuters is the simple stem with -u lengthened : as, cornu, horn. 119. Nouns of the fourth declension are declined as follows : fructus, m., fruit cornu, n.. , horn Stem fructu- ; Base fruct- SINGULAR Stem cornu- ; Base corn- Terminations Terminations Nom. fructus -US cornu -ii Gen. fructus -us corn us -us Dat. fructui (-€ - ui (- a ) cornu -u Ace. fructum -um cornu -u Abl. fructu -ii PLURAL cornu -ii Nom. fructus -US , cornua -ua Gen. fructuum -uum corn uum -uum Dat. fructibus -ibus corn ibus -ibus Ace. fructus -us cornua -ua Abl. fructibus -ibus corn ibus -ibus Note. Cornu, horn ; genii, knee ; and veru, spit, are the only neuters of the fourth declension in common use. Exceptions to Gender in the Fourth Declension 120. The following nouns in -us are feminine : acus, needle ; domus, house; Idus (plural), Ides ; manus, hand; porticus, colon- nade ; tribus, tribe. Digitized by Microsoft® 42 FIFTH DECLENSION Peculiar Case Forms in the Fourth Declension 121. a. A genitive singular in -I (following the second declension) is common in nouns in -tus in early writers. Other early genitive endings are -uis and -uos. Thus, senati, senatuis, senatuos occur for the regular senatiis. The form senati is found as late as Cicero. b. A genitive plural in -um, following the analogy of o-stems (cf. § 88. d), is sometimes used, especially by the poets : as, currum for curruum. c. In the dative and ablative plural the original ending was -ubus, and this is retained in classical times in arcus and tribus. Some words have both -ibus and -ubus. d. The word domus, f., house, shows forms of both the fourth and second declensions. The locative is domi (rarely domui), at home. In the other cases it is declined as follows : , domus, f., house or home SINGULAR PLURAL Nom. domus domus Gen. domus, domi domuum, domorum Dat. domui, domo domibus Ace. domum domos, domus Abl. domo, domu domibus Note. The genitive domi and the dative domo are early forms. The ablative domu is rare, and the genitive plural dom5rum is poetical or late. e. The nouns iussii, by the command; iniussu, without the com- mand; and natii, by birth, are found in the ablative singular only. /. In early Latin the ablative singular ended in -ud : as, magistratud. THE FIFTH DECLENSION - JT-STEMS 122. The stem of nouns of the fifth declension ends in e-. The nominative singular is formed from the stem by adding -s : as, die-s, day. Digitized by Microsoft® FIFTH DECLENSION 43 123. Nouns of the fifth declension are declined as follows : digs, m., day res , f., thing fides, f., , faith Stem die-; Base di- Stem re- ; Base r- Stem fide- ; Base fie 1- SINGULAR Terminations Nom. dies res fides -es Gen. diei rSi fid el -ei Dat. diei r6i fid 61 -ei Ace. diem rem fid em . -em Abl. die re PLURAL fide -e Nom. dies res -es Gen. dierum rerum -erum Dat. diebus rebus -ebus Ace. dies res -es Abl. diebus rebus -ebus Note i. The e- of the stem is regularly shortened before -m in the accusative singular (§ 34. 6). Note 2. The e- of the stem is shortened in the genitive and dative singular of fides, spes, and res in classical Latin. Gender in the Fifth Declension 124. All nouns of the fifth declension are feminine except dies, day (usually masculine), and meridies, midday (always mas- culine). But dies is sometimes feminine in the singular when it denotes an appointed time or extent of time. constitute die, on a set day longa dies, a long time Peculiar Case Forms in the Fifth Declension 125. a. Only dies and res of the nouns of the fifth declension are declined throughout. Most of them have no plural forms at all, but a few have the nominative and accusative; among which are acies, line of battle ; f acies, fact •■ species, sight \ spes, hope. . . b. A genitive and datjVe singular in -e instead of -ei are sometimes found : as, die for diei ; and a genitive in -i also occurs : as, dii for diei. Digitized by Microsoft® 44 DEFECTIVE NOUNS DEFECTIVE NOUNS NOUNS USED ONLY IN THE SINGULAR 126. Some nouns are limited by their signification to the singular. These are especially : a. Names of Persons and Places : as, Caesar, Roma. But the plural may be used to indicate two or more persons or places having the same name : as, Caesares, the Ccesars ; Galliae, the two Gauls (Cisalpine and Transalpine) or to define persons as of a certain class or character : as, Scipiones, men like Scipio. b. Names of Materials : as, aurum, gold; aes, bronze. But the plural may be used to denote pieces or kinds of material, or objects made of it : as, nives, snowflakes ; vina, wines ; aera, bronzes. c. Abstract Nouns : as, metus, fear ; fortitiido, courage. But the plural may be used to denote instances or kinds of the quality : as, calores, times of heat ; odia, kinds of hatred. The poets often use the plural of abstract nouns in the sense of the singular. NOUNS USED ONLY IN THE PLURAL 127. Some nouns are commonly or exclusively found only in the plural. Such are : a. Many Names of Towns. 1 Athenae, Athens Pompeii, Pompeii b. Most Names of Festivals and Games. Olympia, the Olympic games Bacchanalia, the festival of Bacchus c. Names of Classes. poster!, descendants optimates, the upper classes maiores, ancestors penates, household gods liberi, children Quirites, citizens (of Rome) Some names of towns are either singular or plural: as, Pergamum or PetgamnftPergamum . Digitized by Microsoft® DEFECTIVE NOUNS 45 d. Words Plural by Signification. Many of these are translated into English by nouns in the singular. angustiae, narrow pass • indutiae, truce arma, arms insidiae, ambush artus, joints Kalendae, Calends cibaria, food minae, threats dlvitiae, riches moenia, city walls epulae, banquet Nonae, Nones exsequiae, funeral obsequies nuptiae, wedding fores, double doors reliquiae, remains hiberna, winter quarters tenebrae, darkness Idiis, Ides viscera, flesh Note. The poets often use the plural for the singular, usually for the sake of the meter, but often for no apparent reason. ora (for os), face sceptra (for sceptrum), scepter NOUNS DEFECTIVE IN CERTAIN CASES 128. a. Indeclinable Nouns. Some neuters are used only as nomina- tive and accusative singular and so appear as indeclinable. These are : fas, right Instar, likeness opus, need nefas, wrong nihil (nil), nothing secus, sex b. Nouns used in One Case only. Some nouns of the fourth declen- sion are found only in the ablative singular (§ 121. e). Also : pondo, n., by weight mane, n., morning sponte, f., voluntarily Note. Mane is used also as an indeclinable accusative. The accusative plural, infitias, denial, is used, but only with eo, go. c. Nouns used in Two Cases only. fors, f., forte, chance, nominative and ablative singular, foras, f., foris, out of doors, accusative and ablative plural, used as adverbs. d. Defective Nouns used in More than Two Cases. Most of these are shown in the table on the next page. e. Most nouns of the fifth declension want the whole or part of the plural (§ 125. a). Digitized by Microsoft® 4 6 DEFECTIVE NOUNS o ■ \ w S ^Ili1ll||l!|^lllfib! < calcibus cordibus crucibus dapibus facibus frugibus impetibus lucibus necibus opibus oribus pacibus precibus solibus vadibus vicibus CO lep en CS 18 .(3 to "0 0) rt ,2/ „, ,2 '« _ to iS "> 'rj "0 O 'S itu hO rt 111 S "k ,2 _ '« " « Id) « X ID n? O C rt S iL i-3 i^ r* U ^ h In tH d IO d ^ '" o 8 S3-a »!i: .'2 2 S c o >o a a, '£ « S > > < a calcibus cordibus crucibus dapibus facibus frugibus lucibus necibus opibus oribus pacibus precibus solibus vadibus vicibus i, a O frugum iurum 1 opum precum o g s b -a 43 1 sag s §• ,s ■& b. E '8 -S a ■> Pi < S o g So >-> < g 8 g-SlS.§;2 2 g. S &.S 'g.&.'5 'S S g-l o" u <: calcem cor crucem dapem facem frugem impetum ius lucem mel neminem necem opem 6s pacem precem , rus solem tus vadem vicem Q calci cordi cruel fad frugi impetui iuri luci melli nemini neci ori pad preci, F. rurl soli turl vadi a calcis cordis crucis dapis, f. facis frugis,F. iuris lucis mellis necis opis, F. oris pacis ruris solis turis vadis vicis, f. o IS" 3 S E. 8. Si II ,;f'8. ss,§f Digitized by Microsoft® HETEROCLITES 47 VARIABLE NOUNS 129. Nouns may vary in declension, in gender, or in meaning. NOUNS THAT VARY IN DECLENSION 130. A few nouns are partly of one declension and partly of another. Such nouns are called heteroclites. a. Some nouns of four syllables vary between the first and fifth declensions. materia or materies, material saevitia or saevities,/«rj/ b. Some nouns vary between the second and fourth declensions, having a nominative in -um of the second declension and another in -us of the fourth : as, eventum or eventus, event. For the declension of domus, house, see § 121. d. c. The name heteroclite is applied also to nouns that vary between different stems of the same declension. femur, x., thigh, gen. femoris or feminis iecur, x., liver, gen. iocineris, iocinoris, or iecoris d. Neuter plural names of festivals in -alia (as, Saturnalia), ancile, shield, and a few other nouns regularly of the third declension have the genitive plural in -ium or -orum. e. Among other heteroclites of frequent occurrence are : epulum, n., feast; plural epulae, f., singular in sense. fames, f., hunger, regularly of the third declension, has ablative fame of the fifth. iugerum, n., acre, generally of the second declension in the singular, and of the third in the plural. pecus, n., flock, gen. pecoris, etc., has also nora. pecfi, abl. pecu, nom. and ace. plural pecua, gen. pecuum. requies, f., rest, gen. requietis, etc., has also ace. requiem, abl. requie. The dative singular and the entire plural are lacking. vas, n., vessel, gen. vasis, etc., of the third declension in the singular ; but vasa, vasorum, etc., of the second declension in the plural. vesper, m., evening, has gen. vesperis or vesperi, ace. vesperum, abl. vespere or vespero, loc. vesperi, no plural. Digitized by Microsoft® 48 VARIATIONS IN GENDER AND MEANING NOUNS THAT VARY IN GENDER 131. The following nouns of the second declension are declined as either masculine or neuter : balteus or balteum, belt pilleus or pilleum, cap clipeus or clipeum, shield vallus or vallum, rampart 132. The following nouns are of one gender in the singular and of another in the plural : balneum, n., bath balneae, f., bath house carbasus, f., sail carbasa, N,, sails epulum, n., feast epulae, f., feast frenum, n., a bit freni, m., or frena, n., bits or bridle iocus, m., jest ioca, n., or ioci, M., jests locus, m., place loca, n., places ; loci, m., passages, topics rastrum, n., rake rastri, m., or rastra, n., rakes Note. Balneum and epulum are also heteroclites (§ 130). NOUNS THAT VARY IN MEANING 133. Some nouns have one meaning in the singular and another in the plural, or are plural in form and singular in sense. Among these are : SINGULAR PLURAL aedes, f., temple aedes, house auxilium, n., help auxilia, auxiliary troops career, m., prison carceres, barriers ox stalls (of a race course) castrum, N.,fort castra, camp comitium, n., place of assembly comitia, an election copia, f., plenty copiae, troops, resources finis, m., end fines, borders, territory fortuna, f., fortune fortunae, possessions gratia, v., favor gratiae, thanks impedimentum, n., hindrance impedimenta, baggage littera, f., letter (of the alphabet) litterae, epistle, literature locus, My place, spot loci, passages (in books), topics Digitized by Microsoft® NAMES OF PERSONS 49 SINGULAR mos, m., habit, custom opeia, f., work rostrum, n., beak (of a ship) vigilia, f., wakefulness PLURAL mores, character operae, day laborers rostra, speaker's platform vigiliae, watchmen, sentinels NAMES OF PERSONS I. NAMES OF CITIZENS 134. In classical times a Roman citizen regularly had three names : (i) the praenomen, corresponding to our Christian, or given, name ; (2) the nomen, or name of the gens or clan ; (3) the cognomen, or name of the family. Note. Thus, in Marcus Tullius Cicero we have Marcus, the praenomen ; Tullius, the name of the gens ; and Cicero, the name of the family. a. The praenomina were never very numerous, and from these the several gentes were in the habit of selecting a few only, which were repeated over and over again. In Latin prose these were regularly abbreviated as follows : A., Aulus App., Appius C, Gaius Cn., Gnaeus D., Decimus K., Kaeso L., Lucius M., Marcus M\, Manius Mam., Mamercus N., Numerius P., Publius Q., Quintus Ser., Servius Sex., Sextus Sp., Spurius T., Titus Ti. or Tib., Tiberius Note. In the abbreviations C. and Cn., C. has the value of G. (§ 2. a). b. The nomen, the name of the gens or clan, regularly ends in -ius, and is really an adjective derived from the name of the real or supposed founder of the clan. Note. So, according to Vergil, the Julian gens derived its name, Ifilius, from lulus, the son of ./Eneas. Usually a large number of families belonged to the same gens. Digitized by Microsoft® 50 NAMES OF PERSONS c. The cognomina, or family names, are derived from common nouns or adjectives, applied originally, in many cases, because of some personal peculiarity or occupation, like such English surnames as White, Potter, Miller, etc. Note. Thus, Cicero is from cicer, a chick-pea ; Barbatus signifies bearded; Scipio, a staff; Figulus, a potter; etc. Later these names continued to be used after their original meaning had ceased to apply. Sometimes a family in a gens became sufficiently numerous to start a branch or family of its own. In that case both the old and the new family name would be used and there would be two cognomina : as, Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica. d. Sometimes a Roman was given a name as a mark of honor to commemorate some great achievement, usually of a military character. This name (agnomen) was added to his three regular names. Note. Thus Publius Cornelius Scipio, because of his victories in Africa, received the additional name Africanus. e. A son adopted into another family took the full name of his adopted father, and added to that the name of his own gens in the form of an adjective with the ending -anus. Note. Thus, one of the sons of Lucius /Emilius Paulus was adopted by Publius Cornelius Scipio, and thereupon took the name Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus. II. NAMES OF WOMEN 135. Women had no cognomen and, in classical times, rarely a praenomen, but were known only by the feminine form of the name of their gens. Thus, the daughter of Marcus Tullius Cicero was Tullia. A second daughter would have been called Tullia Secunda, a third Tullia Tertia, and so on. Or of two daughters the older would be Maior and the younger Minor. Often the name of a wife or daughter is accom- panied by that of her husband or father in the genitive : as, Caecilia Metell^ Ccecilia, daughter of Metellus. Digitized by Microsoft® DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES 51 III. NAMES OF SLAVES 136. A slave was merely a 'piece of property and had no legal rights. His master, therefore, could give him any name that suited his fancy. Often slaves were given the names of foreign potentates or were named from the country of their origin : as, Pharnaces, Syrus (Syrian), Afer (African). If set free, a slave usually took the praenomen and nomen of his former master, and added his servile name as cognomen. Thus, Terence, the famous comic poet, was a slave in his youth and was given the name Afer, from the country of his birth. His master, Publius Terentius Lucanus, set him free and Terence as- sumed the name Publius Terentius Afer. Note. Sections 134-136 apply to the system of naming employed dur- ing the classical period. In later times much confusion arose both in the number and in the order of names. ADJECTIVES 137. An adjective is a word that describes or limits a noun, and generally denotes quality. bonus, good malus, bad gravis, heavy levis, light 138. Adjectives are, in general, formed and declined like nouns, but distinguish gender by different forms of the same word. According to their inflection they are divided into : I. Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions. II. Adjectives of the Third Declension. I. ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS 139. Adjectives of the first and second declensions (a- and o-stems) are declined in the masculine like dominus, puer, or ager ; in the feminine like domina ; and in the neuter like pilum. Digitized by Microsoft® 52 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES 140. Masculine declined like dominus (§ 84) : bonus, bona, bonum, good Stems M. and N. bono-, F. bona- ; Base bon- SINGULAR Masc. Fem. Neut. Nom. bonus bona bonum GErt/ boni bonae boni DAT. bono bonae bono Ace. bonum bonam bonum Abl. bono bona bono Voc. bone bona PLURAL bonum Nom. boni bonae bona Gen. bonorum bonarum bonorum DAT. bonis bonis bonis Ace. bonos bonas bona Abl. bonis bonis bonis a. The genitive singular masculine and neuter of adjectives in -ius ends in -ii and the vocative masculine in -ie ; not in -i, as in nouns (§ 88. b and c). b. The possessive pronominal adjective meus, my, has mi in the vocative masculine singular. 141. Masculine declined like puer (§ 85): liber, libera, liberum, free Stems M. and N. libero-, F. libera- ; Base liber- SINGULAR Masc. Fem. Neut. Nom. liber libera liberum Gen. liber i liber ae liber i Dat. libero liber ae libero Ace. liberum • liber am liberum Abl. libero libera libero Digitized by Microsoft® DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES S3 PLURAL Masc. Fem. Neut. Nom. liber I liber ae libera Gen. liber orum liberarum liber orum DAT. liber is liber is llberis Ace. liber 6s liber as . libera Abl. liber is liber is llberis 142. Masculine declined like ager (§ 85) : pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum, pretty Stems M. and N. pulchro-, F. pulchra- ; Base pulchr- SINGULAR Masc. Fem. Neut. Nom. pulcher pulchra pulchrum Gen. pulchr i pulchr ae pulchr i DAT. pulchro pulchr ae pulchro Ace. pulchrum pulchr am pulchrum Abl. pulchro pulchra PLURAL pulchro Nom. pulchr i pulchr ae pulchra Gen. pulchr orum pulchr arum pulchr orum DAT. pulchr is pulchr is pulchr is Ace. pulchros pulchr as pulchra Abl. pulchr is pulchr is pulchr is a. Most adjectives in -er are declined like pulcher, but the following are declined like liber : asper, rough lacer, torn miser, wretched tener, tender Also compounds in -fer and -ger (bearing), as, mortifer {death- bearing), deadly, aliger {wing-bearing), winged; and sometimes dexter, right. In these the e belongs to the stem (§ 85. a). b. The adjective satur, full, is declined satur, satura, saturum. Digitized by Microsoft® 54 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES The Nine Irregular Adjectives 143. The following nine adjectives, with their compounds, have the genitive singular in -ius and the dative in -I in all genders. Otherwise they are declined like bonus, liber, or pulcher. alius, alia, aliud, other, another (of several) alter, altera, alteram, the one, the other (of two) unus, -a, -um, one, alone ; only (in the plural) ullus, -a, -um, any nullus, -a, -um, none, no solus, -a, -um, alone totus, -a, -um, all, whole, entire uter, utra, utrum, which ? (of two) neuter, neutra, neutrum, neither (of two) a. The singular of these is declined as follows : Masc. Fem. Neut. Masc. Fem. Neut. Nom. nullus nulla nullum alius alia aliud Gen. nulli'us nulli'us nulli'us (ali'us) (ali'us) (ali'us) DAT. nulli _ nulli nulli alii alii alii Ace. nullum null am nullum alium aliam aliud Abl. nullo nulla null 6 alio alia alio The plural is regular. b. Note the peculiar neuter singular ending in -d of alius. The genitive alius (contracted from aliius) is rare ; alterius, the genitive of alter, or alienus, another's, is commonly used instead. c. The long i of the genitive -ius may be short in verse ; so often in alterius and regularly in utriusque. II. ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION 144. Adjectives of the third declension are of the following classes : A. Adjectives of Three Terminations, having a distinct form for the nominative singular in each gender. B. Adjectives of Two Terminations, having the nominative singular, alike in the masculine and feminine, but a different form fgr the neuter. Digitized by Microsoft® DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES 55 C. Adjectives of One Termination, having the same form for all three genders in the nominative singular. 145. Adjectives of the third declension include both con- sonant stems and i-stems, but all consonant stems (except comparatives and a few other words) have assumed i- forms and show the following characteristic terminations : . -i in the ablative singular ; -ia in the nominative and accusative plural neuter ; -ium in the genitive plural ; -is as well as -5s in the accusative plural masculine and feminine. A. Adjectives of Three Terminations 146. Adjectives of three terminations end in -er in the nom- inative masculine singular, and the stem ends in ri-. They are declined as follows : acer, acris, acre, keen Stem acri- ; Base acr- SINGULAR Masc. Fem. Neut. Nom. acer acris acre Gen. acris acris acris Dat. acri acri acri Ace. acrem acrem acre Abl. acri acri PLURAL acri Nom. acres acres acria Gen. acrium acrium acrium Dat. acribus acribus acribus Ace. acris (-es) acris (-es) acria Abl. acribus acribus acribus Digitized by Microsoft® 56 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES a. To this class belong the names of the months in -ber, found only in the masculine and feminine : as, October, Octobris. b. Celer, celeris, celere, swift, in which the second e belongs to the stem, is . declined like acer. Volucer, flying, generally has volucrum in the genitive plural. Note. Some adjectives of this type, as terrestris, use the feminine forms for the masculine, or, more rarely, the masculine for the feminine. This peculiarity is found especially in early or late Latin and in poetry. B. Adjectives of Two Terminations 147. Adjectives of two germinations end in -is in the nom- inative singular masculine and feminine, and the stem ends in i-. They are declined as follows : omnis, omne, every, all Stem omni-; Base omn- SINGULAR PLURAL M. AND F. Neut. M. AND F. Neut. Nom. omnis omne omnes omnia Gen. omnis. omnis omnium omnium Dat. omni omni omnibus omnibus Ace. omn em omne omnis (-es) omnia Abl. omni omni omnibus omnibus Note. Adjectives of this type sometimes have an ablative in -e in poetry, very rarely in prose. C. Adjectives of One Termination 48. Adjectives of one termination have in the nominative singular the same form for all three genders. This class in- cludes all adjectives of the third declension that end neither in -er 1 nor in -is. They are by origin consonant stems, but, with few exceptions, have assumed the forms of i-stems (§ 145). Typical examples are shown on the next page. 1 Pauper and uber, adjectives of one termination, are exceptions to this rule. Digitized by Microsoft® DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES 57 atrox. fierce egens, ; •needy Stem or B ase atroc- SINGULAR Stem or Ba sn egent- M. AND F. Neut. M. AND F. Neut. Nom. atrox atrox egens egens Gen. atrocis atrocis egentis egentis Dat. atroci atroci egenti egenti Ace. atrocem atrox egentem egens Abl. atroci (-e) atroci (-e) PLURAL egenti (-e) egenti (-e) Nom. atroces atrocia egentes egentia Gen. atrocium atrocium egentium egentium Dat. atrocibus atrocibus egentibus egentibus Ace. atrocis (-es) atrocia egentis (-es) egentia Abl. atrocibus atrocibus egentibus egentibus dives, rich vetus , old Stem or Base divit- Stem or Base veter- SINGULAR M. AND F. Neut. M. AND F. Neut. Nom. dives dives vetus vetus Gen. divitis divitis veteris veteris Dat. diviti diviti veteri veteri Ace. divitem dives veterem vetus Abl. divite divite PLURAL vetere vetere Nom. divites [ditia] veteres vetera Gen. divitum divitum veterum veterum Dat. divitibus divitibus veteribus veteribus Ace. divitis (-es) [ditia] veteres vetera Abl. divitibus divitibus veteribus veteribus Digitized by Microsoft® 58 DECLENSION OF COMPARATIVES a. Most adjectives of one termination may have either -e or -i in the ablative singular and are declined like atrox or egens. The follow- ing have regularly only -i : amens, mad inops, poor anceps, doubtful memor, mindful concors, harmonious par, equal ingens, huge praeceps, headlong b. Note that vetus is declined like a pure consonant stem. Of similar declension are : compos, master of pauper, poor sospes, safe particeps, sharing pubis (gen. -eris), adult superstes, surviving Note, liber, rich, otherwise like vetus, usually has the ablativesingularin-i. c. Most adjectives of one termination have -ium in the genitive plural. The following have -um : dives, rich ; inops, poor; memor, mindful; and adjectives declined like vetus (cf. V). 149. Present participles (ending in -ans and -ens) are declined likeegens x (§ 148). When used as participles or as nouns, they end in -e in the ablative singular, but in -1 when used as adjectives. Caesare ducente, under the leadership of Ccesar (lit. C&sar leading) ab amante, by a lover ab amantl regina, by the loving queen Declension of Comparatives 150. Comparatives are declined as follows : altior, higher Stem or Base altior- (for original altios-) M. AND F. SINGULAR Neut. Nom. altior altius Gen. altior is altior is DAT. altior I altior i Ace. altior em altius Abl. altiore (-1) altiore (-1) 1 As nouns and in poetry present participles often have -um in the genitive plural. Digitized by Microsoft® DECLENSION OF COMPARATIVES 59 M. AND F. PLURAL Neut. Nom. altiores altiora Gen. altiorum altiorum DAT. altioribus altioribus Ace. altiores (-is) altiora Abl. altioribus altioribus a. All comparatives except plus are declined like altior. b. Except for the occasional use of -i in the ablative singular and the rare use of -is in the accusative plural, comparatives are declined like vetus (§ 148). Note. The stem of comparatives originally ended in os- ; but the final s regularly became r between two vowels (§ 49), and so appears also in the nominative singular masculine and feminine by analogy with the other cases. In the neuter, however, the original stem ending -os (shortened to rOs) was retained, becoming -us in the classical period. 151. The declension of plus, more, stem or base plflr- (for plus-), is as follows : SINGULAR PLURAL M. and F. Neut. M. and F. Neut. Nom. plus plures plura Gen. pluris plurium plurium Bat. pluribus pluribus Ace. plus plures (-is) plura Abl. plure (rare) pluribus pluribus a. In the singular plus is used only as a neuter noun. The com- pound complures, several, sometimes has neuter plural compluria. Indeclinable Adjectives 152. A few adjectives are indeclinable. frugl, thrifty nequam, worthless necesse, necessary So also the following pronominal adjectives : tot, so many quot, hoiv many totidem, just as many aliquot, several Digitized by Microsoft® 60 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES COMPARISON OP ADJECTIVES 153. There are three degrees of comparison : the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. 154. The comparative is regularly formed by adding -ior (neuter -ius), the superlative by adding -issimus (-a, -um), to the stem of the positive, which loses its final vowel. Positive Comparative Superlative altus, high (stem alto-) alt-ior, higher alt-issimus, highest clarus, bright (stem claro-) clar-ior, brighter clar-issimus, brightest brevis, short (stem brevi-) brev-ior, shorter brev-issimus, shortest fortis, brave (stem forti-) fort-ior, braver fort-issimus, bravest atrox, fierce (stem atroc-) atroc-ior, fiercer atroc-issimus, fiercest prudens, wise (stem prudent-) prudent-ior, wiser prQdent-issimus, wisest dives, rich (stem divit-) divit-ior, richer divit-issimus, richest Note. The comparative often has the force of too or somewhat, and the superlative that of very : as, clarior, too bright, somewhat bright ; clarissimus, very bright. a. Participles used as adjectives are similarly compared. amans, loving (stem amant-) amantior amantissimus sciens, skilled (stem scient-) scientior scientissimus notus, known (stem noto-) notior notissimus 155. Adjectives in -er form the superlative by adding -rimus to the nominative of the positive. The comparative is formed regularly. pulcher, pretty pulchr-ior pulcher-rimus miser, wretched miser-ior miser-rimus acer, keen acr-ior acer-rimus celer, swift celer-ior celer-rimus a. Vetus, old, and maturus, ripe, are compared as follows : vetus vetustior veterrimus maturus maturior matiirrimus or maturissimus Digitized by Microsoft® COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 61 156. Six adjectives in -limus to the stem, which is regular. facilis, easy difficilis, difficult similis, similar dissimilis, dissimilar gracilis, slender humilis, low lis form the superlative by adding loses its final i. The comparative facil-ior facil-limus difficil-ior difficil-limus simil-ior simil-limus dissimil-ior dissimil-limus gracil-ior gracil-limus humil-ior humil-limus 157. Compounds in -dicus, -ficus, and -volus are compared as follows : maledicus, slanderous magnificus, grand benevolus, kindly maledicentior magnificentior benevolentior maledicentissimus magnificentissimus benevolentissimus Irregular Comparison 158. Several adjectives are irregular in comparison. bonus, good melior optimus malus, bad peior pessimus magnus, great raaior maximus parvus, small minor minimus multus, much plus (§ 151) plurimus nequam (indeclinable), worthless nequior nequissimus frugi (indeclinable), thrifty frugalior frugalissimus 159. The following four adjectives have two superlatives : exterus, outward exterior inferus, below inferior posterus, following posterior superus, above superior extremus or extimus (rare) Infimus or imus postremus or postumus (rare) supremus or summus a. These adjectives are rare in the positive except when used as nouns in the masculine plural : exteri, foreigners inferi, the gods below poster!, ■posterity superi, the gods above Digitized by Microsoft® 62 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES Defective Comparison 160. Some adjectives lack one or more of the degrees of comparison. a. Adjectives without the Positive. citerior, hither deterior, worse interior, inner ocior, swifter potior, preferable prior, former propior, nearer ulterior, farther citimus, hithermost deterrimus, worst intimus, inmost ocissimus, swiftest potissimus, most important primus, first proximus, nearest ultimus, farthest Note. The adjective propinquus, near, is used as the positive of propior. I. Potis, able, the positive of potior, occurs in early Latin. b. Adjectives without the Comparative. falsus, false meritus, merited novus, new pius, dutiful sacer, sacred falsissimus meritissimus novissimus, last (in order) piissimus (rare) sacerrimus I. For the comparative and superlative of novus, new, the forms recentior and recentissimus are sometimes used. For the comparison of vetus, old, see § 155. a. c. Adjectives without the Superlative. Many adjectives ending in -ilis or -bilis (as, agilis, probabilis) have no superlative. Also the following : adulescentior alacrior longinquior obliquior propior (propinquior) salfitarior adulescens, young alacer, active longinquus, long obliquus, sidelong propinquus, near salutaris, healthful vicinus, near • Digitized by Microsoft® COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 63 I. The adjectives iuvenis, young, and senex, old, are compared as follows : iuvenis iunior or iuvenior minimus natu senex senior maximus natu In these superlatives natu is the ablative of respect (§ 478) and is often omitted. ADJECTIVES NOT COMPARED 161. Sqme adjectives are not compared. Such are especially : a. Adjectives denoting material. aureus, golden ferreus, iron ligneus, wooden, etc. b. Adjectives expressing personal relationship. maternus, maternal fraternus, fraternal, etc. c. Adjectives expressing relations of time. hodiernus, of to-day aestivus, of summer sempiternus, everlasti7ig, etc. d. The following special words : almus, nourishing immemor, forgetful , mfitus, dumb claudus, lame impar, unequal nefastus, impious curvus, curved mediocris, medium ' rudis, rough ferus, wild minis, wonderful vagus, wandering Also most adjectives compounded of verbs or substantives. Adjectives Compared with magis and maxime 162. Many adjectives, instead of using terminations, are compared by means of the adverbs magis, more, and maxime, ■most, followed by the positive. This method is especially common with participles, compound adjectives, and adjectives ending in -us preceded by a vowel : as, idoneus, fit, magis idoneus, maxime idoneus. Digitized by Microsoft® 6 4 NUMERAL ADJECTIVES NUMERALS 163. The Latin numerals are of two classes : adjectives and adverbs. Numeral adjectives include cardinals, ordinals, and distributives . a. Cardinals answer the question how many ? unus, one duo, two b. Ordinals, derived in most cases from the cardinals, answer the question which in order 1 primus, first secundus, second c. Distributives answer the question how many at a time? how many each 1 singuli, one by one bini, two by two I. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES 164. The cardinal, ordinal, and distributive numeral adjec- tives are shown in the following table : Cardinals Ordinals Distributives I. unus primus singuli 2. duo secundus bini 3- tres tertius terni, trini - 4- quattuor quartus quaterni 5- quinque quintus quini 6. sex sextus sen! 7- septem septimus septeni 8. octo octavus octoni 9- novem nonus noveni IO. decern decimus deni 1 1. undecim undecimus undent 12. duodecim duodecimus duodeni J 3- tredecim tertius decimus terni deni 14. quattuordecim quartus decimus quaterni deni '5- quindecim quintus decimus quini deni Digitized by Microsoft® NUMERAL' ADJECTIVES 65 Cardinals Ordinals Distributives 16. sedecim sextus decimus sen! deni i7- septendecim septimus decimus septeni deni 18. duodeviginti duodevicesimus dujdeviceni 19. Qndeviginti undevicesimus undeviceni 20. viginti vicesimus viceni f viginti unus vicSsimus primus viceni singuli 21. or or or [unus et viginti unus et vicesimus singuli et viceni 28. duodetriginta duodetricesimus duodetriceni 29. undetriginta undetricesimus undetriceni 3°- triginta tricesimus triceni 40. quadraginta quadragesimus quadrageni 5°- quinquaginta quinquagesimus quinquageni 60. sexaginta sexagesimus sexageni . 7°- septuaginta septuagesimus septuageni 80. octoginta octogesimus octogeni 90. nonaginta nonagesimus nonageni 100. centum centesimus centeni 101. centum (et) unus centesimus (et) primus centeni singuli 200. ducenti ducentesimus duceni 300. trecenti trecentesimus treceni 400. quadringenti quadringentesimus quadringeni S°°- quingenti quingentesimus quingeni 600. sescenti sescentesimus sesceni 700. septingenti septingentesimus septingeni 800. octingenti octingentesimus octingeni 900. nongenti nongentesimus nongeni 1,000. mille millesimus singula milia 2,000. duo milia bis millesimus bina milia 10,000. decern milia deciens millesimus dena milia 100,000. centum milia centiens millesimus centena milia Note i. The ordinals in -esimus, as, vicesimus, tricesimus, etc., are spelled vicensimus, tricensimus, etc., in early Latin ( Note 2. The plural of mille, thousand, is millia or milia. The spelling with one 1 is preferred in Latin of the best period. Digitized by Microsoft® 66 DECLENSION OF NUMERALS 165. Numbers above 100,000 are expressed by placing numeral adverbs of multiplication before centena milia for the cardinals, and before centiens millesimus for the ordinals. Thus, 1,000,000 is expressed deciens centena milia (ten times a hundred thousand), cardinal ; deciens centiens millesimus (ten times the hundred thousandth), ordinal. Declension of Numerals 166. Of the cardinals only unus, duo, tres, the hundreds above one hundred, and mille used as a noun, are declined. a. Unus, one or only, is one of the nine irregular adjectives (§ 143) and is declined as follows : Neut. unum uni'us uni unum uno The plural is regular, and has the meaning alone or only, unless used with nouns plural in form and singular in sense (§ 133): as, una castra, one camp ; unl mores, one set of habits. b. Duo and tres are declined as follows : SINGULAR Masc. Fem. Nom. unus una Gen. uni'us uni'us DAT. unl unl Ace. unum unam Abl. uno una Masc. Fem. Neut. M. and F. Neut. Nom. duo duae duo tres tria Gen. duorum duarum duorum trium trium Dat. duobus duabus duobus tribus tribus Ace. duos (duo) duas duo tres (trls) tria Abl. duobus duabus duobus tribus tribus 1 . Ambo, both, is declined like duo, but its final is long. c. The hundreds above one hundred are declined like the plural of bonus : as, ducenti, -ae, -a, two hundred. * ' Til Digitized by Microsoft® USES OF NUMERAL ADJECTIVES 67 d. Mille in the singular is regularly used as an adjective and is indeclinable. mille modis, in a thousand ways cum mille hominibus, with a thousand men Mille in the plural (milia) is used as a neuter noun, is followed by the genitive of the objects enumerated, and is declined as follows : Nom. milia Gen. milium Dat. mllibus Ace. milia Abl. milibus Examples : decern milia hominum misit, he sent ten thousand men (lit. ten thousands of men) castra milia passuum tria absunt, the camp is three miles offQit. three thousands of paces) Note i. The singular mille is rarely used as a noun in the nominative and accusative : as, mille hominum misit, he sent a thousand {of) men. Note 2. When a declinable numeral follows milia, the form of expres- sion is as follows : duo milia ducenti milites, or duo milia mllitum et ducenti, 2200 soldiers. 167. The ordinals are declined like bonus, and the distribu- tives like the plural of bonus (§ 140). , Peculiarities in the Use of Cardinals and Ordinals 168. In numbers below 100, if units precede tens, et is generally inserted ; otherwise et usually is omitted : as, duo et viginti, two and twenty, or viginti duo, twenty-two. 169. Compound numerals above 100 generally have the largest denomination first, and the others follow without et ; but et may be inserted between the two highest denominations : as, mille (et) septingenti sexaginta quattuor, Ijty- Digitized by Microsoft® 68 USES OF NUMERAL ADJECTIVES 170. The numerals 18 and 19 are generally expressed by duodeviginti (two from twenty) and undeviginti {one from twenty), rarely by octodecim and novendecim. Similarly, the other numerals ending in 8 and 9 are usually expressed by the subtraction of two and one rather than by the addition of eight and nine respectively : as, duodeoctoginta rather than septuaginta octo, j8. 171. When referring to two persons or things, instead of using primus and secundus, Latin generally employs unus and alter respectively. erant duo consules, unus Cicero alter Antonius, there were two consuls, one Cicero, the other Antoiiy a. The usual Latin expressions for twe?ity-first, thirty-fifth, etc., are vicesimus primus, tricesimus qulntus, etc. 172. Unus, when part of a compound number, is used in the singular, and agrees with its noun in gender and case : as, viginti milites et unus, or unus et viginti milites, twenty-one soldiers. Uses of the Distributive Numerals 173. Distributive numerals are used : a. To express so many apiece, so many at a time : as, censores bin! in singulis civitates, two censors to each state. b. To express multiplication : as, bis bina sunt quattuor, twice two are four. c. With nouns that are plural in form and usually singular in sense : as, bina castra, two camps. With such nouns uni, not singull, is used for one, and trlnl, not terni, for three : as, una castra, one camp ; trina castra, three camps. d. With nouns denoting objects that go in pairs or sets. binl boves, a yoke of oxen bina h&stUisi,. a pair of spears e. By the poets instead of cardinal numbers : as, quina armenta (Vergil), five he?-ds. Digitized by Microsoft® NUMERAL ADVERBS Fractions 69 174. Fractions are expressed, as in English, by cardinals in the numerator and ordinals in the denominator. The feminine gender is used to agree with pars expressed or understood. duae septimae (partes), two sevenths quinque octavae (partes), Jive eighths a. When the numerator is one, it is omitted and pars is expressed with the denominator. dimidia pars (or dimidium), one half tertia pars, one third quarta pars, one fourth b. When the denominator is but one greater than the numerator, the denominator is omitted and partes is used with the numerator. duae partes, two thirds tres partes, three fourths Example : dimidia pars et tres partes et septem duodecimae sunt unum et quinque partes, \ + \ + -fa = if ■ II. NUMERAL ADVERBS 175. Numeral how many times 1. semel, once 2. bis, twice 3. ter, thrice 4. quater 5. quinquiens 6. sexiens 7. septiens 8. octiens 9. noviens 10. deciens adverbs answer ' the question how often ? 11. undeciens 12. duodeciens 13. terdeciens 14. quaterdeciens 15. quindeciens 16. sedeciens 17. septiens deciens 18. octiens deciens 19. noviens deciens 20. viciens fviciens semel 1 semel et viciens 30. triciens 40. quadragiens 50. quinquagiens 60. sexagiens 70. septuagiens 80. octogiens 90. nonagiens 100. centiens The termination -ies is often used instead of -iens : as, sexies. Digitized by Microsoft® 7o ROMAN NUMERALS a. The accusative or ablative neuter singular of the ordinals is sometimes used as a numeral adverb. yrirama, for the first time primo, at first secundo, for the second time tertio or tertium, for the third tune, etc.. The Roman Numeral System 176. The following characters are used as Roman numerals : i. I IS- XV 100. C 2. II 16. XVI 200. cc 3. Ill 17- XVII 300. ccc 4. IIII 01 •IV 18. XVIII 400. cccc 5- v 19. XVIIII or XIX 500. D 6. VI 20. XX 600. DC 7. VII 21. XXI 700. DCC 8. VIII 3°- XXX 800. DCCC 9. Villi or IX 40. XXXX or XL 900. DCCCC 10. X 5°- L 1,000. CD, OO, or CD 11. XI 60. LX 5,000. g) or V 12. XII 70. LXX 10,000. % or X 13. XIII 80. LXXX 100,000. (§) or C 14. XIIII or XIV 90. LXXXXorXC 1, 000,000. Ixl a. The original numerical symbols were representations of the fingers, as, I, one finger ; II, two fingers ; V, the hand, iorfive (only the thumb and little finger being drawn) ; and X, the two hands crossed, for ten. X, however, is sometimes regarded as an Etruscan symbol for ten, the upper half of which was used for five. To these original symbols were added the three Chalcidic (§ 2) aspirates, ch, V (altered into vl>, _L, L), for 50 ; th, O (altered into C), for 100 ; and ph, CD (broken into OO, CD), for 1000. The fact that the original numerals I, V, X were identical in form with certain letters of the alphabet no doubt assisted the changes of V to L, and of Q to C, the latter change being favored also by the fact that C was the first letter of centum. In a similar way the second half of CD, 1000, written D, was used for 500., Digitized by Microsoft® PERSONAL PRONOUNS 71 b. At an early date milia passuum (miles) was represented by M ■ P, but the separate use of M for the word mille or milia is not found before the second century of our era. c. While CD denotes 1000, the addition of a second circle outside the first makes it mean 10,000 (®), and of a third, 100,000 (if|)). d. Toward the end of the Republic the thousands were denoted by drawing a line above the numeral : as, V, 5000. By adding lateral lines the numeral was multiplied by 100,000 : as, fvl, 500,000. e. The symbols I and X, when placed at the left of a higher number, are to be subtracted from it ; but symbols like IIII, Villi, XIIII are earlier and more usual than IV, IX, XIV. Such symbols as CM for goo, MCM for igoo, are modern. The Romans wrote DCCCC for goo, MDCCCC for igoo. PRONOUNS 177. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. Pronouns and their corresponding pronominal adjectives are divided into the following eight classes : I. Personal V. Intensive II. Reflexive VI. Relative III. Possessive VII. Interrogative IV. Demonstrative VIII. Indefinite 178. Pronouns have special forms of declension differing in some respects from those of nouns. I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS 179. The personal pronouns are : SINGULAR PLURAL First Pees. ego, / ' nos, we Second Pers. tu, thou or" you vos, ye ox you Pronouns of. the third person, he, she, it, they, are wanting, a demonstrative or relative being used instead. Digitized by Microsoft® 72 REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS 180. The personal pronouns ego, /, and tu, thou or you, are declined as follows : First Person Second Person SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL Nom. ego nos tu vos Gen. mei nostrum, nostri tui vestrum, vestrl DAT. mihi (ml) nobis tibi vobls Ace. me nos te vos Abl. me nobis te vobls a. Emphatic forms of tu are tute and tutemet. The other forms of the personal pronouns, except the genitive plural, may be made emphatic by adding -met as an enclitic (§ 39) : as, egomet, vosmet. b. The accusative and ablative forms me and te are sometimes doubled, or reduplicated : as, meme, tete. c. The preposition cum, with, when used with the ablative of a ' personal pronoun, is added to it as an enclitic (§ 39) : as, mecum, tecum, nobiscum, vobiscum. d. In early Latin the accusative and ablative singular forms were med, ted. Instead of vestrum and vestrl the forms vostrum and vostri occur in early and late Latin. II. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS 181. Reflexive pronouns refer to the subject of the sentence or clause in which they stand : as, he loves himself, we love ourselves. 182. Reflexive pronouns have no nominative. In the other cases the reflexives of the first and second person are the same as the personal pronouns. ' ego me video, I see myself nos nobis persuademus, we persuade ourselves tu te vides, you see yourself vos vobis persuadetis, you persuade yourselves Digitized by Microsoft® POSSESSIVE PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES 73 183. The reflexive of the third person has a special form, the same for both singular and plural. It is declined thus : Gen. sui, of himself , herself itself themselves Dat. sibi, to ox for himself herself' itself themselves Ace. se, himself herself itself themselves Abl. sS(with a, etc.), from, etc., himself, herself, itself, themselves a. In the accusative and ablative the reduplicated form sese occurs. Emphatic forms in -met are made as in the personal pronouns (§ 180. a). The preposition cum is added enclitically to the ablative: as, secum (cf. § 180. c). b. In early Latin the form sed occurs in the accusative and ablative. III. POSSESSIVE PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES 184. The possessives are pronominal adjectives of the first and second declensions, and are similarly declined (cf. §§ 140, 142). They are : SINGULAR PLURAL First Pers. v^ineus, -a, -um, my ^ noster, -tra, -tram, our Second Pers. tuus, -a, -umJThy^your vester, -tra, -tram, your Third Pers. suus, -a, -um, his, her, its a. Suus is used only as a reflexive possessive adjective. puer patrem suum videt, the boy sees his (own) father When not reflexive, his, her, and its are usually expressed by eius, the genitive singular of is ; and their by eorum, m. and n., and earum, f., the genitive plural of is. puer patrem eius videt, the boy sees his (not his own) father pueri patres eorum vident, the boys see their (not their own) fathers b. The vocative singular masculine of meus is regularly mi (rarely mens). c. Emphatic forms in -pte ate found in the ablative singular : as, suopte. Digitized by Microsoft® 74 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS IV. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 185. The demonstrative pronouns, are hie, iste, ille, is, and idem. They are used to point out a person or thing, and stand either alone as pronouns or with nouns as pronominal adjectives. 186. The demonstratives hie, iste, and ille are used to make a distinct reference to place or time, and are called demonstra- tives of the first, second, and third person respectively. Thus : First person, hie, this, he, near the speaker Second person, iste, that, he, near the person addressed Third person, ille, that, he, remote from both 187. The demonstrative is, he, this, that, refers to objects either far or near, and makes no definite reference to place or time. Idem, the same, is a compound of is. Declension of the Demonstratives 188. hi( :, this, he ille, that, he SINGULAR Masc. Fem. Neut. Masc. Fem. Neut. Nom. hie haec hoc ille ilia illud Gen. huius huius huius illius illius illius DAT. huic huic huic ill! ills ill! Ace. hunc hanc hoc ilium illam illud Ael. hoc hac hoc PLURAL ille ilia illo Nom. hi hae haec ill! illae ilia Gen. horum harum horum illorum illarum illorum DAT. his his his illls illls illls Ace. hos has haec illos illas ilia Abl. , his his his illls illls illls Note. An earlier form of ille is ollus, of which several forms occur. Digitized by Microsoft® DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 75 a. Hie is a compound of the stem ho- with the demonstrative enclitic -ce, which in some forms loses its vowel and in others is wholly dropped. The same enclitic is sometimes added for emphasis to forms of hie ending in -s : as, huiusce, hasce, etc. ; likewise to cer- tain forms of iste and ille : as, istic, istanc, illaec, illoc. b. The forms hoius (for huius), hoic (for huic), hisce (for hi), and hibus (for his) occur in early Latin. 189. Iste, that, he, is declined like ille (§ 188). 190. is, this, that, he SINGULAR PLURAL Masc. Fem.' Neut. Masc. Fem. Neut. Nom. is ea id ii or ei eae ea Gen. eius eius eius eorum earum eorum Dat. ei ei ei iis or eis iis or eis iis or eis Ace. eum earn id eos eas ea Abl. eo ea eo iis or els iis or eis iis or eis a. The forms ii and iis are preferred to ei and eis, and are pro- nounced and sometimes written as monosyllables, i and is. 191. idem, the same SINGULAR Fem. Neut eadem idem Masc. PLURAL Fem. Neut. Masc. Nom. idem Gen. eius'dem eius'dem eius'dem eorun'dem earun'dem eorun'dem idem (eidem) eaedem eadem Dat. eidem eidem eidem Ace. eundem eandem idem Abl. eodem eadem eodem isdem or eisdem eosdem easdem eadem isdem or eisdem a. Idem is a compound of the demonstrative is with the indeclin- able suffix -dem. It is sometimes called the identifying pronoun. b. The plural forms idem and isdem are often written iidem, iisdem, but the pronunciation remains dissyllabic. Digitized by Microsoft® 7 6 INTENSIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS V. THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN 192. The intensive pronoun is ipse, self, and is used either ad- jectively to strengthen another word or as an emphatic pronoun. Ipse is compounded of is and -pse (a suffix of uncertain origin), and is declined like ille (§ 188) except that it has ipsum in the nominative and accusative neuter singular. ipse, self SINGULAR PLURAL Masc. Fem. Neut. Masc. Fem: Neut. Nom. ipse ipsa ipsum ipsi ipsae ipsa Gen. ipslus ipslus ipsius ipsorum ipsarum ipsorum DAT. ipsl ipsl ipsl ipsls ipsls ipsls Ace. ipsum ipsam ipsum ipsos ipsas ipsa Abl. ipso ipsa ipso ipsls ipsls ipsls VI. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN 193. The relative pronoun is qui, who, which, that. declined as follows : It is SINGULAR PLURAL Masc. Fem. Neut. Masc. Fem. , Neut. Nom. qui quae quod qui quae quae Gen. cuius cuius cuius quorum quarum quorum DAT. cui cui cui quibus quibus quibus Ace. quern quam quod quos quas quae Abl. quo qua quo quibus quibus quibus a. An old ablative form qui (for. quo, qua, or quibus) is found, especially in the combination quicum, with which or with whom. b. Quis is sometimes used for quibus as either dative or ablative plural. c. Early forms quoius (for cuius) and quoi (for cui) continued to be used as late as Cicero. d. The preposition cum is added enclitically to all forms of the ablativ^ : as, quacum, quibuscum (cf. § 180. c). Digitized by Microsoft® INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 77 194. The following are indefinite relatives : } whoever quisquis quicumque utercumque, whichever (of two) a. In quicumque and utercumque only the first part is declined. Poets often separate -cumque and its relative (§ 992). b. Of quisquis the only forms in common use are quisquis, quicquid (quidquid), and quoquo. VII. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 195. The interrogative pronouns, substantive and adjective, are: a. quis, who 1 quid, what ? substantive. b. qui, quae, quod, what kind of? what sort of? which 1 what ? adjective. c. uter, utra, utrum, which? (of two persons or things) either substantive or adjective. 196. The interrogative pronoun quis, who? quid, what? is declined in the singular as follows : M. AND F. Neut. Nom. quis quid Gen. cuius cuius Dat. cui cui Ace. quern quid Abl. quo quo The plural is the same as that of the relative. 197. The interrogative pronominal adjective qui, quae, quod •is declined throughout like the relative. a. Qui is sometimes used for quis : as, qui nominat me ? who calls my name ? and quis, with words denoting persons, is apparently used like an adjective : as, quis homo ? what man ? but the substantive that follows is best regarded as in apposition. Qui homo ? means what kind of man ? Digitized by Microsoft® 78 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS b. Early forms of the interrogative are the same as those of the relative (cf. § 193. c). The old ablative qui is used chiefly as an adverb meaning how ? c. The preposition cum is- added enclitically to the ablative, sin- gular and plural, as with the personal and relative pronouns : as, quocum, quibus'cum. d. The forms of quis and qui may be made emphatic by adding the enclitic -nam. quisnam, who, pray f quidnam, what, pray t 198. Uter, utra, utrum, which ? (of two persons or things) is declined like pulcher, except that the genitive singular has the termination -lus (utrius) and the dative singular -i (utri). Cf. § 143. 199. Other interrogative pronominal adjectives are : qualis, quale (declined like omnis), of what kind? quantus, -a, -um (declined like bonus), how great ? quot (indeclinable), how many ? VIII. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 200. The most common indefinite pronouns and pronominal adjectives, with the general meaning of some one, any one, some- thing, anything, some, any, are shown in the following table : Masculine quis, some one, any one qui aliquis, some one, any one aliqui quidam, a certain person quidam Feminine Neuter quid, something, anything (substantive) qua or quae quod, some, any (adjective) aliquid, something, a?iything (substantive) aliqua aliquod, some, any (adjective) quiddam, a certain thing (sub- stantive) quaedam quoddam, a certain (adjective) Digitized by Microsoft® INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 79 Masculine quivis 1 any one quilibetj you wish quivis quilibet quisquam, any one quisque, each one quisque quispiam, any one quispiam Feminine Neuter quidvis \anything you wish quidlibetj (substantive) quaevis quodvis \ any you wish (adjec- quaelibet quodlibet / tive) quicquam or"i anything (substan- quidquam J tive) quidque, each thing (substantive) quaeque quodque, each, every (adjective) quidpiam, anything (substantive) quaepiam quodpiam, any (adjective) a. Observe that all the indefinites are compounds of quis or qui. 6. The indefinites quis and qui are declined like the interrogative and relative pronouns, but usually have qua for quae except in the feminine nominative plural. The same is true of aliquis and aliqui. Note. Occasionally quis and aliquis are used adjectively and qui and aliqui substantively. i c. In quidam the m in the accusative singular and genitive plural is changed to n before d > as, quendam, quorundam. d. Quisquam has no plural, and the plural of quispiam is very rare. e. The indefinites ecquis, any one (substantive), and ecqui, any (adjective), are generally interrogative. They are declined like aliquis and aliqui (§ 200. U), but are rare in the plural. /. The indefinites have the same early forms as the relative and interrogative (cf. §§ 193. c, 197. b). ] g. For the indefinite relatives see § 194. 201. The relative, interrogative, and indefinite pronouns are origi- nally from the same stems, and most of the forms are the same. The stems in the masculine and neuter are quo- and qui-, and in the feminine qua-. From the. stem qui- the only forms are quis, quid, quibus, and the old ablative qui. The accusative from the stem qui- would be quim, but, like nouns with i-stems, it has borrowed the ending -em from the consonant declension. Digitized by Microsoft® 80 CONJUGATION OF VERBS PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES 202. Several adjectives are frequently used like pronouns and have adopted pronominal forms in the genitive and dative singular. Among these are : alius, another (of several) alter, the other (of two) inus, one nullus (for nemo), no one uter, which ? (of two) neuter, neither (of two) For the declension of these adjectives see § 143. VERBS CONJUGATION 203. The inflection of the verb is called its conjugation. Through their conjugation verbs express voice, mood, tense, person, and number. Voice 204. There are two voices : active and passive, corresponding in general to the active and passive in English. a. Verbs that are passive in form but active in meaning are called Deponent (§ 247). Semi-deponent verbs are active in meaning, and have active forms in some of the tenses and passive forms in others (§ 248). Mood 205. There are three moods : indicative, subjunctive, and im- perative. 1 These make up what is known as the Jlnite verb. a. In addition, the verb system includes the following non-modal verb forms : 1 . Verbal Nouns : infinitive, gerund, and supine. 2. Verbal Adjectives : participles. 1 The infinitive is often included among the moods, though it is really a verbal noun both in origin and in use. Digitized by Microsoft® CONJUGATION OF VERBS 8 1 Tense 206. The tenses are six in number : Present Future Past Perfect (or Pluperfect) Past (or Imperfect) Perfect Future Perfect Only the indicative mood has all six tenses. In this mood the past tense is known as the past descriptive. The subjunctive has four tenses : the present, past, perfect, and past perfect. The imperative has two : the present and future. Person 207. There are three persons : first, second, and third. Number 208. There are two numbers : singular and plural. THE THREE TENSE SYSTEMS 209. A verb is inflected by adding certain endings to three different tense stems, known as the Present stem, the Perfect stem, and the Participial stem. From these stems are derived the three tense systems, known as the Present System, the Perfect System, and the Participial System, which, taken together, make up the whole conjugation of the verb. I. The Present System, derived from the present stem, consists of : The present, past descriptive, and future indicative, active and passive. The present and past subjunctive, active and passive. The present and future imperative, active and passive. The present infinitive, active and passive. The present participle, the gerund, and the gerundive. Note. Observe that from the present stem are derived all the presents, pasts, and futures of the finite verb (§ 205). Digitized by Microsoft® 82 CONJUGATION OF VERBS II. The Perfect System, derived from the perfect stem, consists of : The perfect, past perfect, and future perfect indicative active. The perfect and past perfect subjunctive active. The perfect infinitive active. III. The Participial System, derived from the participial stem, consists of : The past participle passive, which combines with the forms of the verb sum to make : The perfect, past perfect, and future perfect indicative passive ; The perfect and past perfect subjunctive passive ; The perfect infinitive passive. The future active participle, 1 and, hence, the future infinitive active. The supine, 1 and, hence, the future infinitive passive. THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS 210. Regular verbs show four types of inflection, known as the Four Conjugations, which are distinguished by the final vowel of the present stem. This vowel, called the distinguish- ing or characteristic vowel, appears before -re in the present infinitive active : Conjugation Present Infinitive Present Stem Distinguishing Vowel I II III IV amare, to love monere, to advise regere, to rule audire, to hear ama- mone- regg- audl- a e S i 211. Verbs which do not conform to one of the four regular conjugations are called Irregular Verbs (cf. §§251 ff.). 1 These forms are most conveniently associated with the participial stem, thoug)} strictly of different origin. Digitized by Microsoft® PRINCIPAL PARTS 83 PRINCIPAL PARTS 212. Certain forms of the verb', which show its conjugation and its stems, are called its Principal Parts. These are the present indicative active, first person singular ; the present in- finitive active ; the perfect indicative active, first person singular ; the past participle passive, nominative singular masculine. amo, amare, amavi, amatus, love a. The present stem may be found by dropping -re from the present infinitive active : as, ama- from amajre. b. The perfect stem may be found by dropping -1 from the perfect indicative active, first person singular: as, amav- from amavji. c. The participial stem may be found by dropping -us from the past participle passive, nominative singular masculine : as, amat- from amatjus. Note. In giving the principal parts of intransitive verbs the neuter of the past participle passive should be given instead of the masculine. 1 venio, venire, venl, ventum, come If the past participle passive is wanting, the future participle active (from the same' stem) may be given. fugio, fugere, fiigi, fugiturus,yfe 213. In the passive voice there are three principal parts': the present indicative passive, first person singular ; the present infinitive passive ; and the perfect indicative passive, first person singular : as, amor, amari, amatus sum. 214. The conjugation to which a verb is referred is deter- mined by its present infinitive, no matter how irregular its principal parts may be. For example, domo, domare, domui, domi- tus is referred to the first conjugation ; and peto, petere, petivi, petitus to the third. 1 As intransitive verbs are used only impersonally in the passive, their past participle is always neuter. Digitized by Microsoft® 84 PERSONAL ENDINGS PERSONAL ENDINGS 215. The person of the verb is indicated, for each of the three persons, both singular and plural, active and passive, by regular terminations, known as personal endings. Most of these seem to be remnants or fragments of old pronouns whose signification is thus added to that of the verb stem. 216. The personal endings of the indicative (except in the perfect active) and of the subjunctive are as follows : SINGULAR Person Active Passive . fsum, I am _ . , i -mor-o-{ , , -r amor, lam loved Lamo, I love _ . „ , famansl , , 2 -s amas, you love -nsor-re-{ \ you are loved J lamare j 3 -t amat, he, she, it loves -tur amatur, he, she, it is loved PLURAL i -mus amamus, w /«w -mur amamur, we are loved 2 -tis amatis, you love -mini amamini, you are loved 3 -nt amant, they love -ntur amantur, they areloved a. A long vowel is regularly shortened before final m, t, or r, or before nt (cf. § 34. 0). b. Observe that the letter r appears in all but one of the passive personal endings. This is sometimes called the passive sign. 217. The perfect indicative active indicates the person by the following terminations, of doubtful origin : Person SINGULAR 1 -i amavi, I have loved 2 -isti amav isti, you have loved . 3 -it amavit, he, she, it has loved Digitized by Microsoft® THE PRESENT STEM 85 Person plural 1 -imus amavimus, we have loved 2 -istis amavistis, you have loved 3 -erunt or -5re amav grunt or -ere, they have loved 218. The imperative has the following terminations, of uncertain origin : PRESENT ACTIVE Person singular plural _ 2 — ama, love thou -te amate, love ye FUTURE ACTIVE 2 -to amato, thou shalt love -tote amatote, ye shall love 3 -to amato, he, she, it shall love -nto amanto, they shall love PRESENT PASSIVE -2 -re ama re, be thou loved -mini ama mini, be ye loved FUTURE PASSIVE 2 -tor amator, thou shalt be loved 3 -tor amator, he, she, it shall be -ntor amantor, they shall be loved loved FORMATION OF THE VERB STEMS The Present Stem 219. The present stem may be found by dropping -re in the present infinitive active : as, ama- from amare. 220. In the First, Second, and Fourth Conjugations the present stem ends in a long vowel. Note. Sometimes the root ends in a long vowel, and the present stem and the root are identical : as, sta-, present stem and root of stare, stand. But generally the final vowel of the root, or of a noun or adjective stem, has been contracted with a formative verb suffix. Digitized by Microsoft® 86 THE PRESENT STEM a. First Conjugation. The stem vowel is a-. Most verbs of the first conjugation are derived from the stems of nouns and adjectives. The a- of the present stem generally appears also in the perfect and participial stems : as, amavi, amatus. b. Second Conjugation. The stem vowel is e- In most verbs of the second conjugation the stem vowel e- appears only in the present system. The long stem vowel e- is shortened before another vowel (§ 34. i) : as, mongo. Some of these verbs are formed directly from the root, but most of them are derived from the stems of nouns and adjectives. c. Fourth Conjugation. The stem vowel is I-. The long stem vowel i- is shortened before another vowel (§ 34. b) : as, .audio. These verbs are formed from the root or derived from the stems of nouns and adjectives. 1. The I-, in verbs formed from the root, usually appears only in the present system : as, venio, venire, veni, ventum, come, from the root ven-. 2. If the verbs are derived from the stems of nouns and adjectives, the i- appears also in the perfect and participial systems : as, finio, finire, finivi, finitus, finish, from fini-, stem of finis, end. 221. In the Third Conjugation the present stem ends in a short vowel, e- or b-, 1 changed in most forms to i- or u-. In most cases this vowel, known as the thematic vowel, 2, is added directly to the unmodified root : as, dic e /o-> present stem of dico, speak. Often, however, various stem elements are added to the root, and sometimes the root itself is changed. Thus arise seven different kinds of formation of the present stem, making the following seven classes 3 of verbs : 1 The variation of the stem vowel between e- and 0- is caused by ablaut (§ 56), and its variable character is generally indicated by writing it e/ (or, as it usually appears, i/u). 2 The thematic vowel, appearing between the root and the personal endings, is a part of the stem but not of the root. Its origin is unknown. 8 In the first five classes the stem endings added to the root are, respec- tively, e/ (the thematic vowel), ye/ , ne/ , te/ , sce/ . In classes 6 and 7 the thematic vowel is added directly to the root, but the root itself is changed. Digitized by Microsoft® THE PERFECT STEM 87 a. The root class : as, dic-o, speak ; root die-. b. The -io class : as, cap-io, take ; root cap- c. The -no class : as, tem-no, despise ; root tern-. d. The -to class : as, flee-to, bend; root flee-. e. The -sco class : as, cre-sco, grow ; root ere-. /. The reduplicating class : as, gi-gn-o, bear ; root gen- or gn-. g. The nasal class : as, iu-n-g-5, join ; root iug-. 1 . In the reduplicating class the root is changed by reduplication ; that is, by prefixing its first consonant with i. 2. In the nasal class a nasal (m or n) is inserted before the final con- sonant of the simple root, and usually appears only in the present system. .The Perfect Stem 222. The perfect stem may be found by dropping -1 from the first person singular of the perfect indicative active. 223. The perfect stem is formed in various ways : a. The suffix -v- is added to the present stem. This formation is common to most verbs of the first and fourth conjugations. voca-v-I, from vocare, call audl-v-i, from audlre, hear b. The suffix -v- is added to the root, or to a modified form of the root ending in a long vowel. This formation is found in several verbs of the second and third conjugations. fle-v-I, from flere, weep ; root fle- stra-v-I, from sternere, strew ; root ster-, modified root stra- no-v-i, from noscere, know ; root gno-, modified root no- le-v-i, from linere, smear; root li-, modified root le- c. The suffix -n- is added to the root or to a modified form of it. This formation is common to most verbs of the second conjuga- tion, and also appears in some verbs of the third and (rarely) of the first and fourth conjugations. Digitized by Microsoft® 88 THE PERFECT STEM mon-u-I, from monere, advise ; root man-, modified root mon- col-u-i, from colere, till; root col- vet-u-I, from vetare, forbid; root vet- aper-u-I, from aperire, open ; preposition ab + root par-, modified root per- Note. The suffix -u- is in reality the same as the suffix -v- the Latin having but one character for both the vowel and the consonant (§2. b). d. The suffix -s- is added to the foot. This formation is common to verbs of the third conjugation having roots ending in a mute (cf. § 10). It often appears also in the second conjugation and occasionally in the fourth. The combination of the final mute and s gives rise to various con- sonant changes (cf. § 50), and the quantity of the vowel in the root syllable of the perfect and of the present is sometimes not the same. rex-i, from regere, rule ; root reg- ml-s-i, from mittere, send; root mit- ar-s-I, from ardere, burn ; root ar-, modified root ard- sen-s-I, from sentire,/^/; root sent- e. The root is reduplicated by prefixing the first consonant, gen- erally with S, sometimes with the root vowel. An a in the root syllable is weakened to i or e, and an ae to I (cf. § 44). This formation is found only in the third conjugation, in mordeo, pendeo, spondeo, and tondeo of the second conjugation, and in do and sto. Examples are : ce-cid-I, from cadere, fall; root cad- ce-cld-l, from caedere, cut; root caed- te-tig-I, from tangere, touch ; root tag- to-tond-i, from tondere, shear; root tond- 1. In compounds the reduplicated syllable usually disappears: as, incidi, perfect of incido (compound of cado); contigi, perfect of con- tingo (compound of tango). 2. When the verb begins with sp or st, both consonants appear in the reduplication, but s disappears from the root : as, steti (for *8te-sti), perfect of sto. Digitized by Microsoft® THE PARTICIPIAL STEM 89 /. The vowel of the root syllable is lengthened or changed. This formation is confined mostly to verbs of the second and third conjugations. mov-i, from movere, move ; root mov- fec-I, from facere, make ; root fac- eg-I, from agere, drive ; root ag- ven-I, from venire, come ; root ven- g. Sometimes the perfect stem has the same form that appears in the present. This formation is common in the third conjugation, and occurs in nearly all verbs ending in -uo. vert-I, from vertere, turn solv-i, from solvere, loosen metu-i, from metuere, fear . tribu-i, from tribuere, assign 224. The rules in §223 may be summarized by the state- ment that, in general, the perfect stem is formed by adding a suffix to the root or present stem, by reduplication, or by changing the root vowel. The Participial Stem 225. The participial stem may be found by dropping -us or -urn from the nominative of the past participle, or -um from the supine. 226. The participial stem is formed by adding -t- or -s- : a. To the present stem. ama-t- from amare, love dele-t-, from delere, destroy audi-t-, from audire, hear b. To the root, with or without an intervening -i-. cap-t-, from capere, take mon-i-t-, from monere, advise Digitized by Microsoft® 90 FORMATION OF THE MOODS AND TENSES The addition of the suffix leads to many consonant changes, for which see §§ 48, 54. a. The vowel of the root syllable is generally the same as in the present. Note. Verbs in -uo form the participial stem by adding -ut- to the root syllable. stat-ut-, from statuere, set trib-ut-, from tribuere, assign FORMATION OF THE MOODS AND TENSES 227. The different moods and tenses are, as a rule, distin- guished by certain formative signs, known as mood signs or tense signs, which precede the personal endings. Long vowels are regularly shortened before another vowel, before a final m, r, or t, and before nt or nd (cf. § 34. b). Indicative Mood 228. The tenses of the indicative mood are the present, past descriptive, future, perfect, past perfect, and future perfect. 229. The present, past descriptive, and future are formed from the present stem as follows : a. The Present Indicative has no tense sign, the personal endings being added directly to the stem. Thus, from the present stem ara- are formed ara-s, ara-tis, etc. 1. In the first conjugation the stem vowel a- disappears in the first person singular by contraction : as, amo, for *ama-o. 2. In the third conjugation the thematic vowel e/o (§221) dis- appears in the first person singular by contraction (as, rego for *reg-e-o) ; appears as e before r (as, reg-e-ris) ; appears as u before nt (as, reg-u-nt) ; and becomes i before all the other personal endings (as, reg-i-s, reg-i-t). 3. In the fourth conjugation the thematic vowel appears as u in the third person plural between the stem and the personal ending: as, audi-u-nt. Digitized by Microsoft® FORMATION OF THE MOODS AND TENSES 91 b. The Past Descriptive Indicative adds -ba- as a tense sign to the present stem : as, ama-ba-s. 1. In the third conjugation the stem vowel appears as e-: as, rege-ba-m. 2. In the fourth conjugation e generally occurs between the stem and the tense sign : as, audi-e-ba-m. This is the regular form in classical Latin. The earlier formation is without e : as, audi-ba-m. c. The Future Indicative in the first and second conjugations has •as a tense sign -b + the thematic vowel i/u (changed from e/ except in the first person singular). This is added to the present stem : as, ama-bo, ama-bi-s, mone-bu-nt. In the third and fourth conjugations the tense sign is -a- in the first person singular and -e- in the remaining forms. In the third conjugation the tense signs take the place of the stem vowel, but not in the fourth : as, reg-a-m, reg-e-mus, audi-a-m, audi-e-mus. Note i. The tense signs -a- and -e- are really subjunctive mood signs, and futures so formed are in origin present subjunctives. Note 2. In early Latin a future in -bo is found also in verbs of the fourth conjugation : as, scibo, for sciam ; audibo, for audiam. 230. The perfect, past perfect, and future perfect indicative active are formed from the perfect stem as follows : a. The Perfect Indicative is formed by adding the endings of the perfect (cf. § 217) to the perfect stem (cf. § 222). 1. Perfects in -avi, -evi, and -ovi, and also other tenses formed from similar perfect stems, sometimes lose v and its following vowel before s or r. amastl, for amavisti commorat, for commoverat delerunt, for deleverunt nosti, for novisti 2. Perfects in -ivi often omit v, but the following vowel is not dropped except before s. audiit, for audivft audierunt, for audiverunt audisti, for audivistl petlstis, for petivistis b. The Past Perfect Indicative adds -era- as a tense sign to the perfect stem : as, amav-era-m. Digitized by Microsoft® 92 FORMATION OF THE MOODS AND TENSES c. The Future Perfect Indicative has as a tense sign -er -f- the thematic vowel i/u (changed from e/ except in the first person singu- lar). This is added to the perfect stem : as, amav-ero, amav-eri-s. The third person plural, however, ends in -int (not in -unt) in imita- tion of the perfect subjunctive. Note i. The same imitation has given rise to occasional forms of the second person singular and first and second person plural in -is, -imus, -itis, instead of -is, -imus, -itis, the forms with i being original in the perfect subjunctive. Note 2. In early Latin the future perfect indicative sometimes has forms in -so or -sso : as, faxo (fac-so), from f acio ; capso, from capio ; amasso, from amo. 231. The Perfect Indicative Passive and all other passive tenses of the perfect system are formed by combining the past participle with present, past descriptive, and future forms of the auxiliary verb esse, be : as, amatus sum, amatus eram, amatus ero, amatus sim, amatus esse, etc. Subjunctive Mood 232. The tenses of the subjunctive mood are the present, past, perfect, and past perfect. Long vowels are shortened before a final m, r, or t, and before nt or nd, as in the indica- tive (cf. § 34. b). 233. The present and past subjunctive are formed from the present stem as follows : a. The Present Subjunctive has the mood sign -e- in the first conjugation and -a- in the others. The mood sign takes the place of the final stem vowel in the first and third conjugations, but not in the second and fourth : as, am-e-m, mone-a-mus, reg-a-s, audi-a-tis. 1. Many irregular verbs have -i- for a present subjunctive mood sign : as, s-i-m, vel-i-mus, du-i-nt, ed-i-s. 6. The Past Subjunctive adds the mood sign -se- to the present stem, the s becoming r between two vowels (cf. § 49) : as, es-se-mus, mone-rf-s. Digitized by Microsoft® FORMATION OF THE MOODS AND TENSES 93 234. The perfect and past perfect subjunctive active are formed from the perfect stem as follows : a. The Perfect Subjunctive Active adds the tense sign -eri- to the perfect stem : as, amav-eri-m, amav-eri-s. 1. The i of the mood sign, originally long, is often shortened through confusion with the future perfect indicative (cf. § 230. c. n. i). Except in the first person singular the Romans did not maintain a clear distinction between these two tenses. Note i . In early Latin a perfect subjunctive appears with the ending -sim : as, faxim (fac-sim), from facio ; ausim, from audeo. Note 2. For the passive see §231. b. The Past Perfect Subjunctive Active adds the tense sign -isse- to the perfect stem : as, amav-isse-s, dix-isse-m. Note. For the passive see § 23 1 . Imperative Mood 235. The imperative mood has neither mood sign nor tense signs. Its forms are made by adding its characteristic endings (cf . § 2 1 8) to the present stem : as, ama-te, mone-nto. a. In the third conjugation the final vowel of the stem (the thematic vowel, § 221) appears as 6 in the second person singular, and else- where as in the present indicative : as, rege, regi-to. b. In the fourth conjugation the thematic vowel appears as u between the stem and the ending in the third person plural of the future imperative, just as in the third person plural of the present indicative (cf. § 229. a. 3): as, audi-u-nto. c. Four verbs, dico, duco, facio, and fero, drop the final vowel in the singular of the present active imperative, making die, due, fac, and fer. But prepositional compounds of facio retain the final vowel: as, confice from conficio. Note. In early Latin dice, duce, and face are more frequent than the shortened forms. Digitized by Microsoft® 94 FORMATION OF THE NON-MODAL VERB FORMS FORMATION OF THE NON-MODAL VERB FORMS 236. The non-modal verb forms are the infinitive, gerund, supine, and participle. 237. The infinitive has three tenses : present, perfect, and "future, active and passive. a. i. The Present Infinitive Active is formed by adding -se to the present stem : as, es-se, be. But when the s of this ending comes between two vowels,- it is regularly changed to r (cf. § 49) : as, ama-re, for ama-se ; mone-re, for mone-se. 2. The Present Infinitive Passive is formed by adding -ri to the present stem in all conjugations but the third, where -1 is added to the root syllable : as, ama-ri, mone-ri, audl-rl, but reg-i. Note. In early Latin and in poetry a present infinitive passive occurs ending in -ier : as, amarier, monerier, regier, audlrier. b. 1 . The Perfect Infinitive Active is formed by adding -isse to the perfect stem : as, amav-isse, monu-isse, rex-isse, audiv-isse. 2. The Perfect Infinitive Passive consists of the past participle with esse : as, amatus esse, monitus esse. But esse is often omitted. c. 1. The Future Infinitive Active consists of the forms of the future active participle with esse : as, amaturus esse. But esse is very often omitted. 2. The Future Infinitive Passive consists of the supine in -um with iri (the present infinitive passive of eo, go) : as, amatum iri, rectum iri. 238. The Gerund is a neuter verbal noun, 1 corresponding in meaning to the English verbal noun in -ing: as, loquendi causa, for the sake of speaking. It is found only in the oblique cases of the singular, and may be formed by adding -ndi to the present stem : as, ama-ndi, mone-ndi, rege-ndi. In the fourth conjugation the thematic vowel appears as e between the stem and the ending: as, audi-e-ndi. Note. In early Latin -undl is often used for -endi in the third and fourth conjugations : as, faciundl, audiundi. 1 '^ ie gerund is really the neuter of the gerundive used substantively. Digitized by Microsoft® FORMATION OF THE NON-MODAL VERB FORMS 95 239. The Supine is a verbal noun of the fourth declension, and is commonly found only in the accusative singular, ending in -turn or -sum, and in the ablative singular, ending in -tu or -su : as, amatum, amatu ; visum, visu. 240. There are four participles : the present active, the future active, the past passive, and the future passive, or gerundive. Latin lacks the perfect active participle (as, having heard) and the present passive participle (as, being heard). But the past participle of deponent verbs (§ 247), though passive in form, is generally active in meaning. a. The Present Active Participle has the same meaning as the English participle in -ing. It is formed by adding -nt- (nominative singular -ns) to the present stem (as, voca-ns, calling), and is declined like an adjective of one ending of the third declension (cf. § 1 49). In the fourth conjugation the thematic vowel appears as e between the stem and the ending : as, audi-g-ns, hearing. b. The Future Active Participle is used to express what is likely or about to happen, and is regularly formed by adding -iirus, -a, -um to the participial stem. amat-urus, about to love monit-urus, about to advise c. The Past Participle Passive has the meaning of the English past participle passive, and is regularly formed by adding -us, -a, -um to the participial stem : as, amat-us, loved. It is used also with forms of esse to form the passive tenses of the perfect system (cf. § 231). Note. The past participle of deponent verbs (§ 247) is generally active in meaning : as, hortatus, having encouraged. d. The Future Passive Participle, or Gerundive, sometimes denotes obligation, propriety, or intention, but more frequently has the same meaning as the gerund (§ 238). The gerundive is formed like the gerund (§ 238) from the present stem, but with the endings -ndus, -a, -um in the nominative singular, and is declined throughout like bonus (§ 140). amandus, -a, -um, to be loved regendus, -a, -um, to be ruled Digitized by Microsoft® 9 6 CONJUGATION OF SUM CONJUGATION OF SUM 241 . The verb sum, to be, is irregular, but is given first because of its importance as an auxiliary in the formation of the passive tenses of the regular verb. Principal Parts : pres. indie, sum, pres. infin. esse, perf. indie, fui, fut. part, futurus * Perf. Stem fu- Part. Stem fut- 1NDICATIVE Present plural sumus, we are estis, you are sunt, they are Past Descriptive Pres. Stem es- SINGULAR sum, I am es, thou art est, he (she, it) is eram, I was eras, thou wast erat, he was ero, I shall be eris, thou wilt be erit, he will be Future Perfect fui, I have been, was fuisti, thou hast been, wast fuit, he has been, was eramus, we were eratis, you were erant, they were erimus, we shall be eritis, you will be erunt, they will be fuimus, we have been, were fuistis, you have been, were , . \ they have been, were fuere J Past Perfect fu eramus, we had been fu eratis, you had been fu erant, they had been 1 Sum has no past participle (cf. § 212. n.). fueram, I had been fueras, thou hadst been fuerat, he had been Digitized by Microsoft® CONJUGATION OF SUM 97 Future Perfect singular plural fuerfi, I shall have been fuerimus, we shall have been fueris, thou wilt have been fueritis, you will have been fuerit, he will have been fuerint, they will have been SUBJUNCTIVE Present singular plural sim simus sis sitis sit sint Perfect fuerim fuerimus fueris fueritis fuerit fuerint Past singular plural essem essemus esses essetis esset essent Past Perfect fuissem fuissemus fuisses fuissetis f u isset f u issent IMPERATIVE Present zd Pers. Sing, es, be thou 2D Pers. Plur. este, be ye Future 2D Pers. Sing, esto, thou shalt be 3D Pers. Sing, esto, he shall be 2D Pers. Plur. estote, ye shall be 3D Pers. Plur. sunto, they shall be INFINITIVE Pres. esse, to be Perf. fuisse, to have been Fut. futiirus, -a, -um esse, or fore, to be about to be PARTICIPLE futurus, -a, -um, about to be a. In the past subjunctive forem, fores, foret, forent are often used instead of essem, esses, etc.; so in the future infinitive fore is used for futurus esse. b. The present participle is lacking in sum, but appears in the par- ticipial adjectives ab-sens (absent) and prae-sens (present). c. Old present subjunctives are siem, sies, siet, sient, and fuam, fuas, fuat, fuant. Digitized by Microsoft® 98 CONJUGATION OF AMO REGULAR VERBS 242. FIRST CONJUGATION. ^i-VEEBS. AMO Principal Parts : amo, amare, amavl, amatus Pres. Stem ama- Perf. Stem amav- Part. Stem amat- ACTIVE PASSIVE indicative Present I love, am loving, do love, etc. T am loved, etc. amo amamus amor amamur amas amatis amaris (-re) amaminl amat amant amatur amantur Past Descriptive T loved, was loving, did love, etc. I was (being) loved, etc. amabam amabamus amabar amabamur amabas amabatis amabaris (-re) amabamini amabat amabaiit amabatur amabantur Future I shall be loved, etc. amabor amabimur amaberis (-re) amabimini amabitur amabuntur. Perfect / have loved, loved, did love, etc. I have been (was) loved, etc. amavi amavimus _ fsum fsumus amavisti amavistis amatus ' es ama "' estis - -i - - . / ^ -*! -um -ae. -a 1 amav it amaverunt (-re) [est [sunt Digitized by Microsoft® I shall love, etc. ama bo amabimus amabis amabitis am a bit ama bunt CONJUGATION OF AMO 99 ACTIVE I had loved, etc. amaveram amaveramus amaveras amaveratis amaverat amaverant PASSIVE Past Perfect amatus, -a, -um T had been loved, etc. eram _ . reramus i, eras erat amati -ae, -a -j eratis [ erant Future Perfect I shall have loved, etc. I shall have been loved, etc. amavero amaverimus amaveris amaveritis amaverit amaverint fero amatus, | -! ens -a,-ujn I ent amati, -ae, -a r erimus ' ' eritis erunt am em ames amet am emus ametis am ent SUBJUNCTIVE Present amer ameris (-re) ametur amemur amemini amentur Past amarem amares amaret amaremus amaretis amarent amarer i amaremur amareris (-re) amaremini amaretur amarentur amavenm amavenmus amaveris amaveritis amaverit amaverint Perfect (sim _ . fsimus amati, | sis j. sitis -ae, -a sit ' [sint Past "Perfect amavissem amavissemus amavisses amavissetis amavisset amavissent fessem _ . fessemus amatus, amati, _ . \ esses i essetis -a, -um [ esset -ae, -a l essent Digitized by Microsoft® IOO CONJUGATION OF AMO ACTIVE ama, love thou am ate, love ye PASSIVE imperative Present ama re, be thou loved ama mini, be ye loved ama to, thou shalt love ama to, he shall love ama tote, ye shall love amanto, they shall love ' Future ama tor, thou shalt be loved ama tor, he shall be loved amantor, they shall be loved INFINITIVE Pres. amare, to love amari, to be loved Perf. amav isse, to have loved amatus, -a, -um esse, to have been loved Fut. amaturus, -a, -um esse, amatum iri, to be about to be loved to be about to love PARTICIPLES Pres. amans, -antis, loving Pres. Fut. amaturus, -a, -um,about Ger. 1 amandus, -a, -um, to be loved to love Past Past amatus, -a, -um, having been loved, loved SUPINE (Active Voice) Acc. amatum, to love Abl. amatu, to love, in the loving GERUND Nom. Gen. amandi, of loving Dat. ama ndo, for loving Acc. amandum, loving Abl. amando, by loving • * Gerundive, sometimes called the future passive participle. Digitized by Microsoft® CONJUGATION OF MONEO $43. SECOND CONJUGATION. £-VERBS. MONEO Principal Parts : moneo, monere, monui, monitus Pres. Stem mone- Perf. Stem monu- Part. Stem monit- IOI ACTIVE I advise, etc. moneo monemus mones monetis monet monent PASSIVE indicative Present l am advised, etc. mone or mone mur moneris (-re) mone mini monetur monentur Past Descriptive / was advising, etc. / was advised, etc. mone bam monebamus mone bar monebamur monebaris (-re) monebamini monebas mone bat monebatis mone bant monebatur monebantur I shall advise, etc. mone bo monebimus mone bis monebitis mone bit mone bunt EUTURE T shall be advised, etc. monebor monebimur moneberis (-re) monebimini monebitur monebuntur Perfect I have advised, etc. monui monuimus monuisti monuistis monu it monuerunt (-re) T have been advised, etc. f sumus f sum . es -a, -um monitus, momti, J . est -ae, -a Lsunt Digitized by Microsoft® 102 CONJUGATION OF MONEO ACTIVE / had advised, etc. monueram monueramus monu eras monueratis monuerat monuerant PASSIVE Past Perfect / had been advised, etc. f eramus -a, -um f eram eras monitus, _ moniti, X eras X eratis [erat -ae, -a Lerant Future Perfect I shall have advised, etc. I shall have been advised, etc. ero monuero monueris monuerit monuerimus monueritis monuerint monitus, -a, -um ens terit f enmus moniti, X entis -ae, -a I Lerunt moneam moneas moneat moneamus moneatis moneant SUBJUNCTIVE Present monear monearis (-re) moneatur moneamur moneamini moneantur Past monerem moneremus monerer moneremur moneres moneretis monereris (-re) moneremini moneret monerent moneretur monerentur rnonuenm monueris monuerit monuissem monuisses monu igset monuerimus monu eritis monuerint Perfect monitus -a, -um Past Perfect ,[ ■i sis l^sit monu issemus monu issetis monu issent monitus, essem L esset moniti, -ae, f simus X sitis t.sint r essemus moniti, I < essetis -ae, -a i essent Digitized by Microsoft® CONJUGATION OF MONEO 103 ACTIVE mone, advise thou monete, advise ye ' mone to, thou shalt advise mone to, he shall advise mone tote, ye shall advise monento, they shall advise PASSIVE imperative Present mone re, be thott advised mone mini, be ye advised Future mone tor, thou shalt be advised mone tor, he shall be advised monentor, they shall be advised INFINITIVE Pres. mone re, to advise moneri, to be advised Perf. monuisse, to have advised monitus, -a, -urn esse, to have been advised Fut. moniturus, -a, -um esse, to monitum iri, to be about to be be about to advise advised PARTICIPLES Pres. monens, -entis, advising Pres. Fut. moniturus, -a, -um, about Ger. monendus, -a, -um, to be to advise advised Past Past monitus, -a, -um, having been advised, advised GERUND Nom. Gen. monendi, of advising Dat. mone ndo, for advising Ace. monendum, advising Abl. mone ndo, by advising SUPINE (Active Voice) Acc. monitum, to advise Abl. monitii, to advise, in the advising Digitized by Microsoft® 104 CONJUGATION OF REGO 244. THIRD CONJUGATION. E-VERBS. REGO Principal Parts : rego, regere, rexi, rectus Pres. Stem rege- Perf. Stem rex- Part. Stem rect- ACTIVE I rule, etc. PASSIVE rego regimus regis regitis regit regunt indicative Present I am ricled, etc. regor regeris (-re) regitur regimur regimini reguntur T was ruling, etc. rege bam regebamus regebas regebatis rege bat rege bant Past Descriptive I was ruled, etc. rege bar regebamur regebaris (-re) regebamini regebatur regebantur Future / shall rule, etc. regain regemus reges regetis reget regent I skall be ruled, etc. regar regeris (-re) regetur regemur regemini regentur I have ruled, etc. rexi reximus rexisti rexistis rex it • rexerunt (-re) Perfect rectus, -a, -um I have been ruled, etc. Tsum r recti, I es l.est -ae, -a I sumus \ estis sunt Digitized by Microsoft® CONJUGATION' OF REGO 105 rexeram rex eras rexerat ACTIVE PASSIVE Past. Perfect ded, etc. I had been ruled, etc. rexeramus rexeratis rexerant f eram f eramus rectus, _ recti, < eras ' \ eratis -a, -um -ae, -a 1 t.erat [erant I shall have ruled, etc. Future Perfect I shall have been ruled, etc. rexero rexeris rexerit rexerimus rexeritis rexerint fero rectus, ■1 ens -a, -um Lent SUBJUNCTIVE Present f erimus recti, i entis -ae, -a l^erunt regam regamus regar regamur regas regatis regaris (-re) regamini regat regant regatur regantur Past regerem regeremus regerer regeres regeretis regereris (-re) regeret regerent regeretur Perfect rexerim rexeris rexerit rexerimus rexeritis rexerint fsim rectus, ■i SIS -a, -um ] Lsit Past Perfect rexissem rexisses rexisset rexissemus rexissetis rexissent f essem rectus, I ■i esses -a, -um (^ esset regeremur regeremini regerentur recti, -ae, -a simus sitis i, sint ' essemus recti, I ■j e^setis -ae, -a ] l. essent Digitized by Microsoft® lo6 CONJUGATION OF REGO ACTIVE PASSIVE imperative Present rege, rule thou regere, be thou ruled regite, rule ye regimini, be ye ruled Future regito, thou shall rule regitor, thou shall be ruled regito, he shall rule regitor, he shall be ruled regitote, ye shall rule regunto, they shall rule reguntor, they shall be ruled INFINITIVE Pres. regere, to rule regi, to be ruled Perf. rexisse, to have ruled rectus, -a, -um esse, to have been ruled Fut. recturus, -a, -um esse, to be rectum Iri, to be about to be ruled about to rule PARTICIPLES Pres. regens, -entis, riding Pres. Fut. recturus, -a, -um, about to Ger. regendus, -a, -um, to be rule ruled Past Past rectus, -a, -um, having been ruled, ruled GERUND SUPINE (Active Voice) Nom. Acc. rectum, to rule Gen. regendi, of ruling Abl. rectu, to rule, in the ruling Dat. rege ndo, for ruling Acc. regendum, ruling Abl. fegendo, by riding Digitized by Microsoft® CONJUGATION OF AUDIO 245. FOURTH CONJUGATION. /-VERBS. AUDIO Principal Parts : audio, audire, audivi, auditus Pres. Stem audi- Perf. Stem audlv- Part. Stem audit- 107 ACTIVE I hear, etc. audio audis audit audimus auditis audiunt PASSIVE indicative Present I am heard, etc. audi or audimur audiris (-re) audlmini audltur audiuntur Past Descriptive I was hearing, etc. T was heard, etc. audiebam audiebamus audiebar audiebamur audiebaris (-re) audiebamini audiebas audiebat audiebatis audiebant audiebatur audiebantur f shall hear, etc. audi am audi emus audies audietis audiet audient Future I shall be heard, etc. audiar audiemur audieris (-re) audiemini audietur audientur Perfect I have heard, etc. audlv I audlvimus audivisti audivistis audivit audlv erunt (-re) 1 have been heard, etc. r sum auditus, I -{ es -a, -um l. est audit -ae ,-a I sumus estis i.sunt Digitized by Microsoft® io8 CONJUGATION OF AUDIO ACTIVE / had heard, etc. audlveram audiveras audlverat audlveramus audiveratis audiverant PASSIVE Past Perfect / had been heard, etc. f eram audit us, [ ■i eras -a, -um ' Lerat audit I, -ae, -a eramus \ eratis erant Future Perfect I shall have heard, etc. I shall have been heard, etc. audlvero audlveris audlverit audlverimus audlveritis audlverint audit us, -a, -um rero INTERJECTIONS 280. Interjections are particles expressing feeling, as surprise, joy, sorrow, etc. Some of them are mere natural exclamations ; others are derived from inflected parts of speech. lux Dardaniae, O light of heu me miserum, alas for poor me! Dardania ! heus Syre, hello there, Syrus ! id triumphe, hurrah ! victory ! euge, puer, well done, boy ! a. Names of deities occur as interjections in oaths : as, hercle, by Hercules ; pol, by Pollux ; ecastor, by Castor. Digitized by Microsoft® FORMATION OF WORDS 145 FORMATION OF WORDS 281. Most Latin words are either derived from or composed of other simpler words, and, according to their formation, are divided into two classes, derivatives and compounds. a. Derivatives are formed from stems of nouns, adjectives, verbs, or adverbs by adding certain endings called suffixes. 1 1. Most suffixes are of pronominal origin, and in many cases their definite meaning is not clear. b. Compounds are formed by adding together two or more stems or complete words. armi-ger, armor-bearer (cf. arma, arms ; gero, carry) omni-potens, omnipotent ((A. omnis, all; potens, powerful) septen-decim, seventeen (cf. septem, seven ; decern, ten) bene-dico, bless (cf. bene, well; dlco, speak) I. DERIVATIVES A. Nouns 282. Nouns derived from Nouns, a. Diminutives are formed from nouns by means of the suffixes : Masc. Fem. -ulus -ula -olus -ol a -cuius -cula -ellus -ella -illus -ilia Neut. -ulum -olum (after a vowel) -culum -ellum -ilium riv-ulus, streamlet gladi-olus, small sword flli-olus, little son fili-ola, little daughter rivus, brook gladius, sword fllius, son fllia, daughter 1 It is the stem of the derived word, not the nominative, that is formed by the suffix. For convenience, however, the nominative singular will be given. Digitized by Microsoft® 146 NOUNS DERIVED FROM NOUNS atri-olum, little hall atrium, hall flos-culus, floweret flos, flower auri-cula, little ear auris, ear munus-culum. little gift munus, n., gift lib-ellus, little book liber, book lap-illus, pebble _ lapis, stone i . Diminutives regularly take the gender of the nouns from which they are derived, and may differ from them in meaning : as, avun- culus, uncle, from avus, grandfather; osculum, kiss, from 6s, mouth. 2. Diminutives often express affection, pity, or contempt. deliciolae, little pet deliciae, pet muliercula, a poor (weak) woman mulier, woman Graeculus, a miserable Greek Graecus, a Greek b. Nouns denoting place of keeping or growing are formed from nouns by means of the neuter suffixes : -arium, -etum or -turn, -ile aer-arium, treasury aes, copper oliv-etum, olive grove oliva, olive arbus-tum, orchard arbor, tree bov-ile, ox stall bos, ox c. Nouns denoting the person employed about anything are formed from nouns by means of the masculine suffixes : -io, -arius, -icus mul-io, mule driver miilus, mule falc-arius, scythe maker falx, scythe vil-icus, steward villa, farm d. Nouns denoting the place where a business is carried on are formed from nouns denoting persons by adding the suffix -ina or -inum. sutr-ina, f., cobbler's shop sutor, cobbler tonstr-ina, f., barber's shop tonsor, barber pis^:-inum, n., gristmill pistor, miller Digitized by Microsoft® NOUNS DERIVED FROM NOUNS 147 e. Nouns denoting rank or office are formed from nouns by means of the masculine suffix -atus. magistr-atus, a civil office magister, officer consul-atus, office of consul consul, consul tribun-atus, office of tribune tribunus, tribune f. Nouns denoting characteristic or condition are formed . from nouns by means of the suffixes : -tia, -tas, -tus, -tium pueri-tia, f., boyhood puer, boy civi-tas, f., citizenship clvis, citizen vir-tus, F., manhood vir, man senec-tiis, f., old age senex, old man servi-tium, n., servitude servus, slave consor-tium, n., comradeship consors, comrade g. Nouns known as patronymics, indicating descent or rela- tionship, are formed from Greek proper names, or names formed in imitation of the Greek, by means of the endings : Masc. -ades, -ides, -ides Fem. -Sis, -ias, -is Anchisi-ades, son of Anchises Ner-eis, daughter of Nereus Tantal-ides, son of Tantalus Thest-iaL8,*da?jghter of Thestius Pel-Ides, son of Peleus Atlant-is, daughter of Atlas 283. Nouns derived from Adjectives. Abstract nouns denot- ing quality or condition are formed from adjectives by means of the feminine suffixes : -ia, -tas, -tia, -ties, -tiido audac-ia, boldness audax, bold boni-tas, goodness bonus, good tristi-tia, sadness tristis, sad segni-ties, slowness segnis, slow magni-tfldo, greatness magnus, great Digitized by Microsoft® 148 NOUNS DERIVED FROM VERBS 284. Nouns derived from Verbs, a. Nouns denoting the agent or doer are formed from verbs by means of the suffixes : Masc. -tor (-sor) Fem. -trlx can-tor, m., can-trix, f., singer vic-tor, m., vic-trix, f., victor ton-sor, M., barber petl-tor, M., candidate canere, sing • vincere, conquer tondere, shear petere, seek i. A few nouns in -tor are formed from nouns. via-tor, traveler iani-tor, doorkeeper via, way ianua, door b. Nouns denoting action or its result are formed from verbs by means of the suffixes : Masc. -or, -tus (-sus) Fem. -es, -io, -monia, -tio (-sio), -tiira ' -ium, -men, -mentum, -monium -us (gen. -eris or -oris) Neut. tim-or, fear am-or, love audi-tus, hearing vi-sus, seeing sen-sus, _, caed-es, slaughter leg-io, a collecting (levy), legion queri-monia, complaint voca-tio, calling divl-sio, division scrip-tura, writing gaud-ium, joy certa-men, contest orna-mentum, ornament testi-monium, testimony genius, birth timere, fear amare, love audire, hear videre, see sentlre, feel caedere, kill legere, collect, querl, complain vocare, call dividere, divide scrlbere, write gaudere, rejoice certare, contend ornare, adorn testari, testify gen-, root of gignere, bear Digitized by Microsoft® ADJECTIVES DERIVED FROM NOUNS 149 C. Nouns denoting means, instrument, or place are formed from verbs by means of the neuter suffixes : -bulum, -culum, -brum, -crum, -trum pa-bulum, fodder pascere, feed sta-bulum, stall stare, stand vehi-culum, wagon vehere, carry delu-brum, shrine deluere, cleanse sepul-crum, tomb sepelire, bury claus-trum (*claud-trum), bar claudere, shut ara-trum, plow arare, plow 1. A few masculines and feminines of the same formation occur. fa-bula, tale fari, speak fa-ber, smith facere, make late-bra, hiding place latere, hide mulc-tra, milk pail mulgere, milk B. Adjectives 285. Adjectives derived from Nouns, a. Adjectives meaning full of are formed from nouns by means of the suffixes : -osus, -lens, -lentus fluctu-osus, billowy fluctus, billow form-osus, beautiful forma, beauty pericul-osus, dangerous periculum, danger pesti-lens, pesti-lentus, pestilent pestis, pest vino-lentus, vin-osus, given to dri?ik vinum, wine b. Adjectives meaning provided with are formed from nouns by means of the suffix -tus. toga-tus, wearing a toga toga, toga barba-tus, bearded barba, beard turri-tus, turreted turris, tower cornu-tus, horned cornu, horn Digitized by Microsoft® ISO ADJECTIVES DERIVED FROM NOUNS c. Adjectives denoting material are formed from nouns by means of the suffixes : -eus, -aceus, -mis, -neus aur-eus, golden aurum, gold ros-aceus, of roses rosa, rose acer-nus, of maple acer, maple ebur-neus, of ivory ebur, ivory d. Adjectives meaning belonging to are formed from nouns by means of the suffixes : -alis, -His, -anus, -enus, -Inus, -nus -aris, -arius, -icus, -icius, -ius, -cus -ester, -ivus, -ensis, -timus i. From common nouns : mort-alis, mortal mors, death vir-ilis, manly vir, man mont-anus, of the mountains mons, mountain terr-enus, earthly terra, earth llbert-inus, of the class offreedmen libertus, one 's freedman frater-nus, fraternal f rater, brother vulg-aris, commonplace vulgus, common people legion-arius, legionary legio, legion bell-icus, of war bellum, war patr-icius, patrician pater, father reg-ius, royal rex, king civi-cus, civic cJvis, citizen silv-ester, woody silva, a wood aest-Ivus, of summer aestas, summer for-ensis, of the forum forum, forum fini-timus, on the borders finis, end, limit 2. From proper nouns : From Names of Towns Rom-anus, Roman Roma, Rome Corinth-ius, Corinthian Corinthus, Corinth Cann-ensis, of Canna? Cannae, Cannes Athgni-ensis, Athenian Athenae, Athens Digitized by Microsoft® ADJECTIVES DERIVED FROM ADJECTIVES 151 From Names of Persons Sull-anus, of Sulla Sulla, Sulla Mari-anus, of Marius Marius, Marius Caesar-ianus, of Ccesar Caesar, Casar Plaut-inus, of Plautus Plautus, Plautus ■ Note i. Observe that -ianus is sometimes used instead of -anus. From Names of Countries Gall-icus, Gallic Gallia, Gaul German-icus, German Germania, Germany Ital-icus, Italiaji Italia, Italy Afr-icus, African Africa, Africa Note 2. From these adjectives are formed adjectives in -anus meaning stationed in or associated with a country, but not native to it. legiones Gallicanae, legions stationed in Gaul (but not made up of Gauls) Scipio Africanus, Scifio Africanus (so called from his victories in Africa) 286. Adjectives derived from Adjectives. These are mostly diminutives' and are formed like diminutive nouns (§ 282. a). parv-ulus, very small parvus, small pauper-culus, rather poor pauper, poor vet-ulus, somewhat old vetus, old 287. Adjectives derived from Verbs. Adjectives are derived from verbs as follows : a. Adjectives with present participial meaning are formed from verbs by means of the suffixes : -bundus, -cundus vita-bundus, avoiding vitare, shun treme-bundus, trembling tremere, "tremble mori-bundus. dying, at the point of death mori, die fa-cundus, eloquent fari, speak ira-cundus, irascible cf. Irasci, be angry Digitized by Microsoft® 152 ADJECTIVES DERIVED FROM VERBS b. Adjectives expressing characteristic or tendency are formed from verbs by means of the suffixes : -ax, -ulus pugn-ax, pugnacious yu%naxe,jight aud-ax, bold audere, dare cred-ulus, credulous credere, believe bib-ulus, fond of drink bibere, drink c. Adjectives expressing a state or settled condition are formed from verbs by means of the suffix -dus. timi-dus, timid timere, fear flori-dus, blooming florere, bloom cupi-dus, desirous cupere, desire avi-dus, greedy avere, long for d. Adjectives expressing capability (generally passive) are' formed from verbs by means of the suffixes : -ilis, -bilis frag-ilis, breakable, frail frangere, break fac-ilis, able to be done, easy facere, do credi-bilis, capable of belief, credible credere, believe ama-bilis, lovable amare, love 288. Adjectives derived from Adverbs. Adjectives are derived from adverbs by means of the suffixes : -ernus, -ternus, -turnus, -tinus hodi-ernus, of to-day hodie, to-day hes-ternus, of yesterday hen, yesterday diu-turnus, lasting diu, long time cras-tinus, of to-morrow eras, to-morrow Digitized by Microsoft® DERIVATION .OF VERBS 153 C. Verbs 289. Verbs derived from Nouns or Adjectives. Verbs were formed in Latin from almost every form of noun stem and adjective stem. Most of these verbs are of the first conjuga- tion ; but the other conjugations are also represented. j'fugo, -axe, put to flight; from fuga, flight ist Conj. J. pio, -are, expiate; from pius, pure [exsulo, -are, be in exile ; from exsul, exile 2D Coni / albe5 > ~* re > De white ; from albus, white \ clareo, -ere, shine ; from clarus, bright id Coni ( meia °, -ere, fear ; from metus, fear l^statuo, -ere, set up; from status, position „ f finio, -ire, bound-; from finis, end 4TH CONJ. < ._,.. ■ , , [ custodio, -ire, guard; from custos, guardian 290. Verbs derived from Verbs. Verbs derived from verbs are of four classes. a. Incepiives or Inchoatives, denoting the beginning of an action, are formed by adding -sco to the present stem. They are of the third conjugation. cale-sco, -ere, grow warm ; from caleo, be warm laba-sco, -ere, begin to totter; from labo, totter Note. In some of these verbs no inceptive meaning is present : as, posco, demand; quiesco, rest; etc. Many are formed by analogy from nouns and adjectives. b. Intensives or Frequentatives, denoting forcible or repeated action, are formed from the participial stem and end in -to (-so), -ito, or -tito. They are of the first conjugation. iac-to, -are, hurl; from iacio, throw quas-so, -are, shatter; from quatio, shake vol-ito, -are, flit ; from volo,^ dic-tito, -are, keep saying ; from dico, say Note i . Intensives from verbs of the first conjugation end in -ito, not -ato : as, rogito, from rogo, -are, ask. Note 2. Verbs of this formation sometimes show no intensive or frequentative meaning : as, canto, sing. Digitized by Microsoft® 154 COMPOUNDS -.-' i . Another form of intensives," of the third conjugation, ends in -esso. cap-esso, -ere, seize eagerly ■ from capio, take fac-esso, -ere, do earnestly ; from facio, do c. Diminutives, denoting feeble action, end in -illo. They are rare and of the first conjugation. cant-illo, -are, chirp ; from canto, sing, sorb-illo, -are, sip ; from sorbeo, drink d. Desideratives, denoting desire, end in -turio or -surio. They are of the fourth conjugation, and only two are in common use : par-turio, -ire, be in labor; from pariS, bear e-surio, -Ire, be hungry ; from edo, eat II. COMPOUNDS „ 291. Compound words usually consist of two parts. The second part gives the essential meaning, and this is changed or modified in some way by the first part. armi-ger, armor-bearer otnni-potens, omnipotent, all-powerful ■ 292. Compounds may be formed in three .ways : a. By the union of two or more words without change of form or meaning. , Examples : pater-familias, father of a family ; senatus-consultum, decree of the senate ; ius-iurandum, oath ; aquae-ductus, aqueduct ; hac-tenus, thus far; quem-ad-modum, in what way; bene-facio, benefit. Note. In this case the words retain their identity and are often written separately. There is no real composition, but merely juxtaposition. These are sometimes called syntactic compounds. b. By prefixing an indeclinable particle, usually a preposition. Examples : per-pauci, very few ; sub-rusticus, rather clownish ; in- imicus, unfriendly; ad-vena, stranger; inter-ficio, kill; e-disco, learn by heart ; amb-io, go about ; se-cerno, separate. Note. In this- case the meaning of the compound is generally unlike that of the component parts used separately. Digitized by Microsoft® COMPOUNDS 155 c. By uniting two or more stems and adding inflectional suffixes, when necessary. Examples : magnanimus (magno- 4- animus), high-minded; agricola (agro- + cola), fanner; carnifex (earn- + fex), executioner; princeps (primo- + ceps), chief. Note. In this case the stem vowel of the first part of the compound is dropped before a vowel and appears as i before consonants. Consonant stems usually add i. 293. Some compounds are derived from phrases so changed as to force them into the inflections of nouns. pro-consul, proconsul (for pro consule, instead of a consul) trium-vir, triumvir (singular, from trium virorum, of three men) Indeclinable Prefixes 294. The indeclinable prefixes used in forming compounds are either separable or inseparable. Separable prefixes may generally be used separately as adverbs or prepositions. In- separable prefixes are never so used. Prepositions in composition sometimes retain their original adverbial sense. a. Separable Prefixes, used also as prepositions or adverbs, are : a, ab, abs, away a-mitto, send away ad, to, towards ad-dBco, lead to ante, .before . . ante-curro, run before circum, around circum-eo, go around com-, con- (cum), "together, forci- ~\ J con-venio, come together bly, completely ) \ con-ficio, do completely, finish {de-spicio, look down upon, despise de-struo, destroy S, ex, out e-icio, throw out . , , . ■ f in-eo, go in in (with verbs), m, on, against | ^^ ^ agaim( inter, between, together ^sometimes \ f inter-ficio, kill causing interruption or ruin) J \inter-rumpo, interrupt Digitized by Microsoft® 156 COMPOUNDS intra, within ob, obs-, towards, to meet, against per, through, thoroughly post, after prae, before praeter, beside, past pro, prod-, forth, before retro, back sub, subs-, under, somewhat super, over, upon supra, over trans, tra-, across intro-mitto, send within op-pugno, fight against per-venio, come through, arrive per-disco, learn thoroughly post-habeo, regard after, esteem less prae-fero, bear before, prefer praeter-eo, go past, pass by fpro-fero, bear forth \prod-eo, go forth retro-cedo, go back f sub-eo, go under \ sub-trlstis, somewhat sad super-flu5, overflow supra-scando, climb over f tran-silio, leap across l^tra-do, betray b. Inseparable Prefixes, used only in composition, are : amb-, am-, about, around dis-, 1 dl-, apart, asunder in-, not, un- (common with adjec- tives and adverbs, and to be distinguished from the prepo- sition in usually compounded with verbs) por-, amb-io (§ 259. c), go about dis-cedo, go away f im-memor, unmindful \in-eptus, clumsy re-, red-, back, again se-, sed-, apart ve-, not, without On the formation of adverbs see § § 2 69 ff . por-tendo, stretch forth Cre-verto, turn back \ red-eo, go back J se-duco, lead apart \ sed-itio, revolt (lit. a going apart) ve-sanus, not sane 1 dis- may have a negative or intensive meaning : as, dis-pliceo, displease \ dis-perdo, ruin utterly. Digitized by Microsoft® PART III. SYNTAX 295. Syntax treats of the construction of sentences. THE SENTENCE 296. A sentence is a group of words expressing a complete thought. Sentences are of four kinds : i. Declarative Sentences make a statement, canis currit, the dog runs 2. Interrogative Sentences ask a question. canisne currit, does the dog run f 3. Exclamatory Sentences have the force of an ex- clamation. quam celeriter currit canis, how fast the dog runs ! 4. Imperative Sentences express a command, exhortation, or entreaty. desilite, commilitones, jump down, comrades eamus, let us go currat canis, let the dog run SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 297. Every sentence consists of a subject and a predicate. The Subject is the person or thing about which something is said. The Predicate is that which is said of the subject. Thus, in equites ad Caesarem venerunt, the cavalry came to Cmsar, equites is the subject, and ad Caesarem venerunt is the predicate. 1 57 Digitized by Microsoft® 158 THE SENTENCE a. The subject may be implied in the personal ending of the verb, and thus a sentence may consist of a single word. sede-mus, we are silting curri-tis, you are running credu-nt, they believe ris-isti, you laughed b. The subject may be some word or group of words used as a noun. haec perficere est facile, to accomplish these things is easy accidit ut plena luna esset, it happened that the moon was full SIMPLE, COMPOUND, AND COMPLEX SENTENCES 298. A Simple Sentence contains but one subject and one predicate. Caesar Gallos vlcit, Ccesar conquered the Gauls 299. A Compound Sentence consists of two or more inde- pendent simple sentences related in thought. Each member of a compound sentence is called a clause, and the clauses are said to be coordinate, that is, " of equal rank," and are often joined by coordinating conjunctions (§ 279. a). Caesar Gallos vlcit et Roman! gaudebant, Gzsar conquered the Gauls and the Romans rejoiced veni, vidi, via, / came, I saw, I conquered. [Observe that this com- pound sentence consists of three independent coordinate clauses, related in thought but not joined by conjunctions.] 300. A Complex Sentence consists of an independent simple sentence, known as the principal or main clause, modified by one or more dependent sentences, known as the subordinate or dependent clauses. Roman! gavisl sunt quod Caesar Gallos vlcerat, the Romans rejoiced because Ctzsar had conquered the Gauls Here the complex sentence consists of the principal or main clause Romani gavisi sunt, and the subordinate or dependent clause quod Caesar Gallos vicerat. Digitized by Microsoft® PHRASES AND SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 159 Note. A complex sentence often contains more than one subordinate clause, and a subordinate clause may itself be modified by other subordinate clauses. Labieno imperavit ut pontem interscinderet et equitatum praemitteret, he commanded Labienus to destroy the bridge and send forward the cavalry. [Two subordinate clauses modifying the principal clause Labieno imperavit.] Labieno imperavit ut interscinderet pontem qui flumen iungeret, he commanded Labienus to destroy the bridge -which spanned the river. [Two subordinate clauses, of which qui . . . iungeret is subordinate to ut . . . pontem, which is itself subordinate to the principal clause Labieno imperavit.] PHRASES AND SUBORDINATE . CLAUSES 301. A Phrase is a group of connected words not containing a subject and a predicate. 302. A phrase is often equivalent to a part of speech, especially to an adjective or an adverb. Thus, in the sentence vir fuit summa nobilitate, he was a man of the highest nobility, the words summa nobilitate, of the highest nobility, are equivalent to the adjective nobilis, noble, (or nobilissimus, very 'noble), and are called an adjective phrase. Again, in the sentence magna edentate venit, he came with great speed, the words magna celeritate, with great speed, are equivalent to the adverb celeriter, quickly (or celerrime, very quickly), and are called an adverbial phrase. 303. A Subordinate Clause always has a finite verb or an infinitive in the predicate, and takes the place of some part of speech in its relation to the principal clause. 304. There are three kinds of subordinate clauses : noun (or substantive) clauses, adjective clauses, and adverbial clauses. a. A noun (or substantive) clause takes the place of a noun. fieri potest ut tu recte senffis, it is possible that you think rightly. [Here ut tu recte sentiaa is a noun clause, the subject of potest.] Digitized by Microsoft® 160 PREDICATE NOUNS b. An adjective clause defines or modifies some noun or pronoun and is introduced by a relative pronoun or adverb. Considius, qui rei mititaris peritissimus habebatur, cum exploratoribus praemittitur, Considius, who- was considered very skilful in warfare, is sent in advance with scouts. [Here the clause qui . . . habebatur is equivalent to an adjective modifying Considius.] agri ubi hodie est haec urbs, the fields where to-day this city stands c. An adverbial clause expresses some adverbial relation, such as purpose, result, time, or cause. veniunt ut pacetn petant, they come to seek peace. [The adverbial clause ut . . . petant expresses purpose.] Note. A subordinate clause is incapable, by itself, of expressing a complete meaning. SYNTAX OF NOUNS PREDICATE NOUNS 305. A predicate noun is a noun in the predicate describing or defining the subject. It is connected with the subject by a form of sum or by an intransitive or passive verb. a. The verb sum thus used as a connective is called the copula. When an intransitive or passive verb is used in the same way, it is called a copulative verb. Caesar erat consul, Ccesar was consul ego patronus exstiti, I have come forward as an advocate Caesar consul credtus est, Ca>sar was elected consul 306. A predicate noun agrees in case with the subject. Ariovistus erat rex, Ariovistus was king Cicero orator clarissimus habitus est, Cicero was regarded as a most distinguished orator somnus est imago mortis, sleep is the image of death Digitized by Microsoft® APPOSITIVES 161 307. A predicate noun referring to two or more singular nouns is in the plural. Claudius et Servilius consults fact! sunt, Claudius and Servilius were elected consuls 308. When a predicate noun has different forms for different genders, it agrees with the subject in gender as well as in case. usus magister est, experience is an instructor historia est magistra, history is an instructress 309. In addition to sum the verbs most commonly used to connect a predicate noun with the subject are : a. Intransitive verbs of becoming, appearing, remaining, etc. : as, evado, appareo, maneo. b. The passive of verbs of making, calling, choosing, regarding, etc. : as, creor, appellor, deligor, habeor, iudicor. homo magnus eviiserat, he had become a great man pater a senate populi Roman! amicus appellatus erat, his father had been called friend by the senate of the Roman people duces ii deliguntur, those (men) are chosen as leaders 310. Sum in the sense of exist is not a copula, but makes a com- plete predicate without a predicate noun or adjective. It is then called the substantive verb. sunt virl fortes, there are (exist) brave men est classis in portu, there is a fleet in the harbor APPOSITIVES 311. A noun used to describe another, and standing in the same part of the sentence with the noun described, is called an appositive, and is said to be in apposition. Cassius consul occisus est, Cassius, the consul, was killed persuadent Hauracis finitimis, they persuade the Rauraci, their neighbors Digitized by Microsoft® 162 APPOSITIVES 312. An appositive agrees in case with the noun which it describes. oppidum Remorum nomine Bibrax aberat milia passuum octo, a town of the Remi, Bibrax by. name, was eight miles away. [Here the appositive belongs to the subject.^ Caesar T. Labienum legatum mlsit, Ccesar sent Titus Labienus, the lieutenant. [Here both nouns are in the predicate. ~\ a. An appositive generally agrees with its noun in gender and number when it can. sequuntur naturam optimam ducem, they follow nature, the best guide. [Observe that ducem is here feminine .] omnium doctrlnarum inventrices Athenae, Athens, the discoverer of all learning. [Observe that inventrices is plural and feminine.] b. Words expressing parts may be in apposition with a noun denoting the whole. This is called partitive apposition, and is espe- cially common with quisque, uterque, alius . . . alius, and alter . . . alter. Hannibal transf ugas in suam quemque clvitatem dimisit, Hannibal sent the deserters each to his own state duo consules eius anni alter ferro, alter morbo periit, the two consuls of that year perished, the one by the sword, the other by disease Note. For the explanatory genitive used instead of an appositive see §335- 313. Urbs or oppidum in apposition with the locative case (§ 74. a) of the name of a town is put in the ablative, with or without the preposition in. Antiochiae, celebri quondam urbe, at Antioch, once a famous city Albae constiterunt, in urbe munita, they halted at Alba, a fortified town 314. A clause or an infinitive may be used as an appositive. illud etiam restiterat, ut te in ius educerent, this too remained — that they should drag you into court stultitia haec sit, me tibi meam operant pollicitari, this would be folly, for we to offer you my assistance Digitized by Microsoft® NOMINATIVE CASE 163 315. An appositive is frequently equivalent to a relative clause, or to a clause of time or cause. Especially common in this construction are official titles and words like adulescens, puer, senex, etc., express- ing time of life. f who ] Cicero consul Catillnam ex urbe eiecit, Cicero, -j since he > was consul, y when he J expelled Catiline from the city Cato senex historiam scrlbere instituit, Cato began to write history when he was an old man THE NOMINATIVE CASE 316. The subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case. The finite verb includes all forms of the indicative, sub- junctive, and imperative. Caesar Rhenum transire decreverat, Ccesar had determined to cross the Rhine a. The subject is usually a noun or a pronoun, but it may be a clause or an infinitive. accidit ut esset luna plena, it happened that it -was full moon. [The subject is the clause ut esset etc.] dolere malum est, to suffer pain is an evil. [The subject is the infinitive dolere.] 317. Impersonal verbs and the passive of many intransitive verbs may be used without any subject expressed. pluit, it rains sic itur ad astra, thus men rise to the stars (itur, lit. there is going) acriter pugnatum est, there was sharp fighting (lit. it was fought sharply) 318. A personal pronoun, unless it is emphatic, is regularly omitted as subject, being implied in the personal ending of the verb. significamus quid sentiamus, we show what we think Digitized by Microsoft® 1 64 VOCATIVE CASE 319. The nominative may be used in exclamations, but the accusa- tive is more common (cf. § 436). en dextra fidesque, lo, the faith and plighted word ! Note. For the nominative used instead of the vocative see § 322. 320. The nominative is used as the subject of the histori- cal infinitive (§ 844). Caesar Haeduos frumentum flagitare, Ccesar demanded grain from the Hozdui THE VOCATIVE CASE 321. The vocative is the case of direct address. desilite, commilitones, leap down, comrades egredere ex urbe, CatiUna, depart from the city, Catiline 322. The nominative is sometimes used instead of the vocative, audi tu, populus Albanus, hear thou, people of Alba 323. In poetry the nominative of an adjective is sometimes used with a vocative. nate, mea magna potentia solus, my son, thou alone my great power proice tela, sanguis mens, cast away thy weapons, son of mine THE GENITIVE CASE 324. The genitive is used with nouns, adjectives, verbs, and rarely with adverbs. 1 1 The genitive case was used with nouns, adjectives, and verbs from the ( earliest period of the language to express a great variety of ideas. With nouns and adjectives it served to define or complete the meaning in any way suggested by the context, and it is this adnominal use that distinguishes the genitive from the other case.s. Its use with verbs is still more difficult of exact definition. There being, then, no single fundamental value attached to the genitive, it follows that its constructions are extremely hard to classify. The categories given below include most of its recognized uses, and serve as a grammatical convenience) but many expressions remain which do not logi- cally belong under any recognized category. Digitized by Microsoft® GENITIVE CASE 165 325. The relation of the genitive to the word that it limits is generally expressed in English by the preposition of or by the pos- sessive case ; but other translations must often be used. librl Ciceronis, the books of Cicero or Cicero's books talentum auri, a talent of gold vir summae virtutis, a man of the greatest courage vacatio laboris, a respite from toil petitio consulates, candidacy for the consulship regnum civitatis, sovereignty over the state peritus ret nulitaris, skilful in warfare Insuetus laboris, unused to toil capitis damnatus, condemned- on a capital charge caritas tut, affection for you 326. Most of the uses of the genitive may be classified as either subjective or objective. I. The Subjective Genitive is generally used with nouns, and denotes the subject of the action or feeling expressed by the modified word, or the author, cause, or possessor of something. amor patris, the father's love orationes Ciceronis, Cicero's orations iter exercitus, the army's march domus Caesaris, Ccesar's house II. The Objective Genitive is used with certain kinds of nouns, adjectives, and verbs, and denotes the object toward which the action or feeling expressed by the modified word is directed. amor patriae, love of country fames auri, greed for gold metus deorum, the fear of the gods avidus laudis, desirous of praise dux memor vestri, a leader mindful of you vivorum memini, / remember the living Note. When a genitive modifies a noun denoting action or feeling, the context will generally show whether the genitive is subjective or objec- tive. For example, if amor patris, love of a father, means that the father loves, the genitive is subjective; on the other hand, if the meaning in- tended is that the father' is the object of some one's love, the genitive is objective. Digitized by Microsoft® 1 66 POSSESSIVE GENITIVE I. The Subjective Genitive 327. The subjective genitive includes the following con- structions : i. Possessive genitive (§ 328). 2. Explanatory genitive (§ 335). 3. Genitive of the charge (§ 336). 4. Genitive of description (§ 338). 5. Genitive of measure (§ 340). 6. Genitive of indefinite value (§ 341). 7. Genitive of the whole, or partitive genitive (§ 342). 8. Genitive of material (§ 348). 9. Genitive with verbs and adjectives of plenty or want (§ 349)- 10. Genitive with adjectives denoting similarity or connection and their opposites (§ 351). 11. Genitive with refert and interest (§ 3S 2 )- 328. Possessive Genitive. The possessive genitive denotes the person or thing to which something belongs or is in some way related. libri Ciceronis, Cicero's books ' Ariovisti exercitus, the army of Ariovistus Alexandri equus, Alexander's horse pericula proeli, the dangers of the battle Note. Here belongs the genitive of the person acting or feeling. itinera Caesaris, Casar's marches timor consults, the consul' 's fear 329. A possessive adjective is regularly used instead of the pos- sessive genitive of a personal or reflexive pronoun and may be used for the possessive genitive of a noun. liber meus, my book ; not liber mei filius suits, his son ; not filius 'jui municeps Amennus, a citizen of the free town Ameria Digitized by Microsoft® POSSESSIVE GENITIVE 167 330. The possessive genitive often stands in the predicate, espe- cially after the verb sum. In this construction the genitive may express ownership or various kindred ideas : as, the part of, duty of, characteristic of. haec domus est patrfs mei, this house is my father's summa laus Bruti est, the highest praise belongs to Brutus timidi est optare necem, it is the coward's part to wish for death sapientis est pauca loqui, it is characteristic of a wise man to say little 331. The genitive with causa, gratia, 1 and instar is possessive in character. patriae causa, for the sake of the fatherland amici gratia, for the sake of my friend equus instar montis, a horse as big as a mountain (lit. a horse the likeness of a mountain) Note. With causa and gratia, for the sake of the genitive always precedes. 332. Here belong the genitives expressing the relation con- nected with. difflcultates belli gerendi, the difficulties of^i.e. connected with) waging the war 333. The noun on which the genitive depends is sometimes omitted when it may be readily supplied. Flaccus Claudi, Flaccus (the slave) of Claudius Hectoris Andromache, Andromache (the wife) of Hector ventum est ad Vestae, we came to Vesta's (temple) Note. Observe the similar English usage in such expressions as St. fohn's (church), St. Paul's (school), Wanamaker' s (store). 334. The English use of that in such sentences as " the fleet of the Britons is larger than that of the Gauls " has no parallel in 1 That the genitive preceding causa and gratia is subjective and possessive is made clear by observing that patriae causa is equivalent in meaning to the English "in our country's cause," and amid gratia to- "because of the favor which my friend inspires." Digitized by Microsoft® 1 68 GENITIVE OF DESCRIPTION Latin. In Latin the noun is repeated, or else it is dropped, leaving the genitive without a governing word. classis Britannorum maior est quam classis Gallorum or classis Bri- tannorum maior est quam Gallorum, the fleet of the Britons is larger than that of the Gauls 335. Explanatory Genitive. The genitive is sometimes used instead of an appositive (§ 311), to explain or define the meaning of a noun. oppidum Gendvae, the town of Geneva (for oppidum Genava) vox voluptatis, the word {of ) pleasure (for vox voluptas) 336. Genitive of the Charge. Verbs of accusing, condemn- ing, and acquitting take the genitive of the charge. 1 arguit mefurti, he accuses me of theft pecuniae piiblicae damnatus est, he was condemned for embezzlement improbitatis absolutus est, he was acquitted of dishonesty a. The ablative with de is often used instead of the genitive. de ambitu condemnatus est, he was- condemned for bribery 337. The penalty is regularly expressed by the ablative (§ 473), though the genitives capitis, pecuniae, and a few others occur. tertia parte agri damnati sunt, they were condemned (to pay) a third part of their land capitis damnatus, condemned to death pecuniae damnatus, condemned (to pay) money long! laboris damnatus, co?idemned to long labor 338. Genitive of Description. The genitive of a noun with ah adjective in agreement is often used to describe a person or thing. vir magnae sapientiae, a ma?i of great wisdom eius modi naves, ships of that sort huius generis domus, a house of this kind puer egregiae indolis, a boy of remarkable ability 1 This genitive is often explained as depending on crimine (charge), or a similar word, understood. Sometimes crimine is expressed, but not in early Latin, a facf which renders this explanation doubtful. Digitized by Microsoft® GENITIVE OF THE WHOLE 169 a. The genitive of description frequently stands in the predicate. tantae molts erat Romanam condere gentem, (of) such a task it was to found the Roman nation Note. The ablative is used to describe a quality more frequently than the genitive (see § 466). In general the genitive is used rather of permanent and essential, the ablative of incidental and external, characteristics. 339. Included under the genitive of description are the .genitive of measure and the genitive of indefinite value. 340. Genitive of Measure. The genitive with a numeral is used to define measures of length, depth, etc. fossa trium pedum, a trench of three feet (in depth) puer decern annorum, a boy of ten years iter urdus diet, a march of one day 341. Genitive of Indefinite Value. The genitive of a few nouns and adjectives denotes indefinite value. non floccT facio, / don't care a straw istoc nihil! pendo, / care nothing for it tanti Gracchum ffecit, he valued Gracchus so highly auctoritas eius in his regionibus magni habebatur, his influence in these districts was considered of great weight Note. Among such genitives are the nouns flocci, a straw (lit. a bit of wool); nauci, a nutshell; nihill, nothing; and the adjectives magni, pluris, plurimi, parvi, minoris, minimi, tanti, and quanti. a. The genitives tanti, quanti, pluris, and minoris are used with verbs of buying and selling to denote i7idefinite price. quanti emptum est, at what price was it bought? Note. Definite price is expressed by the ablative. See § 470. 342. Genitive of the Whole (Partitive Genitive). The geni- tive is used to denote the whole of which a part is taken. Digitized by Microsoft® 170 GENITIVE OF THE WHOLE This is often called the partitive genitive. The word denoting the part may be a noun, pronoun, adjective used substantively, or an adverb. magna pars navium, a great part of the ships nemo eorum, not one of them decern milia passuum, ten thousand paces (lit. ten thousands of paces') quis mortalium, who of mortals ? aliquid bora, something good (of good) quis vestrum, who of you ? quid novi, what news (of new) ? omnium oratorum praestantissimus, the most distinguished of all orators multl avium, many of the citizens minor fratrum, the younger of the brothers multum pecuniae, much money eo miseriarum, to that (pitch) of misery Note. The partitive genitive is not used with words modified by prepositions nor with cases other than the nominative and accusative. ad tantum studium, to such zeal ; not ad tantum studi nimia voluptate, with excessive pleasure; not nimia voluptatis 343. Certain adverbs are used with the genitive of the whole like substantives. These are especially nimis, too much ; parum, too little ; satis, enough ; and adverbs of place. nimis lucis, too much light (of light) parum sapientiae, too little wisdom (of wisdom) satis pecuniae, enough money (of money) ubinam gentium sumus, where in the world (where of nations) are we t nusquam gentium, nowhere on earth (of nations) Note. An extension of this usage, with complete loss of the partitive idea, is seen in the expressions pridie eius diet, on the day before that day ; and postridie eius diet, on the day after that day. 344. The ablative with e, ex, or de is often used instead of the genitive of the whole, regularly with cardinal numerals (except milia) and tisually with quidam. unus ex tribunis, one of the tribunes quidam ex militibus, certain of the soldiers Digitized by Microsoft® GENITIVE OF PLENTY OR WANT 171 345. Words including the whole are not used with the partitive genitive, but with a case in agreement. tota urbs, the whole of the city nos omnes, all of us (we all) ; not omnes nostrum quot sunt hostes, how many of the enemy are there? Note. The explanation of this is obvious from § 342. If the whole is taken, no partitive idea is logical. 346. The English idiom uses of in certain common phrases (like the middle of the top of, the end of etc.) in which the Latin has an adjective in agreement. media urbs, the middle of the city summus mons, the top of the mountain extrema aestas, the end of the su?nmer 347. Adjectives of the third declension are rarely found in the partitive genitive, but agree directly with the nouns they modify. nihil grave, nothing serious ; not nihil gravis quid utile, what advantage ; not quid fitilis 348. Genitive of Material. The genitive may denote the material of which a thing consists or is made. talentum auri, a talent of gold flumina lactis, rivers of milk navis aeris, a ship of bronze Note. The genitive of material is an extension of the genitive of the whole. a. Material is often expressed by the ablative with ex. See § 452. 349. Genitive of Plenty or Want. Adjectives and verbs of plenty or want sometimes govern the genitive. plenus fidei, full of loyalty virtutis expers, devoid of virtue convlvium vicinorum compleo, I fill up the banquet with ?ny neighbors implentur veteris Bacchl, they take their, fill of old wine auxilx tui indigeo, / have need of your aid Note. This construction is an extension of the genitive of the whole. Digitized by Microsoft® 172 GENITIVE WITH REPERT AND INTEREST 350. Plenty or want is more usually denoted by the ablative (see § 469. d). Words preferring the genitive are the adjectives expers, inops, egenus, and plenus, and the verb indigeo. 351. Genitive with Adjectives of Similarity or Connection. Certain adjectives denoting similarity or connection and their opposites may take the genitive. Among these are similis, dissimilis, par, dispar, contrarius, adfinis, proprius, communis. Crassus Cyri et Alexandn similis esse voluit, Crassus wished to be like Cyrus and Alexander id vitium n5n proprium senectutis est, that fault is not characteristic of old age haec quaesti5 communis est omnium philosophorum, this question is common to all philosophers Note. These adjectives are often found with other constructions, espe- cially with the dative (cf. § 397); but the genitive is more usual with pro- prius. In early Latin similis was construed with the genitive only, but later the dative became more and more frequent and in post-Augustan Latin displaced the genitive almost entirely. 352. Genitive with refert and interest. With the impersonal verbs refert and interest the person or thing interested is denoted by the genitive. 1 But instead of the genitive of the personal pronouns (mei, tui, sui, etc.), the ablative singular feminine of the correspond- ing possessive (mea, tua, sua, etc.) is used. 2 Caesaris interest, it is to Gzsar's interest interest regis tuerl subditos, it is of interest to a king to protect his subjects mea refert, it is to my interest, it matters to me nostra interest, it is to our interest, it matters to us 1 In early Latin refert is more frequent than interest, but is rare at all periods with the genitive of the person. 2 No wjholly satisfactory solution of the origin of this construction has been found. Digitized by Microsoft® OBJECTIVE GENITIVE 173 a. The subject of the interest is denoted by a neuter pronoun, an infinitive, or a substantive clause. hoc Caesaris interest, this is to Ccesafs itttej-est vincere Gallos Caesaris interest, to conquer the Gauls is to Cczsar's interest rei publicae interest ut Caesar salmis sit, Gzsar's safety is to the interest of the state b. The degree of the interest is denoted by a genitive of indefinite value, by an adverb, or by the neuter accusative of an adjective used adverbially. magm\ (greatly ] maxime f Caesaris interest, it is A exceedingly >to Ccesar's interest multum J [ much J c. The object to be gained by securing the subject of the interest is expressed by the accusative with ad. ad gloriam vincere Gallos Caesaris interest, to conquer the Gauls is of interest to Ccesarfor (the sake of his) fame fortiter pugnare mea et omnium clvium ad salutem patriae magnl refert, to fight bravely is of great importance to me and to all citizens for the safety of our country Note. Very rarely the person interested is expressed by ad and the accusative, or (with refert) by the dative. quid id ad me refert, what difference does that make to me ? quid referat intra naturae finis vwenti, what difference does it make to, one living within the bounds of nature? II. The Objective Genitive 353. The objective genitive includes the following con- structions : 1 . The genitive with nouns expressing action or feeling (§354). 2. The genitive of application (§.356). 3. The genitive with adjectives expressing action or feeling (§ 357)- 4. The genitive with certain verbs (§ 358). Digitized by Microsoft® 174 GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES 354. Genitive with Nouns expressing Action or Feeling. The objective genitive is used to denote the object of an action or feeling expressed by a noun. caritas tut, affection for you memoria nostrT, recollection of me contentiS honorum, struggle for office deslderium otl, longing for rest amor patriae, love of country metus hostium, fear of the enemy (i. e. fear of which the enemy is the object; cf. § 328. N.) 355. Instead of the objective genitive a possessive pronoun, a descriptive adjective, or a noun with a preposition, is sometimes used. mea invidia, my unpopularity (i.e. the unpopularity of which I am the object), instead of invidia mel neque neglegentia tua neque id odio fecit tuo, he did this neither from neglect of you nor from hatred toward you metus hosfitis, fear of the enemy (hostile fear), instead of metus hostium odium in Antonium, hate of Antony, instead of odium Antonl amor erga te, love for you, instead of amor tul 356. Genitive of Application. The objective genitive may be used to denote that to which the quality expressed by a noun or adjective applies. praestantia virtutis, preeminence in virtue pauper aquae, poor in water integer vitae scelerisque purus, upright in life and free from guilt fessi rerum, weary of hardships Note. This construction is freely used by the poets and later writers, but is rare in Ciceronian prose. 357. Genitive with Adjectives expressing Action or Feeling. The objective genitive is used to denote the object of an action or feeling expressed by an adjective whose meaning would otherwise be incomplete. Digitized by Microsoft® GENITIVE WITH VERBS 17$ Such adjectives are especially those denoting desire, knowledge, skill, memory, power, participation, and their opposites ; also parti- cipial adjectives in -ns and certain verbals in -ax. cupidus rerum novarum, desirous of a revolution insuetus navigandi, unacquainted with navigation peritus belli, skilled in war immemor benefici, forgetful of a favor potens tempeslatum, powerful over the storms coniurationis participes, sharing in the conspiracy patiens frtgoris, enduring of cold tenax propositi, steadfast of purpose Note i . With verbals in -ax the genitive is found only in poetry and in late prose. Note 2. The poets and later writers, especially Tacitus, use the genitive with almost any adjective to denote that with reference to which the quality exists. The construction demanded in classic prose would be the ablative of respect (§ 478), hence this genitive is sometimes called the genitive of respect. callidus rei militaris (Tacitus), skilled in the science of war notus animi paterni (Horace), famed for a paternal spirit 358. Genitive with Verbs. Verbs of remembering and for- getting — memini, reminiscor, obllviscor — may take the objective genitive. 1 a. When the object is a person, memini takes either the genitive or the accusative, obllviscor only the genitive in prose, but the accusative occurs occasionally in poetry. ipse suT meminerat, he was mindful of himself vivorum memini nee Epicuri licet oblivisci, / remember the living and T must not forget Epicurus Cinnam memini, / remember Cinna obliviscere Graios (Vergil), forget the Greeks 1 Tile, genitive with verbs of remembering arid forgetting may be due to the close relationship between these verbs and the adjectives memor, mindful of, and immemor, unmindful of, which take the genitive. However, in the earliest Latin the genitive is much less frequent than the accusative. There is apparently no essential difference in meaning between the genitive and accusative with these verbs.- Digitized by Microsoft® 176 GENITIVE WITH VERBS b. When the object is a thing, memini, reminiscor, and oblivlscor take either the genitive or the accusative of a noun and generally only the accusative of a neuter pronoun or adjective. reminiscatur virtutis Helvetiorum, let him remember the valor of the Helvetians totam cansam oblitus est, he. forgot the whole case obllviscere caedis atque incendiorum; forget murder and conflagrations multa meminerunt, they remember 7nany things 359. The verb recordor, recollect, recall, regularly takes -the accu- sative. recordamini omnis clvills dissensiones, recall all the civil wars 360. The expression mihi (tibi, etc.) in mentem venit, when im- personal, takes the genitive. venit mihi Platonis in mentem, the thought of Plato comes to my mind 361. Verbs of reminding — admoneo, commoneo, commonefacio — often take, along with the accusative of the person reminded, the genitive of the thing called to mind. te amicitiae commonefacit, he reminds you of friendship Note. But a neuter pronoun or adjective is put in the accusative. illud me admones, you remind me of that 362. Verbs of reminding frequently take de with the ablative. de proelio vos admonui, I have reminded you of the battle 363. Impersonal verbs of feeling- — miseret, paenitet, piget, pudet, taedet — take, with the accusative of the person feeling, the genitive of that toward which the feeling is directed. me miseret tuf, I pity you (lit. it pities me of you) .me non solum piget stultitiae meae sed etiam pudet, I am not only grieved at my folly but also ashamed of it vitag me taedet, / am weary of life Digitized by Microsoft® DATIVE CASE 177 364. With verbs of feeling, an infinitive, a clause, or a neuter pronoun used as subject, often takes the place of the genitive. non me paenitet vixisse, I do not regret that I have lived me quia tuas litteras non accept piget, / am sorry that I have not received your letter non te haec pudent, do not these things shame you ? Note i. Observe that in the last example the verb is no- longer im- personal. The personal construction is not uncommon with pudet, and is f,ound occasionally with paenitet and piget. Note 2. With pudet the genitive may be used of the person before whom one is ashamed. pudet me horum iudicum, I am ashamed before these judges 365. Misereor and miserescS, pity, take the genitive. eorum miseremur, we pity them 366. Potior, have power over, get possession of, usually takes the ablative (cf. § 469. a. n. i), but occasionally the genitive ; as always in the phrase potiri rgrum, to become master of affairs (in a political or military sense). THE DATIVE CASE 367. The dative case originally denoted the direction of motion. This relationship is generally expressed in English by the prepositions to and for. Note. Direction of motion must be carefully distinguished from the goal or limit of motion, the original force of the accusative. See § 402. 368. The dative is used with verbs and adjectives, less frequently with nouns and adverbs, and sometimes modifies the sentence as a whole. 369. The constructions of the dative may be divided into two classes, according as the original meaning of the case has been retained or has been changed and obscured by later developments, Digitized by Microsoft® i;8 DATIVE OF THE INDIRECT OBJECT I. Original uses of the dative r i- II. Derived and special uses of. the dative Dative of the indirect object with transitive verbs (§ 371) Dative of the indirect object with intransitive verbs (§ 376) Dative of the indirect object with verbs compounded with prepositions (§ 382) a. Dative of the person judging (§387) b. Ethical dative (§ 388) __ c. Dative of separation (§ 389) Dative of possession (§ 390) Dative of apparent agent (§ 392) Dative of purpose (§ 395) Dative of reference (§ 385) 5. Dative with adjectives (§ 397) Indirect Object Defined 370. The object toward which an action or feeling is di- rected is put in the dative. This is called the indirect object. 1 Note. This construction occurs in English (" he gave me a book "), but has been to some extent displaced by to with an object (" he gave the book to me "). Indirect Object with Transitive Verbs 371. The dative of the indirect object, with the accusative of the direct object, may be used with any active transitive verb whose meaning allows. Such verbs are especially those meaning give, say, promise, reply, do, and the like. a filiam suam in matrimonium dat, he gives to him his daughter in marriage hoc tibi dico, / say this to you as auxilium suum pollicitus est, he promised tliem his assistance haec memoriae mandavl, / committed this to memory 1 In this use the dative has retained unchanged its original idea of direction of motion, though in Latin the motion is generally to be understood in a figurative rather than in a literal sense. Digitized by Microsoft® DATIVE OF THE INDIRECT OBJECT 179 372. Verbs which, in the active voice, take the accusative and dative retain the dative when used in the passive. Thus, puella patri fabulam narrat, the girl tells the story to her father, becomes in the passive fabula patri a puella narratur, the story is told to the father by the girl. Observe the same dative, patri, in both sentences. 373. Verbs of motion, like mitto and fero, which regularly take the accusative with a preposition, sometimes take the dative when no real motion is involved or when the idea of giving or delivering something to somebody is uppermost. Similarly the verb scribo, write, varies in construction between the dative and the accusative with a preposition. suppetias mi audet f erre, he dares to bring me aid iussit Euclioni haec mittere, he gave orders to send these things to Euclio litteras quas ad Pompeium scrips!, the letter which I wrote (and sent) to Pompey non quo haberem quod tibi scribereni, not that I had anything to write to you Note. This use of the dative is found in prose only with nouns de- noting persons. With concrete objects the accusative with a preposition is almost invariable. 374. The verbs dono, give; circumdo, surround; exuo, strip off; and a few others, admit either of two constructions : (a) dative of the person, accusative of the thing ; or (b) accusative of the person, ablative of the thing. militibus coronas donat, he presents wreaths to the soldiers mtlites coronis donat, he presents his soldiers with wreaths 375. In poetry the dative sometimes retains its original meaning of direction of motion in a literal sense. it clamor caelo (Vergil), the shout rises heavenward Digitized by Microsoft® 180 DATIVE WITH INTRANSITIVE VERBS Indirect Object with Intransitive Verbs 376. The dative may be used with any intransitive 1 verb whose meaning allows an indirect object. Among these are especially the following : auxilior, opitulor, help Irascor, suscenseo, be angry credo, believe minitor, threaten diffido, distrust noceo, injure displiceo, displease pareo, tempers, spare faveo, studied, favor pareS, cedo, obtemperS, obey, fido, cSnfidS, trust yield to, submit to ignbscS, pardon placeS, please impero, connnand resists, resist indulged, indulge servio, serve invideo, envy suadeo, persuaded, persuade cur mihi invides, why do you envy me ? mihi parcit atque ignSscit, he spares and pardons me legibus pareo, / obey the laws non omnibus servio, / am not a servant to every man prima acies victis resistit, the first line resists the vanquished Orgetorix persuadet Castico, Otgetorix persuades Casticus decimae legioru Caesar indulserat praecipue et conf idebat maxime, Casar had especially indulged the tenth legion and. trusted it most of all Note i. In English most of these verbs are transitive and take a direct object, but in Latin the original meaning is intransitive and adapted to an indirect object. Thus, invidere, to envy, is literally to look askance at ; servire, to serve, is to be a slave to ; persuadere, to persuade, is to make a thing pleasant to, etc. Note 2. Fido and confido (trust) take also the ablative. multum nature! loci conf idebant, they had great confidence in the natural strength of the place a. Some verbs apparently of the same meanings are transitive and take the accusative. Such are iuvo, help ; laedo, injure ; iubeo, order ; delecto, please ; offendo, offend. 1 A v«rb is called intransitive if it does not admit of a direct object Digitized by Microsoft® DATIVE WITH INTRANSITIVE VERBS 181 377. Phrases take the dative precisely like verbs of similar character. Such are audiens esse or dicto audiens esse, to be obedient to ; and fidem habere, to haiie confidence in. Caesar a fidem habebat, Casar had confidence in him 378. The dative is used with the impersonals libet or lubet, it pleases, and licet, it is permitted ■ and with the verbs dico and facio compounded with satis, bene, and male. petierunt ut sibi legatos mittere liceret, they asked that it be permitted them to send ambassadors pulchrum est benefacere ret publicae, it is a glorious thing to be of service to the state 379. Intransitive verbs that govern the dative are used impersonally in the passive and retain the dative. For example, the active mihi persuadeo, I persuade myself, becomes in the passive mihi persuadetur, 1 am persuaded '(lit. it is persuaded to me). 380. Some verbs, ordinarily intransitive and used with the dative, become transitive in certain senses and add an accu- sative of the direct object to the dative. These are especially the verbs credo, trust ; impero, levy ; minor, threaten ; persuadeo, persuade. multl se suaque omnia alienissimis crediderunt, many intrusted them- selves and all their possessions to utter strangers Cretensibus obsides imperavit, he levied hostages on the Cretans id eis persuasit, he persuaded them (of) this Ascanione pater Romanas invidet arces (Vergil), does the father be- grudge Ascanius his Roman citadels? [Poetic or late.] 381. In poetry the dative is sometimes used in expressions which would in prose require a different construction. So especially with verbs of contending, following the analogy of the Greek. placitone etiam pugnabis amort (Vergil), will you struggle even against a love that pleases you f [In prose: cum amore.] tibi certat (Vergil), he vies with you. [In prose: tecum.] later! abdidit ensem (Vergil), he buried the sword in his side. [In prose : in latus or in latere.] * Digitized by Microsoft® 1 82 DATIVE WITH INTRANSITIVE VERJ3S Indirect Object with Verbs Compounded with Prepositions 382. Many verbs compounded with the prepositions ad, ante, circum, con-, de, in, inter, ob, post, prae, sub, and super admit, as the result of the composition, the dative of the indirect object. These verbs are of three classes : i. Intransitive verbs which in their simple form cannot take an indirect object. equitatul Dumnorix praeerat, Dumnorix was in command oj 'the cavalry omnibus rebus amorem credo antevenlre, I believe that love comes before all things defuit officio, he has failed in his duty 2. Transitive verbs that through composition become intran- sitive and therefore take the dative instead of the accusative. omnibus adridet, he smiles upon all. [Rideo, latigh at, ridicule, takes the accusative.] tempestati obsequt artis est, it is a point of skill to yield to the weather. [Sequor, follow, takes the accusative.] 3. Transitive verbs that through composition become capable of governing a dative of the indirect object in addition to an accusative of the direct object. finitimis bellum inferebant, they made war upon their neighbors is sibi legationem ad civitatis suscepit, he took upon himself the embassy to the states munitioni Labienum praeficit, he puts Labienus in command of the fortification a. Many transitive and intransitive verbs compounded with these prepositions do not take the dative because the acquired meaning is not suited to an indirect object. Thus the following compounds take the accusative : adeo, approach convoco, call together offendo, offend adgredior, attack ineo, enter oppugno, assault circumsto, surround interficio, kill praecedo, excel convenio,^^/ obeo, visit, attend to subeo, undergo Digitized by Microsoft® DATIVE OF REFERENCE 183 b. In expressions of locality or motion the usual construction after these compounds is a noun with a preposition. hostes ad fossam accesserunt, the enemy drew near to the ditch (but sententiae tuae accedo, I yield to your opinion) in segetem flamma incidit, the fire falls on the standing grain ■' 383. A few verbal nouns (as, insidiae, ambush ; obtemperatio, obedience} may take the dative like the corresponding verbs. • insidiae consult, the plot against the consul (cf . insidior) ' obtemperatio legibus, obedience to the laws (cf. obtempero) x_JJS4.-The adjective obvius and the adverb obviam with a verb take the dative. cui mater sese tulit obvia, his mother met him Vercingetorix obviam Caesari proficiscitur, Vercingetorix sets out to meet Casar Dative of Reference 385. The dative of reference denotes the person for whose benefit or to whose injury the action is performed, or whom it remotely concerns. In this use the dative does not depend upon a single word, but is loosely connected with the sentence as a whole and is not essential to its grammatical completeness. It is often used where we should expect a possessive genitive or a possessive pronoun, especially with substantives denoting parts of the body. Bellovaci totius belli imperium sibi postulant, the Bellovaci demand for themselves the supreme control of the entire war sese CaesanaA pedes proiecer unt, they threw themselves at Caesar's feet versatur mihi ante oculos aspectus Cethegi, the sight of Cethegus comes before my eyes taurum Neptuno mactavit, he sacrificed a bull to Neptune omnes in fuga sibi praesidium ponebant, all sought safety for them- selves inflight homo non sibi soli vivit, man does not live for himself alone Digitized by Microsoft® 1 84 DATIVE OF REFERENCE laudavit mihi fratrem, he praised my brother (out of regard for me ; laudavit fratrem meum would not imply any such motive) quid tibivis, what do you mean f (lit. what do you wish for yourself f) Caesar suis quoque rebus Germanos timere voluit, Coesar wished the Germans to fear for their own interests also 386. The dative of reference is used idiomatically without any verb in certain colloquial questions and exclamations and after interjections. quo mihi fortunam, of what use to me is fortune ? unde mihi lapidem, where can I get a stone ? ei mihi, ah me t vae victis, woe to the conquered ! 387. The dative of reference is used to denote the person in whose judgment or opinion something is true. This is often called the dative of the person judging. erit ille mihi semper deus, he will always be a god in my opinion oppidum primum Thessaliae venientibus ab Eplro, the first town of Thessaly as you come from Epirus (lit. to those coming from Epirus) est urbe egressis tumulus, there is, as you come out of the city, a mound (lit. to those having come out) Note that in defining direction the person is expressed indefinitely by a participle without a supporting pronoun (as in the second and third examples). 388. The dative of a personal pronoun is sometimes used to denote the person's interest in the fact stated or merely to call attention. This construction is called the ethical dative. It is a variety of the dative of reference. Tongilium mihi edflxit, he took Tongilius with him, I am happy to say quid mihi Celsus agit, what is Celsus doing, I should like to know f hem tibi talentum argenti, a talent of silver, mark you ! non Beroe vobis est, this is not Beroe, I tell you Note. It is obvious from the examples that the connection, of this dative is very loose and its exact force hard to render or define.\ Many examples of it occur in Shakespearean English : as, " He plucked hte ope his doublat," " He thrusts me himself into the company." I Digitized by Microsoft® DATIVE OF APPARENT AGENT 185 389. Many verbs denoting separation, especially compounds of ab, de, and ex, may take the dative of the person from whom instead of the ablative of separation. hunc mihi terrorem eripe, take this terror from me nihil tibi detraxit senatus, the senate has taken nothing from you. Note. This construction, sometimes called the dative of separation, is .a variety of the dative of reference. It represents the action as done to or for the person. The poets extend the usage to many verbs not admitting this construction in prose. a. With names of things the ablative with a preposition is the regular construction, but the dative occurs in poetry. silici scintillam exciidit Achates (Vergil), Achates struck a spark from the flint eripe te morae (Horace), shake off delay Dative of Possession 390. The dative is used with forms of sum to denote the possessor. est mihi pater, I have a father el fflius est, he has a son imperatofi nomen est Caesar, the general has the name Casar a. With nomen est the name as well as the person is often put in the dative. nomen Arcturo est mihi, my name is Arcturus 391. Possession "is also expressed by habeo with the accusative, with no essential difference in meaning ; but the dative with esse is more common in expressions of naming. Dative of Apparent Agent 392. The dative is used regularly with the passive peri- phrastic, and often with the compound tenses of the regular passive, to express the agent or doer} 1 The origin of the dative of apparent agent is not certain. Digitized by Microsoft® 1 86 DATIVE OF PURPOSE Caesari omnia uno tempore erant agenda, everything had to be done at the same moment by Ccesar haec vobis provincia est defendenda, this province must be defended by you mihi res provisa est, the matter has been seen to by me a. The dative of apparent agent is rare with other parts of the verb, neque cernitur vlli (Vergil), nor is he seen by any one 393. The regular construction denoting agency, the ablative with ab (§ 453), is usual with all passive forms except the gerundive, and must sometimes be used even with that to avoid ambiguity. quibus est a vobis consulendum, for whom you must consult. [Here two datives, quibus and vobis, would be ambiguous.] 394. The gerundive of intransitive verbs is impersonal, and the dative of agent becomes in English the subject nominative. omnibus moriendum est, all must die (lit. it must be died by all) Caesari non exspectandum est, Ca>sar must not wait Dative of Purpose 395. The dative is used, especially with forms of sum, to denote the purpose for which, often accompanied by the dative of reference denoting the person or thing concerned. 1 Caesar sibi earn rem curae futuram pollicitus est, Ccesar promised that he would see to that matter (lit. that that matter would be for a care to him") hoc GallTs magno erat impediments, this was (for) a great hindrance to the Gauls hi novissimis praesidio erant, these were (for) a guard to the rear hoc erit tibi dolori, this will cause you grief (lit. will be for a grief to you) cui bono, who will be the gainer ? (lit. to whom will it be for an advantage f) 1 The dative of purpose is a natural development of the notion of direction cf mo/io>i,*the fundamental meaning of the dative case (cf. § 367). Digitized by Microsoft® DATIVE WITH ADJECTIVES 187 ■ a. The following examples show the dative of purpose unaccom- panied by a dative of reference. locum castrls deligit, he selects a site for a camp diem concilio c5nstituerunt, they appointed a day for a council receptui canit, he gives the signal for retreat 396. The dative of the gerund or gerundive sometimes denotes purpose. See § 877. a. Dative with Adjectives 397. The dative is used with adjectives to denote that to which the given quality is directed, or that for which it exists or serves} a. The dative is used with adjectives of fitness, nearness, likeness, service, inclination, and others of similar or opposite meaning. nihil est tarn naturae aptum, nothing is so fitted to nature Belgae proximl sunt Germams, the Beiges are nearest to the Ger?nans impar HannibaU erat, he was, no match for Hannibal similis deo erat, he was like a god castrls idoneum locum delegit, he chose a place suitable for a camp tribuni nobis sunt amici, the tribunes are friendly to us erat benignus cunctis, he was friendly to all Note. In Caesar the adjectives most common with the dative are finitimus, idoneus. and proximus. 398. Other constructions are sometimes found where the dative might be expected. a. Some adjectives take either the dative, or the accusative with a preposition. ad amlcitiam est id5neus, he is fitted for friendship comis in uxorem est, he is kind to his wife gratior sum in te, I am more grateful to you 1 The first use corresponds to the dative of the indirect object ; the second to the dative of purpose. Both are plainly developments of the fundamental dative notion of direction of motion. Digitized by Microsoft® 1 88 ACCUSATIVE CASE b. With similis or dissimilis the genitive is more common than the dative in early writers. Classic writers use either the genitive or da- tive, but with personal pronouns the genitive is regular (cf. § 351. n.). domini similis es (Terence), you are like your master pater est met similis, my father is like me c. With alienus, foreign to, the genitive or dative may be used, but the ablative, with or without a, is the prevailing construction. alienum a vita me*, foreign to my life mea existimatione alienum, foreign to my thought 399. A few adverbs of likeness take the dative. vivere convenienter naturae, to live in conformity with nature 400. Adjectives and adverbs of likeness or unlikeness are often followed by atque (ac), et, or -que, meaning as, than, or from. The pronoun idem, the same, regularly takes either this construction or a relative clause. alius nunc ego sum atque Slim, I am different now from (what I was) before vita est eadem ac fuit, life is the same as it was Idem abeunt qui venerant, the same men go as had come 401. In expressions of motion the adjectives propior, proximus, and the adverbs propius, proxime, usually take the accusative with or without ad. castra movit propius Avaricum, he moved the camp nearer to Avaricum For the genitive with adjectives see § 357. THE ACCUSATIVE CASE 402. It is probable that the accusative case originally denoted the goal or limit of motion. To this use the accusative of the direct object, the accusative of extent, and the accusative of the place whither may be readily traced. But it is impossible to derive all the constructions of the accusative from any single function oi that case. Digitized by Microsoft® ACCUSATIVE OF THE DIRECT OBJECT 189 403. The original and derived uses of the accusative are : Accusative of the direct object Other uses of the accusative 1. Accusative of the direct object (§ 404) 2. Accusative of kindred meaning (§ 408) 3. Two accusatives — direct object and secondary object (§412) 4. Two accusatives — direct object and adjunct accusative (§ 4i6) 5. Accusative as subject of an infinitive (§ 419) 1 . Accusative of extent and duration (§ 420) 2. Accusative of respect (§ 427) 3. Accusative of the place whither (§ 428) 4. Accusative of exclamation (§ 436) 5. Idiomatic uses of the accusative (§ 438) 6. Accusative with prepositions (§ 276) Accusative of the Direct Object 404. The direct object of a transitive verb is put in the accusative. Caesar Gallos vicit, Ccesar conquered the Gauls Roman! Carthaginem deleverunt, the Romans destroyed Carthage Cicero multas orationes scripsit, Cicero wrote many orations Note. The direct object may express either the person or thing directly affected by the action of the verb (as in the first two examples) or the result or produGt of the action (as in the last example). Transitive verbs require a direct object to complete their sense. Verbs' not admitting a direct object are called intransitive. 405. The object of a transitive verb in the active voice becomes its subject in the passive, and is put in the nominative. Active : Caesar Gallos vicit, Ccesar conquered the Gauls Passive : Gallia Caesare victi sunt, the Gauls were conquered by Ccesar . 406. Certain classes of verbs taking a direct object require special notice. '''a. Verbs 'of feeling, often intransitive, are sometimes transitive and may be. used with an accusative or in the passive. Digitized by Microsoft® 190 ACCUSATIVE OF THE DIRECT OBJECT meum cdsum luctumque doluerunt, they grieved at my calamity and sorrow Ariovisti crudelitdtem horrent, they shudder at the cruelty of Ariovistus ab omnibus ridetur, he is laughed at by all Note. So, too, desperS, despair of; gemo, bemoan ; queror, complain of; maereo, bewail; sitio, thirst for; etc. b. Verbs of motion (compounds of ad, circum, in, praeter, sub, trans), and a few others, frequently become transitive and take the accusative. oppidum adire, to approach the town sendtum circumstare, to stand about the senate magistrdtum inire, to enter upon an office omnia praeterire, to overlook everything pericula sublre, to undergo perils flumen transire; to cross the river c. A few verbs, regularly intransitive in classic prose, are some- times transitive in poetry and late Latin. me lupus fugit (Horace), a wolf fled from me aequor navigare (Vergil), to sail the sea maria aspera iuro (Vergil), 7" swear by the rough sea nee latuere doll frdtrem Iunonis (Vergil), nor did the wiles of Juno escape her brother d. By a Greek idiom, the passive of many verbs, especially of those meaning to put on, is used by the poets as middle 1 and takes a direct object, sometimes styled the medial object. ferrum cingitur (Vergil), he girds on his sword induitur faciem Dianae (Ovid), he assumes the appearance of Diana nodo sinus collecta (Vergil), having gathered her dress in a knot 407. Impersonal verbs, if transitive, take the accusative like other transitive verbs. vds decet, it becomes you me iuvat, it pleases me me pudet, / am ashamed (lit. it shames me) me fallit, T am mistaken (lit. it deceives me) 1 The middle voice, well preserved and much used in Greek, represents the subject as acting on itself (that is, reflexiyely) : as, ferrum cingitur, he girds his sword on himself. The Latin passive had originally a middle meaning. - Digitized by Microsoft® ACCUSATIVE OF KINDRED MEANING 191 Accusative of Kindred Meaning (Cognate Accusative) • 408. Many verbs, ordinarily intransitive, may take the accu- sative of a noun of kindred meaning. quis tutiorem vitam vivit, who lives a safer life f tertiam iam aetatem hominum vivebat, he was now living the third generation of men servitutem serviunt, they are in slavery (lit. are serving a service) Olympia vicit, he won the Olympian victory longam viam iturus es, you are about to go on a long journey Note. The noun used as the accusative of kindred meaning is fre- quently derived from the same root as the verb, as in the first and third examples. Often, however, there is no etymological connection, but only likeness in meaning. 409. Verbs of taste, smell, and the like may take an accusative of kindred meaning to define or limit the action of the verb. vinum redolet, it smells of wine herbam mella sapiunt, the honey tastes of grass 410. A neuter pronoun or neuter adjective is very common as an accusative of kindred meaning. The English equivalent is often best expressed by supplying a noun. id laetor, / rejoice at this hoc glorior, / make this boast id els persuasit, he persuaded them of this hoc te moneo, 1 1 give you this advice multa alia peccat, he commits many other errors acerba tuens, looking fiercely (cf. Eng. " to look daggers ") Bacchanalia vivere, to live in revelings (i.e. to live a Bacchanalian life) duke ridens, smiling sweetly (i. e. smiling a sweet smile) aeternum serviet, he will be a slave forever (i. e. he will se\ve an ^everlasting service) 1 In this case the verb is transitive, and the accusative of kindred meaning is used along with the direct object. Digitized by Microsoft® 192 TWO ACCUSATIVES a. Some verbs that take the neuter of a pronoun or adjective as an accusative of kindred meaning would take a different construction of a noun. id laetor, / rejoice at this victoria mea laetor, / rejoice at my victory 411. The accusative of kindred meaning (cognate accusative) is frequent in poetry. Writers of classic prose use it sparingly, espe- cially of nouns. Neuter pronouns and neuter adjectives thus used are often scarcely distinguishable from adverbs. Two Accusatives — Direct Object and Secondary Object 412. Transitive verbs compounded with trans, rarely with other prepositions, may take (along with the direct object) a secondary object governed by the preposition. Caesar ftUmen exercitum traducit, Casar leads his army across the river Agesilaus copias Hellespontum traiecit, Agesila'us took his troops across the Hellespont Pompeius eos omnia sua praesidia circumdfixit, Pompey led them round all his 'garrisons a. Trans is sometimes, and other prepositions are usually, repeated. Caesar trans flumen exercitum traducit, Casar leads his army across the river animum in spem veniae inducere, to move the mind to the hope of pardon b. The secondary object may be retained with a passive verb. Belgae Rhenum traducti sunt, the Belgce were led across the Rhine 413. Some verbs meaning to ask, demand, teach, and celo, conceal, may take two accusatives, one of the person (direct object) and the other of the thing (secondary object). me sententiam rogavit, he asked me my opinion Caesar Haeduos frumentum flagitat, Ccesar demands grain of the J-Fa>dui Digitized by Microsoft® TWO ACCUSATIVES . 193 magister pueros ekmenta docet, the teacher teaches the children their ABCs non te celavi sermonem, I did not conceal the conversation from you Note. This construction is found in classical authors with celo, doceo, flagito, or5, posed, reposco, rogo, and interrogo. 414. Some verbs of asking and demanding take the ablative of the person with a preposition instead of the accusative of the person. pacem db Romanis petierunt, they sought peace from the Romans Note. So always peto and quaero ; and usually flagito, posco, postulo. 415. With the passive of rogo, doceo, and a few other verbs, the accusative of the person becomes the subject and the accusative of the thing is retained. sententiam rogatus sum, / was asked my opinion pueri elementa docti sunt, the children were taught their A B Os Note. This accusative is sometimes called the retained object. Two Accusatives — Direct Object and Adjunct Accusative 416. An accusative in the predicate referring to the same person or thing as the direct object, but not in apposition with it, is called an adjunct or predicate accusative. 417. Many verbs of making, choosing, calling, regarding, showing, and the like, may take two accusatives, one the direct object and the other an adjunct accusative. aim consulem fecerunt, they made him consul. [Here eum is the direct object and consulem the adjunct accusative.] Caesarem imperatorem appellaverunt, they called Cozsar general Senium regem creaverunt, they elected Servius king hominem prae se neminem putavit, he regarded no one as a man in com- parison with himself Note. With verbs of regarding other constructions are common in- stead of the adjunct accusative : as, eum in numero hostium (or pro hoste) habeo, / regard him as an enemy. Digitized by Microsoft® 194 ACCUSATIVE AS SUBJECT OF AN INFINITIVE a. The adjunct accusative may be an adjective. me ISnissimum praebui, / showed myself most merciful me eius rei certiorem fecit, he informed me of that matter 418. In the passive the direct object becomes the subject nomina* tive and the adjunct accusative becomes the predicate nominative (§ 309. b). Servius rex creatus est, Servius was chosen king Accusative as Subject of an Infinitive 419. The subject of an infinitive is put in the accusative. intellego fesapere, I perceive that you are wise dicit montem ab hostibus tenerl, he says that the mountam is held by the enemy nostras non esse inferiores intellexit, he found that our men were not i?iferior Note i. The accusative as subject of an infinitive was originally felt as the object of the verb on which the infinitive depends. This construc- tion is especially common after verbs of saying, knowing, thinking, per- ceiving, and the like'(§ 839. a) in principal clauses of indirect discourse. See §887. 1. Note 2. The subject of the so-called historical infinitive is in the nominative (§ 844). v Accusative of Extent and Duration 420. Extent of space and duration of time are expressed by the accusative. 421. The accusative of extent of space answers the question how far ? how long ? or how wide ? milia passuum duodecim progressus est, he advanced twelve miles umbilicus septem pedes longus, a projection seven feet long fossam qmndecim pedes latam perduxit, he made a ditch fifteen feet wide porta aberat viginfi passus, the gate was twenty paces away Note.. For the genitive of measure see § 340. Digitized by Microsoft® ACCUSATIVE OF EXTENT AND DURATION 195 422. The accusative of duration of time answers the question how long? regnum multos annos obtinuerat, h*e had held the sovereignty for many years dies quindecim iter fecerunt, they marched for fifteen days , haec magnam partem aestatis faciebant, they continued to do this during a great part of the summer a. Age is expressed by the past participle natus {born) used with the accusative, sometimes with the ablative. puer decern annos (annis) natus mortuus est, the boy died at the age of ten years. 423. Duration of time is sometimes expressed by the accusative with per or by the ablative without a preposition. liidi per decern dies fact! sunt, games were held for ten days ed tota node continenter ierunt, they marched withozit a halt during that entire night continenter horis quinque pugnatum est,, the battle raged continuously for five hours Note. The ablative in this 'use really designates the period rather as time within which (§ 492. 2) than as time how long. 424. Duration of time may be expressed by the accusative singular of a noun with an ordinal numeral. regnat iam sextum annum, he has reigned going on six years (lit. he is reigning now the sixth year) 425. With abhinc, ago, either the accusative of duration of time or the ablative of the measure of difference (§ 475) may be used. abhinc annos tres or abhinc tribus annis, three years ago 426. The accusative of a neuter pronoun or adjective of quantity may denote the degree of an action or quality. plurimum potest, he is most powerful multum sunt in venationibus, they are much occupied in hunting quid in bello possunt, how strong are they in war? Digitized by Microsoft® 196 ACCUSATIVE OF THE PLACE WHITHER Note i. Other accusatives so used are aliquid, quicquam, plus, tantum, quantum. Some regard these as accusatives of kindred meaning •(§ 41 1) or as adverbial. , Note 2. For measure of difference expressed by the ablative see § 475. Accusative of Respect 427. The accusative is sometimes used with a verb or adjec- tive to denote that in respect to which a statement is made. This construction, borrowed from Gree'k, is used chiefly in poetry, and is confined mainly to (a) nouns denoting birth, ■mind, ox parts of the body, and (b) neuter plural adjectives, such as alia, cetera, ciincta, omnia, etc. The following are examples from Vergil : Cressa genus, Pholoe, a Cretan by (in respect to) birth, Pholoe animum arrecti, aroused i?i (in respect to) mind or spirit ootids suffecti, with eyes suffused (suffused as to eyes) nfida genu, with her knee bare (bare as to her knee) os umerosque deo similis, in face and shoulders like a god cetera Graius, in other respects a Greek Note. This construction is sometimes called the synecdochical or Greek accusative. Accusative of the Place Whither 428. The place whither is regularly expressed by the accusa- tive with the preposition ad, in, or sub. Haedui legatSs ad Caesarem mittunt, the Hcedui send ambassadors to C&sar in Allobrogum finis exercitum dflcit, he leads the army into the terri- tory of the Allobroges exercitum sub iugum mittunt, they send the army under the yoke 429. With the name of a country ad denotes to the borders ; in with the accusative, into the country itself. ad Italiam iter fecit, he marched to Italy in Italiam iter fecit, he marched into Italy Digitized by Microsoft® ACCUSATIVE OF THE PLACE WHITHER 197 430. The preposition with the place whither is regularly omitted with names of towns and small islands ; domus, home ; and rus, country. ibo Athenas, I shall go to Athens ille se Massiliam conferet, he will betake himself to Marseilles Romam ad senatum veni, / came to Rome to the senate Delum venit, he came to Delos domum redierunt, they returned home suas domos abierunt, they went away to their homes rus ibo, / shall go into the country Note. The expression of the place whither by the accusative without a preposition was the original construction and follows from the funda- mental notion of that case (§ 402). The prepositions, originally adverbs, were afterwards added to define more exactly the direction of motion, and, by long association, became indispensable except as indicated above. The English home in " I am going home " is, like domum, an old accusative of the goal or limit of motion. 431. The preposition ad is used with names of towns and small islands to denote towards, to the vicinity of, in the vicinity of. ad Alesiam proficiscuntur, they set out for Alesia ad Genavam pervenit, he came to the vicinity of Geneva 432. The accusatives urbem and oppidum expressing the place whither require the preposition even when the name of the town accompanies them. ad urbem Romam venit, he came to the city of Rome 433. When domus means a house or building, the preposition is used. in Laecae domum venisti, you came to Laca's house 434. The poets and later writers often omit the preposition when it would be required in classic prose. Italiam Laviniaque venit Mora (Vergil), he came to Italy and the Lavinian shores devenere locos laet5s (Vergil), they reached the happy spots Aegyptum proficiscitur (Tacitus), he sets out for Egypt Digitized by Microsoft® 198 IDIOMATIC USES OF THE ACCUSATIVE 435. The preposition is not used with the supine in -um (§ 882. 1), which is in reality an accusative of the place whither, nor in the following old phrases : Tnfitias ire, to resort to denial venum dare, to sell pessum dare, to ruin venum ire, to be sold suppetias Ire (venire, mittere, etc.), to go (come, send, etc.) to (any one's) aid Accusative of Exclamation 436. The accusative is used, especially with interjections, • in exclamations. fortunatam rem publicam, O fortunate republic ! en quattuor Bras, lo, foitr altars / pro deum /idem, good heavens ! me miserum, ah, wretched me / 437. The interjections ecce and em (lo! behold ! see f) often combine with the accusative of is or ille, giving rise to such forms as eccum (ecce eum), eccam (ecce earn), eccos (ecce eos), eccillum (ecce ilium), ellum (em ilium), etc. Idiqmatic Uses of the Accusative 438. The following uses of the accusative, adverbial in character, are of doubtful origin. bonam partem, in a great jneasure meam (tuam, suam, etc.) partem, for my (your, his, etc.) part maiorem (maximam) partem, for the, greater (most) part nihil, not at all id (hoc) aetatis, at that (this) age id (hoc) temporis, at that (this) time id (quod) genus, of that (what) sort meam (tuam, suam, etc.) vicem, on my (your, his, etc.) part virile (muliebre) secus, of the male (female) sex dextrum, on the right laevum, on the left quod si, but if quid, why For thg accusative with prepositions see § 276. Digitized by Microsoft® ABLATIVE OF SEPARATION 199 I. True ablative — from case THE ABLATIVE CASE 439. The Latin ablative includes the functions and in part the forms of three original cases : the true ablative, or from case, denoting separation ; the instrumental, or with (or by) case, denoting association, means, or instrument ; and the locative, or in case, denoting the place in time or space. On this basis the uses of the Latin ablative are divided into three classes as follows : 1 1 . Ablative of separation (§ 440) 2. Ablative of the place whence (§ 441) 3< Ablative of comparison (§ 446) 4. Ablative of origin (§451) 5. Ablative of material (§ 452) 6. Ablative of agent (§ 453) Ablative of accompaniment (§ 456) Ablative of attendant circumstance (§ 457) Ablative of accordance (§ 458) Ablative of manner (§ 459) Ablative of cause or reason (§ 462) 6. Ablative of description or quality (§ 466) 'a. Ablative of price or value (§ 470) b. Ablative of the way by which (§ 474) c. Ablative of the measure of difference (§475) 8. Ablative of respect (§ 478) 9. Ablative absolute (§ 480) Ablative of place where (§ 485) Ablative of time (§ 492) II. Instrumental ablative — with - (or by) case 7. Ablative of means (§ 468)* III. Locative ablative — incase {', I. True Ablative Uses 440. Ablative of Separation. The ablative of separation — sometimes with, sometimes without, a preposition — is used in connection with verbs or adjectives denoting separation, deprivation, freedom from, and the like. 1 The three original cases, despite their radical difference in meaning, had many points of contact, and it is often difficult to distinguish among them. Too great a degree of certainty should, therefore, not be attached to this classification. Digitized by Microsoft® 200 ABLATIVE OF THE PLACE WHENCE a. A preposition (a, ab, de, e, ex) is used (i) regularly before nouns denoting persons, (2) generally when the separation is actual and literal. Gallos ab Aquitams Garumna flflmen dlvidit, the Garonne river sepa- rates the Gauls from the Aquitani oppidum vacuum ab defensoribus, a town stripped of defenders hostem a pugna prohibebant, they kept the enemy from battle a cultii provinciae longissime absunt, they are farthest away from the civilization of the province anulum de digito detraxit, he drew the ring from his finger Messana ab his rebus vacua atque nuda est, Messana is empty and bare of these things b. The preposition is generally not present when the separation is figurative, especially if the verb or adjective itself contains a separative preposition. Helvetii ea spedeiectl, the Helvetii, deprived of that hope Ariovistus pertinacia desistit, Ariovistus desists from his obstinacy levamur superstitione, liberamur mortis metu, we are relieved from superstition, we are freed from fear of death senectus voluptatibus caret, old age lacks enjoyments conatu desistunt, they desist from the attempt auxilio eget, he needs help immunis militia, free of inilitary service Note. There are numerous exceptions to these rules, especially in poetry, and many verbs take or omit the preposition with no apparent distinction. Compare the following examples : ex civitate excesserunt, they departed from the state flnibus suls excesserant, they had left their own territory hostis ab oppidis prohibent, they keep the enemy from the towns smsfinibus eos prohibent, they keep them from their own territory 441. Ablative of the Place Whence. The ablative with ab, de, or ex is used to denote the place -whence. ab urbe proficiscitur, he sets out from the city de flnibus suis exeunt, they go forth from their territory legiones ex hibemis educit, he leads the legions out from their winter quarters ex Britannia obsides miserunt, they sent hostages from Britain negotiator ex Africa venit, a merchant is coming from Africa Digitized by Microsoft® ABLATIVE OF THE PLACE WHENCE 201 ' 442. With names of towns and small islands and with domus, home, and rus, country, the place whence, after verbs of motion, is denoted by the ablative without a preposition. Roma ex urbe nobili profectus est, he set out from Rome, u famous city Oelb navigavit, he sailed from Delos (a small island) domo abit, he leaves (goes from) home rure revertit, he returned from the country Note. When domus means a building, the preposition is used. a. With names of towns and small islands ab is used to denote from the vicinity of. a Mutina discessit, he withdrew from the vicinity of Modena 443. The words urbs, oppidum, and insula, either standing alone or in apposition with a geographical name, require a preposition to express the place whence. ab (ex) urbe, from the city ab (ex) urbe Roma, from the city of Rome 444. In expressing the place whence poets and later writers often omit the preposition when it would be required in classical prose. Troas arcebat longe Latio (Vergil), she kept the Trojans far from Latium Scythia profecti (Q. Curtius), setting out from Scythia 445. By a difference of idiom the place where is sometimes regarded in Latin as the direction from ivhich, and is expressed by the ablative with ab (rarely ex). Orgetorix ex vincvlTs causam dicit, Orgetorix pleads his cause in chains a. So in the following expressions : a fronte, in front a sinistra, on the left- a tergo, in the rear ab hac parte, on this side a dextra, on the right a latere, on the side ab novissimo agmine, on the rear Digitized by Microsoft® 202 ABLATIVE OF COMPARISON '446. Ablative of Comparison. Than after the comparative degree may be expressed by the ablative of comparison or by the particle quam. With quam the two things compared are in the same case. Cato est Cicerone eloquentior, Cato is more eloquent than Cicero Ubii sunt ceteris humanidres, the Ubii are more civilized than the rest Caesar militum vltam sua. salute cariorem habet, Ccesar holds the lives of his soldiers dearer than his own safety Caesar minor est quam Cicero, Ccesar is younger than Cicero Note. The ablative of comparison is a form of the ablative of separa- tion, the first example above meaning literally, reckoning from Cicero as a standard, Cato' is more eloquent. a. The construction with quam is required where the first of the things compared is not in the nominative or accusative. est misericordia dignior quam contumelia, he is more worthy of pity than of disgrace. [Here the ablative is due to dignus (§ 479).] b. The comparative adverbs citius and celerius are followed by the ablative of comparison. dicto citius, sooner than you could tell it (lit. said) opinione celerius, sooner than was expected (lit. expectation) 447. The poets sometimes use the ablative of comparison where the prose construction requires quam (§ 446. a). pane egeo iam mellitis potiore placentis (Horace), / now want bread rather than honey cakes. [Here the ablative pane depends on egeo (§ 469. d).] 448. The ablative of comparison is regular in negative sentences, nihil est foedius servitute, nothing is viler than slavery 449. Than followed by a relative pronoun with a definite ante- cedent is never expressed by quam, but by the ablative of the relative. rex erat Aeneas n5bls, quo iustior alter non fuit, JEneas was our- king, * than whom no other was more righteous Digitized by Microsoft® ABLATIVE OF MATERIAL 203 450. After the comparatives plus, minus, amplius, and longius, when used without quam, the noun usually takes the case required by the context, without reference to the comparative. hostes non amplius octingentos equites habebant, the enemy had no more than eight hundred horsemen plus septingenti capti sunt, more than seven hundred were captured 451. Ablative of Origin. The ablative, generally without a preposition, is used with nascor, be bom, ■ and with the parti- ciples natus, ortus, and a few others of similar meaning, to denote parentage or origin. amplissimo genere natus, born of .a very noble family summo in Arvernis ortus loco, sprung from the highest station among the Arverni Maecenas edite regibus, O Mcecenas, descendant of kings quo sanguine cretus, born of what blood? a. A preposition (generally ex) is regularly used with pronouns and sometimes with nouns. ex me hie natus non est sed ex fratre meo, this is not my son, but my brother's (not born from me, etc.) cum ex utraque uxore filius natus esset, when a son had been bo>'n of each wife 452. Ablative of Material. The ablative, usually with ex (in poetry often with de), is used to denote the material of which anything consists or is made. naves factae sunt ex robore, the ships were 7nade of oak scuta ex cortice facta, shields made of bark valvae ex auro atque ebore, doors of gold and ivory templum de marmore ponam, /'// build a temple of marble a. In poetry the preposition is often omitted. scoputis pendentibus antrum (Vergil), a cave of overhanging rocks acre cavo clipeus (Vergil), a shield of hollow bronze Digitized by Microsoft® 204 ABLATIVE OF AGENT b. The ablative of material without a preposition is used with facere, fieri, and similar words, in the sense of do with, become of. quid hoc homine faciatis, what are you going to do with this fellow? quid Tulliola mea f iet, what will become of my dear Tullia t Note. The ablative of material is a development of the ablative of origin. For the genitive of material see § 348. 453. Ablative of Agent. The ablative with a or ab is used with a passive verb to denote the personal agent. a senatu amicus appellatus erat, he had been called friend by the senate • exercitus ab Helvetils pulsus est, the army was defeated by the Helvetii laudatur ab his, culpatur ab Mis, he is praised by these, blamed by those ab non nullis Gallis sollicitabantur, they were incited by some (of the) Gauls Note i. The ablative of agent is a development of the ablative of origin. The preposition a meant from to the Roman mind, not by, as it is translated in English. Note 2. The ablative of agent (which requires a or ab) must be care- fully distinguished from the ablative of means, which has no preposition (§ 468). Thus, occisus gladio, slain by a sword; but occisus ab hoste, slain by an enemy. 454. Things personified and sometimes names of animals are found in the construction of the agent. vitia a virtutibus superantur, vices are overcome by virtues 455. If the person acting is regarded as the means rather than as the agent, the accusative with per is generally used. per exploratores Caesar certior factus est, Caesar was informed by (means of) scouts Note. When the action is stressed rather than the persons acting, the ablative is used without a or ab. Cilia ministratur tribus pueris, dinner is served by three slaves Digitized by Microsoft® ABLATIVE OF ACCORDANCE 205 II. Instrumental Ablative Uses 456. Ablative of Accompaniment. The ablative with cum is used to denote accompaniment. Caesai cum legionibus tribus profectus est, Ccesar set out with^three legions Helvetii cum Germanis contendunt, the Helvetii fight with the Germans Note. The ablative of accompaniment may be used with words of contention and the like. See the second example above. a. In some military expressions cum may be omitted, especially when the ablative is modified by any adjective not a numeral. omnibus copiis subsequebatur, he followed close with all his forces 457. Ablative of Attendant Circumstance. The ablative, some- times with cum but more usually without, is used to denote an attendant circumstance or situation. exercitum duarum cohortium damno deducit, he leads back his army •with the loss of two cohorts ex oppido silentio egress! sunt, they went forth from the town in silence his ominibus proficiscere ad impium bellum, attended by these omens go forth to your impious war nemo funera ftetu faxit, let no one perform, my funeral rites with tears Liscus intellegif quanto cum periculo id fecerit, Liscus understands with how much danger he has done this 458. Ablative of Accordance. That in accordance with which something is done is expressed by the ablative, usually without a preposition, sometimes with ex or de. moribus suis Orgetorigem ex vinculis causam dicere coegerunt, in accordance with their customs they compelled Orgetorix to plead his cause in chains cdnsuetudine sua Caesar sex legiones expedites ducebat, according to his custom Casar was leading six legions infighting trim tuo consilio faciam, / will act in accordance with your plan haec ex senatus consulto acta sunt, this was done in accordance with the decree of the senate Digitized by Microsoft® 206 ABLATIVE OF CAUSE OR REASON 459. Ablative of Manner. The manner of an action is denoted by the ablative with cum. magno cum strepitu ac tumultu castrls egressi sunt, with great uproar and confusion they went forth from the camp pars nuntiorum cum cruciatu necabatur, part of the messengers were killed with torture Note. The ablative of manner, the ablative of attendant circumstance, and the ablative of accordance are so closely related that they cannot be sharply distinguished. 460. With the ablative of manner the preposition cum may be omitted when the noun is modified by an adjective. lumen incredibili Imitate fluit, the river flows with i7icredible slowness nudo corpore pugnant, they fight with body exposed 461. The preposition cum is not used with such words of manner as modo, pacto, ratione, ritu, vi, via, nor with certain nouns that have become virtually adverbs, as, iure, iniuria, iussu, iniussii, merito, sponte, pace tua, etc. pecudum ritu, in the manner of beasts iure an iniuria, rightly or wrongly pace tua dixerim, / should like to say, with your permission Note. This usage has been much extended in poetry. insequitur cumulo aquae mons (Vergil), a mountain of water follows in a mass 462. Ablative of Cause or Reason. Cause or reason is denoted by the ablative, sometimes without a preposition, sometimes with ab, de, or ex. magno dolore adficiebantur, they were affected with great sorrow nemo maeret suo incommodo, no one mourns over his own misfortune Dumnorix gratia plurimum poterat, Dumnorix had great power be- cause of his influence regnl cupiditate adductus coniurationem fecit, moved by his desire for royal power, he made a conspiracy sua victoria Insolenter gloriabantur, they boasted insolently of their * victory Digitized by Microsoft® ABLATIVE OF DESCRIPTION OR QUALITY 207 mare a sole lucet, the sea gleams in the sun (from the sun) qua de causa, for this reason ex vulnere aeger, disabled by a wound (from a wound) Note. The causal uses of the ablative, especially those without a prepo- sition, originate largely in its instrumental use ; but where -ab, de, or ex is employed, the construction seems to go back to the true ablative (§ 439). 463. The ablatives causa and gratia {because, for the sake) are used with a genitive preceding (§ 331. n.) or with a pronominal adjective in agreement. armcitiae causa, for the sake of friendship ea causa, on account of this mea gratia, for my sake 464. Cause is often expressed by ob or propter with the accusative. ob earn rem, for that reason quam ob rem, on which account pecora propter bellum removerant, they had removed their cattle be- cause of the war 465. A preventing cause is expressed by prae with the ablative. solem prae iaculorum multitudine non videbitis, you will not see the sun for the number of darts 466. Ablative of Description or Quality. The ablative with a modifying adjective is used to describe a substantive. mulier eximia pulchritudine, a woman of rare beauty vir summo ingenio, a man of the greatest genius mons magna altitudine, a mountain of great height litterae hoc exemplo, a letter of this tenor Note. It is impossible to differentiate sharply between the genitive and the ablative of description. For a broad distinction see § 338. N. 467. The ablative of description is frequently in the predicate. ammo meliore sunt gladiatores, the gladiators are of a better mind German! ingenti magnitudine corporum sunt, the Germans are of great size of body capillo sunt promisso, they have long hair magna timore sum, / am greatly terrified Digitized by Microsoft® 2Q8 ablative of means 468. Ablative of Means. The ablative is used without a prep- osition to denote the means by which something is done. una pars flumine continetur, one part is bounded by the river his rebus adducti, induced by these things eum manu sua occidit, he killed him with his own hand Note. Means, cause, manner, and accompaniment are all outgrowths of the same fundamental notion, and are so closely related that they are often difficult to discriminate. Indeed, the Romans themselves can hardly have thought of any sharp distinction. 469. The ablative of means includes the following special uses. a. The deponents utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, and several of their compounds govern the ablative. utar vestra benignitate, I will avail myself of your kindness (lit. I will serve myself by your kindness) Caesar lsdem ducibus usus est, Casar employed the same guides lux qua fruimur, the light which we enjoy (lit. the light by which we enjoy ourselves) i muneribus corporis fungi, to perform the functions of the body (lit. to busy ourselves -with the functions of the body) impedlmentis castrlsque nostri potiti sunt, our soldiers took possession of the baggage and camp (lit. our soldiers ?naae themselves masters by means of the baggage and camp) facte et came vescebantur, they fed on milk and meat (lit. they fed themselves by means of milk and meat) Note i. Potior sometimes takes the genitive. totius Gattiae potiuntur, they take possession of the whole of Caul Note 2. In early Latin these verbs are sometimes transitive and take the accusative ; and in classic Latin they retain the personal use of the gerundive. functus est officium (Terence), he performed the part modus sit fruendae voluptatis, let there be a limit to the enjovment of pleasure Digitized by Microsoft® ABLATIVE OF PRICE OR VALUE 209 b. Opus est, and less commonly usus est, there is need, take the ablative. 1 magistratibus opus est, there is need of magistrates opus facto est, there is need of action nunc viribus usus est, now there is need of strength Note i. Opus is often in the predicate, with the thing needed in the nominative as subject. This is the regular construction when the thing needed is a neuter pronoun or adjective. dux nobis et auctor opus est, we need a chief and adviser (lit. a chief and adviser is necessary for us) si quid mini opus est, if I need anything (lit. if anything is needful to me) multa nobis opus sunt, we need many things (lit. many things are needful to us) Note 2. Opus est is sometimes used with the ablative of a past participle. properato opus eiat, -there was need of haste c. Contentus, satisfied, fretus, relying on (lit supported), and innixus, leaning on, take the ablative. contentus sorte, satisfied with his lot virtute fretus, relying on his valor d. Verbs and adjectives denoting fullness or abundance may be used with the ablative of means. agger e fossas explent, they fill the ditches with earth Forum Appi differtum nauSs, Forum Appii, crowded with boatmen vita plena voluptatibus, u. life full of delights Note i. For the genitive with similar expressions see § 350. Note 2. For means denoted by per with the accusative of personal nouns see § 455, 470. Ablative of Price or Value. With expressions of buy- ing and selling definite price or value is expressed by the ablative. 1 The noun usus follows the analogy of the verb utor ; and opus, originally a genitive (cf. hoc opus est, this is of service), takes the ablative by an extension of the construction with usus. Digitized by Microsoft® 210 ABLATIVE OF THE WAY BY WHICH agrum vendidit sestertium sex milibus, he sold the land for six thou- sand sesterces istuc verbum vile est xx minis, that word is cheap at twenty mina> triginta minis emi, / bought it for thirty mina Note. The ablative of price is a development of the ablative of means. 471. Indefinite price or value, when expressed by an adjective, is regularly denoted by the genitive (§ 341); but when expressed by a noun, is usually denoted by the ablative. quanti earn emit ? Vili (pretio), how much did he buy her for ? Cheap (lit. at a low price) venibunt praesenti peciinia, they will be sold for cash quibus hie pretiis porci veneunt, at what price are pigs sold here ? Dumnorix vectigalia ' parvo pretio redempta habebat, Dumnorix had bought the taxes at a small price 472. With the verb muto, exchange, and some of its compounds, either the thing taken or the thing given in exchange may be in the ablative of price. religionem peciinia commutat, he barters his conscience for money exsilium patria sede mutavit, he took exile in exchange for his native land 473. With verbs of condemning, the penalty (when it is a fine of definite amount) is denoted by the ablative of price. Frusinates tertia parte agri damnati sunt, the Frusinates were fined a third part of their land For the genitive of the charge see § 336. 474. Ablative of the Way by Which. The way by which, after verbs of motion, is expressed by the ablative without a preposition. Aurelia via profectus est, he set out by the Aurelian road via breviore equites praemisi, I sent forward the cavalry by a shorter road frumentum quod flumine navibus subvexerat, the grain which he had brought up the river by ships provehimur pelago, we sail forth over ttie sea , Note. The ablative of the way by which is a development of the ablative of means. Digitized by Microsoft® ABLATIVE OF RESPECT 211 475. Ablative of the Measure of Difference. With words expressing or implying comparison the ablative is used to denote the measure of difference. alterum iter est multo facilius et expeditius, the other route is much easier and quicker quinque milibus passuum distat, it is five miles distant (lit. distant by five miles) nee longo distant cursu, nor are they far away (lit. distant by a long course) Note. The ablative of the measure of difference is a development of the ablative of means. 476. Measure of difference is expressed by the correlative ablatives quo . . . eo (hoc) and quanto . . . tanto with comparatives, as in English by the . . . the. quo minus cupiditatis, eo plus auctoritatis, the less avarice the more authority (lit. by what the less of avarice, by that the more of authority) quanto erat gravior oppugnatio, tanto crebriores litterae mittebantur, the worse the siege was, the more frequent letters were sent ' 477. The ablative of the measure of difference is often used with the adverbs ante (before), post (after), and abhinc (ago), to denote time before or after. tribus ante annis, three years before (lit. before by three years) tribus post amis, three years after (lit. after by three years) abhinc tribus amis, three years ago (lit. ago by three years) Note. As prepositions, ante and post take the accusative (§ 276). Abhinc is generally followed by the accusative of duration (§ 425). 478. Ablative of Respect. The ablative is used to denote in tvhat respect something is true. virtute praecedunt, they excel in valor Infirmiores animo sunt, they are .weaker in courage hi omnes lingua, institutis, legibus inter se difierunt, all these differ from each other in language, customs, and laws Digitized by Microsoft® 212 ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE claudus altera pede, lame in one foot maior natu, older (lit. greater in respect to birth') minor natu, younger (lit. less in respect to birth) Note. For the supine in -u in this construction see § 882. II. 479. The adjectives dignus and indignus usually take the ablative of respect. The genitive occurs, especially in early Latin. hoc dignum memoria videtur, this seems worth mention vir patre, avo, maisribus suis dignissimus, a man most worthy of his father, grandfather, and ancestors dignus salutis, deserving of safety Note. So the verb dignor in poetry. haud equidem tali me dignor honore (Vergil), T do not deem myself worthy of such an honor 480. Ablative Absolute. The ablative of a noun or pro- noun with a participle in agreement may be used absolutely, that is, as grammatically independent of the rest of the sen- tence. The ablative absolute defines the time or circumstances of the action. nondum Heme confecta in finis Nerviorum contendit, the winter not yet being over, he hastened into the territory of the Nervii Note. The ablative absolute is of instrumental origin ; but the locative and true ablative may have contributed to its development. 481. As the verb sum has no present participle, we often find two nouns, or a noun and an adjective, in the ablative absolute with no participle expressed. M. Messala M. Pisone consulibus, Marcus Messala and Marcus Piso being consuls exigua parte aestatis rettqua, a small part of the su7nmer remaining 482. A noun or pronoun in the ablative absolute regularly denotes a person or thing not elsewhere mentioned in the same clause. Digitized by Microsoft® ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE 213 Compare the sentences : The Gauls having been conquered by Casar, the army returned home, Galtis a Caesare victis exercitus domum rediit The Gauls, having been conquered by C&sar, returned home, Galti a Caesare victi domum redierunt The ablative absolute is used in the first example, but is not admis- sible in the second. 483. A participle or an adjective is sometimes used in the ablative absolute without a substantive. Ubato summo tenus attigit ore (Vergil), after pouring tlie libation she touched (the goblet) with her lips missis qui iter monstrarent, (men) having been sent to show the way 484. While grammatically independent, the ablative absolute has a logical connection with the rest of the sentence and may express a great variety of relations. This connection is often best expressed in translation by a subordinate clause, and should not always be rendered by the English nominative absolute. , Thus, the ablative absolute may replace — a. A temporal clause. Caesar acceptis litteris nuntium mittit, after Ccesar receives the letter he sends a messenger b. A causal clause. maiores nostri saepe mercatoribus nostris iniuriosius tractdtis bella .gesserunt, our ancestors often waged wars because our traders had been somewhat unjustly treated c. A concessive clause. oppidum paucis defendentibus expugnare non potuit, though only a few defended the town, he could not take it d. A conditional clause. deditionis nulla est condicio nisi armis traditis, there are no terms of surrender if the arms are not handed over e. A clause denoting attendant circumstance. ea omnia inscientibus Haeduis fecit, he did all these things while the Hozdui were in ignorance Digitized by Microsoft® 214 ABLATIVE OF THE PLACE WHERE III. Locative Ablative Uses 485. Ablative of the Place Where. The place where is reg- ularly denoted by the ablative with the preposition in. in hac urbe vltam degit, he passed his life in this city in Gallia remanserunt, they remained in Gaul in Germanorum finibus bellum gerunt, they wage war in the territory of the Germans a. But the preposition in is omitted before names of towns and small islands and before loco, locis, parte, partibus, dextra, sinistra, laeva, terra, marl, and nouns modified by totus. Carthagine, at Carthage Curibus (§ 1 10), at Cures Athenis_(§ 80. c), at Athens terra marlque, on land and sea Delphis (§ 88. a), at Delphi tota. Sicilia, in all Sicily Note. Many idiomatic expressions omit in : as, periculis, in dangers ; mentibus, in minds ; and it is freely omitted in poetry : as, litore curvo (Vergil), on the winding shore. 486. The locative case, denoting the place tvhere, not dis- tinguished in the plural from the ablative, has a form like the genitive with names of towns and small islands in the singular of the first or second declension. Romae, at Rome Corinthi, at Corinth Avarici, at Avaricum Cypri, at Cyprus 487. Names of towns of the third declension are usually" in the ablative to denote the place where, but a few locative forms in -i are found. Carthaginl, at Carthage Tiburi, at Tibur 488. The following special nouns have locative forms like names of towns : animi, in mind humi, on the ground belli, in war militiae, in military service doml, at home run (also abl. rure), in the countiy her*, yesterday vesperi, in the evening Digitized by Microsoft® ABLATIVE OF TIME 215 489. The locative domi may be modified only by a possessive adjective or by a noun in the genitive ; when it would be otherwise modified, the ablative with in is used instead. domi meae, at my house Caesaris domi, at Casar's house in Marci splendida domo, at the fine home of Marcus 490. Verbs of placing, though implying motion, take the abla- tive of place where. Such are pono, loco, conloco, statuo, constituo, etc. Plato rationem in capite posuit, iram in pectore locavit, Plato placed reason in the head (and) located anger in the heart 491. Summary of Constructions of Place, i. Names of places not towns are generally put — a. In the accusative with ad or in to denote the place to which, exercitum in Italiam diixit, he led an army into Italy b. In the ablative with ab, de, or ex to denote the place from which. ab urbe proficiscitur, he sets out from the city c. In the locative ablative with in to denote the place at or in which. Hannibal in Italia fuit, Hannibal was in Italy 2. Names 'of towns and words which follow their analogy are put — a. In the accusative to denote the place to which. legatl Athenas missi sunt, ambassadors wei-e sent to Athens b. In the ablative to denote the place from which. Demaratus fugit Corintho, Demaratus filed from Corinth c. In the locative or ablative to denote the place at or in which. Romae et domi tuae vivere, to live at Rome and in your home Athenis eram, / was at Athens 492. Ablative of Time. Time when or within zvhich is ex- pressed by the ablative, regularly without a preposition. Digitized by Microsoft® 216 ABLATIVE OF TIME i . Time when : secunda vigilia castrls egress! sunt, in the second watch they went forth from the camp Diviciacus e5 tempore principatum obtinebat, Diviciacus at that time held the highest place Caesar septimo die pervenit, Ccesar arrived on the seventh day 2. Time within which : diebus vigintl quinque aggerem exstruxerunt, within twenty-five days they finished building a mound hoc toto proelio aversum hostem videre nemo potuit, throughout this whole battle no one could see give hostages to each other [ se dant, they J POSSESSIVE PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES 525. The possessive pronouns are pronominal adjectives agreeing with the noun to which they belong. haec ornamenta sunt mea, these jewels are mine 526. Possessive adjectives, when attributive, are generally omitted if they are unemphatic and plainly implied in the context. ipse cum omnibus copiis eos sequi coepit, he himself began to follow them with all (his) forces 527. Possessive attributive adjectives may be necessary for clearness, for emphasis, or for contrast. When used merely for clearness, the possessive adjective follows its noun ; when expressed for emphasis or contrast, it regularly precedes its noun. ipse cum omnibus copiis rneis eos sequi coepit, he himself began to follow them with all my forces (meis expressed for clearness) ego de meo sensu iudico, / fudge by my own feeling (meo expressed for emphasis) Helvetii svus finibus eos proliibent aut ipsi in eorum finibus bellum gerunt, the Helvetii keep them from their own territory or them- selves carry on war in their territory (suis expressed for contrast) Digitized by Microsoft® 226 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 528. Possessive adjectives are often used substantively, especially in the masculine and neuter plural. Ariovistus in nostros impetum fecit, Ariovisttis made an attack upon our men (lit. ours) dedite vos vestrague omnia, surrender yourselves and all your posses- sions (lit. yours) flamma extrema meorum, last flames of my countrymen, (lit. mine) 529. The genitive of a pronoun or adjective may be used to agree with the genitive implied in a possessive adjective. Especially common are the genitives ipsius, ipsorum, solius, iinius, and omnium. mea ipsius patria, my own country (equivalent to the count7y of me myself) tua solius (or iinius) causa, for your sake alone (equivalent to for the sake of you alone) nostra omnium patria, the country of us all. [This might be written also nostrum omnium patria; cf. §§ 345, 513. «.] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 530. The demonstratives are hie, iste, ille, is, and idem. They are used either as pronouns or as pronominal adjectives. 531. The demonstrative pronouns, besides their own special uses, supply the lack of a personal pronoun of the third person (§ 512). This use is regular in the oblique cases, especially of is. « flliam dat, he gives him his daughter Caesar et exercitus eius, Cozsar and his army (lit. the army of him) obsides ab eis dantur, hostages are given by them hi sunt fortissimi, they are the bravest ille minimum poterat, he had -very little power 532. As pronominal adjectives the demonstratives follow the rules for the agreement of adjectives (§§ 497 ff.). a. A demonstrative usually agrees with an appositive or predicate noun, if there be one, rather than with the word to which it refers. rerum caput hoc erat, hie f 5ns, this was the head of things, this the source ea ^era est pietas, that is true piety Digitized by Microsoft® DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 227 hie, iste, ille, is 533. Hie, this, is used of what is near the speaker in time, place, or thought. Hence it is called the demonstrative of the first person. Iuppiter est custos huius urbis, Jupiter is tlie guardian of this city his sex diebus, in the last six days 534. Hie sometimes refers to the speaker himself. noli tradere hunc hominem, do not betray me (lit. this man) 535. Iste, that (of yours), is used of what is near the person addressed in time, place, or thought. Hence it is called the demonstrative of the second person. muta istam mentem, change that purpose of yours 536. From its frequent application to the views of an opponent, iste often implies contempt. unius usuram horae gladiator! isti non dedissem, / would not have given that (contemptible) gladiator the enjoyment of a single hour 537. Ille, that {yonder), is used of what is more or less remote in time, place, or thought, both from the speaker and from the person addressed. Hence it is called the demonstrative of the third person. in Wis ulterioribus munitionibus, in those more distant fortifications ilia pars quam commemoravi, that part which I have mentioned 538. Ille, usually following its noun, is sometimes used in the sense of that famous, that well-known. Medea ilia quondam ex Ponto profugit, that well-known Medea once fled from Pontus Magnus ille Alexander, that famous Alexander the Great a. In this sense ille may be combined with hie. hoc illud est, this is that well-known (saying) hie ille est, this is that famous (man) Digitized by Microsoft® 228 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 539. Ille sometimes means the former, and hie the latter, of two objects previously mentioned. ignavia corpus hebetat, labor firmat; ilia maturam senectutem, hie longam adulescentiam reddit, sloth weakens the body, toil strengthens it ; the former brings on premature old age, the latter renders youth long Note. Less frequently hie means the former and ille the latter. 540. Is, referring to what is either near or more remote, is a weaker demonstrative than the others, and is especially common as a personal pronoun of the third person (§ 531) or as the antecedent of a relative. rex auf ugit ; is est in provincia tua, the king has fled ; he is in your province id quod natfira cogit, that which nature compels 541. Is in the sense of such, of such a kind, is followed by a sub- junctive clause of description introduced by qui (§ 727). , non is sum qui mortis pericul5 terrear, / am not such as to be terrified, by the danger of death 542. Is combined with et or atque is translated and that too. vincula et ea sempiterna, chains and that too for life 543. Hie, ille, and is may point either back to something just mentioned or forward to something about to be mentioned. haec dixit, these things he said, or he spoke as follows 544. The English word that in the phrase that of is regularly omitted in Latin. Either the genitive construction is continued with- out the pronoun or the noun is repeated. classis Britannorum maior est quam Gallorum or quam classis Gallorum (but not quam ea Gallorum), the fleet of the Britons is larger than that of the Gauls Note. In expressions like him fleeing, those pursuing, etc., the pro- noun is left out in Latin : thus, fugientem (not eum fugientetn), sequentes (not eos, sequentes). Digitized by Microsoft® THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN IPSE 229 idem 545. Idem, the same, identifies 1 the person or thing in question with one just mentioned or about to be mentioned. eddem die, on the same day (as that before mentioned) 546. Idem qui or idem atque (ac) is translated the same as. f acis idem quod semper, you are doing the same as always 547. Idem is sometimes, best rendered also, too, yet, at the same time. dixi ego idem in senatu, / also said in the senate oratio splendida et eadem faceta, an oration brilliant and at the same time witty . THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN IPSE 548. Ipse, self, standing either alone or in agreement with another word, expresses emphasis or contrast. 549. Ipse is used alone, substantively, as follows : a. In the nominative to emphasize an omitted pronoun subject. ipsi recordamini, you yourselves remember ipse eum vidi, I myself saw him Note i. This use must be distinguished from that of the reflexive, especially as the word self is used in translating both. Thus, ipse se lau- dat, he himself praises himself contains both an intensive and a reflexive. Note 2. Ips8 usually agrees with the subject, even when the emphasis in English is on a reflexive in the predicate : as, me ipse consolor, / console myself. b. In the oblique 2 cases as an emphatic pronoun of the third person, id erat ipsis gloriosum, this was glorious for them themselves c. As an indirect reflexive pronoun (see § 522). 1 Idem is sometimes called the identifying pronoun. 2 The oblique cases include all except the nominative and vocative. Digitized by Microsoft® 230 RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 550. Ipse in agreement with a noun or pronoun is often best translated by very, even, exactly, just, in person, of his own accord. hoc ipso tempore, at this very time ipso die aderaut, they were present on the very day turpe mihi ipsi videbatur, even to me it seemed disgraceful Crassus triennio ipso minor erat quam Antonius, Crassus was just (or exactly) three years younger than Antony RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 551. Relative pronouns refer to a substantive called the antecedent and connect it with the clause which they introduce. The relation of the relative clause to its antecedent is an adjective relation, and the clause is regularly subordinate. Thus, in the sentence hi sunt Galli qui victi sunt, these are the Gauls who were conquered, the relative qui refers to Galli, its ante- cedent, and the relative clause qui victi sunt is subordinate and adjec- tive. The adjective relation is shown by the fact that an adjective may be substituted for the relative clause : as, hi sunt victi Galli, these are the conquered Gauls. Agreement of the Relative 552. A relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in gender and number, but its case is determined by its construc- tion in its own clause. legio quam secum habebat, the legion which he had with him pons qui ad Genavam erat, the bridge which was near Geneva leges quibus paremus, the laws which we obey a. A relative with two or more antecedents follows the rules for the agreement of predicate adjectives (§ 502). filius et filia quos dilexit, the son and daughter whom he loved otium atque dlvitiae, quae prima mortales putant, idleness and wealth, •which mortals count first (in importance) Digitized by Microsoft® RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 231 553. A relative regularly agrees with a predicate noun rather than with its antecedent. Thebae, quod est caput, Thebes, which is the capital. [Here quod agrees with caput and not with Thebae.] 554. The relative is sometimes attracted into the case of its antecedent. sub ifidice quo nosti, under a judge whom you know (quo for quern) Note. In poetry the antecedent may be attracted into the case of the relative. urban quam statuo vestra est (Vergil), the city which I am building is yoicrs 555. The relative sometimes agrees with the real meaning of its antecedent without regard to its grammatical form. equitatus qui viderunt, the cavalry who saw 556. When a relative refers to a clause or a whole sentence as its antecedent, quod, id quod, or quae res is used. quod exspectavi, iam sum adsecutus, ut vos omnes factam esse coniu- rationem videretis, what I waited for I have now attained, (namely) that you might all see that a conspiracy has been made. [Instead of quod, id quod or quam rem might have been used.] Antecedent of the Relative 557. The antecedent is often omitted when it is general, indefinite, or implied in a possessive pronoun. terra reddit quod accepit, the earth returns what it has received. [Antecedent is general.] sunt qui dicant, there are some who say. [Antecedent indefinite.] nostra qui remansimus caede, by the slaughter of us who remained. [Antecedent implied in nostra.] 558. The antecedent is sometimes repeated in the relative clause. erant itinera duo quibus itineribus domo exire possent, there were two routes by which (routes) they could leave home Digitized by Microsoft® 232 SPECIAL USES OF THE RELATIVE 559. The antecedent may stand in the relative clause, agree- ing with the relative in case. This arrangement is regular (i) when the relative clause is emphatic and stands first, or (2) when the antecedent is an appositive. (1) quam fecerat classem, iubet convenire, he orders the fleet which he had built to assemble quids res gessi, hie versibus attigit, the deeds I performed he touched up in verse (2) Roma, quam urbem amo, Rome, the city that I love Note. In the first case a demonstrative usually stands in the ante- cedent clause. quae pars clvitatis calamitatem intulerat, ea princeps poenas persolvit, that part of the state which had caused the disaster was the first to pay the penalty (lit. what part . . . that) 560. The superlative of an adjective belonging to the antecedent may stand in the relative clause. vasa ea quae pulcherrima apud eum viderat, those most beautiful vessels which he had seen at his house Special Uses of the Relative 561. The relative with an abstract noun may be used in a paren- thetical clause to characterize a person, like the English such. quae est vestra prudentia or qua prudentia es, such is your prudence (lit. which is your prudence or of which prudence you are) 562. The relatives qui, qualis, quantus, etc. are often rendered simply by as. eadem fortuna quae, the same fortune as talis dux qualis, such a leader as 563. The relative is never omitted in Latin, as it often is in English. liber quern mihi dedisti, the book you gave me Digitized by Microsoft® INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 233 564. A relative, referring to an antecedent in the preceding sentence, often stands at the beginning of a new sentence to connect it with the sentence that precedes. It is then translated by a demonstrative or personal pronoun, with or without and. nostrl non eadem alacritate utebantur. Quod ubi Caesar animadvertit etc., our men did not manifest the same eagerness. When Ca>sar discovered this etc. quae cum ita sint, (and) since this is so quae qui audiebant, (and) those who heard this Note. This is sometimes called the connecting relative. A similar use of the relative is occasionally found within a sentence. res loquitur ipsa, quae semper valet plurimum, the fact itself speaks, and this always has the greatest weight 565. The rules given for the relative qui apply in general also to qualis, of which kind, as; qualiscumque, of whatever kind ; qulcumque, whoever; and to relative adverbs, as, ubi, quo, unde, qua re. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 566. Quis, who? interrogative pronoun, and qui, of what sort? interrogative adjective, are used to refer to one or more of an indefinite number of objects. quis me vocat, who is calling me ? qui homo me vocat, what sort of man is calling me ? quae amicitia est, what kind of friendship is it ? Note. But quis may be used as an adjective instead of qui, and qui is sometimes used as a substantive for quis. quis gladiator inveniri potest, what gladiator can be found? 567. Uter, which ? is used as an interrogative pronoun or adjective referring to one of two persons or things. in utro haec virtus f uit, in Milone an in Clodio, in which of the two was this excellence, in Milo or in Clodius ? 568. Other interrogatives are : ecquis, any at all? any one? any? quantus, how great? qualis, of what kind? quot (indecl.), how many ? Digitized by Microsoft® 234 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS INDEFINITE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 569. Indefinite pronouns and adjectives indicate that some person, thing, or quality is meant, without closer definition. 570. Quis, substantive, some one, any one, and qui, adjective, some, any, are the weakest and vaguest of the indefinites. They never stand first in a clause, and usually follow si, nisi, ne, or num. si quid accidat, if any tiling should happen ne quam facultatem dimittat, that he may not lose any opportunity dixerit quis, some one may say Note. The distinction between quis and qui is not always maintained (cf. § 566. N.). 571. Aliquis, substantive, some one, (at least) one (as opposed to no one), and aliqui, adjective, some (as opposed to no), are rather more definite than quis, qui. aliqui ex navi, some from the ship qui in aliquo numero sunt, who are of some account Note. The distinction between aliquis and aliqui is not always maintained (cf. § 566. n.). 572. Quidam, substantive or adjective, a certain one, a certain, implies definite knowledge. For example, aliqui philosophi, some philosophers, is wholly in- definite ; but quidam philosophi, certain philosophers, means that the philosophers are known to the speaker and could be named by him or otherwise defined. quidam ex militibus dixit, a certain one of the soldiers said a. The adjective quidam in the sense of a sort of, a kind of, is often used to soften the meaning of a noun or adjective. dicendi singuliiris quaedam facultas, a kind of unique ability in m speaking Digitized by Microsoft® INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 235 Note. Sometimes, on the other hand, quidam intensifies the force of the adjective. alio guddam modo, in an entirely different way 573. Quisquam, substantive, any one (at all), and the corre- sponding adjective, ullus, any (at all), are used chiefly in nega- tive sentences, in questions expecting a negative answer, in conditions, and in clauses which follow a comparative. neque quisquam egredi audet, nor does any one dare to go forth cur quisquam iudicaret, why should any one judge? si quisquam est timidus, is ego sum, if any one is timid, I am he neque ulld necessitate continebantur, nor were they' restrained by any necessity num censes ullum periculum, you don't think there is any danger, do you ? saepius cum hoste conflixit quam quisquam cum inimico concertavit, he fought more often with the enemy than any one has contended with a personal foe Note. After si, nisi, ne, or num, quisquam is sometimes used instead of quis, and is rather more emphatic. si quisquam, if any one (ever) 574. Nemo, no one, is the negative of quisquam, any one, and nullus, no, is the negative of ullus, any. a. Nemo is sometimes used for nullus ; so regularly with adjectives used substantively. nemo Latinus, no Latin [man) ; not nullus Latinus nemo dives, no rich man ; not nullus dives b. Nullus is sometimes used for nemo, regularly so in the genitive and ablative singular (nullius, nullo) ; and in the plural it is often a substantive. nullius antes violavit, he has shocked the ears of no one in nullo flagrantius studium vidi, in no one have I seen more ardent zeal nullis est iucundior, to none is he more pleasing Note. In negative commands (§ 674), let no one is translated by ne quis. Digitized by Microsoft® 236 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 575. Nescio quis, some one or other (lit. I know not who), often expresses contempt. nescio quis loquitur, some one or ot?ier is speaking nescio quo pacto, somehow or other (lit. / know not in what way) Note. Observe that nescio, when thus used, does not change its form and has no effect on the construction of the words that follow it (§ 820). 576. Quisque, substantive or adjective, each one, each, is often used with pronouns, superlatives, ordinals, and with unus, usually immediately after them : a. With pronouns. quod cuique obtigit, id quisque teneat, what has fallen to each, that let each one keep se quisque diligit, each one loves himself suum cuique, to eqch one his own milites ad suum quisque oppidum redierunt, the soldiers returned, each to his own town b. With superlatives. optimus quisque ei favet, all the best men (lit. each best man) favor him antiquissimum quodque tempus, the most ancient ti?nes c. With ordinal numerals and Anus. decimus quisque miles, one soldier in ten (lit. each tenth soldier) prim5 quoque tempore, at the earliest possible time primum quidque, each thing z'« order finus quisque regum, each one of the kings 577. Uterque, substantive or adjective, as distinguished from quisque, means each of two. uterque utrique erat exercitus in conspectfl, each army was in sight of the other (lit. each to each) pugnatum est ab utnsque acriter, the contest was carried on vigorously by each side Digitized by Microsoft® PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES 237 PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES alius and alter 578. Alius, other, another, and alter, the other (or one of two), are used both substantively and adjectively. aliud iter nullum habebant, they had no other way itinera duo, unum per Sequanos, alteram per provinciam, two routes, one through the Sequani, the other through the province fuit claudus altero pede, he was lame in one foot a. Alter is generally used instead of secundus ; cf. § 171. b. Alienus is used instead of the genitive of alius to express possession. aliena domus, another's house 579. Alius and alter are often used in pairs as correlatives : alter . . . alter, the one . , , the other alteri . . . alteri, the one party . . . the other party , alius . . . alius, one . . . another alii . . . alii, some . . . others alteri dlmicant, alteri victorem timent, one party fights, the other fears the victor ■aliud est maledicere, aliud acciisare, it is one thing to slander, another to accuse alii vallum scindunt, alii fossam complent, some tear down the ram- part, others fill the ditch 580. Alius followed by alius in another case in the same sentence is used to express reciprocity of action or to express the idea that one does one thing and another does another. alius ex alio causam quaerit, they ask one another the reason alius aliud petit, one seeks one thing, another another (lit. another seeks another thing) alii aliam in partem fiigerunt, some fled in one direction, others in another (lit. others fled in another, direction) Note. The adverbs alias, alibi, alio, and aliter may be used in a similar way. alias alios deos precamur, we fray sometimes to one god, sometimes to another Digitized by Microsoft® 238 SYNTAX OF ADVERBS ceteri and reliqui 581. Ceteri mearft all the rest, all the others. Rem! frumento ceterisque rebus iuvant, the Remi assist with grain and everything else 582. Reliqui, the remaining, differs from ceteri in not emphasizing the fact that none is excepted. reliqua privata aedificia incendunt, they set fire to the remaining private buildings SYNTAX OF ADVERBS 583. An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjec- tive, or another adverb. facilius eis persuasit, he persuaded them more easily longe dftissimus fuit, he was far the richest minus late vagantur, they wa?ider less widely 584. Adverbs sometimes appear as modifiers of nouns, the word really modified being omitted for brevity. ignari ante malorum, ignorant of past misfo?'tunes (lit. igtwrant of misfortunes previously ', a word meaning endured being omitted) consul iterum, consul for the second time 585. Adverbs are sometimes used like adjectives. haec sunt palam, these facts are well known fit obviam Clodio, he falls in with Clodius duo talenta sunt satis, two talents are sufficient forte quadam dwinitus, by some providential clia7ice 586. Adverbs of quantity and place — satis, enough ; nimis, too much ; parum, too little ; ubi, where ; nusquam, nowhere ; etc. — are sometimes used as nouns and modified by a partitive genitive (§ 343). satis eloquentiae, sufficient (of) eloque?ice nimis insidiarum, too much (of) trickery mubi terrarum, where in the world? Digitized by Microsoft® USES OF ADVERBS 239 587. An adverb is often equivalent to a pronoun with a preposition. eo (= in iis) imponit vasa, upon them he puts the camp utensils apud eos quo (= ad quos) se contulit, among those to whom he went locus quo (= ad quem) aditus non erat, a place to which there was no access For the formation and comparison of adverbs see §§ 269 ff. SPECIAL ADVERBS AND THEIR USES 588. Etiam (et iam), also, even, still, and quoque, also, are strengthening adverbs, though quoque sometimes expresses merely addition. Etiam usually precedes the emphatic word ; quoque regularly follows it. etiam inermes armatis occurrerunt, even the unarmed ran to meet the armed Caesar quoque castra ponit, Ccesar also pitches camp 589. Ita and sic, so, in this way, thus, are generally used with verbs ; tam, so, expresses degree, and as a rule is used only with adjectives and adverbs. quae cum ita sint, since this is so sic se res habet, thus the matter stands tam necessario tempore, at so critical a time Note. Tam may be used with verbs also when correlative with quam. 590. Nunc, notv, at the present moment, refers to present time or to past time conceived as present. Iam, now, already, contrasts an existing condition in present, past, or future time with a preceding different condition. With the future, iam means presently ; with negatives, longer. Caesar nunc vincit, Casar is conquering now Caesar iam vincit, Casar is already conquering (he was not before) Caesar iam vincebat, Ccesar was already conquering (he had not been before) Caesar iam yincet,Ca;sar will conquer presently (he is notconquering now) non est iam lenitati locus, there is no longer room for mercy (there may have been before) Digitized by Microsoft® 240 USES OF ADVERBS 591. Primum means first, in the first place, in a series of events or acts. Primo means at first, as opposed to afterwards. hoc primum sentio, in the first place I think this aedis primo ruere rebamur, at first we thought the house was falling down Note. Primum or primo often means for the first time ; similarly tertium or tertio, for the third time ; quartum or quarto, for the fourth time ; etc. For the second time is expressed by iterum. a. Enumerations are introduced by primum or primo and may be closed by postremo or denique, finally, at last. The intervening steps are introduced by deinde, inde, or postea, secondly, next, later, followed by turn, then, repeated as often as necessary. primum mihi videtur de genere belli, deinde de magnitiidine, turn de imperatore deligendo esse dicendum, first it seems to. me that I should speak of the character of the war, next of its magnitude, then of the choice of a C07nmander Note. Instead of repeating turn, then, the ordinals in -urn may be used : as, quartum, fourth; quintum, fifth ; etc. 592. Quidem, indeed, to be sure, follows the word it empha- sizes. Often the clause with quidem makes a statement, which, while granted to be true, is shown by a succeeding statement, introduced by but (sed, autem, etc.), to have little value. amicum tuum non quidem odimus, sed certe non probamus, we do not to be sure hate your friend, but we certainly do not approve of him a. Ne . . . quidem means not even. The emphatic word or words must stand between ne and quidem. ne di quidem immortales pares eis sunt, not even the immortal gods are a match for them Note. Equidem is used like quidem, but is rare except with the first person. 593. Ne, surely (to be distinguished from the conjunction ne, lest, that not, not), is regularly followed by a personal or a demonstrative pronoun. nodlli vehementer errant, surely they are greatly mistaken Digitized by Microsoft® USES OF ADVERBS 241 NEGATIVE ADVERBS 594. The common negative adverbs are non, nS, and haud. Non is the usual negative, ne is used with certain subjunctives and the imperative, and haud with adjectives and adverbs and in the phrase haud scio an, I don't know but. Note. Nullus is sometimes used colloquially for non. 595. Two negatives cancel each other and are equivalent to an affirmative. non nulli, some (lit. not none) non nihil, something (lit. not nothing) non nemo, some one (lit. not no one) a. But when words of general negation, like non, nihil, numquam, etc., are followed by nee . . . nee, neque . . . neque, non modo, ne . . . quidem, the negation is not destroyed but is distributed among the separate subordinate members. numquam Scipionem ne minima quidem re offendi, never did I give offense to Scipio even in the smallest matter nemo umquam neque poeta neque orator fuit, there was never any one, either poet or orator Note. The proper translation of non modo . . . sed ne . . . quidem with a common verb in the second member is not only not . . . but 7iot even, non modo being used instead of non modo non. adsentatio non modo amico sed ne libero quidem digna est, flattery is not only not becoming to a friend but not even to a gentleman 596. In the second of two connected ideas, and not is regu- larly expressed by neque (nee), not by et non. So also nego, / deny, is preferred to dico non. hostes terga verterunt neque fugere destiterunt, the enemy turned and fled and did not stop fleeing negant quicquam esse bonum, they say that nothing is good (lit. they . deny that anything is good) * Digitized by Microsoft® 242 COPULATIVE CONJUNCTIONS SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS 597. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or' sentences. They are divided into two classes, coordinating and subordi- nating (§ 279). USE OF COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS 598. Coordinating conjunctions are of five varieties : I. Copulative. III. Adversative. II. Disjunctive. IV. Causal. V. Inferential. I. Copulative Conjunctions 599. Copulative conjunctions, meaning and, also, and not, unite similar constructions. The principal copulative conjunc- tions are et, -que, atque (ac), neque (nee). 600. Et, and, simply connects words or clauses. Castor et Pollux, Castor and Pollux cum coniugibus et llberls, with wives and children 601. The enclitic -que, and, is attached to the word that it connects, and combines more closely than et. senatus populusque Romanus, the senate and the Roman people (com- bining to form the governing power) ferro igntque, with fire and sword (the combined means of devastation) a. When -que connects a phrase or clause, it is usually attached to the first word of that phrase or clause ; but if the first word is a preposition, -que is usually attached to the second word. ob easque res supplicatio decreta est, and for these reasons a thanks- giving was decreed Nof e. The enclitic -que should not be attached to a word ending in c or e. Digitized by Microsoft® COPULATIVE CONJUNCTIONS 243 602. Atque or ac, and, and so, and what is more, generally throws some emphasis on what is added. Atque is used before either vowels or consonants ; ac, as a rule, only before consonants. omnia honesta atque inhonesta, all things honorable and, what is more, dishonorable ac Bibracte ire contendit, and so he hastened to go to Bibracte a. Atque or ac is used after words of likeness, unlikeness, or com- parison, in the sense of as, than. idem ac, the same as non secus (non aliter) ac si, not otherwise than if haud minus ac, no less than, just as alius ac, other than 603. Neque or nee, and not, neither, nor, is generally used for et non (§ 596) ; and neve or neu for et ne. ne abs te hanc segreges neu deseras, do not put her away from you nor desert her 604. Correlatives. Copulative conjunctions are often used in pairs, or are repeated in successive coordinate clauses. Yboth . . . and -que . . . -que J neque (nee) . . . neque (nee), neither . . . nor cum . . . turn, while . . . at the same time, not only . . . but also 605. Enumerations. In naming the members of a series, (1) all connectives may be omitted (see §619); (2) et may precede each member, or each but the first ; (3) -que may be attached to the last of the series. (1) pater, mater, filter, soror ] m ^^ and (2) (ef) pater et mater et f rater et soror y . (3) pater, mater, frater, sororque J Digitized by Microsoft® 244 DISJUNCTIVE CONJUNCTIONS II. Disjunctive Conjunctions 606. Disjunctive conjunctions, meaning or, and, as correla- tives (§610), eitker . . . or, offer a choice between objects. The principal disjunctive conjunctions are aut, vel, sive (seu). 607. Aut, or, has the power of excluding, and indicates that only one of the objects or ideas presented can be true, or, at least, that they are strongly contrasted or essentially different. animus aut est aut non est, the soul either exists, or it does not omne enuntiatum aut verum aut falsum est, every -proposition is either true or false 608. Vel, or, is the old imperative of volo, wish, and means literally wish, take your choice. It is used to connect objects or ideas that are not mutually exclusive, and indicates- that any one or all of them may be chosen. Catilinam ex urbe vel eiecimus vel emisimus, Catiline we have either cast out of the city or (if you choose) we have let him otit imbecilliores vel animo vel fortuna, inferior either in spirit or in fortune (meaning in either respect or in both) Note. Vel is sometimes an intensive particle meaning even, for instance : as, vel minimus, even the least. a. The enclitic -ve, or, is a weakened form of vel, and is used to express a distinction so unimportant as to be a matter of indifference. telum tormentumve, a weapon or an engine of war (it is unimportant which you call it) 609. Sive or seu, or, has about the force of vel, and is often used to connect alternative names for the same thing. hoc Plato sive quis alius dixit, Plato or some one else said this hie discessus swe potius turpissima fuga, this departure or rather this most disgraceful flight Forgive, or if, connecting conditions, see § 777. Digitized by Microsoft® ADVERSATIVE CONJUNCTIONS 245 610. Correlatives. Disjunctive conjunctions are often used in pairs, or are repeated in successive" coordinate clauses, aut . . . autl > eiti slve (seu) . . . sive (seu), whether . . . or , ? either . . . or vel . . . vel III. Adversative Conjunctions 611. Adversative conjunctions, meaning but, yet, however, etc., denote opposition or contrast. The principal adversative conjunctions are sed, verum, vero, autem, tamen, at. 612. Sed, the usual word for but, and verum, but in truth, but, are used to modify or oppose what precedes, especially after negatives (not this . . . but something else). nihil Sequani responderunt, sed taciti permanserunt, the Sequani made no reply, but remained silent non modo iniussu suo sed etiam inscientibus ipsis, not only against his orders but also without their knowledge pacem habebimus, verum cruentam, we shall have peace, but in truth a bloody one a. Both sed and verum may be used to mark a return to the main thought after a digression. sed (or verum) redeo ad rem, but I return to the subject 613. Vero (postpositive x ), bid, in fact, is generally stronger than sed or verum. haec sunt leviora, ilia vero gravia, these things are somewhat trivial, but those -weighty Note. Turn vero, then in truth, then verily, is used in narrative to in- troduce the climax or crisis of a series of events. lam vero marks a transition. turn vero clamore audito nostri acrius impugnare coeperunt, then verily, when they heard the shouting, our men began to fight more fiercely iam vero aegritudines oblivione leniuntur, but again, sorrows are healed by forgetfulness 1 A postpositive word is one that never begins a sentence, but stands after one or more words. Digitized by Microsoft® 246 CAUSAL CONJUNCTIONS 614. Autem (postpositive), however, moreover, now, is the weakest of the adversatives. It neither contradicts what pre- cedes nor marks a sharp contrast, but indicates merely a transition to a new thought. pro multitudine autem hominum etc., in proportion to the number of inhabitants, moreover, etc. 615. Tamen, nevertheless, declares something as true in spite of what precedes. It. may stand first or follow an emphatic word. locum reperit infinitum ; tamen hunc oppugnare contendit, he finds the place fortified j nevertheless he strives to storm it 616. At (old form ast) may be used like sed, verum, or vero, but is used especially to introduce (a) a new phase of a situa- tion or a new point in the argument, (b) the supposed objec- tion of an adversary, being then usually strengthened by enim, or (c) a change of scene or speaker. at dices etc., but you will say etc. ad navis tendebat Achates. At Cytherea etc., Achates hastened to the ships. But Cytherea etc. Note. For quamquam in the sense of and yet, however, see § 807. IV. Causal Conjunctions 617. The causal conjunctions, meaning for, explain or give the reason for a preceding statement. The principal causal conjunctions are nam, namque, enim, etenim. is pagus appellabatur Tigurinus ; nam civitas in quattuor pagos divisa est, that canton was called Tigurinus j for the state was divided into four cantons a. Enim is postpositive except in early Latin, where it means indeedpverily. Digitized by Microsoft® QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 247 V. Inferential Conjunctions 618. Inferential conjunctions, meaning therefore, and so, introduce the natural result or logical inference of what pre- cedes. The principal inferential conjunctions are ergo, igitur, itaque. Dumnorix novis rebus studebat. Itaque rem suscipit, Dumnorix was eager for a revolution. And so he undertook the business a. Igitur is usually postpositive. It is sometimes used to resume an interrupted narrative and may then be translated as I was saying. Subordinating conjunctions are discussed in connection with the various subordinate clauses introduced by them. ASYNDETON 619. Asyndeton is the omission of conjunctions between two or more coordinate words, phrases, or sentences where they would be naturally expected. The effect, except in a few common expressions like the names of the consuls in dates (as, L. PIsone A. Gablnio consulibus, in the consulship of Lucius Piso and Aulus Gabinius), is to produce rhetorical emphasis. iura, leges, agros, libertatem nobis reliquerunt, they have left us our rights, our laws, our fields, our liberty abiit, excessit, evasit, eriipit, he has gone, withdrawn, escaped, burst forth QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 620. Questions are either real or rhetorical. a. A real question is one that seeks for information, and the verb is in the indicative. quid facis, what are you doing ? b. A rhetorical question is interrogative in form, but does not seek ' information nor expect an answer. It answers itself and is, in fact, Digitized by Microsoft® 248 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS • an emphatic assertion of something. The verb is either indicative or subjunctive (§§ 678, 679). num etiam recentium iniuriarum memoriam deponere possum, / can't forget the recent wrongs too, can I ? [Equivalent to the assertion / can't forget them.~\ quid facerem, what was I to do ? [Equivalent to / couldn't do any- thing.] 621. Questions are either direct or indirect. a. A direct question retains the form used in asking it. quid est, what is it? ubi sum, where am If b. An indirect question reports the substance of a question in the form of a dependent clause. The verb is in the subjunctive (§ 812). rogo quid sit, I ask what it is nescit ubi sit, he does not know where he is Note. For exclamatory questions with the infinitive cf. § 843. 622. Questions either inquire as to the truth or falsity of something, and expect the answer yes or no ; or they inquire as to some detail or circumstance. "YES" OR "NO" QUESTIONS 623. " Yes " or " No " questions are introduced by -ne, nonne, or num as follows : a. By -ne (attached to the emphatic word), asking for information. mortemne timet, does he fear death ? or is it death that he fears ? b. By nonne, implying the answer yes. nonne mortem timet, doesn't he fear death ? c. By num, implying the answer no. num mortem timet, he does n't fear death, does he f Note. The particle -ne sometimes has the force of nonne, especially when added to the verb. meministTne me in senate dicere, don't you remember my saying in the senate ? Digitized by Microsoft® QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 249 624. " Yes " or " No " questions sometimes have no introductory word, especially if the first word of the question is non. mortem timet, does he fear death ? patere tua consilia non sentis, do you not see that your schemes are manifest ? non f ugis nine, do you not flee hence ? QUESTIONS OF DETAIL OR CIRCUMSTANCE 625. Questions inquiring into some detail or circumstance are introduced, as in English, by interrogative pronouns or adverbs. quid exspectas, what are you looking forward to ? quern socium defendistis, what ally have you defended? quando et quo Is, when and whither are you going ? 626. The enclitic -nam may be added to interrogative pronouns or adverbs for the sake of emphasis. quisnam est, who, pray, is it ? ubinam gentium sumus, where in the world are we ? ALTERNATIVE QUESTIONS 627. An alternative question is an inquiry as to which of two or more cases is true. It is introduced as follows : utrum . . . an I -ne ... an \ (whether) . . . or ... an J utrum haec vera an falsa sunt "I verane haec an falsa sunt I are these things true or false f haec vera an falsa sunt j Note. Observe that introductory utrum or -ne in a direct alternative question has no English equivalent. a. Or not is expressed by annon when the alternative question is direct, usually by necne when it is indirect (§ 817). utrum haec sunt vera annon, are these things true or not t rogat utrum haec sint vera necne, he asks whether these things are true or not Digitized by Microsoft® 2$0 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS b. Sometimes the first member of an alternative question is omitted, and an alone asks the question, usually with indignation or surprise. an invidiam posteritatis times, (or) do you fear the hatred of future years ? an Pamphilus venit, has Pamphilus really come ? 628. Alternative questions asking which of two things is true must be distinguished from single questions asking whether either is true. In the latter case or is expressed by aut or vel-. utrum nescis, an pro nihilo id putas, don't you know, or do you think nothing of it? [Alternative question.] estne urbs magna aut pulchra, is the city large or beautiful? [Single question.] num vel Caucasum transcendere potuit vel Gangem transnatare, could it either climb over the Caucasus or swim across the Ganges ? [Single question.] ANSWERS 629. There is no one Latin word meaning simply yes or no. a. The answer yes may be expressed by repeating the verb of the question, or by an affirmative, ad verb — vero, ita, etiam, sane, etc. valetne, is he well? valet, he is, or vero, truly b. The answer no is expressed by repeating the verb of the question with a negative, or by a negative adverb — non, minime, etc. valetne, is he well ? non valet, he is not well, or non, not so 630. The answer to an alternative question is expressed by repeating all or part of one member of it. utrum vidisti an audivisti, did you see it or hear it? egomet vidi, I saw it myself Digitized by Microsoft® AGREEMENT OF VERBS 251 SYNTAX OF VERBS AGREEMENT OF VERB AND SUBJECT Agreement with One Subject 631. A verb agrees with its subject in number and person. Romulus urbem condidit, Romulus founded the city hi omnes inter se differunt, all these differ from one another nos desumus, we are wanting a. In verb forms containing a participle, the participle agrees with the subject in gender as well as in number. Gallia est dlvlsa in partis tres, Gaul is divided into three parts 632. A verb sometimes agrees, not with its subject, but with a predicate noun or an appositive. amantium irae amoris integratio est, the quarrels of lovers are the renewal of love Corinthus lumen Graeciae exstlnctum est, Corinth, the light of Greece, has been put out 633. The verb sometimes agrees with the real meaning of the subject without regard to its grammatical form. multitudo abeunt, the multitude depart. [Number.] decern mllia occisi sunt, ten thousand were slain. [Gender.] Agreement with Two or More Subjects 634. Number. With two or more singular subjects the verb is regularly plural. pater et avus mortui sunt, his father and grandfather are dead a. The verb sometimes agrees with the nearest subject and is understood with the others. filia atque unus e filiis captus est, his daughter and one of his sons were captured Digitized by Microsoft® 252 AGREEMENT OF VERBS b. When subjects unite to make a single whole, the verb is singular. senatus populusque Romanus intellegit, the senate and the Roman people understand 635. With singular subjects connected by disjunctives (§ 606) the verb is usually singular. neque fides neque ius iurandum eum repressit, neither fidelity nor his oath restrained him 636. Person. When the subjects are of different persons, the verb is in the first person rather than the second and in the second rather than the third. si tu et Tullia valetis, ego et Cicero valanus, if you and Tullia are well, ' Cicero and J are well Note. Contrary to English usage, courtesy in Latin requires that the first person be mentioned first. So in the example above, Cicero and I is rendered ego et Cicero. 637. When the subject is a relative pronoun, the verb takes the person of the antecedent. adsum qui feci, here am I who did it 638. Gender. With subjects of different genders the parti- ciple in a verb form follows the rules for the agreement of predicate adjectives. See § 502. 2. Omission of Subject or Verb 639. The subject is omitted when it is an unemphatic personal pronoun (§ 511). putamus, we think dicunt, they say 640. The present indicative and infinitive of sum, and indic- ative tenses of other common verbs, are often omitted. tu coniunx, you (are) his wife quid multa, -why (say) much ? Aeolus haec contra, jEolus (spoke) thus in reply Digitized by Microsoft® TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE 253 MOODS AND TENSES IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES 641. The Moods express by the form of the verb the way in which the subject regards the action — as true, desired, doubtful, etc. ; and the Tenses express the time of the action. THE INDICATIVE MOOD 642. The indicative mood is used to state something as a fact or to inquire as to facts. This inherent function of the in- dicative is the same both in principal and in subordinate clauses. 643. Special Uses. The indicative is sometimes used where the English idiom would suggest the subjunctive (cf. § 797) : a. In expressions of duty, propriety, ability, and the like, especially when using the passive periphrastic conjugation. haec conditio non accipienda fuit, this condition should not have been accepted eum colere debuisti, you ought to have revered him multa dicere possum, I might say much b. In such expressions as longum est, it would be tedious; difficile est, it would be difficult ; melius fuit, it would have been better ; etc. longum est omnes nominare, it would be tedious to name them all Tenses of the Indicative 644. The tenses of the indicative are six in number : the present, past descriptive, 1 future, perfect (divided into present perfect 2 and past absolute 3 ), past perfect, 4 future perfect 645. The Latin tenses express : a. The period of time — present, past, or future. b. The kind of action — going on, completed, or indefinite as to continuation or completion. 1 Also called the imperfect. 8 Also called the perfect indefinite. 2 Also called the perfect definite. 4 Also called the pluperfect Digitized by Microsoft® 254 TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE 646. The Latin has no special forms for action indefinite as to continuation or completion ; hence, in some cases, the same form has a double use. TABLE OF TENSES TIME KIND OF ACTION Going on Completed Indefinite Present Pres. duco, / am leading Pres. Perf. duxi, I have led Pres. duco, I lead Past Past Descrip. ducebam, I was leading Past Perf. duxeram, T had led Past Absolute duxi, I led Future Fut. ducam, / shall be leading Fut. Perf. duxero, T shall have led Fut. ducam, / shall lead Present Indicative 647. The present indicative represents the action or state (a) as now existing or going on ; (b) as a general truth. (a) Germanl trans Rhenum incolunt, the Germans live across the Rhine (b) obsequium amicos parit, flattery gains friends Note. The present of a general truth is called the gnomic present. Special Uses of the Present 648. The Historical Present. In lively narration a past action is often expressed by the present. ad eum accurrunt atque docent, they ran up to him and pointed out etc. Caesar castra movet, Ccssar moved his camp Note. The historical present may be translated by either a present or a past tense. a. With dum meaning while, in the sense of during the time that, the historical present is regular (§ 763). dum haec geruntur, while this was going on Digitized by Microsoft® TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE 255' Note. A past tense with dum meaning while, all the time that, or as long as makes the time emphatic by contrast. dum eram voblscum, animum meum non videbatis, while I was with yoti, you did not see my soul. [Here the time when he was alive is con- trasted with that after death.] 649. The Conative Present. The present sometimes denotes an action attempted or merely begun. iam manu tenet, already he tries to seize him iensoaf ertur in hostis, he starts to rush into the thickest of the foe 650. The Present with iam diu etc. With iam, iam diu, iam dudum, etc. {already, now for a long time), the present is used in the sense of the English perfect to denote an action begun in the past and continuing in the present. iam diu ignoro quid agas, now for a long time I have not known what you were doing •te iam dudum hortor, I have been urging you now for a long time 651. The Annalistic Present. The present may be used for the perfect in a summary enumeration of past events. Roma interim crescit Albae ruinis : duplicator civium numerus ; Caelius additur urbi mons, Rome meanwhile grows as a result of the fall of Alba : the number of citizens is doubled; the C&lian hill is added to the town Past Descriptive * Indicative 652. The past descriptive indicative has two uses : (a) to denote an action going, on or repeated in past time ; (b) to describe a situation in past time or a past occurrence. (a) Galli inter -se obsides ddbant, the Gauls were giving hostages to each other se in proxima oppida recipiebant, they used to retreat to the nearest towns lb) erant omnino duo itinera, there were in all two ways palus erat non. magna, there, was a small marsh 1 Also called the imperfect. Digitized by Microsoft® 256 TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE Note. In its descriptive use the past descriptive is usually translated by the English past, since the English fails to distinguish between the past descriptive and the past absolute (§ 658. II). For example, Haedui graviter ferebant and Haedui graviter tulerunt are both rendered the Hczdui were annoyed; but the first sentence describes a situation, and the second merely states a fact. Special Uses of the Past Descriptive 653. The Conative Past Descriptive. The past descriptive, lilce the present, sometimes denotes an action attempted or merely begun. eum in exsilium eiciebam, I was trying to send him into exile nostras prohibebant, they tried to keep back our men 654. The Past Descriptive with iam diu etc. With iam, iam diu, iam dudum, etc. {already, now for a long time), the past descriptive is used in the sense of the English past perfect to denote an action or state continuing in the past but begun at some previous time (cf. § 650). • domicilium Romae iam diu habebat, he had now for a long time had his residence at Rome Future Indicative 655. The future indicative denotes an action or state that will take place or be going on in future time. meam Hbertatem recuperabo, I shall regain my freedom mea exit culpa, it will be my own fault Note. The distinction felt in English between shaft and will in the first person is usually disregarded in Latin, both ideas being expressed by the same future form. Thus moriar may mean, according to context, / shall die (futurity) or / will die (determination). 656. The future may have the force of an imperative, tu hodie apud me cenabis, you will dine with me to-day 657. The English present is often used for the future. We say, for example, if he comes, meaning if he shall come. This use of the present is rare in Latin, the more regular future being preferred. Digitized by Microsoft® TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE 257 Perfect Indicative 658. The perfect indicative has two distinct uses : I. As the present perfect 1 it represents the action as com- pleted in present time, and is rendered by the English perfect with have. nunc opus exegi, now I have finished my work ut supra demonstrdvimus, as we have shown above II. As the past absolute 2 it represents the action as having taken place at some undefined point of past time, and is ren- dered by the English past. is coniiirationem nobilitatis fecit, he made a conspiracy of the nobility eo exercitum duxil, he led his army thither veni, vidi, vici, / came, I saw, I conquered a. In narrative the perfect (or historical present) tells the leading events, while the past descriptive describes the circumstances that attended these events (cf. § 652. b). planities eiat magna et in ea tumulus satis grandis. Hie locus aequo fere spatio ab castris Ariovisti et Caesaris aberat. Eo ad conlo- quium venerunt, there was a large plain and on it a hill of con- siderable size. This place was about equally' distant from the camp of Ariovistus and that of Ccesar. Thither they came for a conference. [Note the two sentences describing a place followed by the sentence stating what happened there.] Special Uses of the Perfect 659. The perfect is sometimes used to contrast a past condition of things with a present condition. f ilium habeo, immo habuf, I have a son; no, I had one fuimus Troes, fuit Ilium, we have ceased to be Trojans, Ilium is no more (lit. we were Trojans, Ilium was) 1 Sometimes called the perfect definite. 2 Sometimes called the historical perfect or perfect indefinite. Digitized by Microsoft® 258 TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE 660. The present perfect sometimes denotes a present state resulting from a completed act. Such a perfect is rendered by the present. Among these perfects are : memini, / remember (I have called to mind) novi or cognovi, / know (I have learned) odi, / hate consuevi, I am accustomed {I have grown accustomed) Note. The past perfect and future perfect of such verbs are rendered by the past descriptive or the perfect and by the future respectively. noveram, 7" knew, I have known novero, I shall know Past Perfect 1 Indicative 661. The past perfect indicative denotes an action or state completed in past time. omnes civitates defecerant, all the states had revolted Future Perfect Indicative 662. The future perfect indicative denotes an action or state that will be completed in future time. ego certe meum officium praestitero, I at least shall have done my duty 663. Latin is far more exact than English in the use of tenses. Hence the future perfect is much commoner in Latin than in English. It may be used to translate an English future or even an English present, when exactness of expression demands a future perfect : thus, when you come, you will find out is translated cum veneris, cognosces. Epistolary Tenses 664. In letters the writer, instead of using tenses suited to the time of writing, sometimes uses tenses that will be suit- able when his letter is received. Tenses so used are called epistolary. .-. • :.-- • ? • .-,--v>rjj Jds&^led'the pluperfect. " '-'■■-■ '--■"'•>'i ■ Digitized by Microsoft® TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE 259 Thus he may use the past descriptive or the perfect for actions and events that are present, and the past perfect for those that are past. nihil habebam quod ad te scriberem ;' ad tuas omnis epistulas iam rescripseram, I have nothing to write to youj I have already answered all your letters (lit. I had nothing to write to you ; I had already etc.) THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 665. The Latin subjunctive 1 is used to express something as willed, as desired, or as possible. It is found both in independent and in subordinate clauses. Tenses of the Subjunctive 666. The tenses of the subjunctive are four in. number : the present, past, 2 perfect, and past perfect. 3 667. The four tenses of the subjunctive have in general the same temporal -force as the corresponding tenses of the indicative. video quid facias, I see what you ai'e doing videbam quid faceres, I saw what you were doing video quid fecerfs, I see what you have done videbam quid fecisses, I saw what you had done 1 The Latin subjunctive is the result of the fusion of two distinct moods of the Indo-European parent speech, the subjunctive and the optative, and Kas kept the characteristic meanings of each. The Indo-European subjunc- tive expressed (a) the will of the speaker, (b) futurity; the Indo-European optative expressed (a) the wish of the speaker, (b) possibility. The Latin sub- junctive inherited all these powers, but its use as a pure future (like the future indicative) disappeared at an early period, except in certain kinds of subordi- nate clauses, and even here the future force of the mood may perhaps be traced to a different origin. 2 Also called the imperfect. 3 Also called the pluperfect. Digitized by Microsoft® 260 THE VOLITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 668. The subjunctive lacks the future and the future perfect, but any subjunctive tense may in some constructions express futurity. (See also § 698. a, b.) peream, may J perish / quid faciam, what shall I do f rogavi quid facerem, I asked what I should do dixerit aliquis, some one may say demonstravit, si venissent, multos interituros, he showed that if they should come {should have come), many would perish a. The place of the future is supplied by the subjunctive present or past of the active periphrastic conjugation (§ 249. a) whenever the use of the ordinary subjunctive forms would be ambiguous. video quid facturus sis, I see what you will (are going to) do videbam quid facturus esses, I saw what you would (were going to) do 669. In wishes (§ 681. II. 1) and in conditions contrary to fact (§ 786) the past subjunctive refers to the present. The Subjunctive in Independent Sentences 670. The subjunctive in , independent sentences represents an act or state as — Willed — the volitive subjunctive. Desired — the optative subjunctive. Possible — the potential subjunctive. 1 The Volitive Subjunctive 671. The volitive subjunctive represents an act or state as willed, implying authority. This subjunctive comprises : I. The Hortatory. III. The Concessive. II. The Jussive. IV. The Deliberative. 1 The potential subjunctive is often called the subjunctive of contingent futurity. Digitized by Microsoft® THE VOLITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 261 I. The Hortatory Subjunctive 672. The hortatory subjunctive expresses an exhortation, regularly in the first person plural of the present. The negative is ne. proficlscamur, let us set out optemus potius quam queramur, let us pray rather than complain ne hos latrones interficiamus, let us not kill these robbers n& dicto paredmus, let us not obey the order II. The Jussive Subjunctive 673. The jussive subjunctive expresses a command or a prohibition. The negative is ne. 674. In commands the jussive subjunctive is regularly con- fined to the present, third person singular or plural. obsides reddat, let him return the hostages Aeolus regnet, let sEolus reign seceddnt improbi, secemant se a bonis, let the wicked depart, let them separate themselves from the good desinant Insidiari consul!, let them cease lying in wait for the consul a. The second person of the jussive subjunctive is used only of an indefinite subject and in poetry. isto bono utSre dum adsit, use that blessing while it is present doceas iter (Vergil), show us the way remittas quaerere (Horace), cease to question 675. In prohibitions the jussive subjunctive with ne is in the second person, singular or plural. The tense may be either present or perfect, with no apparent difference in meaning. ne metuds, don't fear ne mentions, don't lie hoc ne feceris, don't do this ne despexeris, do not despise But neither of these forms of expression is common in classic prose. Digitized by Microsoft® 262 THE VOLITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 676. Prohibition is regularly expressed in two ways : a. By noli (singular) or nolite (plural) with the present infinitive. noli putare, don't think (lit. be unwilling to think) noli me tangere, don't touch me b. Less commonly by cave (take care), cave ne, or fac ne (see to it lest), with the present subjunctive (§ 720). cave (ne), or fac ne, putes, take care not to think (lit. take care, or see to it, lest you think) For the imperative in prohibitions see § 690. a. n. III. The Concessive Subjunctive 677. The subjunctive may be used to concede or grant something for the sake of argument. The present is used for present time, the perfect for past. The negative is ne. sit fur ; at est bonus imperator, grant that he is a thief, yet he is a sit Scipio ille clarus, grant that Scipio is famous ne fuerit talis aliis, suppose that he was not such to others sit hoc malum, non summum certe est malum, grant that this is an evil, certainly it is not the greatest evil IV. The Deliberative Subjunctive 678. The subjunctive is used in rhetorical questions (§ 620. b) of surprise, perplexity, or indignation, expecting no reply. 1 1 This use of the volitive subjunctive, beginning with questions asked by the speaker in regard to the will or desire of the person addressed, developed into questions no longer volitive but deliberative, in which the speaker is in doubt and deliberates on the proper course to pursue. A further step leads to the usual meaning covered by the rule above, where the questions are purely rhetorical or exclamatory. The name deliberative is generally given to all these idioms, though applicable to only one of them. quid faciam, what do you desire me to do ? [Volitive.] quid faciam, what am J to do ? [Deliberative.] \xxii faciam, what shall I do ? [Rhetorical or Exclamatory.] Digitized by Microsoft® THE OPTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 263 The present is used of present time, the past of past time. The negative is non. 1 quid agaml quo me vertam, what shall I do ? whither shall I turn ? quam rationem pugnae Tnsistam, what p Ian of battle shall I adopt? quid dicerem, what was I to say ? cur ego non laeter, why should I not rejoice ? 679. The indicative is sometimes used in deliberative questions. quid ago, what am I to do ? dedemus ergo Hannibalem, shall we then surrender Hannibal? The Optative Subjunctive 680. The optative subjunctive is used to express a wish. The negative is ne. 681. I. The present subjunctive (with or without utinam) denotes a wish as possible. sis f elix, may you be happy falsus utinam vates sim, may I be a false prophet di omen avertant, may the gods avert the omen ne vivam, si scio, may I not live, if I know Note. Utinam, uti, or ut (§ 682), introducing a wish, do not appear in the translation. II. 1. The past subjunctive with utinam denotes a wish unattained in present time. utinam Clodius viveret, would that Clodius were now alive (but he is n't) 2. The past perfect subjunctive with utinam denotes a wish unattained in past time. utinam omnis eduxisset, would that he had led them all out (but he did n't) utinam ne mortuus esset, would that he had not died 1 The use of non instead of ne, the regular negative with the volitive, may be due to the fact that most of these questions have lost their volitive character. Digitized by Microsoft® 264 THE POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE 682. Uti or ut is sometimes used instead of utinam in poetry and in early Latin. ut pereat robigine telum (Horace), may the weapon perish with rust 683. In poetry si or o si with the subjunctive sometimes expresses a wish. o si angulus ille accedat (Horace), O if that corner might only be added The Potential Subjunctive 684. The potential subjunctive 1 represents an act or state as possible or conceivable . The negative is non. Note. There is no single English equivalent for this subjunctive ; it must be rendered, according to circumstances, by the auxiliaries would, should, may, might, can, could. 685. The present and perfect of the potential subjunctive denote an existing possibility, the past 2 denotes a past possi- bility no longer existing. nemo dicat or dixerit, no one would say diceres, you would have said Note. Rarely the past perfect is used, instead of the past, to refer to what might have been but is not. 686. The potential subjunctive has three uses : a. The potential subjunctive is used in the first person singular, present or perfect, of verbs of saying, wishing, or thinking to make a softened or cautious assertion. pace tua dlxerim, I would say by your leave velim ita putare, / should like to think so nolim eum laudare, / should be unwilling to praise him ego censeam, I should think 1 Also called the subjunctive of contingent futurity. 2 Compare the use of the past subjunctive in conditions contrary to fact (§786f Digitized by Microsoft® THE IMPERATIVE MOOD 265 6. The potential subjunctive is used in the indefinite second person singular, present or more frequently past, of verbs of saying, believing, seeing, and the like. reos diceres, you would have said they were culprits crederes victos, you would have believed them conquered videres susurros, you might have seen them whispering (lit. whispers) c. The potential subjunctive is used in any tense, person, or number to express something as possible or conceivable. The subject is often . an indefinite pronoun. aliquis dlcat, some one may say nil ego contulerim arnica, I should compare nothing to a friend quid dvcisset, what would he have said? quis tempereta. lacrimis, who could refrain from tears? 687. The potential subjunctive may be regarded as the conclusion of a conditional sentence with the condition understood. See § 7 7 4. 688. The indicative is used in certain expressions when the potential subjunctive might have been expected. See § 643. THE IMPERATIVE MOOD 689. The imperative is the mood of command or request. The negative is nS. 690. The tenses of the imperative are two in number, the present and the future. a. The present imperative demands immediate action. desiUte, commilitones, leap down, comrades muta istam mentem, change that purpose of yours egredere ex urbe, depart from the city Note. The present with ne to express prohibitions is found only in early Latin and in poetry. For the regular expression of prohibitions see § 676. Digitized by Microsoft® 266 SEQUENCE OF TENSES b. The future imperative is used in commands demanding future action and in laws and precepts. eras petito, ask to-morrow Phyllida mitte, postea ipse venilo, send Phyllis, afterwards come yourself praetor custos esto, the prcetor shall be the guardian borea flante, ne arato, when the north wind blows, don't plow 691. The verbs scio, memini, and habeo (in the sense of consider) are used in the future imperative instead of in the present. memento Horati Flacci, be mindful of Horatius Flaccus sic habeto, mi Tiro, so consider it, my good Tiro For the future indicative used as imperative see § 656. MOODS AND TENSES IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 692. Tenses are divided into two classes, — primary and se& ondary. Primary tenses denote present or future time. Second, ary tenses denote past time. f Present . „ . I Future I. Primary tenses-! _ _ . Present Perfect [Future Perfect f Past Descriptive (Imperfect) II. Secondary tenses-! Past Absolute (Historical Perfect) [ Past Perfect (Pluperfect) 693. In the subjunctive the present and perfect tenses are primary, the past and past perfect are secondary. 694. The tense class of a subjunctive in a dependent clause is determined by the tense class of the verb in the principal clause 1 . This relationship is called sequence of tenses. Digitized by Microsoft® SEQUENCE OF TENSES 267 695. The following is the general rule for the sequence of tenses : When the principal verb is primary, a dependent subjunctive will be present or perfect; when the principal verb is secondary, a dependent subjunctive will be past or past perfect. Regular Sequence of Tenses 696. In dependent clauses the tenses of the subjunctive represent the action as taking place, as going to take place, or as having taken place at the time denoted by the principal verb. The kind of action denoted by the tenses of the verb in the dependent clause, and the sequence of tenses, are shown in the following table : Principal Verb Dependent Subjunctive Action going on Future Action Past Action >• a < % 2 Present Future Present Perfect Future Perfect Present (After any pri- mary tense) Present or Per- fect (After any pri- mary tense) Perfect (After any pri- mary tense) « Q Z O W Past Descriptive Past Absolute Past Perfect Past (After any sec- ondary tense) .Past or Past Perfect (After any sec- ondary. tense) Past Perfect (After any sec- ondary tense) 697. Sequence of tenses is illustrated in the table on the next page. 698. In applying the rules for the use and sequence of the tenses of the subjunctive, observe especially the following points : a. The future is supplied by the present subjunctive' after primary tenses and by the past subjunctive after secondary tensfes. exspectant quid Caesar faciat, they wait to see what Ccesar will do exspectabant quid Caesar faceret, they waited to see what Casar would do Digitized by Microsoft® 268 SEQUENCE OF TENSES V ^r Ja •** c •1 1 55 § 1 o riT "W «T " 3 ts s t3 §> §. fa H o a D m C quid fa •.at you quid fa what what done 5 w H fa O w u & 73 H Z M Z W Oh a < V 3 3 fa id facias or rus sis, mto id feceris, ze>/, ^a zte done id faceres or rus esses, . would do id fecisses, would have .Q % g. & & ts . C ** Sp' »«S . s O HO 5) .« 8 ^ 8 | fa O o 'o bo c 1 « GO *u '£ £ >2 a W o *■ a CL, s < w § « <-> >*! PC ~«a asked or ked T had as f It > < all ask ve aske shall &. C gabam, / asking gavi, 1 as. gaveram, z P- go, I as gabo, / gavi, / gavero, asked o o o o o o o h h h h u u u Aavraraj AHVdNooag Digitized by Microsoft® SEQUENCE OF TENSES • 269 b. The future perfect is supplied by the perfect subjunctive after primary tenses and by the past perfect subjunctive after secondary tenses. demonstrat, si venerint, multos interituros, he shows that if they come (shall have come), many will perish demonstravit, si venissent, multos interituros, he showed that if they should come (should have come), many would perish c. When a clearer reference to future time is necessary, the active periphrastic forms in -finis sim and -firus essem are employed. exspectant quid Caesar facturus sit, they wait to see what Casar will do exspectabant quid Caesar facturus esset, they waited to see what Casar would do Note. This is the usual form of expression in future indirect questions (§ 815). d. After a primary teflse the perfect subjunctive is used to denote any past action. , , J r I have written non dubito quin omnes scrips&rint, I do not doubt that all-i wrote [ were writing Peculiarities in the Sequence of Tenses 699. The present perfect is ordinarily treated as a secondary, tense and is followed by a secondary tense of the subjunctive. ut satis esset praesidi provisum est, provision has been made that there should be ample guard a. When present time is clearly in mind, the present perfect is followed by a primary tense. ita didicimus ut magis virtute quam insidiis contendamus, we have been so trained that we fight more by valor than by stratagems 700. The historical present (§ 648) takes either the primary or the secondary sequence. roirat ut haec I °" ret \ he -[ aS , S , Y him to attend to these matters 6 \curaret J {asked) Digitized by Microsoft® 270 • SEQUENCE OF TENSES 701. A general truth after a secondary tense follows the rule for sequence of tenses. quanta conscientiae vis esset ostendit, he showed how great the strength of conscience is 702. In clauses of result the perfect subjunctive is very often (the present rarely) used after a secondary tense. ita non timidus fuit ut f ortiter pugnaverit, he was so fearless that he fought bravely Hortensius ardebat tanta cupiditate dicendi ut in nullo umquam fla- grantius studium viderim, Hortensius burned with so great a desire for speaking that I have never seen a more burning ardor in any man a. Occasionally the same irregular use of the perfect subjunctive appears in other clauses. cum multiis horas pugnatum sit, aversum hostem videre nemo potuit, though the conflict raged for many hours, no one could see an enemy in retreat 703. A dependent perfect infinitive is usually followed by a secondary tense, even when the principal verb on which the infinitive depends is in a primary tense. satis mini multa verba fecisse videor qua. re hoc bellum esset necessa- rium, T seem to have made it sitfficiently clear why this war is necessary 704. The past and past perfect subjunctive in conditions contrary to fact (§§ 786, 793) are not affected by the sequence of tenses. non dubito quin ad me venires, si posses, I do not doubt that you would come to me if you could 705. When a subjunctive depends on a subjunctive, the sequence is as follows : a. The present subjunctive is regularly followed by primary tenses. b. The past, perfect, and past perfect subjunctive are followed by secondary tenses. Digitized by Microsoft® SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 271 nescio quid causae sit cur nullas ad me litteras des(dederh, daturus sis), I do not know what the reason is why yon send (have sent, will send) me no letter nescio quid causae fuerit cur nullas ad me litteras dares (dedisses, daturus esses), I do not know what the reason was why you sent (had sent, would send) me no letter nesciebam quid causae -i . A- cur nullas ad me litteras dares (dedisses, daturus esses), I did not know what the reason \ , . , \whv I, had been J J you sent (had sent, would send) me no letter 706. When a subjunctive clause depends on a present or future infinitive, a supine, gerund, or participle, its tense class is regulated by the tense class of the verb in the 'principal clause. confido me quod velim facile a te impetraturum esse, / trust I shall easily obtain from you what I wish constitueram venire ut te viderem, I had made up my mind to come to see you miserunt Delphos consultum (supine) quidnam facerent, they sent to Delphi to ask what they should do Note. For the sequence of tenses after the perfect infinitive see § 703. 707. Though the laws of tense sequence are in general closely observed, they are not inflexible, and many irregularities occur. These are often due to a desire for rhetorical effect and sometimes to careless writing. DEVELOPMENT OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 708. In the early stages of language there were no subordi- nate clauses, but only coordinate independent sentences. From these subordinate clauses were a gradual development. For example, timeo ne veniant consisted originally of two inde- pendent sentences, I fear. May they not come. Later, ne veniant was felt as a subordinate clause, and thus was developed the com- plex sentence I fear that they will come (lit. lest they may come). Digitized by Microsoft® 272 SUBORDINATE CLAUSES Kinds of Subordinate Clauses 709. From independent sentences with the indicative or subjunctive were developed three kinds of subordinate clauses : I. Adverbial clauses, expressing various adverbial relation- ships and introduced by conjunctive adverbs. venio ut Caesarem laudem, I come to braise Casar II. Adjective clauses, used to qualify some noun or pronoun nd introduced by the relative qui or by a relative adverb. legatum mittit qui haec curet, he sends Ms lieutenant to see to these matters Note. These are usually called relative clauses. III. Substantive, or noun, clauses, used as subject, object, predicate noun, or appositive. accidit ut Galli consilium mutarent, it happened that the Gauls changed their plan. [Substantive clause used as subject.] The Indicative or Subjunctive in Subordinate Clauses 710. Both the indicative and the subjunctive are used in subordinate clauses. The uses of the subjunctive are all developed from the three meanings (volitive, optative, and potential) that this mood has in principal clauses (§ 670). 711. The indicative or subjunctive is used in subordinate clauses to express — 1. Purpose (subjunctive ; §712). 2. Description or characteristic (subjunctive; § 726). 3. Consequence or result (subjunctive ; §731). 4. Time (indicative or subjunctive ; §743). 5. Cause (indicative or subjunctive ; §767). 6. Condition (indicative or subjunctive; § 772). 7. •Comparison (subjunctive; § 803). Digitized by Microsoft® CLAUSES OF PURPOSE 273 8. Concession (indicative or subjunctive ; § 805). 9. Proviso (subjunctive ; §811). 10. Indirect questions (subjunctive ; §812). 11. Facts introduced by quod (indicative ; §821). 12. Indirect discourse (subjunctive ; §886). Subjunctive Clauses of Purpose 712. The subjunctive is used in adverbial, relative, and substantive clauses to express purpose. I. Adverbial Clauses of Purpose 713. An adverbial clause denoting purpose takes the sub- junctive, and is introduced by ut or uti, that, in order that, or ne, that not, in order that not, lest. Caesar equ5s retnovit ut spem fugae totteret, Ccesar removed the horses that he might take away the hope of flight ibi tormenta conlocavit ne hostes suos circumvenire possent, there he placed his engines of war that the enemy might not be able to surround his men ne graviori bello occurreret, ad exercitum proficiscitur, he set out for the army that he might not meet with too serious a war non nulll, ut timoris suspjcionem vita.re.nt, remanebant, some remained (in order) to avoid the suspicion of fear Note. Purpose clauses are often called final clauses. The subjunctive of purpose is volitive (§ 671) in origin. a. Ut non may be used for ne when the negative applies to a single word or phrase and not to the whole clause. ut non eiectus sed invltatus isse videaris, that you may seem to have gone not expelled but invited b. Ut ne is stronger than ne alone. exstitl ut ne omnino desertus esset, / appeared that he might not be entirely deserted Digitized by Microsoft® 274 CLAUSES OF PURPOSE c. And that not, and lest, or that not are regularly expressed by neve or neu. id fecit ne poenas daret neve quid detriment! acciperet, lie did this that he might not receive punishme7it and that he might not suffer any harm niintios misit ne Helvetios frumento neve alia, re iuvarent, he sent messengers that they might not assist the Helvetii with grain or anything else aliae sublicae supra pontem agebantur ut earum rerum vis minueretur neu ponti nocerent, other piles were driven above the bridge that* the violence of those things might be diminished or that they might not injure the bridge 714. Subjunctive clauses with ut or ne are sometimes inserted parenthetically. ac ne longum sit, tabellas proferri iussimus, and, not to be tedious, we ordered the tablets to be produced optima vitae, ut ita dlcam, supellex, the best furniture, so to speak, of life Note. The subjunctive may be regarded as depending on some unex- pressed verb : as, (I speak thus) in order not to be tedious. II. Relative Clmises of Purpose 715. A relative clause denoting purpose takes the subjunctive. Helvetii legatos mittunt qui dicerent, the Helvetii sent -ambassadors to say (lit. who should say) sarmenta colligunt quibus f ossas expleant, they gather fagots with which to fill the ditches scribebat orationes quas alii dicerent, he wrote speeches for others to deliver dies dicta est qua omnes convenirent, a day was appointed on which all should assemble Note. In this construction qui is equivalent to ut is, ut ego, etc. ; and the subjunctive, as in ut clauses of purpose, is volitive (§ 671) in origin. 716. A relative clause of purpose is often introduced by the relative adverbs ubi (= ut ibi), where ; unde (= ut inde), whence ; quo (= ufreo), whither; etc. Digitized by Microsoft® CLAUSES OF PURPOSE 275 domum ubi habitant legit, he chose a house where he might dwell (equivalent to in order that he might dwell there) habebam quo confugerem, I had a place to flee to (lit. whither I might flee ; equivalent to in order that I might flee thither) 717. The adjectives dignus, indignus, and idoneus are followed by a relative clause of purpose. mine Caesar idoneum iudicavit quern mitteret, Ctzsar judged him a suit- able person to send (lit. whom he might send) hi librl sunt digni qui legantur, these books are worth reading (lit. worthy which should be read) 718. The ablative quo is used as a conjunction in purpose clauses which contain a comparative. manipulos laxare iussit quo facilius gladiis uti possent, he gave orders to open the ranks that they might be able to use their swords more easily castella communit quo facilius hostis prohibere posset, he fortified the redoubts that he might the more easily be able to ward off the enemy Note i. In this construction quo is really an ablative of the measure of difference (§475). Note 2. Quo rarely introduces a purpose clause containing no com- parative. Sulla exercitum, quo sibi fidum faceret, lfixuriose habuerat, Sulla had treated the army luxuriously, in order to make it devoted to him Note 3. For quo minus (= ut eo minus) after verbs of hindering see § 720. III. 1 III. Substantive Clauses of Purpose 719. Substantive clauses developed from the volitive or optative subjunctive are generally designated as substantive clauses of purpose, and are conveniently classified together under this name. But in many cases no idea of purpose is perceptible and the mood is due to some original volitive or optative use which may never have denoted purpose at all. Note. Compare, substantive clauses of result (§ 736). Digitized by Microsoft® 276 CLAUSES OF PURPOSE 720. Object Clauses of Purpose. Object clauses with the subjunctive are used after verbs denoting an action directed toward the future. Thus : I. Object clauses with the subjunctive, introduced by ut or ne, are used after verbs meaning to advise, ask, command, decide, permit, persuade, strive, urge, wish, and the like. monet ut omnes suspiciones vitet, he advises him to avoid all suspicion te rogo atque oro ut eum iuves, I ask and beseech you to help him suis imperavit ne quod telum reicerent, he commanded his men not to throw back any weapon persuadet Castico ut regnum occuparet, he persuaded Casticus to seize the royal power hortatur eos tie deficiant, he urges them not to fail a. Iubeo, order, and veto, forbid, regularly take the infinitive with subject accusative. Uberos ad se adduci iussit, he ordered the children to be brought to him legatos discedere vetuerat, he had forbidden the lieutenants to go away bl Volo (nolo, malo) and cupio generally take the infinitive ; so also other verbs of wishing when the subject remains the same. rex fieri volul, / wished to become king cupio me esse clementem or cupio esse Clemens, / desire to be merciful cupio ut impetret, I wish he may get it. [The subject changes.] c. Conor, try, and patior, permit, regularly take the infinitive. flumen transire conantur, they try to cross the river per suos finis eos ire patiuntur, they allow them to pass through their territory d. Many of these verbs take either the subjunctive or the infini- tive ; and some, retaining an earlier form of expression, may take the subjunctive without ut. Caesar statuit proficisci, Ccesar decided to set out. [Note the infinitive.] statuunt ut decern milia hominum mittant, they decide to send ten thousand men. [Note the subjunctive.] *ogat finem faciat, he asks him to cease Digitized by Microsoft® CLAUSES OF PURPOSE 277 II. Object clauses with the subjunctive are used after verbs of fearing — metuo, timeo, vereor, etc. The object clause is introduced by ne, translated by that, and n6 non or ut, translated by that not} timeo ne Verres hoc fecerit, I fear that Verres has done this vereor ne non veniat, I fear that he is not coming vereor ut possim, I fear that I cannot Note. When the verb of fearing is negatived, ne non is preferred to ut. non vereor ne tua virtus opinion! hominum non respondeat, / do not fear that your worth will not equal popular expectation a. Verbs of fearing are often followed by the complementary infinitive, as in English. vereor te laudare, I fear to praise you III. Object clauses with the subjunctive are used after verbs of hindering, opposing, refusing' — deterreo, prohibeo, i'mpedio, retineo, recuso, etc. The object clause is introduced by ne, quin, or quominus (quo minus). Ne or quominus is used when the main clause is affirmative, quin or quominus when it is negative or implies a negative. prohibent nefiat, they prevent it from being done deterret ne maior multitiido traducatur, he prevents a larger number from being brought over nihil impedit quominus id faciamus, nothing hinders us from doing that German! retineri non poterant quin tela conicerent, the Germans could not be restrained from hurling their weapons neque recusant quin armis contendant, nor do they refuse to fight a. Some of these verbs may take the infinitive. nostros ingredi prohibebant, they prevented our men from entering 1 Originally timeo; ne accidat meant I fear; may it not happen (§680). When the sentence becomes complex (§ 300), the English equivalent is I fear that it will happen. The origin of the ut clause after verbs of fearing is similar, vereor; ut accidat meaning originally I fear; may it happen (ut introducing a wish and not appearing in the translation, cf. § 682) ; then, I fear that it will not happen. The translation of ut by that not and of ne by that is therefore due only to the demands of the English idiom and not to any real change in the value of the Latin words themselves. Digitized by Microsoft® 278 CLAUSES OF PURPOSE IV. Object clauses with the subjunctive are used after verbs of doubt or ignorance that are negatived or imply a negative — non dubito, quis dubitat, quis ignorat, etc. The object clause is introduced by quin. non dubitat quin Troia peritura sit, he does not doubt that Troy will fall non dubito quin supplicium sumat, I do not doubt that he will inflict quis ignorat quin tria genera sint, who is ignorant that there are three kinds ? a. Similarly negatived expressions of doubt — non est dubium, there is no doubt ; non abest suspicio, suspicion is not wanting ; etc. — are followed by quin and the subjunctive. n5n erat dubium quin Helvetii plurimum possent, there was no doubt that the Helvetii were the most powerful neque abest susplcio quin ipse sibi mortem consciverit, nor is the sus- picion wanting that he committed suicide Note. Dubit5, doubt, without a negative, is generally followed by an indirect question (§ 813); and in the sense of hesitate, regularly by the infinitive (§ 837), but sometimes by quin and the subjunctive. 721. Subject Clauses of Purpose. Subject clauses of purpose with the subjunctive are used after the passive of verbs that in the active take object clauses (see § 720). persuadetur Castico ut regnum occuparet, Casticus is persuaded to seize the royal power (lit. it is persuaded to Casticus that he seize etc.) erat ei praeceptum ne proelium committeret, it had been enjoined upon him that he should not engage in battle 722. Subject clauses of purpose with the subjunctive are used with licet, oportet, and necesse est, usually without ut. licet queramur, it is allowed us to complain aint enini oportet, for they must exist Digitized by Microsoft® CLAUSES OF DESCRIPTION 279 723. Subject clauses of purpose with the subjunctive are used with impersonal expressions like reliquum est, sequitur, opus est, lex est, mos est, etc., when the dependent clause does not state a fact already existing, but looks forward to some- thing yet to come. reliquum est ut dicam, it remains for me to say est lex amicitiae ut idem amid velint, it is a law of friendship that friends should have the same wish Note. Compare subject clauses of result, which state a fact (§§ 738, 739). 724. Clauses of Purpose as Appositives. Subjunctive clauses, introduced by ut or ne, may be used as appositives to nouns or pronouns. in hoc unum vivo, ut patriae prosim, I am living for this one thing, that I may be of service to my country id agunt, ut omnes videant, they strive for this, that all may see haec erat lex, ut omnes interficerentur, this was the law, that all should be killed 725. Developed from the volitive subjunctive in its deliberative use are substantive clauses following such expressions as nulla causa est cur (qua rg, quin), non est cur, etc. nulla causa est cur earn, there is no reason why I should go (originally why should I go ? There is no reason) For other ways of expressing purpose, and for a summary of them all, see § 882. I, footnote. Subjunctive Clauses of Description or Characteristic 726. A relative clause that describes an antecedent by telling what kind of person or thing it is, is called a clause of descrip- tion or characteristic and takes the subjunctive. 1 1 This construction has its origin in the rjotential subjunctive (§ 684), the idea of possibility easily passing over into that of quality or characteristic (com- pare there is no one who would be able with there is no one who is able). It is especially common when the antecedent is otherwise undefined or general, Digitized by Microsoft® 280 CLAUSES OF DESCRIPTION nihil video quod timeam, I see nothing to fear (lit. which I fear) multa dlcunt quae vix intellegam, they say many things which (such as) / hardly understand erat nullum oppidum quod se defenderet, there was no town which defended itself (stated not as a fact but as a characteristic) erant omnino itinera duo quibus itineribus domo exire possent, there were in all two ways by which they could go forth from home nihil habebam quod scriberem, I had nothing to write 727. Relative clauses of description or characteristic are used especially after general expressions of existence or non- existence : sunt qui, there are some who nemo or nullus est qui, there is no one who nihil est quod, there is nothitig which quis est qui, who is there who is qui, the one who finus or solus qui, the only one who sunt qui putent, there are some who think domi nihil erat quo famem tolerarent, there was nothing at home by which to sustain hunger quis est qui enm non laudet, who is there that does not praise him f non is sum qui hoc facial, I am not the man to do this Note. After expressions like multi (non nfllli, quidam) sunt qui, where the antecedent is partially defined, the choice of mood depends on the shade of meaning. 728. After nemo, nullus, nihil, or quis the clause of descrip- tion or characteristic may be introduced by quin instead of qui (quae, quod) non. nemo est quin sciat, there is no one who does not know quis est quin intellegat, who is there who does not understand ? and is to be distinguished from the relative clause with' the indicative, which states a fad about the antecedent and does not describe it : thus, nulla est natio quam pertimescimus (indicative) means there is no nation which (as a fact) we fear; whereas nulla est natio quam pertimescamus (subjunctive) means there is no nation which is of such a character that we fear it. Digitized by Microsoft® CLAUSES OF RESULT 281 729. Included under relative clauses of description or character- istic are restrictive clauses like quod sciam, so far as T know ; quod invenerim, so far as I have discovered ; etc. non ego te, quod sciam, umquara ante nunc diem vldl, so far as I know, I have never seen you before this day 730. The relative clause of description or characteristic may express cause or concession. I. The relative clause of description or characteristic may express cause, the relative — equivalent to cum is, since he — being often accompanied by ut, utpote, or quippe. incusant Belgas qui se dediderint, they blame the Belgce who have (= because fhey have) surrendered Caesar iniuriam facit qui vectigalia deteriora faciat, Ccesar is doing an injustice since he is making the revenues less consul, ut qui id ipsum quaesisset, moram non fecit, the consul, since he had sought that very thing, did not delay II. The relative clause of description or characteristic may express concession, the relative being equivalent to cum is, though he, and the clause expressing something in spite of which the main statement is true. Cicero, qui omnes superiores dies milites in castris continuisset, septimo die quinque cohortes frumentatum mittit, Cicero, though he had kept his soldiers in camp on all the preceding days, on the seventh day sent five cohorts to gather grain Note. The relative clause sometimes amounts to a proviso (§ 81 1). nihil est molestum quod non desideres, nothing is troublesome which yott do, not miss (= provided you do not miss it) Subjunctive Clauses of Consequence or Result 731. The subjunctive is used in adverbial, relative, and substantive clauses to express consequence or result. 1 1 The use of the subjunctive to express result is a development of its use in clauses of description (§726), the quality which would lead to some action readily passing over into a real action resulting from a quality. This step leads to clauses of pure result with no idea of description. Digitized by Microsoft® 282 CLAUSES OF RESULT I. Adverbial Clauses of Result 732. An adverbial clause denoting consequence or result takes the subjunctive, introduced by ut or uti, so that. The' negative is non. The main clause often contains talis, tantus, tot, is (= talis), ita, adeo, tarn, or some other word of quality or degree. mons impendebat ut facile perpaucl prohibere possent, a mountain towered above, so that a very few could easily keep (them) back eius modi sunt tempestates consecutae uti opus intermitteretur, storms of such a character followed that the work was interrupted' flumen incredibili lenitate fluit ita ut oculis, in utram partem fluat, iudicari non possit, the riverflows with incredible slowness, so that it cannot be determined by the eyes in which direction it flows tanta vis probitatis est ut earn in hoste diligamus, so great is the power of goodness that we love it even in an enemy ' Note. It is to be observed that the constructions of purpose and result in Latin are precisely alike in the affirmative, but that negative purpose has ne, negative result ut non. a. Instead of ne quis, ne quid, ne ullus, etc., used to introduce negative purpose clauses, negative result clauses have ut nemo, ut nihil, ut nullus, etc. se occultabant ne quis eos cernere posset, they concealed themselves that no one might be able to see them (purpose) se occultabant ut nemo eos cernere posset, they concealed themselves so that no one could see them (result) 733. A clause of result or characteristic with quam ut, quam qui, rarely with quam alone, may be used after a comparative. haec signa rigidiora sunt quaml > imitentur veritatem, these statues are too stiff to (stiffer than that they should) represent nature senior erat quam ut pugnaret, he was too old to fight 734. A clause of result is sometimes used in a restrictive sense and so amounts to a proviso (§ 8u). vobis ita concedunt ut vobiscum certent, they yield to you only to the « extent that they vie with you Digitized by Microsoft® CLAUSES OF RESULT 283 II. Relative Clauses of Result 735. Relative clauses of result, introduced by qui, quin (equivalent to qui non), or a relative adverb (ubi, unde, quo, etc.), are developed from the relative clause of description or charac- teristic (§ 726), and, as a rule, cannot be distinguished from it. nulla est celeritas quae possit cum animi celeritate contendere, there is no swiftness that can compare with the swiftness of the mind nemo erat ade5 tardus quin putaret, no one was so slothful as not to (= who did not) think non habet unde te solvat, he has no resources from which (lit. has not whence) to pay you Note. Here belong such expressions as facere non possum quin, fieri non potest quin, with the subjunctive. _ . _ f . I quin dicam, / cannot but speak (lit. / am not able fieri non potest J ^ r to act so that I do not, or it cannot happen that I do not) III. Substantive Clauses of Result 736. Substantive clauses developed from the potential subjunctive are generally called substantive clauses of result ; but the idea of result is often weak or lacking altogether, and the subjunctive is translated like an indicative stating a fact. They are introduced by ut or ut non. Note. Compare substantive clauses of purpose (§ 719). 737. Object Clauses of Result. Substantive clauses of result are used as the object of verbs of bringing about and accom- plishing (facio, efficio, perficio, etc.) when the dependent clause states a fact. efficiam ut intellegatis, I will make you understand (lit. that you understand) efficiebat ut commeatus portari possent, he made it possible for supplies to be brought Obsides uR inter se dent perficit, he brings it about that they give hostages to each other Digitized by Microsoft® 284 CLAUSES OF RESULT 738. Subject Clauses of Result. Substantive clauses of result stating a fact are used as the subject of passive verbs denoting bringing about and accomplishing. factum est ut German! mercede arcesserentur, it was brought about that the Germans were invited for pay 739. Substantive clauses of result stating a fact are used as subject with impersonate like fit, accidit, evenit, it happens; relinquitur, restat, reliquum est, it remains ; accedit, it is added ; est, it is a fact ; sequitur, efficitur, it follows. accidit ut esset lurta plena, it happened that there was a full moon reliquum est ut mini ipsi consulam, the fact remains that I consult for myself ad senectfitem accedebat ut caecus esset, to his old age was added the fact that he was blind 740. Fore (or futurum esse) ut with a clause of result as subject is regularly used for the future passive infinitive, and for the future active infinitive when this is lacking. video fore ut hostes vincantur, I see that the enemy will be conquered spero fore ut contingat, I hope that it will happen 741. Clauses of Result as Appositives or Predicate Nouns. A substantive clause of result stating a fact may be in apposi- tion with a noun or neuter pronoun, or may serve as a predicate noun after mos est, ivis est, and similar expressions. hanc gratiam refert, ut gravetur, he makes this return, that he objects id est proprium civitatis, ut sit libera, this is characteristic of a state, that it is free ea est vis probitatis, ut earn vel in hoste diligamus, such is the power of integrity that we love it even in an enemy est m5s hominum ut nolint eundem pluribus rebus excellere, it is the way of men that they do not wish the same person to excel in several respects Digitized by Microsoft® CLAUSES WITH POSTQUAM, UBI, UT, ETC. 285 Temporal Clauses 742. Temporal clauses are adverbial and express time. 743. Temporal clauses may be classified as follows : I. Clauses with postquam, ubi, ut, etc., with the indicative (§ § 7 45 ff.). II. Clauses with cum, with the indicative or subjunctive (§§ 749.1?.). III. Clauses with antequam and priusquam, with the indicative or subjunctive (§§ 757 ff.). IV. Clauses with dum, donee, quoad, and quam diu, with the indic- ative or subjunctive (§§ 762 ff.). Observe that only with the first of these varieties is the indicative always used. 744. In general, expressions of pure time are in the indica- tive. The subjunctive is used when the time relation is modi- fied by some other notion, as description, cause, concession, doubt, purpose, and the like. I. Temporal Clauses with postquam, ubi, ut, etc. 745. Clauses introduced by postquam (posteaquam), after; ubi, ut, when ; cum primum, simul atque (simul ac, or simul alone), as soon as, take the indicative, — usually in the perfect or the historical present. postquam id animum advertit, copias suas Caesar subducit, after Gzsar noticed this, he withdrew his forces Caesar, ubi suos urgeri vidil, processit, when Cczsar saw that his men were hard pressed, he advanced Catilina, ubi eos convenisse videt, secedit, when Catiline sees that they have come together, he retires simul atque introductus est, rem confecit, as soon as he was brought in, he finished the matter 746. Ut and ubi (sometimes compounded with -cumque) in the sense of whenever take the perfect indicative after a primary tense and the past perfect after a secondary tense (cf. § 800. a). Digitized by Microsoft® 286 TEMPORAL CLAUSES ut quisque venit, accedo, whenever any one comes (has come), I go to him etiam senex, ubi occasio data erat, discebat, even in old age he learned whenever opportunity was given 747. To denote a definite interval of time after, postquam regu- larly takes the past perfect indicative. When thus used, post is usually separated from quam and placed in the main clause as a preposition or adverb, or is sometimes omitted altogether. pugnatum est post paucos dies (or paucls post diebus) quam pervenerat, the battle was fought a few days after he arrived tertio ann5 quam Aristides mortuus erat, three years after Aristides died 748. Postquam, ubi, ut, etc. are used with the past descriptive in- dicative to denote a continued state in past time. ubi nemo obvius Ibat, ad castra hostium tendunt, when no one came to meet them, they hastened to the camp of the enemy II. Temporal Clauses with cum 749. Cum Clauses with the Indicative. A cum clause refer- ring to present or future time takes the indicative. animus nee cum adest nee cum discedit apparet, the' soul is not visible either when it is present or when it departs te videre volo, cum id satis commode facere potero, I wish to see you, when I ca7i do so conveniently cum veneris, cognosces, when you (shall have) come, you will find out Note. Observe that the English present is represented by the Latin future in the second example and by the future perfect in the third. This precision in expressing time is characteristic of Latin. Cf. §§ 657, 663. a. A cum clause with the indicative is used to explain one act as identical with another {explicative cum). cum quiescunt, probant, when they are silent, they approve 750. A cum clause referring to past time takes the indicative when it dates or defines the time of the main action (definitive cum)* Digitized by Microsoft® CLAUSES WITH CUM 287 When thus used, cum is often found in the combinations eo tempore cum, eo die cum, nunc cum, olim cum, nuper cum, turn cum, and the like. paruit eo tempore cum parere necesse erat, he obeyed at the time when it was necessary to obey turn cum in Asia res magnas permulti Smiserant, at that time when many had lost great fortunes in Asia, etc. cum Caesar in Galliam venit, factiones erant duae, when Ccesar came into Gaul, there were two factions quern ego cum ex urbe pettebam, hoc providebam, when I was trying to drive him out of the city, I was anticipating this Conon praetor fuit cum Athenienses devicti sunt, Conon was commander at the time when the Athenians were defeated 751. Sometimes an independent sentence introduced by vix {hardly), iam {already), nondum (not yet), or an adverb of similar value, is followed by a cum clause, subordinate in form, but express- ing the principal action. In this use (called cum inversum) cum takes the perfect indicative or the historical present. vix veneram cum profectus est, hardly had I come when he set out vix loqul inceperam cum subito ingressus est, hardly had I begun to speak when suddenly he entered vix exercitus processerat cum Galli proelium committunt, hardly had the army advanced when the Gauls joined battle 752. Cum meaning whenever (iterative cum) takes the same construction as ubi in this sense. See §§ 746, 800. a. 753. Cum Clauses with the Subjunctive. Cum is used with the past or past perfect subjunctive to describe the circumstances that accompanied or preceded the action of the main verb (descriptive cum). 1 1 Cum (early form quom) is by origin a relative, and has constructions similar to qui. In early Latin it took the indicative in all tenses. In classic Latin a distinction is made in the past tenses between cum defining a time and cum describing a time. Cum defining a time takes the indicative (§ 750), like an indicative qui clause of fad. Cum describing a time takes the subjunc- tive, like a qui clause of description or characteristic (§ 726). The cum clause Digitized by Microsoft® 288 CLAUSES WITH CUM Caesarl cum id nuntiatum esset, maturat proficisci, when this had been announced to Ccesar, he hastened to set out fuit antea tempus cum German5s Galli virtute superarent, there was formerly a time when the Gattls surpassed the Germans in valor cum essem otiosus domi, accepi tuas litteras, when I was at home taking my ease, I received yozir letter* cum esset Caesar in citeriore Gallia, crebri ad eum rumores adferebantur, when Ccesar was in hither Gaul, frequent reports were bYought to him cum ab his quaereret, sic reperiebat, when he made inquiries from these men, he gained the following information cum de improviso venisset, Remi legatos miserunt, when he had come unexpectedly, the Remi sent envoys 754. Cum Causal. A cum clause of description with the subjunctive sometimes denotes cause. Cum is then usually translated by since, and the subjunctive may be in any tense. id difficile non est, cum tantum valeamus, this is not difficult since we are so strong Haedui cum se defendere non possent, legatos mittunt, since the Hadui could not defend themselves, they sent ambassadors quae cum ita sint, eamus, since this is so, let us go with the past or past perfect stibjunctive is the regular construction in narrative, and has largely displaced the use of cum with a past tense of the indicative, even where no idea of characteristic is perceptible. The difference between these two uses of cum is further illustrated by the following examples in English : 1. Catiline made a conspiracy when Cicero was consul. Here the when clause merely defines and fixes the time when Catiline made his conspiracy (63 B. c), and the main statement is true independently of Cicero's being consul. Catiline would have made his conspiracy just the same if Cicero had not been consul. 2. Columbus discovered America when he was seeking a new route to India. Here the when clause does not define or date the time of the discovery of America ; it describes the circumstances under which America was discovered, and suggests that but for these circumstances Columbus would not have made the discovery. The Latin would use the indicative in the first sentence and the subjunc- tive an the second. Digitized by Microsoft® CLAUSES WITH CUM 289 Note i. With this may be compared the qui clause of characteristic denoting cause (§ 730. I). Note 2. Following the usage of early Latin, cum causal is sometimes found with the indicative in the classical period. gratulor tibi cum tantum vales (Cicero), / congratulate you since you are so influential, or, freely, / congratulate you on yotir influence 755. Cum Concessive. A cum clause of description with the subjunctive may denote concession. C.um is then translated by though or while, and the subjunctive may be in any tense. cum priml concidissent, tamen reliqui resistebant, though the foremost had fallen, yet the others kept on resisting Sabinus castris sese tenebat, cum Viridovix cotidie pugnandl potestatem faceret, Sabinus remained in camp, though Viridovix daily gave him a chance to fight a. When cum . . . turn means both . . . and, the cum clause is in the indicative ; but with the meaning 'though . . . yet, the cum clause is generally in the subjunctive. consilium tuum cum semper probavissem, turn multo magis probavi lectis tuls proximis litteris, though I had always esteemed your •wisdom, yet I esteemed it much more after reading your last letter 756. Synopsis of cum constructions : 1. In clauses referring, to present or future time (§ 749) 2. In clauses referring to past time that define the time of the main action {definitive cum ; § 750) 3. Cum inversum (§ 751) 4. Cum meaning whenever (iterative cum; § 752) 1. With the past or past perfect sub- junctive in clauses of description or characteristic {descriptive cum ; §753) z. Cum causal (since ; § 754) 3. Cum concessive {though or while; § 755) I. Indicative uses of cum II. Subjunctive uses of cum - Digitized by Microsoft® 290 CLAUSES WITH ANTEQUAM AND PRIUSQUAM III. Temporal Clauses with anteguam and priusquam 757. Clauses introduced by antequam or priusquam, before, are relative in character, and, like other relative clauses, take the indicative in expressions of real or assumed fact and the subjunctive to express other relations. Note. Antequam and priusquam consist of the adverbs ante (before) and prius (sooner) combined with the relative conjunction quam (than). The adverbs often stand in the main clause, being separated from quam by other words. Priusquam is much oftener used than antequam. 758. Antequam and priusquam with the Indicative. The in- dicative is used with antequam or priusquam to express a real or assumed fact. a. The present or perfect is used in clauses referring to present time. priusquam Meet, adsunt, before it is dawn, they are present b. The present or future perfect is used in clauses referring to future time. priusquam de ceteris rebus responded, de amicitia dicam, before I reply in regard to the other matters, I will speak about friendship non defatigabor antequam haec percepero, I shall not weary before I (shall) have traced out these things Note. The present subjunctive is sometimes found in uses a and b. c. The perfect is used in clauses referring to past time. res ita se habebant antequam veni, things were in that condition before I came neque prius fugere destiterunt quam ad flumen pervenerunt, nor did they stop running before they reached the river Note. This construction is especially common when the main clause is negative, as in the last example above. 759. Antequam and priusquam with the Subjunctive. The past subjunctive is used with antequam or priusquam in clauses referring to past time : (a) to denote an act that was expected and prepared for by a preceding action expressed in the main Digitized by Microsoft® CLAUSES WITH ANTE QUA M AND PRIUSQUAM 291 clause ; (b) to denote an act that was expected but prevented by a preceding action expressed in the main clause. Caesar suos hortabatur priusquam proelium committerent, Ccesar used to address his men before they joined (should join) battle. [That is, in expectation of a battle, Caesar prepared his men by addressing them.] Caesar Britanniae litora exploravit priusquam transeundi periculum faceret, Ccesar explored the shores of Britain before he made the attempt to cross. [That is, in expectation of crossing to Britain, Csesar explored its shores.] priusquam telum abici posset, omnis acies terga vertit, before a weapon could be thrown, the whole line fled. [That is, the expected hurling of weapons was prevented by the flight of the enemy.] priusquam effugere posset, interfectus est, before he could escape, he was put to death Note i. Rarely the past perfect subjunctive is used instead of the past. Note 2. After the historical present (§ 648) the present (rarely the perfect) subjunctive may be used instead of the past. ab eo prius milites non discedunt quam in conspectum Caesaris deducatur, the soldiers did not leave him before he was conducted into Ccesar* s presence Note 3. The subjunctive with antequam or priusquam is often called the subjunctive of expectation or anticipation. 760. The later writers freely use the past subjunctive with ante- quam and priusquam even when no idea of expectation is present. priusquam peteret consulatum, Insanit, he was insane before he sought the consulship 761. Synopsis of constructions with antequam and priusqu,am : I. Present time — indicative, present or perfect (§ 758. a) antequam II. Future time — indicative, present or future perfect(§ 758. b) and . I" Indicative (perfect) to state an actual fact priusquam (§ 75^. c) . To denote action ex- pected and prepared for fS 7 co. a) Subjunctive (past)-^ , _ , vs ' ^ '■ b. To denote action ex- pected but prevented (§ 759- i) III. Past time- Digitized by Microsoft® 292 CLAUSES WITH DUM, DONEC, QUOAD, ETC. IV. Temporal Clauses with dum, donee, quoad, and quam diu 762. Dum, donee, quoad, arid quam diu, meaning as long as, take the indicative. dum anima est, est spes, as long as there is life, there is hope donee gratus eram tibi, rege beatior ful, as long as T enjoyed thy favor, I was happier than a king quoad potuit, restitit, he resisted as long as he could quam diu mihi Tnsididtus es, me defendi, as long as you plotted against me, I defended myself 763. Dum, meaning while, takes the indicative in the his- torical present. The historical present (§ 648) in this construction is generally translated by the English past progressive. dum haec geruntur, Caesari nuntiatum est, while this was going on, word was brought to Casar dum Roman! consultant, iam Saguntum oppugnabatur, while the Romans were deliberating, Saguntum was already being besieged Note. As shown by the examples, dum with the present denotes in the time, but not throughout the time. In the latter sense dum, though it may be translated by while, is equivalent to as long as, and the tenses present no peculiarity (§ 762). 764. Dum, donee, and quoad, meaning until, take the perfect indicative to denote an actual fact in past time. neque finem sequendi fecerunt quoad praecipites hostes egerunt, nor did they cease pursuing until they routed the enemy donee rediit, silentium fuit, until he returned, there was silence Romae fuerunt quoad Metellus profectus est, they remained at Rome until Metellus set out '765. Dum, donee, and quoad, meaning until, take the present or past subjunctive to denote purpose or expectation. exspectas fortasse dum dicat, you are waiting perhaps for him to say "'he says) Digitized by Microsoft® CAUSAL CLAUSES 293 exspectavit dum reliquae naves convemrent, he waited for the rest of the ships to join him (until they should join him) Horatius impetum sustinuit quoad ceteri pontem interrumperent, Hora- tius sustained the attack until the rest should cut down the bridge Note. The present and future perfect indicative are occasionally found. 766. Synopsis of constructions with dum, donee, quoad, and quam diu : I dum, donee, quoad, and quam diu Dum, donee, quoad, quam diu, as long as, indica- tive (§ 762) II. Dum, while, indicative (historical present; § 763) 'a. Perfect indicative to de- note an actual fact in past time (§ 764) b. Present or past subjunc- tive to denote purpose or expectation (§ 765) III. Dum, donee, quoad, until Causal Clauses 767. Cause is expressed in Latin by three kinds of clauses : I. Cum clauses of description (§ 754). II. Qui clauses of description or characteristic (§ 730. I). III. Clauses introduced by quod, quia, quoniam, and quando. 768. Quod and quia, because, take (a) the indicative when the writer or speaker is giving his own reason ; (b) the sub- junctive when he is giving the reason of another. a. Indicative, fortissimi sunt Belgae propterea quod longissime absunt, the Belga are the bravest because they are the farthest away Helvetii reliquos Gallos virtute praecedunt quod fere cotidianis proeliis cum Germanis contendunt, the Helvetii excel the remaining Gauls in valor because they fight nearly every day with the Germans leve erat vulnus quia se retraKebat ab ictu, the wound was slight because he drew {himself) back from the blow Digitized by Microsoft® 294 CAUSAL CLAUSES 6. Subjunctive. mihi gratiae aguntur quod virtute mea res publica sit liberata, thanks are given to me because (as they say) the state has been set free by my courage Haedui querebantur quod Harudes fines popularentur, the H&dui com- plained because (as they said) the Harudes were laying the country waste mea mater irata est quia non redierim, my mother is angry because I didn't return (as she says) Note i. The subjunctive is used on the principle of implied indirect discourse (§ 906). Note 2. Quia regularly introduces a statement of fact, and rarely takes the subjunctive. 769. Quoniam and quando, since, introduce a reason of the writer or speaker, and take the indicative. quoniam supplicatio decreta est, celebratote illos dies, since a thanks- giving has been decreed, celebrate those days quando ita vis, di bene vortant, since you so wish, may the gods bless the undertaking Note. Quando, originally temporal {when), is rarely used in the causal sense in classic Latin prose. 770. Non quod, non quia, and non quo (for non eo quod) introduce a possible but rejected reason, and hence take the subjunctive. haec servanda censeo, non quod probem, sed quia etc., / think these should be preserved, not because I approve of them, but because etc. a. Non quin, not that not, with the subjunctive, is sometimes used for non quod non. . volui ad te scribere, non quin confiderem diligentiae tuae, sed etc., I wished to write to you, not that I did not trust your diligence, but etc. b. The indicative is sometimes used in clauses of this sort when the statement is a fact, though not accepted as the true reason. haec dixit orator, non quod timebat, sed quod etc., the orator said this, • not because he was afraid (as he really was), but because etc. Digitized by Microsoft® CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 295 771. Causal clauses are expressed by Synopsis of causal constructions : . With the indicative when the writer or speaker gives his own reason (§ 768. a) I. Quod and quia- b. With the subjunctive when the writer or speaker gives, not his own reason, but the reason alleged by another (§ 768. b) II. Quoniam and quando with the indicative (§ 769) III. Cum {since) with the subjunctive (§ 754) IV. Qui with the subjunctive (§ 730. I) CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 772. A clause expressing a condition, introduced by if or by some equivalent word, is called a conditional clause. 773. A sentence that contains a conditional clause is called a conditional sentence. 774. A conditional sentence is complex and consists of two parts : 1 a. A subordinate (adverbial) clause, commonly introduced by si, if, and expressing the condition. b. A principal clause, expressing the conclusion, that is, the state- ment which is true in case the condition expressed in the si clause is true. si obsides ab eis dentur (condition), cum els pacem faciat (conclusion), " .if hostages should be given by them, he would make peace with them Note. The term " condition " is often applied to the whole sentence, including the condition and conclusion. 1 The conditional complex sentence has arisen, like other complex sen- tences (§ 708), from two sentences originally independent but closely related in thought. Thus, laugh, and the world laughs with you is an earlier and simpler form of expression than if you laugh, the world laughs with you. The conditional particle si was originally an adverb meaning so, and its conjunc- tional use and meaning developed later. Conditional sentences without si occur in all periods of Latin and are a survival of the earlier linguistic form. Digitized by Microsoft® 296 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 775. Use of si and its Compounds. The conditional clause, when affirmative, is introduced by si, if; when negative, by nisi, unless. But if the negative applies to only one word, si non is used instead of nisi. actum de te est nisi provides, it 's all over with you unless you look out si non easdem opes habemus, eandem tamen patriam habemus, if we have not the same resources, we have nevertheless the same native land a. Nisi si, except if, unless, occurs for nisi. Ni for nisi is mostly poetic or late. , 776. Sin, but if, introduces a supposition contrary to one that precedes ; nisi vero or nisi forte an ironical objection. accusator ilium defendet si poterit; sin minus poterit, negabit, the accuser will defend him if he canj but if he cannot, he will refuse 777. Sive (or seu), or if, is generally used as a correlative (sive (or seu) . . . sive (or seu), if ... or if , whether . . . or) to introduce alternative conditional clauses. facilis est res, sive manent sive proficiscuntur, the matter is easy, whether they stay or go Classification of Conditional Sentences 778. Particular and General Conditions. Any kind of condi- tional sentence may be either (a) particular or (b) general. a. A particular condition refers to a definite act, or series of acts, occurring at some definite time. b. A general condition refers to any one of a series of acts which may occur, or may have occurred, at any time. For example, if the enemy should cross the river, they would be driven back is a particular condition ; but if at any time the enemy crosses the river, they are always driven back is a general condition. c. Particular and general conditions usually have the same form. For special forms of general conditions see § 800. 779. Conditional sentences, according to the time of the supposed case, are divided into three classes : I. Present conditions II. Future conditions III. Past conditions Digitized by Microsoft® PRESENT CONDITIONS 297 780. Present and past conditions are of two kinds : non- committal and contrary to fact. 781. A present or past condition is non-committal when noth- ing is said or implied as to the truth or falsity of the case supposed. If this is gold (perhaps it is, perhaps it isn't), it is valuable 782. A present or past condition is contrary to fact when the supposition has been realized and found to be false. If this were gold (but it isn't), it would be valuable 783. Future conditions are of two kinds : more definite and less definite. a. A more definite future condition states a future possibility dis- tinctly, expressing a doubt as to whether it will or will not be the case. If this proves to be gold (that remains to be seen and is a future possibility), it will be valuable b. A less definite future condition states a future possibility less dis- tinctly, expressing a doubt as to whether it would or would not be the case. If this should prove to be gold, it would be valuable I. Present Conditions 784. Present conditions are either non-committal or contrary to fact. 785. Present non-committal conditions regularly take the present indicative in both clauses. si hoc facit, laudator, if he is doing this, he is being praised a. The verb in the conclusion of a present non-committal condition is not always an indicative, but may be a hortatory or an optative subjunctive, an imperative, or any other form demanded by the sense. si libertatem servare non posstunus, moriamur, if we cannot preserve our liberty, let us die (hortatory subjunctive in the conclusion) .si verum non dico, dei supplicium sumant, if I a7n not speaking the truth, may the gods punish me (optative subjunctive in the conclusion) si nondum satis cernitis, recordamini, if you do not yet see clearly, recollect (imperative in the conclusion) Digitized by Microsoft® 298 FUTURE CONDITIONS 786. Present conditions contrary to fact regularly take the past subjunctive in both clauses. si hoc faceret, lauddretur, if he were doing this (but he is not), he would be praised (at the present time) si dives essem, non avarus essem, if T were rich, I should not be avaricious si mveret, verba eius audlretis, if he were living, you would hear his words II. Future Conditions 787. Future conditions are either more definite or less defi- nite, and express future possibility (cf. § 783). 788. More definite future conditions regularly take the future indicative in both clauses, the conclusion stating what will be the result if the condition is (shall be) realized. si hoc faciet, laudabitur, if he does {shall do) this, he will be praised si dives ero, non avarus ero, if I shall be rich, I shall not be avaricious naturam si sequemur ducem, numquam aberrabimus, if we (shall) follow nature as guide, we shall never go astray si Galli obsides mittent, Caesar cum eis pacem faciet, if the Gauls {shall) send hostages, Ccesar will make peace with them Note. In English the conditional clause .is usually expressed by- the present indicative, rarely by the future with shall. 789. Less definite future conditions regularly take the present subjunctive x in both clauses, the conclusion stating what would be the result if the condition should be realized. si hoc faciat, laudetur, if he should do this, he would be praised si dives sim, non avarus sim, if I should be rich, I should not be avaricious haec si tecum patria loquatur, nonne impetrare debeat, if your native land should thus speak with you, would she not deserve to prevail? quod si quis deus mihi largiatur, valde recusem, if some god should grant me this, I should stoutly refuse 1 The subjunctive in the conditional clause of a less definite future con- ditional sentence is hortatory by origin, and the subjunctive in the conclusion is potential (§ 687). Digitized by Microsoft® PAST CONDITIONS 299 t 790. The ' future" perfect is used in the conditional clause instead of the future, and the perfect subjunctive instead of the present, when the conditional act is regarded as completed before that of the conclusion begins. id ai feceris, magnam habebo gratiam, if you do {shall have done) this, I shall be very grateful si relictus sim, non possim dlcere, if I should be (should have been) deserted, I should be unable to speak Note. Not infrequently the future perfect is found in both clauses. mihi gratum feceris si hunc comprehenderis, you will do {will have done) me a favor if you receive {shall have received) him III. Past Conditions 791. Past conditions are either non-committal or contrary to fact. 792. Past non-committal conditions regularly take the past descriptive or perfect indicative in both clauses. si hoc faciebat (or fecit), laudabatur (or laudatus est), if he did this, he was praised si dives eram, non avarus eram, if I was rich, I was not avaricious si ita existimavistt, vehementer errdvisti, if you thought so, you were greatly mistaken si probus es, poenam non meruistT, if 'you are good, you did not deserve punishment. [Non-committal condition, with a present conditional clause and a past conclusion.] Note. The conclusion of a past non-committal condition may assume a great variety of forms. Cf. § 785. a. 793. Past conditions contrary to fact regularly take the past perfect subjunctive in both clauses. si hoc fecisset, laudatus esset, if he had done this (but he did not), he would have been praised si dives fuissem, non avarus fuissem, if I had been rich, I should not have been avaricious nisi tu amtsisses, numquam recepissem, unless you had lost it, I should never have recovered it Digitized by Microsoft® 300 PECULIARITIES OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES Synopsis of Conditional Sentences 794. The use of moods and tenses in regular conditional sentences is shown in the synopsis on the opposite page. Special Peculiarities of Conditional Sentences Peculiar Future Conditions 795. The conclusion of a future condition may be in any form that expresses or implies future time : as, the imperative, the present indicative of the periphrastic conjugations and of verbs of necessity, possibility, and the like. quid, si hostes veniant, facfufi estis, what are you going to do if the enemy should come ? possum istum accusare, si'cupiam, / can accuse him if J desire 796. A future condition is sometimes regarded from a past point of view. In such cases the past or past perfect subjunctive is used without implying that the condition is contrary to fact. Caesar si peteret, non quicquam proficeret, if even Ccesar were to ask, he would gain nothing. [This is, simply si petat, non proflciat, viewed from the past.] Peculiar Conditions Contrary to Fact 797. Past tenses of the indicative may be used in the con- clusion of conditions contrary to fact, as follows : a. With verbs like oportet, decet, debe5, possum, necesse est, opus est. b. With verbs in the active or passive periphrastic conjugation. c. With longum, aequum, difficile, melius, etc. in such expressions as longum erat, it would be tedious ; difficile erat, it would be difficult ; melius fuerat, it would have been better. non potuit fieri sapiens, nisi natus esset, he could not have become a sage if he had not been born si privatus esset, tamen is erat dcligendus, if he were a private citizen, yet he ought to be chosen Note. In this construction the past descriptive indicative usually refers to present time, and the perfect or past perfect to past time. Digitized by Microsoft® SYNOPSIS OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 301 a > ■2 -M ert a OJ 111 CO •• ^1 CD CO *«; c* OJ , CD 3 ***» ^ II 1 "> '3 OJ > •a >* -2 •*5 .. <3 co >«5 £■ ~ 3 J3 *5 U 1 VS o .5 "3 **■ .y •5 & *3 -y CD n3 cD I" 5 3 .2 OJ si > ■a ■V, a V 3 .Fi ■£ 3 O J3 1-H a, c" o ■a •3 a o o .S *>~ 82 •s ■* k a> CD *» ?! 1- 3 .. id 3 G 5 8 & w -"is cd CD Cm "5 — «r ^ OJ "c* OJ J3 CO 3 ■tvi *S H rt ^3 n is; 5 ti- K -3 J3 C* 8, 8 2 8 S es OJ CO OJ CO OJ -3 tu > a ^ « a) ife- 3 J3 ■3 a O 3 CD CO CO 5 4-t S-. OJ 2 1 OJ > 1=1 JD r^ O a a CD 1 It 3 3 ■M* 53 OJ a, ■G £ OJ 13 4-1 13 J3 3 CO 4_> OJ CO CO ■3 c3 **? ft T3 to H E o o c o c OJ ■a if 3 O u 3 cB 13 C o U g CM P. O >< Digitized by Microsoft® 302 GENERAL CONDITIONS 798. The past subjunctive may be used in either the condition or the conclusion of a condition contrary to fact, to denote continued action in past time or a past state of affairs that still exists. Carthago non concidisset, nisi ea urbs classibus nostris pateret, Car- thage would not have fallen, had not that city been (constantly) open to our fleets 799. In poetry the present subjunctive is sometimes used, instead of the past, in conditions contrary to fact. . nee, si sciat, imperet illis (Ovid), nor, if he knew, could he control them Special Forms of General Conditions 800. Special forms of general conditions (§ 778. b, c), denoting repeated or customary action, are shown in the following table : Time Condition Conclusion Present Present subjunctive, sec- ond person singular, of an indefinite subject, or perfect indicative Present indicative Past Past or past perfect sub- junctive (rare in classic Latin), or past perfect indicative Past indicative memoria minuitur si earn non exerceds, the memory grows weak if you don't exercise it si quos inutiles nota.ve.runt, necari iubent, if they (ever) mark any as infirm, they (always) order them to be put to death si quis prehenderetur, eripiebatur, if any one was (ever) arrested, he was (always) rescued si quis equo deciderat, circumsistebant, if any one (ever) fell from his horse, they (always) surrounded him Digitized by Microsoft® SUBSTITUTES FOR REGULAR CONDITIONS 303 a. General conditions are often introduced by cum or ubi, meaning whenever (§§ 746, 752). cum rosam vlderat, turn incipere ver arbitrabatur, whenever he saw a rose, then he thought 'spring was beginning Note. In this construction the perfect indicative is usually translated by the English present, and the past perfect by the English past. See examples above. Conditional Relative Clauses 801. Relative clauses often express condition, and may take the place of any of the forms of condition found in conditional sentences. qui mentiri solet, peierare consuevit, whoever is in the habit of lying is accustomed to swear falsely. [= si quis solet, present non- committal.] quisquis hue venerit, vapulabit, whoever comes here shall get a thrash- ing. [= si quis venerit, future more definite.] quaecumque vos causa hue attulisset, laetarer, whatever cause had brought you here, I should be glad. [= si qua . . . attulisset, past contrary to fact.] Substitutes for Regular Conditions 802. Condition may be expressed by a word or a phrase, instead of appearing in the regular form with si ; or it may be merely implied (§ 687). facile me paterer, Hid ipso iudice quaerente, pro Roscio dicere, / should readily allow myself to speak for Roscius, if that very judge were conducting the case. [Present contrary to fact, si quaereret, paterer.] quid hunc paucorum annorum accessio iuvare potuisset, what good could the addition of a few years have done him ? [Past contrary to fact, si accessissent, quid . . . potuisset ?] commove : senties, stir him up : you will find etc. [Future more definite, si commovebis, senties.] Digitized by Microsoft® 304 CLAUSES OF COMPARISON Conditional Clauses of Comparison 803. Conditional clauses of comparison are introduced by comparative particles meaning as if, and take the subjunctive, present or perfect, unless the sequence of tenses requires the past or the past perfect. a. The commoner particles meaning as if are ac si, ut si, quasi, tamquam, tamquam si, velut, and velut si. absentia Ariovisti crudelitatem horrent, velut si coram adsit, they shudder at the cruelty of Ariovistus in his absence, as if he were present absentis Ariovisti crudelitatem horrebant, velut si coram adesset, they shuddered at the cruelty of Ariovistus in his absence, as if he ■were present Note. The English idiom would lead us to expect the past or past perfect subjunctive (contrary to fact) in. these clauses; but from the Latin point of view they are really less definite future conditions, with the con- clusion omitted. Thus the first example above really means, they shudder at the cruelty of Ariovistus in his absence, as (they would shudder) if (at some future time) he should be present. In other words, the real conclusion is suppressed. Concessive Clauses 804. Concessive clauses concede something or state that something is true in spite of something else. In the latter sense they are sometimes called adversative clauses. 805. Concession is often expressed by the volitive subjunctive in an independent sentence (§§671, 6j "]), but it more frequently takes a dependent form and shows the following varieties : 1. Qui clause of description, with the subjunctive (§ 730. II). 2. Cum clause of description, with the subjunctive (§ 755). 3. Quamquam, etsi, and tametsi with the indicative. 4. Quatnvis or ut with the subjunctive. 5. Licet with the subjunctive. Note. The principal clause is often introduced by tamen, yet, nevertheless. Digitized by Microsoft® CONCESSIVE CLAUSES 305 806. Quamquam, etsi, and tametsi, although, introduce an admitted fact, and take the indicative. 1 quamquam sunt eiusdem generis, sunt humaniores, although they are of the same race, they are more civilized quamquam omnis virtus nos ad se adlicit, tamen liberalitas id maxime efficit, although every virtue attracts us, yet generosity does so most of all etsi sine ullo periculo proelium fore videbat, tamen committendum non putabat, although he saw that the battle would be without any danger, yet he did not think that it should be begun 807. Quamquam more commonly means and yet, and introduces a new proposition in the indicative. quamquam quid loquor, and yet, why do I speak ? 808. Etsi, tametsi, etiam si, meaning even if, are really conditional particles, and take the indicative or subjunctive according to the rules for conditional sentences (§§ 785-793). optimi faciunt quod honestum est, etsi nullum emolumentum consecu- turum vident, the best men do what is honorable, even if they see that no reward will follow. [Present non-committal.] nonne patria impetrare debeat, etiam si vim adhibere non possit, should not our country gain its request, even if it should be unable to use force f [Future less definite.] 809. Quamvis, to whatever degree, however, and ut, although, take the subjunctive. 1 avari indigent, quamvis divites sint, the avaricious are poor, however rich they may be ut omnia contra oplnionem accidant, tamen plurimum navibus possunt, though everything should happen contrary to expectation, yet they are greatly superior in ships a. Quamvis (quam vis, literally as (much as) you wish) is generally used in expressions involving comparison or degree. It is therefore often found with adjectives and adverbs. quamvis mali, however wicked quamvis multum, however much 1 In poetry quamquam occurs with the subjv. and quamvis with the indie. Digitized by Microsoft® 306 CLAUSES OF PROVISO 810. Licet, although, takes the present or perfect subjunctive. licet omnes mihi terrores impendeant, dicam, though all terrors should menace me, I will speak Note. Licet is properly a verb in the present tense, meaning it is granted. Hence the subjunctive following it is limited by sequence of tenses to the present or perfect. It was not used as a mere conjunction until after Cicero. Clauses of Proviso 811. Dum, modo, and dummodo (dum modo), provided, if only, introduce a proviso, and take the present or past subjunctive. The negative is ne. magno me metfi liberabis, dum modo inter me atque te murus intersit, you will release me from great fear, if only a wall is between you and me dum ne tibi videar, non laboro, provided I do not seem so to you, I do not care omnia postposui, dummodo praeceptis patris parerem, I considered everything else of secondary importance, if only I might obey my father's precepts Note. This is a development of the volitive subjunctive (§ 671). Indirect Questions 812. An indirect question is a dependent substantive clause, introduced by an interrogative word (§621). The verb is in the subjunctive. 1 813. Indirect questions depend on verbs or other expressions of asking, doubting, fearing, thinking, perceiving, telling, and the like, and are usually object clauses. 814. Indirect questions are introduced by interrogative pro- nouns and adverbs, by -ne or num, or by si. 1 In early Latin the indicative is used in indirect questions. The origin of the subjunctive construction is uncertain. Digitized by Microsoft® INDIRECT QUESTIONS 307 a. By interrogative pronouns and adverbs. ostendit quae fieri vellet, he showed what he wished to be done exponam quid sentiam, I will explain what I think intellego quanta cum periculo id fecerim, I understand with how great danger I have done that nescit ubi sit, he does not know where he is b. By -ne or num, used without distinction, in the sense of whether. consuluit possetne id fieri, he look counsel whether it could be done quaero man. id permittas, I ask whether you allow it c. By si, in the sense of whether, sometimes with omission of the governing verb. si nostri transirent, hostes exspectabant, the enemy were -waiting (to see) whether our men would cross 815. Indirect questions referring to future time usually take the subjunctive of the active periphrastic conjugation (§ 668. a). dicam tibi quid facturus sim, I HI tell you what I am going to do Note. The sentence above could also be written dicam tibi quid faciam, but this might be translated /'// tell yozi what I am doing- The peri- phrastic forms remove all ambiguity. 816. The indirect question sometimes represents, not a direct question in the indicative, but a direct rhetorical question in the deliberative subjunctive (§ 678). quo me vertam nescio, / do not know which way to turn. [Direct form : quo me vertam, whither shall I turn ?] neque satis constabat quid agerent, and it was not very clear what they had better do. [Direct form : quid agamus, what shall we do ?] 817. Indirect alternative questions have the same introduc- tory particles as direct alternative questions (§ 627), but or not in the second member is expressed by necne rather than by annon. Digitized by Microsoft® 308 QUOD CLAUSES OF FACT consuluerunt utrum statim necaretur an in aliud tempus reservaretur, they deliberated whether he should be killed at once or kept for some other time dellberatur de Avarico, incendl placeat an defend!, a discussion is held concerning A varicum, whether it seems desii'able that it be btirned or defended quaesivi a Catillna, in convents fuisset necne, Tasked Catiline whether he had been at the meeting or not 818. Haud scio an or nescio an, I am inclined to think, probably (literally I do not know whether), takes the subjunctive in an alternative indirect question, the first member of which is omitted. haud scio an hoc melius sit, I am inclined to think that this is better eloquentia nescio an habuisset parem neminem in oratory he would probably have had no peer 819. Forsitan, perhaps, is followed by the subjunctive in an indirect question, the adverb standing for an original fors sit an, it would be a chance whether. forsitan requiras quae fata Priami fuerint, perhaps you inquire what the fate of Priam was 820. Nescio quis, as an indefinite pronoun meaning some one, and' the adverbial phrases nescio quo modo, nescio quo pacto, somehow ; nescio quando, at some time ; and the like, are not followed by the subjunctive. nuper nescio quis ex me quaesivit, recently some .one asked me sed nescio quo pacto omnium scelerum maturitas nunc erupit, but some- how the ripeness of all crimes has now burst forth Quod Clauses of Fact 821. Dependent substantive clauses introduced by quod, that, the fact that, take the indicative. Like other substantive clauses, the clause of fact with quod may be used as subject, object, appositive, etc. Digitized by Microsoft® QUOD CLAUSES OF FACT 309 822. The quod clause of fact is used as subject, especially after verbs of happening (fit, accidit, evenit, etc.) modified by adverbs like bene or male. quod rediit, nobis mirabile videtur, that he returned seems wonderful to us bene mini evenit, quod ad mortem mittor, it happens well for me that I am sent to death opportune acciderat, quod legati venerant, it had happened opportunely that ambassadors had come 823. The quod clause of fact is used as ap'positive with a preceding noun or demonstrative (hoc, Mud, id, inde, ex e5, propterea, etc.). opportunissima res accidit, quod German! venerunt, a very fortunate thing happened, (namely) that the Germans came in hoc sumus sapientes, quod naturam sequimur, we are wise in this, that we follow nature hoc unum in Alexandra vitupero, quod iracundus fuit, this one thing I censure in Alexander, that he was quick-tempered hoc est miserior fortuna, quod ne in occulta quidem queri audent, their lot is more pitiful in this, that they do not dare to complain even in secret 824. A quod clause of fact is sometimes used as an accusa- tive of respect (§ 427), quod having the meaning as to, as for the fact that. Such a quod clause regularly precedes the main clause. quod me Agamemnonem aemulari putas, falleris, as to your thinking that I emulate Agamemnon, you are mistaken quod mihi gratularis, minime miramur, as to your congratulating me, we are not at all surprised 825. Substantive clauses with quod, substantive clauses with ut or nS (§§ 724, 739), and infinitive clauses with subject accusative (§ 839) are constructions so nearly equivalent that sometimes any one of the three may be used with relatively little difference in meaning. Digitized by Microsoft® TO TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE VERBAL NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 826. The verbal nouns and adjectives are the infinitives, the participles, the gerund, and the supine. THE INFINITIVE 827. The infinitive is a verbal noun, that is, a verb form which partakes of the nature of a noun. Like a noun, it has certain case constructions ; like a verb, it has tense and voice, may be modified by adverbs, and often takes an object. Note. The forms of the Latin infinitive are by origin partly dative and partly locative. Tenses of the Infinitive 828. The tenses of the infinitive are the present, perfect, and future. These do not denote time independently, but their time depends on that denoted by the leading verb. a. The present infinitive denotes the same time as that of the leading verb. scio te scribere, I know that you are writing sciebam te scribere, I knew that you were writing b. The perfect infinitive denotes time before that of the leading verb. scio te scripsisse, I know that you have written sciebam te scripsisse, I knew that you had written Note. In indirect discourse (§ 887. I. b) the perfect infinitive may represent any past tense of the indicative. c. The future infinitive denotes time after that of the leading verb. scio te scnpturum esse, I know that you will write sciebam te scnpturum esse, I knew that you would write Note. The future infinitive is used only in indirect discourse (§ 887. 1, b). 829. With past tenses of verbs of necessity, propriety, and possibility (as debui, oportuit, potul), the present infinitive is Digitized by Microsoft® USES OF THE INFINITIVE 311 generally used in Latin where the English idiom prefers the perfect infinitive. debuit scrlbere 1 . , . .. .. rhe ought to have written oportuit eum scrtberej s potuit scribere, he could have written ill! contra patiiam arma ferre non debuerunt, they ought not to have borne arms against their country Note. The perfect infinitive when used emphasizes the idea of com- pleted action. 830. The present infinitive is sometimes used in indirect discourse to express continued or repeated action in past time, standing for the past descriptive indicative of the direct discourse. te memini dicere, I remember that you used to say. [Direct : dicebas.] 831. Verbs that have no participial stem (§ 209), and hence lack the future infinitive, use as its equivalent the periphrastic form futurum esse (or fore) with ut and the subjunctive. sperabat fore ut pertinacia desisteret, he hoped that he would cease from his obstinacy a. The same periphrastic construction is often used, especially for the future passive infinitive, even when the verb has a participial stem. dicit fore ut urbs deleatur, he says that the city will be destroyed. [Instead of dicit urbem deletum In.] • Common Uses of the Infinitive 832. In general the infinitive has the uses of a neuter noun. The Infinitive as Subject 833. The infinitive, with or without a subject accusative (§419), may be used as subject with est and a predicate noun or adjective. bellum gerere scelus est, to wage war is a crime dolere malum est, to suffer pain is an evil perfacile est conata perficere, to accomplish their undertakings is very easy minim est te nihil scrlbere, it is strange that you write nothing Digitized by Microsoft® 312 USES OF THE INFINITIVE a. The noun or adjective in the predicate is sometimes a posses- sive genitive. iudicis est verum sequi, to follow truth is (the duty) of a judge 834. The infinitive, with or without a subject accusative (§419), may be used as subject with impersonal verbs and expressions like libet, licet, oportet, decet, placet, visum est, pudet, paenitet, necesse est, opus est, constat, fama est, interest, refert, etc. necesse est mori, it is necessary to die visum est iter facere, it seemed best to march traditum est Homerum caecum fuisse, the report has been handed down that Homer was blind a. As shown in the last example above, a predicate noun or adjective is usually in the accusative ; but if the impersonal verb or expression is followed by the dative, the predicate word is also in the dative. Thus regularly with licet. mini neglegenti esse non licet, it is not permitted me to be negligent The Infinitive as Appositive or Predicate Noun 835. The infinitive, with or without a subject accusative (§ 419), may be used as an appositive or as a predicate noun. miserari, invidere, gestire, laetari, haec omnia morbos Graeci appellant, to feel pity, envy, desire, joy, all these things the Greeks call diseases videre est credere, seeing is believing id est convenienter naturae vivere, that is to live in conformity with nature hoc tantum peto, te non proficisci, T ask only this, that you do not set out The Infinitive as Object 836. The infinitive, without subject accusative, is used after many verbs to denote another action of the same subject. This is called the complementary infinitive, because it completes the thought introduced by the finite verb. Digitized by Microsoft® USES OF THE INFINITIVE 313 Note. With transitive verbs the complementary infinitive may be regarded as the direct object. With intransitive verbs it may be regarded as an adverbial modifier. 837. Verbs followed by the complementary infinitive are especially : volo (nolo, malo), cupio, opto, studeo, desire statuo, constituo, cogito, in animo habeo, decide, plan coepi, incipio, pergo, begin omitto, desisto, cesso, cease Conor, nitor, molior, tempto, try contends, maturo, propero, hasten metuo, timed, veteoi,fear consuesco, soleo, be wont possum, be able debeo, ought scio, know how audeo, dare dubito, hesitate disco, learn constituerunt ea comparare, they decided to prepare those things copias parare cesserunt, they ceased to prepare forces iudicari non debet, it ought not to be judged iam se sustinere non poterat, he could not hold up longer a. Some verbs take either a subjunctive clause or a complementary infinitive without difference in meaning. contendit oppidum capere or contendit ut oppidum caperet, he strove to take the town 838. A predicate noun or adjective after a complementary infinitive is in the nominative. fieri doctior studebam, / was eager to become wiser brevis esse laboro, / struggle to be brief a. The infinitive may have a reflexive pronoun as subject accusative. In that case the predicate noun or adjective is also in the accusative. cupio me esse clementem, I desire to be merciful Digitized by Microsoft® 3 14 USES OF THE INFINITIVE 839. The infinitive, with subject accusative, is used as object with the following classes of verbs : a. Very commonly with verbs of saying' (dico, nuntio, etc.), think- ing (puto, existimo, etc.), knowing (scio, cognosco, etc.), and perceiv- ing (video, audio, sentio, etc.). This is the regular construction of principal clauses in indirect discourse (§ 887. I). legati haec se relaturos esse dixerunt, the ambassadors said that they ■would report these matters non exlstimamus Romanos sine ope divlna bellum gerere, we do not think that the Romans wage war without divine aid Caesar cognovit montem a suis teneri, Ccesar learned that the mountain was held by his men sentio in hac urbe esse consults vigilantes, I perceive that in this city there are vigilant consuls b. With volo, nolo, maid, cupio, and studeo, when the subject of the infinitive is not the same as that of the governing verb. nolo te suspectum esse, I do not wish you to be suspected rem ad arma deduct studetis, you are desirous that the matter be brought to (a decision of) arms c. With iubeo and veto. liberos obsides ad se adduci iubet, he bids the children to be brought to him as hostages dux captivos vinciri vetuit, the leader forbade the captives to be 'bound d. With sino and patior. Nervii vinum ad se Tnferri non patiebantur, the Nervii did not permit wine to be brought to them e. With verbs of feeling or emotion : as, gaudeo, laetor, rejoice doleo, maereo, grieve graviter (moleste, etc.) fero, be annoyed miror, admiror, wonder, be surprised queror, complain indignor, be indignant Digitized by Microsoft® USES OF THE INFINITIVE 315 miror te nescire, I am surprised that you do not know exercitum hiemare in Gallia moleste ferebant, they were annoyed that the army was wintering in Gaul Note. As most of these verbs imply thinking or saying, the dependent construction may be regarded as indirect discourse (§ 885). Verbs of this type are often followed by a causal clause with quod (§ 768). 840. The infinitive may be used with the passive of many- verbs which in the active take the infinitive with subject accusa- tive ; so especially with dicor, existimor, iudicor, putor, videor, and (in the third person) traditur, traduntur, fertur, feruntur. centum pagos habere dicuntur, they are said to have a hundred cantons Lycurgi temporibus Homerus fuisse traditur, Homer is said to have lived in the time of Lycurgus a. Passive verbs with the infinitive are generally personal in the present system and impersonal in the perfect system. So the first example above, with the passive verb changed to the perfect, would become — eos centum pagos habere dictum est, it was said that they had a hundred cantons Note. Warro, nuntio, and trado are always impersonal in the perfect passive system. Special Uses of the Infinitive The Infinitive with Adjectives 841. Paratus, suetus, and their compounds take the infinitive like the verbs from which they are derived. omnia perpeti parati, ready to endure everything adsuefacti superarf, used to being conquered a. This construction was extended in poetry and late prose writers to many other adjectives. durus componere versus, harsh in composing verse Digitized by Microsoft® 316 USES OF THE INFINITIVE The Infinitive of Purpose 842. Poets and early prose writers often use the infinitive to express purpose, contrary to the usage of classic prose. non ferro Libycos populare Penates venimus, we have not come to lay waste with the sword the Libyan homes lorlcam donat habere viro, he gives the hero a breastplate to wear The Infinitive in Exclamation 843. The infinitive, with or without the interrogative particle -ne attached to the emphatic word of the clause, may be used in an exclamation or exclamatory question to express surprise, anger, or regret. te in tantas aerumnas propter me incidisse, to think that you should have fallen into such grief for me .' mine incepto desistere victam, what! I beaten desist from my purpose f a. Exclamatory questions are sometimes expressed by the sub- junctive with or without ut. • te ut ulla res frangat, what ! anything crush you ? The Historical Infinitive 844. In descriptive narration the present infinitive may be used instead of the past descriptive indicative, and has its subject in the nominative. cotidie Caesar Haeduos frumentum flagitare, every day Ccesar was asking the Hcedui for the grain pars cedere, alii insequi, a p.art gave way, others pressed on Note. This construction is very rare in subordinate, clauses and is never used to state a mere historical fact. It is always descriptive, and is especially common where several important actions occur in rapid succession, leading to a climax or crisis, Digitized by Microsoft® TENSES OF THE PARTICIPLE 317 The Infinitive as a Pure Noun 845. The infinitive is sometimes a pure noun, and as such may be limited by an adjective or may be the object of a preposition. hie vereri perdidit, he has lost his sense of shame hoc non dolere, this freedom from pain scire tuum, your knowledge nil praeter plorare, nothing except tears PARTICIPLES 846. The participle is a verbal adjective, and combines all the functions of an adjective with some of the functions of a verb. Like an adjective, it agrees with a noun in gender, ' number, and case (§ 497) ; like a verb, it has tense and voice, may be modified by adverbs, and often takes an object. Tenses of the Participle 847. The tenses of the participle are the present, past, and future. The participle, like the infinitive, does not denote time independently, but its time depends on that denoted by the leading verb. a. The present participle denotes the same time as that of the leading verb. video militem sequentem, I see the soldier following vidi militem sequentem, I saw the soldier following b. The past' participle denotes time before that of the leading verb. miles secutus adest, the soldier followed and is present (lit. having followed is present) miles secutus aderat, the soldier had followed and was present c. The future participle denotes time af "ter that of the leading verb. miles secuturus adest, the soldier (who is) about to follow is present Digitized by Microsoft® 31 8 TENSES OF THE PARTICIPLE Tense Peculiarities 848. The past participles ratus, solitus, veritus, regularly, and others occasionally, are used as present. rem incredibilem rati, thinking the thing incredible Insidias veritus, fearing an ambuscade 849. The present participle sometimes denotes attempted action. Flaminio restitit agrum Picentem dividenfi, he resisted Flaminius (who was) attempting to divide the Picene territory Lacking Forms of the Participle 850. As compared with English, the Latin participle is defective. It lacks (a) the present passive (cf. English being seen) and (b) the past active (cf. English having seen). Note. Deponent verbs, being passive in form but active in meaning, are, therefore, the only verbs capable of giving a literal rendering of an English perfect active participle : as, secutus, having followed. 851. The place of the missing present passive participle is supplied usually by a clause with dum or cum. obiere dum calciantur duo Caesares, two Ccesars died while their shoes were being put on me ista delectant cum Latine dicuntur, those things please me, being spoken in Latin 852. The place of the missing past active participle is generally supplied by the past passive participle in the ablative absolute, or by a clause with cum or postquam. convocatis centurionibus milites certiores facit, having called the cen- turions together (lit. the centurions having been called together), he informs the soldiers cum venisset, animadvertit collem, having come (lit. when he had come), he noticed a hill postquam id animum advertit, copias suas in proximum collem subducit, having observed this (lit. after he had observed this), he led his troops to the nearest hill Digitized by Microsoft® USES OF THE PARTICIPLE 319 Common Uses of the Participle 853. Like a verb, the participle may take an object when its meaning allows. Like an adjective or a verb, the participle may take an adverbial modifier. videns montem, seeing the mountain hortalus mflites, having encouraged the soldiers magna voce loquens, speaking in a loud voice 854. The participle, when used as an adjective, may be either attributive or predicate. Attributive Use of the Participle 855. The present and past participles are sometimes used. as attributive adjectives. aeger et flagrans animus, his sick and passionate mind mater amata, a beloved mother 856. The only future active participles used as attributive adjectives in Ciceronian Latin are futurus and venturus. The future passive participle is occasionally so used at all periods. res futurae, future events non ferenda iniuria, an intolerable wrong Predicate Use of the Participle 857. A participle in the predicate may be joined to the subject by esse. Gallia est divisa, Caul is divided 858. The past participle is used with the incomplete tenses of esse to form the compound tenses of the passive. amatus sum, / have been loved amat us eram, I had been loved amatus er5, / shall have been loved Digitized by Microsoft® 320 USES OF THE PARTICIPLE 859. The future active participle in -urus is used with the forms of sum to make the active periphrastic conjugation (§ 249. a). amaturus sum, / am about to love praeter quod secum portaturi erant, except what they intended to carry with them 860. The future passive participle in -ndus is used with the forms of sum to make the passive periphrastic conjugation (§249-*). amandus sum, / must be loved Caesari omnia Bno tempore erant agenda, Ccesar had to do everything at the same time (lit. everything had to be done at the same time by Ctzsar) omnes cruciatus sunt perferendi, all (kinds of) cruelty have to be endured a. Intransitive verbs are always impersonal in the passive peri- phrastic, and take their usual cases (genitive, dative, or ablative). concedendum esse non putabat, he did not think that he ought to comply (lit. that it ought to be complied) tempori serviendum est, one must obey the (demands of the) time utendum est exercitationibus modicis, we must use moderate exercise b. Transitive verbs are occasionally impersonal in the passive peri- phrastic, but may have an accusative object. agitandum est vigilias, I have got to stand guard 861. The present and past participles are often used as predicate, where in English a phrase or a subordinate clause would be more natural. In this use participles express especially time, cause, means, manner, condition, and concession. a. Time. Plato scribens mortuus est, Plato died while writing (or in the act of writing) b. Cause. quibus rebus Caesar vehementer commotus maturandum sibi existi- mavit, because he was greatly disturbed by these facts, Ccesar # thought that he ought to hasten Digitized by Microsoft® USES OF THE PARTICIPLE 321 c. Means. sol oriens diem conficit, the sun, by its rising, causes the day d. Manner. flentes implorabant, they begged with tears e. Condition. damnation poenam sequi oportebat, if he was condemned, punishment was,, to overtake him f. Concession. beneficio adfectus hanc gratiam refert, though he has been treated with kindness, he makes this return 862. A coordinate clause is often compressed into a past participle. Tnstructos ordines in locum aequum deducit, he draws up the lines, and leads them to level ground Special Uses of the Participle 863. Participles, like adjectives, may be used as nouns. recte facta paria esse debent, right deeds ought to be like in value opinionem pugnantium praebent, they give the impression ofmenfighting 864. Video, audio, faciei, and a few other verbs may take a present participle in the predicate instead of an infinitive. vidi urbem concidentem, I saw the city falling . Xenophon facit Socratem disputantem, Xenophon represents Socrates as discussing 865. The past participle is used with habeo with almost the same meaning as the perfect or past perfect indicative active. vectigalia redempta habet, he has bought up the revenues perfidiam Haeduorum perspectam habebat, he had observed the treachery of the Hcedui / 866. A noun and a participle are often so combined that the participle and not the noun contains the main idea. ante urbem conditam, before the founding of the city post natos homines, since the creation of man Sicilia Sardiniaque dmissae, the loss of Sicily and Sardinia Digitized by Microsoft® 322 GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 867. The past participle with a noun in agreement, or in the neuter as an abstract noun, is used in the ablative with opus, need (§ 469. b). opus facto est viatico, there is need of providing traveling expenses maturato opus est, there is need of haste 868. The future active participle (rarely the present) is sometimes used by poets and late writers to express purpose. egreditur vallum invasurus, he comes forth to attack the rampart 869. After the verbs euro, see to; do, trado, mando, give over; concedo, surrender ; relinquo, leave ; suscipio, undertake ; loco, contract for; and a few others, the future passive participle is used in agreement with the object to denote purpose. pontem faciendum curavit, he saw to the building of a bridge agros vastandos tradidit, he gave over the fields to be laid waste signum conlocandum locaverunt, they contracted to have the statue erected THE GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 870. The Gerundive is the name given to the future passive participle when used as a verbal adjective in agreement with a noun. The gerundive, unlike the participle, does not express necessity or obligation. bellum gerendum est, the war must be waged. [Participle.] cupidus belli gerendi, desirous of waging war. [Gerundive.] 871. The Gerund is the neuter singular of the gerundive used as an active verbal noun in the genitive, dative, accusa- tive, and ablative. Note. The nominative singular of the gerund is supplied by the present active infinitive: as, overcoming (or to overcome) danger demands courage. f overcoming^ T „ . . Nom. superare-^ , * ^Infinitive " \^to overcome j Gen. superandi, of overcoming ] D at. superando. for overcoming I Ace. superandum, overcoming f erund Ael. superando, by overcoming J Digitized by Microsoft® GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 323 872. A comparison of the gerund and gerundive shows the following points of difference : a. The gerund is a verbal noun. The gerundive is a verbal adjective. b. The gerund is active. The gerundive is passive. c. The gerund may stand alone or with an object. The gerundive always accompanies and agrees with a noun. Note i. The gerund and gerundive are translated in the same way although of different construction. Thus, spes urbem capiendi (gerund) and spes urbis capiendae (gerundive) are both translated hope of taking the city ; but the latter, rendered literally, would be hope of the city to be taken. Note 2. To change from the gerund to the gerundive construction, put the object of the gerund into the case of the gerund, and change the gerund to a gerundive agreeing with it. See the example in Note 1 . Case Constructions of the Gerund and Gerundive 873. The gerund and gerundive have in general the same case constructions as nouns. 874. The genitive of the gerund and gerundive is used with nouns or adjectives. Gerund Gerundive c5nsilium habendi spatium, time for consili habendi spatium, time for forming a plan forming a plan cupidus bellum gerendi, desirous of cupidus belli gerendi, desirous of carrying on war carrying on war 875. The genitive of the gerund and gerundive is used with causa or gratia to express purpose. frumentandi causa progress! sunt, they advanced for the purpose of gathering grain 876. With mei, tui, sui, nostri, and vestri, even when the pronoun refers to the feminine or the plural, the gerundive ends in i. Tarpeia ornamenta cupivit sui ornandi causa, Tarpeia desired jewels to adorn herself Haedui legatos ad Caesarem sui purgandi gratia mittunt, the Hadui send ambassadors to Ccesar to excuse themselves hoc vestri adhortandi causa non dico, / do not say this to encourage you Digitized by Microsoft® 324 GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 877. The dative of the gerund and gerundive is used with adjectives denoting fitness. librl utiles legends, books useful for reading tempora fructibus percipiendJs accommodata, seasons suitable for gathering the harvest aetas bello gerendo matura, a time of life ripe for carrying on war a. The dative of the gerund and gerundive may be used with verbs and with nouns. The, latter are usually names of officials, and the dative denotes the purpose for which they serve. hi scrlbendo aderant, these were present at the writing duumviri agris adsignandis, duumviri for the assignment of lands diem praestitit open faciendo, he appointed a day for doing the work Note. The dative of the gerund with a direct object should not be used, but the gerundive as above. 878. The accusative of the gerund and gerundive is used with ad to denote purpose. diem ad deliberandum sumam, / will take time for deliberating vivis non ad deponendam sed ad confirmandam audaciam, you live not to put off but to confirm your daring Note i. The accusative of the gerund with a preposition should never be used with a direct object ; the gerundive is used instead (see above). Note 2. Rarely other prepositions appear in this construction. 879. The ablative of the gerund and gerundive is used to ex- press cause, means, etc., and after the prepositions ab, de, ex, or in. coniurationem non credendo corroboraverunt, they have strengthened the conspiracy by not believing oculi turgiduli flendo, eyes swollen with weeping conciendo ad se multitudinem, by calling to them a multitude reperiebat in quaerendo, he found on investigating in equis parandis cura, care in providing horses de expugnando oppido, concerning the storming of the town Note. When the ablative of the gerund has no preposition,, it may be used with a direct object, as in the third example ; but after a preposition only tfce gerundive construction is possible, as in the last two examples. Digitized by Microsoft® THE SUPINE 325 Relative Frequency and Limitations of the Gerund and Gerundive 880. When the participial phrase contains a substantive, either the gerund or the gerundive construction is, as a rule, permissible, though the latter is more common in classical Latin. However, the following limitations are to be observed : a. The gerund with a direct object is permissible only in the genitive and in the ablative without a preposition. b. Only the gerund is permissible with a neuter adjective used substantively. ars vera ac falsa diiudicandl, the art of distinguishing true from false Note. This is to avoid ambiguity. The equivalent gerundive phrase, ars verorum ac falsorum dliudicandorum, would mean the art of distinguish- ing true men from false men. c. Only the gerund is used when the verb is 1 intransitive, els persuadendi causa, for the sake of persuading them Note, (jtor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, originally transitive, may be used in either the gerund or the gerundive construction. THE SUPINE 881. The supine is a verbal noun of the fourth declension, and has but two forms, the accusative in -um and the ablative in -ii. 882. The supine has only two uses : I. The supine in -um is used after verbs of motion to express purpose. 1 1 A c/mspectus of the commonest constructions employed to express pur- pose is shown in the following table : ' 1. Adverbial clauses, introduced by ut or n? (§713) 2. Relative clauses (§715) 3. Substantive clauses, used as subject Purpose may be J (§ 721), object (§ 720), or appositive expressed by L. (§ 724) The gerund or gerundive (§§ 875, 878) , The supine in -um (§ 882. I) Digitized by Microsoft® The subjunctive- 326 INDIRECT DISCOURSE legatos ad Caesarem mittunt rogatum auxilium, they send envoys to Ccesar to ask aid f iliam nuptum dat, he gives his daughter in marriage (lit. to marry) a. The supine in -urn may take an object, as in the first example. Note. The supine in -um with lri, the passive infinitive of eo, forms the future passive infinitive. sciebat se trucTdatum irt, he knew that he was going to be murdered But the future passive infinitive is rare ; fore ut with the subjunctive is regularly employed instead (§ 831. a). II. The supine in -u is used with a few adjectives, and with the nouns fas, nefas, and opus, as an ablative of respect (§478). perfacile facts est, it is very easy to do difficile dictu est, it is hard to say nefas est dictu, it is a sin to say a. The supine in -u never takes an object. b. The only supines in -u in common use are cognitu, dictu, factu, natu, and visit. Adjectives frequently followed by the supine are facilis, difficilis, horribilis, incredibilis, and mirabilis. INDIRECT DISCOURSE 883. The original words of a speaker or writer quoted with- out change, in the form of an independent sentence, are said to be in direct discourse. Caesar dicit : Belgae sunt fortes, Ccesar says, " The Belga> are brave " 884. The words of a speaker or writer quoted in dependent form after a verb of saying, thinking, knowing, or perceiving are said to be in indirect discourse. Caesar dicit Belgas esse fortes, Ca>sar says that the Belgce are brave 885. Verbs and other expressions of saying, thinking, know- ing, perceiving, and the like are commonly followed by indirect discourse. Digitized by Microsoft® PRINCIPAL CLAUSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 327 Verbs of saying: dico, nuntie, refero, polliceor, promitto, etc. Verbs of thinking : puto, arbitror* existimo, etc. Verbs of knowing: scio, cognosco, etc. Verbs of perceiving : video, audio, sentio, intellego, comperio, etc. a. The verb of saying, etc., is sometimes implied by the context. 886. General Rule. In indirect discourse the verbs in the principal clauses of declarative sentences are in the infinitive, and the verbs in the subordinate clauses are in the subjunctive. PRINCIPAL CLAUSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 887. Principal clauses of direct discourse, on becoming indirect, show the following changes : I. Principal clauses, when declarative, change the indicative to the infinitive with subject accusative. Direct Discourse Indirect Discourse dies Tnstat, the.day is at hand intellexit diem Jnstare, he perceived that the day was at hand Helvetii castra moverunt, the Helvetii cognovit Helvetios castra mdvisse, he moved their camp learned that the Helvetii had moved their camp Allobrogibus persuadebimus, we shall existimabant se Allobrogibus per- persuade the Allobroges suasuros (esse), they thought that they should persuade the Al- lobroges a. The subject accusative of the infinitive is regularly expressed in indirect discourse, even when the subject of the verb is unexpressed as a pronoun in the direct. Direct : orator sum, / am an orator Indirect : dicit se esse oratorem, he says that he is an orator b. The tenses of the infinitive in indirect discourse denote time contemporaneous with, prior to, or subsequent to that of the verb by which the indirect discourse is introduced (§ 885). Digitized by Microsoft® 328 PRINCIPAL CLAUSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE indicative Direct Discourse Present indicative Past descriptive" Perfect Past perfect Future active indicative Future passive indicative Future perfect indicative becomes Indirect Discourse becomes Present infinitive becomes Perfect infinitive becomes Future active infinitive becomes fore (futurum esse) ut with the present or past subjunctive 1 fore (futurum esse) ut with the perfect or past perfect sub- junctive Note i . The present infinitive posse often has a future force. totals Galliae sese potiri posse sperant, they hope that they shall be able to get possession of the whole of Gaul Note 2. The infinitive construction is regularly continued after a com- parative with quam. addit se prius occisum iri quam me violatum Tri, he adds that he himself will be killed sooner than I shall be injured II. Principal clauses, when interrogative, change the indica- tive of the direct discourse to the subjunctive if the question is real ; to the infinitive if the question is rhetorical. 2 Direct Discourse quid vis? cur venls, what do you want? why do you come ? [Real questions.] num memoriam deponere possum, can I lay aside the memory t [Rhetorical question.] Indirect Discourse dixit quid vellet? cur ventret, he said what did he want f why did he come ? dixit num memoriam se deponere posse, he said could he lay aside the memory f Note i. Real questions are generally in the second person, rhetorical questions in the first or third ; but no sharp line can be drawn between them. Note 2. Questions, either real or rhetorical, directly following a verb of asking, are treated as indirect questions and take the subjunctive (§ 812). 1 Or (rarely) future passive infinitive. 2 Rhetorical questions (§ 620. b) do not ask for information, but are equiva- lent to 1 statements ; hence they are treated like declarative sentences (§ 887. 1). Digitized by Microsoft® SUBORDINATE CLAUSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 329 a. The deliberative subjunctive (§ 678) remains subjunctive in indirect discourse. Direct : quid facerem, what was I to do t Indirect : dixit quid faceret, he said what was he to do ? III. Principal clauses, when imperative (that is, when ex- pressing commands, prayers, wishes, and prohibitions), have the verb in indirect discourse in the subjunctive. The negative is ne. Direct Discourse Indirect Discourse {Present subjunctive after a primary tense Past subjunctive after a sec- ondary tense f Subjunctive, though the tense Subjunctive (volitive or optative) remains -j may be changed by the [ law of tense sequence Direct Discourse Indirect Discourse reminlscere veteris incommodi, re- dixit remimsceretur veteris incom- member the ancient disaster modi, he told him to remember the ancient disaster amemus patriam, let us love our dixit amarent patriam, he told them country to love their country isto bono utare, use that blessing dicit isto bono utatur, he says that he should use that blessing noli dubitare, don't hesitate dicit ne dubitet, he tells him not to hesitate a. A prohibition with noli and the infinitive (§ 676. a) becomes the subjunctive with ne, as shown in the last example. SUBORDINATE CLAUSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 888. Subordinate clauses, on becoming indirect, take the subjunctive. . 889. The tenses of the subjunctive in indirect discourse follow the rule for sequence of tenses (§ 695); and depend on the verb by which the indirect discourse is introduced. Digitized by Microsoft® 330 SUBORDINATE CLAUSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE Direct Discourse Present 1 ... t . _ S- indicative Future I Perfect 1 . ,. t . Vindicative Future perfect J becomes - becomes - Past descriptive indicative becomes. Past perfect indicative becomes - Indirect Discourse Present subjunctive after a pri- mary tense Past subjunctive after a second- ary tense Perfect subjunctive after a pri- mary tense Past perfect subjunctive after a secondary tense ' Perfect subjunctive after a pri- mary tense Past subjunctive after a second- ary tense ' Perfect subjunctive after a pri- mary tense Past perfect subjunctive after a secondary tense 890. A subjunctive in a subordinate clause of the direct discourse remains subjunctive when the clause becomes indirect ; but the tense may be changed to conform to the law of tense sequence. 891. A past or past perfect subjunctive in the subordinate clause of a condition contrary to fact always remains unchanged in indirect discourse (see § 900). 892. The following examples include both principal and subordinate clauses : Direct Discourse sunt non null! quorum auctoritas plurimum valeat, there are some whose influence is very strong id quod in Nerviis feci faciam, / will do that which I did in the case of the Nervii Indirect Discourse dicit esse non nullos quorum aucto- ritas plurimum valeat, he says that there are some whose in- fluence is very strong respondit se id quod in Nerviis fecisset facturum esse, he replied that he would do that which he had done in the case of the Nervii Digitized by Microsoft® SUBORDINATE CLAUSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 331 Direct Discourse Indirect Discourse ad Caesarem ibo ut pacem petam, I dixit se ad Caesarem iturum ut will go to Cmsar that I may pacem peteret, he said that he beg for peace would go to Ccesar that he might beg for peace ob earn causam quam diu potui taciri, dicit ob earn causam se quam diu for this reason [ have kept si- potuerit tacuisse, he says that lence as long as I could for this reason he has kept si- lence as long as he could 893. The subjunctive depending on a perfect infinitive is usually in the past or past perfect in indirect discourse, even if the verb of saying etc. is in a primary tense (cf. § 703). satis mihi multa verba fecisse videor qua re esset hoc bellum necessa- rium, I think I have said enough to show why this war is necessary 894. The present or perfect subjunctive is often used after a secondary tense to make the narrative more vivid (cf. § 707). dicebant totidem Nervios polliceri, qui longissime absint, they said that the Nervii, who live farthest off, promised as many 895. Subordinate clauses inserted by the narrator himself, and not part of the indirect discourse, are in the indicative. referunt silvam esse, quae appellator Bacenis, they say that there is a forest, which is called Bacenis 896. Clauses introduced by a relative which is equivalent to a demonstrative with a conjunction (§ 564) are subordinate only in form, and hence take the accusative and infinitive in indirect discourse like declarative principal clauses (§ 887. I). quibus proeliis fractos Haeduos coactos esse Sequanis obsides dare, and that weakened by these battles the Hadui had been compelled to give hostages to the Sequani 897. If the verb of a relative clause is the same as that of the principal clause, it may be omitted and its subject attracted into the accusative. te suspicor iisdem rebus quibus me ipsum (instead of ego ipse) commo- veri, / suspect that you are moved by the same things as I Digitized by Microsoft® 332 INDIRECT DISCOURSE CONDITIONAL SENTENCES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 898. The condition in a conditional sentence is a subordinate clause, and the conclusion is a principal clause. Hence in indirect discourse — I. The condition is always in the subjunctive. II. The conclusion, if declarative, is always in some form of the infinitive. 899. Conclusions that are interrogative or imperative in form are treated like other principal clauses of that sort See § 887. II, III. 900. Conditional sentences show the following changes in mood and tense on passing from direct to indirect discourse : Form of Condition Condition (Sub- ordinate Clause) Conclusion (Principal. Clause) I. Non-committal (present and past) Indicative becomes subjunctive Indicative becomes infinitive Imperative becomes subjunctive Subjunctive remains subjunctive II. More and less definite (future) Indicative becomes subjunctive Subjunctive remains subjunctive Future active indicative or pres- ent active subjunctive becomes future active infinitive Future passive indicative or present passive subjunctive becomes fore (futurum esse) ut with the present or past subjunctive Future perfect indicative or per- fect subjunctive becomes fore (futurum esse) ut with the perfect or past perfect sub- junctive III. Contrary to fact (present and past) • Past or past perfect subjunctive re- mains unchanged Past or past perfect active sub- junctive becomes the future participle with fuisse Past or past perfect passive sub- junctive becomes futurum fuisse ut with the past sub- junctive Digitized by Microsoft® CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 333 901. The changes required in conditional sentences when they pass from direct to indirect discourse are illustrated by the following examples : Direct Discourse Indirect Discourse I. Non-committal (present and past) i . si pugnas, vincis, if you fight, you conquer 2. si pugnas, vince, if you fight, conquer 3. si pugnas, vincas, if you fight, may you conquer f dico si pugnes, te vincere \ dixi si pugnares, te vincere f dico si pugnes, vincas \ dixi si pugnares, vinceres II. More and less definite (future) si pugnabis, vinces, if you (shall) fight, you will con- quer. [More definite.] si pugnes, vincas, if you should fight, you would conquer. [Less definite.] si pugnabis, vinceris, if you (shall) fight, you will be con- quered. [More definite.] si pugnes, vincaris, if you should fight, you would be con- quered. [Less definite.] 3,4- dico si pugnes, te victurum esse. [More and less defi- nite.] dixi si pugnares, te victurum ■esse. [More and less defi- nite.] dico si pugnes, fore ut vincaris. [More and less definite.] dixi si pugnares, fore ut vin- cereris. [More and less definite.] III. Contrary to fact (present and past) si pugnares, vinceres, if you were fighting, you would be con- quering. [Present.] si pugnavisses, vlcisses, if you had fought, you would have conquered. [Past.] si pugnares, vincereris, if you were fighting, you would be conquered. [Present.] si pugnavisses, victus esses, if you had fought, you would have been conquered. [Past.] dico, or dixi, si pugnares, te vic- turum fuisse. [Present.] dico, or dixi, si pugnavisses, te vic- turum fuisse. [Past] dico, or dixi, si pugnares, futurum fuisse ut vincereris. [Present.] dico, or dixi, si pugnavisses, futu- rum fuisse ut vincereris. [ Past. ] Digitized by Microsoft® 334 SUBJUNCTIVE BY ATTRACTION 902. Observe that more and less definite future conditions assume the same form in indirect discourse and cannot be distinguished. 903. Observe that in indirect discourse present and past condi- tions contrary to fact have the same form in the conclusion, but that they retain the regular distinction of tense in the condition. 904. Observe that the tenses of the subjunctive follow the rules of tense sequence except in conditions contrary to fact. IMPLIED INDIRECT DISCOURSE 905. The presence of the subjunctive in a subordinate clause may show that it is an indirect quotation, even though there is no verb of saying or the like in the principal clause. Paetus omnis libros quos frater suus reliquisset mihi donavit, Patus presented to me all the books which (he said) his brother had left Caesar Haeduos frumentum quod essent pollicifl flagitare, Ctzsar kept asking the Hcedui for the grain which (he asserted) they had promised 906. The principle of implied indirect discourse explains the use of the subjunctive in causal clauses when the reason given is that of another than the speaker or writer (§ 768; F). queritur quod desertus sit, he complains because (as he says) he has been deserted THE SUBJUNCTIVE BY ATTRACTION 907. A subordinate clause depending on a subjunctive or an infinitive clause, and essential to its thought, is attracted into the subjunctive. hortatus sum ut ea quae sciret sine timore indicaret, / wged him to disclose without fear the things which he knew quis tam dissoluto animo est, qui haec cum videat, tacere possit, who is of so reckless a spirit that, when he sees these things, fie can • keep silent ? Digitized by Microsoft® ORDER OF WORDS 335 mos est Athenis laudari in contione eos qui sint in proeliis interfecti, it is the custom at Athens for those to be eulogized in the assembly who have been killed in battle 908. The dependent clause must be a necessary and logical part of the subjunctive or infinitive clause, or no attraction takes place. milites misit ut eos qui fugerant persequerentur, he sent soldiers to pursue those who had fled ne hostes, quod tantum multitudine poterant, suos circum venire possent, lest the enemy, because they were so strong in numbers, should be able to surround his men 909. The subjunctive in implied indirect discourse and the sub- junctive by attraction are so closely related that it is often difficult to distinguish between them. THE ORDER OF WORDS GENERAL PRINCIPLES 910. The words of an English sentence stand in a more or less fixed order, which shows their grammatical relation to each other. In Latin this relation is shown by inflection, and the order of the words depends mainly upon the connection of thought, the emphasis, and the principles of euphony. 911. The two most important places in the Latin sentence are the beginning and the end, and the words standing there have a corresponding value. Note. The clear indication of the beginning and end of the sentence by the order of words was the more important to the Romans because they had no marks of punctuation. 912. The normal 1 order of the simple, independent, discon- nected sentence is as follows : - 1. Subject. 2. Modifiers of the subject. " 1 By normal is meant the order in which no attempt is made to give any part of the sentence unusual emphasis or to secure rhythmic or euphonic effects. Digitized by Microsoft® 336 ORDER OF WORDS 3. Object. If there are both a direct and an indirect object, the indirect sometimes precedes the direct and sometimes follows it. 4. Adverb. 5. Verb. The position of other elements, such as ablatives, preposi- tional phrases, etc., cannot be exactly formulated, but is deter- mined largely by emphasis and euphony. 913. In connected narrative the first sentence normally begins with the subject, and each succeeding sentence with whatever word links the thought of the sentence with that of the sentence preceding. palus erat n5n magna inter nostrum atque hostium exercitum. Banc si nostri transirent hostes exspectabant, there was a swamp of no great size between our army and that of the enemy. The enemy were waiting to see whether our men would cross this Note that the first sentence is introduced by palus, the subject, but the second by hanc, the linking word. Observe also the next two examples : , subitum bellum in Gallia codrtum est. Eius belli haec fuit causa, a sudden war arose in Gaul. Of that war the cause was as follows ipse in illyricum proficiscitur. Ed cum venisset, milites certum in locum convenire iubet. Qua re niintiata Pirustae legatos ad eum mittunt. Percepta oratione eorum Caesar obsides imperat, he himself set out for Illyricum. Upon his arrival there, he ordered soldiers to assemble in a particular place. When this was reported, the Pirustce sent envoys to him. Having heard their plea, Casar demanded hostages a. The relative pronoun is thus frequently used as a connecting link (§ 564). quod ubi Caesar animadvertit, legati ita responderunt, when Casar • noticed this, the legates replied as follows Digitized by Microsoft® ORDER OF WORDS 337 SPECIAL RULES Attributive Adjectives and Genitives 914. Attributive adjectives in general both precede and follow their nouns. a. Numeral adjectives, adjectives of quantity and size, as omnis, totus, magnus, etc., and the adjectives alius, alter, iillus, niillus, normally precede. decima legio, the tenth legion totum oppidum, the entire town ingens multitudo, a huge number aliud iter, another way b. The position of many adjectives has been fixed by custom. populus Romdnus, the Roman people res publico, the commonwealth di immortffl.es, the immortal gods res frumentaria, the grain supply Sacra Via, the Sacred Way (a street in Rome) c. Proper adjectives usually follow their nouns. Socrates Atheniensis, Socrates the Athenian 915. Genitives in general both precede and follow their nouns. a. Causa and gratia are always preceded by their genitive. honoris causa, for the sake of honor exempli gratia, for example b. The genitives of interrogative and relative pronouns always pre- cede their nouns, and the genitives of other pronouns generally do so. cuius magnae copiae, whose great forces eorum obsides, their hostages c. In stereotyped phrases consisting of a noun modified by a genitive, the genitive generally follows. pater familias, father of a family tribunus plebis, tribune of the people . milia passuum, thousands of paces But senatus consultum, a decree of the senate Digitized by Microsoft® 338 ORDER OF WORDS 916. When a noun is modified by both an adjective and a genitive, the usual order is adjective, noun, genitive ; less frequently adjective, genitive, noun. The order genitive, noun, adjective is rare. Inferior pars insulae, the lower part of the island magna hominum multitudo, a great number of men 917. Prepositions usually precede an adjective with its noun, but monosyllabic prepositions (especially cum, de, ex, and in) often stand between the adjective and its noun. ad latus apertum, on the exposed side ex proximis navibus, from the nearest ships summa cum laude, with the highest praise a. Relative and interrogative adjectives usually precede the preposition. qua de causa, for this reason quam ob rem, wherefore quern ad modum, how Pronouns 918. Hie, iste, ille, is, and idem, used as pronominal adjectives, and indefinite pronominal adjectives normally precede their nouns. haec spes, this hope ista vita, that life ille exercitus, that army aliqua causa, some case a. Ille in the sense of that (or the) famous, that (or the) well- known, normally follows its noun (see § 538). 919. Possessive pronominal adjectives normally follow their nouns. domus mea, my house pater noster, our father copiae suae, his forces Digitized by Microsoft® ORDER OF WORDS 339 920. Quisque regularly follows se or suus, superlatives, and ordinals. _ ad suam quisque domum, each to his own house optimus quisque civis, all the best citizens quarto quoque anno, every fourth year 921. The pronoun of the first person precedes the second, and the second the third. , ego et tfi, you and I tu et ille, yoti and he 922. Relatives and interrogatives normally stand first in their clauses. Note. For the antecedent standing in the relative clause see § 559. Adverbs 923. Adverbs normally precede the words they modify ; but quidem, quoque, denique, and demum regularly, and fere and saepe usually, follow. Conjunctions 924. Conjunctions normally introduce their clauses ; but autem, enim, vero, and generally igitur 1 stand second, sometimes third. Note. Such words are said to he postpositive. Prepositions 925. Prepositions normally precede their cases, but tenus, versus, and enclitic cum (§ 277- d) follow. a. A preposition may follow its case. This is rare in prose, but occurs in poetry, especially with prepositions of two syllables. vestibulum ante (Vergil), before the entrance Note. Observe the idiomatic order in per te deos Sro, I beseech you by the gods. 1 Igitur sometimes stands first. Digitized by Microsoft® 340 ORDER OF WORDS Verbs 926. The finite verb normally tends to stand last. Ariovistus legatos ad eum mittit, Ariovistus sends envoys to him a. The verb often stands first in explanatory clauses when the connecting word is autem or enim. loquor autem de commfinibus amicitiis, I am speaking now; however, about ordinary friendships licet enim mini apud te gloriari, for it is allowed me to boast in your presence 927. Sum has no fixed position ; but when it means exist, it regularly stands first or, at any rate, before its subject. sunt fortes viri, there are brave men 928. Inquam, I say, stands after one or more words of a direct quotation and is usually followed by its subject. " refer," inquis, " ad senatum," " lay the matter before the senate," you say " est vero," inquit Cicero, " notum quidem signum," " it is truly" said Cicero, " a very well-known seal" Negatives 929. The negative generally precedes the verb (§ 923) ; if it is emphatic, it begins the sentence ; if it negatives only one word, it precedes that word. The Vocative 930. The vocative normally stands after one or more words in the sentence. parce metu, Cytherea, cease your fear, Cytherea a. When emphatic, the vocative stands first. M. Tullf, quid agis, Marcus Tullius, what are you doing t Digitized by Microsoft® ORDER OF WORDS 341 ARRANGEMENT OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 931. Subordinate clauses normally begin with the connective and end with the verb. The intervening words are arranged in general as in principal clauses. The distinct indication of the beginning and end of the subordinate clause was the more necessary because the Romans had no punctua- tion marks. 932. Subordinate clauses generally precede the principal clause ; but the principal clause normally precedes clauses of purpose or result, substantive clauses in indirect discourse, and indirect questions. cum esset Caesar in citeriore Gallia, crebrl ad eum rumores adferibantur, when Ccesar was in hither Gaul, frequent reports were brought to him mittunt legatos qui paean petant, they send envoys to beg for peace verebantur ne ad eos exercitus noster adduceretur, they feared that our army would be led against them certior fiebat omms Belgas obsides inter se dare, he was informed that all the Belgce were giving hostages to each other rogat me quid sentiam, he asks me what I think THE RHETORICAL ORDER 933. Deviations from the normal order (§ 912) are very frequent and are known as the rhetorical order. These devia- tions arise from the desire to indicate emphasis or to secure pleasing euphonic effects (see also § 938). 934. Emphasis is secured by putting words in unusual positions, as follows : , a. By inverting the normal order of the subject and verb. This transposition makes them both emphatic. movit me oratio tua, your speech moved me fuimus Troes, fuit Ilium, we have ceased to be Trojans, Ilium is no more (cf. § 659) Digitized by Microsoft® 342 ORDER OF WORDS b. By placing first a word that would not normally stand there. luce sunt clariora tua consilia, your plans are clearer than daylight c. By taking an emphatic word or phrase out of a subordinate clause and placing it before the connective. servz mei si me isto pacto metuerent, etc., if even my slaves feared me in that fashion, etc. d. By inverting the normal order of a noun and its modifier. This transposition makes the modifier emphatic. oratores hi sunt clarissimi, these orators are the most famous non est mea culpa, it is not my fault e. By separating words that would normally stand together-. Thus especially an emphatic adjective is separated from its noun. haec res umus est propria Caesaris, this exploit belongs to Ctzsar alone magna dis immortalibus habenda est gratia, GREAT gratitude is due to the immortal gods Gallia est omnis divisa in partes tres, Gaul, viewed as a whole, is divided into three parts f. By. reversing the order of words in the second of two contrasted expressions. This is called chias'mus and is very common. fragile corpus, animus sempiternus, a frail body, an immortal soul quam diu vixit, vlxit in luctu, as long as he lived, he lived in sorrow Note. Chiasmus is named from the Greek letter chi (X), in which the lines are crossed. CLAUSE AND SENTENCE BUILDING 935. The connection of clause with clause and sentence with sentence is much closer in Latin than in English. There is evident a constant effort to combine into a harmonious whole the different parts of discourse and to make clear their logical relationship. 936. Structure of the Period. English narrative consists largely of short sentences, each distinct from the rest and saying one thing by itself. Latin writers, on the contrary, Digitized by Microsoft® EUPHONY AND RHYTHM 343 viewed a number of related actions or thoughts as a whole, and this resulted in the formation of what is known as the Period. To form a period, the chief action or thought among a number of related ones is selected and made the principal clause, and all the other clauses are incorporated in it as subordinate elements. Gener- ally the period begins with the subject of the principal clause, then follow the subordinate clauses, and the period closes with the predi- cate of the principal clause, the main verb usually standing last. In this way the thought is kept in suspense from clause to clause and is not complete until the final word. Roman writers were very fond of the periodic style, and it is imitated sometimes in English, espe- cially in poetry, as in the following : High on a throne of royal state, which far Outshone the wealth of Ormus and of Ind, Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold, Satan exalted sat. — " Paradise Lost," ii, 1-5 A Latin period is usually best translated into English by breaking it up into two or more short sentences. Examples of the Latin period : Caesar primum suo deinde omnium ex conspectu remotls equis, ut aequato omnium periculo spem fugae tolleret, cohortatus suos proelium commisit Caesar, una aestate duobus maximis bellis confectis, maturius paulo quam tempus anni postulabat, in hiberna in Sequanos exercitum deduxit 937. Euphony and Rhythm. Good writers of Latin had regard for sound as well as for sense, and this had an impor- tant effect on the order of words. They avoided a succession of monosyllabic or of polysyllabic words, as also the heaping up of a number of verbs at the end of the sentence. The orators in particular took pains to have a sentence close with a pleasing combination of short and long syllables. These Digitized by Microsoft® 344 RHETORICAL EFFECTS closing syllables were known as the cadence. Certain cadences were sought after and others avoided. For example : (w \j \j I _ w, repeitfetur (tribrach and trochee) w I _ \j, quaereretiir (two trochees) w , muninnt (cretic ; cf. § 907) w I , criminis causa (cretic and spondee) Avoided cadence, w w | , omne tene bant (dactyl and spondee) Preferably a word of two or more syllables of sonorous sound was placed last. RHETORICAL EFFECTS 938. As has been already pointed out (§ 933), emphasis is produced by deviations from the normal order of words. In addition rhetoricians employed many devices to secure unusual effects. Among those most employed are the following : 939. Anaph'ora : the repetition of a word at the beginning of successive clauses. nihil agis, nihil moliris, nihil cogitas, you do nothing, you plan nothing, you think nothing Note. The repetition of a word at the end of successive clauses is called epiph'ora. 940. Antithesis: opposition or contrast. This is often secured by placing words opposed in meaning next to each other. nee audet appellare virum virgo, nor does the maid dare to address the hero alius aliam in partem fugit, one fled in one direction, another in another Note. Antithetical phrases or pairs of words are usually contrasted by chiasmus (see § 934.^). 941. Aposiope'sis : an abrupt pause in the midst of a sentence, leaving the imagination to supply the remainder. quos ego sed motos praestat componere fluctfls, whom I a but it is better to calm the angry billows Digitized by Microsoft® RHETORICAL EFFECTS 34$ 942. Asyn'deton : omission of conjunctions. iura, leges, agros, libertatem nobis reliquerunt, they have left us our rights, our laws, our fields, our liberty Note. The opposite of asyndeton, when more conjunctions are ex- pressed than is necessary, is called polysyndeton. 943. Epizeux'is : the emphatic repetition of a word. fiat, fuit quondam in hac re publica virtus, there -was, there was formerly virtue in this republic 944. Hendi'adys : the use of two nouns with a conjunction instead of a single modified noun, or of two verbs for an adverb and verb. ardor et impetus, heat and attack, for heated attack te semper amavi et dilexJ, I have always loved you dearly 945. Hys'teron prot'eron (the last first) : a reversing of the natural order of ideas. moriamur et in media arma ruamus, let us die and rush into the midst of the conflict 946. Interlocked order : the placing of the attribute of one pair of words between the parts of another. tanto subitae terrore ruinae, with such fear of sudden disaster Note. This is a favorite Vergilian device. 947. Li'totes : the affirming of a thing by denying its contrary, or by understating it. non sordidus auctor, no tnean authority, meaning a distinguished authority 948. Onomatopoeia : the use of words whose sound suggests the sense. exoritur clamorque virum clangorque tubarum, the shouts of men and the blare of trumpets rise 949. Oxymo'ron : the placing together of two apparently contra- dictory ideas. arida nutrix, the parched nurse splendid e mendax, gloriously false Digitized by Microsoft® 346 GRAMMATICAL TERMS GRAMMATICAL TERMS 950. a. Anacolu'thon : a change of construction in the same sen- tence, leaving the first part without grammatical construction. b. Ellip'sis : the omission of one or more words necessary to the sense. c. EnaVlage : substitution of one form or word for another. d. HypaVlage : interchange of constructions. e. Ple'onasm : the use of needless words. /. Syn'esis : agreement of words according to the sense and not the grammatical form. g. Tme'sis (tutting) : the separation of the two parts of a com- pound word by other words. h. Zeug'ma: the connection of a word with two others, to only one of which it strictly applies. pacem an bellum gerens, (making) peace or waging war (lit. waging peace or war) Digitized by Microsoft® PART IV. VERSIFICATION QUANTITY 951. Quantity is the time required for the utterance of a vowel, a consonant, or a syllable. Some sounds require much more time than others. We speak therefore of long quantity and short quantity. The marks — and w are used to indicate long and short quantity respectively. A long quantity is gen- erally reckoned as equal in length to two short ones. 952. English poetry is based on accent, and the rhythm of English poetry depends on a regular succession of accented and unaccented syllables. This is the | forest pri|meval. The | murmuring | pines and the | hemlocks Latin poetry, too, has a metrical accent (§ 978), but is based primarily on quantity, and the rhythm of Latin poetry depends, like music, on a regular succession of equal intervals of time. accipi|ens s8ni] tum sax |i de | yertice | pastor (cf. § 967) % As the line of English depends for its rhythm upon the regular succession of the six accented syllables, so the Latin is made rhyth- mical by the succession of the six equal intervals or measures of time, each consisting of two long syllables or their equivalent. QUANTITY 1 OF VOWELS 953. Long Vowels. A vowel is regularly long — a. Before ns, nf, nx, and net : as, regens, infero, sanxi, sanctum. b. When formed by contraction : as, nil (for nihil), cogo (for co-ago), prendo (for prehendo). 1 A few of the leading rules for quantity are given in §§ 25-34. 347 Digitized by Microsoft® 348 QUANTITY 954. Diphthongs. A diphthong is regularly long and is left unmarked. Note. When qu-, su-, or gu- combines with a following vowel to form a single syllable, u has the sound of w and does not form a diphthong with the following vowel : as, aquam, suavis, sanguis. . 955. Short Vowels. A vowel is regularly short — a. Before -nt or -nd : as, amftnt, monendus. b. Before another vowel or h : as, via, trSho. To this rule there are the following exceptions : i. E in the genitive and dative singular of the fifth declension is long between two vowels : as, diel ; otherwise usually short : as, fidei, rei. 2. I in the genitive singular ending -ius is regularly long : as, illius, totius. But in poetry it is regularly short in alterius, usually in utrlus, and some- times in other words. 3. I is long in the forms of flo, except in fit and when followed by er. Thus, fiebam, flam, but fieri, fierem. 4. In a few other Latin words and in many Greek words a vowel before another vowel is long : as, dius, Aeneas, aer, heroas. QUANTITY OF VOWELS IN FINAL SYLLABLES 956. Most nouns and adjectives of one syllable have a long vowel : as, bos, os (oris), par, sol, vis. But the vowel is short in cbr, 8s (Sssis), quBt, tbt, and vir. 957. Most monosyllabic particles have a short vowel : as, an, els, n§c, and the attached (enclitic) particles -c5, -n6, -qu6, -vS. But the vowel is long in cur, non, and quin. 958. Most adverbs in c have a long vowel in the final syllable : as, hie, hue, illic, illuc, sic. • 959. Final a is long in the ablative singular of the first declension, in imperatives (except puts), and in indeclinable Digitized by Microsoft® QUANTITY 349 words except ita and quia. Elsewhere it is generally short. Thus, tuba (abl.), ama, frustra, triginta, but tuba (nom.), animalifi. 960. Final e is long — a. In all monosyllables except enclitics (§ 957) : as, me, t6. b. In nouns of the fifth declension : as, re, fide. c. In the active imperative singular of the second conjugation : as, mone. d. In adverbs formed from adjectives of the first and second declension, except bene and male : as, longe, facillime. e. In some Greek words : as, Phoebe, Circe. Elsewhere it is short. 961. Final i is long : as, siti, sui, audi. But it is regularly short in nisi and quasi, and usually in mini, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi, and in some Greek vocatives : as, Chlori. 962. Final is regularly long. But it is short in eg8, dub, and mod5, sometimes in imm5 and pro- fectb, and rarely in the first person singular of verbs. 963. Final u is long. 964. In final as, es, and os the vowel is long. But it is short in the following : a. Greek plurals in -as or -es : as, lampadas, Trogs. b. Nominative singular in -es of most consonant stems : as, miles, obsgs. 965. In final is and us the vowel is short. But it is long in the following : a. Plural case forms in -is : as, bonis, nobis, partis. b. The second person singular in -is in the present indicative active of the fourth conjugation : as, audis. Also fis, vis. c. The second person singular in -is in the present subjunctive active of some irregular verbs : as, malis, n51is, sis, velis. Digitized by Microsoft® 350 QUANTITY d. All the forms in -us of the fourth declension except the nomi- native singular : as, fructiis (gen.). e. Nominative singular in -us of nouns of the third declension having long u in the other cases : as, virtus, virtutis, but pectis, pecudis. QUANTITY OF SYLLABLES 966. A syllable is long if it contains a long vowel or a diph- thong : as, u-nus, men-sa, aes-tas, aus-pex. 967. A syllable is long if it ends in a consonant which is followed by another consonant. Such a syllable is said to be long by position. Thus, 1 ad-ven-tiis, p6s-co, ar-ma. Note. The syllables underlined in the words above are long by position, but the vowel in each is short and should be so pronounced. Vowel length must be carefully distinguished from syllable length. Sometimes a syllable long by position contains a long vowel or a diphthong. It is then long for both reasons. a. The second of the two consonants making a syllable long by position may be the initial letter of the word following. Thus, in nullam sperare the syllable -13m is long by position. 968. A syllable is regularly long if its vowel is followed by conso- nant i : as, maior, aio, peius, Gaius, Pompeius. Note. So also in compounds of iacio, where the consonant i is pro- nounced though not written : as, obicio (for pb-iicio), initio (for in-iicio), reicio (for re-iicio). So, too, in the genitives Gai (for Gail), Pompei (for Pompeii). 969. When a short vowel is followed by a mute with 1 or r, the syllable may be either long . or short, and is said to be common in quantity : as, patris or patris. Note. The quantity of such syllables depends on the way in which the word is divided. Thus in pat-ris the first syllable is long because t is pronounced with a and the syllable ends in a consonant (see § 27) On the other hand, in pa-tris the t goes with the last syllable, and the first syllable ends in a short vowel and is therefore short (§ 28). 1 The syllables long by position are underlined. ' Digitized by Microsoft® VERSIFICATION 351 METERS AND VERSE FORMS 970. A single line of poetry is called a verse. 971. A verse, like a bar of music, consists of a succession of measures. These are called feet. * 972. A foot is a succession of syllables arranged in a recognized group. 97-3. The unit of measure in versification is one short syllable. This is called a mora. It is represented by the sign w t or in musical notation by the quarter note (|*). A long syllable is regularly equal to two mora, and is represented by the sign — , or by the half note (P). 974. A foot contains as many morce or beats as it has short syllables, a long syllable being always counted equal to two short ones. 975. The kinds of feet most frequently used, together with their musical notation, are the following : containing three beats or morce containing three beats or morce containing four beats or morm containing four beats or mom containing four beats or morce a. A verse is named from its fundamental, or characteristic, foot : as, Trochaic, Iambic, Dactylic, Anapaestic ; and from the number of measures which it contains : as, Hexameter (six measures), Pen- tameter (five measures), Tetrameter (four measures), Trimeter {three measures). 976. " Trochaic and iambic verses are measured, not by single feet, but by pairs; so that, for example, six iambic feet make a trimeter, or three measures. Digitized by Microsoft® Trochee, — w or rr> Iambus, w _ or rr> Dactyl, ww or rrr> Anapaest, w w or rrr> Spondee, or rr> 352 VERSIFICATION 977. Substitution. A long syllable may take the place of two short ones, or two short syllables the place of a long one. Thus, a spondee ( ) may take the place of a dactyl ( — ^ w) or of an anapaest (w w _). 978. Ictus. One syllable in each foot is pronounced with greater stress than the others. This verse beat, or musical accent, is called the ictus and is marked thus : ~ ^ ^. The ictus does not destroy the word accent, but is subordinate to it. Note. Many hold, on the contrary, that the ictus is superior to the word accent and destroys it when in conflict with it (see § 993. b). 979. Thesis and Arsis. That part of the foot which receives the ictus is called the thesis ; the unaccented part is called the arsis. Note. Thesis means properly the putting down, and arsis the raising, of the foot in the march or dance. The regular alternation of thesis and arsis constitutes the rhythm of poetry. 980. Scansion. To divide a verse into its measures accord- ing to the rules -of quantity and versification is called scanning or scansion. 981. Elision. In scanning, a final vowel or diphthong, or m with a preceding vowel, is regularly elided before a word beginning with a vowel or h ; that is, the final and initial syllables are blended and pronounced as one syllable. The following line shows three elisions : monstr™ 1 hor|rend nm , In[form 8 , in|gens, cui|lumen ajdemptum The nature of elision as practiced by the Romans is not certain. It is customary to omit the elided syllables entirely. •' 982. The e of est is lost after a word ending in m, a vowel, or a diphthong, and st is added to the final syllable of the preceding word. Thus, victa est is read victast, actum est is read actumst, etc. Digitized by Microsoft® VERSIFICATION 353 983. Hia'tus. Sometimes elision is omitted, especially when the first word is an interjection or is followed by a pause in the sense. This omission is called hiatus. titi|nim posjsejn p8pfi|l6s repa|rir8 pS|ternis p6sthaM|ti c81u|isse Sa|m6 ; hie | ilUfis | drma In the first line there is hiatus between the interjection 6 and utinam, and in the second between Samo (followed by a pause) and hie. 984. Syl'laba An'ceps. The last syllable of any verse may be either long or short, and is hence called the syllaba anceps, or the doubtful syllable. 985. Cat'alectic and A'catalectic Verses. A catalectic verse is one in which the last foot is incomplete. An acatalectic verse is one in which the last foot is complete. 986. Caesu'ra. The ending of a word within a foot is called c&su-ra. This may occur in any foot of the verse, but when it coincides with a pause in the sense, we have what is called a ccesural pause. Most verses have only one caesural pause, but there may be two, and it is not necessary that there be even one. The position of each caesura is marked by the sign || . Note the csesural pauses in the following verses : nunc ea|dem for|tuna vi|ros || tot | casibus | actos Insequi|tur. || Quern | das fl|nem, || rex | magne, la|boriim ? Note. The pause in the sense marking the position of the caesural pause may be too slight to be marked by a punctuation point (cf . the first line above). 987. Diffir'esis. The ending of a word with the end of a foot is called diceresis. There may be a pause in the sense at a diaeresis. This is not, strictly speaking, a caesural pause, but it may be marked in the same way. Note the diasresis with pause in the following verse : j constitit, |[ 6t Lib|yai de|fixit | lumlna | rggnia Digitized by Microsoft® 354 VERSIFICATION SPECIAL IRREGULARITIES 988. Synize'sis or Synaer'esis. Two vowels of different syllables may be pronounced, together as one long syllable: as, deinde for de-inde, meos for me-os, deesse for de-esse, dehinc for de-hinc. 989. Sys'tole. A syllable regularly long is sometimes used as short: as, steterunt for steterunt. 990. Dias'tole. A final syllable regularly short is sometimes used as long. Such a syllable is nearly always one receiving the ictus and followed by the cassural pause. luctus, u|bique pa|viir,* || et [ plurima | mortis i[mago 6sten|tans ar|t£mque pa|ter* || ar|cumque so|nantem Note. Both systole and diastole are sometimes merely a return to an earlier pronunciation. 991. The vowels i and u are sometimes used as consonants, i having the sound of y, and u of w. The preceding syllable then becornes long by -position: as, ab-ie-te {abyete) for a-bi-e-te, gen-ua\ (genwa) for ge-nu-a. a. Conversely, consonant i and v are sometimes used as vowels : as, si-lu-a for sil-va. 992. Tme'sis. The component parts of a compound word are' sometimes separated : as, quod erit cumque for quodcumque erit. This is called tmesis (cutting). RULES FOR ORAL READING OF VERSE 993. Ancient poetry was written for rhythmical recitation, chanting, or singing. It is, therefore, especially through much oral reading that metrical composition can be best understood, appreci- ated,. and enjoyed.. The following directions should be observed : a. Pronounce the words as in prose. This includes the proper sounding of each letter, the correct placing of the accent, and a careful observance of the quantity of each syllable. A long syllable should have twice as much time as a short one. ; Digitized by Microsoft® DACTYLIC VERSE 355 b. ■ Stress slightly the syllables upon which the ictus falls. Sometimes the word accent and the ictus coincide ; but when they fall on different syllables of the same word, the word accent should be given the greater stress and the ictus be made subordinate to it. 1 In this way the word accent will be preserved and at the same time the rhythm of the verse distinctly maintained as an undertone. c. Give attention to the thought as well as to the words, and do not come to a complete stop at the end of every verse, regardless of punctuation. 994. Apprehension of rhythm and quantity is greatly assisted by beating time to the measure as in music, the long syllables receiving two beats and the short syllables one. DACTYLIC VERSE DACTYLIC HEXAMETER 995. Dactylic hexameter is the meter used by Greek and Roman epic poets, and is often called Heroic Verse. It con- sists theoretically of six dactyls (— ^ w) ; but a spondee ( ) may take the place of a dactyl in any foot except the fifth, and the sixth foot may be either a spondee ( ) or a trochee (_ w), the last syllable of a line being either long or short (§ 984). The verse may be represented thus : wO I v^/ I — OO I OO [ — v^w I — Example : it si fata dS um, si mens non laeva fu isset rrrrrr r r rrrrrr a. Rarely a spondee is found in the fifth foot ; the verse is then called sponda'ic and usually ends With a word of four syllables. prfximus hulc, Ion g6 sed prtaimus inter vallo Fir r rrr r rrrrrr 1 Many dissent from this view and give the greater stress to the ictus, even to the complete neglect of the word accent. Digitized by Microsoft® 356 VERSIFICATION 996. The Caesu'ral Pause. The dactylic hexameter has regularly one caesural pause, sometimes two, accompanied by a pause in the sense (§ 986). 997. The caesural pause is usually after the thesis of the third foot. 6t si I fata de|um, || si | mens non | laeva fu|isset 998. Less frequently the caesural pause is after the thesis of the fourth foot, usually with a second caesura in the second foot. non galejae, || non [ ensis e|r£t : || sine | militis [ usu a. A pause in the sense in the fourth foot, with no such pause in the third, is a sure indication that the caesura is in the fourth foot and not in the third. 999. Occasionally the caesural pause is between the two short syllables of the third foot, its presence there being indicated by a pause in the sense. mem bra so|lo posu|ere ; || si| mul supjre'ma ia|centes a. Such a caesura is called feminine, while one occurring after the first syllable of a foot is called masculine. A masculine caesura is far more common than a feminine. 1000. Sometimes it is impossible to determine the caesural pause with certainty, and a diaeresis (§ 987) may take the place of the caesural pause. sentiat. || At quoni|am con|currere | com munis | hosti 1001. The dactylic hexameter rarely ends in a monosyllable. 1002. The first seven verses of Vergil's ^Eneid afford a good example of dactylic hexameter, and are scanned as follows : Arma vi| rum quS c5[no || Tro|iae qui | primus ab | oris italijam fajto prtJfu|gus || La|vlniaque | venit Digitized by Microsoft® DACTYLIC VERSE 357 litSrS, I mult™ il|l» it terjrfs ||' iac|tatfis 8t | Alto vi 3fipg| iflm sae|vae mem8|rem Iu|n6nls 8b | iram ; miilt a qu8|qu" 8t bel|16 pas|sis || dum | c6ndSr6t | urbSm, Infer|r&quS d6|5s Lati|6, || ggnus | tmdS La|tfnum Alba|niqu8 pa|tres || at|qu° 51tae | moenia | RSmae.' a. Dactylic hexameter in English verse is illustrated by the follow- ing lines from Longfellow's " Evangeline " : This is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the hemlocks, Bearded with moss, and in garments green, indistinct in the twilight, Stand like Druids of eld, with voices sad and prophetic, Stand like harpers hoar, with beards that rest on their bosoms. DACTYLIC PENTAMETER 1003. The dactylic pentameter is the same as the hexameter except that it omits the unaccented part (arsis) of the third foot and of the sixth foot. It consists therefore of two parts, each of which contains two dactyls and a long syllable. The first half of the verse always ends with a word and is followed by a pause. The scheme of the verse is as follows : iuu|i.uu|Z X J- \j \j\.-L w u] J- rrnrrnr x rrnrrnr Spondees may take the place of the dactyls in the first half, but not in the second, and the last syllable of the line may be either long or short (§ 984). 1004. Elegi'ac Dis'tich. The dactylic pentameter is rarely used alone, but regularly combines with a preceding hexameter to form a couplet (distich), as illustrated in English by — In the hex|ameter | rises || the | fountain's | silvery | column, In the pen|tameter | aye x falling in | melody | back. Digitized by Microsoft® 358 DACTYLIC VERSE This form of verse became the favorite of writers of Latin elegy, such as Catullus, Tibullus, Propertius, and Ovid, and hence it is known as the elegiac distich, or elegiac stanza. The distich is generally a unit in thought as well as in form, the sense rarely being left uncompleted at its close. 1005. The following verses from Ovid well illustrate the elegiac distich ; Cum subit | illl|us tris|tisslma | n6ctis i[mago qua mihi | sup re| mum x t&n pSs in | firbe fu|it, cum repe|to goc j t&m || qua | t6t mihi | cara re|liqul, labitur | 6x 8cu|lis x niinc qu&que [ gutta me|is. Digitized by Microsoft® APPENDIX THE ROMAN CALENDAR 1006. In earlier times the Romans designated the year of an event by the names of the consuls, in the ablative absolute : as, M. Messala M. PIsone consulibus, in the consulship of Marcus Messala and Marcus Piso. Later the year was reckoned from the founding of the city (ab urbe condita or anno urbis conditae, abbreviated to a.u.c), the date of which is assigned to the year 753 b.c. In order, therefore, to find the year of the Chris- tian era corresponding to a given Roman date A.u.c, the number of the Roman year must be subtracted from 754, 1 being added to 753 to allow for the Roman custom of includ- ing both extremes when reckoning the difference between two numbers. For example, Caesar was killed in 710 a.u.c, or 44 (7 S4-7IO) b.c 1007. Before Julius Caesar's reform of the calendar (46 ».c.) the Roman year consisted of 355 days. All the months had 29 days except March, May, July, and October, which had 31 days, and February, which had 28. As this calendar year was too short for the solar year, a month of varying length (mSnsis intercalaris) was inserted every other year after February 2 3 , the rest of February being omitted. 1008. The Julian calendar, as reformed by Julius and Augustus Caesar, had 365 days, divided into months as at present, February having 29 days every fourth year. The Julian calendar remained unchanged till the adoption of the Gregorian calendar, a.d. 1582, which omits leap year three times in every four hundred years. 359 Digitized by Microsoft® 360 THE ROMAN CALENDAR 1009. The names of the months, used as masculine or fem- inine adjectives, were as follows : Ianuarius, -a, (-um) Maius, -a, (-um) September, -bris, (-bre) Februarius, -a, (-um) Iunius, -a, (-um) October, -bris, (-bre) Martius, -a, (-um) Quintilis, (-e) November, -bris, (-bre) Aprilis, (-e) Sextilis, (-e) December, -bris, (-bre) The year was formerly regarded as beginning with March, which made July the fifth (quintilis) month, August the sixth (sextilis), etc. The month Quintilis was later called Mlius in honor of Julius Caesar, and Sextilis was called Augustus in honor of the emperor Augustus. 1010. Dates were reckoned from three points in the month, namely, the Calends (Kalendae, -arum, f.), the first day of the month ; the Nones- (Nonae, -arum, f.), the fifth day ; and the Ides (Idiis, Iduum, f.), the thirteenth. However, in March, May, July, and October the Nones fell on the seventh day, and the Ides oh the fifteenth. Kalendae Nonae idiis Kalendae t i i i 1 ~r i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 g io ii 12 13 14 15 16 ... 27 28 29 30 31 1 An event occurring at any one of these points was said to occur on the Calends, on the Nones, or on the Ides, and the date was expressed by the simple ablative of time. The noun denoting the date was modified by the adjective representing the month in question. Kalendis Februarils, on the first of February Nonls Aprilibus, on the fifth of April Nonis Octobribus, on the seventh of October Idibus Ianuariis, on the thirteenth of January idibus Martiis, on the fifteenth of March a. From the Calends, Nones, and Ides the dates in the month were reckoned backwards. The date immediately preceding any one of them Digitized by Microsoft® THE ROMAN CALENDAR 361 was expressed by the word pridie, used as a preposition followed by the accusatives Kalendas, Nonas, Idus, modified by the adjective form of the word denoting the month. pridie Kalendas Februarys, the thirty-first of January pridie Nonas Ianuarias, the fourth of January pridie Idus Martias, the fourteenth of March pridie Idus Septembres, the twelfth of September b. The dates intervening between any two points were counted as so many days before the second point. The Romans, however, in reckoning a series, counted both extremes; for example, the eleventh day of April was counted as the third day before the Ides (that is, the thirteenth), the tenth of April as the fourth' day before the Ides. And in counting back from the Calends to a date in the preceding month the Calends were included ; thus a Roman would say that there are four days from August 29 to September 1 (cf. § 1012. d). In expressing dates the phrase ante diem (translated the day before) was used with the accusatives Kalendas, Nonas, Idus, the word diem being modified by the proper ordinal numeral. ante diem quartum Kalendas Septembres, the fourth day before the Calends of September {August 2g) ante diem quartum Kalendas Octobres, the fourth day- before the Calends of October {September 28) ante diem sextum Idus Martias, the sixth day before the Ides of March {March 10) ante diem quintum Nonas Maias, the fifth day before the Nones of May {May 3) Note i . These expressions were generally abbreviated as follows : a.d. IV. Kal. Sept. or IV. Kal. Sept. a.d. VI. Id. Mart, or VI. Id. Mart. a. d. V. Non. Maias or V.- Non. Maias . Note 2. The phrase ante diem probably originated thus : the ablative form- denoting time when (followed by ante), as, die tertio ante etc., came to be written after ante instead of before it ; subsequently ante die tertio became ante diem tertium, as if the noun were governed by ante. Digitized by Microsoft® 362 THE ROMAN CALENDAR c. The whole expression denoting a date was sometimes treated as a single substantive governed by a preposition. in a. d. V. Kal. Nov., to the fifth day before the Calends of November {October 28) opus contulit in ante -diem III. Id. Oct., he postponed the work to the third day before the Ides of October (October 13) 1011. To find the equivalent in English for a date given in Latin, observe the following rule : If the given Latin date is counted from the Calends, add two to the number of days in the preceding month, and from the number thus ascertained subtract the given date ; if from the Nones or the Ides, add one to the day on which they fall, and from the number thus ascertained subtract the given date. a. d. VI. Kal. Ian. (31 + 2 — 6), December aj a. d. V. Non. Oct. (7 + 1 - 5), Octobers a. d. III. Id. Apr. (13 + 1 — 3), April 11 1012. To express an English date in Latin observe the following rules : a. If the date is that on which the Calends, Nones, or Ides respec- tively fall, use the simple ablative of time (Kalendis, Nonis, or Idibus) modified by the adjective representing the month in question (cf. § 1010). b. If the date immediately precedes the Calends, Nones, or Ides, use pridie followed by the accusative Kalendas, Nonas, or Idus, as the case may be, and the adjective form of the word denoting the month (cf . § 1 o 1 o. a). c. If the date falls between the first and the fourth (or the sixth of March, May, July, or October), subtract one from the English date, and subtract this remainder from the date on which the Nones fall. The num- ber thus obtained (usually preceded by ante diem or a. d.) followed by Nonas or Non. and the name of the month will be the expression desired. If the date falls between the fifth and twelfth (or the seventh and fourteenth of March, May, July, or October), follow the rule above, substituting the Ides for the Nones (cf. § ioio. J). Digitized by Microsoft® THE ROMAN CALENDAR 363 d. If the date is later than the thirteenth (or fifteenth of March, May, July, or October), subtract two from the English date, and sub- tract this remainder from the number of days in the month. The number thus obtained (usually preceded by ante diem or a. d.) followed by Kalendas or Kal. and the name of the next month will be the expression desired (cf. § 1010. V). Digitized by Microsoft® ABBREVIATIONS abl. = ablative abs. = absolute ace. = accusative act. = active adj. = adjective adv. = adverb tf//. = appositive attrib. = attributive cf. {confer) = compare cl. = clause comft. = composition compar. = comparison comps. — compounds conj. = conjugation cons. = consonant constr. = construction dat. = dative decl. = declension defect. = defective descript. = descriptive dir. = direct fern, = feminine ff. = and following fin. = footnote fut. = future gen. = genitive id. {idem) — the same impers. — impersonal imv. = imperative ind. disc. = indirect dis- course hid. quest. = indirect question indecl. = indeclinable indie. = indicative inf. = infinitive inteiTog. = interrogative inirans. = intransitive loc. = locative masc. = masculine A>". = Note neg. = negative- nent. = neuter Tiom. = nominative obj. = object part. = participle 'Pass. = passive perf. = perfect pers. — personal plur. = plural poss. = possessive pred. = predicate prep. = preposition pres. = present prin. = principal pron. = pronoun guest. = question rel. = relative sing. = singular subj. -=■ subject subjv. = subjunctive subord. = subordinate subst. = substantive super/. = superlative trans. — transitive vb. = verb voc. = vocative w. = with Other abbreviations need no explanation. When only the last article in a reference group needs to be consulted, the parts of the group are separated by periods ; otherwise commas are used. 3 6 4 Digitized by Microsoft® INDEX a, sound, r4; quantity of final, 959 S, weakened to e or i, 44. a, b; ace. of Greek nouns in, 1 1 1 . b a, distinguishing vowel in decl. 1,75; in fern. Greek nouns, decl. I, 81 ; in conj. I, 210, 220. a, 229. a. I, 289 ; in fut. indie, 229. c; in pres. subjv., 233. a a (ab, abs), general use, 277. a ; as prefix, 294. a ; in comps. w. dat. of reference expressing separa- tion, 389 ; w. abl. of separation, 440. a ; w. abl. of place whence, 441 ; w. names of towns, 442. a ; expressing position, 445 ; w. gerund and gerundive, 879 a dextra, a fronte, a tergo, etc., 445. a a-declension, 77-81 Abbreviations of praenomina, 134. a abhinc, w. ace, 425 ; w. abl., 477 Ablative case, defined, 74 Forms : abl. in -abus, 80. e ; of i-stems, decl. Ill, 100, 103, 105; list of nouns having -i or -1 and -e in abl. sing., 102. b, c, d; abl. in -ubus, decl. IV, 1 2 1 . c ; in -fid, early Latin, id. /"; abl. of adjs., decl. Ill, 145, 148. a; of pres. parts., 149; of pers. prons., 180. b, d; of ?i rel. prons., qui, quis, 193. a, b ; adverbial forms of abl., 271. b, d; abl. of decl. IV used as supine, 881 Syntax: classification and general meaning, 439 With preps., 277, 278 Separation, 440 ; prep, ex- pressed, id. a ; prep, omitted, id. b ; exceptions, id. N. Place whence, 441 ; w. names of towns, domus, rus, 442 ; prep, used w. urbs, oppidum, insula, 443; prep, omitted in poetry, 444 ; expressing place where, 445 Comparison, 446; when not admissible, id. a ; after citius and celerius, id. b ; in poetry, 447 ; regular in neg. sen- tences, 448; w. rel., 449; constr. after plus, minus, am- plius, longius, 450 Origin, 451 ; ex used with pro- nouns, id. a Material, 452 ; prep, omitted in poetry, id. a ; abl. w. facere, fieri, etc., id. b Agent, 453; distinguished from abl. of means, id. N. 2 ; w. things personified, 454 ; prep, omitted, 455. N. Accompaniment, 456 ; cum omitted, id. a Attendant circumstance, 457 365 Digitized by Microsoft® 366 INDEX Accordance, 458 Manner, 459; cum omitted, 460, 461 Cause or reason, 462 ; causa, gratia, 463 ; ace. w. ob or propter used instead, 464 ; prae w. abl. to denote prevent- ing cause, 465 Description or quality, 466 ; in pred., 467 Means, 468; w. utor, fruor, etc., 469. a ; w. opus and usus, id. b; w. contentus and fretus, id. c. ; w. vbs. and adjs. of fullness, id. d Price, 470 ; indefinite price ex- pressed by gen., 471 ; constr. w. muto, 472 ; w. vbs. of con- demning to denote the pen- alty, 473 Way by which, 474 Measure of difference, 475 ; quo . . . eo, quanto . . . tanto, 476; w. ante, post, abhinc, 477 Respect, 478 ; w. dignus, indig- nus, 479; in supine, 882. II Absolute, 480 ; w. two nouns or noun and adj., 481 ; when admissible, 482 ; w. part, or adj. without a subst., 483 ; re- placing subord. cl., 484 Place where, 48 5; prep,omitted, id. a and N. ;.W. vbs. of plac- ing, 490 Time, 492 ; w. prep, in, 493 ; duration of time,- 423 ; ex- pressing place rather than time, 494 ; idiomatic expres- sions, 495 Gerund and gerundive, 879; w. dir. obj., id. N. Supine, 882. II Ablaut, 56, 57 Absolute case, see* Abl. absolute absque, 277 Abstract nouns, plur. of, 1 26. c-; w. neut. adj., 502. 2. b. N. 2 Abundance, words of, w. abl. of means, 469. d -abus, in dat. and abl. plur., decl. I, 80. e ■ ac, see atque ac si, w. subjv., 803 Acatalectic and catalectic verse, 985 accedit ut, 739 Accent, rules of, 35-41 ; original accent and its effect on vowels, 36, 42 ff. ; in comps. of faciei, 38. a; in gen. sing, in ded. II, 88. b ; musical accent, 978 accidit quod, 822 ; accidit ut, 739 accommodatus, w. dat. of gerund, 877 Accompaniment, abl. of, 456 ; cum omitted w., id. a Accordance with, denoted byabl., 458 Accusative case, denned, 74 Forms : in -a in neut. plur., 76, b; in -m in sing, and -s in plur. of masc. and fern., id. c;in i-stems, decl. Ill, 100, 102. b; neut. sing, used as adv., 271. a; -fern, used as adv., id. c; ace; of decl. IV used as supine, : 881 Syntax:: general meaning, 402; - , ,*- classification, 403 ; With preps., ,276, 278.;.w. ante diem, ioiio. b Digitized by Microsoft® INDEX 367 With ad after ref ert and interest to denote the object sought, With vbs. of remembering and forgetting instead of gen., 358. a, b, 359 With vbs. of reminding, 361 With impers. vbs., 363, 407 Along w. dat., 371 With vbs. of motion that some- times take the dat., 373 Construction w. dono, circumdo, exuo, 374 With iuvo, laedo, iubeo, and the like, 376. a With credo, impero, minor, per- suadeo, 380 With comps. of ad, ante, circum, etc., 382. 3, a With propior and proximus,40i Direct object, 404 ; w. vbs. of feeling, 406. a ; w. vbs. of mo- tion, comps. of ad, circum, in, etc., id. b ; in poetry, id. c ; w. pass. vbs. meaning to put on, id. d; w. impers. vbs., 407 ; w. pass, periphrastic, 860. b Kindred meaning, 408 ; w. vbs. of taste and smell, 409 ; ad- verbial use w. neut. prons. and adjs., 410, 41 r Two accusatives, dir. obj. and secondary obj., 41 2-415; vbs. of asking w. abl., 414; constr. w. pass, of rogo, doceo, etc., 415 Two accusatives, dir. obj. and adjunct ace, 416-418; constr. in pass., 418 Subject of inf., 419, 839, 887. \.a Extent and duration, 420-426 ; w. natus, 422. a; w. per or the abl., 423 ; w. abflinc, 425 ; expressing degree, 426 Respect (Greek ace), 427; quod cl. as ace. of respect, 824 Place whither, 428-435 ; names of towns, domus, rfls, 430, 433 ; ad w. names of towns, 431 ; ad urbem Romam, 432 ; in poetry, 434; supine, 435, 882.I Exclamation, 436,437 Adverbial, 438 In ind. disc, 839, 887. I. a ' Gerund and gerundive, 878 Supine, 882. I Accusing, condemning, acquitting, vbs. of, w. gen., 336 acer, deck, 146; compar., 155 -aceus, adj. suffix, 285. c acies, deck, 125. a Action, nouns of, formed from vbs., 284. b ; w. objective gen., 354 Active periphrastic conjugation, takes place of fut. subjv., 668.a ; in ind. quests., 815 ; forms, 859 Active voice, 204 ; change to pass., 405 acus, gender, 120 ad, use, 276; as prefix, 294. a; w. refert and interest to denote obj. sought, 352. c; in comps. w. dat.,' 382; w. propior and proximus, 401 ; in comps. w. ace, 406. b; w. ace. of place whither, 428 ; w. names of coun- tries, 429 ; ,w. names of towns, 43 1 ; w.:gerund and gerundive, ..878. -. -••:-.■( . -; -:.;. Digitized by Microsoft® 3 68 INDEX adeo (vb.), constr. after, 382. a adeo ut, 732 -ades, patronymic ending, 282.^ adfinis, w. gen., 351 ; w. dat, 397 adgredior, constr. after, 382. a Adjective clauses, defined, 304. b, 709. II ; rel. clause, 551 ; pur- pose, 715; description, 726- 730 ; cause, 730. I ; concession, id. II ; result, 735 Adjective pronouns, see Pronouns Adjectives, defined, 137 Forms: decl., 138-152; decls. I and II, 139-143 ; nine irregular adjs., 143 ; decl. Ill, 144-151 ; decl. Ill, three terminations, 146; adjs. using fern, forms for masc. and vice versa, 146. b. N. ; decl. Ill, two termina- tions, 147 ; decl. Ill, one termi- nation, 148 ; decl. of pres. parts., 149; decl. of comparatives, 150; decl. of plus, 151; indecl. adjs., 152; derivation of adjs., 285- 288 ; adjs. derived from proper names, 285. d. 2 Comparison : defined, 153 ; regu- lar, 154-157; irregular, 158- 159; defect, 160; adjs. not compared, 161 ; adjs. compared w. magis and maxime, 1 62 Syntax: adjs. w. gen. of the whole, 342 ; adjs. of plenty or want w. gen., 350 ; w. abl., 440, 469. d\ adjs. of similarity or connection w. gen., 351, 398. b; adjs. of action or feeling w. gen., 357; adjs. w. dat., 397 ; adjs. of like- ness or unlikeness followed by atque (ac), et, -que, 400 ; constr. w. propior, proximus, 401 ; ad- verbial ace, 410, 411 ; adjunct ace, 417. a; classification of adjs., 496; agreement, 497-502 ; w. single noun, 498 ; w. clause, 500 ; w. two or more nouns', 502 ; adjs. used as nouns, 503- 506 ; as advs., 507 ; w. inf., 841. a, 845 ; w. dat. of gerund, 877; w. supine, 882. II. b; normal position, 914, 916, 917; emphatic position, 934, d, e Adjunct accusative, 416, 417 admoneo, constr. after, 361 adulescens, compar., 1 60. c Adverbial clauses, defined, 304. c, 709. I; purpose, 713, 714; re- sult, 732-734; temporal, 742- 766; causal, 767-771 ; con- ditional, 772-803 ; concessive, 804-8 1 o ; proviso, 8 1 1 Adverbs Forms: numeral advs., 175; advs. formed from adjs., 270 ; case forms and special formations, 271, 272; compar., 273, 274 Syntax: w. gen. of the whole, 343 ; w. dat., 399 ; followed by atque (ac), et, -que, 400 ; w. abl. of comparison, 446. b ; defined, 583; modifying nouhs, 584; used as adjs., 585 ; as nouns, 586; equivalenttopron.w.prep., 587 ; special advs. and their uses, 588-593 ; neg. advs., 594- 596 ; normal position, 91 2, 923 Adversative conjunctions, 61 r -61 6; defined, 611; sed, 612; vero, 613 ; autem, 614 ; tamen, 61 5 ; at, 616 Digitized by Microsoft® INDEX 369 adversus or adversum, 276 Advising, vbs. of, w. subjv., 720. I ae, diphthong, 5 ; sound, 1 5 ; weak- ened to i, 44. d; loc. ending, 80. c aedes, sing, and plur., 133 Aeneas, dccl., 81 aequor, decl., 97 aes, use of plur., 1 26. b aetas, decl., 107 aether, ace. of, \\\.b Affirmation, expressed by two negs., 595 ; nonne expecting affirma- tive answer, 623. b; ways of saying yes, 629. a Age, how expressed, 422. a Agent, dat. of, w. gerundive and past part., 392 ; w. other forms, id. a ; abl. of, 453 ; things and animals as agent, 454; agent regarded as means, 455 ager, decl., 85 aggredior, see adgredior Agnomen, 134. d Agreement Noun, pred., 306-308; appositive, 312 Adjective, general rule, 497 ; w. single noun, 498 ; w. clause or inf., 500; constr. according to sense, 501 ; w. two or more nouns, 502 Verb, 631-638; agreement w. subj., 631 ; w. pred. noun or appositive, 632 ; constr. accord-' ing to sense, 633 ; w. two or more subjs., 634, 635 ; w. subjs. of different persons, 636; w. rel. pron., 637 Participle, 631. a, 638 -ai for -ae in gen., 80. b aio, conj., 265. a ; ain for aisne,. aibam for aiebam, id. 2 ; ait as perf., id. 3 -al and -ar, neuters in, 103, 104 alacer, compar., 160. c alienus, forposs. gen. of alius, 143. b, 578. b; constr. w., 398. c aliquid, as ace. of degree, 426. N. 1 aliquis (-qui), decl., 200. b; mean- ing, 571 aliquot, indecl. adj., 152 -alis, -aris, adj. suffixes, 285. d alius, decl., 143; meaning, 578; alienus used for gen., 578. b; alius . . . alius, 579; alius w. another case of alius, 580 ; advs. alias, alibi, etc., id. N. Alphabet, 2 ; i and u as vowels and consonants, id. b; Greek letters, id. c ; vowels, 4 ; diph- thongs, 5 ; consonants, 6-10 alter, decl., 143 ; meaning, 578 ; for secundus, id. a; alter . . . alter, 579 Alternative questions, 627, 628 ; annon, necne, or not, 627. a, 8 1 7; first member omitted, 627. b; distinguished from single ques- tions, 628 ; answers, 630 ; in- direct, 817 Although, conjunctions meaning, 805 alvus, gender, 86. c am-, amb-, inseparable prefix, 294. b amasso, fut. perf., 230. c. N. 2 ambio, conj., 259. c aniens, abl. sing, in -i, 148. a amo, conj., 242 amplius, without quam, 450 Digitized by Microsoft® 37° INDEX an, annon, necne, in alternative questions, 627 Anacoluthon, 950. a Anapaest, 975 Anaphora, 939 anceps, abl. sing, in -1, 1 48. a Anchises, decl., 81 Androgeos, decl., 89 Andromache, decl., 81 animal, decl., 104 Animals, gender of names of, 67. c ; regarded as agent, 454 animi, loc, 488 Annalistic present, 651 annon, necne, or not, 62.J. a Answers to questions, 629, 630 ante, 276 ; used as prefix, 294. a ; in comps. w. dat, 382 ; w. abl. of measure of difference, 477 ante diem, constr., 1010. b, c Antecedent of relative, 551-560 Antepenult, defined, 24 antequam and priusquam, 757-761 Anticipation, subjv. of, 759. N. 3 Antithesis, 940 -anus, adj. suffix, 285. d Apodosis, see Conclusion Aposiopesis, 941 Application, gen. of, 356 Appointing, vbs. of, w. two aces., 41 7 Appositive, defined, 311; agree- ment, 312; partitive apposition, id. b\ app. w. loc, 313; cl. as app., 314; app. equivalent to rel. cl., 315; gen. instead of app-, 335 ; inf- used as app., 835 Appositive adjective, defined, 496. b Appositive clauses, of purpose, 724 ; of result, 741 ; w. quod and indie, 823 aptus, w. dat. of gerund, 877 apud, 276 -ar, neut. ending, deol. Ill, 103, 116 arbor or arbos, 96. d arctus, gender, 86. b arcus, dat. and abl. plur., 121. c -aris, adj. suffix, 285. d -arium, noun suffix, 282. b -arius, noun suffix, 282. c ; adj. suf- fix, 285. d Arrangement of words, see Order of words Arsis and thesis, 979 as, final, quantity, 964 -2s, in ace. plur. of Greek nouns, 1 1 1 . e -as, old gen. ending, 80. a ; Greek nom. ending, 81, 1 1 2. a ; gender of nouns in, 115 Asking, vbs. of, w. two aces., 413 ; w. abl., 414 ; w. subjv. cl., 720. 1 Aspirates ch, ph, th, 1 7 Assertions of fact, in indie, 642 Assimilation of consonants, 51-54 ; in prefixes, 53. N. Asyndeton, 619, 942 at, use, 616 Athematic verbs, 251 Atlas, decl., 112. a atque (ac), 602 ; w. adjs. of likeness, etc., id. a ; atque . . . atque, 604 atrox, decl., 148 Attendant circumstance, abl. of, 45 7 ; expressed by abl. abs., 484. e Attraction, of case of rel., 554; of case of antecedent, id. N. Attraction, subjv. by, 907-909 Attributive adjective, defined, 496. a ; agreement w. ttyo nouns, in number, 502. i.b; in gender, id. 2. a Digitized by Microsoft® INDEX 371 -atus, noun suffix, 282. e au, diphthong, 5 ; sound, 1 5 ; weak- ened to A, 44. e audacter, compar., 273 audeo, semi-deponent, 248 audio, conj., 245 ; w. pres. part., 864 aula, old gen. of, 80. b aureus, not compared, 161. « auris, decl., 107. a ausim. ausis, etc., perf. subjv., 234. a. N. 1, 248. ftn. aut, use, 607 ; aut . . . aut, 610 autem, use, 614; position, 924 auxilior, dat. w., 376 auxilium, auxilia, 1 33 ave, forms, 265. d avis, decl., \01.d -ax, verbal adj. suffix, 287. i5; adjs. in, w. gen., 357 -ba-, tense sign, 229. b balneum, plur. balneae, 132 Base, defined, 63 ; of nouns, 75. a basis, decl., 112 Beginning, vbs. of, w. complemen- tary inf., 837 belli, loc, 488 bene, compar., 274 benefacio, w. dat., 378 -ber, noun suffix, 284. c. I -bi-, tense sign, 229. c -bilis, verbal adj. suffix, 287. d Birth or origin, nouns of, derivation, 282.^; participles of, w. abl., 45 1 bonus, decl., 140; compar., 158 bos, decl., 109 -bra, noun suffix, 284. c. 1 Bringing about, vbs. of, w, subjv., 737, 73 8 -brum, noun suffix, 284. c bs and bt, sound, 16 -bula, -bulum, noun suffixes, 284. c, 1 -bundus, adj. suffix, 287. a Buying, vbs. of, w. gen., 341. a; w. abl., 470 C, for g in early use and as abbrevi- ation, 2. a ; sound, 16 ; quantity of final syllables in, 958 Cadences, favorite, 937 Caesura, 986 ; position of csesural pause in dactylic hexameter, 996-1000 Calendar, Roman, 1006-1012 Calends (Kalendae), 1010 Calling, vbs. of, w. two aces., 417 calx, decl., p. 46 Can, expressed by potential subjv., 684. N. canis, decl., 107. b capio, conj., 246 capitis, w. vbs. of condemning, 337 capso, fut. perf., 230. c. N. 2 caput, decl., 94 Capys, decl., 112 carbasus, gender, 86. c ; plur. car- basa, 132 career, carceres, 133 Cardinal numbers, 1 64 ; decl., 1 66 ; use of et, 168, 169; replaced by distributives, 173. e; w. ex instead of partitive gen., 344 care, compar., 273 caro, decl., 109 Case, defined, 73 ; names of cases, 74 ; quantity of final vowels in case forms, 76. _/"; nouns defect, in case forms, 1 28 ; cases w. preps., 276-278 ; case Digitized by Microsoft® 372 INDEX constructions,305ff.; agreement in, 306, 312; nom., 316-320 voc, 321-323 ; gen., 324-366 dat. 367-401 ; ace., 402-438 abl., 439-495 ; case of rel. pron., 552 castrum, castra, 133 Catalectic and acatalectic verse, 985 causa, w. gen., 331, 463 ; w. gen. of gerund, 875 Causal clauses, replaced by abl. abs., 484. b • w. qui and subjv., 730. I ; w. cum and subjv., 754; w. quod, quia, and indie, or subjv., 768 ; w. quoniam, quando, and indie, 769 ; w. non quod, non quia, etc., and subjv., 770 ; and indie, id. b ; non quln for non quod non, id. a ; causal cl. replaced by' a part., 86k b Causal conjunctions, 617 Cause, rel. cl. of, 730. I Cause or reason, abl. of, 462 ; ex- pressed by ob or propter w. ace, 464 ; preventing cause expressed by prae w. abl., 465 cave, cave ne, in prohibitions, 676. b -ce, enclitic, 39, 188. a Ceasing, vbs. of, w. complementary inf., 837 cedo, forms, 265. d cedo, dat. w., 376 celer, decl., 146. b celo, w. two aces., 413 censeo, constr. after, 720. I ceteri, use, 581 ch, sound, 17 Characteristic or description, subjv. qf, 726-730 ; expressing cause, 730. I ; expressing concession, id. II Charge and penalty, gen.of, 336, 337 Chiasmus, 934./ Choosing, vbs. of, w. two aces., 417 circa, use, 276 circiter, use, 276 circum, use, 276 ; as prefix, 294. a ; in comps. w. dat., 382 ; in comps. w. ace, 406. b circumdo, double constr. w., 374 Circumstance, attendant, abl. of, 457 ; expressed by abl. abs., 484. e circumsto, constr. after, 382. a cis, citra, use, 276 citerior, compar., 160. a Cities, see Towns Civis, decl., 102. d civitas, decl., 106. d classis, decl., 102. d Clauses, defined, kinds of, 299, 300 303, 304; used as subj., 316, a ; replaced by abl. abs., 484 subord., syntax of, 692 ff.; pur pose, 712; description, 726 result, 73 r ; time, 743 ; cause. 767 ; condition, 772 ff. ; com- parison, 803 ; concession, 805 proviso, 811; ind. quests., 812 fact w. quod, 821 ; inf., 832 ff. ind. disc, 886 cliens, decl., 107 Closed syllables, 23 coepi, conj., 263 ; pass. w. pass, inf., id. a ; incipio used for pres., id. Cognate accusative, 408 ; w. vbs. of taste and smell, 409 ; w. neut. prons. andadjs., 410; in poetry, 411 Digitized by Microsoft® INDEX 373 Cognomen, 1 34. c cognSvi, in pres. sense, 660 Collective noun w. sing, or plur. vb., 633 collis, decl., 102. d colus, gender, 86. c com- (con-), prefix, 294. a ; in comps. w. dat., 382 comedo, past part, of, 257. c comitium, comitia, 133 Commanding, vbs. of, w. subjv., 720. I ; w. inf., id. u. Commands, expressed by subjv., 674 ; by imv., 689, 690 ; in ind. disc, 887. Ill Common gender, 66. a Common syllables, 969 commonefacio, w. ace. and gen., 361 commoneo, w. ace. and gen., 361 communis, w. gen., 351 ; w. dat., 397 commuto, constr. after, 472 Comparative suffix, of adjs., 154; of advs., 273 Comparatives, decl., 150; stem, id. N.; meaning of, 154. N. ; w. abl. of comparison, 446-449; quam w. comparatives, 446. a; , two comparatives, 508 ; com- paratives w. quam ut, quam qui, id. a Comparison, clauses of, 803 Comparison of adjs., 1 53-162 ; reg- ular, 154; adjs. in -er, 155 ; six adjs. in -lis, 156; comps. of -dicus, -ficus, -volus, 157 ; irreg- ular, 158, 159; defect., 160, 161; w. magis and maxime, 162 Comparison of advs., 273 ; w. magis and maxime, id. a ; irregular and defect, 274 Comparison of parts., 1 54. a Complementary infinitive, 836; vbs. w., 837; pred. noun or adj. after, 838 ; w. reflexive pron. as subj., id. a compleo, constr. after, 349, 469. d. Complex sentence, 300 complures, decl., 151.fi! compos, decl., 148. b Compound sentence, 299 Compound words, 291 ; formation of, 292, 293 Compounds, derived from phrases, 293 ; w. dat, 382 con-, see com- con- (com-), comps. of, w. dat, 382 Conative past descriptive, 653 Conative present, 649 concedes, w. fut. pass. part, express- ing purpose, 869 Concessive clauses, defined, 804; replaced by abl. abs., 484.tr; volitive subjv., 671, 677; qui concessive, 730. II ; cum con- cessive, 755 ; quamquam, etsi, tametsi (although), 806; etsi, tametsi, etiam si (even, if), 808 ; quamvis, ut, 809; licet, 810; replaced by part., 861./" Concessive conjunctions, 805 Conclusion, see Conditional sen- tences concors, decl., 148. a • Condemning, vbs. of, constr. after, 336, 337 Conditional clauses, defined, 772 ; replaced by abl. abs., 484. d; by part, 861. e Conditional clauses of comparison, 803 Digitized by Microsoft® 374 INDEX Conditional conjunctions, 775-777, 800. a Conditional sentences, denned, 773 ; development of, p. 295, ftn. I ; condition and conclusion, 774; si and its compounds, use, 775-777 ; classification of con- ditions, 778-783 ; present con- ditions, non-committal, 785 ; present conditions, contrary to fact, 786; future conditions, more definite, 788 ; future con- ditions, less definite, 789 ; past conditions, non-committal, 792; past conditions, contrary to fact, 793-! synopsis of conditional sentences, 794 ; peculiar future conditions, 795, 796; peculiar conditions contrary to fact, 797- 799; general conditions, 778. b,c, 800 ; temporal (cum, ubi, or ut meaning whenever), 746, 752, 800. a ; conditional relative clauses, 801 ; substitutes for regular conditions, and implied conditions, 484. d, 802, 861. e\ clauses of comparison (conclu- sion omitted), 803 ; concessive clauses w. etsi, etc., 808; pro- viso, 811 Conditional sentences in indirect dis- course, 898-904; conclusions that are interrogative or im- perative, 899 ; non-committal conditions, 900. I ; future con- ditions, id. II ; conditions con- trary to fact, id. Ill, 903 ; more and less definite future condi- tions not distinguishable, 902 ; sequence of tenses, 904 Conditions contrary to fact, tense sequence in, 704, 904 ; in ind. disc, 900. Ill confido, w. dat, 376; w. abl., id. N. 2 Conjugation, defined, 60 ; conj. of vbs., 203-267 ; voice, 204 ; mood, 205; tense, 206; per- son, 207 ; number, 208 ; tense systems, 209 ; distinguishing vowels, 210; principal parts, 212-214; pers. endings, 215- 218; formation of vb. stems, 219-226; formation of moods and tenses, 227-235 ; forma- tion of non-modal vb. forms, 236-240; conj. of sum, 241; conj. of regular vbs., 242-246 ; conj. of deponents, 247 ; semi- deponents, 248 ; periphrastic conjs., 249, 250 ; irregular vbs., 251-261; defectives, 262-265; impersonals, 266; list of vbs., 267 Conjunctions, origin and classifica- tion, 279; syntax of conjunc- tions, 597-619; defined and classified, 597, 598 ; copulative, 599-605; disjunctive, 606-610; adversative, 6 1 1 -6 1 6 ; causal, 617; inferential, 618; asyndeton, 619; position, 924 Connectives, relatives used as, 564 conor, w. inf., 720. I. c Consequence or result, see Result clauses Consonant stems, of nouns, decl. Ill, 90-99; of adjs., 145, 148, 150 Consonants, defined and classified, 6-10; pronunciation, 16-20; Digitized by Microsoft® INDEX 375 changes in, 48-55 ; rhotacism, 49; assimilation, 51-54; drop- ping of, S5 Construction according to sense, see Synesis Constructions of cases, see under Ablative, etc. consuevi, use, 660 consul, decl., 97 Contending, vbs. of, w. dat., 381 contentus, w. abl., 469. c Continued action, tenses of, 646 contra, use, 276 Contraction, of vowels, 46 ; quantity of resulting vowel, 34. a, 953. b ; contraction of syllables, 988 contrarius, w. gen., 351 ; w. dat., 397 Contrary to fact, conditions,sequence of tenses in, 704 ; present, 786 ; past, 793 ; in ind. disc, 900. Ill convenio, constr. after, 382. a convoco, constr. after, 382. a Coordinating conjunctions, 279. a, 598 (see Conjunctions) copia, copiae, 133 Copula, 305. a ; position of, 927 Copulative conjunctions, 599-605 ; et, 600; -que, 601 ; atque, ac, 602 ; Mid not, 603 ; repeated, 604 ; in enumerations, 605 ; omitted, 619 Copulative verbs, 305. a cor, decl., p. 46 coram, 277 Correlatives, 604, 610; qu5 . . . eo, rendered the . . . the, 476 Countries, names of, gender, 67. b ; as end of motion, 428, 429, 434; as place whence, 441 , 444 credo, w. dat., 376; w. dat. and ace, 380 Crime or charge, gen. of, 336 -crum, noun suffix, 284. c crux, decl., p. 46 cu for earlier quo, 1 2. b -culum, noun suffix, 284. c -cuius, diminutive suffix, 282 cum (conjunction), temporal, 749- 753 ; causal, 754 ; concessive, 755 ; definitive, 750 ; inversum, 751; iterative {whenever), 752, 800. a ; descriptive, 753 ; cum . . . turn, 755. a ; cum clause instead of a part, 851, 852 cum (prep.), as enclitic w. prons., 180. c, 183.12, 193. d, 197. c, 277. d, 925; use, 277; in comps., see com-; w. abl. of accompaniment, 456 ; w. words of contention, id. N. ; w. abl. of manner, 459 cum primum in temporal clauses, 745, 748 -cundus, verbal adj. suffix, 287. a cupio, constr. after, 720. I. b, 839. b euro, w. fut. pass. part, expressing purpose, 869 -cus, adj. suffix, 285. d d, changed to s, 48 ; assimilated, 53 ; dropped, 55 ; old abl. ending of nouns, 1 2 r ._/"; of pers. prons. , 180. d, 183. b; advs. originally in -ed, 270. a. N. Dactyl, 975 ; in dactylic verse, id. a Dactylic hexameter, how constituted, 995 i spondaic, id. a ; csesural pause, 996-1000; masculine Digitized by Microsoft® 376 INDEX and feminine caesura, 999. a ; example of dactylic hexameter, 1002 Dactylic pentameter, 1003; in elegiac distich, 1004 dapis, decl., p. 46 Dates, how expressed, 1010, 1012; equivalent in English of Latin dates, ion Dative case, defined, 74 Forms : in-abus in decl. I, 80. e ; in -ubus in decl. IV, \i\.c\ in -e instead of -li in decl. V, 125. b; in -i in adjs., nullus, etc., 143 Syntax, 367-401 ; original use, 367 ; classification, 369 Indirect object, 370-384; w. act. of trans, vbs. together w. dir. obj., 371, 380; w. pass, of trans, vbs., 372; w. vbs. of motion, 373 ; w. dono, cir- cumdo, exuo, 374; in poetry denoting direction of motion, 375 ; w. intrans. vbs., credo, impero, etc., 376 ; vbs. of sim- ilar meaning w. ace, id. a; dat. w. phrases, audiens esse, etc., 377 ; w. libet, licet, and comps. of satis, bene, male, 378 ; w. pass, of intrans. vbs., 379 ; w. vbs. of contending, 381; w. vbs. compounded w. preps., 382 ; vbs. similarly compounded w. ace, id. a ; dat. w. verbal nouns, insidiae, obtemperatio, etc., 383 ; w. obvius and obviam, 384 Dative of reference, 385-389; used idiomatically, 386; of person judging, 387 ; ethical dative, 388 ; w. comps. of ab, de, ex, 389 Possession, 390 Apparent agent, 392 ; w. im- pers. gerundive, 394 Purpose, 395 With adjectives, 397 ; other constructions, 398 With adverbs of likeness, 399 Gerund and gerundive, 877 de, use, 277 ; as prefix, 294. a ; w. abl. to denote the charge, 336. a ; w. abl. instead of partitive gen., 344 ; w. vbs. of reminding, 362 ; in comp. w. vbs. w. dat., 382, 389 ; w. abl. of separation, 440. a ; w. abl. of place whence, 441 ; w. abl. of material, 452 ; w. abl. of accordance, 458 ; w. abl. of cause, 462 ; in expressions of time, 495 ; w. abl. of gerund or gerundive, 879 dea, dat. and abl. plur., 80. e debeo, in conclusion of conditions contrary to fact, 797. a ; in past tense w. pres. inf., 829; w. perf. inf., id. N. decet, w. ace, 407 ; in conclusion of conditions contrary to fact, 797. a Deciding, vbs. of, w. subjv. cl., 720. 1 Declarative sentence, 296. 1 ; in ind. disc, '887. 1 Declension, defined, 60 ; distinguish- ing vowels, 75; base, 75.3; general rules, 76 Declension of adjectives, 138 ; decls. J-H, I39-H3; decl. Ill, 144- 148; of comparatives, 150 Digitized by Microsoft® INDEX 377 Declension of nouns, 73, 74; decl. I, 77-81 ; decl. II, 82-89; decl. Ill, 90-1 16; decl. IV, 1 1 7-121 ; decl. V, 122-125 Declension of present participles, 149 Defective comparison, 1 60 Defective nouns, of decl. IV, 1 2 1 . e ; of decl. V, 1 25. a ; used in sing, only, 126; used in plur. only, 1 27 ; used in certain cases only, 128 Defective verbs, 262-265 Definite perfect, 658. I ; sequence after, 699 Definitive cum, 750 defit, 261. c Degree of an action or quality ex- pressed by ace, 426 Degrees of comparison, 1 53 deinde, in enumerations, 591. a delecto, w. ace, 376. a Deliberative subjunctive, 678 ; in ind. quests., 816; in ind. disc, 887. II. a DSlos, decl., 89 Demonstrative pronouns and adjec- tives, defined, 185 Forms: declension, 1 88-191 Syntax: used as pers. pron. of third person, 531 ; agreement, 532; hie, 533, 534; iste, 535, 536; ille, 537-539; is > 54°- 542 ; omission of that in that of, 544; Idem, 545-547! normal position, 918 ; emphatic position, 934- d demum, position, 923 denique, in enumerations, 591. a; position, 923 Denominative verbs, 289 Dentals, 7. b Dependent clauses, kinds, 709 ; indie. or subjv. in, 710 ff. Deponent verbs, denned, 204. a ; conjugated, 247 ; act. forms, id. ; forms pass, in meaning, id. ; semi-deponents, 248 Deprivation, vbs. of, abl. w., 440 Derivation, of nouns, 282-284; of adjectives, 285-288 ; of verbs, 289, 290 Description or characteristic, subjv. of, 726-730 ; cum clauses of, 753-755 Description or quality, gen. of, 338 ; abl. of, 466 ' Descriptive, past, 652-654 Descriptive adj. instead of objective gen., 355 Descriptive cum, 753 Desideratiye verbs (in -urio), 290. d Desire, adjs. of, w. gen., 357 deterior, compar., 160. a deus, decl., 88. e dextra, abl. without prep., 485. a: di-, see dis- Diaeresis, 987 Diastole, 990 die, pres. imv., 235.1. -dicus, adjs. in, compar. of, 157 Dido, decl., 112 dies, decl., 123 ; gender, 124; irreg. forms, 125. b Difference, measure of, 475 difficilis, compar., 156; w. supine, 882. II. b diffido, dat. w., 376 dignor, w. abl., 479. N. dignus, w. abl., 479; w. rel. cl. of purpose, 717 Digitized by Microsoft® 378 INDEX Diminutive endings, of nouns, 282. a ; of adjs., 286 ; of vbs., 290. c din-, stems in, 98. b Diphthongs, 5 ; sounds, 1 5 ; quan- tity, 27, 954; weakening of, 44. d, e Direct discourse, 883 Direct object, 404-407; w. vbs. of feeling, 406. a : w. vbs. of motion (comps. of ad, circum, etc.), id. b ; w. intrans. vbs., id. c ; w. pass, used as Greek middle, id. d; w. gerund, 880. a Direct question, 62 1 . a Direct quotation w. inquam, 265. b Direct reflexive, 5 1 9 dis- (di-), inseparable prefix, 294. b Disjunctive conjunctions, 606-610 ; defined, 606; aut, 607; vel, 608 ; sive or seu, 609 ; correla- tive use, 610 dispar, w. gen., 351 ; w. dat, 397 displiceo, w. dat., 376 Disproportion, how expressed, 508. a dissimilis, similis, compar., 156; w. gen., 351 ; w. dat., 397, 398. b Distributive numerals, 164; decl., 167; use, 173 Distributive pronouns, 576, 577 diu, compar., 274 dives, decl., 148 divom, gen. plur., 88. d do, conj., 258 ; w. fut. pass. part. expressing purpose, 869 doceo, constr. after, 413, 415 domi, loc, 488 ; w. poss. adj. or gen., 489 domus, gender, 120; decl., 121. d; omission of prep. w. ace. and abl.,' 430, 442 ; w. prep, when meaning house, 433, 442. N. donee, as long as, 762 ; until, 764, 765 dono, double constr. w., 374 Doubled consonants, 20 Doubt, vbs. of, w. quin and subjv., 720. IV Doubtful syllable in verse, 984 Dropping of vowels, 47 ; of conso- nants, 55 dubito, w. neg. and quin, 720. IV; w. ind. quest., id. N. ; w. inf. or quin, id. due, pres. imv., 235. <, dum, while,w. historical pres., 648. a, 763 ; as long as, w. indie, 762 ; until, w. indie, to denote a fact, 764; w. subjv. to denote pur- pose or expectation, 765 ; pro- vided, 811; dum clause for pres. pass, part., 851 dummodo, provided, w. subjv., 811 duo, decl., 166. b Duration, ace. of, 420, 422, 424; abl. of, 423 -dus, adj. suffix, 287. c 8, sound, 14; changed to i, 44. c, 93. c; dropped, 47 a. ; changed to by ablaut, 57; in voc. of decl. II, 84. a; in abl. of decl. Ill, 94; in abl. of adjs. of one or two terminations, 147. N., 148; stem vowel, conj. Ill, 210, 221, 229. a. 2, 289 ; final, quan- tity of, 960 g, sound, 14; for early oe, 45 ; end- ing of fem. Greek nouns, decl. I, 81 ; in voc. of Greek nouns, Digitized by Microsoft® INDEX 379 decl. Ill, 112; stem vowel, decl. V, 122; in gen. and dat. sing, of decl. V, 125. b, 955. b. 1 ; stem vowel, conj. II, 210, 220. b, 289 ; in past descript. indie, 229. b. 1, 2 ; in fut. indie., 229. c\ in pres. subjv., 233. a; as adv. ending, 270. a e (ex), prep., use, 277. b ■ in comps., 294. a ; abl. w., instead of parti- tive gen., 344 ; in comps. w. dat., 389 ; w. abl. of separation, 440. a ■ w. abl. of place whence, 441 ; expressing position, 445 ; w. abl. of origin, 45 I . a ; w. abl. of accordance, 458 ; w. abl. of cause, 462 ; w. abl. of gerund, 879 ecce (eccum, eccam, etc.), 437 ecquis, indefinite, 200. e; interrog., 568 ecus, early form for equus, 1 2. b edo, conj., 257 efncio ut, 737, 739 egens, decl., 148 egenus, w. gen., 350 egeo, constr. after, 349, 469. d ego, decl., 180 egomet, 180. a ei, diphthong, 5 ; sound, 1 5 -eis, patronymic ending, 282.^ Electra, decl., 81 Elegiac distich, 1004, iooj Elision, 981 ; before est, 982 Ellipsis, 950. b ellum, etc., 437 -ellus, diminutive ending, 282 Emotion, vbs. of, w. inf., 839. e ; w. ind. disc, or quod cl., id. N. Emphasis, how secured, 934 Enallage, 950. c Enclitics, denned, 39 ; accent, 40 ; enclitic cum, 180. c, 183. a, •93' d, 197- c, 277. d, 925 End of motion, expressed by dat., 373; ace. of, 428 ff. Endings, see Personal endings English dates in Latin, 1012 enim, use, 617 ; position, id. a, 924 -ensis, adj. suffix, 285. d Enumeration, 591. a, 605 -enus, adj. suffix, 285. d Envying, vbs. of, w. dat., 376 e5, conj., 259; pass, of, id. a ; ambio, id. c; prodeo, id. d; w. supine in -um to form fut. pass, inf., 882. 1, a. N. eo (pron.), w. quo, to express measure of difference, 476 Epicene nouns, 67. c Epiphora, 939. N. Epistolary tenses, 664 Epizeuxis, 943 epulum, epulae, 132 equidem, 592. a. N. -er, nom. ending, decl. II, 83, 85; decl. Ill, 96. a, 97 ; gender of nouns in, decl. Ill, 114; adjs. in, 141, 142, 146; compar. of adjs. in, 155 erga, use, 276 ergo, use, 618 -ernus, adj. suffix, 288 es, final, quantity, 964 -6s, in nom. plur. of Greek nouns, in, d; gender of nouns in, 114 -es, Greek nouns in, 81, 112; nom. ending, decl. V, 122; noun suffix, 284. b Digitized by Microsoft® 38o INDEX -esso, vb. suffix, 290. b. 1 est, w. ut cl. as subj., 739; w. inf. as subj., 833 ; united w. other words, 982 -ester, adj. suffix, 285. d et, use, 600 ; et . . . et, 604 ; in enu- merations, 605 etenim, use, 617 Ethical dative, 388 etiam, use, 588 ; in answers, 629. u, etiam si, even if, 808 etsi, although, 806 ; even if, 808 -Stum, noun suffix, 282. b eu, diphthong, 5 ; sound, 1 5 Euphony and rhythm, 937 -eus, decl. of Greek names in, 112 -eus, -aceus, -nus, -neus, adj . suffixes, • 285.,, evenit ut, 739 ; evenit quod, 822 Exclamation, nom. in, 319 ; ace. in, 436 ; w. inf., 843 Exclamatory questions, w. inf., 843 ; w. ut and subjv., id. a Exclamatory sentences, 296. 3; nom. in, 3 19 ; ace. in, 436; w. inf., 843 Existence expressed by sum, 927 Expectation or anticipation, subjv. of,. 759- N - 3, 76? expers, w. gen., 350 Explanatory genitive, 335 Extent of space, ace. of, 420, 421 exterus, compar., 159; exteri, id. a extra, use, 276 extremus, end of, 510 exuo, double constr. w., 374 fac, pres. imv., 235. c; fac ne, in pro- hibitions, 676. b fades, decl., 125. a facilis, compar., 156 faciei, pass, of, 261 ; w. abl., 452. b; w. ut and obj. cl. of result, 737 ; w. pres. part., 864 falsus, compar., 1 60. b fames, abl. of, 107. c fari, conj., 265. c; comps., id. 1 fas, indecl., 1 28. a; w. supine in -fl, 882. II fauces, decl., 106. d faveo, w. dat., 376 fax, decl., p. 46 faxim, perf. subjv., 234. a. N. 1 faxo, fut. perf., 230. c. N. 2 Fearing, vbs. of, w. ne, ne non, or ut and subjv., 720. II; w. inf., id. a febris, decl., 102. c Feeling, nouns of, w. gen., 354; adjs. of, w. gen., 357; impers. vbs. of, w. gen., 363 ; vbs. of, w. inf., a cl., or a neut. pron. as subj., 364 ; vbs. of, w. ace., 406. a Feet, in verse, 971-975 Feminine cassura, 999. a Feminine gender, general rule, 67. b femur, decl., 130. c fer, pres. imv., 235. c -ferand-ger,comps.in,85.a. 1, 142.3 fere, position, 923 ferio, conj., 264 fero, conj., 256 Festivals, plur. names of, 127. b -ficus, adjs. in, compar. of, 157 fido, semi-deponent, 248 ; w. dat., 376; w. abl., id. N. 2 Fifth declension, 122-125; gender, 1 24 ; peculiar forms, 1 25 filia, dat. and abl. plur., 80. e filius, gen. and voc. sing., 88. b, c Filling, words of, w. gen., 349, 350 ; w. abl., 469. d Digitized by Microsoft® INDEX 381 Final clauses, see Purpose Final syllables, quantity, 956-965 finis, decl., 1 02. d; meaning in plur., 133 fio, conj., 261 ; in comps., id. a, b; confit, defit, id. c; w. abl., 452. b ; quantity of i in, 955. b. 3 First conjugation, prin.. parts, 212; pres. stem, 220. a ; perf. stem, 223. a, c\ part, stem, 225, 226 ; paradigms, 242 ; vbs. of, derivation, 289 First declension, 77-81; peculiar forms, 80 ; Greek nouns, 81 fit Ut, 739 ; fit quod, 822 Fitness, adjs. of, w. dat., 397. a, 877 flagito, constr. after, 413, 414 flocci, gen. of value, 341. N. Following, vbs. of, w. subjv. cl., 739 Foot, in verse, see Feet foras, foris, 1 28. c fore, 241. a ; fore ut, 740, 831 forem, fores, etc., 241. a Forgetting, vbs. of, constr. after, 358 Formation of words, 281-294; nouns from nouns, 282 ; from adjs., 283 ; from vbs., 284 ; adjs. from nouns, 285 ; from adjs., 286 ; from vbs., 287 ; from advs., 288 ; vbs. from nouns or adjs., 289 ; from vbs., 290 ; comps., 291-293 ; prefixes, 294 fors, forte, 1 28. c forsitan, w. subjv.j 819 fortflna, fortfinae, 133 Fourth conjugation, pres. stem, 220, c; perf. stem, 223. a, c, d; part, stem, 225, 226 ; prin. parts and paradigms, 245; vbs. of, derivation, 289, 290. d Fourth declension, 11 7-1 21; gen- der, 118, 1 20 ; peculiar forms, ■ 121 Fractions, how expressed, 1 74 fraus, decl., 106. d Freedom, vbs. or adjs. of, w. abl., 440 frenum, plur. in -i or -a, 132 Frequentative verbs, 290. b fretus, w. abl., 469. c Fricatives, 8. d frfigi, indecl., 152; compar., 158 frugis, decl., p. 46 fruor, w. abl., 469. a ; w. ace, id. N. 2 ; in gerund, 880. c. N. fuam, fuas, etc., 24 1. c Fullness,wordsof,w.gen., 349,350; w. abl., 469. d fungor, w. abl., 469. a ; w. ace, id. N. 2 ; in gerund, 880. c. N. Future conditions, moredefinite, 788; less definite, 789 ; relatives in, 80 r ; in ind. disc, 900. II Future indicative, formation, 229. c ; use, 65 5 ; used for imv., 656; for English pres., 657; how sup- plied in subjv., 698. a, c ; how expressed in ind. quest., 815 Future infinitive, formation, 237. c, 882. I. a. N. ; expressed by fore or futurum esse ut, etc., 740, 83 1 Future participle,f ormation, 240. b, d; of deponents, 247; timedenoted, 847. c\ as attrib. adj., 856; form- ing periphrastic conjs., 859, 860; impers. use, 860. a, b; act. expressing purpose, 868 ; pass. w. euro, do, trado, etc., ex- pressing purpose, 869 ; gerun- dive use, 870 Digitized by Microsoft® 382 INDEX Future perfect, formation, 230. c ; use, 662 ; rendered by English fut. or pres., 663 ; how repre- sented in subjv., 698. b, c; in conditions, 790 ; in ind. disc, 887. I. b, 889 futiirum esse (fQre) ut, 74°> 8 3 r i futurum fuisse ut, 900. Ill g, represented by c, 2. a ■ sound, 16 Games, plur. names of, 127. b gaudeo, semi-deponent, 248 ; w. inf., 839, e\ w. ind. disc, or quod cl., id. N. Gender, kinds, 64, 65 ; natural, 66 ; common, id. a • grammatical, general rules for, 67-69 ; com- mon (epicene), 67. c; foreign words, 69 ; decl. I, 78 ; decl. II, 83, 86, 87; decl. Ill, 113-116; decl. IV, 118, 120; decl. V, 124 Syntax : agreement in gender of appositives, 312. a; of adjs. w. single noun, 498 ; w. cl. or inf., 500 ; w. two or more nouns, 502 ; of rel. pron., 552 General conditions, defined, yj8.b,c; use, 800 ; relatives in, 80.1 Genitive case, defined, 74 Forms: terminations in sing, of nouns, 75 ; gen. in -as and-ai, decl. I, 80. a, b\ in -um for -arum, id. d ; in -i for -ii, decl. II, 88. b ; in -um for -orum, id. d\ in -1 or -os in Greek names, decl. Ill, 1 1 1 . a, 112; in -I, -uis, or -uos for -us, decl. IV, 121, a; in -um for -uum, id. b ; in -e or -i for -el, decl. V, 125. b\ in -ium or -orum in neut. names of fes- tivals, 1 30. d; in -ius in adjs.,. 143 Syntax: how translated, 325; subjective and objective, 326 Possessive, 328 ; gen. of person acting or feeling, id. N.; poss. gen. in pred., 330 ; w. causa, gratia, and instar, 331 ; de- pending on omitted noun, 333 ; how to translate that of, 334 Explanatory, instead of an ap- positive, 335 Charge, 336; penalty, 337 Description, 338 ; in pred., id. a; gen. and abl. of description compared, id. N. ; gen. of measure, 340 ; indefinite value, 341 Partitive, or genitive of the whole, 342 ; w. advs., 343 ; abl. w. e, ex, or de used in- stead, especially w. cardinals or quidam, 344 ; rare in adjs. of decl. Ill, 347 Material, 348 ; abl. w. ex used instead, id. a Plenty or want, 349 ; abl. used instead, 350 With adjectives of similarity, etc., 351 ; dat. used instead, id. N., 397, 398 ; alienus, constr. after, 398. c With refert and interest, 352 Objective with nouns of action or feeling, 354; other con- structions, 355 Application, 356 Digitized by Microsoft® INDEX 383 With adjectives of action or feeling, 357 With verbs, 358-366; memini, etc., 358 ; vbs. of reminding, 361 ; impersonals, miseret, etc., 363, 364 ; misereor, miseresco, 365 ; potior, 366, 469. a. N. I Agreeing w. a gen. implied in aposs. adj., 529 Gerund andgerundive, 874-876 Position, 915, 916 Gens or clan, 134 genu, decl., 119. N. -ger, comps. in, decl., 85. a. 1, 142. a Gerund Forms : formation, 238; -undifor -endi, id. N. Syntax, 871-880; neut. sing, of gerundive, 871 ; compared w. gerundive, 872; gen. of, 874; w. causa or gratia to express purpose, 875 ; dat. of, 877; ace. of, w. ad to express purpose, 878 ; abl. of, 879 ; gerund w. dir. obj., 880. a ; w. neut. adj., id. b ; gerund of utor, etc. , id. c. N. Gerundive Forms : formation, 240. d Syntax, 869-880 ; after euro, do, etc., to denote purpose, 869 ; compared w. gerund, 872 ; gen. of, 874 ; w. causa or gratia to express purpose, 875; w. mei, tul, sui, etc., 876 ; dat. of, 877 ; ace. of, w. ad to express purpose, 878 ; abl. of, 879 ; relative fre- quency and limitations of ger- und and gerundive, 880 gin-, stems in, 98. b Giving over, vbs. of, w. fut. pass. part, expressing purpose, 869 gracilis, compar., 1 56 Gradation of vowels, 56, 57 Grammatical gender, 67-69 gratia, gratiae, 133 gratia, w. gen., 331, 463; w. gen. of gerund, 875 Greek accusative, 427 Greek nouns, decl. I, 81 ; decl. II, 89; decl. Ill, in, 112 Greek plurals in -as or -es, quantity, 954. a griis, decl., 109. a gu, sound of, before a vowel, 16, 954. N. h, does not make position, 32; eli- sion of vowel before, 98 1 habeo, imv. of, 691 ; w. past part., 865 Happening, vbs. of, w. subjv- clause, 739 haud, 594 haud scio an, nescio an, w. subjv., 818 have (ave), defect, vb., 265. d Helping, vbs. of, w. dat., 376; w. ace, id. a Hendiadys, 944 herl, loc, 488 Heroic verse, 995 heros ; decl., 112 Heteroclites, 130 Heterogeneous nouns, 131, 132 Hexameter verse, 975. a, 995 Hiatus, 983 hie, decl., 188; formation, id. a; early forms, id. b; use, 533, 539, 543 Digitized by Microsoft® 384 INDEX Hindering, opposing, etc., vbs. of, w. ne, quin, or quominus and subjv., 720. Ill ; w. inf., id. a Historical infinitive, 844 Historical perfect, or past absolute, 658. II Historical present, 648 ; sequence after, 700 Hortatory subjunctive, 672 hortor, deponent vb., conj., 247 ; constr. after, 720. I humi, loc, 488 humilis, compar., 156 humus, gender, 86. c Hundreds, how declined, 1 66. c Hypallage, 950. d Hysteron proteron, 945 i, as vowel and as cons., 2. b ; as semi- vowel, 9 ; as transient vowel, 1 8 ; in comps. of iacio, 1 9 ; quantity when final, 961 ; quantity of syllable preceding cons, i, 968 ; i as a cons, in verse, 991 1, sound, 14; changed from a ore, 44. a-c ; in Greek voc, 112; for 6 in conj. Ill, 221, 229. a. 2 i, sound, 14; changed from ae, 44. d; for -ii in gen. sing, of nouns in -ius (-ium), 88. <5 ; in voc. of films and proper names in -ius, id. c; in abl. of decl. Ill, 100; in loc. of decl. Ill, 1 10 ; in gen. of decl. IV, 121. a; in gen. of decl. V, 125. b ; in dat. of alius, etc., 143 ; as subjv. mood sign, 233.12.1; in forms of fio, 955.^.3 i-stems, decl. Ill, 100-104; mixed, 105-108 ; in adjs., 145 ; in vbs., 210, 220. c, 289 -ia, suffix of abstract nouns, 283 iacio, comps. of, 19, 31, 968. N. iam, use, 590 ; iam vero, marking a transition, 613. N. ; iam, iam diu, etc., w. pres., 650 ; w. past descript, 654 Iambus, 975; iambic verse, id. a, 976 -ias, patronymic suffix, lii.g -ibam for -iebam in conj. IV, 229. b. 2 -ibo for -iam in conj. IV, 229. c. N. 2 -icius, adj. suffix, 285. d Ictus, defined, 978 ; how observed, 993- ^ -icus, noun suffix, 282. c ; adj. suffix, 285. d idem, decl., 191; formation, id. a; use, 545 ; w. qui, ac, or atque, the same as, 546 ; meaning also, too, etc., 547 Ides (13th or 15th of month), 1010 -ides (-ides), patronymic suffix, 282.^ Idiomatic uses of the ace, 438 idoneus, compar., 162; w. dat., 397. a ; w. ad and ace, 398. a ; w. rel. cl., 717; w. gerund, 877 Idus, gender, 120 -ie, in voc. of adjs. in -ius, 140. a iecur, decl., 109. a, 130, c -ier, in inf. pass., 237. a. 2. N. igitur, use, 618. a; position, 924 ignis, decl., 102 ignosco, w. dat., 376 -ii, in gen. of decl. II, 88. b; of adjs., 140. a ii, iis, from is, 190. a -lie, noun suffix, 282. b Ilion, decl., 89 -ilis, -bilis, compar. of adjs. in, 1 56, 160.C ; ^verbal adj. suffix, 287. d -ilis, adj. suffix, 285. d Digitized by Microsoft® INDEX 385 ille, decl., 1 88 ; ollus in early Latin, id. N. ; combined w. -ce, id. a ; use i 537 j meaning the famous, 538, 918. a; the former, 539; the latter, id. N. -ills, vb. suffix, 290. c -illus, diminutive suffix, 282 -im, ace. ending, decl. Ill, 100, 102 ; in pres. subjv., 233. a. 1 imber, decl., 102. a impedimentum, impedimenta, 133 Imperative mood, 205; terminations, 218; formation; 235 ; die, due, fac, f er, id. c ; use, 689, 690 ; fut. imv. of scio, memini, and habeo for pres., 691; in condi- tions, 785. a ■ in ind. disc, 887. Ill Imperative sentence, 296. 4 Imperfect indicative, see Past de- scriptive impero, w. dat., 376; w. ace, 380; w. ut and subjv., 720. 1 Impersonal use of pass. w. inf. cl. as subj., 840. a Impersonal verbs, 266; subj. not expressed, 317; miseret, paeni- tet, etc., w. ace. and gen., 363 ; impers. pass, of intrans. vbs., 379; decet, iuvat, etc., w. ace, 407 ; impers. vbs. w. inf. as subj., 834 impetus, decl., p. 46 Implied conditions, 802 Implied indirect discourse, 905, 906 impono, constr. after, 490 Imus, superl., 159 ; meaning base of 510 in, prep., use, 278. a ; compounded w. vbs., 294. a ; in comps. that take the dat., 382; in comps. taking the ace, 406. b; w. ace. of place whither, 428 ; w. names of countries, 429 ; w. abl. of place where, 485 ; w. abl. of time, 493 ; w. abl. of gerund, 879 in-, inseparable prefix, 294. b In the vicinity of, expressed by ad w. ace, 431 -ina, noun suffix, 282. d Inceptive verbs, 290. a Incomplete action, tenses of, 645, 646 Indeclinable adjectives, 152 Indeclinable nouns, 1 28. a Indefinite pronouns, meaning and declension, 200 ; use, 569-577; defined, 569; quis, qui, 570; aliquis, aliqui, 571 ; quidam, 572; quisquam and fillus, 573 ; nemo and nfillus, 574; nescio quis, 575; quisque, 576; uter- que, 577 ; normal ' position, 918; emphatic position, 934. d, e Indefinite value, gen. of, 341 Indicative mood, 205 ; tenses, 206, 228 Forms: formation of pres., 229.^ past descript., id. b; fut., id. c perf., 230. a ; past perf., id. b fut. perf., id. c ; perf. pass, sys- tem, 231 Syntax: general use, 642 ; in ex- pressions of duty, propriety, etc., 643. a ; for subjv., id. b ; tenses, 644-646; pres., 647- 651; past descript, 652-654; fut., 655-657: perf., 658-660; past perf., 661 ; fut. perf., 662, Digitized by Microsoft® 386 INDEX 663 ; in deliberative questions, 679 ; in quod clauses of fact, 821-825 indigeo, w. gen., 350 indignus, w. abl., 479 ; w. qui and subjv., 717 Indirect discourse, direct and indirect quotation, 883, 884 ; verbs that take ind. disc, 8§5 ; vb. of saying implied, id. a.; moods in ind. disc, 886; prin. clauses in ind. disc, 887 ; declarative clauses, id. I ; tenses of inf. in ind. disc, id. b ; posse w. fut. force, id. N. 1 ; inf. constr. con- tinued after a comparative w. quam, id. N. 2 ; real and rhe- torical questions in ind. disc, 887. II ; deliberative subjv. in ind. disc, id. a; commands and volitive or optative subjv. in ind. disc, 887. Ill ; prohibitions w. noli in ind. disc, id. a ; sub- ord. clauses in ind. disc, 888- 897 ; tenses of the subjv. in ind. disc, 889-894 ; subjv. depending on perf. inf., 893 ; pres. and perf. after secondary tense, 894 ; subord. clauses not part of ind. disc, 895 ; rel. clauses equivalent to prin. clauses, 896; conditional sen- tences in ind. disc, 898-904; implied ind. disc, 905, 906 Indirect object, denned, 370; w. trans, -vbs., 371 ; w. intrans. vbs'., 376; w. comps., 382 Indirect questions, denned, 621. b., 812,813; introduced by interrog. prons. and advs., 814.0; by -ne or num,id.£; by %\{whether), id. c ; fut. time in, 815; delib- erative subjv. in, 8 [6; ind. alternative questions, 817; haud scio an, nescio an, 8 1 8 ; f orsitan, 819; nescio quis, etc., 820 Indirect quotation, see Indirect dis- course Indirect reflexives, 520-523 indulges, w. dat., 376 induo, pass, as middle, 406. d ineo, constr. after, 382. a Inferential conjunctions, 618 inferus, compar., 159; inferi, id. a Infinitive, 205. «, 827 Forms: formation of pres. act., 237. a. I ; pres. pass., id. u. 2 ; perf. act., id. b. 1 ; perf. pass., id. b. 2 ; fut. act., id. c, 1 ; fut. pass., id. c. 2 Syntax: inf. used instead of a gen. after miseret, paenitet, etc., 364; subj. of inf., 419; inf. w. noli, 676; tenses of, 828-831 ; pres. w. debul, oportuit, etc., 829 ; pres. expressing past time in ind. disc, 830 ; fore ut, etc., for fut. inf., 831 ; used as subj., 833, 834; as appositive or pred. noun, 835; as obj., 836-840; complementary inf., 836-838 ; vbs. followed by, 837 ; case of pred. noun or adj., 838 ; w. reflexive pron. as subj., id. a ; w. subj. ace, 839, 840 ; w. adjs., 841 ; inf. of purpose, 842 ; in exclamations, 843 ; historical inf., 844 ; as pure noun, 845 ; in ind. disc, 887. I. b; after quamw. comparative, id. N. 2 Digitized by Microsoft® INDEX 387 infitias, defect, 128. b. N.; Infitias «e, 435 Inflection, defined, 59 Informal indirect discourse, 905, 906 infra, use, 276 ingens, decl., 148. a iniuria, as abl. of manner, 461 iniussu, defect., 121. e\ as abl. of manner, 461 innixus, w. abl., 469. c inops, decl., 148. a, c ; w. gen., 350 inquam, conj., 265. b ; position, 928 Inseparable prefixes, 294. b insidiae, dat. w., 383 instar, indecl, 128. a; gen. w., 331 Instrumental ablative, 439. II, 456 ff. Integral part, subjv. of, 907-909 Intensive pronoun, ipse, formation and decl., 192; use, 548-550 Intensive verbs, 290. b inter, use, 276; in comps., 294. a; comps. of, w. dat., 382; inter nos, etc., 524; position, 925. a interest, w. gen., or w. abl. fem. of poss. pron., 352; degree of in- terest, how expressed, id. b interficio, constr. after, 382. a interior, compar., 160. a Interjections, 280 Interlocked order of words, 946 Interrogative particles, 623, 627 Interrogative pronouns and adjec- tives, decl. of quis, 196; decl. of qui, 197; use, 566-568; quis and qui, 566 ; uter, 567 ; other interrogs., 568 ; position, 922 Interrogative sentences, 296. 2; forms of, 620-628 interrogo, w. two aces., 413. N. intimus, inmost part of, 510 intra, use, 276 Intransitive verbs, defined, p. 180. ftn. 1 ; used impersonally in pass., 266^,379; dat.w.,376ff.; used transitively w. ace. and dat., 380; w. ace. of kindred meaning, 408 intro, as prefix, 294. a -inum, noun suffix, 282. d -Inus, adj. suffix, 285. d invide5, w. dat., 376; w. dat. and ace, 380 -io, class of vbs., 221. b; forms of vbs. in, conj. IV, 245 ; conj. Ill, 246; noun suffix, 282. c, 284. b iocus, ioca, 132 ipse, intensive pron., formation and decl., 192; used as indirect re- flexive, 522, 549. c; in gen. agreeing w. gen. implied in a poss. adj., 529; used as subst., 549 ; distinguished from a re- flexive, id. N. 1 ; agrees w. subj. when emphasis in Eng. is on a reflexive in the pred., id. N. 2 ; meaning very, even, exactly, etc., 550 irascor, w. dat., 376 Iri, in fut. pass, inf., 237. c. 2, 882. I. a. N. Irregular comparison of adjs., 158- 159 Irregular verbs, conj., 251-261 is, final, quantity, 965 is, decl., 190 ; is for iis, id. a ; use, 540-544 ; such, of such a kind, 541 ; combined w. et or atque, Digitized by Microsoft® 388 INDEX and that too, 542 ; omitted w. part., 544. N. ; is qui, the one who, the one to, w. subjv., 727 -is, patronymic suffix, 282.^ Islands, names of, place to, ace, 430, 431 ; place from, abl., 442, 443; place at or in, abl. or loc, 485. a, 486 iste, decl., 189; use, 535 ; implying contempt, 536 It, subj. of impers. vb., not ex- pressed, 317 ita, use, 589 ; in answers, 629. a ; ita ut w. subjv., 732 itaque, use, 618 iter, decl., 109 -ito, vbs. in, 290. b -itus, adverbs in, 272. c iubeo, w. ace, 376. a; w. inf., 720. I. a, 839. c -ium, in gen. plur. of decl. Ill, 100- 109; of adjs., 145, 148. c\ noun suffix, 284. b Iuppiter, decl., 109 iiire, as abl. of manner, 461 -ius, gen. and voc. of nouns in, 88, b. c\ of adjs. in, 140.fi; adj. suffix, 285. a -ius, gen. sing, ending, 143 ; quantity of i, id. c ius, decl., p. 46 iussu, defect., i2i.«; as abl. of manner, 461 iuvat, w. ace, 407 iuvenis, decl., 107. b; compar., 160. c. I iuvo, w. ace, 376. a iuxta, use, 276 -ivus, #dj. suffix, 285. d j (the character), 2. b Judging, dat. of the person, 387 Julian calendar, 1008 Jussive subjunctive, 673 ; in com- mands, 674; in prohibitions, 675 k, supplanted by c, 2. a Kalendae, 1010 Kindred meaning, accusative of, 408 ; w. vbs. of taste and smell, 409 ; of neut. pron. or adj ., 4 1 o ; in poetry, 411 Knowing, vbs. of, w. ace. and inf., 885 Knowledge, adjs. of, w. gen., 357 Labials, 7. a laedo, w. ace, 376. a laeva, abl. without prep., 485. a lampas, decl., 1 1 2 Latin language, Introduction, pp. xiii ff . Length by position, 967, 991 -lens, -lentus, adj. suffixes, 285. a Less definite future conditions, 783. b, 789 lex est ut, w. subjv., 723, 741 liber, adj., decl., 141 libet, w. dat., 378 licet, w. dat., 378; w. subjv., 722; meaning although, w. subjv., 810 ; w. inf. and dat., 834. a Likeness, adjs. of, w. gen., 351; w. dat., 397. a, 398. b Linguals, 7. b linter, decl., 102. a Liquids, 8. c; stems in, decl. Ill, 9 6 > 97 -lis, adjs. in, compar., 156, 160. c lis, decl., 106. d Digitized by Microsoft® INDEX 389 List of verbs, pp. 128-139 Litotes, 947 littera, litterae, 133 Locative ablative uses, 43 9. Ill, 485 ff. Locative case, defined, 74. a ; in decl. I, 80. c ; in decl. II, 88. a ; in decl. Ill, no; w. abl. in apposition, 313; denoting place where, 486, 487 ; list of special nouns having loc. forms, 488 ; domi w. modifier, 489 loco, vb., w. fut. pass. part, express- ing purpose, 869 loco, locis, without prep., 485. a locus, loca, 132 Long and short, see Quantity Long vowels, 953 longinquus, compar., 160. c longius, without quam, 450 longum est, difficile est, etc., w. : subjv. meaning, 643. b lux, decl., p. 46 m, inserted in vb. root, 221. 2; elision in verse, 981 -m, sign of ace, 76. c magis, as sign of comparison, 162 magni, gen. of value, 341. N. magnus, compar., 158 Main clause, defined, 300 maior natfl, 478 maiores, meaning, 503 Making, vbs. of, constr. after, 417 male, compar., 274; comps. of, w. dat., 378 malo, conj., 255; w. inf. or subjv., 720. I. b; w. inf., 839. b malus, compar., 158 mando, w. fut. pass. part, express- ing purpose, 869 mane, defect., 128. b Manner, abl. of, 459 ; cum omitted, 460, 461 ; manner denoted by part., 861. d manus, gender, 120 marl, loc. abl., 485. a Masculine caesura, 999. a Masculine gender, general rule, 67. a Material, adjs. of, not compared, 161. a; gen. of, 348; abl. of, 452; prep, omitted in poetry, id. a maturus, compar., 155. a maxime, sign of superl., 162; compar., 274 Means, nouns denoting, 284. c ; abl. of, 468 ; special uses, 469 ; denoted by per w. ace, id. d. N. 2. ; by part, 861. c Measure, gen. of, 340 ; unit of, in verse, 973 medius, middle of, 510 mei, w. gerundive, 876 mel, decl., p. 46 melius est, it would be better, 643 meme, 1 80. b memini, conj., 263 ; in pres. sense, id. b, 660 ; w. ace. or gen., 358. a, b; imv., 691 memor, decl., 148. a, c Memory, adjs. of, constr. after, 357 ; vbs. of, constr. after, 358 Men, names of, 134 -men, -mentum, noun suffixes, 284. b meridies, gender, 1 24 merito, as abl. of manner, 461 meritus, compar., 160. b messis, decl., 102. e -met, enclitic, 1 80. a Metamorphoses, decl., 112. £ Digitized by Microsoft® 390 INDEX Meters and verse forms, 970-992 ; verse defined, 970 ; foot de- fined, 971, 972; mora defined, 973, 974 ; kinds of feet, 975 ; names of verse, id. a ; measures of verse, 976 ; substitution, 977 ; ictus, 978 ; thesis and arsis, 979 '; scansion, 980 ; elision, 981 ; hiatus, 983 ; syllaba an- ceps, 984 ; catalectic and acata- lectic, 985 ; caesura, 986 ; diaere- sis, 987; synizesis or synsere- sis, 988; systole, 989; diastole, 990 ; tmesis, 992 metuo, w. subjv., 720. II meus, voc. ml, 140. b Middle voice, 406. d mihi (tibi, etc.) in mentem venit, w. gen., 360 miles, decl., 94 militiae, loc, 488 mille, decl. and constr., 166. d minime, compar., 274; in neg. answers, 629. b minimi, gen. of value, 341. N. minitor, w. dat, 376; w. dat. and ace, 380 minor, compar., 158; w. natfi, 478 minores, meaning, 503 minoris, gen. of value, 341. N. ; denoting price, id. a minus, compar., 274; constr. with- out quam, 450 miser, decl., 142.2; compar., 155 misereor and miseresco, w. gen., 365 miseret, impers., 266; w. ace. and gen., 363 Mixed i-stems, 105-107 modo, provided, w. subjv., 81 1 modo, as abl. of manner, 461 moneo, conj., 243 ; constr. after comps. of, 361 -monia, -monium, noun suffixes, 284.^ Monosyllables, quantity, 956, 957 Months, gender of names of, 67. a ; decl. of names in -ber, 146. a ; names of, 1009; division of , in Roman calendar, 1010 Moods, names of, 205 Moods and tenses, formation of, indie, 228-231; subjv., 232- 234; imv., 235; uses of, in independent sentences, 64J- 691 ; in subord. clauses, 692- 869 ; in ind. disc, 883-909 Mora, in verse, 973-975 More definite future conditions, 788 mos, mores, 133 mos est, ius est, etc:, w. ut and subjv., 723, 741 Motion, to, ace, 428, 430; from, abl., 441,442; vbs. of, w. supine, 882. 1 Multiplication by distribu tives, 1 7 3 . b multum, compar., 274 multus, compar., 158 mils, decl., 106. d Musical accent in verse, 978 Mutes, 8. a ; stems in, decl. Ill, 92 ff. muto, constr. after, 472 mythos, decl., 89 n, sound before c, q, or g, 16; dropped when final letter of stem, 98. a, b ; inserted in vb. root, 22I._g-, 2 nais, decl., 1 1 2 Digitized by Microsoft® INDEX 391 -nam, enclitic w. interrogs., 197. d, 626 nam, namque, use, 61 7 Names, of months, gender and decl., 67.0, 146. a, 1009; of men, 134; of women, 135 ; of slaves, 136 Naming, vbs. of, w. two aces., 417 Nasals, 8. b ; stems in, 98, 99 ; inserted in vb. root, 221. g, 2 natu, defect., \2\.e\ w. maior or minor, 478 natus, w. ace. or abl. in expressing age, 422. a; w. abl. of origin, 451 navis, decl., 102. c -nd and -nt, vowel s,hort before, 34-*. 955- * -ne, enclitic, in questions, 623. a; w. force of nonne, id. N. ; omitted, 624 ; in alternative questions, 627; in ind. ques- tions, 8 1 4. b ; w. inf. in excla- mations, 843 ne, neg., 594; w. hortatory subjv., 672 ; w. jussive subjv,, 673 ; w. prohibitions, 675, 676. b; w. concessive subjv., 677 ; w. opta- tive subjv., 680; w.imv.,689;in purpose clauses, 713 ff . ; after vbs. of fearing, 720. II ; after vbs. of hindering, etc., id. Ill ne, surely, 593 ne . . . quidem, 592. a ; after non, 595. a ; after non modo, id. N. Nearness, adjs. of, w. dat., 397. a necesse, indecl., 152 necesse est ut, w. subjv., 722 Necessity, vbs. of, in conclusion of conditions contrary to fact, 797- « necne, in alternative questions, 627. a, 817 nefas, indecl., 1 28. a ; w. supine, 882. II Negative, position of, 929 Negative adverbs, 594-596; non, 594 ; nullus for non, id. N. ; two negatives cancel, 595 ; negative after words of general negation, . id. a ; non modo . . . sed ne . . . quidem, id. Ni ; and not, 596 Negative answers, 629. b nego, for dico non, 596 nemo, decl., p. 46 ; nemo and nullus, 574 ; nemo or nullus est qui w. subjv., 727 nequam, indecl., 152; compar., 158 neque (nee) . . . neque (nee), 604 ; after a neg., 595. a ; neque, and not, 596, 603 nequeo, conj., 260 nescio an, w. subjv., 818 nescio quis, nescio quo modo, as indefinites, 575, 820 -neus, adj. suffix, 285. c neuter, decl., 143 Neuter ace. as adv., 271. a, 273 Neuter gender, general rule, 68 ; cases alike in, 76. b Neuter pron. as ace. of kindred meaning, 410 n§ve or neu, for et ne, 603, 713. c nex, decl., p. 46 ni, nisi, use, 775 nihil, indecl., 1 28. a nihili, gen. of value, 341. N. nimis, as noun, 586 Nine irregular adjs., 143 Digitized by, Microsoft® 392 INDEX nisi and si non, use, 775 ; nisi si or ni, id. a ; nisi vero or nisi forte introducing an ironical objection, 776 nix, decl., 109 No, in answers, how expressed, 629. b -no, class of vbs. in, 221. c noceo, w. dat., 376 noli, in prohibitions, 676; in ind. disc, 887. III. a nolo, conj., 255 ; w. inf. or subjv., 720. I. b ; w. inf., 839. b Nomen, denoting the gens, 134. b nomen est, w. pred. nom. or dat.> 390. a Nominative case, defined, 74 Forms ; neuter nom. and ace. alike, 76. b; nom. sing, of decl. 1,78; decl. II, 83; decl. Ill, 92, 96, 98, 102, 103, 106; decl. IV, 118; decl. V, 122 Syntax: subject, 316 In exclamations, 319 Subject of historical infinitive, 320, 844 Instead of vocative, 322 non, use, 594 ; nullus for non, id. N. ; non followed by nee . . . nee, etc., 595. a ■ and not, 596, 603 ; in answers, 629, b ; w. delibera- tive subjv., 678 ; w. potential subjv., 684 non dubito, quis dubitat, etc., w. quln and subjv., 720. IV non modo . . . sed ne . . . quidem, 595- N. non nulli, non nihil, non nemo, 595 non quia (quod, quo, quln), w. suhjv., 770 Non-committal conditions, present, 785 ; past, 792 ; in ind. disc, 900. 1 Nones (nonae), 10 10 nonne, in questions, 623. b; omitted, 624 nos, decl., 180 ; nos and noster used for ego and meus, 5 1 1 . a nostri, as objective gen., 514; w. gerundive in -i, 876 nostrum, as partitive gen., 514 ; Noun and adjective forms of vb., 205.0; formation, 236-240 Nouns, defined and classified, 72 ; gender of indecl. nouns, 68 ; decl. of nouns, 73-1 33 ; de- rivatives, 282-284 i syntax, 305 ff. ; used as adjs., 506. b novi or cognovi, in pres. sense, 660 novus, compar., 160. b nox, decl., 107 ns, nf, nx, net, quantity of vowel preceding, 34. a, 953. a nubes, decl., 107 nulla causa est cur(qua re, quin), w. subjv., 725 nullus, decl., 143. a; use, 574; for nemo, id. b num, in questions, 623. c ; omitted, 624 ; in ind. questions, 814. b Number, 71 ; nouns used only in sing., 1 26 ; nouns used only in plur., 127; number in vbs., 208 ; agreement of appositives in" number, 312. a ; of adjs., 497-s 502 ; of rel. prons., 552; of vbs.; 631-634, 635 Numeral adjectives, position, 914.12 Numeral adverbs, 175 Digitized by Microsoft® INDEX 393 Numerals, 163-176; cardinals, or- dinals, and distributives, 164; decl. of, 1 66, 1 67 ; use of cardi : nals and ordinals, 1 68-1 72 ; use of distributives, 1 73 ; fractions, 174; numeral advs., 175; Roman numeral system, 1 76 nunc, compared w. iam, 590 -nus, adj. suffix, 285. c, d nusquam, as noun, 586 0, for u in early Latin, 1 2'.