ALGERT R. IV! ANN LIBRARY AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY. Cornell University Library S 633.M61 Agricultural treatises /[ ed " 1 e B J* | |]S l \ || RJJ b 3 1924 001 363 344 Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924001363344 Agricultural Treatises PUBLISHED BY WILLIAM S. MYERS, D.Sc, F.C.S., Director Chilean Nitrate Committee Late Professor of Chemistry in New Jersey State Agricultural College 25 MADISON AVENUE, NEW YORK LIST OF TREATISES IN THIS VOLUME The Fertilization of Apple Orchards. The Business Apple Orchard. Nitrate of Soda a Blessing to the Arts and to Agriculture. Chilean Nitrate as Fertilizer. The Cultivation of Citrus Fruits. Fertilizers for Cocoa. Coffee Planting. Fertilizers for Corn and Cereals. The Cost of Available Nitrogen. The Cultivation of Cotton. Fertilizers in Forestry. Grass Growing for Profit. Hay and Forage Crops. The Home Mixing of Fertilizers. The Home Mixing of Fertilizers in California and in other Irrigated Regions. Market Gardening with Nitrate. The Cultivation of the Olive. Onion Culture. The Cultivation of Peaches. The Cultivation of Rubber. Nitrate of Soda for Sugar Beets. The Cultivation of Sugar Cane. The Cultivation of Tobacco. A Review of our Present Knowledge of Sodium Nitrate. The Nitrate Industry. How to Fertilize with Nitrate of Soda. What Chilean Nitrate has done in California. What Nitrate has done in the Farmers' Own Hands. The Home Mixing of Cattle Feeds. Farm and Household Therapy with Iodine. THE FERTILIZATION OF APPLE ORCHARDS By JOHN P. STEWART Experimental Pomologlst, Pennsylvania State Experiment Station Report on Spraying of Tree Tops with Nitrate of Soda Solutions By W. S. Ballard and W. H. Volk PUBLISHED BY WILLIAM S. MYERS, D.Sc, F.C.S., Director Chilean Nitrate of Soda Propaganda Lale of New Jersey State Agricultural College 25 Madison Avenue, New York The Fertilization of Apple Orchards By John P. Stewakt, Experimental Pomologist, Pennsylvania State Experiment Station With orchard fruits, as with many other crops, the first approach to their rational fertilization was made by way of the chemical laboratory. By this means the various parts of the plant were analyzed, their approx- imate chemical content determined, and from this an estimate was made of the total annual amounts of plant food that were likely to be needed under average con- ditions. As the number of analyses increased, however, marked variations were observed in the results reported. These variations were naturally due in part to differ- ences in methods of the particular analysts involved, but it was also found that they were .frequently and largely due to differences in the stage of growth or maturity of the part when the samples were taken. Losses of mineral constituents due to the action of rain and dew as the plant parts approached or passed their maturity were also found important. Without regard to their causes, however, the evident existence of such variations made it impossible to rely on any single set of analyses for an accurate statement of the average composition of the apple plant. In addition, comparatively little reli- ance could be placed on the related estimate of its annual requirements. To improve this situation, some time ago the writer collected all the definite reports of apple analyses then available in both America and Europe, reduced them to a common basis, eliminated those evidently abnormal and found the average of the remainder. The results are shown in Table I. The present averages, derived as they are from more than 200 different sets of analyses made by the leading chemists of two continents, should be a very close t ^ z e at ?"" approximation to the real average composition of the of Apple apple plant. At the same time they should furnish a 0rchards suitable basis for deriving its approximate annual re- e quirements. To obtain the latter the only additional item needed is an approximation of the annual weights of wood, leaves and fruit that are regularly produced by an acre of mature and vigorous trees. These weights we have estimated at 100 pounds each for the new wood and leaves, and at about 700 pounds or fourteen bushels of fruit for each mature tree. All of them are less than the weights actually observed over a period of years, but they are considered sufficient, since this amount of fruit, e. g., would give an annual pro- duction of 490 bushels per acre of 35 trees. Applying the composition figures given in Table I to the present estimates, we find that the total plant-food requirements of an acre of mature apple trees are as shown in Table II. The annual requirements of a 25-bushel crop of wheat have also been added for comparison. Table II is of interest both in the exhibit of total plant food used and also in its distribution. It should serve to dispel some common erroneous impressions. An excess of iron, e. g., has long been regarded as of special importance in apple production. From the table, however, it appears that the total amount of iron taken up is less than three pounds per acre, and there is probably no agricultural soil that could not fur- nish much more than this amount in any single season. It is also commonly supposed that wheat requires much more plant food than apples. The present totals, how- ever, show that the annual draft of the latter is dis- tinctly greater in every element except one, and in it the difference is only slight. It is true that apple trees can generally get along on their own resources much better and longer than wheat. But this is doubtless largely due to a number of causes, chief among which are their much longer season of root activity; the more natural mineral demand, especially of the fruit as com- pared with that of the grain; the annual return of most of the plant food in their leaves, and their ability to reduce or entirely eliminate production for one or more seasons when conditions are unfavorable. It is very The Fer- evident, however, that the total requirements of an active J^ApJus orchard are quite important. Orchards Scarcely any soil can meet this demand indefinitely, 7 and unless some proper assistance is given reduced pro- duction and off seasons are practically inevitable. Other matters worthy of note are the relatively low plant-food requirements of the wood. Its lime content is rather high, but this is probably largely deposited mechanically by the transpiration stream, and hence is of little physiological importance, — an opinion which is borne out in our field experiments. This relatively low mineral draft of the wood indicates the comparative inefficiency of plant-food additions to trees in the early stages of their growth, and this also is largely borne out by our experiments. When it comes to the details of fertilization, however, the present data of chemical origin are of less value, and they may be actually misleading. 'This has been the case especially with the potash. The relatively large amount of this element found in the fruit, for example, has given rise to the common opinion that it is especially needed wherever the fruiting is deficient. As a matter of fact, however, the potash supply has usually proved sufficient in the average orchard soil, and it is generally the other elements, — especially nitrogen and phosphorus, — that have proved to be needed, although they are actually required in considerably smaller amounts. From these facts it is evident that there is comparatively little relation between response and total requirements in the case of plant food, and that something more than a knowledge of the chemical composition of the fruit and wood is needed before one can properly fertilize an orchard. Even with the addi- tional knowledge of the composition of the soil, the prob- lem is not much simplified because it is impossible as yet to duplicate sufficiently the conditions existing in any soil. A chemist may determine the total amounts of plant food present, but he cannot yet determine their actual tiiizatL 61 " ava il a kility to the trees with sufficient accuracy to be of of Apple much value. Orchards rp^g practical and proper fertilization of an orchard, 8 therefore, evidently becomes an experimental problem. The first stage of this problem involves general experi- ments for the purpose of developing the most promising application for general use, where fertilizers seem to be needed. This general formula can then be adjusted to the exact needs of the particular orchard involved by means of a local testing plan. Experiments of this general char- acter have been in operation under the writer's direction at the Pennsylvania Experiment Station since 1907. Altogether these experiments involve ten soil types, twelve different locations, over 2,600 trees of practically all ages up to forty-two years, and more than 42,000 bushels of fruit in the last six years. Their general plan may be seen in the tables given herewith. The materials indicated in the various plats have all been applied annually. The rates of application were 50 pounds per aere of actual nitrogen, 100 pounds of phos- phoric acid and 150 pounds of potash. The manure is applied at the rate of 12 tons to the acre and the lime at the rate of 1,000 pounds per acre. About half the nitrogen has been carried in nitrate of soda and the other half in dried blood. The phos- phorus has been carried chiefly in acid phosphate, with "floats," and recently basic slag, used in certain plats for comparison. The potash has been carried chiefly in the muriate, with high-grade sulphate, and recently the low-grade sulphate or " double manure salts," used for comparison in certain treatments. In a number of cases such as the Johnston and Brown experiments, referred to below, the fertilizers were not cultivated into the soil, but were simply spread broadcast over the sur- face and left to be carried down by the rains. In other cases, such as the Tyson experiment, they have been regularly cultivated into the soil, and in still other experiments bearing more particularly on the in- fluence of cultural methods, we have made direct com- parisons of these two methods of fertilizer application. TABLE I— THE COMPOSITION OF APPLE WOOD, LEAVES AND FRUIT Averaged from 87 German and 130 American analyses and reduced to the dry-substance basis. Phos. Plant Dry Nitrogen acid Potash Lime Magnesia Iron part substance (N) (P 2 O b ) (K 2 0) (CaO) (MgO) (Fe 2 O s ) Average of American and Pet. Pet. Pet. Pet. Pet. Pet. Pet. German averages Wood 52.25 .627 .2023 .3672 1.636 .23972 .03222 Values suitable for use in computations Wood 52 .62 .20 .36 1.6 .24 .03 Average American and German averages Leaves 34.45 2.149 .4451 1.3484 2.476 .754= .12-17? Values suitable for use in computations Leaves 34 2.15 .44 1.34 2.48 .75 .125 Average of American and German averages Fruit 15.39 .4258 .1693 1.1075 .0843 .08692 .0192 Values suitable for use in computations Fruit 15.4 .43 .17 1.10 .08 .09 .02 2 Based on American analyses only. TABLE II— THE RELATIVE PLANT-FOOD DRAFT OF APPLES AND WHEAT In pounds per acre annually, based on the composition indicated in Table I. Wood Leaves Fruit Apple Wheat Wheat (Total) Grain (Total) lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. Estimated annual weights 3,500 3,500 24,500 31,500 1,500 4,200 Nitrogen (N) 11.3 25.6 16.2 53.1 30.0 43.7 Phosphoric acid (P 2 O s ) .' 3.6 5.3 6.4 ' 15.3 10.0 15.8 • Potash (KjO)' 6.6 15.9 41.5 64.0 9.8 26.8 Lime (CaO) 29.1 29.5 3.0 61.6 0.84 8.0 Magnesia (MgO) 4.4 8.9 3.4 16.7 3.0 6.1 Iron (Fe 2 0s) 0.5 1.5 0.8 2.8 TABLE III— INFLUENCE OF FERTILIZATION ON YIELD (JOHNSTON ORCHARD) Yields in pounds per plat. and in bushels per acre, 1908-1913. Tot'ls Av.annu'I Annual last yield gain over Plat Treatment 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 5 yrs. pr. acre av. check* lbs. lbs*. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. bu. bu.pr.acre 1. Check (unfertilized) 90 675 2575 283 1024 1210 5767 138.4 2. Nitrogen and phosphorus... 528 6018 3265 7563 1225 3563 21634 519.2 348.7 3. Nitrogen and potash 237 5257 1822 7816 696 3489 19080 457.9 287.4 4. Check 446 1932 3168 617 1382 1777 8876 213.0 5. Phosphorus and potash 57 3089 3552 1227 1385. 1207 10460 251.0 80.5 6. Nitrogen, phosphorus and potash 759 6621 2108 8209 189 2320 19447 466.8 296.3 7. Check .'. 211 2008 1629 1362 1226 1635 7860 188:6 8. Manure 278 3531 6149 4874 6698 1314 22566 541.3 370.8 9. Lime (and fertilizer, 1912) . . 558 1216 3185 388 741 2174 7704 184.8 14,3 10. Check 106 1266 3505 106 474 578 5929 142.3 * The average check has yielded 170.5 bushels per acre annually. TABLE IV— INFLUENCE OF FERTILIZERS ON YIELD (BROWN ORCHARD) Yields in pounds per plat, 1908-1913. Benefit Annual over gain over Plat Treatment 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 Totals norm'l av.check* lbs, lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. Pet. bu. pr. acre 1. Check (unfertilized) 2402 25 4052 1588 453 3155 11675 2. Nitrogen and phosphorus. .4153 588 5920 2219 7281 1170 21331 136.2 289.3 3. Nitrogen and potash 3079 78 3838 1567 5402 963 14927 133.6 198.9 4. Check 754 9 470 1260 309 942 3744 5. Phosphorus and muriate. . .1014 252 2381 1643 616 1501 7407 62.4 70.4 6. Phosphorus and sulphate... 292 266 1368 1299 356 1509 5090 -5.3 6.4 7. Check 254 192 1115 1568 1117 1949 6195 . 8. Nitrogen, phosphorus and potash 1219 454 2436 3241 4931 1369 13650 122.5 206.1 9. Nitrogen , 863 1575 120 3082 1614 2721 9975 64.3 120.3 10. Check 458 515 787 1448 222 2583 6013 11. Acid phosphate 104 892 787 794 64 2910 5551 5.2 17.1 12. Raw phosphate 100 124 581 703 123 3184 5815 2.1 23.3 13. Check 266 257 2096 498 727 1692 5536 14. Manure 621 1947 778 7334 1117 2422 14219 212.2 219.4 15. Lime (and fertilizer, 1912) . . 152 160 1029 1060 288 2643 5332 49.3 12.0 16. Check 246 36 943 387 166 813 2591 * In plats 2 and 3, the average gains over the "normal production" are given on account of the unusual conditions near plat 1. Their annual yields were 497.7 and 348.3 bushels per acre respectively. The average check, omitting No. 1, has yielded 4,816 pounds per plot, or 112.4 bushels per acre annually. The Fer- tilization of Apple Orchards All the fertilizers have been added somewhat after the petals had fallen, but the manure has been applied at any time during the spring. These applications were naturally designed at the beginning of the experiments on the best evidence then available. The amounts and Orchards unLuon proportions of the different ingredients that we now of Apple advise for general use are indicated later. Beginning with the very young trees — those specially planted for the purpose — and without entering into the exact figures, we may say that in general the conserva- tion of moisture has been more important during the first five or six years of growth than any kind of plant- food applications. This is rather natural in view of the relatively low mineral content of wood, and also in view of the fact that moisture and carbon dioxide play such an important part in its formation. Such benefits as have been secured, however, have come almost entirely from the nitrogen and phosphorus applied. With increase in the age of the trees, however, and especially with the advent of fruit production or the ' ' cropping strain ' ' in addition to the other demands upon the soil, the influence of plant-food applications has generally increased. This may be seen especially in the results secured in our experiment 338, located in the Johnston orchard in Lawrence County, north of Pittsburg. This experiment is on Baldwin trees now 25 years of age and located on a Volusia slit loam. On first inspection these trees did not seem to be suffering especially from any cause, but they had not been bearing satisfactorily and their annual twig growth was averag- ing scarcely an inch, with occasional maximum growths of five or six inches. These growth rates are still apparent on the checks, or unfertilized plats, but they have been practically trebled on the plats receiving proper fertilization. The influence of the different applications on yield may be seen in Table III. In this and the other tables which follow the yields of the first year are uniformly excluded in the final averages because they can never be mate- rially affected by the applications of the same season. The abnormally late frosts of 1913 injured the yields of that year very severely, and the injury was especially heavy on the effectively fertilized plat's. This was because it was the full year for them and their amount of bloom was fully 100 per cent, while that of the other plats scarcely averaged 30 per cent. Notwithstanding -INFLUENCE OF FERTILIZATION ON YIELD AND GROWTH IN EXPERIMENT 215 (TYSON ORCHARD) Gain Growth, (Yield in pounds per plat, 1908-1913) Benefit overav. gainover over check* normal Plat Treatment 1908 1909 1910 1911 lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 1. Check (unfertilized) 14 95 346 2053 2. Nitrogen and phosphate 26 73 301 2277 3. Nitrogen and potash 43 115 418 3043 4. Check 21 54 260 1555 5. Phosphate and muriate 26 146 476 2828 6. Phosphate and sulphate 61 179 483 2352 7. Check 18 45 235 1777 8. Complete fertilizer 21 74 300 2885 9. Nitrogen 17 83 229 1746 10. Check 17 89 150 1579 11. Acid phosphate • 3 43 153 1359 12. Raw phosphate 4 62 164 2010 13. Check 31 46 103 1886 14. Manure 15 52 190 2333 15. Lime (and fertilizer) 27 86 186 1765 16. Check 10 76 115 1912 lbs. 549 464 542 719 495 975 862 190 551 504 655 842 615 262 1113 739 1913 lbs. 3990 4645 5264 3886 5178 4110 2740 5132 4159 3547 3891 3825 4511 5363 3620 3947 Total normal 4 years 6 years The Fer- tilization of Apple Orchards lbs. 6947 7786 9425 6495 9049 8160 5677 8602 6785 5886 6104 6907 7192 8215 6797 6809 % bu.perA. 14.6 41.8 45.4 37.1 49.7 17.8 —3.4 2.2 16.3 —2.0 34.5 59.0 36.0 50.2 6.5 —8.4 9.1 41.3 6.5 7.4 17.7 8.1 2.3 12.7 7.9 4.4 0.8 14.6 —1.6 1922 "The average check equals 6,501 pounds for six years and 6,415 pounds for last four years, or 154 bushels per acre for last four years TABLE VI— INFLUENCE OF FERTILIZER ELEMENTS ON APPLES Average benefits over the normal results without fertilization, 1908 to 1912 (a) Experiments 215, 216 and 220 p ™ d nt Pe C r ° c °/ nt pj'g,,, p*™* Nitrates in combination 62.7 -11.6 -0.7 10.43 Nitrates alone 32.5 -12.7 -4.3 15.51 Phosphates in combination 20.2 -2.1 0.3 2.28 Phosphates alone -10.7 2.7 -0.6 2.45 Potash in combination 15.1 3.2 5.8 3167 Complete fertilizer 78.3 -15.4 5.2 17.67 Manure 75.9 -11.4 5.8 29.07 Lime alone -8.24 -0.3 -2.0 6.31 (b) Experiments 336, 338 and 339 1908-12 1909-12 1909-12 1908-12 Nitrates in combination 74.5 -12.7 -0.4 27.00 Phosphates in combination 33.5 -2.8 4.9 -0.23 Potash in combination -3.6 1.4 7.1 2.79 Complete fertilizer 80.5 -15.6 5.2 29.63 Manure 168.8 -15.9 25.2 37.34 Lime alone 29.8 -5.4 15.9 15.48 TABLE Vn— A GENERAL FERTILIZER FOR APPLE ORCHARDS (Amounts per acre for bearing trees) * Phosphoric Acid Potash 50 lbs. (P 2 5 ) 25 to 50 lbs. (K 2 0) Carried in: Carried in: 350 lbs. Acid phosphate; 50 to 100 lbs. Muriate; or in or in 200 lbs. Bone meal; ' 100 to 200 lbs. low grade Nitrogen 30 lbs. (N) Carried in: 100 lbs. Nitrate and 150 lbs. Dried blood or in Two successive applica< tions of nitrate. Sulphate. or in 300 lbs. Basic slag. * For young orchards, reduce these amounts in proportion to area covered. this temporary loss, however, in the total results shown in the last two columns, we find some very marked responses to certain types of fertilization. The large increases invariably have followed the nitrogen. This is true regardless of whether it is applied in manure or commercial forms, and it is especially evident in a com- parison of plats 5 and 6. The mere addition of nitrogen to the fertilization of the latter plat has more than trebled the increase in yield, and the differences in foliage and growth have been fully as marked. The growth on the phosphate and potash plats in reality is running about 3 per cent under the normal, while its foliage is practically identical with that of a check. The Per- Q n a \i £h e plats receiving nitrogen, however, the fol- of Apple iage is very much greener and more abundant, and their Orchards ave rage growth is ranging from 25 to 90 per cent above 12 the normal. Phosphorus is next in importance here, as indicated by the much larger yield where it is com- bined with nitrogen. It is also shown by the deficit in plat 3 as compared with 6, when the phosphorus is omitted in the former. Potash, however, has been of no value in this orchard, as shown in plats 2 and 6. In fact its addition in the latter plat has actually resulted in a deficit, though this may be due to other causes. Lime also has been of no value, when applied alone, and it is only through the influence of the fertilizer, begun in 1912, that this plat is now able to show more than a deficit. The manure naturally is showing up well, because it is essentially a nitrogenous fertilizer plus a mulch. Its phosphorus also has apparently been of value in some cases, but its potash has not sho'wn much effect as yet, — not even in those cases where this element has proved to be needed. A single experiment, however, is not sufficient to de- cide the general fertilization of orchards. The result's of single experiments naturally may be typical and true responses to the particular influences in operation, but one can never be sure of this unless he has sufficient duplication in both experiments and results to actually prove it. For this reason we shall call attention to the results of a similar but larger experiment in another part of the state. Results From the Brown Orchard. — This experiment is located in Bedford County on DeKalb stony loam, — a residual, foothill soil, chiefly of sandstone origin, which is widely used for orchard purposes. This soil had been cropped rather heavily before the orchard was planted. The trees are York Imperial, now 25 years old. They had borne some good crops before the experiment was started, but they were no longer bearing well except on occasional trees, and their annual twig growth was very small, — averaging scarcely half an inch. This rate of growth also has been greatly increased by the proper fertilization. This experiment involves the same treat- The Fer- ments as those in the Johnston orchard and four others f Apple besides,— those in plats 6, 9, 11 and 12. It was started 0rchard8 in 1907, and the results of that season are excluded in J3 the present table for the reason stated above. The re- sults for the past six years are given in Table IV. In general, we again find the same types of results here as in the preceding experiment, viz., large gains from nitrogen, phosphorus and manure, with relatively small effects from potash, and again no advantage at all from lime, as it regularly showed a deficit until the fertilizer was started in 1912. Incidentally it may be noted that there are greater irregularities in this experi- ment, owing somewhat to its greater size, but chiefly due to the presence of a woods on the mountainside above the first check plat, from Which the latter is separated by a single row of trees. The leachings from the floor of the woods have acted much like a nitrogen fertilizer, and as a result the trees nearest the woods, although of the same age as those farther down, are considerably larger, thus accounting for the greater yields of the first two or three plats. This influence practically disap- pears, however, before the fourth plat is reached, as shown by its low yields, which are those of a typical check. The differences that appear in the last two col- umns are due partly to these irregularities, partly to a certain amount of leaching and cross-feeding in the case of some of the checks in spite of separating rows, below each treated plat, and partly to a different metfhod of calculation. In one column the benefit is figured on the basis of the normal production of the immediate plat concerned, which method is supposed to eliminate soil irregularities to the greatest possible extent. When the adjacent checks are being benefited by leachings or cross- feeding, however, this method fails to show the full benefit due to the treatment. The average check itself is not entirely free from the cross-feeding influences, since it only distributes their extra yields, and hence it is probable that some of the benefits indicated in the last column are still lower than they should be. In the results themselves, nitrogen is evidently the The Fer- £ rs t Hmiter, as its application alone in plat 9 lias re- of Apple suited m an annual increase of 120 bushels per acre, Orchards ^^ } s much the best increase received from any single J 4 element. Where phosphorus is added to it, however, as in plat 2, this gain is more than doubled, — a result partly due to the greater size of the trees there, but doubtless largely due to the probable fact that the need of phosphorus is next in importance after that of nitrogen. The addition of phosphorus alone, however, has proved of no avail, either in the acid phosphate or " floats " of plats 11 and 12, and the slight gains now shown there are due to the ' ' completion ' ' of their fer- tilization in 1912 by the addition of nitrogen and potash. Potash itself is again of little or no avail, as indicated by a comparison of results in plats 2 and 8, though the actual deficit in the latter is very largely due to differ- ences in the size of the trees, — a difficulty which is partly overcome in the next to the last column. As a carrier of potash the muriate has given the better results so far, and this is also true in all our similar comparisons. This fact, together with its lower cost and lesser tendency to " cake " in the mixtures, has therefore given it the pref- erence over the sulphate for orchard fertilization at least. Contrary to a common impression, the time required for results to appear has been surprisingly short in both these experiments. Both the value of fertilization and the elements especially needed were quite evident by the close of the second season, and the general conclusions formed then have not been materially changed since. . In younger or non-bearing orchards, or in those having some limiter other than plant food, this result naturally would not have come so promptly. Another fairly com- mon impression is that the influence of fertilizers is transient and that, even where favorable at first, their effect soon wears out and may leave the soil worse than before. This impression evidently finds no support in the results here, where definite plant foods are being supplied. On the contrary, it is a notable fact that in the Brown orchard in 1912, the sixth year of the experi- ment, the effects of fertilization were greater than ever The Fer " before, and similar results are observable in our other f Apple experiments. Orchards Results in the Tyson Orchard. — In the experiments 7~ 5 above we have noted large annual gains resulting from certain fertilization, particularly that rich in nitrogen and phosphorus. In these cases also the gains from potash were relatively small or entirely absent, and from our other experiments this seems to be the more common condition in the average orchard. In another experi- ment in Adams County, however, we have practically the reverse conditions so far as the yields are concerned. The trees in the latter experiment are much younger, being now but fifteen years of age. The soil is a rela- tively heavy silt loam, and tillage and annual cover crops Nitrogen and Phosphates vs. Nothing, in Brown Orchard. The fer- tilized trees, to the left, have averaged 498 bushels per acre annually for six years. Their normal unfertilized yield for the same period was 208 bushels. have been maintained near the trees practically uni- formly since the orchard was started. The annual growth and general appearance of all the trees in this The Fer- tilization of Apple Orchards 16 experiment are considerably better than those of the average check trees in the preceding experiments. Prac- tically no fruit had been borne by these trees when our experiment was started in 1907, and there have been but two fairly full crops since then, — those of 1911 and 1913. The treatments are the same as those in the Brown experiment and the results are shown in Table V. Effect of the general fertilizer recommended in Table VII. Tompkins, Kings and other varieties, showing the value of our general orchard fertilizer in other parts of the Johnston Orchards. These trees had not borne well before fertilization, but this is their third successive crop. The relative } r outh of these trees makes both their yields and differences much less than those in the pre- ceding experiments. With increasing age, it is probable that some of the results may be different, especially in view of the relative growth that is now being made under the different treatments. At present, however, certain facts are of interest. In the first place, the comparative failure here of both manure and nitrogen is quite re- markable. The regular animal application of twelve tons of stable manure, in this case, has resulted in an The Fer- annual gain of only about forty bushels of apples per f Apple acre. During the same time nitrogen alone has shown 0rchards almost no gain, and nitrogen and phosphates, which were I? so effective in the preceding experiments, here show an annual gain of only 34.5 bushels per acre, — but little more than enough to pay for the 'treatment. Potash, on the other hand, in direct contrast to its effect in the experiments above, here shows a distinct gain in yield wherever it is applied. The best of these gains, — the one in combination with nitrogen, — is only 68.4 bushels per acre annually, but this is more than a 40 per cent increase over the normal yield for the plat, and it shows a fair profit over the cost of treatment, besides giving over 17 per cent of an increase in growth. Potash appli- cations, therefore, have evidently been of value in this orchard, even when those of manure and of nitrogen and phosphates were largely failing. The Action 'of Manure vs. That of Commercial Fer- tilizers.- — The above facts, taken in connection with those shown in the two earlier experiments, indicate that the plant-food action of manure is practically identical with that of a commercial fertilizer rich in nitrogen and phos- ' phates. It also apparently indicates that the potash in the manure may be less readily available than that car- ried in commercial forms. The old controversy over the relative value of manure and commercial fertilizers, therefore, is without any particular significance so far as plant food is concerned. Either type of fertilizer may be successful or either may be a failure, depending upon the particular conditions involved. The manure, however, often has some additional value as a mulch. This naturally cannot be duplicated by commercial fer- tilizers alone, though it may be duplicated by any other kind of mulch, as has been shown especially in our experi- ment in the Mynard orchard in Bradford County, and also in most of our cultural-method experiments. The ma'tter of availability also is often important, as manure cannot always be secured, and it is for this reason that the relation between manure and nitrogenous fertilizers should be well understood. Moreover, large and regular The Fer- applications of manure sometimes result in a distinct of Apple increase in the amount of blight, besides unduly increas- Orchards j ng fiyQ s [ ze f the fruit and the amount of punky pitting 18 in its flesh. In such cases a reduction in the applications or a partial or complete substitution of a proper com- mercial fertilizer is advisable. It is evidently impossible in the present space to con- sider all our experiments singly or in detail. It is desir- able, however, to present a brief summary of the fer- tilizer influences shown in six of the experiments, includ- ing the three just considered. This summary shows the average influences of the various fertilizer elements, as nearly as they can be calculated, on the four most im- portant characteristics of apples, viz., their yield, color, average size and amount of wood growth. The relative values of the different elements during a five-year period, in terms of benefit over the normal results that would have been obtained without fertilization, are shown in Table VI. Without going into details, it may be noted that the yields have been very materially bene- fited by certain fertilization. In general also the same influences that have materially increased the yields have similarly increased the growth. In other words, our best growing plats have as a rule been our best fruiting plats. On sound, healthy trees this will generally be the case unless either occurs to an abnormal extent, in which case the other may be somewhat reduced. Mild injuries may also stimulate yields at the expense of growth, and thus obscure the general rule. In Table VI the most marked exception to the present rule appears in the case of phosphates, especially in the lower section of the table. This may be connected with the fact that old wood especially is very low in phosphoric acid, as shown in Tables I and II, and our present definite growth determinations are based upon increase in trunk girth alone. On twig growth, however, our observations indicate that phosphate additions have been very help- ful, particularly in the Brown orchard, a fact which tends to bring it in line with the general rule just stated. The Control of Average Size.— So far as fertilization is concerned, manure and potash are the only materials that have consistently benefited size. This influence of T . he ,. Fer ~ , , . tiuzation manure is doubtless very largely due to its mulcning- f Apple effect, since moisture makes up about 84.(3 per cent of Orchards the fruit on the average. The potash influence also, so Ig far as it is a definite benefit, is probably exercised through A typical fertilized tree o£ plot 8 in the Brown Orchard. "When photographed, in 1912, this tree carried 20. 6 bushels of fruit, while the best unfertilized tree in the experiment yielded only 7.9 bushels. The Fer- the same medium, inasmuch as potash is credited with o? Z App?e some ability to increase the osmotic power of the cells Orchards an a thus enable them to compete more successfully for 20 whatever water is present. There is also a distinct pos- sibility that the apparent benefit of potash on size may be largely due to the fact that it is associated with much lower yields than the other materials, especially nitro- gen. Conversely, the failures of the latter to increase size may likewise be due to association with markedly increased yields. We believe, however, that with a normal moisture sup- ply and sufficient growing season, the dominant influ- ence controlling size in apples is the number of fruits on the trees after this number has passed a certain "critical point." This point, however, is relatively high, our data showing that even on trees up to fifteen years of age little or no correlation appeared until the number of fruits had reached 1,400 or more per tree. Above this point, proper thinning is the most impor- tant means of increasing the size of the fruit. Below it, the size can usually be markedly affected by moisture supply, cultural methods, manure and possibly by fer- tilizers, especially those rich in potash. The latter factors may also co-operate in such a way as to mate- rially raise the critical point. In general, however, proper thinning and moisture conservation are the most important means of improving fruit size. The Control of Fruit Color.— In Table V it will be observed that none of the fertilizer treatments have re- sulted in any marked improvement in color. Slight and irregular benefits are shown by potash and by some of the phosphate applications, but nothing of any impor- tance. The same is true of iron applications so far as experimental evidence is concerned. These facts naturally lead up to the general, propo- sition that color in apples cannot be materially increased by fertilizer applications, and that their red colors are essentially dependent upon maturity and sunlight. Con- ditions that tend to increase one or both of the latter factors, such as late picking, .open pruning, light soils and sod culture tend to increase the red color. Opposite conditions decrease it. These propositions make it clear why the nitrates ^he Fer- and manure indirectly retard color development. It is f Apple simply done by retarding maturity and diminishing the 0rchards available sunlight, as a result of the increased density 21 of foliage. This was verified in 1911 by leaving the fruit on the nitrate plats in the Johnston orchard until it had reached approximately the same degree of maturity as that attained by the checks when their fruit had to be picked on account of dropping. The delay required was fully three weeks, — from September 29th to October 19th, and even then the nitrate fruit was picked with much more difficulty than that on the checks, besides showing a much lower percentage of fruits dropped. But the amount of color on the nitrate plats' at the later date was actually greater by 10 per cent than that shown on the checks at the time of picking. The occa- sional marked increase that sometimes occurs in color as a result of spraying is largely explainable on similar grounds. The sprays reduce the worminess and thus enable the fruit to remain longer on the tree. It also may reduce the amount of foliage somewhat as a result of spray injury, thus permitting more light to reach the fruit. In general, however, in improving color, chief reliance must be placed on those methods that tend definitely to secure fuller maturity on the trees and to get the maximum amounts of light to the fruit. Assuming that the above experimental results are fairly general in their application, — and lecent data from other states apparently bear this out, — it is evi- dent that more nitrogen and less potash than is com- monly recommended should be used on the average orchard in need of fertilization. It is also evident that no advice can be given that will fit all cases. To meet the immediate needs of those desiring information, how- ever, we suggest the following fertilizer for general use, until the requirements of the particular orchards in- volved can be determined more fully by the plan indi- cated below. The ingredients of this general fertilizer are stated in amounts per acre rather than in amounts per tree, taxation because of the varying number of trees that are planted of Apple on an acre. The amounts 1 per tree are readily obtain- Orchards a ^le } however, by dividing the present weights by the 22 given number of trees per acre. For young trees, these amounts may be reduced approximately in proportion to the reduction in area of soil covered, making this area correspond with the lateral distribution of the roots so far as possible. Table VII means that a fertilizer carrying about 30 pounds of actual nitrogen, 50 pounds of actual phos- phoric acid (P 2 5 ) and 25 to 50 pounds of actual potash (K 2 0) should be applied to an acre of bearing trees. Unless potash is known to be lacking, the smaller amount should be used, or after a little testing it may even be omitted entirely. With the smaller amount of potash, the essentials of the present combination are car- ried in 500 pounds of a fertilizer containing 6 per cent of nitrogen, 10 per cent of phosphoric acid and 5 per cent of potash or its equivalent. In the usual ready-mixed fertilizers, the nitrogen is likely to be carried in am- monium sulphate, or less available forms, with which some liming may be necessary if many applications are made, and especially if leguminous cover crops or per- manent covers are desired. In special or in home-made mixtures, the various ele- ments may be carried in any of the materials indicated in the table. In the experiments referred to above, the nitrogen is carried in the combination of nitrate of soda and dried blood indicated in the table. This combina- tion carries about equal amounts of nitrogen in each material, and it thus gives a quick action as well as one that is prolonged well through the season. Similar effects could doubtless be secured by a second applica- tion of nitrate later in the season. The nitrogen may also be secured, wholly or in part, by the use of stable manure or leguminous plants where they are available. The latter plants, however, have proved rather disap- pointing in their net effect on the trees in nearly all our experiments that bear directly upon their value. In the case of the other carriers indicated in the table, we have very little evidence on their relative values as yet, and hence those that are actually least expensive or most S® ^*" convenient should be chosen. All applications should f Apple be made annually, subject to the variations indicated ° rchards below. 23 Time and Method of Application. — The time of appli- cation is of distinct importance, especially in the case of nitrates. The evidence on this is by no means com- plete, yet there are some indications that nitrates can easily be applied too early in the season and thus be wholly lost to the tree. Other evidence leads to the opinion that distinct harm may result from their applica- tion about fruit-setting time, — especially in the case of the peach. We feel, therefore, that the nitrates should be applied not earlier than petal fall in apples, and probably not later than the middle of July. In general, about the middle of this period should be satisfactory. The minerals can be applied at any time without danger of material loss, hence we apply them along with nitrogen. The manure may well be applied some time during the spring, and eight tons per acre annually make an ample application. One advantage of the delayed application of the commercial materials is that it gives an opportunity to vary the rate somewhat in accord with the size of the crop set on the trees. When the crop is light smaller applications are required, because of the natural tendency of the trees to develop a sufficient num- ber of fruit buds in the off season. In the full years, on the other hand, the applications should be rather liberal in order to prevent the total absence of a crop the fol- lowing year, and in the long run to steady the yields. In making the applications, we have simply scattered the fertilizer or manure broadcast over the surface of the ground, taking care not to get it too close to the trunk, where there are few absorbent roots, and extending the applications well out beyond the spread of the branches. To conform more closely with the distribution of feeding roots, the rate of application is made heaviest in the central part of this area, or in general it is applied most heavily under the outer two-thirds of the spread of the branches, This fertilization may either be left on the £« e 5 er " surface to be washed in by the rains or it may be har- of Z App?e rowed or lightly plowed into the soil. With this done, Orchards one should remember that the fertilizer applied in any 24 given season cannot materially affect the yield of that year, since the fruit buds are formed in the latter part of the preceding season. Important results, therefore, should not be expected before the following season, at the earliest, and they may not appear until considerably later and still prove of value. Adjusting the General Fertilizer to Local Needs. — The general fertilizer indicated above is for use only until the exact needs of the particular orchard can be determined. In other words, it is intended only to meet the immediate demands. If in the meantime one wishes to determine just how to fertilize his own orchard he can do so by following the plan outlined below. This plan is especially adapted to the needs of commercial orchard- ists and to ' ' community ' ' tests on the part of the smaller growers. Like other things of value, a test of this kind requires some work, but as yet it is the only way that one can become really acquainted with the needs of his orchard, and where the income from the latter is important the time thus spent should be most profitable. PLAN FOR LOCAL ORCHARD-FERTILIZER TEST. (Pounds of fertilizer for a mature tree in bearing.) 1. Unfertilized plat. 2. Nitrate, 2% lbs.; dried blood, 3% lbs.; acid phosphate, 10 lbs. 3. Nitrate, 2% lbs.; dried blood, 3% lbs.; potash, 2 lbs. 4. Acid phosphate, 10 lbs.; potash, 2 lbs. ' 5. Unfertilized plat. 6. Nitrate, 2% lbs.; dried blood, 3% lbs.; acid phosphate, 10 lbs.; pot- ash, 2 lbs. 7. Same as No. 6, plus lime, 12 to 25 lbs. 8. Manure, 400 lbs. 9. Unfertilized plat. The plats selected for this test should be located in a typical part of the orchard, and should include at least six average trees of the same variety and age for each formula. They should preferably be laid out in double rqws of three trees each, and if two or more varieties The Fer- are involved each plat should be arranged to include f Apple equal numbers of each variety. All trees should be 0rchards labeled and carefully measured at a fixed point on the 25 trunk, and definite records of their yields and growth should be kept for at least three years. As already indi- cated, a good idea of the needs of an orchard may often be obtained in less time, but this time at least should be allowed and more should be used if necessary. The materials for this experiment are indicated in quantities proper for each bearing tree instead of in amounts per acre, as above, and the same proportionate reductions should be made for younger trees. In other words, if only one-third of the ground is to be covered, then only one-third of the amount of fertilizers recom- mended should be used, so that the rate of application may be kept within proper bounds. The careful oper- ation of this test for the period suggested in any orchard should readily determine whether fertilization really pays and which of the principal fertilizer elements is most important. The Fer- tilization of Apple Orchards 26 Report on Spraying of Treetops With Nitrate of Soda Solutions. By Ballard and Vlock Journal of Agricultural Research, Vol. 1, No. 5. Recently several investigators have reported results in shortening the rest period of a number of woody plants by immersing the dormant shoots in weak nutrient solutions or by injecting solutions of alcohol, ether, and various acids into the twigs. 'These experi- ments have been conducted in the laboratory with short cuttings of the plants. The effect of such treatment has been to force the dormant buds out several days ahead of the normal opening period. During the last two years the writers have obtained similar and additional results on a much larger scale by spraying dormant fruit trees with strong solutions of certain commercial fertilizers, especially nitrate of soda. Since these experiments have been conducted on the entire trees in the orchard, it has been possible to ob- serve the effects throughout the whole season. The investigations have not yet been carried far enough to permit drawing any conclusions regarding the physio- logic action of such spraying, but because of its practical value these preliminary results seem deserving of atten- tion at this time. Experiments in 1912. In the course of the investigations of the writers on the control of apple powdery mildew in the Pajaro Valley, California, it became evident that the general vigor of the tree and the thriftiness of the foliage growth had much to do with the success of the summer spraying treatment for the control of the mildew, and after a number of experiments in applying plant food materials to the foliage in the form of summer sprays, and after seeing that certain crude-oil emulsions used as dormant sprays had a marked effect in stimulating^^®*" an increased vigor of the trees the following spring, it of Apple was decided to try the effect of a strong solution of 0rchards nitrate of soda as a winter or dormant spray. Caustic ^^ potash (potash lye) was also added for the purpose of giving the spray an insecticide value. The mixture was prepared according to the following formula: Nitrate of soda 50 pounds Caustic potash 7 pounds "Water 50 gallons The experiment was conducted in a Yellow Bellflower apple orchard owned by Mr. 0. D. Stoesser, of Watson- ville. This orchard is situated about five miles from the ocean shore and is in a district that is more subject to ocean fogs and trade winds than is the main portion of the Pajaro Valley. It is a common characteristic of the numerous orchards of Yellow Bellflower apples of this particular district that they bloom abundantly, but set only a partial crop. The trees are on a deep sediment- ary soil and grow well. Seven 12-year-old trees were sprayed on February 2, 1912. The application was very thoroughly made, so that all of the small twigs were drenched. About seven gallons of spray solution were applied to each tree. Adjoining this row on one side was a check row of seven trees which received no winter spraying, and on the other side were several rows of seven trees each which received various applications of crude-oil emulsions and soaps. For the purpose of gaining some idea of the effect of nitrate of soda used as a fertilizer, 50 pounds were applied as a surface dressing to one vigorous tree selected from the row adjoining the nitrate-sprayed row. This fertilizer was later plowed in and washed down by the rains. Effect on Blossoming and Foliage. Notes taken at the time the trees were coming out in the spring show the following results: April 7, 1912. Trees in the row sprayed with nitrate of soda and lye are well in bloom, while those in the The Fer- check row adjoining and in the remainder of the un- of Apple sprayed orchard are showing only an occasional flower 0rchards fully opened. 28 April 14, 1912. The relative advancement of the row sprayed with a solution of nitrate of soda and lye and the check plat is the same as noted on April 7. The nitrate-sprayed trees are nearly in full bloom, whereas comparatively few blossoms have opened on the check plat. When the check row had reached full bloom, the row sprayed with a solution of nitrate of soda and lye was practically out of bloom. 'Thus the nitrate spraying advanced the blossoming time about two weeks ahead of the normal period. It is characteristic of the Yellow Bellflower variety of apples in the Pajaro Valley that the foliage buds come out early, so that by the time the full bloom period is reached the trees are showing a considerable amount of young foliage. The nitrate spraying produced a change in this respect. While the flower buds were greatly stimulated in coming out, the foliage buds were not so much affected, and the result was that when the trees sprayed with a solution of nitrate of soda and lye were in full bloom and two weeks in advance of the check trees in that regard, their foliage condition was relatively nearer that of the check. This contrast was shown more in detail by a branch taken from a nitrate-sprayed tree, and another branch taken from a check tree. Both branches were collected on the same day. An examination of these two showed plainly that there was relatively little difference in the advancement of the foliage of the sprayed and unsprayed branches. Later in the spring, however, the effect on foliage growth became more pro- nounced, and the sprayed trees assumed a more vigor- ous, green appearance than the check trees. The single tree that received the 50 pounds of nitrate of soda ap- plied to the soil showed no greater vigor than the check trees. Both the row sprayed with nitrate of soda and the check row received summer sprayings directed toward the control of apple powdery mildew and of codling moth and various other insect pests. While the treat- The Fer- ment of the two rows was not the same, there was no f Apple essential difference in the results — that is, the crop loss Orchards from codling moth and other insect pests did not exceed 29 one per cent on either plat and there was no damage to the fruit from summer spraying. It is therefore evident that the difference which showed up in the crop produc- tion of the two rows must be attributed to the winter nitrate spraying. Crop Results. The check row of seven trees, which received no winter spraying but which was properly protected by summer sprayings, produced eight loose boxes of fruit at picking time. On the other hand the adjoining row sprayed in February with the solution of nitrate of soda plus lye, produced a total of a little over 40 boxes. Thus the winter nitrate spraying increased the crop produc- tion to fully five times that of the unsprayed row. Simi- lar adjacent plats which were winter sprayed with vari- ous crude oil emulsions and soap sprays produced crops varying from five to nine boxes per plat. The single tree which received the 50 pounds of nitrate of soda applied as a fertilizer gave no increased production, whereas none of the trees in the nitrate sprayed row failed to respond. Regarding the single heavily fertilized tree it might be stated that in addition to its showing no increase in production, the tree bloomed no earlier than normal, there was no improvement in the growth and no change in its general appearance throughout the growing season of 1912, and in the spring of 1913 it came out normally and not differently from the other trees in the same row, being one of the trees in a check plat. The tree is still in normal condition and shows no noticeable effect from the heavy fertilizing. The orchard is not irrigated, and the rainfall has been much less than normal during the last two years. Attention might again be called to the conditions under which these results were obtained — namely, thrifty-growing trees in a deep residual soil and having the characteristics of blooming abundantly each year but setting only a shy crop. Even the 40 boxes produced uiization ^ ^ e n itrate spraying does not represent the full crop of Apple that such trees should bear, but the fourfold increase Orchards milc j 1 mor , e than paid for the cost of spraying, and the 3° possibility remains of still further increasing that pro- duction by similar treatment in following years. Experiments in 1913. The one small experiment on seven trees in 1912 did not furnish sufficient grounds for drawing any general conclusions as to the applicability of winter nitrate spraying, but the striking results obtained opened a wide field of inquiry. For instance, potash lye was added to the solution of nitrate of soda in the experiment of 1912, so the questions arise as to whether the lye was neces- sary and whether an acid medium would increase or de- crease the effect of the nitrate of soda; also, would a weaker nitrate solution prove as effective and would other nitrogen-bearing fertilizer materials, such as lime nitrate, lime cyanamid, and sulphate of ammonia, give similar results? Following along this line it would be interesting to know what effect, if any, the other fer- tilizer elements, potash and phosphoric acid, might have when applied as sprays, and finally, what results might be obtained from a similar application of other sub- stances not ordinarily considered as having any par- ticular fertilizer value. Experiments intended to answer these and a number of other more or less important questions were started in February, 1913, in the same orchard in which the previous year's work was done. Eleven 13-year-old trees were used in each plat. A frost occurred at the time the fruit was 'setting which ruined the crop and made it impossible to obtain results in crop production. Data were obtained, however, on the effect of the various sprays on the blossoming of the trees in the spring, and the notes taken may be summarized as follows : The plats sprayed with nitrate of soda at the rate of one pound to the gallon came into bloom earlier than the check trees, just as they had done in 1912. This effect was more marked in the cases in which lye was added to the nitrate solution than when the plain water solution was used — that is, the addition of lye in th-e ^uzaUon proportion of 16 pounds of caustic soda in 100 gallons of Apple of spray solution increased the action of the nitrate of 0rchards soda in bringing the trees out earlier. Caustic soda 31 appeared to be just as effective as caustic potash. Nitrate of soda used at the rate of half a pound to the gallon, either with or without the addition of lye, was not nearly so effective as a solution of one pound to the gallon. A solution of one-fourth of a pound to the gal- lon, with lye added, had practically no effect. Nitrate of soda, at the rate of one pound to the gallon, to which oxalic acid was added in the proportion of 50 pounds to 125 gallons of solution, produced results similar to nitrate of soda plus lye, so far as the effect of hastening the blooming period is concerned. Lime nitrate, 130 pounds in 100 gallons of water, and lime cyanamid, 92 pounds in 100 gallons of water, stimulated an earlier blooming of the trees, and subsequent experiments will probably put these substances in a class with nitrate of soda. Normal Yellow Bellflower apple blossoms have considerable pink color, and it was interesting to note that when the trees sprayed with the lime cyanamid came into bloom the flowers were nearly white. 'The effects from sulphate of ammonia were not nearly so marked as those from nitrate of soda. These various nitrogen- bearing fertilizer substances were used in such strengths as to carry relatively the same quantities of nitrogen per gallon. Sulphate of potash had some effect in stimulating an early blooming, but double superphos- phate did not. Of a number of other substances tried, common salt used at the rate of 68 pounds to 100 gallons of water produced a distinct effect. It will be borne in mind that the above remarks apply simply to the effects of the various sprays in causing an earlier blooming of the trees, but since this early blooming was a striking characteristic of the nitrate^ sprayed trees of 1912, which showed a fourfold increase in production, it seems permissible to conclude that this effect on the fruit buds is some criterion of what might have been expected in the way of crop increase had not the fruit been lost bv frost. tffiza« er " Tlie row of seven trees used in tlie nitrate experiment of^Appfe of 1912 was left unsprayed this last season for the pur- 0rchard3 pose of determining whether the nitrate effect would 32 continue to the second year. It was noticed that the fruit buds on the trees were particularly large and plump, and somewhat unexpectedly at blossoming time these trees came into bloom several days ahead of the check rows. The bloom came out very uniformly all over the trees, Whereas ordinarily it is considerably de- layed on the windward side. Also the individual blos- soms were conspicuously larger than those of any other plat, and so far as could be judged at the time the frost occurred a good crop was setting all over the trees. Thus, it appears that this effect of the nitrate of soda had continued over to the second year. At present, all things considered, the best results have been obtained by using a mixture made up as follows : Nitrate of Soda 200 lbs. Caustic Soda 25 " Water 200 gals. In preparing this solution the required quantity of water was placed in the spray tank and the agitator started. When the water was in motion, the required weight of nitrate of soda was added gradually. Any large lumps were first broken up into pieces about the size of hen's eggs. The caustic soda was then added, and in about 15 minutes from the time the preparation was begun the mixture was ready for applying. 'The trees were very thoroughly sprayed on all sides, so that all of the small twigs were drenched. The best results so far obtained have come from the spraying applied about the 1st of February. Of course, weather conditions must be taken into consideration. A rain immediately following the application will wash much of the material off the trees, and it is probable that at least a week of clear weather should follow the spray- ing, in order to insure good results. In all of this work on spraying a solution of nitrate of soda on the trees a considerable quantity fell to the ground, and the question will be raised as to whether the various effects observed have not been simply the result £jj e ^er- of the fertilizer action of the nitrate on the soil. About f Apple seven gallons of the solution were used in spraying each Orchards tree, and if the whole of this had gone on the ground it 33 would have amounted to about seven pounds of nitrate of soda per tree. The single tree in 1912 that had the 50 pounds of nitrate applied to the soil therefore re- ceived over seven times the total quantity applied to any single sprayed tree. As has been previously stated, this single, excessively fertilized tree blossomed no earlier than normal, produced no increased crop, and showed no improvement in general vigor and appearance ; whereas, none of the trees in the sprayed plat failed to respond in all of these particulars. Of course this single tree test in the application of nitrate to the soil is too small an experiment to permit concluding positively that the effects that we have reported from the spraying experi- ments are of an entirely different nature and belong in a different category from those produced by the ordi- nary soil application of nitrate. A careful consideration of the results of ordinary orchard practice in fertilizing seems to make it plain that there is no similarity between them and the results from spraying. For instance in the usual practice of applying nitrate of soda as a ferti- lizer to apple orchards in the region of "Watsonville, a winter or early spring application does not force the bloom out 10 days or two weeks ahead of the normal opening period and has had no measurable effect in in- creasing the set of fruit that same year. The fact that the addition of caustic soda or oxalic acid to the nitrate spray augments these various effects further empha- sizes the difference between the results from spraying and the ordinary results from the application of ferti- lizer. Caustic soda solution alone applied as a spray has no effect on the time of blooming or the crop production. Experiments of Growers in 1913. During the past season a number of growers made more or less extensive tests of the spraying with nitrate of soda. An aggregate of several hundred acres of Yel- 34 The Fer- } ow Bellflower apples was sprayed with nitrate of soda of M App?e plus caustic soda, but practically all of this acreage was Orchards i n the same district in which the writers ' experiments were conducted, so the crop was lost by frost. It was noticeable during the past summer, however, that the foliage in such orchards as received very thorough winter nitrate sprayings had a better appearance than in years past, due apparently to the effect of the nitrate. One orchard, that of MacDonald & Sons, is located in a district that practically escaped frost damage, and the results obtained indicated a marked crop increase in consequence of the spraying. The entire orchard, with the exception of a few trees, was sprayed with various combinations of nitrate of soda and lye, and, while no exact data on the production of the unsprayed trees as compared with the rest of the orchard was obtained, the amount of fruit on the trees indicated that the spraying had produced a marked increase. This conclusion was more reliably substantiated by comparing the total orchard production this year with that of previous years. Sweet Cherries. Mr. A. W. Taite of Watsonville sprayed portions of two blocks of Napoleon (Royal Ann) cherries with nitrate of soda, one pound to the gallon, to which caustic soda was added at the rate of 25 pounds to 200 gallons. Unsprayed rows adjoining the sprayed ones were left in each block. In one case the sprayed trees were distinctly advanced over the check trees in coming into bloom. In both cases there was an increase in the foliage growth and a consequent improvement in the "appearance of the trees. No effect on crop production could be noticed, though it is possible that treatment in successive years may bring such results. Pears. For our observation on pears the writers are indebted chiefly to Mr. George Reed of San Jose, who carried out extensive tests in the orchards of the J. Z. & Gr. H. Anderson Fruit Co. The spraying was done about the 1st of February and the following notes are taken The Fer- ° tihzation largely from Mr. Reed's observations: of Apple Clairgeau. — Four rows of about 40 trees each were Q rchards sprayed with commercial lime-sulphur solution (33 de- 35 grees Baume) diluted one to nine. Adjoining these were four rows sprayed with lime-sulphur solution diluted one to nine and to which was added nitrate of soda at the rate of one pound to the gallon of the diluted spray. The rows sprayed with the combined solution of nitrate of soda and lime-sulphur came into bloom about a week ahead of those that received the lime-sulphur solution alone. The development of the fruit on these nitrate- lime-sulphur solution rows continued to show an ad- vancement of about a week throughout half the growing season, and at picking time the fruit was greener and hung on better than that of the plain lime-sulphur solu- tion rows. Both plats bore a full crop, so there was no opportunity for observing any effect on production. The Clairgeau variety blooms early, and the further advancement due to nitrate spraying might result in frost injury in some localities. The fruit ordinarily has a habit of dropping off during the latter part of the growing season. This difficulty, however, was largely eliminated on the nitrate-sprayed rows. Cornice. — The major portion of the block was sprayed with a plain water solution of nitrate of soda at the rate of one pound to the gallon. A small portion was sprayed with commercial lime-sulphur solution, diluted one to nine, with nitrate of soda added at the rate of one pound to the gallon of diluted spray. Through a misunder- standing the man doing the spraying left no check rows in this block, so that crop data could not be obtained. However Mr. Beed's exact knowledge of the previous production of the block as a whole indicates that the marked increased production this last season was more than probably due to the nitrate spraying. The Cornice is a relatively shy bearer, and a valuable pear com- mercially, so that any increased production that could be obtained by nitrate spraying would be much appre- ciated by the grower. One portion of the block that regularly produces less than the remainder gave a good The Fer- crop this year, and it appeared that the addition of the of Z App?e lime-sulphur solution augmented the effect of the Orchards nitrate of soda just as the addition of lye has done in 3 6 the experiments of the writers. Glout Morceau. — A block of Grlout Morceau pears was sprayed with the combination of lime-sulphur solution, diluted one to nine, plus nitrate of soda one pound to the gallon of diluted spray. This block had never produced a full crop, and while no unsprayed checks were left, the increased production this year would appear to be due to the nitrate spraying. Winter Nelis. — A block of Winter Nelis pears was sprayed with a solution of nitrate of soda one pound to the gallon of water. No lime-sulphur solution was added in this case. No check rows were left, and a frost de- stroyed a large percentage of the fruit after it had set. However at that time the trees were carrying the larg- est crop they had ever produced, and again it would appear that the nitrate spraying had had a beneficial effect. The trees came into bloom about 10 days ahead of normal opening period. Discussion and Summary. It is not the writers' intention to convey the impres- sion that dormant spraying with nitrate solutions will solve the problem of shy bearing of fruit trees nor offer a more advisable method of applying nitrogen fertilizer. The purpose of this paper is simply to present the re- sults as they now stand. It is evident that at least under certain conditions some varieties of apples and pears that are more or less self-sterile may have their crop production materially increased by dormant spraying with solutions of nitrate of soda plus lye. The combination of a solution of nitrate of soda and lime-sulphur is apparently capable of bringing similar results. Actual quantitative data on increased production from spraying with a solution of nitrate of soda are available from only one source, that of the first experiment on Yellow Bellflower apples in 1912. No production rec- ords were obtainable from the various tests made by growers during the season of 1913, but the one test on Yellow Bellflower apples and several others on pears The Fer- indicate that such an increase had undoubtedly been f Apple brought about. It is considered that the growers ' knowl- 0rchards edge of the crops of the previous years as compared with & that of this year furnishes a basis for conclusions that are at least corroborative. That nitrate spraying of dormant trees will bring about an earlier blooming of certain varieties of fruit is a satisfactorily established fact, which has been de- monstrated on Yellow Bellflower apples at Watsonville, and on various varieties of pears at San Jose, San Juan, and Suisun, during the past season. How gener- ally this statement will apply to other varieties of apples and pears and in other localities remains to be deter- mined. Results on stone fruits have not been as striking as those on pears and apples, but it is possible that stronger solutions, earlier spraying, or a repetition of the spraying in successive years may bring about such results. The greater danger of injury from frost that might result from forcing trees into bloom earlier than normal would have to be taken into consideration in making practical use of nitrate spraying in winter. Aside from the effect on crop production, there has also been a very noticeable improvement in the color, abundance and vigor of the foliage, and it seems pos- sible that nitrate spraying of dormant trees may be a valuable supplement to the ordinary fertilizer prac- tices in obtaining quick results in orchards suffering from lack of nitrogen. The writers will make no attempt at present to ex- plain the peculiar effect of nitrate of soda in increasing the production of more or less self-sterile varieties of fruits, or in improving foliage growth. The similarity between the writers 7 results in forcing dormant buds by winter nitrate spraying and the results obtained by other investigators by treating cuttings with various weak solutions has been mentioned. In experiments of the writers, however, a more or less lasting effect on the vigor of the foliage and also some valuable results in increasing crop production have been obtained. It fur- rif v eT thermore appears that the effects obtained by spraying of Apple with a solution of nitrate of soda may continue over to Orchards the second year, as shown by the original plat of 1912, 38 which was left unsprayed in the winter of 1913. The effects of the nitrate spraying seem to be propor- tional to the strength of the solution employed and the thoroughness with which it is applied. The addition of caustic soda materially increases this action. FORMULAS FOR FRUITS AND BERRIES. Apples, Pears, Peaches, Plums, Grapes, Currants, Straw- berries, Raspberries, Blackberries, and Gooseberries. (No. 1.) Nitrate of Soda 300 lbs. Acid Phosphate 400 " Sulphate of Potash 100 " Fine Dry Loam 200 " 1,000 lbs. Applications at the rate oi about 1,000 pounds for berries and 800 pounds for fruit trees. Composition. — Available Nitrogen, 4.50 per cent.; available phosphoric acid, 6.40 per cent.; available potash, 4.80 per cent. (No. 2.) Nitrate of Soda 200 lbs. Acid Phosphate 300 " Sulphate of Potash 100 " Fine Dry Loam 400 " 1,000 lbs.. Application at the rate of about 1,000 pounds for berries and 800 pounds for fruit trees. Composition. — Available Nitrogen, 3.00 per cent.; available phosphoric acid, 4.80 per cent.; available potash, 4.80 per cent. Formula 1 is best adapted for medium and heavy soils and for young trees. Formula 2 for sandy soils. THE BUSINESS APPLE ORCHARD OR The Practical Cultivation of Apple Trees PUBUSHED BY WILLIAM S. MYERS, D.Sc, F.C.S., Director Chilean Nitrate of Soda Propaganda Late of New Jersey State Agricultural College 25 Madison Avenue, New York The Business Apple Orchard or the Practical Cultivation of Apple Trees. Introduction. The oft-repeated, and probably true, statement that " not over one quarter of the fruit trees planted in the United States ever come into profitable production " shows that there is a lack of definite knowledge as to what is required to produce growth and development of the trees, and this can only come from a careful study of the factors involved. Location. Some of the most important things to consider are nearness to market, transportation facilities, both rail- road, water, and country roads. While the apple does not require as delicate handling as the peach, still a long haul over rough roads has sometimes caused a loss of 10 per cent, in the value of the crop. In the marketing of bulky crops like potatoes, onions and apples, the cost of transportation is always an im- portant factor. The following comparison may be of interest: . ' i'i^T It costs $1.25 to haul 1 ton on rough country roads 5 miles. $1.25 to haul 1 ton on improved macadam roads 25 miles. $1.25 to haul 1 ton on steam railroad (freight) 250 miles. $1.25 to haul 1 ton on deep water (barge or scow) 1,000 miles. SoU. This is usually the best medium heavy clay loam soil on the farm, provided it is well drained. Muck soils are not suitable for an apple orchard, and coarse sandy and The Business gravelly soils are usually too deficient in available plant Orchard I0 °d for best results. Good deep strong soil that will grow the biggest crops of grain will grow the biggest crops of apples, other things being equal. While a slightly rolling surface is usually an advantage, steep slopes are to be avoided, because of the tendency to wash and form gullies after severe rains. An eastern or southern exposure will fre- quently cause apples to color better, while a western or northern exposure will sometimes retard blooming sufficiently long to escape a late spring frost. Varieties. If it is intended to supply a local market, or sell direct to consumers it would, perhaps, be desirable to have sev- eral varieties of good quality so as to furnish customers a high grade product continually from early fall through- out the winter. If the fruit is to be handled in a wholesale way, then the varieties should be limited to perhaps three or four that bid fair to prove the most profitable commercially in that section. This often means that eating quality is not first in importance, but comes after productive- ness, attractiveness, storage, shipping qualities, etc. An illustration of this is the case of the Ben Davis which, because of its early bearing, heavy yielding, high color and good keeping qualities, has proved to be a very profit- able commercial variety in spite of its very low quality for eating purposes. The Baldwin is probably the most important apple commercially in existence. It has been more largely planted in New York and New England during the past sixty years than any other apple, the real reason being that it was a money maker for the nurseryman, being a strong and sure grower, and usually the planter was induced to buy what the nurseryman recommended. The fact that they were planted in such large numbers made them popular among the large deal- ers and exporters who were able to go out and secure a carload or a boatload of this variety on short notice. As the dealers and brokers usually handle fruit on a commission basis, it is plain that the expeditious hand- ling of a large volume of business is of prime importance. The Business So that not only should the varieties in one orchard be orchard limited to a very few kinds, but the varieties in an entire 7 locality should likewise be limited as far as practicable. Proved good commercial varieties for New York and New England: Winter — Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening, Northern Spy, King. Fall — Yellow Transparent, Red Astrachan, Maiden Blush, Gravestein. For Virginia and West Virginia: Jonathan, Grimes Golden, Stayman Winesap, Arkan- sas. For Ohio and Illinois : Eome Beauty, York Imperial, Jonathan, Wealthy. For Oregon and Washington: Spitzenburg, Jonathan, Delicious, Newtown Pippin. Similar lists giving the several varieties best adapted to certain sections may be obtained from the various State Experiment Stations. Nursery Stock. Place your order with a nurseryman who will furnish you good one or two-year-old trees that have been budded with buds taken from mature trees that have proved to be producers of good types of the particular varieties you want. It is not uncommon to see two snow apple (Fameuse) trees growing side by side, under the same soil and cli- matic conditions, that produce the same number of bar- rels of apples, but, because one tree produces the rich dark red type of the variety that sells for the highest price from the fruit stands and to the fancy trade at holiday time, because of its unusual beauty, while the other tree produces the light red and pale streaked type of the same variety, which sells for only one-half as much, it is plain that an orchard budded from the first tree might actually be worth several hundred dollars an acre more at twenty years of age than one budded from the second tree. It is a very important matter, and if the nurseryman will not consider your interest in the matter, you will do The Business we n t fa your own budding, or at least control it, so Orchard tiiat y° u ma y know the parentage of the trees that you are going to cultivate for perhaps fifty years. It is also well known that in most apple orchards there is a wide variation in the productiveness of individual trees of the same variety, that cannot be attributed to a variation in soil conditions nor food supply. Distance Apart. In New York State, where well cared for apple trees live to be fifty and seventy-five years old, and frequently much older than that, it is quite important that, the trees should be set far enough apart so that when they are mature there will be sufficient room for spraying opera- tions, and also sufficient soil area for the feeding roots of each tree, in order that there may be enough plant food within reach to feed a heavy crop to maturity. The feeding roots at maturity occupy a radius much greater than that of the branches. In New York State most of the standard apples should not be set closer than 40 feet each way, 27 trees per acre, and some of the most practical men are now planting their young orchards 45 and 50 feet apart each way. The square system of planting is probably used in fully 75 per cent, of all the apple orchards planted, largely owing to the greater ease with which intercropping can be practiced while the trees are young and better air drainage secured after the trees mature. Laying Out the Orchard. Although there are many ways of doing this, the one most commonly used, where the holes are dug by hand, is called the stake method, and consists in first determin- ing the four base lines at right angles to each other and one of which is usually parallel to the highway or a fence, and should be at least 20 feet from same, in order that the outside rows can be properly sprayed when the orchard is mature. Stakes are then set at the proper distances in place of the trees in the outside rows around the orchard, after which it, is a simple matter to locate the remaining stakes. This requires only a tape measure and three men, two to do the sighting and one to place TheBusmess the stakes. Before digging the holes, a board about orchara 8 feet long and having a notch cut in the center and one " ~ g near each end, is laid down, so that the center notch in- closes the tree stake; then two small stakes are driven into the ground at the two end notches. Now the board is removed and the hole dug, after which, by replacing the board, the center notch will indicate the position of the tree. In large plantings, after the location of the rows are determined, furrows are plowed out, up and down and across the field, and intersecting at each point where a tree is to stand, and this lowers the labor cost of digging, besides facilitating the work considerably. Care of Nursery Stock Before Planting. If the trees are carried directly from the nursery to the farm in a wagon, the roots should be carefully pro- tected from the drying effects of the wind, by covering with blankets or canvas during the journey. If they have been shipped in packing boxes, the boxes should be opened as soon as they arrive, and the trees heeled in at once in a place near where they are to be planted, by covering the roots with soil sufficiently to prevent their drying out before theyare planted. If they are heeled in in the Fall for Spring planting, it is well to mulch the soil over the roots of the trees with some coarse material, to prevent alternate thawing and freezing of the soil. Planting the Trees. Before planting, the top should be cut back to the planter's ideal of the proper framework foundation for the future tree, and the main roots should be cut, back to within ten or twelve inches of the trunk — also any broken or wounded roots should be trimmed back, making a smooth cut on the under side of the roots when the tree is in an upright position. This hastens the healing process. The hole should be of ample size, so that. the roots may be spread out naturally and not be cramped nor bent. 10 The Business The tree should be planted about two inches lower than Orchard ^ stood in the nursery row. The most important thing in planting trees is to be sure and have the soil so thoroughly compacted about the roots that there can be no large air spaces present to dry out the roots. Cultivation. There is no question but that thorough cultivation of apple orchards is essential in order to secure the great est returns. The New York State Experiment Station, after a very careful test of sod mulch versus tillage, in a ten-acre Baldwin apple orchard, over a period of ten years, found that the tillage portion of the orchard gave net returns of $1.89 for each $1.00 returned by the sod mulch portion. It is both practicable and profitable to grow inter- tilled crops, such as potatoes, cabbage, beans, etc., be- tween the rows of apple trees for the first eight or ten years after planting, since the cultivation and fertiliza- tion given these crops can be made to secure a sufficient amount of each for the proper development of the young trees. As the trees increase in size more space for clean tillage should be left at each row, and especial care should be taken that the. young trees are not injured by horses or tools during the cultivation of the crops. After about the tenth year the orchard should receive clean and thorough tillage, beginning early in the season, for the purpose of setting free plant food and conserving all the moisture possible for the groAving trees and fruit. This thorough cultivation should continue each season until about August 15th in the latitude of New York when a green manure crop should be sown to plough down the next spring, for the purpose of maintaining the proper amount of organic matter in the soil. This is the best and most economical way of replenishing the organic matter that is destroyed during the season by cultivation, and is very important for two reasons : first, the soil that is well supplied with humus conserves moisture better, and second (and most important), the organic matter in the soil is the sole source of Nitrogen for the trees, and without Nitrogen there can be no growth, of fruit nor trees. This green manure crop can The Business be anything that is suitable for the purpose, but usually orchard a leguminous plant is utilized for this purpose, because u "~ - it contains from two to three times as much Nitrogen as a non-leguminous plant. Those most commonly used in the North are Winter vetch, or mammoth red clover ; in the South, cow peas or crimson clover. Both the Winter vetch and crimson clover have proved especially valuable for this purpose, since they make a very rapid and vigorous growth early in the Spring. Pruning. There may be good reasons in some sections of the country, where trees are notably short lived, to allow them to grow with practically no pruning until they are eight or ten years old, in order that they may come into bearing somewhat earlier in life than they would if prop- erly pruned, but where trees are known to have a pos- sible life of over a hundred years, as in some parts of the Eastern United States, the pruning should be done care- fully and gradually each year, from the time the tree is planted. If one has clearly in his mind the type of tree he desires, it is only necessary to control the formation of the general framework or foundational structure of the tree for the first few years, after which the annual pruning resolves itself into the general thinning out of the new growth, and it will seldom be necessary to cut out a large limb for any purpose. In a survey of the orchards in three of the large apple growing counties in Western New York, it was found that more than 60 per cent, of all the dead trees in the old orchards were caused by the improper removal of large limbs. This can easily be avoided by the orchardist who has the proper skill and foresight. In planning the ideal orchard tree there are several things to consider. First, the main branches of the tree should be formed with the particular purpose in view of being able to sustain the great weight of wood and fruit at maturity without giving way under the strain. This can be secured by leaving not more than four branches leading out from the trunk where it is desired to head The Business y ie tree ^he second spring. These should be evenly OrthMd spaced around the trunk, to avoid splitting off later, — which frequently happens where two branches start out close together, thereby weakening each. These main branches should be cut back at least half of their length, and the next Spring the branches that have grown from these main limbs should be thinned down to two or three per limb, and also cut back about, one-half of their growth, in order that they may be strong and stocky, for they are a part of the main structure of the future tree, and will each have a heavy load to support. The follow- ing Spring and thereafter it will not be necessary to cut back the new growth on these branches so severely, but only to thin out the new growth where it is too thick for proper development. The next thing in importance, from a commercial standpoint, is to have a tree with the largest possible bearing area, and still keep it close to the ground so that, the cost of spraying and harvesting will not be excessive. This means that we will start the head or first scaffold of limbs, about two feet from the ground, for with the modern orchard machinery it is possible to cultivate the low headed orchard trees equally well, and the saving in cost of pruning, spraying, thinning and harvesting is a large factor. In order to have a large bearing area we will allow a central branch or leader to grow up in the center of the tree and cut it off about thirty inches above the first scaffold of lateral branches, and then start a second scaffold by allowing three or four lateral shoots to form the second head. These will be cut back and developed exactly like those on the lower scaffold and for the same reason. A third scaffold can be formed if desired and is often used to advantage where trees are on good strong soil. For a long time it was thought that an apple tree should have an open head like a peach tree, but it has been found that, where there is sufficient bearing area and plant food present, a good tree will bear enough weight of apples to bend down the limbs and let in the The Business sunlight needed for the proper coloring of the fruit. orchard Fertilization. The question of orchard fertilization is one of prime importance and worthy of the best thought on the part of the orchardist. If you are sure your young orchard is making as rapid and healthy a growth as possible while relying entirely upon the natural supply of plant food that becomes available in the soil at the right time during the growing season, then there is no need of adding any extra plant food to the young trees while they are growing. But if the orchard is set on soil of aver- age fertility that has been cropped for some time, and not particularly well supplied with humus, it will pay well to furnish an extra supply as an insurance against a lack of nournishment at any time during the growing season. If crops like potatoes are being grown among the young trees and the potato crop is fertilized liberally with available plant food, the trees are likely to get all they require ; but if the young orchard is given clean cultiva- tion, it will be well to mix 100 pounds of Nitrate of Soda, 100 pounds of Muriate of Potash and 400 pounds of 14 per cent. Acid Phosphate, and scatter about three pounds of the mixture evenly about each tree, the first year, covering a circle about twelve feet in diameter. It should be applied early in the Spring, before the orchard is plowed, and the plowing will work it well down into the soil. The amount applied per tree and the diameter of the circular area covered should each be gradually increased with the age of the young trees. In the case of very poor sandy or gravelly soils, or those very deficient in humus, the need will be much greater, and therefore much more should be used. Also if some of the trees in an orchard happen to be planted on a poor sandy or gravelly ridge or knoll, they should receive about twice as much of the fertilizers as those trees that are on the heavier and better soil. 13 The Business if there is any question in the mind of the grower as ori P a P m to tne wisdom of this extra expenditure for plant foods, it will be well to leave one tree, as a check, without fertilizers, on both the good and poor soils, for a year or two. The presence of a liberal supply of plant food is in- dicated by the increased size of the body and new growth of the young trees, the smooth, healthy appearance of the bark, and the large dark colored leaves with their strong stocky stems. The large orchardists have learned that it pays well to use available fertilizers on their bearing orchards for several reasons. First, the acre value of a good crop of apples is much greater than that of the usual cultivated farm crops, and it is known that, other things being equal, fertilizers pay best when applied to crops of high money value per acre. Second, there is a double profit secured, owing to the fact that where the trees are assured of a liberal supply of plant food by means of available fertilizers, the pro- portion of the fruit that, grades as No. 1 is greatly increased, thereby adding to the profits. Third, the tree that has an abundant supply of food not only produces a larger crop, but is able to build up fruit buds at the same time for the crop of the following year, and thus becomes, in many cases, an annual bearer, instead of bearing a crop only on alternate years, which is very common among orchards which are not given special care in the matter of feeding. Fourth, the well fed orchard not only sets more fruit, but produces more and larger leaves in which to manu- facture the starch necessary for the production of a large crop of fruit, "and because of this vigorous healthy growth, is better able to successfully resist the attacks of the various insects, blights and fungous diseases that are common to orchard trees. The amount usually applied to orchards about 20 years old and in full bearing is about 12 pounds per tree of a mixture of 5 lbs. of Nitrate of Soda, and 5 lbs. of Acid Phosphate applied broadcast early in the Spring, before plowing the orchard. Where the trees are set 40 feet apart each way. this The Business makes an application of only about 270 pounds per acre, o^Ld and this amount per acre should be doubled on a poor r_ sandy or gravelly soil that is very deficient in humus, or when there are twice as many trees on an acre ; or when the orchard is in sod, and thus does not receive the bene- fit of the plant food which is set free by frequent tillage. It is a good practice to sow the Nitrate of Soda broad- cast, early in the Spring, and drill in the Acid Phosphate when sowing the green manure crop in August or Sep- tember. This method insures a larger crop to plow under, and hastens the important process of adding organic matter to the soil. Bulletin No. 240 of the Ohio Experiment Station shows that an average gain of $4.72 per tree was obtained, within 18 months, on the poor soils of south- eastern Ohio, in three orchard experiments, by the use of Nitrogenous fertilizers, at a cost not to exceed 15 cents per tree. Bulletin No. 151 of the West Virginia Experiment Station, which is a report of an apple orchard survey of Berkeley county, which contains over 11,000 acres of apple orchards, and where the industry is on a good commercial foundation, shows that of the orchards under ten years of age : 19.8% of the acreage, or 1469 acres, are fertilized with stable manure. 49.2% of the acreage, or 3644 acres, are fertilized with chemical fertil- izers. And of the orchards more than ten years of age : 15.6% of the acreage, or 595 acres, are fertilized with stable manure. 52.2% of the acreage, or 1986 acres, are fertilized with chemical fertil- izers. Thinning. The practice of thinning the young apples during the month of June has proved to be one of the most valuable and important operations in successful orcharding. It consists in removing a portion of the fruit — especially the defective specimens — in order to reduce the number of apples on each tree, to the extent that each individual apple may be developed to the highest pos- sible perfection without overtaxing the tree. The Business The seeds are the true fruits of the tree, and by far the OrdSrd g reater P art of its physical effort and energy is devoted 16 to their production, and for this reason the restriction by thinning of the number of fruits produced by the tree, to that number which the tree can bring to maturity with- out overtaxing it, will not only insure the utmost devel- opment of the specimens composing the current crop, but does much toward bringing about the formation of strong fruit buds for the succeeding year. The earlier in the season that the thinning can be done, after the little apples have attained a size sufficient to en- able the workmen to distinguish defects and deformities, the more satisfactory and profitable will be the work. For best results, the remaining apples should not be closer than six or eight inches apart. Formerly this practice was left entirely to nature before spraying and fertilization were practiced to any great extent, and the stung and starved specimens were eliminated by means of the " June drop." The Ohio Experiment Station has also done most careful and practical work along this line, and Bulletin No. 240 cites a case where a well thinned orchard of 62 trees produced but 21 pounds of apples, under two inches in diameter; while a single, unthinned tree, of the same age and variety and at the same place, produced 28 pounds of apples under two inches. Spraying. The matter of spraying is one of such great importance to the fruit grower that it is his duty to get into close touch with the best knowledge obtainable in regard to it, through his own State and other State Experiment Sta- tions where fruit growing is an important industry, and through them he will be able to obtain bulletins giving detailed information of the best methods of mixing and applying the various insecticides and fungicides, together with spraying charts, showing the best time for -the several applications in that locality. It has recently been shown that it is not only practical but that a considerable saving in time can be effected by applying some of the fungicides in a dry form by means of a power blower. This is of particular interest to the The Business large grower, as it enables him to cover a greater acre- Apple age and still do the work at the proper time. Orchard 17 Bibliography. The following Bulletins will be found helpful for those who desire further details, in the business of apple growing : Economics of Apple Growing. By C. I. Lewis and H. A. Vickers. Bulletin No. 132, Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station, (Jor- vallis, Oregon. Apple Orchard Survey of Berkeley County, West Virginia. By E. C. Auckter. Bulletin No. 151, West Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, Morgantown, W. Va. Starting Young Orchards. By W. M. Munson. Bulletin No. 116, West Virginia Experiment Station, Morgantown, W. Va. The Eejuvenation of Orchards. By F. H. Ballou. Bulletin No. 240, Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Wooster, Ohio. Adaptedness of Soils to Different Varieties of Apples. By H. J. Wilder. Bulletin No. 140, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. A Comparison of Tillage and Sod Mulch in an Apple Orchard. By U. P. Hedrick. Bulletin No. 383, New York State Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y. The Apple in Pennsylvania. Bulletin No. 106, Pennsylvania Agricul- tural Experiment Station, State College, Pa. Nitrate of Soda a Blessing to the Arts and to Agriculture JOHN A. MYERS PUBLISHED BY WILLIAM S. MYERS, D. Sc, F. C. S., Director Chilean Nitrate Propaganda Late of New Jersey State Agricultural College 25 MADISON AVENUE, NEW YORK Nitrate of Soda a Blessing to the Arts and to Agriculture. By DR. JOHN A. MYERS. Revised by William S. Myers, D. Sc. In entering upon the discussion of this Qhemical subject, we should have a clear understand- j,r arne ing of what Nitrate of Soda is. From the standpoint of the chemist it is defined as sodium Ni- trate. From the standpoint of commerce it is recog- nized and sold either as Chilisaltpeter or as Nitrate of Soda. Chemically, it is a fixed compound closely re- lated to the nitre of commerce, which is so largely used in the manufacture of gunpowder and explosives, the difference between sodium Nitrate and nitre being that the sodium in sodium Nitrate takes the place of the potassium in the nitre. So far as our purposes are con- cerned we are interested only in the Nitrogen entering into the combination. When Nitrate of Soda is strictly and p, . . absolutely refined, 16.47% of this element Comoosition is present, but as the Nitrate of Soda in commerce usually contains approximately five per cent, of impurities, the commercial Nitrate usually con- tains approximately 15.67% of Nitrogen. It is im- ported into this country in sacks weighing about 200 lbs., the variation being largely due to the quantity of moisture contained in the crystals. In appearance it does not materially differ from coarse, impure salt. Nitrate of Soda is a natural product „,, t, , ... . .... r . „ Where Hound. existing in enormous quantities m the arid regions of Chile, where it is mined in the crude state in the form of Caliche. The Caliche is broken into lumps and dissolved in water, and by the application of well-known chemical principles, the Nitrate of Soda -.. -.»!,=,! r -.-,-,-. fK^ -:~-,nr-:t.iips hy crystallization. Nitrate of Soda . The centre of the Nitrate of Soda industry is i?Art^d qUlqUC ' Iquique, a city of approximately 20,000 in- to Agriculture habitants, existing under the most artificial conditions; they have neither food, water, nor fuel, except as it is transported to meet the demand of the people engaged in the Nitrate industry. Extent of ^ e Nitrate fields already prospected are D osit estimated to contain considerably over 240,- ' 000,000 tons of Sodium Nitrate. The annual approximate consumption is said to have been as follows : In 1885 420,000 tons. Amount of " 1390 1,009,000 " Consump- " 1895 r,220,ooo " tion. " 1900 1,400,000 " " 1905 1,600,000 " The distribution of Nitrate to the world is _ ere , indicated approximately as follows for Consumed. ~, Qr . n lo99 : 39% of the total product goes to Germany. 17% " " " France. 15% " " " " " United States. 12% " " " " " Great Britain. 10% " " " " " Belgium. The remainder is distributed among other coun- tries. The consumption of Nitrate of Soda by a country may be considered as giving a fair indication of the de- velopment of its chemical industries, as well as in a measure the intensity of its system of agriculture. R 1 f e to^ n * n * s connec ti°n, I m &y say that in the -. . , United States there are about twenty-one j , . different chemical industries, which rely, for their profit and success, either wholly or in part, upon the facility and cheapness with which they are able to secure Nitrate of Soda. When we remem- ber: (1.) That without sulphuric acid the extension of the great majority of chemical industries in this country would be impossible; and, (2.) That without the use of Nitrate of Soda, in the present advancement of science, it would be impossible to manufacture sulphuric acid cheaply, its importance in these industries of the United States cannot well be exaggerated. It is true, that Nitrate of Soda many of the minor chemical industries might, for a time, a h B1 A ss t m \*% flourish, if the importation of Nitrate were stopped ; but to Agriculture most of the more important ones would be paralyzed at < — • once, as the Nitrate of Soda contributes directly to their success. jj . p. , Efforts have been made to find this E . , valuable chemical compound within the O t 'd f boundaries of this country, but even in the c arid regions, where it might be expected to exist, it has not been found in sufficient quantities to be extracted. In fact, while it is found in limited quantities in various portions of the world, it is only in the desert regions of Chile that we find a large amount of this valuable product. There the continued activity of micro-organisms through uncounted ages has stored up a supply sufficient to meet the demands of the entire civilised world, at the present rate of consump- tion, for at least two hundred years to come, •p , These beds of natural Nitrate of Soda Util' erf were preserved in the barren and desert re- gions, undisturbed by the hand of man until within the last sixty years, and were protected from being dissolved by the mountain chains to the east of them; they remained unused until they were required by the progress of civilization. Just as our beds of coal represent the accumulated energy of the sun, which has been stored away in the compressed vegetation of won- derful periods of plant growth, so these beds of Caliche represent the accumulated activity of micro-organisms upon organic matter through long periods. As the former supplies the energy for the developing of our steam power and electricity, so the latter supplies the materials for driving the chemical industries of the world and for the development of an intensive system of agriculture. A t' 't of Pro ^ * s no * a ^ one °f ^ s vame m de- , .. ^ T . veloping the chemical industries of the duction Not so \ & . , . , , T ., . r t ' the countr y tnat one ma y speak. Nitrate _ of Soda is produced by the action of micro-organisms, but in inadequate Nitrate of Soda a Blessing to the Arts and to Agriculture 8 Fertilizer Experiments with Grapes. Phosphoric Acid and Potash, Without Nitrate of Soda. Yield: 1;, lbs. Grapes. Fertilizer Experiments with Grapes. Nitrate of Soda a Blessing to the Arts and to Agriculture Phosphoric Acid and Potash with 1.4 oz. Nitrate of Soda Yield: 7.7 lbs. Grapes. Nitrate of Soda supplies in our agricultural lands. Under the condi- th^Arte md tionS of cumate and sou now prevailing, this activity of to Agriculture 'microscopic life continues, perhaps not with the inten- sity of ages past, yet with sufficient intensity to meet the demands of a limited crop. If an agriculturist is fortunate enough to secure fresh land, where the condi- tions are especially favorable for the activity of these 300 lbs. Acid Phosphate 300 lbs. Acid Phosphate 100 lbs. Sulphate of Potash 100 lbs. Sulphate of Potash 150 lbs. Nitrate of Soda Yield, g z / 2 tons of green forage Yield, 20 tons of green forage corn per acre. corn per acre. micro-organisms, he is able to secure a larger crop than where he is operating upon lands which have been un- der cultivation for one or more generations. Its Application The exhaustion of the soil and the wast- to Agriculture. a ^ e of plant food that continually goes on during the agricultural operations of the farmer, long since attracted the attention of scien- tific men, and they have sought in various ways to pre- vent it. One of the most gigantic strides in modern chemistry was the formulation of methods for the manu- facture of artificial fertilizers. It marked an era in the advancement of our civilization when successful chemists in almost every country sought to utilize the plant food that had accumulated as by-products in manufacturing operations, or which existed in crude. the Arts and to Agriculture II natural form. This plant food is found in its natural Nitrate of Soda state, in the form of potash salts, in connection with a - beds of rock salt, in Germany; it is found in bones Or phosphatic residues which represent all that is left of the swarming animal life that populated the earth in the past ; it is produced also as a by-product in the manu- facture of steel. From the beds of Caliche in the rain- less desert of Chile, we procure ample supplies of Nitro- gen as Nitrate of Soda, to meet the demands for agri- cultural purposes. Rapid Increase 0ne nundred y ears a S°> ii; lmd not oc ~ • , ,j r curred to scientific men to attempt to N't t f o ^ use this plant-food, accumulated in the t, „.,. form of Nitrate of Soda. This is all as a Fertilizer. , , , . , , comparatively new; but so rapid has 300 lbs. Acid Phosphate 100 lbs. Sulphate of Potash Yield, s.ioo lbs. Oats (straw and grain) per acre. 300 lbs. Acid Phosphate 100 lbs. Sulphate of Potash 150 lbs. Nitrate of Soda Yield, 6,950 lbs. Oats (straw and grain) per acre. been the progress, that in this country alone, a business of at least 145,000,000 dollars annually is done in fertili- zers. Who would have thought that by the destruction of the wonderful animal life of the past, there was being prepared the means for supporting the human life of the present? When the sun dried up the inland lakes of Nitrate of Soda Germany, and left the crystallized residues to be buried a Blessing to fap beneath t h e surface of the earth, who would have to h A^Sitoe dreamed that there was being stored up the element for I sweetening the wine, for stiffening the straw, and for 12 improving the quality of the food products of the pres- ent age? Who would have imagined that the swarming microscopic life, acting through the ages, could succeed in providing, from organic matter, the most concen- trated, the cheapest, and the most active plant food, now upon the market, in the form of Nitrate of Soda? , A few years since, a distinguished Warning ot p resident of the British Association for Scientific Men. the Advancement of Science, Sir-William Crookes, called the attention of the world to the possi- bility of a wheat famine, due to the exhaustion of the Nitrogen in the soil. More recently, a distinguished scientist, Professor Kovascy, has warned Hungary that that country cannot continue indefinitely to impoverish its soil, by the cultivation of wheat, without suffering, in the near future, from inadequate production. Both Crookes and Kovascy have pointed out that it is neces- sary for the farmer to consider the restoration of the Nitrogen supply to the soil. Both have mentioned Nitrate of Soda as at present forming the cheapest and most important natural source from which to derive the supplies of Nitrogen, wh t F" 1H f ^^ e Chemist of the North Dakota ^ tvt *.i_ Experiment Station, Professor Ladd, the North-west. , r , . , . , • ■, ■> • » has shown that a chemical analysis ot the soil of the great Red River Valley, which for years has been producing probably more wheat than any other quarter of the globe, shows that there has been a gradual exhaustion of the Nitrogen supply in those wonderful wheat lands ; and that the farmers are beginning to feel that something is wrong with them, although perhaps the time has not yet arrived for them to properly appre- ciate the value of chemical fertilizers. Professor Ladd states that in lands which had been under wheat cultiva- tion for twenty years, the Nitrogen Soil Exhaustion supply in the soil had fallen from a of Wheatfields. total of from 8,000 to 10.000 lbs. per acre to from 8,000 to 6,000 lbs per acre, wit> a corres- ponding decrease in the yield of wheat. He stated further, that the farmers of that section are pursuing a wasteful system of agriculture ; that for every pound of available Nitrogen that is removed from their land by growing crops, four or five pounds of such Nitrogen are wasted. This is going on in land of such extraordinary physical and chemical properties that the wheat plant has a remarkable opportunity for seeking food. I have seen wheat plants that had grown in that soil, washed out under the careful manipulation of that Experiment Station Staff. The roots penetrated to a perpendicular depth of five feet. Nitrate of Sods a Blessing to the Arts and to Agriculture 13 300 lbs. Acid Phosphate 100 lbs. Sulphate of Potash. 150 lbs. Nitrate of Soda Yield, 38,240 lbs. sugar mangels per acre. 300 lbs. Acid Phosphate 100 lbs. Sulphate of Potash Yield, 24, 120 lbs. sugar mangels per acre. Remedy, the Proper Fertiliz ation. Scientific men like Sir William Crookes, Professor Kovascy, and Professor Ladd, may call attention to the impend- ing danger and point out the means whereby it may be averted, but can they check the farmer in his wild extravagance, in his wastefulness of the bounties of Nature? When a better knowledge of feHM,«s ol svW'.e.iH.Kiiic iayricuLreure and of proper fer- Nitrate of Soda tilization of the soil is more generally diffused, without a essing to j^]-^ ^ s use w jji increase enormously, for our farmers the Arts and .,,. , . , , i 1 L 1 ^ to Agriculture are intelligent and quick to learn when properly taught. We may confidently expect that the time is not far distant when the intelli- gent farmers of that section will realize that it is cheaper to increase the yield of their wheat fields from five to ten bushels per acre, by the judicious- use of 100 lbs. of Nitrate of Soda than it 14 Quantity of Nitrate of Soda to be used. mm An experiment in raising Potatoes with and without Nitrate. is to continue to farm them at constantly increasing cost and at constantly decreasing yield. In the crowded countries of Europe, where intensive farming is more gener- ally pursued than in this country, the value of this energizing fertilizer has long since been recognized, but it is not so generally known in the United States. I said that our chemical fertilizers were composed of the waste products of the present and of the past. But in com- pounding these chemical fertilizers, our manufacturers too often attempt to produce a fertilizer of low Nitrogen Not enough Nitrogen in American Fer tilizers. a Blessing to the Arts and to Agriculture content, without properly considering the availability of Nitrate of Soda the Nitrogen which they are using; and the farmers of the country have not acquainted themselves sufficiently with the value of the different combinations of plant food, to appreciate the necessity of having the Nitrogen supply in commercial fertilizers in a form which will readily become available for plant food. The most seri- ous criticism perhaps which can be made upon the com- mercial fertilizers manufactured in the United States is, that for general purposes, their Nitrogen content is too low; and there is hardly a fertilizer compounded in this No Nitrate Yield, 10 lbs. Tomatoes Nitrate at the rate of 300 lbs. per acre Yield, 45 lbs. Tomatoes country which may not be much improved by the addi- tion of Nitrate of Soda ; or the Nitrate of Soda should be applied as a supplemental fertilizer, during the early periods of plant growth. Nitrate of Soda What has been said in regard to Same a essmg to ^g^ j s q U jte applicable to other cereal „ ,.,, c the Arts and i • . 1 . tvt j.i , 1 Conditions for to Agriculture cro P s > and m the g reat North-west where Qther c there has been a reduction in the produc- p ing capacity of the soil for wheat, there is also, as a rule, Fertilizer Experiment with Wheat. t |l Phosphoric Acid and Potash with 1 02. Nitrate of Soda. Yield: 3% oz. Grain. Phosphoric Acid and Potash with *4 Nitrate of Soda. Yield 1% oz. Grair Phosphoric Acid and Potash without Nitrate of Soda. Yield *£ 02. Grain. a corresponding reduction in the producing capacity for all of the other cereals. As a sort of rest to the land, the farmers there sometimes change to oats ot harW. but in either case they continue the exhaustion of the Nitrate of Soda so jj a Blessing to the Arts and I have purposely selected the great Th g ., Rob _ to Agriculture wheatfields of the North-west as illus- . E . d i 7 trating a principle that has been disas- w . trously applied to all of the great pro- ducing sections of this country. I care not whether you refer to the states of the East, Middle West, or to the Pacific Slope. When the Association of Agricultural College Presidents and Experiment Station Directors visited California, there was no one of that great body of scientific men who was not impressed with the fact that even there, where Nature has apparently dealt more generously than elsewhere in the world in providing available plant food, there are evidences of the effect of continuous soil robbery. In fact, Nature is not so con- stituted that man, by wasteful habits and the application of false principles of agriculture, may not finally ex- haust the greatest stores of available plant food that she has seen fit to place at his command. The present gen- eration is wasting the fertility of the rich, new wheat lands of the North-west, as a former generation impo- verished the rich agricultural lands of the East and Mid- dle West, and this wastage has begun already to show in the failure of the soils to produce remunerative crops. In many sections of the Eastern and Southern States, the farmers have arrived at a point where they do not think of attempting to grow a crop without first fertiliz- ing their land. The wheat lands of many sections of the North-west and of Oregon and California are also rapid- ly approaching this stage of exhaustion. The advice of scientific men should be sought and their experimental work made the basis of agricultural practice. In this connection I desire to say a word concerning the scientific work that is going on at the American Agricultural Experiment Stations. The government of this country provides bountifully, perhaps more boun- tifully than any other government in the world, for the support of scientific investigations bearing upon sub- to Nitrate of Soda In the endowment of the agricultural ^5^ _f a Blessing to experiment stations and agricultural col- American o th A ri^ultu"^ le ? eS ° f the United States ' there has been Agricultural gncu ture j a ^ a foundation for scientific work, the colleees an d 18 extent and importance of which no man „ . can even conjecture. In this country a o ta ^: ons staff of over 1000 scientific men, employed in more than 50 experimental stations, are pressing Fertilizer Experiments with Oats on Clay Soil. Full Nitrate of Soda Without Fertilizing. Phosphoric Acid. Yield: 3 oz. grain. Yield: % oz. grain. Without Potash. Yield: 2 oz. grain. Yield: H oz. grain. Without Nitrate of Soda. many of the great problems relating to scientific agri- culture to solution, and publishing to the world the re- sults of their work. It may be of interest to you to know that at more than 40 of these experiment stations, scientific work is being conducted upon the effects of Nitrate of Soda upon the various soils and crops, under a great variety of meteorological conditions, and under various systems of cultivation. These experiments con- sider Nitrate of Soda alone, in varying quantities, and Nitrate of Soda also in combination with other elements of fertility. At ^ ^ s ™ s ^° some of these experiment stations work has been going t0 Agriculture on for several years; at others it has recently been in- augurated. Similar careful scientific work with Nitrate I9 of Soda is being conducted in most of the European countries, notably in Germany, France and England. Perhaps there has never been a compound offered to scientific experimenters that has attracted wider atten- tion on account of the certainty, uniformity and ac- curacy with which results may be ob- Scientific Ex- tained. Its importance as a source of Der } ments w i t h instantly available plant-food is so great rl ,, ., that scientific men of world-wide repu- c . tations have deemed it a fit subject for study and experiment. Dr. Paul Wagner, Prof. Maercker and others in Germany; Lawes and Gilbert, Dr. Bernard Dyer, Dr. Voelcker and others in England ; Profs. Cassarini, Migneaux, Cadoret and many others in France; Prof. Bernardo Giner Alino and others in Spain; and Drs. Voorhees, Wheeler, Brooks, Thorne, Redding, Scovell, Stubbs, Ross, Patterson, Armsby, Jenkins, Kilgore and others in this country, have de- voted a large share of personal attention to scientific ex- periments with it, in ascertaining and applying its prop- erties to the solution of fertilizer problems. It would be no difficult task to catalogue the names of more than one hundred scientific men, who within the last two years have contributed original investigations, increasing our knowledge of the properties and uses of Nitrate of Soda. 1. Nitrate of Soda acts very bene- u n jf orm ficially and with great certainty upon all js esu i ts straw-growing plants. p, , 1. The Nitrate of Soda acts very 0ht • j beneficially and with great certainty upon all straw-growing plants. 2. It is of special value for forcing the rapid de- velopment and early maturity of most garden crops. 3. It is of great importance in the production of sugar-beets, potatoes, hops, fodder crops, fibre plants and tobacco. Nitrate of Soda to Agriculture 4. It is exceedingly valuable in developing and a Blessing to ma i n taininff meadow grass and pasture lands. the Arts and 5. In the early stages of development it produces favorable results upon peas, vetches, lupines and clover. 6. It has been applied with much advantage to various kinds of berries, bush fruits, vineyards, orchards and nursery stock. Fertilizer Experiment with Sugar Beets. Phosphoric Acid and Potash without Nitrate of Soda. Yield: 1.4 oz. Beets. Phosphoric Acid and Potash with % oz. Nitrate of Soda. Yield: 3.6 oz. Beets. Phosphoric Acid and Potash with 1 oz. Nitrate of Soda. Yield: 8.7 oz. Beets. 7. It provides the means in the hands of the farmer, for energizing his crops so that they may better withstand the ravages of drought, or the onslaughts of plant diseases or insect pests. 8. It may be used as a surface application to the soil, from time to time, as the plants indicate a need of it by their color and growth. 9. It is immediately available, and under favor- able conditions its effect upon many crops may be noticed within a few hours after its application. 10. It may be used either as a special fertilizer, as a supplemental fertilizer, or as a mixed fertilizer, in com- bination with other fertilizer ingredients. Fertilizer Experiments with Carrots. Nitrate of Soda a Blessing to the Arts and to Agriculture Phosphoric Acid and Phosphoric Acid and Phosphoric Acid and Phosphoric Acid an Potash Pnf-ash with V. m Potash with % 02 Potash with ^4 oz. Nitrate of Soda. Potash with 1 oz. Nitrate of Soda. - .- - --- Nitrate of Soda. . ..,._ Yield: 1.7 oz. Carrots. Yield: 5.7 oz. Carrots Yield: 7 oz. Carrots. Yield: 10 oz. Carrots. 11. The best results are obtained from its applica- tion when the soil has been treated with available phos- phoric acid and potash salts, or where these are already present in ample supplies in the soil. 12. Its uniform action seems to be to stimulate the capacity of the plant for absorbing water and develop- ing foliage and plant growth. Its action is character- a at Biessin S °to ized by im P artin g to the P lant a dee P green, healthy ap- the Arts land P earance > ar >d by causing it to grow rapidly, or to put out numbers of new shoots. to Agriculture 13. The immediate effect of an application of Nitrate of Soda, therefore, is to develop a much larger plant growth, and the skillful application of potash salts and phosjmoric acid must be relied upon to act in com- bination with this effect, to secure the largest yields of fruits and grain. Fertilizer Experiments with Tomatoes. Phosphoric Acid and Potash Without Nitrate of Soda. Yield: 3 lbs. Tomatoes. Phosphoric Acid and Potash With Yi lb. Nitrate of Soda. Yield: 16 lbs. Tomatoes. 14. Under favorable conditions of moisture and cultivation, these effects may be confidently anticipated upon all kinds of soils. 15. All of the plant food contained in Nitrate of Soda is available and existing in a highly soluble form. 23 The farmer should understand that it is not economical Nitrate of Soda to apply more of it than can be utilized by the growing * B Art" and Crop. t0 Agriculture 16. The best results are secured when it is applied during the early growing periods of the plant. If ap- plied later in the development of the plant, it has a ten- dency to protract its growing period and to delay the ripening of the fruit, as the energies of the plant are im- mediately concentrated upon developing its growth, after a liberal application of Nitrate of Soda. 17. The farmer must not expect it to excuse him from applying proper principles of land drainage, or cultivation of the soil, nor should the Nitrate of Soda be used in excessive quantities too close to the plants that are fertilized with it. For most agricultural crops, an application of 100 lbs. to the acre is sufficient. 18. It may be applied to either agricultural or garden lands in the form of a solution in water, or by sowing it broadcast upon the land by hand, or by means of any fertilizer distributing machine in use. If applied in the dry state, in order to insure uniform distribution, a convenient method is to mix it with twice its weight of air-slacked lime, land plaster, bone dust, or even with sand, before applying it. It can be applied to the sur- face, and without cultivation will be absorbed by the soil. The capillary movement of the soil waters will dis- tribute it in the soil. The principles above indicated may c . , . be considered as being as well established R , as most principles applied to agricul- tural science. The Nitrate of Soda is so uniform and reliable in its action upon plant growth, that it is now generally accepted as the standard of comparison for all fertilizer experiments involving the comparison of the fertilizing value of different sources of Nitrogen. It has been most valuable as a means of enabling scientific in- vestigators to study the problems of plant growth and fertilization, and without it, it is probable that much of our present knowledge of these principles would not have been secured. Nitrate of Soda a Blessing to the Arts and to Agriculture 24 Increased Con- sumption of Nitrate Likely. Accepting the conclusions of these scientific men as correct, we may confi- dently anticipate a much larger con- sumption of Nitrate of Soda by the farmers engaged in highly intensive systems of garden- ing or agriculture. We may expect a large extension of its use in the sugar-beet industry, in the hop industry, Fertilizer Experiments with Fuchsias. Phosphoric Acid and Potash without Nitrate of Soda. Phosphoric Acid and Potash with 2*4 oz. Nitrate of Soda. in the fruit and grape industries, in the cultivation of tobacco and fibre plants, and also in the extensive grain fields which are gradually becoming impoverished all over this country. Generally, the first element of plant- food to become exhausted in the soil is Nitrogen, and in a large percentage of cases greatly increased yields of grain and garden crops may be secured by the use of Nitrate of Soda as a special fertilizer ; and in most cases it is found very profitable to use it in addition to the ordinary commercial fertilizers in the market, for the reason that nearly all of them contain too small a supply of Available Nitrogen to properly balance the Nitrate of Soda amounts of phosphoric acid and potash in them. We * h f A^and confidently expect to see the fertilizer manufacturers in t o Agriculture this country using more and more of this valuable salt in — compounding their complete fertilizers. It is one of the 25 Fertilizer Experiments with Chrysanthemums. Phosphoric Acid and Potash Phosphoric Acid and Potash with lVs oz. Nitrate of Soda. cheapest sources of Nitrogen available for compounding mixed fertilizers, and as farmers become acquainted with its important qualities, they should and will insist upon the use of more Nitrate of Soda in the mixed fertilizers Nitrate of Soda N one can f a Q to be convinced that a Blessing to £ Places m the q£ Soda . g one q£ ^ mQst im . the Arts and .Hands or , , T . • ■ . .1 to Agriculture American portant compounds entering into the p , agricultural and manufacturing mdus- 26 AbiIit er to Com- tries of this countr y- rt . seems . t0 me ^. , 1 m " that the evidence offered is sufficient to p wi ess convmce an y one that it is an exceed- rogressive ingly valuable product, and that an in- creased use of it must largely contribute to the material advancement of these interests in the United States. Approximately three-fourths of the commerce between the United States and the republic of Chile is represented by the contribution of Chile to the material development of our republic in the export to it of this indispensable article. Without it, it would be difficult or impossible for many of America's greatest chemical industries to flourish, and in the present devel- opment of agricultural science, it appears that the time is not far distant, when, if the American grain producers would compete with the cheap lands and still cheaper labor of other countries, in furnishing food products to the world, it will be necessary for them to study and carefully apply a more scientific and intensive system of agriculture than they have been practicing, and to understand more fully than they have in the past, the facilities offered by this wonderful provision of Nature for overcoming the difficulties pressing upon them. If it is a good thing to consume a small amount of Nitrate of Soda, would it not be profitable to increase its consumption? May not those chemical industries grow and the profits of those agricultural operations be assured and very largely increased by a more extended consumption of this exceedingly valuable Chilean product? Nature in her distribution of riches has not seen fit to concentrate everything within the borders of any one country. By a mutual exchange of commodities, all Importance of countrie s may be benefited. The nat- Commerce u resources of Chile, existing under unfavorable conditions for agriculture in that country, may in this be converted into merchant- able articles of food demanded by a swarming European Nitrate of Soda population, which exchanges its labor and products for a B1 « sm e *° the products of our wheat fields. We may, therefore, to Agriculture have a chain of benefits by which the producer of Nitrate in Chile is enriched and the American farmer and manu- Z7 facturer made more prosperous, whilst the laboring population of Europe is fed, clothed and provided with an ample supply of the comforts and necessities of life. PLENTY OF NITRATES IN CHILE. WILLIAM S. MYERS, Official Delegate for the Chilean Government for the International Congress of Applied Chemistry. So many sensational statements have been made which would lead one to suppose that the exhaustion of the supplies of Chilean Nitrate is imminent, that it is deemed advisable to dissipate the prevailing opinion that very little Nitrate of Soda is left in Chile for fertilizer or other purposes. First of all, there is a vast amount of unsurveyed Nitrate ground on the Chilean pampas that is, neverthe- less, known to contain immense quantities of Nitrate of Soda. Second, grounds already surveyed still contain enormous quantities of Nitrate. There are probably, in round numbers, one billion tons of Nitrate in the deposits of Chile, and, without doubt, large supplies also exist on lands now but incompletely prospected. The surveyed and certified tonnage opened up at the present time ready for extracting is fully 250,000,000 tons. The probable life of the surveyed deposits is at least 400 years, even allowing for a steadily increasing annual rate of consumption. Moreover, there remains the interesting question as to whether by the end of the ensuing century we may not find that nature shall have then manufactured an im- mense additional amount of Chilean Nitrate for the uses of the world. Sir William Crookes' prophecy that the world would starve for lack of bread as soon as the Chilean Nitrate supplies were exhausted has for some years led the chemical public to believe that a wheat famine was in . V\ : '.j.j s.jijcx i.'jMBK in so "ar distant that no one living -.-.■,.,.; ,. ,-,. .;._;. ..,>..! ".,;„..-, subject. CHILEAN NITRATE AS FERTILIZER Reprinted from The Journal of Commerce and Commercial Bulletin Published by WILLIAM S. MYERS, D.Sc, F.C.S., Director CHILEAN NITRATE PROPAGANDA 25 MADISON AVENUE, NEW YORK Chilean Nitrate as Fertilizer MOST VALUABLE OF PLANT FOODS Source of Supply of this Most Important Chemical Product — Unique Conditions Under Which It is Produced — The Chilean Nitrate Propaganda and Its Director. Many of the most important problems which have come with the growth of population and the development of our modern civilization are being quietly solved in the laboratories of the growing group of scientific men who are directing their investigations into paths of practical usefulness. In the field of mechanical and electrical dis- covery, for instance, developments have. been made so rapidly that the impossibilities of our youth have become the commonplaces of to-day. The industrial and commercial exploitations of the resources and forces of nature have brought with them other problems vital to the welfare and future of our country and the race, which also call for scientific solu- tion. It is especially true that the patient researches of chemists are becoming constantly more and more import- ant to the material welfare of the age. The early develop- ment of this country and its progress even up to recent years have been marked with methods which we, in these days of progress, look back to as deplorable for their economic waste. We hear of denuded forests, of worn-out lands, aban- doned farms and exhausted mines, and the cry has gone up for the measures of conservation, reforestation, intensive farming and general rehabilitation. In response to it has come the development of Agri- cultural Experiment Stations, where educated chemists Chilean an( j agriculturists are doing most valuable work in dis- as Fer- covering and disseminating scientific solutions of agri- tiUzer cultural and industrial problems. GENERAL EAST AND WEST SECTION OF THE NITRATE DISTRICT OF OH1LI. VERTICAL SCALE EXAGGERATED. The quality and fertility of the soil are most important factors in our National Welfare. One of the old philoso- phers declared that the man who would make two blades of grass grow where only one had grown before was a benefactor to his age. Yet that is just the kind of work that the experiment stations and other agencies of mod- ern progress are doing. Agricultural Chemistry has so advanced in recent years that the defects of soil and the remedies for them are well known, and the art of fertilization has assumed a gratifying degree of scientific exactness. Chemical research has found the proper ingredients and propor- tions of plant food best for the several standard crops, as well as for the different varieties of trees and shrubs, and the analysis of any soil will help discover its qualities as well as its defects and at the same time will indicate the elements of fertilization necessary to be introduced for the successful cultivation of any particular crop. The food of plants consists of various elements, among which the most important are nitrate, phosphate, lime and potash. Nearly all soils contain a sufficient quantity of these elements except nitrate, phosphate and potash. Nitrates ai*e nearly always deficient, phosphates and potash frequently. In the main the problem of fertili- zation is that of introducing these three elements into the soil, and the question which presents itself most forcibly j^j 1 ^ to the farmer, gardener or fruit grower is that of sup- as Fer- plying his plants with Nitrate, phosphoric acid and pot- tllizer ash in the best forms and at the least expense. Phos- 7 phoric acid may be procured from various sources, the most important of which are bones and rock phosphate. The best sources of potash are sulphate of potash and unleached wood ashes. The most important and vitalizing element of plant food is available nitrogen. It is the one element of plant food which is requisite to every form of plant life, and it is also the one which is in almost every case deficient. There are few soils that cannot be improved by increas- ing their supply of nitrogen. Therefore the farmer should carefully consider how to feed his plants with this essential element in the most suitable form. Some of the sources of Nitrogen are dried fish, cotton- seed meal, dried blood and tankage. "When these varie- ties of Nitrogen fertilizers are supplied to the soil they are not in the Nitrate form in which Nitrogen is taken up by plants. Before they become available or active as plant food they must be converted by the soil bacteria into Nitrates, but in this natural process of Nitration there is a considerable loss of Nitrogen, besides the loss of time in making the food value of the fertilizer active for the use of the plants. It follows, therefore, that the best practical form to furnish Nitrogen to plants is one in which the process of Nitration has already been completed, and the fertilizer is immediately available as plant food. Nitrate of Soda, which contains the Nitrate necessary for the growth of plants, is not only the best, but the most economical form of Nitrogen fertilizer. Its effects are quick and certain ; there. is no loss of Nitrogen, and it shows 100 per cent availability, as against from 49 to 73 per cent in the other forms of Nitrogen fertilizers which must undergo natural processes of Nitration through the action of soil bacteria. The great superiority of Nitrate of Soda as a form of supplying Nitrogen to the soil has been demonstrated by the most exhaustive and convincing experimental tests conducted in the fields of experiment stations of Europe Nitrate and America. There has, therefore, arisen a widespread as Fer- interest in the question of available supply of Nitrate of tilizer g d a) an( j s . ome rumors have circulated that the supply might soon be exhausted, but investigations as to the conditions in Chile, where the Nitrate beds are located, show that there is an available supply sufficient for the world's use for the next three or four centuries. Part dI' South American Continent. The Coast of Chile in the Foreground. The only available source of supply for the Nitrate of Soda of Commerce is located in Chile, between the 18th and 27th degrees south latitude in the Provinces of Tarapaca and Antofagasta between the coast range and the Andes. The principal deposits are found in a long narrow strip, about two and one-half miles in width, the deposits being from fourteen to forty miles from the Pacific ( )cean. The center of the Nitrate trade is Iquique. The Nitrate is not found in the Nitrate beds in the form in which it comes to market lint in the form of a mineral, which is called " Caliche." The region where this min- eral is found is a rainless desert absolutely devoid of vegetation, and the beds exist at a height of from .3,000 to 5,000 feet above sea level. The raw Nitrate, " Caliche," is not known to exist anywhere else in the ^ e a a t ° world in commercial quantities outside of the district of as Fer- Chile above briefly indicated, and from there the world's l llizer ^. demand, constantly increasing, is supplied through the 9 ports of Iquique and Pisagua. The most satisfactory explanation of the origin of these beds, among the several that have been advanced, is that they have resulted from the decay of enormous quantities of organic matter, particularly sea weed. This probably accumulated in a narrow strip of water and became elevated in the course of ages and, by the pro- cesses of decay and attendant chemical reactions, com- bined with the abundantly present Sulphate of Soda of that region to make the mineral " Caliche " as it is now found to exist. Of this "Caliche" three qualities are recognized, the best containing 40 to 50 per cent Nitrate of Soda, the medium 30 to 40 per cent and the lowest grade 17 to 30 per cent. In the section of the Xitrate region where the most important mining and refining developments are being carried on there is a marked uniformity in the geologi- cal formation. There are a few outcroppings of the " Caliche," which is found, for the greater part, at a depth of two to ten feet. For a depth of about ten inches the ground is covered with a layer of fine sand, and below that a six to ten-foot stratum of a con- glomerate of amorphous porphyry, feldspar, sodium chloride and other mineral matter, cemented into a com- pact mass by gypsum. Beneath this is the stratum of " Caliche," or impure Sodium Xitrate, of rock-like con- sistency, varying in thickness from eighteen inches to twelve feet. Between this and the primitive rock below is a layer of clay, beneath which no more Xitrate appears. As the material is hard, it is necessary in mining it to have recourse to blasting, which is done in a peculiar manner. A hole is drilled through the crust and the " Caliche " to the layer of clay large enough to admit a boy, who is let down and excavates the clay under the " Caliche " so that a blast can be placed as far as pos- sible under the material to be broken up. After the blast Chilean the dislodg'ed mass is broken up into small chunks, which a^Fer* are carried to a crusher, after passing' through which it tiIizer is dissolved in hot water. 10 The refining of " Caliche " and the extraction of the Sodium Nitrate depend upon the fact that Sodium Nitrate is very much more soluble in hot water than in cold, while the solubility of salt in water is but little increased by the higher temperature. The processes of solution, crystallization and the drying of the Sodium Opening Up Trench After Blasting: Showing Extraction of Caliche by Piece Work. Nitrate are familiar chemical processes which complete the transformation of " Caliche " into the Nitrate of Soda, which is shipped in sacks to the nearest ports and thence distributed to all parts of the world. The mother liquor from which the first crop of crystals is taken can be used for dissolving a fresh supply of " Caliche " but it is not practical to use it at the most more than three times, by which time it is strongly charged with the impurities of Sodium Nitrate, it has. however, a further use, being worked over for the Iodine in it. Nearly all the Iodine now coming into the market is a by-product of the process of refining Sodium Nitrate. In many cases Nitrate of Soda can be used without ^i lea t ^ mixing it, with beneficial results to crops, but it has been a s Fer- also largely used in connection with phosphates, potash tilizer and other ingredients in compounding fertilizers. u "While its great value as a plant food causes the great- est consumption of Nitrate of Soda to come from its uses in agriculture, it is being utilized in many important manufacturing industries, including the manufacture of sulphuric acid, nitric acid, Nitrate of Potash, Arsenate of Soda, the manufacture of fireworks explosives and of fusing mixtures, and it also has a part in the purifica- tion of causic soda and manufactures of steel and glass. These industries as well as others demand a large and constantly increasing supply of Sodium Nitrate. There are over twenty different chemical industries of the United States which rely for their profit and success either wholly or in part, upon the facility and cheapness with which they are able to secure Nitrate of Soda. It is recognized that, without sulphuric acid the extension of a large majority of chemical industries in this country would be impossible, and without the use of Nitrate of Soda it would be impossible to manufacture sulphuric acid cheaply. It is therefore extremely fortunate for the chemical industries of this country that they are able to procure, through importation from Chile, Nitrate of Soda in form already prepared for their uses, rather than to be compelled to depend upon slow laboratory processes to secure an adequate supply of this most necessary material. Great, however, as is the value of Nitrate of Soda in the chemical and industrial arts, it is still true that its greatest field of usefulness is in connection with agri- culture. Although there has been a most wonderful development of practical agricultural education in the United States during the past few decades, the fact still remains that this country is far behind Europe in arriv- ing at a solution of the problem of soil exhaustion. That this is so is amply established by comparison of average yields per acre of staple crops. The following figures, showing the average yield per acre of wheat and Chilean cm f s - m y^ United States, Germany and England, are Nitrate . ' •' ° as Fer- very significant: tilizer Wheat Oats 12 United States 14 30 Germany 28 48 England 33 45 Tims Germany is a hundred per cent better in wheat and 60 per cent, better in oats than the United States, and England is 135 per cent better in wheat and 50 per cent better in oats than the United States. This is not due Caliche Ready for Transport to Olicina. to any intrinsic superiority in the quality of land in the European countries but is due to a wise appreciation of the truth, forced upon the Europeans by experience, that every crop despoils the soil and takes out of it some food element which must be returned to it if agriculture is to lie successfully followed. The preceding figures given above are by no means exceptional, as similar contrasts obtain for other crops. Exhausted soil is no longer a terror to European farmers, whose rational use of fertilizers enables them lo successfully cultivate what, without them, would have to be '■' abandoned farms," a designation far too familiar in our own land. e In this soil conservation a very important factor has $ T h J lea , n • '-n -i vt-a i • i Nitrate been extensive consumption ol Unilean JNitrate wmcii as Fer- Europe has freely accepted, now taking over 1,000,000 tffizer^ tons per annum on an acreage, outside of Russia, which 13 is smaller than is under cultivation in the United States, which takes less than 300,000 tons per annum for agri- cultural purposes. The discrepancy is still greater when it is considered that continued care in soil feeding by European farmers makes their need far less than ours. There is some encouragement in the fact, however, that our American Exterior of Iodine House and Water Deposit-Tanks. consumption of Chilean Nitrate has more than doubled in the past decade. There is no reason why the American farmer should not be able not only to equal but to surpass his old world competitor in capacity for grain production by adopting his methods of soil improvement and conservation. It would mean a wonderful increase of general prosperity by such enlargement in production of our staple crops. It would afford abundant employment for labor, much better returns to the farmer and would help largely to the solution of the much discussed problem of high cost Chilean f hvinsr, about which so much discussion is heard at this Nitrate ,. °' as Fer- time. tiller The completion of the Panama Canal will put the 14 United States, and especially the Gulf and Atlantic sea- boards, in much better touch with the sources of supply of this wonderful fertilizing material, the demand for and use of which will without doubt greatly increase when the distance of the supply is cut in two by the canal. Some of the results of experimentation with Nitrate of Soda have produced results which are astounding. The following figures tabulate facts established by the highest agricultural authorities, who have found that General View of Nitrate and Iodine Plant. 100 pounds per acre of Nitrate of Soda applied to crops lias produced these increased yields: Barley 400 lbs. of grain Corn 280 lbs. of grain < >ats 400 lbs. of grain Rye 300 lbs. of grain Wheat 300 lbs. of grain Potatoes 3,600 lbs. tubers Hay, upwards of 1,000 lbs. barn cured Cotton 500 lbs. seed cotton ''Sugar Beets 4,000 lbs. tubers Beets 4,900 lbs. tubers Sweet Potatoes 3,900 lbs. tubers Cabbages 6,100 lbs. Chilean Nitrate as Fer- tilizer 15 Subliming Retort in Iodine House. Carrots 7,800 lbs. Turnips 37 per cent Strawberries 200 quarts Onions 1,800 lbs. . 100 bunches Chilean Tomatoes 100 baskets as ]i^ r ! Celery 30 per cent tflfaer Hops 100 lbs. 16 Many are the testimonies from all parts of the world as to the valuable results to be achieved by judicious use of this wonderful supply. Fortunately, although it is all in one locality, it is there in such quantities that no country need worry about the lasting source of supply. The lowest estimates from the producing district indi- cate a supply sufficient for 200 years to come, while others put the figures at twice that period. The Chilean Nitrate beds constitute one of the most wonderful examples of a beneficent provision of nature for a world-wide need of mankind. No other such source of supply exists anywhere, and it is doubtful if there is any other. Had such an upheaval occurred anywhere else, it is not probable the beds of Nitrates would have been preserved, for absence of rain until the deposit had been covered up was a necessity, as one good rain would have dissolved it and sent it down into the valley below. There are few countries without rain, and in none of the desert places necessary for the storage of such deposits as this are any known in Nitrate beds. There has been in this country a great advance made in knowledge of the principles of fertilization of plant life, but there is much more to learn. When there is a general recognition of the availability of this ready made Chilean depository of the most valuable of the plant foods and tonics, it will be a most beneficial thing not only for those that learn the lesson, but also for the country at large. In 1900 the consumption of Nitrate in this country was 180,000 tons. For the twelve months ending June 30, 1911, the consumption was over 500,000 tons. This nearly trebled increase in the use of Nitrate as a fertilizer in the United States is almost entirely due to the work of the Nitrate Propaganda. The work, entirely missionary in its nature, has been carried on largely through the medium of the farm papers, all the advertising having been done with the view of impress- ing the farmer with the importance of fertilizers in general and Nitrate in particular. There has been no attempt by the Nitrate Propaganda jj^JJJ to reach fertilizer dealers, but its persistent campaign as Fer- has so opened the eyes of the farmers to the need of tilizer Nitrate and they have so persistently asked for it that 17 dealers all over the United States now sell it. Despite its wide distribution only a small part of the possible field of demand for Nitrate is yet developed, and it is not hazardous to predict that during the next ten years the consumption of Chilean Nitrate will increase in even greater ratio than that of the decade just closed. Interior of Iodine House; Packing Iodine in Kegs. The advertising by the Propaganda is being continued, and new books on the cultivation of crops and their cor- rect fertilization are being edited and published. These books, based upon experiments by practical farmers and by experts at Agricultural Experiment Stations, are. pub- lished for the purpose of showing the farmers how to make farming the one best occupation and to make clear the part that Nitrate plays in it. mtarte Tllis literature is scientific and authoritative; as Fer- designed not to sell goods for profit, but to promote tiiizer ani0T1 g farmers the use of the one profitable source of 18 the great plant food — available Nitrogen. Many* million dollars have been invested by the United States Government in building the Panama Canal. The development of Pan-American trade and the opening of new markets in South America for the manufactures of this country, all confirm the wisdom of the heavy investment in the Panama Canal. The largest item in its South American trade is the Nitrate of Soda of Chile. A government project for the manufacture of Air Nitrate, in effect, proposes to cut out this most important item of commerce with South America, and would cut down the canal tonnage materially. It would seem to be wise for our Government to pro- vide for the storage of supplies of Nitrate of Chile, as Germany did so successfully; and it would also seem to be wise to promote the building of the longitudinal rail- way from Kansas City to Buenos Aires and Valparaiso. Both of these projects would tend to insure supplies of Nitrate of Soda against the exigencies of war, and, at the same time, tend to promote the solidarity of the two continents. That we should be prepared to help our Southern neighbors against invasion on either coast, at all times, is too obvious for argument. Would not a Longitudinal Railway be the greatest single factor in preparedness? The Central Empires of Europe imported from Chile in the five years ended December 31, 191-t, an unheard of tonnage of Nitrate of Soda amounting to about 5,000,000 tons. The area of the Central Empires is hardly greater than the combined areas of California and Texas. These Empires imported more than all the rest of Europe for the period named. It is not improbable that a large amount of this is held in reserve in Germany, and it is reported privately that no Chilean Nitrate would be permitted to be used there in agriculture for some time to come. The Cultivation of CITRUS FRUITS A Short Treatise with Special Reference to Fertilization. PUBLISHED BY William S. Myers, d.sc, f.c.s., Director, Chilean Nitrate Propaganda. Late of New Jersey State Agricultural College. 25 Madison Avenue, New York; U. S. A. PREFACE The following leading authorities, among others, have been consulted in the preparation of this work: 1. California Fruits and How to Grow Them; by Edward J. Wickson, A. M. 2. Citrus Fruit Growing in the Gulf States; by P. H. Rolfs ; Farmers' Bulletin No. 238, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 3. Citrus Fruit Culture; by J. W. Mills; Bulletin No. 138, Uni- versity of California, Agricultural Experiment Station. 4. Twenty-second Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of California. 5. Annual Report of the Porto Rico Agricultural Experiment Station, 1904; by D. W. May; U. S. Department of Agri- culture, Office of Experiment Stations. 6. Propagation and Marketing of Oranges in Porto Rico; by H. C. Henricksen; Bulletin No. 4, Porto Rico Agricultural Experiment Station. 7. Citrus Fruits in Hawaii; by J. E. Higgins; Bulletin No. 9, Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station. 8. Pomelos; by H. Harold Hume; Bulletin No. 58, Florida Agricultural Experiment Station; Jacksonville, Fla., 1901. 9. El Naranjo; por el Dr. B. Alino. 10. Tratado completo del Naranjo; por Prof. B. Giner Alino. WILLIAM S. MYERS. The Cultivation of Citrus Fruits A Short Treatise with Special Reference to Fertilization The cultivation of citrus fruits forms an important Industry in extensive districts of California as well as in Florida and sections of Louisiana and Mississippi; it has established itself in Hawaii and it has passed the experimental stage in PoTto Rico and elsewhere in the West Indies. Although successful fruit-growing is a highly re- munerative pursuit, much is required to insure success. Good judgment, with expert knowledge, needs to be ex- ercised in the selection of soil and location, in the choice of stock and bud, in the cultivation and fertilization of the grove, in the treatment of diseases and in the picking, packing and marketing of the crop. The variety of conditions prevailing in the wide regions over which citrus fruits may be cultivated with profit, extending, as these do, from about 35° North Latitude on the Pacific Coast of the United States to about 18° North Latitude, or well within the Tropics, renders it impracticable to lay down rules of unvarying application for their culture in all districts. All that can be undertaken within the limits of this brief treatise is to indicate certain principles applicable to the rational prac- tice of horticulture, wherever exercised, and to make sug- gestions regarding soils, climatic conditions, selection of varieties, suitable fertilization, methods of cultivation, and the rest, that may afford general guidance. Again, although the orange may be taken as a repre- sentative type, in many respects, of the other members of the group of citrus fruits, and notably in regard to their requirements in the matter of soils and cultural methods, special treatment in certain particulars is re- Cultivation of Citrus Fruits The quired for the profitable cultivation of lemons, limes and r pomelos, and these will, accordingly, be separately touched upon. Climatic Conditions Climatic conditions must be a primary consideration in the selection of a locality for fruit-growing on a com- mercial scale. It may be stated generally that the winter tempera- ture should not fall below 26° to 27° F. of continued cold, although a temperature of as low as 24° F., if not continued for more than a few hours at a time, will be withstood by orange trees when in a dormant condition. In Florida, the danger point of cold is regarded as being 28° F. for fruit and 24° F. for foliage. The mean temperature of seasons is of more im- portance than the mean temperature of the year. In other words, the relative distribution of heat over the sea- sons, rather than the absolute amount received during the year, is that which determines the fitness or unfitness of the climate of a district for the growing of citrus fruits. The rainfall should not be excessive; certainly not more than 50 to 70 inches annually. Heavy rainfall is especially a disadvantage if it occurs at the time when the trees should be dormant preparatory to blooming, or at the season when the fruit has to be marketed. Thus, citrus fruit orchards should never be planted where autumn and vrinter rains are the rule, as on the rainy side of islands in the West Indies. The orange tree requires a regulated water supply ; without this it will yield poor fruit. The site should be sufficiently elevated above the low ground of the region to secure free drainage and immunity from frosts ; whilst, where irrigation must be practised, the plantation should be so located that water is easy of access and distribution. Soils Although citrus trees will adapt themselves to al- most any kind of soil, the orange tree in particular thrives best in a deep, moderately rich and permeable The . soil; one fairly retentive of moisture and yet not heavy enough to prevent escape of excessive rainfall. It should be light enough to work readily and yet not so loose as to dry out rapidly. Sub-strata of hard-pan or of sand and gravel must be carefully avoided, and examination for such defects should be made before laying out a plantation. The orange tree prefers a deep siliceous loam with some lime and clay, and with capacity for necessary irrigation. Its lightness and depth allow the root system of the tree to extend and develop easily, thus inducing rapid growth; the cultivation of such soil re- quires but little labour and can be carried to a sufficient depth, so that deep rooting is promoted; whilst the in- jurious extremes of drought and water-logging are avoided. At the same time, it is undoubtedly true that whilst rich alluvial soils produce citrus trees of luxuriant growth, which often bear enormous crops, the finest and choicest fruits may be produced upon soils of a much lower grade of fertility. As Rolfs has remarked : "In fertile soils the plant food is seldom properly balanced and present in the condition best suited for producing the finest fruits, nor is it possible to influence the contents or quality of the fruit by applying different forms of chemical fertilizers. If, therefore, a field is normally sufficiently fertile to produce a citrus crop for an. indefinite number of years, it is usually impossible to influence the quality of fruit markedly by means of fertilizers. Upon soils which are nearly sterile, however, trees may be started and fed with just such chemicals as will produce the finest quality of fruit. It there- fore happens that soils which formerly were considered absolutely worthless for agricultural purposes are now made to produce large crops of most excellent fruit."* We are not prepared to endorse to their full logical sequence the views thus expressed; but, with certain limitations, they serve to inculcate forcibly the value at- taching to the skilled employment of chemical fertilizers in the production of high-class fruits. Selection of Varieties No variety of citrus is suitable for cultivation in all regions of what may be termed the citrus belt. Thus, Cultivation of Citrus Fruits Citrus Fruits 8 The the navel orange, which is pre-eminently adapted for C n?Z?i°l°l California, is of but little value in Florida. On the other hand, certain varieties of pomelo are of exquisite flavour when fruited in Florida, but are not of the same excel- lence when grown in California. It is essential, there- fore, to test in the district in which it is to be grown the particular variety which it is desired to introduce. Indeed, so much will depend upon local conditions and market requirements, that we consider it to be inad- visable to make specific recommendations under this head. Suffice it to say that the choicest varieties, capable at the same time of heavy yields, and those taking a permanently prominent place in the market are, prima facie, those which should be selected. Preparation of the Land Clearing should be thorough; everything that would interfere with good cultivation should be re- moved; roots should be grubbed; the ground should be levelled, and, where needed, provision should be made for drainage and irrigation. The soil should be broken up and reduced to a fine tilth, which will permit of careful planting and staking. In most cases it is advisable to grow a field crop the first year ; better cultivation and aeration of the soil is thereby secured and any sprouting from old roots is killed out. The orange in particular should have full possession of the soil immediately surrounding it, undisputed by grass, weeds or other trees. Its success will be indif- ferent under the "hole-in-the-grass" method of cultiva- tion. Propagation and Choice of Stocks for Budding The orange cannot be trusted to come true from seed, and for fruiting purposes seedlings may be re- garded as unprofitable to plant. Growth from the seed is now, however, the method almost exclusively followed for the production of stocks for budding, to the ex- elusion of growth from cutting or from layers, and it is The by far the best. Cultivation oi J . _ Citrus Fruits In growing orange seedlings, good plump seed r should be selected and it should never be allowed to dry. Unless it is to be sown at once, it should be mixed with moist sand for storing. The best time for sowing is after the soil has become warmed in the spring. The choice of seedling stocks for budding is a mat- ter of primary importance. A deep root system and broadly extending laterals, not too near the surface, are essentials to the ideal stock. It has been said by so eminent an authority as Wickson (California Fruits, Chapter XXX, p. 356) that "the orange root is the best foundation for an orange tree, and the seed of the seedling sweet orange is the main reliance." The sweet-orange, however, would appear to be a surface-growing stock which has few deeply penetrating • roots. In the University of Cali- fornia Experiment Station trials, the sour-orange stock has been found to be decidedly hardier, and in every way better than the sweet-orange stock. But the pomelo is deservedly becoming the favorite stock in southern California. Its laterals are found at a greater depth than the laterals of the sweet-orange; it produces more fibrous roots than does either of the other stocks, and the tree is consequently a ravenous feeder. It has succeeded better at the Experiment Station of the University of California than has the sour stock, which seems to lack uniformity of root growth, sometimes hav- ing but few laterals, in which case the crops are small. Pomelo seedlings are said also to have made the best growth in the nursery. Seedlings are grown either in boxes or in the open ground ; in either case a rich sandy loam, which will not bake, should be secured. The seedlings appear in about six weeks, and with good care in weeding and in keeping sufficiently — but not excessively — moist, they will make a growth of about a foot in the first season. Cultivation of Citrus Fruits 10 Th « Planting out in the nursery should be done as soon as the ground is thoroughly warmed in the spring, when the seedlings are about a year old. The distance between the rows in the nursery should be at least four feet, to allow of horse cultivation. A dis- tance of 18 inches between the plants in the rows will permit of the roots being sacked, or otherwise protected, when the plants are to be removed to the plantation. In taking the seedlings from the seed bed, a few should be lifted at a time, and it is essential that their roots be kept shaded and moist until the ground closes on them in the nursery row. It is important to have an even stand in the nursery, and weak plants should be rejected. The seedling trees are very susceptible to injury by frost, and it is wise to give them some sort of protection during the winter. The young plants are usually budded after being one or two years in the nursery, or at two to three years from the sowing of the seed. At a convenient time in the winter, the lower shoots and thorns are removed, so as to leave a clear stem of about six inches for the con- venience of the budder. The best season at which to bud is about the time when the seedling is starting into vigorous growth in the spring. In general it may be said, however, that bud- ding on good citrus stock may be done at any time of the year when the bark of the stock separates easily from the wood. This always indicates a strong flow of sap. The buds must be taken from a vigorous, healthy tree of the variety desired. Good well-matured buds only should be used; those from both the base and the tip of shoots are frequently defective. Spring buds start into growth almost immediately, and have the benefit of the whole summer season for developing and maturing wood. After the bud has made a good start, the top of the stock should be removed at a short distance above it, and suckers on the old stock should be continually looked for and removed. The tender shoot of the bud is protected by tying to the stub, and when the growth of the bud has become sufficiently strong to allow of its supporting itself, the old stock is smoothly sawn away and the The j , .,, j,. . . . ' Cultivation of wound covered with grafting wax, or paint. Citrus Fruits Probably, however, a better practice is to supply ~ n supporting stakes at once, and to cut the stocks close in lopping, as, when this is done, the buds are said to make more rapid growth. Budded trees are given one or two years' growth in the nursery and one or two years' growth on the bud, which, added to the year in the seed bed, makes them three to five years of age from the sowing of the seed before they are ready for planting out in the orchard. To cut a bud properly is not altogether a simple operation ; indeed the whole process of budding is one which requires skill and practical experience, and it would be scarcely possible to give here intelligible and adequate directions for performing it with assurance of success. Setting Out The number of trees to be set out to the acre will depend on the variety selected and the character of the land. Citrus trees such as pomelos and the Bahia and Tardiff sweet oranges, as well as lemons and navel oranges, should not be set closer than 75 to the acre, and 60 to the acre will prove better in the long run. Smaller growing varieties, such as the mandarin group of oranges and the limes, should not be set closer than 200 trees to the acre. In a sandy loam, rich in organic matter, the trees grow much more vigorously, and should be set farther apart. In heavy clay soils, their growth is less luxuriant, and they may be set nearer together. On the whole, the best arrangement of the trees is that of planting in hexagons, as shown in the adjoining figure. The Cultivation of Citrus Fruits 12 This method allows of fifteen per cent, more trees than setting in squares, and the ground can be worked in three different direc- tions. It also gives better facilities for irrigation. The orange, in common with other evergreen trees, is extremely sensitive to exposure of its roots, and for this reason special precau- tions have to be taken in handling the young trees in the process of transplantation. The manner of handling will depend in a great measure upon the char- acter of the nursery soil. Sacking and balling is, no doubt, the method to be preferred, but it requires a cer- tain degree of adhesiveness in the soil. Lifting from the nursery when the soil is too dry, exposure of roots, or careless planting, will condemn the tree to a slow and sickly growth, and often kill it outright. The practice of reducing the top to compensate for the loss of roots in removal, is essential, but care must be taken not to carry it too far, lest subsequent growth be thereby checked. Fertilization Judicious fertilization is essential to the intensive culture of citrus fruits. Cultivation, pruning and irri- gation, necessary as they are to the success of the plan- tation, fail in their object — once the natural fertility of the land is exhausted or sensibly reduced — if the plant food absorbed from the soil be not replaced. The removal from the soil of the constituents of a succession of crops brings about sooner or later, sterility or exhaustion of the soil from default of nitrogen, phos- phoric acid, potash and lime; and this sterility or ex- haustion cannot be prevented or remedied by any system of cultivation. Field operations carried out with thor- oughness do, indeed, restore to the surface soil the ele- ments of fertility which the rains wash down into the 13 sub-soil, they hasten their solubility and prepare them £he for assimilation by the plant, but they replace nothing, citrus Fniits It is indispensable, therefore, to make good the deficit, and, by means other than cultivation, to restore to the soil what the crops have removed from it. On this fact is based the use of fertilizers, and fertilizing intelligently is one of the secrets of successful fruit growing. Barn-yard manure used in moderate quantities will restore to the soil, to some extent, the elements removed from it by continuous cropping, but in the case of citrus fruits it will not be adequate to increase produc- tion; employed in greater quantity and to an ex- cessive extent, its effects may be rather injurious than favourable, since it gives rise to all the evils attendant upon the application of organic nitrogen in too large proportion because of derangements it produces in the physical, chemical and biological constitution of the soil. Moreover, although barn-yard manure is, in a gen- eral sense, termed a complete manure, it does not, when employed alone, satisfy the requirements of citrus trees, inasmuch as the quantity of some of its constituents needs to be supplemented if heavy yields and healthy vegetation are to be maintained. Fortunately, the rational application of fertilizers is daily becoming better understood, and the grower is now in a position, by the aid of chemical fertilizers, to raise the yield of his plantation to a maximum, and, at the same time, to secure for his trees that vigour of growth which enables them to resist unfavourable cli- matic conditions and parasitic attacks. Judicious fertilization is essential to profitable re- sults in the culture of citrus fruits; and the grower should be the less inclined to stint outlay in the purchase of fertilizers when needed, because he may be certain of obtaining highly remunerative returns in the yield and quality of the crop. The orange tree, in particular, is one that responds well to generous treatment by producing fruit of the highest quality and in enorm- ous quantity. 14 Potash Lime 0.32 0.43 0.32 0.71 0.58 0.80 The -jo fertilize rationally, it is necessary to take into C c£s Fmitf account the nature of the soil, the composition of the m - plant, its food requirements, the quantity and constitu- ents of the crop and the conditions of vegetation. Ac- quainted with these, we are able to determine what are the elements that have to be supplied and in what pro- portion. The chemical composition of the orange tree — as well as that of the citrus fruits generally — is complex, and varies somewhat widely, but the following, which represents the mean of a large number of analyses, will serve as a guide in the employment of fertilizers: Analysis of Orange Trees In 100 Parts Nitrogen Ph °l^ d oric Fruit 0.32 0.38 Leaves 0.70 0.10 Trunk and branches 0.70 0.43 These data clearly indicate that no one element dis- tinctly dominates the others ; for while lime is present in large quantities, it is also present in the soil in larger quantities. It. too, may be depleted by crops and must be replaced. In the case of trees, like those of the citrus group, whose foliage is perennial, and which are of compara- tively slow growth and subjected to only limited prun- ing, the elements of fertility consumed in the formation of leaf and wood are relatively small in quantity, and the greater part of the plant-food assimilated is ex- pended upon the fruit. Thus, in determining the nature and quantity of the manures to be applied, the produc- tion of fruit is the principal factor to be taken into ac- count in ari'iving at the volume of plant-foods abstracted from the soil and consequently having to be replaced. Let us suppose that an acre of orange plantation (about 100 trees) produces twelve tons of fruit. Ac- cording to the analysis given above, this crop will con- tain: Nitrogen 85 lbs. The Phosphoric Acid 102 " Cultivation of Potash 85 It will be necessary, then, to restore these elements to the soil, in one form or another, if the trees are not to suffer from want of nourishment and to cease to pro- duce maximum crops of good quality. On the basis of the foregoing figures, the typical formula of chemical manures, per acre of orange trees, will be : Nitrate of Soda 560 lbs. Superphosphate of Lime (16% soluble phosphoric acid) . . .612 Sulphate of Potash 170 " Obviously, however, this general formula must not be adopted without reference to specific conditions; it must be modified to meet the requirements of each par- ticular case, according to the nature of the soil and the state of vegetation in the plantation. When lime is needed for the element calcium, as chemical analysis will show, or to correct acidity, as the litmus paper test will indicate, apply lime carbonate or hydrate. In California the application of lime to soils when necessary, as shown by chemical tests of the soil, should generally be made in the fall of the year, or if plowing is impracticable during that period of the year, in the spring at the time when the cover crop is plowed under. The fact that lime hastens the decay of organic matter makes it desirable to use it in the fall of the year when it can be plowed under and prior to the planting of the cover crop, rather than at a time when the cover crop is being plowed under, since the humus, being so valu- able in California soils and so small in quantity in most of them, should be conserved in every possible way. With reference to the gypsum applications it must be said that these are useful in small quantities to neu- tralize any black alkali. There is only one other use of gypsum of great moment and that is in the loosening of heavy clay soils which need improvement in texture. For such purposes the gypsum should be applied at the Citrus Fruits IS Cultivation of Citrus Fruits M5- Th * same time that the lime is applied and where lime alone can be employed for the above purposes it should be given the preference. The formulae which are indicated later on are based upon that given above, modified in accordance with the particular requirements of the plantation. In the first place, the composition of the soil has to be taken into account. To ascertain this requires a delicate analysis, which only a chemist can make; but the assurance which such an analysis affords in the applica- tion of fertilizers renders it of great importance to the horticulturist. The cost of it will be repaid in a single season by economies following upon a close determina- tion of the nature and quantities of the fertilizers to be employed. In default of an analysis, however, a knowledge of the physical qualities of soils is of much utility. A clay soil may be assumed to be rich in potash but may be poor in phosphoric acid ; a calcareous or limey soil may, on the other hand, generally be rich in phosphoric acid ; sandy soils in regions of summer rainfall are almost always poor in plant foods, but in arid regions may be very fertile. Soils laden with organic matter — rich in humus — contain abundant nitrogen, although it is not always in a form in which it is assimilable by plants. It is the horticulturist's business to help make it available by maintaining good moisture and air conditions in the soil. The typical formula will have, therefore, to be modified, more or less, according to the nature of the soil; the elements which are deficient or abound in the latter being increased or diminished correspondingly. As a general rule, most soils may be deficient in phos- phates, and therefore it will almost always be safe, if not necessary, to increase the quantity of the phosphatie fertilizer indicated in the general formula. In the case of trees of the citrus family, an excess of nitrogen induces an exuberant production of wood and leaf, at the same time that the fruit is rendered thick in rind and puffy. In soils already rich in organic matter, organic The nitrogen, as found in cotton-seed meal, dried blood, C^watiotvo guano, barn-yard manure, etc., is especially apt to bring — — — — — about a soft, rapid growth, and in certain regions, a7 especially in Florida, its continued use is likely to give rise to "die-back." From what has been said it will be sufficiently ob- vious that no one of the three indispensable plant foods — nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash — fulfills by itself the essentials of a complete fertilizer ; each is the comple- ment of the others, each modifies the action of the others, and conjointly and in suitable proportions they supply the food wants of the jplants. The general formula which has been indicated pre- supposes that the trees to which the fertilizer is to be ap- plied are large, in full bearing, and yielding a crop of about twelve tons of oranges per acre. If the plantation be capable of a heavier yield, on account of its maturity or from the variety being a prolific one, or owing to the nature of the soil, the advantages of the site, facilities for irrigation, the climate, etc., the quantities of the several fertilizers may be judiciously increased until the limit of production is found to have been reached. On the other hand, if the plantation is naturally one capable of producing only moderate yields, the trees of medium size and facilities for irrigation absent, the same combination of fertilizers must be employed, but the applications must be less in quantity ; and in deter- mining that quantity the skill and judgment of the grower will come in. Superphosphate of lime, containing not less than 14 to 16 per cent, of phosphoric acid, is to be preferred as the phosphatic element in the fertilizer on account of its ready solubility and relative cheapness. In soils dis- tinctly deficient in lime Thomas Phosphate (basic slag) may in many cases be substituted with advantage.. If basic slag be used, a somewhat larger quantity of it should be applied than is prescribed in the case of the employment of superphosphate of lime. It is frequently well to divide the phosphate application into two parts and use superphosphate in the spring and bone meal in the fall. <>•-■:''' - ; ; .--/; Citrus Fruits 18 The Of potash salts, it is advisable to use only the sul- Cuitivation of p^ate ; it being the opinion of many experienced groAvers that the sulphate yields better results. Experiments carried out during the past few years indicate that Nitrate of Soda is the best source of nitro- genous food for the orange tree. And here it must be borne in mind that Nitrogen, from whatever source de- rived, must be in the form of a nitrate to be assimilable by the vegetable organism. Thus, if fertilizers contain- ing organic nitrogen, or sulphate of ammonia — which yields ammoniacal nitrogen — be employed, the nitrogen which they contain has to undergo in the soil a natural process known as Nitrification, in connection with the action of minute organisms which convert the ammonia- cal or organic nitrogen of the manures into nitric acid and nitrates. For this conversion more or less time is required, and, whilst the processes last, losses occur by the giving off of free nitrogen, which the plants are unable to utilize and which is lost in the atmosphere. To illustrate these facts, it may be mentioned that horn shavings and Nitrate of Soda contain, in equal weights, about the same quantity of nitrogen, and never- theless their value as fertilizers is very different. The nitrogen of the nitrate of soda is in a form in which it is immediately assimilable by plants, whilst that contained, in organic form, in the horn shavings nitrifies slowly, three or four years being required for the completion of the process. The like is the case with barn-yard manure and all other animal or vegetable manures, although the nitrification of the organic nitrogen of some of them is completed in the course of two years or less. The ammonia in sulphate of ammonia becomes available irregularly, a fact still more marked in the case of dried bood and the various forms of tankage. One hundred pounds of Nitrate of Soda contains as much Nitrogen as 3,000 pounds of good farmyard ma- nure, and the latter is not nearly so effective when the plant needs Nitrogen immediately. It must be remem- bered that the orange is a continuous feeder; it has no dormant period such as the majority of fruit trees use for recuperation. 19 When we remember that 15 to 16 per cent, of the The . weight of nitrate of soda of ordinary commercial purity ci^y^",." (95%) is represented by Nitrogen, and that 1 cwt. of it - therefore contains as much nitrogen as ultimately be- comes available from the decomposition of a ton and a half of rich barn-yard manure, the activity and rapidity of action of this fertilizer, and at the same time the con- trpl which the cultivator is able to exercise over its ef- fects, are readily to be understood. Another important characteristic of Nitrate of Soda is the freedom with which it permeates the soil. Thg roots have not to wait for nitrogenous food until they can grow down to it, neither have they to seek it immediately beneath the surface, to the encouragement of shallow rooting; and, as a consequence, plantations dressed with Nitrate of Soda suffer less from drought than those deriving their nitrogen from other sources. Although the intensive cultivation of citrus fruits can he carried on better with the aid of chemical fer- tilizers, the application of organic manures to the plan- tation should not be omitted, if only as a means of maintaining the mechanical condition of the soil. Where barn-yard manure is at disposal, it should be spread over the grove lightly, so that each tree receives only a small amount. Good results are also to be obtained by plow- ing under, every second or third year, a leguminous crop. On the lighter soils this is advisable every year. The experience of California growers and that of the State Experiment Station would seem to indicate that the vetch vicia sative, or vetch and barley or rye are the best cover crops for the citrus grove. Other legumes, however, like the Canadian field pea or the horse bean, may succeed as well or better where cooler winters are the rule. They, too, may be used together with the cereals. Cover crops should be plowed under as soon as the growth is large enough, without sacrificing the moisture condition of the soil to a larger mass of organic matter. The legumes make a deep root growth and gather Nitrogen from the air, and the cereals help to make a Wrger tonnage of organic matter. Tlie Apart from the benefit of its mechanical action on C c?tra?Fmitf the soi1 ' or g anic manure thus applied yields up the — * ^ products of its decomposition little by little, thereby steadily maintaining the food supply of the tree; and when the energies of the latter have to be brought to a maximum for the production of a heavy crop, the appli- cation of the readily assimilable chemical fertilizers pro- duces its effect with greater certainty and at the required vegetative period. Young Orange Trees The first necessity for these is rapid development of the trunk and foliage; the following is a suitable dressing : Nitrate of Soda 350 lbs. Acid Phosphate 350 " Sulphate of Potash 100 " Fine Dry Loam . 200 " 1000 " Composition: — Available Nitrogen 5.25 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 5.60 per cent. ; available potash 4.80 per cent. Application at the rate of 1000 pounds per acre. The application should be increased to the full dressing as the yield of fruit becomes more abundant. Old Orange Trees, Mandarin Oranges, Grape Fruit and Lemons Old orange trees contain much fixed lime in the trunk and branches, and they need to have activity im- parted to the sap, foliation and florescence. The follow- ing formula will be a suitable one for soils poor in Nitrogen. For soils rich in Nitrogen, one-half the amount of Nitrate of Soda applied in the spring will suffice : Nitrate of Soda 375 lbs. The Acid Phosphate 435 " Cultivation of Sulphate of Potash 90 Citrus Fruits Fine Dry Loam 100 " 21 1000 " Composition: — Available Nitrogen 5.62 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 7.96 per cent. ; available potash 4.32 per cent. Application at the rate of 1600 pounds per acre. Adult Orange Trees of sickly vegetation Orange trees the produce of which is scanty and the vegetation sickly and affected by chlorosis are distinctly benefited by the application of a full dressing of Nitrate of Soda. The following are the constituents of a suit- able fertilizer: Nitrate of Soda 450 lbs. Acid Phosphate 225 " Sulphate of Potash 125 " Fine Dry Loam 200 " 1000 " Composition: — Available Nitrogen 6.75 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 3.60 per cent. ; available potash 6.00 per cent. Application at the rate of 1550 pounds per acre. Both with this class and with old trees, once they have recovered themselves and regained normal develop- ment, the total quantity of the fertilizers should be di- minished by 15 or 20 per cent. Trees producing much wood, foliage and flower, but little Fruit Until of late years it has been the practice to dress such trees exclusively with phosphates and potash salts, it being generally believed that nitrogenous manures in- creased the tendency to defective fructification. Careful observation has led to this view being dis- carded. Citrus Fruits 22 The it i s rare to find an orange plantation that does not Cultivation of con t a i n trees of this character, which, whatever dressing and cultivation they may receive, continue to bear scantily. Recourse is now usually had to re-grafting, or "working-over," and the abundant yields frequently ob- tained by this means afford proof that some other cause than food deficiency had induced the partial barrenness. Mandarin Oranges This variety is a greedy feeder and requires an ample supply of manures; but, as it is of less size and yields smaller crops than the ordinary species, it requires proportionately reduced quantities of the several fer- tilizers. When in full bearing, mandarins should receive, per acre, fertilizers in accordance with the following formula : Nitrate of Soda 450 lbs. Superphosphate of Lime 500 " Sulphate of Potash 100 " Nurseries of Orange Trees Previous to planting, there should be thoroughly incorporated with the soil, for every 100 square yards: Well-rotted barn-yard manure 1000 lbs. Superphosphate of Lime 50 " Sulphate of Potash 20 " In spring, 50 pounds of Nitrate of Soda should be broadcasted over the same area. In the second year, the same application may be re- peated with the exception of the barn-yard manure. For the seed plot, a heavy dressing of barn-yard manure, with the addition of a moderate application of superphosphate of lime, will suffice. In spring, the plot should be watered frequently with a solution of one-half ounce of nitrate of soda in a gallon of water. It should be borne in mind that increased applica- tions of fertilizers will not necessarily produce increased yields, and that, once the limits are reached of what the The , plant can assimilate — and those limits are approximately ^""'""f of represented by the quantities indicated in the formulae "-i- given above — any surplus that may be employed will be 23 unproductive of good and economical results. Time and manner of application of fertilizers If any barn-yard manure is to be applied, it should be turned under at the time of the ploughing which is usually done shortly after the crop is gathered. The superphosphate and potash salts should be cultivated in during the dormant season of the trees, or, at latest, sometime before active vegetation commences in the spring. The Nitrate of Soda should be broad-casted in three successive dressings, as follows: A third-part in Feb- ruary; another third-part in March, and the remaining third-part about the end of April. After each* dressing, shallow cultivation and irrigation may follow with ad- vantage, but the grower's judgment must here be exer- cised, taking into consideration the mechanical condition of his soil, the rainfall of the season and the drainage conditions. When and how to use Sulphate of Lime In heavy, ill-drained soils, sulphate of lime equal in weight to the Nitrate of Soda applied, should be incor- porated in the formula to offset any possibility of the formation of black alkali from the sodium residues. If the foregoing directions are acted on, the planta- tion will have been adequately fertilized before the trees come into flower, the food materials will be fully utilized, and florescence will develop uniformly and be apt for fertilization. Fertilizers should not be applied during the flower- ing period, lest an uneven flow of sap be induced and fructification be interfered with. Earlier or later maturity of the crop depends upon the period at which the fertilizers are applied, since the 24 The earlier the nutritive principles are taken up and assimi- Cultivation of i ate( j 5 t h e more q U i c kiy they are accumulated in the fruit, ul - and the earlier will its development he completed. Accordingly, if early ripening is desired, the appli- cation of the last dressing of Nitrate of Soda should be earlier; if, on the other hand, it is wished to retard the maturity of the fruit, the application of this dressing must be correspondingly delayed. The fertilizers should be evenly distributed over the entire area beneath the branches of the trees, with the exception of a circle of about two feet from the trunk, which should be protected by a ridge of earth from con- tact with the manures and water. This manner of appli- cation is essential, as the fertilizers act almost exclusively through the fine absorbent rootlets. Irrigation Citrus trees require liberal supplies of moisture. The exact quantity of water necessary cannot be stated, since it will vary with the character of the soil, the dis- tribution of the rainfall, and the care taken in its con- servation in the soil. In California irrigation is general, the number of ap- plications varying from three to eight yearly. The best practice can be determined only by the grower himself after a study of local conditions. Irrigation by furrows as deep and narrow as prac- ticable has been strongly recommended by Professor Hilgard. This method consists of running a plough to a depth of a foot, or even more, in three furrows, between the rows. When the water is applied in such furrows, a team can be driven along the dry strips of land between them, and with a harrow or other appliances the dry soil can be dragged into the wet furrows immediately after the irrigation water is turned off, and evaporation be thus lessened. The surface soil is kept comparatively dry by this method and there is nothing to attract root- growth to the surface. Cultivation The Cultivation of The main objects of cultivation, using the term in Citrus Fruits its widest sense, are two : Winter cultivation for moisture 25 reception, and summer cultivation for moisture retention. The securing of these objects underlies the use of the plough or of the various kinds of harrows and culti- vators. The orange requires good, clean tillage. If weeds and grass are allowed to occupy the ground the grove will suffer. The plantation should be deeply ploughed at least once a year, immediately after the crop is gathered. Distinct advantage will be found in varying the depth of tillage from year to year — say six inches, eight inches, and then six inches again — ; by this method what is known as "plow sole," or "hard pan," a hard and im- pervious layer of soil which forms when the land is continuously cultivated to the same depth, will be avoided. Tillage should follow irrigation as soon as the land is dry enough to admit of it. Pruning Orange and other citrus trees, except the lemon, re- quire little pruning after the head has been properly formed. It is of great importance that the tree be given a proper shape by judicious pruning and pinching dur- ing the first years of its orchard life. The aim should be to secure a low-headed, symmetrical tree, of upright growth, covered with a compact, but not crowded, wall of foliage. Dead twigs in the fruit-bearing area should be removed and all dead branches in the interior of the tree be cut out. Diseases of the Orange The most serious diseases of the orange tree are those known as "gum disease" and "die-back." The treatment for the former is the use of a wash of lime, crude carbolic acid and salt. The sour orange Cultivation of Citrus Fruits 26 The stock is said to be practically proof against gum disease. The pomelo stock is also resistant to it. The application of organic f ertilizers, and in particu- lar of barn-yard manure, should be altogether avoided in the case of trees suffering from gum sickness, and drain- age must be looked after carefully. With regard to "die-back" Dr. E. W. Hilgard writes : " In almost all cases of "die-back," examination has shown some fault in the sub-soil, which puts the roots under stress. Such fault may be an underlying hardpan or impervious clay, pure and simple; or it may be excessive wetness or dryness of the sub-strata surround- ing the deeper roots ; or the rise of bottom water from below, as in cases of over-irrigation. The true "die-back" is not properly a dis- ease, but simply the manifestation of the distress felt by the root- system underground. The first thing needful is to dig down and examine the roots, and then to relieve whatever fault may be found, if possible; which may not always be the case. Sometimes an appearance similar to the "die-back'' is caused by the roots en- countering a marly stratum, which is apt to stunt the growth of the tree, causing it to put out a multitude of small, thin branches, and sometimes causing the tips to die off. For this form of the trouble there is no permanent remedy; the trees should never have been planted in such ground, any more than in such as has shallow-lying hardpan or clay." Grape Fruit As a tree, the pomelo most nearly resembles the orange, and its culture is virtually the same. It is a rapid grower and precocious in fruit-bearing. Like all citrus fruits, the weight and quality of its yields are to a very great extent a reflection of the care and food given to the tree. It may be stated as an indisputable fact that the grower who fertilizes rationally has the largest crop, the best fruit, and the largest profit from his plantation. To attain the standard of excellence the fruit must have the characteristic pomelo flavour — a pleasant com- mingling of bitterness, sweetness and acidity. Among the large varieties, Duncan, Hall, McKinley, Pernam- buco, Standard and Walters are prominent. Triumph is a good variety, as well as the Marsh, the latter being notable for the small number of its seeds. Of the smaller The , varieties Josselyn is probably the most characteristic. " tlva F r 01 i t ° It may be calculated that each tree in full bearing — will yield ten boxes of fruit, of the average weight of eighty pounds per box. To make fruit alone, each tree bearing ten boxes or 800 pounds of fruit will require to be supplied with : Superphosphate of Lime (1 1% soluble phosphoric acid).. 2. 86 lbs. Sulphate of Potash (50% available potash) 5.86 Nitrate of Soda (15% nitrogen) 5.86 This is on the assumption that the constituents re- quired for wood growth, etc., will be gathered from the soil, and no allowance is made for losses by leaching, etc. In practice, therefore, the quantity of each fertilizer will require to be amplified. According to Bulletin ~No. 58 of the Florida Agri- cultural Experiment Station, the experience of most growers points to the use of chemical fertilizers alone for all citrus trees. The grove fruits more heavily, a better quality of fruit is obtained and the trees are maintained in a healthier condition. Where large amounts of organic fertilizers are used, die-back may affect the trees, and fruit containing a large amount of rag and of poor shipping and keeping quality is the result. The Lemon The lemon requires a practically frostless situation. Under favourable conditions the tree blooms and fruits continuously through the year. It delights in a sandy or gravelly loam, but it will thrive on other soils. In south- ern California the lemon is profitably grown upon deep clay loams, and even upon strong red clay soils. The prevailing stock is the orange seedling. If lemon seedlings are desired they may be grown in the same way, but the lemon on its own root will sometimes fail where, grown on the orange stock, it will thrive. The budding and planting of the lemon is carried out in the same way as in the case of the orange. The distance apart of the trees in the grove varies from twenty to Citrus Fruits 28 The twenty-five feet. Greater care and attention are re- f quired to bring the lemon into good bearing form and to retain it in satisfactory shape than is the case with the orange. The lemon responds very freely to the application of fertilizers, and the quantity of nitrogen applied may with advantage be ten or twelve per cent, greater than has been prescribed for the orange. The Lime, the Citron and Minor Citrus Species The lime is much less hardy than the lemon. It has been killed in situations where the orange and lemon have not been injured. Limes are grown from seed, the variety usually coming true from seed. The trees are small and are frequently grown in hedge form. The Citron, on the other hand, is quite hardy. As yet there is no considerable production in California, although experimental planting is continued with some activity. Various minor citrus species, including the Berga- mot, are grown to some extent in southern California, but chiefly for curiosity or ornament. What has been indicated above in the case of the lemon will apply generally to the fertilization of these species. In conclusion we would say that we do not pretend to have done more in this little work than briefly touch upon salient points in connection with specified divisions of the subject. Our object has been to aid the grower of citrus fruits by pointing to methods of culture which have been ascertained — chiefly by the labours of the Experiment Stations — to be the best, and the most likely to be pursued with advantage and prospective profit. We expressly disclaim any attempt to lay down hard-and-fast rules or to give directions which should supersede the exercise of the planters' own judgment, or replace the indications afforded by his knowledge of the particular conditions, as respects soil and climate, in which he is workinsr. NITER IN FERTILIZING The ,„ . . Cultivation of (Bulletin 24, California State Mining Bureau, May, 1902.) Citrus Fruits By Dr. Gilbert E Bailey ~1^~ All plants require light, air, heat, water, cultivation, and a fertile soil. Every crop removes from the soil a portion of the plant food contained therein, and contin- uous cropping will, in time, exhaust the richest soil, unless the nutritive elements are restored ; therefore, the truly economical farmer will feed the growing plant or tree with a generous hand. The literature on this sub- ject, while voluminous, is so scattered as to be difficult of access to the general reader, and the following notes are added in order to give some general idea of the value of Nitrate of Soda in fertilizing. The most important materials used to supply Nitro- gen in the composition of commercial fertilizers, are Nitrate of Soda and sulphate of ammonia. Nitrate of Soda is particularly adapted for top-dressing during the growing season, and is the quickest acting of all the Nitrogenous fertilizers. Dried blood, tankage, azotine, fish scrap, castor pomace, and cotton-seed meal represent fertilizers where the Nitrogen is only slowly available, and they must be applied in the fall so as to be decomposed and available for the following season. Nitrogen in the form of Ni- trate of Soda readily leaches through the soil and is at once available during the growing and fruiting season, possessing, therefore, a decided advantage over all other Nitrogen plant-foods. The following list of materials used as a source of Nitrogen, in making commercial fertilizers, shows the percentage of Nitrogen in each. Per Cent. Nitrogen Nitrate of Soda IS to 16 Sulphate of Ammonia 19 to 22 Dried Blood 10 to 14 Tankage 5 to 12 Dried Fish Scrap 9 to 11 Cotton-seed Meal 6 to 7 Castor Pomace 5 to 6 Tobacco Stems 2 to 3 Bone Meal 2 to 4 Peruvian Guano 6 to 10 Nitrate of Potash 13 to 14 Manures 0.3 to 1.6 The Cultivation of Citrus Fruits 30 The following table shows the number Nitrogen removed in one year from one crop specified: Wheat 35 Rye 30 Barley 40 Oats 60 Corn 50 Buckwheat 30 Potatoes 200 Sugar Beets 15% Mangel-wurzel 22 Meadow Hay 2% Timothy 2 Green Corn 11% Red Clover 2 Lucerne 8 Sugar-cane 20 Sorghum 15 Cotton 750 Hops 600 Tobacco 1,600 Grapes 2 Cabbage 31 Cucumbers ,25 Onions 1 1 V 2 Oranges 10 number of pounds of om one acre by the Crop Nitrogen bushels 59 lbs. bushels 51 lbs. bushels 46 lbs. bushels 55 Hjs. bushels 67 lbs. bushels 35 lbs. bushels 46 lbs. tons 69 lbs. tons 150 lbs. tons, dry 83 lbs. tons, dry 89 lbs. tons 85 lbs. tons, dry 105 lbs. tons 113 lbs. tons 153 lbs. tons 121 lbs. lbs., seed 26 lbs. lbs., seed 84, lbs. lbs. 89 lbs. tons 32 lbs. tons 150 lbs. tons 86 lbs. tons 72 lbs. tons 24 lbs. The following table shows the quantity of fertilizer desirable for one acre, with the percentage of Nitrogen in it. The quantities given are for the average soil, under average conditions, the character and amounts of other plant-foods in the fertilizer not being considered here : .Artichokes 600 lbs. Asparagus 500 Barley 500 Beans 700 Beets, garden .... 400 Beets, sugar 1,000 Benne 550 Blackberry 650 Buckwheat 300 Cabbage 1,500 Cane, sugar 750 Carrots 500 Cassava 300 Celery 700 Corn 550 Cotton 900 Cranberry 600 Cucumbers 1,200 Currants 550 Nitrogen in Fertilizer Fertilizer Per acre Per cent. 3 4.5 5 3 3 4 3 3 3 4 2.5 2 3 3 Nitrogen in Fertilizer Per cent. Fertilizer Per acre Egg-plant 2,000 4 Flax '400 3 Hemp 800 5.5 Hops 1,000 3 Horseradish 600 -1 Lettuce 1,000 5 Melons 1,200 3 Mint 700 lbs. 4 Mustard 300 3 Oats 400 2.5 Onions 1,500 4 PER TREE. Oranges -20 3 PER ACHE. Peas 900 1.5 Pineapples 2,000 3 Potatoes, Irish . . . 700 3 Potatoes, sweet . . 550 4 Radishes 800 3 Nitroeen in Nitrogen in The Fertilizer Fertilizer Fertilizer Fertilizer . . . Per acre Per cent. Per acre Per cent. Cultivation OI Ramie 650 2 Strawberry 1,500 3 Citrus Fruits Rape 600 4 Sunflower 500 3 Raspberry 700 3 Tobacco 600 3.5 31 Rhubarb" 1,300 3 Tomatoes 1,200 4 Rice 450 3 Trees, general 600 3 Spinach 1,200 3 Turnips 450 2.5 Squash 1,600 4 Wheat 400 3 Artificial fertilizers are used freely by the fruit- growers of California, and their use among the farmers is steadily increasing. One reason why they are not used more extensively is due to the fact that they have to be imported into the State. It is also a fact that the total amount used is only a small percentage of the amount that should be used. Everyone will admit that the use of fertilizers in this State is small compared with their use in Germany, for in that country they are used more extensively than in any other nation; yet Dr. Maercker, the Director of the Government Agricultural Experiment Station at Halle, Germany, says: "Just think! the consumption of potash (in the fertilizers) alone in Germany must increase 700 per cent, before the normal demands of the lands and farms are met and satisfied." (Arbeiter der Deutsches Landwirthschafts Gesellschaft Zusammengestellt von G. Siemssen, Berlin, 1896.) Nitrate of Soda and Oranges To illustrate the value of Nitrate of Soda for one crop alone, in this State,* the orange may be taken as an example. Many orange groves in California are to-day yielding small crops, because the trees have not been properly cultivated and fertilized. The trees re- move plant-food from the soil just the same as wheat, yet no farmer would think of trying to raise wheat for ten or fifteen consecutive years on the same soil. This sterility, or exhaustion of the plant-food cannot be remedied by cultivation; the foods must be replaced in the form of fertilizers. Ordinary manures, etc., do not give Nitrogen enough; as is shown in the table at top of page 184*. Artificial fertilizers raise the yield of the * Bulletin 24, California State Murine Bureau, May, 1902. 32 phoric Acid Potash I*ime 0.38 0.32 0.43 0.10 0.32 0.71 0.43 0.58 0.80 The trees to a maximum, and at the same time give the trees Citrus Fruits * na ^ y ig or . of growth which enables them to resist climatic - changes and parasitic attacks. Many analyses have been made of the oranges of Florida and California. Taking the average orange into consideration there are, according to Prof. J. J. Earle, 385 ounces of Nitrogen in 44,000 oranges. While the chemical composition of the orange tree varies widely, the following gives the average of many analyses; in 100 parts there are the following: Nitroareu Fruit 0.32 Leaves 0.70 Trunk and branches 0.70 As the foliage is perennial, and the trunk and branches of slow growth and subjected to limited prun- ing, the greater portion of the plant-food assimilated is expended upon the fruit. Taking an acre of orange grove, then, as contain- ing about 100 trees, and producing 12 tons of fruit, this crop would contain the following: Nitrogen 85 lbs. Phosphoric Acid 102 " Potash 85 " The lime is not taken into account, as it abounds in most soils. On this basis, the formula of a chemical manure that would restore these elements to the soil should be as follows, for one acre: Nitrate of Soda 560 lbs. Superphosphate of Lime (16% soluble) 612 " Sulphate of Potash 170 " Of course this formula would require modification for special conditions, as where gypsum (sulphate of lime) is required in some districts, etc. To look at the necessity of using fertilizers in another light, the amount of plant-food in the form of Nitrogen in the oranges shipped out of the State may The be considered. The number of oranges in a box varies* cl^V^s according to size, from as low as 80 to as high as 200. In a carload there are 362 boxes, equal to from 28,000 to 72,000, or an average, say, of 44,000 oranges per car. According to Professor Earle's analysis, 44,000 oranges contain 385 ounces (about 24 pounds) of Ni- trogen and 138.8 ounces (8.3 pounds) of soda, or 32.3 pounds of these chemicals. As the shipments of oranges amount to some 25,000 carloads in one year, there is shipped out of the State each year over 8,075,000 pounds of plant-food — over 4,000 tons of Nitrate of Soda in the oranges alone. The same form of statistics might be applied to agriculture in general, to all the crops given in the table on pages 184-185,* and the results would give some idea of the immense quantities of Nitrates taken from the soils of California every year and shipped away. Directions for the Use of Nitrate of Soda on Staple Crops We never recommend the use of Nitrate of Soda " alone except at the rate of one hundred pounds to the acre for seeded crops and two hundred pounds to the acre for cultivated crops. It may be thus safely and profitably used without other fertilizers. It may be applied evenly at this rate as a broadcast top-dressing, by hand, or machine, in the spring of the year, as soon as crops begin rapid, new growth. At this rate very satisfactory results are usually obtained without the use of any other fertilizer, and Soda residual, after the nitrogenous food of this chemical is used up by the plant, has a perceptible effect in sweetening sour land. One hundred pounds of Nitrate is equal in bulk to about one bushel. When it is desired to use a larger amount than one hundred pounds of Nitrate per acre for seeded crops (or two hundred pounds for cultivated crops) there should be son. e form of available phosphatic and potassic * Bulletin 24 Californ.a State Mining Bureau, May, 1902. 34 The plant food, and we recommend two hundred pounds of C cttmsF™ ts Sulphate of Potash. In most of our grass experiments where Nitrate was used alone at the rate of only one hundred pounds per acre, not only was the Aftermath, or Rowen, much improved, but in subsequent seasons, with no further application of fertilizers to the plots, a decidedly marked effect Avas noticed, even on old meadows. This speaks very well indeed for Nitrate of Soda not leaching out of the soil. The readily soluble elements of fertility are the readily available elements. The natural capillarity of soils doubtless is in most instances a powerful factor in retaining all readily soluble elements of fertility, otherwise all the fertility of the world in our humid regions would, in a season or two, run into the ocean, and be permanently lost. This is mentioned on account of certain critics having taken the trouble to object to the use of Nitrate on the grounds that it would leach away. A case is yet to be seen where the after effects of Nitrate is not distinguishable, and in most cases such effects have been marked. The two thousand tons of active top soil in an acre of land has a powerful holding - capacity for all the useful available elements of fertility. These 2,000 tons form the part usually subject to culti- vation and might be called service soil. For market gardening crops, hops, sugar beets, and other cultivated crops, two hundred pounds of Nitrate per acre may be used to great advantage. When the above amounts of phosphatic and potassic fertilizers are used, as much as two hundred and fifty pounds of Nitrate, or even more, may be applied with profit. If you have any reason to suspect adulteration of Nitrate, send a pound or so of it to your experiment sta- tion for analysis, giving date of purchase, full name and address of dealer and of the company which the seller represents, Avith full description of marks on the bag or bags from which you draw the sample. On the Pacific Coast, Nitrate may be applied as a top-dressing after the heavy spring rains are over, but before crops attain much of a start; although recent experience in California suggests that Nitrate may be The applied to better advantage just as soon as growth starts Cultivation of in the spring, or better, just before seeding or planting. ltrus rmts William S. Myers, 35 Chilean Nitrate Propaganda, Director. 25 Madison Ave., New York. The effect of the rise in price of Nitrate of Soda Owing to the late rise in price of Nitrate of Soda, a number of inquiries have been made as to what its effect upon the profitable use of this material may be. It may be said in explanation, that the rise was due to unusual causes which have resulted in diminished production, and it is hoped that after a comparatively short time production will be restored to normal. It should be pointed out that in the recorded experiments with Nitrate of Soda on Money Crops heretofore published in Experiment Station Reports and Bulle- tins, Nitrate was quoted but little lower than at _. . „ . . j t-, t, j . ,, Rise in Price of present, and rarm Jrroducts were much lower. The prices of Agricultural Products have risen to a high water mark and in certain cases, notably corn, the advance has been to extreme figures, and Farm Commodities are now higher than they have been for some years. Our statements heretofore published, showing the Profit resulting from the Crop increases due to the use of Nitrate _ of Soda, if re-arranged on a basis of to-day's values, both for Nitrate and for Crops, would show more Profit than before. It should also be remarked that _ , ., . , ,, . . . , Other Ammoni- the prices ol other Ammomates have risen . higher than Nitrate of Soda. Economists of authority tell us that the cost of living is to remain for a con- siderable time on the high basis recently es- . . . tablished, so that it is to be expected that the .... f prices of Agricultural Products will remain at _ v . a high level. In this connection your attention is called to many experiments with fertilizers in which Nitrate of Soda is said to have been used in order to produce results Good Results to be exploited as due to materials other than Due to Nitrate this Standard Money Crop Producer. Further, one may add, that when Nitrate is used at the Results: Slight rate of 300 pounds per acre, the actual cash Added Cost per increase in cost per acre is very small, and in Acre and per Ton mixed goods it adds but very little to the cost of Fertilizer per ton of the fertilizer. The highest agricultural authorities have ™ Nitrate established by careful experimentation that 100 as one or pounds of Nitrate of Soda applied to the crops rops quoted below will produce increased yields as tabulated hereunder. The INCREASED YIELDS Cultivation of WHEAT 300 pounds of grain ■ Citrus Fruits OATS 40 ° P ounds of S rain Application of Citrus Fruits RYE 300 pounds of grain N f t ^ teofSo< 36 BARLEY 400 pounds of grain Nitrate ot boc POTATOES 3,600 pounds of tubers 100 Pounds HAY 1,000 pounds, barn-cured Index PAGE Analysis of Orange Trees 14 Analysis of the Soil, Value of 15 Authorities Consulted Preface Barn-yard Manure 13 Barn-yard Manure does not Satisfy the Food Requirements of Citrus Trees IS Barn-yard Manure, How to Apply 23 Basic Slag 17 Bergamot, The 28 Budding 10 Budding, Best Season for 10 Buds, Spring 10 Buds, Treatment of the 10 Chemical Manures, Typical Formula of 16 Citron, The 28 Citrus Fruits, The Cultivation of, an .Important Industry 5 Citrus Fruits, The Cultivation of, Remunerative 5 Citrus Fruits, The Cultivation of, Requires Expert Knowledge . 5 Citrus Species, Minor 28 Clearing the Land 8 Climatic Conditions Governing Selection of Site for Plantation. 6 Cold, The Danger Point of 6 Cultivation 25 Cultivation, Objects of 25 "Die-back" 17, 25 Drainage 6, 8 Fertilization 12 Fertilization, Limits of 22 Fertilizers, How to be Distributed 23 Fertilizers, The Rational Application of 13 Fertilizers, Time and Manner of Application of 23 Field Crop, Advisability of Growing a Preliminary 8 Florida Agricultural Experiment Station; Bulletin No. 58. . . .-. 27 Flowering Period, Fertilizers Not to be Applied During the ... 23 General Directions for Staple Crops 33 General Formula of Chemical Manures, How to be Modified. . . 17 Grape Fruit 6, 9, 26 Green Manuring 19 Gum Disease 26 Hexagons, Planting in 62 Horn Shavings 18 Horse Beans 19 Increased Yield per Acre of Crops Receiving Nitrate 35, 36 Intensive Cultivation, Fertilization Essential to 12, 19 Irrigation 24 Land, Preparation of the 8 PAGE Lemon, The 6, 27 Lemon, The, Stock for 27 Lime, The 6, 28 Limits of This Treatise 5 Mandarin Oranges .22 Manures, Organic 19, 20 Maturity of Crop, Earlier or Later, How to be Regulated. ... 23 Nitrate of Soda 18, 19 Nitrate of Soda, Characteristic Effects of 19 Nitrate of Soda, Nitrogen-Contents of 19 Nitrate of Soda, the Best Source of Nitrogen for Citrus Fruits. . 18 Nitrate of Soda, The Nitrogen of 18, 19 Nitrate of Soda, Time and Manner of Application of 23 Nitrification 18 Nitrogen, Ammoniacal 18 Nitrogen, An Excess of, to be Avoided 16 Nitrogen, Nitrate 19 Nitrogen, Organic 17, 19 Nitrogen, Organic, 111 Effects of its Injudicious Application. . . 17 Number of Trees per Acre of Plantation 11 Nursery, Distance Between the Plants in the 10 Nursery, Distance Between the Rows in the 10 Nursery, Lifting From the 12 Nursery, Planting Out in the 10 Orange, Diseases of the 25, 26 Orange Seedlings, Unprofitable to Plant 8 Orange, The, Does Not Come True from Seed 8 Orange, The, Requires Good, Clean Tillage 8, 25 Orange, The, Should Have Undisputed Possession of the Soil of the Plantation 8 Orange Trees Fruiting Scantily, Treatment of 21 Orange Trees, Nurseries of 22 Orange Trees, Old, Fertilizers for 20 Orange Trees, Sickly, Fertilizers for 21 Orange Trees, Young, Fertilizers for 20 Orange Tree, The Chemical Composition of the 15 Phosphoric Acid 17 Plantation, Selection of Site for 6 Plantation, The Soil of the, Preparation of 6, 8 Plant Food, Constituents of, Removed from the Soil by Orange Crop 16, 17 Planting, Arrangement of Trees in 12 Planting Out in the Nursery 10 Pomelos 6, 9, 26 Pomelos, Fertilizers for 26 Pomelo Seedlings 9 Pomelo Stock, The 9 Potash 14,18 PAGE Potash Salts 16, 18 Potash, Sulphate of 18 Preparation of the Land 8 Propagation 8 Pruning 25 Rainfall 6 Re-grafting 22 Seedlings, How Grown 9 Seedlings, How to be Lifted 10 Seedling Stock, Choice of 9 Seed Plot, The 22 Seed, Selection of 8 Setting Out 11 Soil, Exhaustion of the 12 Soils, Physical Qualities of 6, 7 Soils Suitable for Plantations of Citrus Fruits 6, 7 Sour-Orange Stock, The 9 Sowing, Best Time for 9 Staking 11 Stocks for Budding, Choice of 8 Stocks for Budding, Grown from Seed 8 Sulphate of Ammonia 18 Sulphate of Lime , 23 Sulphate of Potash 18 Superphosphate of Lime 17 Sweet-Orange, The, a Surface-Rooting Stock 9 Thomas Phosphate 16, 17 Tillage 25 Tillage, Depth of 25 Top, Reducing the, at Transplantation 12 Transplanting 11,12 Trees, Number of, to the Acre 11 Varieties, Selection of 7, 8 Vicia Sative ; 19 "Working-Over" 22 FERTILIZERS FOR COCOA MYERS PUBLISHED BY William S. Myers, D. Sc, F. c. s., Director, Nitrate of Soda Propaganda. Late of New Jersey State Agricultural College. JOHN STREET AND 71 NASSAU, NEW YORK. Fertilizers for Cocoa. The world's consumption of cocoa has increased rapidly in the last decade. The production has also in- creased, but not yet sufficiently to meet normal require- ments at a reasonable price. The interest in this product, and its increased consumption, have quite natu- rally caused an increase in the number of cocoa planta- tions, and has also stimulated inquiry as to the best practice for the treatment of the plantations. In those countries where the cultivation of cocoa has been carried on for a long time, great care is exercised not only in the selection of soil and planting, but in the question of the use of manures and fertilizers. It would seem at first glance that tropical fruits, which are grown as a rule under practically perfect conditions of warmth and moisture, would hardly make it necessary to give con- sideration to the question of immediate fertility, as the climatic conditions in those countries, in other respects suitable, are favorable for those activities which cause a rapid conversion of insoluble into available plant-food. Experience has shown, however, that even with these favorable conditions, if the plantation is to continue to produce large crops of good quality for a long period, manures and fertilizers are necessary and great care must be exercised in their application. A brief statement as to the selection of soils, the setting of plantations and the cultivation of cocoa will be helpful in the discussion of the subject. Most Suitable Soils. The soils best adapted for the cocoa tree are those which possess a good depth, and which are naturally moist; they should also be of good texture, preferably a clay loam, with a medium open subsoil, in order to per- mit the roots to readily penetrate to considerable depths. While a good admixture of humus is a desirable qualifi- cation, this is not so essential, provided there is a good Fertilizers depth of soil. Soils that are too heavy or too dry should for Cocoa not ^ e se i ec t e d. Neither should light sands or those 6 too wet be regarded as worthy of consideration. As a rule, the best plantations are located on the banks of navigable rivers, not especially because the soils are bet- ter, but because of transportation facilities, although soils so located usually possess the desired character- istics. As with most other crops, a soil reasonably open and porous, naturally well supplied with mineral mat- ter, and so located as to permit of good natural drain- age, would be an ideal place for the starting of a planta- tion. These natural conditions are not always easy to find; therefore, soils which do not possess these natural characteristics must be supplied with them in an arti- ficial way — the physical character being improved by cultivation and productivity by plant-food added in the form of commercial fertilizers or manures. The Setting of the Plantation. Much depends, however, upon the selection of seed, as ordinarily the plant is raised from the seed, and for nursery purposes only seed of the best varieties should be selected — the largest beans from ripe pods being most suitable. Too much attention cannot be given to this point. In setting a plantation, two methods are used : — First, to raise plants from the seed, placed where the trees are to stand; and second, to plant the seed in nurseries and then transplant to the place where they are to remain. There are advantages in both systems, but the system now more generally adopted is to use the plants from nurseries. In either case, the land should be well broken up, not necessarily the whole ground, but that portion where the plant is to be set, in order that the conditions may be made favorable for the ready movement of moisture to prevent danger of loss from possible dry spells. Ordinarily, not much care is given to the plantation after it is set, though the most progres- sive growers now hoe the young plantations from time to time, although great care is exercised in order to prevent injury to the roots of the young plants. It is necessary to provide windbreaks at the wind- Fertilizers ward side of the plantation; this may be accomplished or ocoa by leaving belts of the original forests, or planting quick-growing trees for shading the young cocoa trees and for permanent protection, but the importance of mere shade is as yet a mooted question. The Needs for Plant Food. The cocoa crop is not in itself an exhaustive one, yet because it is a crop which does not permit of rotation, and which requires a continuous supply of plant-food of the same kind, few soils are capable of meeting the contin- ued demands for large and well matured crops, hence the permanent usefulness of the plantation is dependent upon the proper use of fertilizers or manures. The variety of the cocoa also influences to a certain extent the character of the feeding. It has been shown by chemical analysis that, on the average, a total crop, in- cluding husks and fruit, will remove annually about: — 20 lbs. of Nitrogen. 10 lbs. of phosphoric acid. 30 lbs. of potash. If the refuse husks are returned to the land, these amounts would be very considerably reduced, probably averaging nearly : — 12 lbs. of Nitrogen. 6 lbs. of phosphoric acid. 7 lbs. of potash. The potash is very largely stored in the husks, and may be returned to the land. Where other trees are used for shade, naturally the requirements are increased, although a large portion of the fertility returns to the soil. Owing to the inequali- ties of soil, and to the necessity for a continuous supply of plant-food, it is desirable that fertilizers should be judiciously used, in order to guarantee a crop of good size and quality. Manures, horse or cow, have not been found altogether satisfactory, even when it is possible to secure them, first, because it is difficult to work them into the soil without injury to the roots of the plant; and Fertilizers seC0 nd, because the constituents are of varying avail- a ability, thus making it impossible to govern the quanti- 8 ties that may be obtained by the plant in a definite period of time. It is for the latter reason also that it is especially essential that care should be exercised in the use of Nitrogen in artificial forms, both on account of the fact that Nitrogen exists in such a wide variety of forms as to make it impossible to determine beforehand the availability of those existing in organic forms, and also because in their decay the plant-food may not be available at the right time, or too much may be made available at the wrong time. Hence, it is recommended that only Nitrogen in the form of Nitrate shall be used, first, because it is in the form in which plants must take up their Nitrogen; and second, because where there is continuous cropping, as is the case with cocoa planta- tions, the Nitrate will be taken up promptly by the roots and stored in the plant, thus avoiding the danger of loss by leaching. Careful experiments indicate that an ap- plication annually, per acre, of a mixture consisting of:— Nitrate of Soda 200 lbs. Acid sulphate 300 lbs. Sulphate of potash 100 lbs. would meet the requirements, both in respect to quality and quantity of the plant-food. The applications should preferably be made on the surface, and early in the season, or before the fruit has formed, so that the plant may take up its food quickly and have the re- mainder of the season for its elaboration. Where this practice in the use of commercial fer- tilizers is followed, the results have been all that could be desired. Trees have made normal growth ; the yield has been large, and the fruit of excellent quality. This practice cannot be too strongly recommended, as it will certainly result in greatly increasing the yield and qual- ity of the fruit. Coffee Planting A Short Treatise Compiled with Special Reference to the Conditions of Culture Cuba and Porto Rico Preface In the preparation of this brief treatise, the following leading authorities, among others, have been consulted : The United States Census Returns of Cuba and Porto Rico, 1899. (Washington Government Printing Office, 1900). Culture du Cafeier, par E. Raoul, Paris, 1 897. Traite Pratique de la Culture du Cafe, par A. Rigaud, Paris, 1896. The Improvement of Indian Agriculture, by Dr. J. A. Voelcker, London, 1893. Tropical Agriculture, by P. L. Simmonds, E. & F. N. Spon, London. Ceylon Soils and Manures, a Report to the Ceylon Coffee Planters' Association, by John Hughes, London, 1879. La Agricultura Espafiola ; Cafe, by Miguel Mayol, Valencia, 1901. Joseph Hillman. London, July, 1902. Coffee Planting. A Short Treatise, Compiled with Special Reference to the Conditions of Culture in Cuba and Porto Rico. FEW more profitable openings exist for the introduction of capital and the application of well directed energy than are to be found in the skilled cultivation, on scientific principles, of coffee plantations in these tropical neighbours of the United States. In Cuba, there are said to have been, in 1847, no less than 2,064 plantations under culture with coffee ; and the annual crop, notwithstanding the thriftless system of cultivation then existing, amounted to about 50,000,000 pounds annually. From that date the production rapidly declined, and in the last decades of the past century Cuba imported a large proportion of her consumption of coffee from Porto Rico. During the same period, the cultivation of coffee in Porto Rico increased, but it still remains capable of great expansion on extensive tracts, now almost unproductive, on the hills and in the valleys of the table lands. The coffee of Porto Rico is distinguished by its high quality, although hitherto it has chiefly found appreciation in the markets of France, Italy and Spain. Of the coffee of Cuba, it may be said that it responds to careful culture and preparation by a richness of flavour and capacity for heavy yields unsurpassed in any other West India Island or in South America. These well established facts should point to the revival and development, under present favourable auspices Coffee of good government and an enlightened agricultural Planting system, of an important and highly lucrative industry. 4 The fault of the old system of working coffee plantations was that of reckless exhaustion of the soil. _ Sites were selected, clearings were made, and the land was planted and worked for all it was worth, until its store of available plant food had been used up ; then the plantation was abandoned and the process of selection, clearing, planting, cropping and robbery of the soil was repeated. Such a mode of procedure was — it is scarcely needful to point out — neither rational nor economical. It involved the wastage of large tracts of excellent land, specially suited for the culture of coffee, and a needless sinking of capital. The life of a coffee plantation managed under this vicious system was limited necessarily to a comparatively short term of years. The abstraction from the soil of the constituents of a succession of crops, of whatever nature, exhausts, sooner or later, the store of natural fertility, or, in other words, the supply of plant food, which the soil originally contained, and sterility, more or less complete, follows for want of the principal plant foods — nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash and lime ; and this sterility or exhaustion can neither be prevented nor remedied by any system of mere cultivation, especially where no rotation of cropping is practicable. Cultivation carried out with thoroughness will, indeed, hasten the natural processes by which the fertilizing elements contained in the soil are rendered soluble and capable of assimilation by the plant, but it cannot replace what has been removed in the shape of crop, leaves and prunings. On this fact is based the necessity for the use of manures ; and in manuring amply and judiciously lies the secret of the maintenance of the plantation. Before pursuing this branch of the subject, however, it will be well to lay down some rules for guidance in the important matters of soil, climatic conditions and shelter. The coffee shrub requires a deep soil. If the tap root be stopped by rocks, tufa, or compact clay, the plant dies. The composition of the best coffee soils varies considerably, but in those of Porto Rico it is found that sand is a principal constituent of the majority of them, whilst the surface is rich in humus, the product of decayed forest vegetation. Heavy clays are altogether unsuitable, and the propor- Coffee tion of clay must, in no case, be such as to induce the Planting retention of stagnant moisture. 5 Calcareous soils ape not suitable, although the presence of a moderate quantity of lime is an advantage. A relatively high percentage of iron in the soil and sub- soil is not an objection ; indeed, ferruginous and silicious soils have been sought after since it has been remarked that the ravages of the hemileia vastatrix, or leaf blight, are less frequent and less severe on them than elsewhere. The presence in the soil of a large proportion of potash, as in the terra roxa of Brazil, is undoubtedly an advantage. A poor sub-soil may be put up with, provided that it be not formed of a damp clav or a compact tufa. The climatic conditions favourable to the remunerative culture of the coffee shrub are tolerably well understood. The mean temperature of the highlands of both Cuba and Porto Rico, affording as it does a climate of perpetual spring, with a range of scarcelv more than eleven degrees between the temperature of the hottest and coldest months, is admirablv suited to the requirements of the plant. In Porto Rico, the finest coffee has hitherto been produced at altitudes between 600 and 2500 leet above the sea level. Upon these highlands, a constant breeze cools the atmosphere, and the well-distributed rainfall, averaging from 60 inches annually at San Juan, to 100 inches in the northeast of the island and upon the highlands of the interior, tends to equalize the temperature of the seasons. Thus, vegetation does not suffer even in periods of com- parative drought, whilst during the rainy season the precipitation is seldom torrential. On the southern slope of the island, however, both rainfall and atmospheric moisture are considerably less, so that in some districts irrigation is advantageous, if not absolutely necessary. As regards Cuba, whilst coffee will grow almost any- where in the island, it thrives best at altitudes of between 1,500 and 2,500 feet. The question of shelter and shading is one of some little difficulty. It was formerly the general practice in Porto Rico, and in parts of Cuba, to provide shade trees, under the belief that the coffee shrub would not develop properly or thrive continuously without them. But later Coffee experience has shown that, in the less torrid districts, shade Planting is unnecessary, if not prejudicial. This is explained by the I fact that the only benefit afforded by the presence of shade trees is that of lessening the force of the sun's rays; whilst, on the other hand, the consumption of the fertilizing matters of the soil and manures by the shade trees is to the detriment of the coffee plant. In Java, shading is universal, it is general also in Venezuela ; in Brazil, however, the absence of shade trees is believed to ensure larger yields, although it is said by some to lessen the duration of the producing power of the plantation. Voelcker is emphatic as to the advantages of shading in Coorg and Mysore. On the whole, it may be assumed that shading is a matter in which local practice will be, in most cases, a safe guide, especially if viewed in conjunction with other and economical considerations. In particular, there is the fact that, both in Cuba and Porto Rico, numerous marketable fruits are borne on trees suitable for shade and shelter purposes. Thus, a plantation mav be utilized for both fruit and coffee culture without detriment to either, and with corresponding profit to the planter, if only regard be had to proper cultivation and to the adequate supply of available plant foods. Only in cases where trees of the leguminous order are employed for shade purposes is any complication involved in the question of the nature of the manures to be applied. Plants of the order of leguminosa have the unique faculty of deriving their supplies of nitrogen mainly from the atmos- phere, and of accumulating nitrogen in the soil. Thus, in the case of the introduction of plants of this botanical order as shade trees, allowance has to be made for this special store of soil nitrogen when making provision, in the shape of manures, for the nitrogenous plant-food of the coffee shrub. It has, however, to be borne in mind that it is only the requirements of the plantation in nitrogen that are thus affected ; the leguminous shade trees, like those belonging to other orders, making demands upon the constituents of the soil and manures for the phosphates, potash, lime and other mineral elements of their plant-food. Where it may be deemed advisable to plant shade trees, simply as such, the Albizzia Lebbeck — the French Bois noir, — which has always been employed by coffee planters in the Antilles, would appear to unite the greatest number of Coffee desirable qualities and, locally at least, to give the best results. Planting The Brysonima spicata is a shade tree much employed in 7 the British West Indies. It possesses the advantages of sparse foliage, rapid growth, of affording shelter against the wind as well as the sun, of great hardiness and of not attaining tod great a size. The method of propagation which has, in the past, been largely adopted in Porto Rico, by utilizing off-shoots and self-sown plants, is to be deprecated, and the system of sowing carefully selected seed in specially prepared seed- beds is that which should be followed. The site chosen for the seed-bed should be on a slight incline, so as to afford natural drainage ; it should occupy a sheltered position and possess a good surface laver of vegetable soil, which must be worked until a fine tilth is secured. It will have been cleared of all roots, stones, etc., and, in most cases, it should be enriched with a good dress- ing of well-rotted barnyard manure. The sowing is best made in the month of February, and the coffee grains to be sown should be selected for their size, weight and perfect formation. The grains are planted at a depth of about an inch and a half, the finger or a small stick being used for the purpose, and after they are placed in the hole the earth is pressed down over them with the hand. The sowings should be made in rows distant about six inches from each other, the space between each grain sown being the same. In about twenty days the young coffee plants will begin to appear, and they will remain in the seed-bed for a year and a half, when thev will have attained a height of about thirty inches and be ready for transplantation to the site selected for the coffee grove. The seed-beds must be carefully kept free from weeds, and be irrigated frequently with small quantities of water, so as to maintain a constant, but not excessive degree of moisture ; provision must be made also for sheltering the young plants from excessive solar heat and from strong winds. Before transplantation, the lower branches of the young shrub are cut away, so as to obtain a clean and straight stem with a crown at a convenient height for the gathering of the crop. Coffee The best season for transplantation is the autumn Planting equinox. s To obtain maximum yields, the following directions must be carefully adhered to in laying out the plantation : 1. Select a fertile soil, rich in humus, and lying so that natural drainage and a good aspect are secured. 2. Pick out vigorous and well-grown young plants. They must be removed without breakage of the roots and with a good ball of earth about them. 3. If the tap root project beyond the ball of earth, it should be cut with a sharp knife, reducing it to a length of about eight inches. 4. Plant in rows eight feet apart and at a distance of eight feet in the rows. This will give approximately 700 plants to the acre. This as a general rule, but in the case of exposed situations closer planting is advisable. In such conditions, small, compact trees, topped at about 2 feet 6 inches, will give the best results. 5. Plant in rainy weather and with the soil in a tolerably moist condition. 6. Previous to planting, prepare holes eighteen inches square and eighteen inches in depth. In preparing the holes, the surface soil should be placed to the right, and the soil from the bottom of the hole to the left. The latter should be mixed with about two pounds of well-rotted dung. About eight days should intervene between the opening of the holes and the planting. The surface soil, which from having been exposed to the atmosphere is most suitable for contact with the roots, is first to be used, and the hole is then to be filled up with the remain- ing, manured soil. The plants must be carefully placed and the holes filled so as to leave no lodgment for water. 7. Three or four months after the planting, the ground should be gone over and any dead or unsatisfactory plants be replaced with others of the like size, so that the entire grove may develop evenly. 8. All suckers and undesirable shoots must be removed as soon as they appear. To obtain maximum crops and to avoid inequalities and Coffee intermittency of yield, so far as seasons and weather will Planting permit, must be a chief aim of the planter; and questions *x*w*ty& Jv^BW^^^^^^MIKM^HPl Yield, 3,500 Pounds per Acre. Fertilizer, 300 Pounds Minerals and 150 Pounds per Acre Nitrate of Soda. Yield, 2,300 Pounds per Acre. 300 Pounds per Acre Minerals Only. This mixture used at the rate of 100 pounds per acre at the time of seeding will supply the needed minerals, and sufficient Nitrogen to give the plants a good start. From three weeks to a month after seeding, the applica- tion of 150 pounds of Nitrate per acre will help to insure a proper development and maturity, and provide for a large yield of grain without injuring the quality for malting purposes. Fertilizers Buckwheat. for Corn . _ and cereals At time of sowing, apply a top-dressing or to pounds 22 of Nitrate of Soda per acre. General cultivation same as for Oats. No Nitrate. Yield, 19 Bushels per Acre. Fertilized with 125 Pounds Nitrate of Soda per Acre. Yield, 38 Bushels per Acre. THE COST OF AVAILABLE NITROGEN By DR. EDWARD B. VOORHEES «jt % PUBLISHED BY WILLIAM S. MYERS, D.Sc, F.C.S., Director Chilean Nitrate Propaganda Late of New Jersey State Agricultural College 25 MADISON AVENUE, NEW YORK The Cost of Available Nitrogen. By Dr. Edward B. Voorhees. The use of commercial fertilizers has been one of the most important factors in the development of the farm- ing interests in the Country. The present annual con- sumption of fertilizers is, as near as can be estimated, 5,000,000 tons, which, at an average cost of $29 per ton, makes a total expenditure of $145,000,000. This great quantity of fertilizer is being used for in- creasing the crops of grain, hay, potatoes, fruits, market garden and staple crops. The money was expended for Nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash, and, notwithstand- ing the claims made for superior brands and special formulas, the returns have been due to the actual amounts of Nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash that these crops have been able to obtain from the total in the fertilizers used. The value of the increased crops made from the use of any one or more of these constituents is, however, meas- ured both by the amount that the crop obtained, and the character of the crop obtaining it. A pound of Nitrogen, phosphoric acid or potash, when used in making a crop of celery, or of asparagus, or of fruit, would be worth more than if used in making a crop of wheat, rye or hay. Furthermore, the value to the user of the Nitrogen, or other constituent bought in a fertilizer, is measured both by the amount that the immediate crop is liable to obtain, and the proportionate amount of the total that would eventually be gathered. Of the sum annually paid for the three constituents, Nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash, on the basis of an average of : — Ammonia 3% Available phosphoric acid 8% Potash 5% about 48%, or $69,600,000, is paid for Nitrogen, which is the only one of the three essential elements that is liable The Cost of to suffer any considerable loss ; while but 32% is paid for mtSn phosphoric acid, or $46,400,000; and 20%, or $29,000,000 q for the potash. Thus a little more than half of the total expenditure is made for these two elements. The remain- ing 48% is paid for a constituent which in organic form is liable not to be available. The experiments conducted along this line show that, on the average, not more than 70% of the quantities of Nitrogen applied, even in the best forms, is recovered in the crops. From the standpoint of crop, it is evident that the utilization of nitrogen is a much more important matter than the use of phosphoric acid and potash. Although the further fact that a pound of Nitrogen, capable of being used in a commercial fertilizer, and without regard to form, costs from four to five times as much as a pound of " available " phosphoric acid or of potash, is an ad- ditional argument in favor of greater care in its pur- chase and use. Nitrogen as Nitrate is the only commercial form soluble in water, ready for immediate use by most plants ; Nitro- gen, as ammonia, is also a form soluble in water, but it is less available than the Nitrate. A pound of Nitrate and a pound of ammonia, being definite chemical compounds, are quite as. good from one source as another. Organic forms of Nitrogen have to decay first, chang- ing to ammonia and then to Nitrate, and are therefore less quickly available ; besides, they vary in their rate of availability according to the source of supply and their physical character. Materials which are likely to decay quickly, as dried blood, dried meat, dried fish and cotton- seed meal, do show a high rate of availability, while forms like ground leather and ground peat show a very low rate of availability. A pound of organic Nitrogen varies in availability, therefore, according to its source, whether derived from dried blood or peat, or from intermediate products. Since Nitrogenous materials are variable in their rate of availability,— that is, the rate at which the Nitrogen in them may be absorbed by the plant, — the farmer de- P"*.? ^ Qf sires to know the dependence that can be placed on the Nitrogen different materials, — he wants available Nitrogen. j Hence, the chemical and physical characteristics of the various forms of Nitrogen have been made the subject of very considerable study and investigation, in order that at least approximate values in respect to availability may be attached to each form. Sufficient work has been done thus far to establish a pretty safe relationship between the Nitrate, ammonia and organic Nitrogen, in the form of dried blood. It has not been possible, yet, to investi- gate fully all of the various forms of organic Nitrogen, so as to assign an exact value for the different materials. The very extensive investigations conducted by Dr. Paul Wagner, at Darmstadt, Germany, show that for the crops tested by himself and others — namely, barley, oats, rye, wheat, mangels, sugar-beets and potatoes — there was returned in the harvest 62 parts of Nitrate Nitrogen for every hundred parts applied; 44 parts of ammonia Nitrogen for every hundred parts applied, and 40 parts of organic Nitrogen for every hundred parts applied as dried blood. In no case is the recovery equal to two- thirds of the Nitrogen applied; besides, there are wide variations in the amount recovered in the different forms. In 1898, plant nutrition experiments were begun at the New Jersey Station, one object of which was to study the " relative availability " of these three forms of Nitrogen, using a rotation of corn, oats, wheat and timothy, — - crops which, because of their long periods of growth would be likely to absorb relatively large proportions of organic Nitrogen. The results of these experiments for two rota- tions (10 years) show that the recovery for Nitrogen as Nitrate was 62.09 parts per hundred; for the Nitrogen as ammonia 43.26 parts per hundred, and for organic (dried blood Nitrogen), 40 parts per hundred. These results agree almost exactly with those obtained by Dr. Wagner and his associates. With the returns from Nitrate, the highest recovery regarded as 100, the relative availability of the Nitrogen as ammonia would be 69.7 and of Nitrogen as dried blood 64,4. The Cost of These figures possess a very great practical signifi- Nitrogen cance, as they have a direct bearing upon the economical g purchase and use of the Nitrogen contained in the fertili- zers now offered upon the market. Commercial conditions fix the price of the various Nitrogenous materials, and the cost to the farmer of any one form is not measured by its usefulness to him, but by the cost in the market. That is, there is no strict re- lationship between commercial and agricultural values. It happens that at the present time, a pound of Nitro- gen in the form of Nitrate or of ammonia costs the farmer less than a pound of organic Nitrogen. That is, the Nitro- gen possessing the highest rate of availability as Nitrate is less expensive to him than dried blood Nitrogen, or even that derived from low-grade Nitrogenous materials. These do not possess any definite rate, and must, on the average, show a much lower rate of availability than dried blood, because the mixtures contain Nitrogen derived from many sources, not uniform in their content of Nitro- gen or in their physical character or constitution. Garbage-tankage and tanned leather scraps, for ex- ample, are used in large quantities; some of the larger eastern fertilizer factories using several thousand tons per year. The Nitrogen in these products is admittedly much less available than is that in dried blood, and its cost to the manufacturers is, according to present quota- tions, but little more than one-half as high. For garbage- tankage, leather scraps, feathers, wool waste and peat, the prices are merely nominal. The cost of handling and reducing these products to forms capable of being used in mixtures, of course, naturally adds considerable, but they could be sold somewhere near their value on the basis of availability, and still leave a profit to the manufac- turer. These materials should, however, be regarded in the same light as the insoluble phosphates and potash compounds — amendments rather than sources of direct supplies of available plant-food, — and be paid for ac- cordingly. Since their establishment, the Experiment Stations T he f < {? 1 t of have consistently urged the farmers to be guided in their Nitrogen purchase of fertilizers, not only by the quantities of the g constituents present in the mixtures offered, but also by the kind that is used in them, pointing out the importance of selecting brands which contain high percentages of available plant-food, more especially of Nitrogen, because of its relatively greater importance and its higher cost. The results obtained in the investigations referred to emphasize very strongly the wisdom of such advice in reference to the expensive and elusive element — Nitrogen. A concrete example will make clearer the economic phases of the question. The analysis of the various brands sold in the State of New Jersey in 1909, shows an average of 2.5% of total Nitrogen, divided as follows : — Nitrate. 48% or 19% of the total. Ammonia 77% or 30% of the total. Organic 1.32% or 51% of the total. Assuming that the forms of organic Nitrogen used in these brands were as good as in dried blood, it would re- quire 1.55 pounds of the organic Nitrogen to furnish as much " available " Nitrogen as is contained in one pound of the Nitrate Nitrogen, and 1.43 pounds of the ammonia Nitrogen to furnish as much ' ' available ' ' Nitrogen as is contained in one pound of the Nitrate Nitrogen. Yet, because of commercial conditions, the farmer paid a higher price per pound for his organic Nitrogen than he paid for his Nitrate and his ammonia Nitrogen. Using the same relations that exist in the commercial cost of Nitrogen, the actual prices paid were for organic Nitro- gen 26.52 cents per pound, ammonia Nitrogen 23.73 cents and Nitrate Nitrogen 23 cents. At these prices, the Nitro- gen purchased in New Jersey last year cost about $1,157,- 400 and in the entire country nearly sixty times as much. If, however, the returns from the different forms of Nitrogen were in the same proportion, as indicated in the experiments, which must be admitted to be relatively correct for Nitrate and ammonia, and, assuming that the The Cost of organic was as good as that in dried blood, the cost of the mSen ' ' available ' ' Nitrogen in the three forms actually was :— 10 Per lb. Per lb - For organic. . .41 cents, While the farmer For organic. . 14.8 cents, For ammonia. . 34 cents, should have paid, For ammonia.16.1 cents, For Nitrate.. .23 cents; on the basis of For Nitrate. 23.0 cents; availability : and a saving to the State of $383,940 would have been effected. If, therefore, instead of buying organic and ammonia Nitrogen, Nitrate only had been purchased, the same gain in crop from the use of the Nitrogen could have been purchased for $733,460 instead of $1,157,500. Assuming that practically the same relations in forms of Nitrogen existed for all the fertilizers made and sold in the whole country this year, the actual cost of the Nitro- gen was, in round numbers, $60,000,000, while, on the basis of availability, it should have cost but $43,000,000. It may be argued that the availability of the organic Nitrogen is greater in the warmer climate of the South, where the bulk of the fertilizer is used. This may be true, but is notably counterbalanced by the fact that a much larger proportion of the Nitrogen used there is in organic forms. It is a fact, too, that the present high cost of cottonseed meal has encouraged a larger use of the tankage and other lower grade Nitrogenous products. The point of importance, therefore, is the price that is paid for the organic forms. In the above discussion, it has been assumed that the organic Nitrogen contained in the fertilizers has been derived from dried blood, or from other materials quite as good. As a matter of fact, how- ever, dried blood does not constitute even a large pro- portion of the organic Nitrogenous materials used, — the bulk of the Nitrogen being derived from products of a lower grade. Various kinds of meat and bone, tankage, dried fish, fish scrap, cottonseed meal, garbage tankage, leather meal and even peat, being used to supplement products of the higher grade. These, while genuine Nitrogen-carriers, have been shown to have a wide range in availability, the leather and peat rating in availability The Cost of as low as 4 in comparison with Nitrate at 100. Nitrogen It may be urged, first, that these products possess a ^ value as sources of Nitrogen and, second, they are valu- able as absorbents and in improving the texture of mix- tures containing Nitrates, acid phosphate and potash salts, — as mixtures of chemicals only cannot be applied by machinery — and, third, that proper conservation of natural resources demands that waste Nitrogenous ma- terials should be utilized. The points are conceded. The Experiment Stations do not discourage, but strongly en- courage, the utilization of waste products containing Nitrogen. They would be false to their duty to the farm- ers, however, if they did not clearly point out to them what is known of the relative agricultural value of such products. It is not solely a question of use, — it is a ques- tion of cost. The cost to the farmer of a pound of Nitro- gen in these materials, of a value lower and more variable than the Nitrate and ammonia, should be lower rather than higher than for Nitrate or ammonia. It is not economy to save refuse Nitrogenous materials, if the cost of the Nitrogen to the farmer is greater and his returns less than may be obtained by the use of Nitro- gen from materials of known value. Farmers have been and are now spending thousands of dollars for Nitrogen for which they do not receive a proportionate return. To the farmer, it is purely a business proposition. He buys Nitrogen, in order that he may get a return in crop. If in one case 100 pounds of Nitrogen contributes 60 pounds to the crops upon which it is applied, and in an- other 100 pounds contributes but 40 pounds to the crops, the purchaser should not pay the same for the second as for the first, for if he did so he would pay 50% more per pound for his " available " Nitrogen. That is, if the cost of the first hundred pounds was $14, the second hundred should cost but $10, when the basis of value is the amount available in each. The Cost of HOW NITRATE OF SODA HELPS CROP Available Nitrogen The highest agricultural authorities have established 12 by careful experimentation that 100 pounds per acre of Nitrate of Soda applied to crops has produced the INCREASED yields tabulated as follows : Barley 400 lbs. of grain. Corn 280 " " Oats 400 " " Rye : . . . . 300 " Wheat 300 " Potatoes 3,600 " Tubers. Hay, upwards of 1,000 " Barn cured. Cotton 500 " Seed cotton. Sugar Beets 4,000 " Tubers. Beets 4,900 " Sweet Potatoes 3,900 " Cabbages 0,100 Pounds. Carrots 7,800 Pounds. Turnips 37 per cent. Strawberries 200 quarts. Onions 1,800 Pounds. Asparagus 100 bunches. Tomatoes 100 baskets. Celery 30 per cent. Hops 100 pounds. Nitrate of Soda is a plant tonic, and an energizer ; it is not a stimulant in any sense of the word. It may be used alone, without other fertilizers, as a Top-Dressing, at the rate of not more than 100 pounds to the acre. THE CULTIVATION OF COTTON A SHORT TREATISE Specially Bearing on Fertilization and the Control of the Ravages of the Boll Weevil PUBLISHED BY WILLIAM S. MYERS, D. Sc, F. C. S., Director Chilean Nitrate Propaganda Late of New Jersey State Agricultural College 25 MADISON AVENUE, NEW YORK Reprinted from Farmers' Digest COTTON COTTON-4 Bales The average yield of Five Egyptian Acres of Cotton where Nitrate of Soda is used at the rate of 100 lbs. or more to the acre COTTON — 2 Bales The average yield of Five United States acres of Cotton of average pro- duction and average fertilization. The Cultivation of Cotton Introduction Cotton is one of the oldest of all cultivated plants, and it is the most valuable fiber plant in the world. It probably originated in India. However, recent research work shows tbat it was grown in China three thousand years before Christ. While cotton was cultivated for centuries in Asia, Europeans did not know of the plant until a few centuries ago. It was first cultivated in the United States in the colony of Virginia by the early settlers. For the last seventy-five years it has been the Cultivation chief money crop of the Southern farmer, and the pros- ° perity of the Southern people is dependent upon the 6 success of the cotton crop. The cotton area of the United States is being gradually extended into the Western States. Importance of the Cotton Crop Three-fifths of the total cotton requirements of the world is produced in the Southern States of America. This is grown on about 35,000,000 acres of land, and between 11,000,000 and 13,000,000 bales are produced annually. The lint of this sells for about $600,000,000 to $800,000,000, and the cotton seed is worth about $100,- 000,000. Other countries have endeavored to weaken American supremacy by trying to develop the existing centers of production and opening up new ones. With the exception of Egyptian cotton, the cotton produced in other countries is inferior to that produced in the Southern States of America. The Southern farmer has practically the monopoly on this, the most important crop of commerce in the world. The average farmer is producing it, however, at such a great cost that his net profit is small. Methods of Securing an Early Crop The increasing ravages of the boll weevil threaten to cut down the yield of cotton considerably in the future, and it is only a matter of time until this insect will extend over the entire cotton belt. To grow- cotton profitably, the farmer must increase the yield by intensive cultivation and by securing an early crop. The investigations of various Experiment Stations have shown that increased and early yields may be se- cured by the following means: — 1. — Skillful preparation of the soil. 2. — Judicious selection of seed. 3. — Liberal and effective application of fertilizers. 4. — Thorough cultivation. The Best Varieties cultivation of Cotton There are about one hundred different species of ~ n cotton. Of these, only two are grown in the United States, — Sea Island (Gossypium barbadense), and the short staple varieties of Gossypium hirsutum. Of the latter species there are more than two hundred varieties cultivated. The various Southern Experiment Stations have for a number of years tested a great number of these different varieties and their experiments show that some are superior to others. The following are good varieties: — Columbia, Triumph, Cleveland's Big Boll, Cook, Russell's Big Boll, Brook's, Allen's Long Staple, Toole, Blue Ribbon, Peterkin, Peerless, Texas Storm Proof, King, Mortgage Lifter, Hartsville and Webber. The Ideal Type of Cotton A variety of cotton that is well adapted to one type of soil is not necessarily well adapted to a different type. The best variety for any one locality is the one that will produce the greatest amount of lint of good quality, is early in maturing, has large bolls, strong lint of uniform quality, and is resistant to diseases. In order to fight the boll weevil successfully, the variety must be early in maturing. This does not necessarily mean one that opens early. The main stem should be short jointed and the fruit limbs should be long with short joints, decreasing in length from the base of the main stem upward. The fruit should be borne in the axis of the leaf, beginning at the first joint of the first fruit limb, and successively at the first joints of all fruit limbs. The first fruit limbs should spring from the first joints of the main stem. This type of plant fruits rapidly, and its fruit is far enough advanced not to be damaged to any great extent by the boll weevil. As a rule the varieties of cotton that open early have small bolls. However, there have been developed in recent years large-boiled varieties that mature their fruit early but do not open early. To fight the boll weevil it is not necessary to have a variety that opens cultivation early, but it is necessary to have one that matures its ° fruit early. The large bolls do not open as readily as 8 the small bolls. Selecting the Best Plants for Seed Purposes No plant will respond to careful selection as rapid- ly as will the cotton plant. Its characteristics are easily distinguished by the eye, and the best plant in a field. can soon be detected by a careful observer. If the cotton seed is picked and preserved separate from the rest and ginned by itself, in three years a sufficient quantity can be obtained to plant a very large plantation. There is a constant and growing demand for the long staple upland varieties of cotton. At the South Carolina Experiment Station a variety has been de- veloped that produces a fibre 1J to lj inches long. This variety has large bolls, medium-sized leaves, is early in maturing its fruit, and is a splendid yielder. One of the best long staple upland varieties is the Columbia, which was developed by Dr. H. J. Webber. Through- out the South there are a number of cotton breeders who are devoting considerable time to the development of new and better varieties. Cotton will not naturally "cross" in the field to any great extent. The percentage of natural crossing is from 5% to 20 c " r . Hybrids can be readily made by crossing by means of artificial fertiliza- tion. The small- boiled, early varieties are not neces- sarily the best ones with which to fight the boll weevil, because, unfortunately, most of these early varieties, like the King, have poor storm-proof qualities. Cotton Must Be Grown in Rotation Southern soils are better suited to cotton than to almost any other crop, and for ages it will be the gen- eral money crop of this section of our country. If the Southern farmer, however, wishes to make a greater profit with his cotton crop, it will become necessary for him to rotate his crops more generally. The raising of more live stock would encourage diversified farming. Cotton is not an exhaustive crop when grown in rotation when properly fertilized. Cotton should always follow some legume. The simplest and probably the Cultivation best rotation for the cotton farmer is cotton, followed by corn and cowpeas, followed by oats and cowpeas, 9 followed by winter rye and vetch turned under, followed by cotton. This is a three years' rotation, the rye and vetch being sown in the fall following the harvesting of the bats, and plowed under the following spring. Most of the Southern soils are very deficient in humus and decaying vegetable matter. The more de- caying vegetable matter the farmer is able to get into his soil, the larger the amount of fertilizer he can use v, ith economy. Barnyard manure and composted stable manure add humus to the soil very quickly. They should be applied either broadcast or in the drill before planting. However, very few farmers can produce enough manure for all of their cotton lands. They must, therefore, depend on soiling crops, such as soy beans, cowpeas, vetch, bur clover, crimson clover, or rye. Fertilizers for Cotton Most of the soils of the South, especially those of the Coastal Plain, and the Piedmont sections, are very deficient in phosphorus, and this element should al- ways be a large constituent of a fertilizer. While potas- sium is not as necessary as phosphorus, still a small amount is needed. The controlling element, though, is nitrogen. Where early maturity is especially desired, it is essential that the fertilizer employed be quickly soluble by the soil water, so that it may be available as food to the plants from the begin- ning of their growth. Lime is beneficial to most South- ern soils, that is to most of the sandy and clay soils of the South. In the black prairie belt this is not true. Practically all cotton soils can be greatly improved by thorough drainage. Nearly every acre of the South would be greatly improved by a thorough system of underdrainage. The Preparation of the Land Cotton lands should be prepared early. Deep and thorough preparation of the soil is highly cultivation necessary. The disk plow is one of the best implements of cotton j. Q uge - n p re p ar i n g cotton lands. If the preceding crop 10 is crimson clover, the land should not be plowed until about the middle of February. If, however, the land has no cover crop on it, it should be plowed in the late fall or early winter. In the early spring the land should be bedded; for, as the cotton plant is a tropical one, it does not grow off well until the soil has become thorough- ly warm in the spring. After these beds have been made, before planting, a harrow should be run over them. The width of these rows should vary from 4 to 5^ feet, de- pending upon the fertility of the land. The seed should be planted with an improved cotton planter and a suf- ficient amount of seed should be sown to secure a stand. A combination planter and fertilizer distributer is the best implement to use. About two-thirds of the fertili- zer should be applied at the time the cotton is planted. The other third should be applied about six weeks later. At the time the seed is planted it is necessary that Nitrate of Soda be mixed with its fertilizer if the mix- ture does not already contain the necessary quantity of Chilean Nitrate. In the early spring nitrifi- cation takes place very slowly in the soil because of too low a temperature. If Nitrate of Soda is used, the plant will get an early start. At the South Carolina Experiment Station as much as 66 to 132 lbs. of Nitrate of Soda per acre has been used to good advantage at the time the cotton seed was planted. Nitrogen is the chief factor in producing rapid and healthy growth. Nitrogen produces the leafy portion of the plant and aids in fruiting. Phosphoric acid increases the yield of lint and tends to produce early fruit. When the cotton plant begins to lose color and take on a yellow cast, nitro- gen is needed. If the cotton plants are green but are not fruiting well, phosphoric acid should be applied. Potash makes the plant hardy, thus enabling it to withstand the attack of fungus diseases, such as rust. In many parts of the South, potash must be used to prevent the rusting of cotton. cultivation The Best Form of the Nitrogen of Cotton Nitrogen can not be too early available. All or- 12 ganic forms of nitrogen, such as dried blood, tankage, cotton seed meal, etc., must undergo decomposition be- fore the nitrogen becomes available. Before these or- ganic sources can be used by plants as a food, they must be converted into nitrates. This change is brought about by the action of microscopic plants, or germs, and these germs cannot live and multiply unless the soil is warm and moist, but not wet. In a wet year nitration takes place in cotton seed meal very slowly because the germs causing it cannot readily multiply. They require an abundance of air, and if the air is excluded by water, their action ceases. Therefore, in a wet year, nitrates, such as Nitrate of Soda, should be used liberally. It must be remembered that there are three forms in which nitrogen is present in manures and fertilizers. These are the organic form, in which nitrogen exists in barnyard manure, tankage, fishscrap, cotton seed meal, etc. ; the ammoniacal form, in which it is present in sul- phate of ammonia; and the nitrate form, in which it is present in the form of Nitrate of Soda and nitrate of potash. Nitrogen, from whatever source it is derived, must be in the form of a nitrate before it can enter the organism of the plant. In other words, cotton seed meal before it passes into the plant tissue, is finally con- verted into Nitrate of Soda, nitrate of lime, or nitrate of potash. The higher the temperature, the more rapid will nitrification take place, and the more thoroughly the soil is aerated, the faster will nitration take place. The Value of Nitrate of Soda Nitrate of Soda, which contains over 15% of nitrogen, has the whole of the nitrogen in the nitrate form, which possesses the advantage of being at once ready (without undergoing any change in the soil) to pass in solution into the plant cells. Nitrate of Soda, moreover, is quickly dissolved by rain or moisture, and thus rapidly permeates the soil so that this nitrogen is at once brought into necessary contact with the roots of the plant. Nitrate of Soda should always be applied liberally as a side application. Many farmers are using Cultivation as much as 100 to 300 lbs. of Nitrate of Soda per acre ° profitably as a dressing to their cotton crop. This 13 Nitrate of Soda should be applied at the time the first cotton bloom appears. There are many farmers in South Carolina, Georgia, and other parts of the South who recommend as much as 300 lbs. of Nitrate of Soda at this time. The Planting of Cotton Cotton does much better when planted on a ridge than it does when planted on a level, unless the soil is perfectly drained. In the early spring, in the eastern part of the cotton belt, the soils are usually saturated with water, and, unless the land is bedded, the soil will remain cold, and the germination of the cotton seed will be very slow, thus affecting the stand. Proper Use of Machinery As much of the labor of producing cotton as possi- ble should be done with machinery, thus reducing the cost of production. A number of excellent machines are now being manufactured that will distribute the fertilizer and plant the seed at one time. As soon as the cotton is well up, it should have a weeder or harrow run over it to save moisture. Frequent culti- vation is necessary to save the moisture and kill grass and weeds. The crust should be broken after each heavy rain. The different forms of cultivators and wide sweeps are the best tools for this purpose. Often the farmer uses a small sweep and he finds it necessary to go two or three times through a row. This is an expen- sive method. It is very profitable to use a cultivator which will cultivate and apply the side dressing of Nitrate of Soda at the same time. The Thinning of Cotton In its early growth, cotton should be forced as rapidly as possible. If the soil has been liberally ferti- lized, the cotton should be thinned to one foot in the row. Cultivation Crowding cotton in the row tends to make it bloom and of Cotton ° ,■ mature earlier. 14 Diseases of Cotton The cotton plant is subject to a great number of diseases. The loss to the Southern farmer from the anthracnose disease alone amounts to several million dollars a year. Many of these diseases are caused by fungi, some by bacteria, and others are physiological troubles. Wilt. — The disease known as cotton wilt is rather widely spread throughout the cotton belt. It is found usually in light sandy soils that are deficient in humus. However, this disease is sometimes found on the richest of soils. The disease is due to a fungus, the only method thus far discovered for its control being the use of resistant varieties. The United States De- partment of Agriculture has developed varieties that are resistant to this disease. Anthracnose. — A fungus disease known as anthracnose is very destructive, and this disease is spreading throughout the South. The South Carolina Experiment Station has found that it is scattered almost entirely through the seed; hence, by carefully selecting well open, healthy looking bolls in the field, it can be easily eradicated. The botanist of the South Carolina Experiment Station has shown that one year's rotation with clean seed will eliminate cotton anthracnose. The burning of stalks in the field will prevent the spread of the disease. Rust. — Rust of cotton is a physiological trouble. Wherever rust appears, it is due to the lack of the proper environment for the cotton plant. It may be lack of drainage, lack of sufficient plant food, especially potash, lack of decaying vegetable matter in the soil, or the soil may be acid. Cotton rust can be prevented by draining the soil, by applying lime or marl, by rotation of crops, or by applying a good quantity of kainit or muriate of potash in connection with Nitrate of Soda. The Shedding of Leaves and Squares. — -Another physiological trouble is the shedding of leaves. This can be prevented by deeper plowing, by adding more conserving soil moisture through humus to the soil, by frequent and shallow cultivation, and by applying liberal amounts of Nitrate of Soda. The early and small-boiled varieties are more susceptible to this trouble than the large-boiled, early maturing varieties. Cultivation of Cotton 15 Fig. 1. An early, rapid-fruiting, productive type of cotton plant, with low fruit limbs, short joints, and continuous-growing, long fruit limbs. (Leaves removed.) Farmer's Bulletin 314, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. cultivation Root-knot. — Root-knot is another disease that is of cotton ., __n._x. 4-1,..., i,„,.r 4-K„ c-^.+v. Ti,; c disease 16 quite prevalent throughout the South. This is probably scattered by the cowpea which is also very Fig. 2. Another early, rapid-fruiting, productive type of cotton plant, having characters similar to those shown in figure 1. (Leaves removed.) Farmer's Bulletin 31 t, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. susceptible to it. Root-knot is a disease of the roots. The roots become very much dwarfed when the plant is badly affected. Often the disease causes the death of the plant. This disease is caused by a microscopic worm. The only known treatment is to rotate, using varieties of cowpeas not subject to it, and applying potash salt Culivation of Cotton 17 Fig. .3. A late, slow-fruiting, unproductive type of cotton plant, with high fruit limbs and long joints. (Leaves removed.) Farmer's Bulletin 314 3 U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. cultivation and Nitrate in large quantities. This trouble can be of Cotton easily gotten rid of by proper rotation. is Insect Pests. — The principal insect enemies of cot- ton, besides the boll weevil, are the cotton root louse, the cotton boll worm, red spider, root-knot, wire worm, leaf louse, and cowpea curculio. Minor pests are cotton square borer, garden web worm and others. The most injurious pests mentioned above are controlled by a judicious management of the plantation. Fig. 4. Another late, slow-fruiting, unproductive type of cot- ton plant, with characters similar to those shown in figure :!. Farmer's Bulletin "11, U. S. IVnt. of Agriculture. Cotton Root Louse. — This insect feeds on the roots ^"'cotton" of cotton and passes the late fall and early spring on the roots of various wild weeds. The South Carolina 19 Experiment Station has shown that this pest can main- tain itself on 34 wild weeds, besides cotton and corn. In its distribution on the plantation it is supported by ants. The principal control measures consist of planting a cleansing crop in the fall, which prevents the develop- ment of wild food plants during the late fall and early spring. A very rapid shallow cultivation from the time the cotton comes up to about May 20th, keeps the trails of the ants disorganized so that they cannot give the louse the proper support. These same recommendations are very effective against the red spider and cowpea curculio. Boll Worm. — The boll worm which is most injuri- ous in the southwestern section of the cotton belt and on late cotton in the eastern section, is best controlled by a late fall or winter plowing which destroys their pupa cases in which the insect passes the winter in the cotton fields. An intelligent rotation with winter cover crops, and thorough, shallow cultivation, especially in the early part of the cotton growing season, together constitute general measures of farm management, which when in- telligently practiced reduce the damage of these pests to a minimum. j. N> HARPER. The tables of results of experiments on the follow- ing pages are condensed from similar tables on pages 21, 22 and 23 of Bulletin 145 of the South Carolina Experi- ment Station, Clemson College, S. C, and from the report for 1910 from the same station. It will be noted that, while there is a variation from year to year in the production of the plots fertilized with various combinations of fertilizers, due, no doubt, to sea- sonal conditions, the yield of the Nitrated plots is uniformly higher than those with no Nitrate. In the one seeming exception, in 1907, the amount of Nitrate used was only one-half as much proportionately as was used of the other elements. Cultivation of Cotton Results of Experiments with Fertilizers on Cotton 20 Results of Experiments in 1906 Fertilizer Yield per per acre acre None 610 lbs. 352 lbs. Acid Phosphate 627 " 44 lbs. Muriate of Potash.. 651 " 352 lbs. Acid Phosphate 44 " Muriate of Potash.. 677 " 352 lbs. Acid Phosphate 44 " Muriate of Potash.. 88 " Cottonseed Meal.... 726 " 352 lbs. Acid Phosphate 132 ," Nitrate of Soda 891 " 352 lbs. Acid Phosphate 44 " Muriate of Potash.. 132 " Nitrate of Soda 1040 " 352 lbs. Acid Phosphate 88 " Cottonseed Meal .... 132 " Nitrate of Soda 1133 " 352 lbs. Acid Phosphate 44 " Muriate of Potash.. 88 " Cottonseed Meal.... 132 " Nitrate of Soda 1215 " Results of Experiments in 1907 Fertilizer Yield per per acre acre None 484 lbs. 704 lbs. Acid Phosphate 704 " 88 lbs. Muriate of Potash.. 638 " 704 lbs. Acid Phosphate 88 " Muriate of Potash.. 792 " 704 lbs. Acid Phosphate 88 " Muriate of Potash.. 176 " Cottonseed Meal.... 880 " 704 lbs. Acid Phosphate 132 " Nitrate of Soda 770 " 704 lbs. Acid Phosphate 88 " Muriate of Potash.. 264 " Nitrate of Soda 880 " 704 lbs. Acid Phosphate 176 " Cottonseed Meal .... 264 " Nitrate of Soda 961 " 704 lbs. Acid Phosphate 88 " Muriate of Potash.. 176 " Cottonseed Meal .... 264 " Nitrate of Soda 1001 " Results of Experiments in 1908 Fertilizer Yield per per acre acre None 349 lbs. 704 lbs. Acid Phosphate 689 " 88 " Muriate of Potash.. 410 " 704 lbs. Acid Phosphate 88 " Muriate of Potash.. 636 " 704 lbs. Acid Phosphate 88 " Muriate of Potash.. 176 " Cottonseed Meal.... 901 " 704 lbs. Acid Phosphate 264 " Nitrate of Soda 954 " 704 lbs. Acid Phosphate 88 " Muriate of Potash.. 264 " Nitrate of Soda 993 " 704 lbs. Acid Phosphate 176 " Cottonseed Meal .... 264 " Nitrate of Soda 1033 " 704 lbs. Acid Phosphate 88 " Muriate of Potash.. 176 " Cottonseed Meal.... 264 " Nitrate of Soda 1073 " Results of Experiments in 1910 Fertilizer Yield per per acre acre None (estimated) 481 lbs. 704 lbs. Acid Phosphate 742 " 88 lbs. Muriate of Potash.. 503 " 704 lbs. Acid Phosphate 88 " Muriate of Potash.. 901 " 704 lbs. Acid Phosphate 88 " Muriate of Potash.. 176 " Cottonseed Meal .... 954 " 704. lbs. Acid Phosphate 264 " Nitrate of Soda 1404 " 704 lbs. Acid Phosphate 88 " Muriate of Potash.. 264 " Nitrate of Soda 1139 " 704 lbs. Acid Phosphate 176 " Cottonseed Meal .... 264 " Nitrate of Soda 1113 " 704 lbs. Acid Phosphate 8S " Muriate of Potash.. 176 " Cottonseed Meal .... 264 " Nitrate of Soda 1166 " The following table shows the average yearly yields per acre for the four years during which the experiments were carried on, together with the profits shown by the use of various fertilizers. It is compiled from the same sources as the preceding table. Average Yearly Profits from Use of Fertilizers for £ f ul c ^ n the Years 1906, 1907, 1908, 1910. a, oj <->.~ e: Fertilizer %~ 2»££ = S S. ££ ££ Kind of £% <° Oo None 481 lbs. Acid Phosphate 690£ " 209£ lbs. $ 8.38 $ 3.45 $ 4.93 Muriate of Potash- 550£ " 69j " 2.78 1.94 .84 Acid Phosphate Muriate of Potash.. 751|- " 270| " 10.82 5.39 5.43 Acid Phosphate Muriate of Potash- Cottonseed Meal.... 865^ " 384-|- " 15.37 7.17 8.20 Acid Phosphate Nitrate of Soda 1004J " 523f " 20.95 9.15 11.80 Acid Phosphate Muriate of Potash- Nitrate of Soda 1013 " 532 " 21.28 12.04 9.24 Acid Phosphate Cottonseed Meal- Nitrate of Soda 1060 " 579 " 23.16 11.88 11.28 Acid Phosphate Muriate of Potash- Cottonseed Meal- Nitrate of Soda 111SJ " 632f " 25.31 13.81 11.50 Report on Alabama Cotton Prize Experiments with Chemical Fertilizers Extended experiments have been made from year to year by all the Experiment Stations in the various cotton growing states with a view to arriving at the fer- tilizer requirements of the cotton plant under the vary- ing conditions of soil and climate which are met with throughout the cotton belt, and the needs of the plant for the various essential fertilizing elements have been determined with comparative accuracy. The farmer, himself, however, is often inclined to pay little attention to the forms in which the fertilizing 21 Cultivation elements are applied, even though he may employ suffi- cient quantities of a given mixed fertilizer to supply the 22 proper quota of each element. As a matter of fact, the selection of a proper form or forms in which to supply the needed plant-foods will, in many cases, determine the success of the application of a given formula to the crop, and too much care and attention cannot be given to this important question. Many of the formulas for cotton and corn which are in use throughout the cotton growing states supply proportions of Nitrogen, and, in some cases, of potash, which are far below the fertilizer requirements of the crop, while, as before stated, little attention is given to the matter of supplying these elements in forms most available for the needs of the plant. . Analyses of the cotton plant, made at the South Carolina, Mississippi and Alabama Experiment Sta- tions show the needs of the plant for liberal supplies of Nitrogen and of potash, particularly of the former element, since our average cotton soils, are, as a rule, so poorly supplied with it. At the Alabama Experiment Station in 1899 (Bul- letin 107), analyses were made of all portions of the cotton plant at various stages of growth, including the plant at full maturity. The weight of the various fertilizing constituents contained in the whole plant grown on one acre, and producing a crop equivalent to 300 pounds dry lint cotton per acre, was also carefully ascertained by analyses and calculation, the figures being presented in the following table. The weight of Nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash and lime contained in a crop producing 300 pounds of lint is given, and the relative distribution of these con- stituents through different parts of the plant is also pre- sented. The weights of the different parts of the plant in a thoroughly dried condition are also given, and it will be noted that the total dry weight of the crop required to yield 300 pounds of lint is 2,470.8 pounds. Amounts of fertilizer constituents in pounds required to cultivation produce a crop of 300 lbs. of lint. Nitrogen Phosphoric Acid Potash Lime Lint — 300 lbs 0.54 0.27 1 77 5.73 0.21 Seed— 507.1 lbs 17.95 7.10 1.52 Burs— 363.1 lbs 2.99 1.74 11.22 4.14 Leaves — 566.2 lbs 12.64 2.70 6.13 29.90 Roots — 130.2 lbs 0.62 0.34 1.17 0.59 Stems — 604.2 lbs 3.87 1.27 5.14 4 71 Total— 2470.8 lbs 38.61 13.42 31.16 41.07 23 It appears from this table that to produce 300 pounds of dry lint there are required 38.61 pounds of Nitrogen, 13.42 pounds of phosphoric acid, 31.16 pounds of potash and 41.07 pounds of lime. The need of the cotton plant for liberal amounts of Nitrogen being thus indicated by laboratory tests, the writer has during the past two seasons supervised and directed a series of experiments upon the farm of Mr. J. C. Moore, near Auburn, Alabama, who was desirous of securing a formula adapted to the growing of cotton upon the sandy soil of his farm and of the immediate section in which he resided. Cultivation of Cotton 24 This soil is designated by the U. S. Soil Survey of this region as the "Norfolk Sandy Loam." It is de- scribed in the official report of the soil survey of Lee Products of Auburn Cotton Plots, Group 1 Yields of Seed Cotton. Plot 1. Plot 3. Plot 4. 750 lbs. 1272 lbs. 1 U0 lbs. county as follows: — "The Norfolk Sandy Loam is an easily tilled soil and the best for general farming of any of the Norfolk types in this country. It is well adapted to cotton and when fertilized produces fair yields of corn and oats. The lightest phase is well adapted to the production of potatoes, berries and truck crops. The soil needs organic matter which may be supplied by green or stable manure." The cotton experiments conducted upon the farm of Mr. Moore Mere carried out upon several plots ag- gregating in area two-thirds of an acre. The land, after proper preparation, was laid off in rows seventv yards in length, while the distance between the rows was so adjusted that ten rows would constitute cultivation a plot of one-sixth of an acre. Two blank rows were ° ° left between the individual plots so that the fertilizers 25 Products of Auburn Cotton Plots, Group 2 Yields of Seed Cotton. Plot 1. Plot 3. Plot 4. 930 lbs. 1284 lbs. 1776 lbs. applied to one lot would not have any undue effect upon the adjacent plots. Plot Xo. 1 was fertilized by the application of an acid phosphate containing 14 per cent. Available Phos- phoric Acid and 4 per cent. Potash, this fertilizer being applied at the rate of 300 pounds per acre. The remaining three exjierimental plots of ten rows each (covering an area of one-sixth acre each) were also fertilized by the application of the same quantity of the above mentioned Acid Phosphate containing potash, and, in addition, Xitrate of Soda was applied to Plots 2, 3 and 4 in the proportions of 42, 84 and 126 pounds cultivation p er acre> respectively, while no Nitrate or other form of ofCotton Nitrogen was applied to Plot No. 1. 26 The yields per acre for the different plots for the years 1905 and 1906 were as follows: 1905. 750 lbs. seed cotton. 1,116 lbs. 1,272 lbs. 1,440 lbs. 1906. 930 lbs. seed cotton. 900 lbs. 1,284 lbs. 1,776 lbs. As above stated, all of these plots were fertilized equally as regards the amounts of Phosphoric Acid and Potash, so that the effects of supplying or withholding Nitrate of Soda could be easily noted. Yields of Seed Cotton Plot 1. Plot 3. Plot 4. 750 lbs. 1272 lbs. 1440 lbs. It will be noted that the increased yields are partic- ularly striking in the case of the application of 84 and 126 pounds of Nitrate. On Plot 2, in 1906, the yield was practically the same as that on Plot 1, but this was due to the fact that a few rows in Plot 2, owing to the stand on a part of the plot being not so good and possi- bly on account of some other condition, brought down the average yield per row of that plot. A majority of the rows of that plot, however, undoubtedly gave a bet- ter yield than Plot No. 1, and it was apparent to the eye that most of this plot was superior to Plot No. 1. In 1905 it was noted that the cotton grown upon the "No Nitrate" plot rusted quite badly, while Plots 3 and 4, upon which an abundance of Nitrate had been ap- plied, were almost immune from rust. In addition to experiments in which the Nitrate was applied all at one time, tests were made upon some smaller plots to note the effects of the Nitrate used in two different applications, the second one being made about sixty days after planting. It was found that there was only a slight difference in the relative yields, but this slight difference was in favor of the two applications. It is doubtful, however, if the increase would have justified the additional cost and labor of the second application. Experimental tests upon small lots of the seed cot- p f U c 1 v t *^ ,n ton produced in 1906, showed that the yield of lint was Yields of Seed Cotton Plot 1. Plot 3. Plot 4. 930 lbs. 1284 lbs. 1776 lbs. about 34.4 per cent, of the weight of the seed cotton, but no data was secured with regard to the proportionate yield of lint in 1905. Applying these figures to the ex- cess yield of seed cotton by reason of the application of 126 pounds of Nitrate, it will be found that there was an increase of about 238 pounds of lint cotton (690 pounds seed cotton) over the yield on the "No Nitrate" plot in 1905 and an increase of 291 pounds lint cotton (846 seed cotton) in 1906. At 10 cents per pound, the increased value of the lint cotton yield by apply- ing 126 pounds Nitrate would be $23.80 for 1905 and $29.10 for 1906, to say nothing of the value of the increased yield of seed which would amount to from $3.00 to $4.00. With regard to the time and manner of application of the Nitrate in the experiments of the past two years, it should be stated that in 1905 the fertilizers were ap- plied and the cotton planted on April 27th, while in 1906 the date of planting and application of fertilizers was April 21st. The Nitrate was applied in the furrow along with the fertilizing materials at the time of plant- ing. The views given, herewith, will afford an idea of the comparative yields from Plots 1, 3 and 4 in 1905 and 1906. The quantities of seed cotton represented therein • are equal to the yields on one-twelfth of an acre. In this connection it should be stated that Mr. Moore gave a large amount of care and attention to these experiments. By his close personal supervision of the work, the details of the experiments have been secured and most accurately recorded. Upon comparing the results of these experiments with the results of the Nitrate of Soda tests reported in the January, 1907, Bulletin of the North Carolina De- partment of Agriculture, it will be noted that the gen- 27 Cultivation era \ conclusions which may be drawn from the two sets ° of experiments are practically the same. A number of 28 the experiments were carried out under almost identical conditions, though the North Carolina plots were some- what smaller in area, being one-tenth acre area each, while the Alabama plots were one-sixth of an acre. As an average of the two years' results, the most profitable application, it is stated, was upon the plot receiving 200 pounds Acid Phosphate, 83 pounds Kainit and 100 pounds Nitrate of Soda, 25 pounds of the Nitrate being applied with other materials at planting, and the remaining 75 pounds reserved and used as a side dressing some two months or more later. This mixture gave an average profit of $21.94 per acre for two years above the yield secured from a plot fertilized with Acid Phosphate and Kainit alone, while with only 75 pounds Nitrate of Soda per acre an increased yield valued at $19.26 was secured. In the experiments conducted near Auburn, Ala- bama, no tests were made with quantities of Nitrate of Soda intermediate between 84 and 126 pounds per acre, though it is possible that a quantity somewhat less than 126 pounds might have given practically as satisfactory results as those reported for the maximum applications of Nitrate. In any event, the results of these tests and of other tests upon similar lands in this section show that excellent results may be secured by the application of from 100 to 125 pounds of Nitrate of Soda per acre, in conjunction with the proper quota of Acid Phosphate and some salt of potash. Directions for the Use of Fertilizers on Cotton No crop responds so well to intelligent fertilization as does the cotton crop, and practically all soils of the South will respond to good treatment and to fertili- zation. The farmers of the South should farm more on the intensive plan and should fertilize in increasing quanti- ties up to the point where additional fertilizers will not give sufficient increase in crop yield to make it pay. In the Piedmont sections of the South this will vary around 600 to 800 lbs. per acre for cotton; and in the Coastal cultivation • ti n i t of Cotton plain, from 1,000 to 1,500 lbs. per acre, all depending upon whether or not the other factors of crop production 29 are favorable to good returns. Cotton is not an exhaustive crop when grown in rotation and when properly fertilized. Most of the soils of the South are very deficient in phosphorus, and phosphoric acid should be applied in large amounts to nearly every description of soil to pro- duce maximum cotton crops. The Experiment Stations of the South have found, by careful experiments, that the Piedmont clay soils are very rich in potash and this fertilizer ingredient should not be applied in a large per- centage to cotton. It pays well, however, when applied to the sandy soils of the Coastal plain. The controlling factor of a fertilizer for Southern soil is ammonia. The more humus a farmer is able to get into his soil, the more commercial fertilizer he can use with economy. Barnyard manure or composted stable ma- nure adds humus to the soil very quickly. It should be applied either broadcast or in the drill before planting. However, only a few farmers can produce enough manure for all their cotton land. They must, therefore, depend on soiling crops such as cowpeas, soybeans, vetch, crimson clover, bur clover, rye, etc. The growing of these crops necessitates the growing of crops in rotation. The main value of humus is to retain the proper amount of moisture for the growing crops. As plant food it is of small consequence, and even should the Southern soils become filled with humus, it will still be necessary for the Southern farmer to use large amounts of com- mercial fertilizers to obtain maximum crops of cotton. South Carolina has greatly increased in agicultural production during the past ten years. This increase has kept pace with the increased use of commercial fertili- zers and better cultural methods. The growing of leguminous crops in rotation, while most helpful to the soil, will not, however, produce a sufficient amount of nitrogen for the production of maximum yields of cotton, and the farmer must resort to the use of nitrates or some commercial forms of am- cultivation monia, and he should insist that this ammonia be in such of cotton a f orm fa^t j t w jjj be quickly available. Under ordinary 30 conditions, dried blood, sulphate of ammonia, tankage, cotton seed meal, fish scrap, castor pomace, and other forms of ammonia become available in a short time if the right conditions are favorable. Nitrate of Soda, however, has the whole of its ammonia (nitrogen) in the form of a nitrate which possesses the advantage of being at once ready to pass into the tissues of the plants without undergoing any change in the soil. Nitrate of Soda, moreover, permeates the soil quickly, so that this nitrogen is brought into direct contact with the roots of the plants. Therefore, all fertilizers should contain a good per cent, of Nitrate of Soda. We recommend the following formula for cotton: Nitrate of Soda 250 lbs. Acid Phosphate 600 " Sulphate of Potash 50 " Fine Dry Loam 100 1000 " Composition: — Available Nitrogen 3.75 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 9.6 per cent.; available potash 2.40 per cent. To be applied at the rate of 400 pounds per acre, which amount would carry 100 pounds of Nitrate of Soda. This should be thoroughly mixed in the furrow just before planting, while stable manure should be placed in the soil at least one month before planting the crop It has been found, also, that an application of 100 lbs. of Nitrate of Soda a month or six weeks after planting gave excellent increased yields. In the Piedmont region most of the fertilizer should be applied at the time of planting cotton. In the Coastal region, however, it pays to use only one-half at time of planting and the rest should be used as side applications later in the growing season. At least 100 lbs. of Nitrate of Soda per acre should be applied before or at the time of planting. This can be mixed with the other fertilizers. If the soil produces cotton plants which are slow of growth or yellow in color, even larger amounts of Ni- cultivation trate of Soda can be used with success. If, however, the of c° tton plants make a weedy growth and are not fruiting well, 31 more acid phosphate should be used. "Having prepared a good seed bed by plowing, harrowing, dragging, etc., the cotton rows should be laid off from three and a half to five feet apart, varying with the fertility of the soil and the amount of fertilizer to be used. A medium sized furrow should be opened and the fertilizer applied some ten days or two weeks before planting. The consensus of opinion seems to be in favor of putting the fertilizer in the drill in case not more than 400 lbs. to 600 lbs. are used, but, if heavier applications are put on, the quantity should be divided into two parts, one of which should be put in the drill, the other to be used as a side dressing some weeks after planting." The Bulletin of the North Carolina Dept. of Agriculture, No. 164, page 21. Nitrate of Soda should also be applied to cotton as a Top Dressing when the first squares are formed. Most farmers make the mistake of waiting too late in the season to apply Nitrate of Soda to the cotton. The best time of day to apply it is after the dew has dried off. The amount that should be applied to cotton varies with the fertility of the soil, and the amount of other fertilizers used. At the South Carolina Experiment Station as much as 200 lbs. per acre of Nitrate has given very profitable returns when applied to cotton as a Side Dressing. Such use of Nitrate of Soda produces a darker green in the foliage and causes the plants to re- tain most of their fruit during dry spells. If a very heavy application is made, however, early in the growth of the plant, it will hasten its maturity. Thoroughbred Seed for Cotton and Nitrate Fertilization There is always a big demand for the best grades of Cotton. Grow the best lint from thoroughbred seed and fertilize your plants properly with Nitrate of Soda. It is just as easy and twice as profitable to feed a Cultivation thoroughbred cotton plant as it is to feed a low grade of Cotton i . , & , r .^_^^ lint producer. 32 The use of Nitrate of Soda does not take the place of thorough cultivation, but it is a powerful plant tonic, and a small amount per acre does a very large amount of work. The need of the South, and the whole United States, in fact, is for a more rational method of fertilization than has ever been our practice. The yields of our staple crops in this country do not compare with the yields of the same crops in Europe, because in Europe they use two or three times as much ammoniate plant food per acre, and proportionately a vastly better balanced plant food ration. In parts of this country, even where the most fertilizers are used, and the best yields are obtained, such yields do not compare with the average yields of Europe, for the reason that we do not use as much avail- able ammoniate fertilizer per acre. We use proportion- ately too much of other ingredients which do not com- pare with Nitrate as profit producers, for all its ( Nitro- gen ) ammonia is immediately available. Grow thoroughbred cotton of longer staple and get higher prices. There is always a great demand for the better grades of cotton and always a shortage. Every cotton planter ought to grow more cotton per acre of the best quality. It is not at all necessary to diminish the acres of cotton you are growing, but it is highly desirable for you to grow higher grades for which there is always a splendid market. Nitrate of Soda is the most effective of all the fertilizers for this purpose, and a few hundred pounds of it will do much more work and is far more profitable than the low grade mixtures containing second grade ammoniates, which are not available until a year or two after they are ap- plied. With proper cultivation and with reasonable ra- tional fertilization, which requires much Nitrogen, and which necessitates a larger proportion of Nitrogen than has ever been used in our Cotton Belt, a handsome reve- nue return to cotton planters is possible even with middling upland, bringing but nine cents a pound, cultivation There is no reason why you should not write to your - experiment station and find out where to get seed of 33 the best varieties, which will give you a longer staple of a variety that will pay you still more to feed well with Nitrate of Soda. They will be glad to give you the very best information as to cotton varieties. We advise growing more corn and other crops and the same number of acres of cotton that you grew last year, but of the best grade. Note The literature of the cotton plant would go far to fill a library, and we do not pretend to have done more in this little work than touch succinctly upon a few salient points in connection with specified divisions of the subject. Our object has been to aid the cotton-planter by suggesting some directions in which improved methods may be pursued with advantage and prospec- tive profit. We expressly disclaim any attempt to lay down hard-and-fast rules, still less to give directions which should supersede the exercise of the planter's own judg- ment, or replace the indications afforded by his knowl- edge of the particular conditions, as respects soil and climate, in which he is working. Nitrate on Cotton From the Southern Ruralist. Last year I worked about two and a half acres of old land heavily enriched with stable and lot manure and made over two and a half bales of cotton. This year, along the latter part of February I bedded this land with six furrows to the row with a one-horse turning plow. Then, with two good mules and wagon, I hauled 57 loads of lot and stable manure and put out between these beds. I then took an 8-inch shovel and ran a furrow in the manure as deep as a good mule could pull it and put two furrows with a turning plow back on it. I let this stand about three weeks, then opened it up with an 8-inch shovel and put on the whole piece of land 400 pounds of 16 per cent, acid phosphate and 200 pounds of kainit and threw two furrows on it with a big twister. The cotton was planted on the list with a planter the 20th of April. For the first plowing I ran around it with an 8-inch shovel and ran the middles 34 Cultivation out with a 16-inch sweep_, four furrows to the row. Within a week of Cotton j ran aroun( j jt again with a 12-inch sweep. In a few days I chopped it out and in about nine days I ran around it again with an 18-inch sweep. I waited about a week and ran out the middles with an 18-inch sweep as flat as I could run it. In about two weeks I ran around it with a 22-inch sweep and after about ten days put 75 pounds per acre of Nitrate of Soda and put two furrows from the middle with a 22-inch sweep. This cotton never suffered a particle from the drouth except on the ends next to the woods. About the 15th of July I intend to again put on about 75 pounds of Nitrate of Soda per acre. L. Adams. Myrilewood, Ala. Index PAGE Alabama Prize Experiment, Report of 21 Amounts of fertilizer constituents required to produce 300 lbs. of lint 23 Analysis of Cotton Plant 22 Annual production of Cotton in U. S 6 Anthracnose 14 Application of Fertilizer 10 Application of Nitrate of Soda 12 Area of Cotton in the U. S 6 Best form of Nitrogen 12 Best plants for seed purposes 8 Best rotation 9 Best varieties 7 Boll Weevil 6 Boll Weevil, Extent of Ravages (Map) 11 Boll Worm 19 Controlling Element, Nitrogen 9 Cotton Area of the U. S 6 Cowpea Curculio 18 Crossing 8 Cultivation 13 Directions for using Nitrate of Soda 28 Diseases of Cotton 14, 19 Drainage 9 Early Crop, Method of Securing an 6 Early Maturing, Large Boiled Cotton 7 Experiment, Report of Alabama Prize 21 Fertilizer, Application of 10 Fertilizer, Formula for 30 Fertilizer, Quickly Soluble 9 Formula for Cotton Fertilizer 30 Grown in Rotation, Must Be 8 Hybrids 8 Ideal Type of Cotton 7 Importance of the Cotton Crop 6 Insect Pests 18 Land, Preparation of the 9 Large Boiled, Early Maturing 7 Leaf Louse 18 Leaves, Shedding of 14 Lime 9 Long Staple, Upland Varieties 8 Machinery, Proper use of 13 Method of Planting 10 PAGE Methods of securing an early crop 6 Nitrate of Soda, Application of 12 Nitrate of Soda, Directions for using 28 Nitrate of Soda quickly dissolved 12 Nitrate of Soda, Value of 12 Nitrate on Cotton 28 Nitrification 12 Nitrogen, Best form of 12 Nitrogen, The controlling element 9, 10 Not exhaustive, when properly fertilized 8 Phosphoric Acid 10 Phosphorus, Soils deficient in . . . : 9 Planting of seed 10 Planting, Method of 10 Plants, Best for seed purposes 8 Plowing, Time of 10 Potash 10 Preparation of the land 9 Prize Experiment, Alabama Report of 21 Production of Cotton in U. S. annually 6 Properly fertilized, 'Not exhaustive b' Proper use of machinery 13 Quickly soluble fertilizer 9 Ravages of the boll weevil, Extent of (Map) 11 Red spider 18 Prize Experiment, Report of Alabama 21 Root-knot 16 Root Louse 19 Rotation, Best 9 Rotation, Must be grown in 8 Rust 14 Seed, Planting of 10 Seed purposes, Best plants for 8 Shedding of leaves and squares 14 Soils deficient in phosphorus 9 Squares, Shedding of 14 Superiority of U. S. Cotton 6 Thinning J3 Time of plowing 10 Type of Cotton, The ideal 7 Underdrainage 9 Upland varieties, long staple 8 Value of Nitrate of Soda 12 Varieties, Best 7 Wilt '.'.'.'.'.'.'. 14 Wire worm 18 FERTILIZERS IN FORESTRY By Professor F. Wm. Rane, State Forester, Boston, Massachusetts, To -which is added an Abstract from an article entitled Nitrate of Soda in Forestry By J. HUBERTY Chief Warden ol Waters and Forests, Brussels, Belgium. PUBLISHED BY William S. Myers, d. sc, f. c. s„ Director, Chilean Nitrate of Soda Propaganda. Late of New Jersey State Agricultural College. 17 MADISON AVENUE, NEW YORK. Preface. The growth of public interest in the preservation of our forests and the import- ance of re-foresting much of our old lands, has led to the re-publication of these articles. The splendid service which may be rendered by Nitrate of Soda towards improved conditions is well demonstrated in these pages. The marked Rise in Price of timber in recent years and the long years of wasting of our forest resources, should direct the careful attention of owners and of public men to up-to-date methods of forestry. WILLIAM S. MYERS. Fertilizers in Forestry. An Address Before The National Annual Irrigation and Forestry Congress, At Sacramento, California, September 7, 1907. By Professor F. Wm. RANE, State Forester, Boston, Massachusetts. The whole subject of forestry is rapidly receiving recognition by Americans, and matters that a few years ago would seem absurd, are now opportune to discuss. While the use of artificial fertilizers for our forests or woodlots may seem an entirely new proposition for consideration in this country, nevertheless, it is believed to be of great importance. Doubtless, it will be some time before our people will feel that the results are likely to be practical, but with forest products rapidly and constantly increasing in value year by year, it is only a matter of time when we will realize this great economic problem, and be able to know, with comparative cer- tainty, the values of plant foods adapted to furthering tree growth for lumber and other purposes. If we have learned anything in recent years, it is that a systematic, scientific study of agriculture is the only rational method of successfully acquiring perma- nent results. The balancing of rations for both plants and animals, whereby economic returns are assured, is along the line of endeavor in which our scientists are constantly working. How much more we know now than we did a decade ago ! ! If, as has been proved over and over again, the application of certain artificial ferti- lizers or plant foods to this and that agricultural crop will secure results of great economic importance, there seems to be little reason why similar results may not come from a like application to Tree Growth. In Growing a Forest from seed or seedlings to ma- turity, the results must of necessity vary according to 6 Fertilizers m any conditions. In the older sections of the country, in Forestry w here th e so [\ has become depleted, one does not expect the growth that would result where plant food is more abundant. Where forest fires jjeriodically run over the land, there is destroyed the valuable leaf mould and or- ganic matter that otherwise would go far towards pro- ducing desirable conditions for tree growth. Winter Season. Forest Fire Line in Process of Establishment — Twenty-five Feet Wide. The problem of growing forest products economi- cally for an increasing demand is plainly a pressing one before us. Many species of woods that a few years ago had no apparent value and were not used in manufac- turing, to-day have a growing, recognized value and are eagerly sought. In making examinations of various kinds and con- ditions of soils and forest growths relative to their im- provement, the writer has become interested in finding out what results could be expected, and whether it would be practical to employ artificial plant food. Few experi- ments, if any, have ever been attempted in this line in this country. Nurserymen have found from experience that the continuous growing of nursery stock on the same land depletes it in relatively few years. It has therefore been a common practice among them to rent land for such use, allowing it to revert to the original owner when the stock showed the results of soil depletion. Recently, Mr. H. L. Frost,* the noted tree expert, stated his firm belief in paying more attention to tree feeding in order to get satisfactory results. Fertilizers in Forestry Forest as Left by Ordinary Lumbering First Stage. Mr. Frost states that he has treated trees which were in very bad condition with an application of Nitrate of Soda, at the rate of 50 to 250 pounds to the acre, or for large individual trees not over three or four pounds, spreading it on the ground broadcast as far as the limbs *Firm of H. L. Frost & Co., of Boston, New York, Philadelphia, etc., the noted tree experts. This firm has several hundred men at work through- out the country, and hence has had broad experience with individual trees and forest conditions. Fertilizers in Forestry 8 Clearing Preparations for Planting Seedlings Second Stage. y^fei -.-■:. . Clearing Land for Chestnut Seedlings. Forestry Work. extend. He found in many cases it was but a very short time before there were marked results in vastly improving their conditions. He believes as much in feeding the trees as he does in spraying them and says that in many instances the spraying would be unneces- sary were the trees better nourished. In Bulletin No. 94 (new series) , issued by the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, the author, Dr. F. L. Van Slyke, recommends the following formu- las or fertilizers for use in growing nursery stock : Fertilizers in Forestry Preparation for Planting Seedlings. White Oak and Chestnut. For Nitrogen: (!) 60 to 120 lbs. Nitrate of Soda, or (2) 50 to 100 lbs. Sulphate of Ammonia, or (3) 100 to 200 lbs. Dried Blood. For Available (1) 200 to 400 lbs. Acid Phosphate, or Phosphoric Acid: (2) 175 to 350 lbs. Dissolved Bone, or (3) 250 to 500 lbs. Bone Meal. For Potash: (1) 60 to 120 lbs. Muriate, or (2) 60 to 120 lbs. Sulphate, or (3) 240 to 480 lbs. Kainit. Fertilizers in Forestry The subject of artificial fertilizers for use in fores- try has been treated most scientifically by Dr. Jules Huberty, Professor of Agriculture and Sub-Inspector of Waters and Forests, Rochefort, Belgium. His report upon "The Use of Chemical Fertilizers and especially upon Nitrate of Soda in the Fertilizing of Forest Nur- series," presented at the Seventh International Con- gress of Agriculture, held in Rome, in 1903, points out very clearly the sjreat advantages of commercial fer- mm m Setting Out Three- Year-Old White Oak Seedlings for Experimenting With Nitrate. tilizers in growing nursery stock. He holds that Sil- viculture can become intensive by practicing the prin- ciples of agricultural science. He says. "It is neces- sary to restore the forces of the nursery by the applica- tion of fertilizers and to maintain in the soil the propor- tions of useful elements reclaimed by the plants : nitro- gen, phosphoric acid and potash." Nitrate of Soda, for example, he claims can ren- der to Silviculture the same great service which it already has given to agriculture, horticulture and the Fertilizers in Forestry Thinning Young Forest Growth Prior to Treatment With Nitrate of Soda. Catalpa Seedlings With no Nitrate. Catalpa Seedlings With Nitrate of Soda. 200 lbs. Per Acre Two Seasons in Succession. Fertilizers in Forestry kitchen garden, in proof of which he cites numerous experiments and observations. In conclusion, Huberty says: "All these facts summed up prove the usefulness of the association of chemical fertilizers in fertilizing the nurseries, and particularly strengthen the argument of its practicability. It is astounding that even to-day so Luxuriant Hedge and Foliage in Garden Produced by Nitrate of Soda in Two Seasons. New Jersey. little experience has been established for bringing it forcibly before the eyes of the public interested in the value of scientific application. "In agriculture, one ought to try to persuade the farmers to carry out with perseverance fields of experi- ment and examples. It is by their initiative process that we propose to spread about the advantages of the use of Nitrate of Soda and other chemical fertilizers in Silvi- culture. "The knowledge which we have obtained concern- ing the efficiency of Nitrate of Soda should be given wide publicity. The results of these experiments have been published by the Bulletin of the Society of Central Foresters in Belgium. Our investigations have been carried out on the maple, alders, birches, yoke-elms, the oaks of the Fatherland and of America, ash, ailanthus, cherry, tulip, chestnut, beech, willows, poplar, and also on those which contain rosin, the black and Scotch pine, the spruce, yew, and bald cypress. "Every plant and every tree treated with Nitrate of Soda in a soil which is provided with a sufficient amount of potash and phosphates, has produced larger and taller stems, greener and better developed foliage, more abundant root hairs, a greater weight of material, and a thicker bark. The plants thus obtained were also better to look at, more solid, recovered quicker and offered more resistance to change of temperature, in- sects and diseases. "This evidence has been obtained from observa- tions made by Dr. Marchal, Professor of the Agricul- Fertiliz«rs in Forestry 1 <^iiiB£SnH ^^P^^^w^J^^^-' T T ^^frJHBBPaji gaijg-gf .i'; j. ftj^-j^^^flffHrSs^ Ja^P^^^^^m^^^j^a Bw>&03 affife ^^'iMk^^^^k, AaJggBfigag^pjg sShSt '*^3aSk< "« MigPKSiBfiMS3B iJfcS&ftta. v -^> l 5£5«gil&.:~*ligMBa .'"■. :^' * f ..:' Quick and Luxuriant Growh of Shrubbery, Produced in Tm'o Seasons by the Use of Nitrate. New Jersey. tural Institute of Gembloux, on the black rot of the maple, and from the experiments of Dr. Guffroy, upon the brown rot. Fertilizers in Forestry 14 "As in agriculture, Nitrate of Soda shows some curious effects, in the growing of small trees. It ener- gizes the life of the plant, accelerating and prolonging it. These results are obtained without great expense when one knows how to make a judicious and reason- able use of this fertilizing substance. It is for the prac- ticing nurseryman to make an inventory of the nutri- tive elements which are exported and imported to find out which of the elements are deficient in the soil. Privet Hedge at Left and Vines Showing Result of One Year's Use of Nitrate. New Jersey. "But in order to perfectly establish this balance, he ought to have in his possession some table giving the mean chemical composition of the different plants which he grows. "Up to the present time there is a great lack of such information, making a gap to overcome. "Agriculture has its Wolff tables corrected, or more or less completed, each day by the wise men of all countries and held on a level with scientific progress. Silviculture has nothing similar. The same tables of Heavy, Almost Tropical, Growth Produced by Nitrate Application, New Jersey, at the Rate of 300 lbs. per Acre. Hedge of California Privet Three Years Old, Fertilized for Three Years by Xitrate. New Jersey. 1 6 Fertilizers the analyses of trunks and branches cannot be of great in Forestry j ie jp i tj ie nurseryman since the young plants display quite different conditions from the older trees." Recommendations. "In all the Experimental Stations of Agriculture and Forestry, in the nurseries of the domain, one ought, in the interests of Silviculture, to devote one's self to the study of the actions of chemical fertilizers, especially of Nitrate of Soda, and upon the most efficient methods for their use. Heavy Growth of Grass and Shrubbery Produced by Nitrate, New Jersey. "It is useless to insist upon the practical conse- quences of these studies and upon the services which they would render to Silviculture. "Seeking to better in quality and quantity the pro- ducts of the nurseries is an important duty of all fores- ters. "Do not the nurseries, in fact, supply the first argu- ment for managing well the great work of reforesting the lands and of restoration of the national forest domains?" When the forest fire problem is sufficiently solved, as it is in Germany, then this very problem before us, of producing forest products economically, will receive Fertilizers even greater recognition. in Forestry We have many thousands of acres of waste lands '" in New England that have not only been depleted Effect of Nitrate on Foliage of Elm Tree. New Jersey. through soil exhaustion from over-cropping, but re- duced to their lowest possible barren condition from too frequent burning from forest fires. Of course it is highly important first, that some heroic measures be enacted whereby these fires may be stopped. Fertilizers "\y e should reclothe our waste lands that were never m ^" stry intended for agriculture, by returning them to forest 18 conditions with their rich deposit of organic vegetable mould and reservoir of plant food. During the recon- structive stage, anything that will assist us in saving time and in giving practical results will be hailed with increasing appreciation. What has been accomplished through the use of commercial fertilizers in raising nursery stock and gen- eral agricultural crops, it is believed will be found to apply with fully as effective results to permanent forest plantations, when we have given the subject its due con- sideration. While it is impossible at this time to offer a very definite method for feeding forest trees, neverthe- less it is believed that all thinking and practical men should give the subject of artificial plant food for economic forest production their earnest, careful con- sideration. In New England we have had practical demon- stration of the value of Nitrate on the Pine Tree Blight, and in authenticated cases where an application of two or three pounds of Nitrate per tree, has been used, new foliage appears and the tree is restored to a healthy condition in the course of a few weeks. In nurseries the Ash Tree has been much benefited by very mod- erate applications. F. Wm. Rane. Nitrate of Soda in Forestry. By J. HUBERTY, Chief Warden of Forests, Belgium. Article published in the "Bulletin de la Societe Centrale Forestiere", Number 7, Reproduced with the authorization of the author. Fertilizers in - Forestry 19 For the last five years we have been studying the results given by Nitrate of Soda in the nursery. Our experiments have been continued by many practical foresters and they confirm previous results. But we wished to give greater development and support to our new tests, and in this aim we asked the collaboration of Mr. Deville, Chief Warden of Waters and Forests at Paliseul and Duf our, a graduated horti- culturist, and chief of cultures of Mr. Michiels, at Mon- taign. The tests made at Montaign have, besides, been controlled by Mr. Carlens, engineering chemist of the University of Louvain. The following work shows, once for all, that the culture of young trees does not escape the laws of re- stitution; and true progress towards results in that branch of the activities of a forester lies in the correctly understood and cautious application of these laws. To endeavor to better in quality and quantity the output of our nurseries, which cover 6,175 acres in Bel- gium, is an imperative duty of the forester. Is it not, in fact, in the nurseries that they gain the solid elements which enables us to accomplish the grand result of wooding our lands and of restoring certain parts of our forest domain? Experiments made in the Nursery of the State of Paliseul. With some exceptions, we have combined basic phosphates and kainite with Nitrate of Soda and par- Fertilizers ticularly noted the poor results produced by the ab- nn Forestry sence j> ^jg Nitrogenous fertilizer. 20 The provincial nursery of Paliseul was started in 1898 in a very poor soil, badly cultivated until then, and very recently cleared. It had been infested with nox- ious weeds. The land had received a moderate quantity of manure — six to eighteen tons per acre over a large part of its area. Some portions had received none. Trees Unfertilized — a l'avenue Louise, Bruxel Fertilizers in Forestry Trees Fertilized with Nitrate of Soda — a l'avenue Louise, Bruxelles. The first applications of Nitrate of Soda, con- sisting of from 178 to 268 pounds per acre, were made in April and May. Tests upon Pitch-Pines Transplanted for Two Years. These trees were transplanted in 1900. Treated with Nitrate, they became very vigorous, substantial, well rooted and of a beautiful green color, Fertilizers distinguishing them in a striking way from those de- i in Forestry p r j ve( j f ^} le Nitrogenous fertilizer. In a nearby sec- 22 tion the transplantation was done under bad conditions, Yoke Elm. With 200 Pounds Nitrate of Soda to Without Nitrate of Soda, the Acre. during a drying north wind — the laborers were negli- gent during the enforced absence of the superinten- dent, and the drying set in. Here the results are eloquent: Fertilizers Without Nitrate — Revival irregular, plants very in forestry slender and not vigorous. -'3 With Nitrate — Loss slight, despite the unfavor- fc "^^pfr Js- W IT * -? m ' \ w Without Dressing. Ash. "With 300 lbs. Nitrate of Soda to the Acre. able conditions, plants solid, somewhat more compact, and of a well-proportioned root development. With the Douglas and silver savins the Nitrated trees assumed a good form and showed indeed a beau- tiful aspect. Fertilizers in Forestry 24 Tests upon Transplanted Beeches — Yearling Seedlings. The Nitrogenous fertilizer, associated with phos- phates and kainite, produced strong plants, with a fine vital energy, the shoots of a year's growth reaching 50 to 60 centimeters (20 to 24 inches) and more. In a nearby parcel, without Nitrate, the plants were less robust and more stunted, although of the same age. Norway Maple. With Manure Alone. With Manure and 300 lbs. Nitrate of Soda to the Acre. Tests upon Pitch-Pines Yearling Transplants. Fertilizers The year had been unfavorable for the nurseries, in F ores try disastrous in certain regions. The drought had re- 25 tarded and counteracted the action of the fertilizers ; the Japanese Sumac. Without Nitrate. With Nitrate. insects had produced great devastation. At Paliseul the white-worm and the caterpillar of the Noctua sege- tum were abundant. We may incidentally remark that the plots that re- ceived the farm manure were, in particular, infested Fertilizers n Forestry Great red blotches covered the nursery, while at the side where the chemical fertilizers were exclusively used, particularly the Nitrate, the plants were of a fine green, and little, or not at all attacked. In the plots treated with the special fertilizers, not only was the recovery better and the vegetation more active, but the white-worm and the Noctua ceased their ravages. At the edges of the plot assigned to farm manure, the action of the insects became manifest; in- creasing more and more toward the middle of the area, waste and retardation of the vegetation showed itself in a marked manner. « - * \ & *A S-^ • ii jj* ,* X *'* 1 V XkVi Tg< ■■ji&- l^K? <* f^W- • K / QjfS* w/ mMJ P-T' *^" / . T3Hpd&E^ v*£i FEffi 1* HH B'Vcfr" " ^RS* ^|3R wtr, * jjc, * ~3 BB9s ~* :i 9t& VJ* 'n^V "■ *%L Jf * ^" tK>*-~-~ Ea ■ . \ SEv x ' Vy*-' ,'■■■ ■ —^k 5\N , ]K Chinese Privet. Without Nitrate of Soda. With Nitrate of Soda. A top-dressing of Nitrate of Soda is the best, be- sides being the easiest method. When put on as a cov- ering, the Nitrate of Soda is not lost by volatilization. Precautions should, however, be taken not to distribute Fertilizers in Forestry 27 Pears. Acid Phosphate and Potash. Acid Phosphate, Potash and two applications of Nitrate of Soda — 40 lbs. to the acre — Applied April 27 and June 15. Maximum quantity of Nitrate utilized for trees — 40 lbs. to the acre. Cost of Dressing of Nitrate of Soda— 100 Trees, $4.00. Without Nitrate .178 of an inch. Growth with Nitrate .51 of an inch. Austrian Black Pine. Without Dressing. With 250 lbs. Nitrate of Soda and 500 lbs. Phosphate to the acre. Fertilizers in Forestry 28 the salt upon the leaves of the plants. The Nitrate should always be well pulverized. Forest plants show greater improvement from Nitrate two years after transplanting than those trans- planted the same year, all conditions being the same with regard to the previous manuring. During the first year of transplanting the young plants find sufficient nutrient materials in the manure. The second year, the manure is more or less worn out, WITHOUT NITRATE Red Winter Phosphoric Acid and Potash. Vpple Trees. Phosphoric Acid. Potash and two applications of Xitrate of Soda — 40 lbs. to the acre — Applied April 21 and June 15. Maximum quantity of Nitrate of Soda used — '■ ■■■' ■■ -W -^J^^^^i !p CvKSfc':; * 4" "%-■'". '*£ ^..'^v^'^^'-Mt^tI-.- .,,_;..._ .. . < '■' - ~ ■",• ',<;.- ■ ~~™,""' .""TV™" Y'-:- ii **' M r ™ " ***^?^e«™3SHpHl ■ ■'■""'*, 1 '^ '*'-''jjB|^H^^»_^BR T ..>%,, '~ ',■—■-* '■■/: t .r ' :;>!(•'■' <■:■:■'!■ ■ ■ . j«F i <■ KU..* ■ ■ .v/V''-- .. rvi i V i-- ' '.- v - ■ .,**?" ' ' ; - '''.' ■ . -ir^H^ra^H * ■SffiSBBr' : ' ' '.' j '!!»''''''■'" ■ !jj f '■WSmt JHrei *- ^fe N k ' MH^KTBt'irminff^ 1 ; ;! Ti '"' ^BBHP''' mkr ■ ■ < ?BBc.* > \' si &■-;'«.' - ''■-■'5'-?*'' , ' ; '^bHSShOImSswI i| •' Wak?-.". ^Ifl k^''"-"' J^^wl bSsSm 1 ' ■■■-■ ^,*2-v -X*ati*»r3w&iiii ' - - .- ■'.."'■■■?-^: ' ''.- : > W'J Transplant Beds of Nursery at Saranac Inn, N. Y. Norway Spruce, 3 Year Old, in the Foreground ; Scotch Pine to the Left. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. Nitrate, 6.0360 pounds. These last were longer shoots, and the leaves were larger and greener. Tests upon Apple Trees. Yearling Grafts. Variety : Star Queen. Two plots of 500 square yards each; the first re- ceived no fertilizer; the second, one-tenth of a pound of Nitrate per square yard. At a distance, one could remark the part treated with Nitrate. The general height of the plants of the 35 Nitrated plot exceeded that of the plants of the un- Fertilizers fertilized plot by about 10 inches. The foliage was in Forestry richer, larger and more abundant; the stems larger and higher. The average stock, without Nitrate, weighed .5 pound; that with Nitrate, .685 pound. Same success attended the use of Nitrate upon apples of four years, upon pears pyramidically grafted, Scotch and White Pine, 5 Years Old, in the Plantations at Lake Clear, N. Y. Successful Example of Planting Denuded State Land. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. upon seedlings, upon quince trees, upon cypress, and upon arbor vita?. Between the lines of the apple trees of four years, where we distributed 910 grains per square yard, were planted Ligustrum sineuse ( Chinese Privet ) , one row of Privet between two lines of apples. These apples grew considerably, but the privets be- tween them also profited by the provision of Nitrogen, being much more bushy, more robust than their neigh- bors. J. HUBERTY, Chief Warden, Belgian Forests. Fertilizers Nursery Stock. in Forestry ~~&~ The soil should be a moderately light loam, some- what deep and thoroughly worked. It is an advan- tage if the soil has previously been in corn, or some other clean cultivation crop. Nursery stock should not be planted on turned-under clover stubble. A soil too rich in ordinary Ammoniates produces an overgrowth of wood, which fails to mature. This is caused by continued supplies of Nitrogen up to the time of frost, and as a consequence, new sap wood is continually being formed, only to be killed back in Winter. The ammonia in all low-grade fertilizers is only slowly Nitrated by the action of certain soil organisms, which continue at work so long as there is any Nitrogen to work upon, or the soil not frozen. All through the season of growth, more or less Nitrogen is being sup- plied, which acts to prevent the complete ripening of the summer's growth. This is a marked evil in growing nursery stock. The wood is not matured and is badly killed back by frost, causing serious disfigurement; also the young trees become too slender and suffer more in transplant- ing. Apply along the rows a fertilizer consisting of 200 pounds of acid phosphate and 200 pounds of sulphate of potash, at the rate of 400 pounds per acre, and work well into the soil. When the young trees are in full leaf, apply in the same manner 300 pounds of Nitrate of Soda to the acre; and, four weeks later, repeat the Nitrate application, using 150 pounds. This will en- sure a rapid growth early in the season with ample time for thorough maturing before cold weather. The Nitrate of Soda supplies only Nitrate Nitrogen which is immediately available for the uses of the plant. Nur- sery stock must be constantly watched for evidences of disease, and prompt action taken when such are dis- covered. GRASS GROWING FOR PROFIT. A Short Compilation of Experimental Work on the Effects of Nitrate of Soda on Hay Crops. Including Some Directions for the Preparation of Land and Harvesting the Crop AND Results at Highland Experimental Farms New York. WILLIAM S. MYERS. EDITED AND PUBLISHED BY William S. Myers, F.c.s., Director, Nitrate of Soda Propaganda. Late of Newjersey State Agricultural College. John Street and 71 Nassau, New York. Published February, 1907- I. Product of one 'square foot, of ground i. Product of one square foot of ground in field yielding over three tons per acre of In adjoining field (not fertilized with Nitrate cured timothy hay fertilized with Nitrate of of Soda) yielding one ton per acre of cured Soda. hay. Highland Experimental Farms, New York Grass Growing for Profit. Approximately sixty millions of tons of timothy hay arc grown every year in the United States on about forty millions of acres of meadow-land. Beginning at the seaboard and going west, the chief hay-producing States are: New York, Pennsylvania, Missouri, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Iowa and Kansas. New York alone has nearly five millions of acres on which is produced upwards of six millions of tons of hay. These ten States, which may be said to constitute the Hay Belt of the United States, have a total of 27,140,365 acres on which were lately grown 40,326,229 tons of hay. These figures are mentioned to show the magnitude of our grass-growing industry. Of course, grass is grown more or less extensively in all of the States, but the States mentioned are the leaders and produce the great bulk of our annual crop of timothy hay, and they produced 67 per cent, of the total crop. Timothy and related grasses feed heavily on Nitrogen ; they are able to transform it completely into wholesome and digestible animal food. When full rations of plant food are present a good crop of grass will remove about the equivalent of the active fertilizer ingredients of 300 pounds of Nitrate of Soda, 200 pounds sulphate of potash and 400 pounds of Peruvian guano or phosphate of high grade. These amounts are recommended to be applied per acre as top-dressing for old grass lands where intensive fertilisation is well understood and practiced ; and if wood ashes are avail- able 600 pounds per acre will be very beneficial in addition to the above. Grass lands get sour easily, especially when very old, and when they do, one ton of lime per acre should be harrowed in before seeding down anew. The seeding should be done before September, and the above-mentioned ration should be used as a top-dressing the following spring, as soon as the grass begins to show growth. If all the conditions are favorable, from three to five tons of clean barn-cured hay, free from weeds, may reason- Grass a bly be expected. When grass crops are heavy and run as Growing fcgfr as f our anc J one-half or more tons per acre field-cured, or it is safe to allow 20 per cent, shrinkage in weight for 6 seasoning and drying down to a barn-cured basis. Nitrate of Soda, the chief constituent of the prescribed ration, pushes the grass early and enables it to get ahead of all weeds, and the crop then feeds profitably and fully on the other manurial constituents present in the fertilizer mentioned in the formula and present in the soil. .-■■ Jm . •'. i«@*---'' ■0H ,n Wte.j'4 ■ . iP% : ' ! ---.-j#"''i-- ".■" ; , ^ M-^' " ': • , 811 Liv ' " ' '•■W" : ' ; ?'- ; ' v--^*-'- '"■ .:.' ..•:•';■.■. <" ' \ r ^i8&££a3ggk Mf - ',.; : .-;,,v:;A B ,. ; ;' ''v-^ij'i Clearing Land for Seeding. When Nitrate costs about $50.00 per ton and clean hay sells $16.00 per ton the financial results are very satis- factory. Nitrate can sometimes be used alone for a season or two and at very great profit, but a full grass ration is better in the long run for both the soil and crop. Generally speaking, 100 pounds of Nitrate, if used under proper condi- tions, will produce an increase of from 1 ,000 to 1 ,200 pounds of barn-cured, clean timothy hay, the value of which will average from $S.oo to $10.00. The cost of 100 pounds of Nitrate is likely to average $2.30 to $2.60. // pays well to use Nitrate liberally on grass lands. A reliable, heavy Top-Dressing formula for Grass Grass Lands per acre: j^S!* 300 lbs. Nitrate of Soda. 200 lbs. muriate of potash, or 1,000 lbs. of wood ashes. 400 lbs. Peruvian guano or acid phosphate. 900 lbs. Making Two Blades of Grass Grow Where One Blade Grew Before. Abstract and Review of Rhode Island Experiments. Grass is a responsive crop and the part played by mineral chemical fertilizers, as has been proven in Rhode Island, show the striking effect of Nitrate on yields and feeding quality. Since all the other fertilizers were alike for the three plats and had been for many years, and since the general character of the soil and the treatments the plats had received were uniform, any differences must be ascribed to the influ- ence of the varying quantities of Nitrate of Soda. These differences, so far as they are shown by the weights of the crops for four years, are given in brief below : Yield of Cured Hay Under Different Rates of Nitrogenous Fertilization. Yield of Cured Hay Average 1899 I 9°° I 9° I 1 9° z Yields Nitrate of Soda applied L »* ^ * bs Lbs _ in Tons. None 5,°75 4,000 3,290 2,950 1.9 150 lbs. per acre*. .. .6,300 5,600 5,55° 4,850 2.8 450 lbs. per acre*. .. .6,913 8,200 9,39° 8,200 4.1 * Amount slightly reduced in 1901 and 1902. These figures show a uniform, consist- ent and marked advantage from the use of e Nitrate Nitrogen; and the effect of its bl * ures Show - absence is shown by the steady decline of the yields on the no-Nitrate plat from year to year. In each year the use of 150 pounds of Nitrate gave increased yields over the plat without Nitrogen, the gain varying from 1,200 to almost 2,300 pounds, an average gain of about seven-eighths Grass f a ton f [ ia y Three times this amount of Nitrate did rowing nQ ^ Q £ course) g[ ve three times as much hay, but it so materially increased the yield as to show that it was all used to good advantage except, perhaps, in the second year. This was an exceptionally dry year and but one crop could be cut. The advantage from the Nitrate showed strikingly in the production of a rapid and luxuriant early growth while moisture was still available. This supply of readily soluble food comes just when it is most needed, since the Types of Characteristic Rock Shattering (i). Preparing Land for Seeding. natural change of unavailable forms of Nitrogen in the soil to the soluble Nitrates proceeds very slowly during the cool, moist weather of spring. The full ration of Nitrogen, 450 pounds of Nitrate, more than doubled the yield of hay over that produced on the no-Nitrate plat in 1900 and in the next two years it nearly tripled the yield. The average increase over the 150-pound plat was one and three-tenths tons and over the plat without Nitrogen was two and five- eighths tons. Effect on Quality of Hay. Almost as marked, and certainly more surprising and unexpected, was the effect of the Nitrate upon the quality of the hay produced. The hay from the plats during the first season was of such diverse character that different ton values had to be placed upon it in estimating the profit from the use of fertilizers. That from the no-Nitrate plat, since it contained so much clover at both cuttings, was considered worth only $9.00 a ton; the first cutting on the small How Nitrate Improves the Quality of the Hay. Grass Growing for Profit Types of Characteristic Rock Shattering (2). Nitrogen ration was valued at $12.00 and the second cutting at $10.00; while $16.00 and $12.00 were the values given to the first and second cuttings respectively on the plat receiving the full ration of Nitrate. But the reduction in the percentage of clover was not the only benefit to the quality of the hay. The Nitrate also decreased the proportion of redtop as compared with the finer timothy. This tendency was noticed in the second year, when a count of the stalks on selected equal and typical areas showed 13 per cent, of timothy on the 150- pound plat, and 44 per cent, on the 450-pound plat. In the third year the percentages of timothy were 39 per Grass cent, and 67 per cent., respectively, and in the fourth year Growing ^ differences we re even more marked. . ... .. Timothy is a grass which will not tol- An Alkaline } . , % , . . ... , 10 c ., NT erate an acid soil, and it is probable that Soil Necessary , ,. . . .' 1 • o ,■ 1 f n the liming given these plats in 1897 did not for ijrass. . , ,, ,, ill 1 make them as sweet as would have been best for this crop. Now, when Nitrate of Soda is used by plants, more of the Nitric acid is used than of the soda and a certain portion of the latter, which is an alkali, is left to Rock, before Blasting with One Pound of Forty Per Cent. Dynamite. combine with other free acids of the soil. This, like lime, How Nitrate Neutralizes Soil Acids and Sweetens the Soil. neutralizes the acids and thus "sweetens" the soil for the timothy. Redtop, on the contrary, does well on soils which are slightly acid, and so would have the advan- tage over timothy in a soil not perfectly sweet. With the assistance of the soda set free from the Nitrate, the timothy was more than able to hold its own and thus to make what the market calls a finer, better hay; and since the market demands timothy and pays for it, the farmer who sells hay is wise if he meets the demand. Financial Profit from Use of Nitrate. Frequently more plant food is paid „ T D fi iiiii now it l fly s. or and put on the land than the crop can possibly use, the excess being entirely thrown away, or, at best, saved to benefit some subsequent crop. This was far from the case in these trials. Indeed, it was found by analysis of the hay that more potash was removed by the crops of the first two years than had been added in the muriate used, consequently the amount applied upon each plat was increased in 1901 and in 1902. The Nitrogen Grass Growing for Profit Same Rock Shattered by the Explosion of Dynamite. requirement of the crops was found to be slightly less than was supplied in 450 pounds of Nitrate and the amount was reduced to 400 pounds in 1901, and to 415 pounds 101902. The Nitrate on the second plat was also reduced in pro- portion. The phosphoric acid, however, was probably in considerable excess, since liming sets free phosphoric acid already in the soil and so lessens the apparent financial profit; but not to an excessive degree. Grass Excess of Value of Hay Over Cost S of Fertilizers. I2 NitrateofSoda ^ tgoQ JgQ1 Ig02 Ayerage None £6.09 #13-42 # I2 -«3 #7-44 $9-77 150 lbs.* '4-34 zo -37 23.97 16.52 18.80 450 lbs.* 1962 30.40 40.70 32.74 30.86 * Slightly reduced in 1901 and 1902. What Percentage of Water Does Hay Lose During Storage? Hay which had been stored during the summer of 1 90 1 was removed from the mow the following February, and found to contain 12.21 per cent, of water. A careful comparison of other moisture determinations of hay leads to the conclusion that 12.21 is a fair general average of the percentage of water in the best quality of barn-cured hay. Field-cured grass averages about twenty-five to twenty- eight per cent, of moisture. The loss of weight on storage is therefore about fifteen per cent, in drying down to 12.21 per cent. The Bulletins of the Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station, or Farmers' Bulletin No. 77, published by the United States Department of Agriculture, tells how and when to use lime. Details of excellent grass experi- ments, to be found in recent Bulletins issued by the Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station, Kingston, Rhode Island, tell about Nitrate of Soda. N . f c h ^ ma Y not be out of place here to . . ,. mention the fact that Mr. Clark's success in n . , , n obtaining remarkably large yields of hay P . . . tor a number or years, an average 01 nine tons of cured hay per acre for eleven years in succession, has been heralded throughout the United States. He attributes his success largely to the liberal dressings of Nitrate of Soda which he invariably applies to his fields early in the spring, and which start the grass off with such a vigorous growth as to shade and crowd out all noxious weeds before they get fairly started and which result in a large crop of clean and high-priced hay. It is also known that many who have tested his methods have met with failure chiefly because they neglected to supply the young grass plants with a sufficient amount of readily available food for their use early in the spring when it is most needed, and before the organic forms of Nitrogen, which exist in the soil only in an insoluble form and which can- not be utilized by the plants as food, until converted into How Careful Cultivation May Aid in the Profitable Use of Nitrate. Grass Growing for Profit v--^^#>--' : " -•*'* ~-*& : cms SSS&Sfc ?■?£%- :■****"' -1v W "k: -'■'■ ■■ ■ -j : -X*., -..•*_ ■*-;-.«,. m Clearing Land for Grass Growing. 1906. soluble Nitrates by the action of bacteria in the soil. This does not occur to any great extent until the soil warms up to summer temperature when it is too late in the season to benefit the crops' early spring growth. It is important that we always bear in mind the fact that our only source of Nitrogen in the soil for all plants is the remnants of former crops (roots, stems, dead leaves, weeds, etc.) in different stages of decomposition, and that in the early spring there is always a scarcity of Nitrogen in Grass the soil in an available form, for the reason that the most Growing £ t [ iat wn j cn was converted into soluble forms by the for Profit act j on £ t fo e so ;i bacteria during the warm summer months 14 of the previous year was either utilized by the plants occupying the ground at that time or has been washed down below the reach of the roots of the young plants by the melting snow and the heavy rains of late winter and early spring. Preparing Land after Clearing and Plowing for Grass Growing. 1906. When we consider the fact that most plants require and take up about 75 per cent, of their total Nitrate Ammoniate during the earlier stages of their growth and that Nitrogen is the element most largely entering into the building up of the life principle (or protoplasm) of all plants, it is plain that we cannot afford to jeopardize the chances of growing crops by having only an insufficient supply of immediately available Nitrogen when it is most needed. Hay. In the case of hay, from timothy and other grasses, the experiments that have been conducted answer the first question — "What shall I use" — as follows: Use Nitrate of Soda, because it is a food element that is especially needed; it is soluble in water and can be immediately taken up by the plants and supplies them with that which they need at the time they need it — it can be used by them early in the spring before other forms of applied Nitrogen are usable and before other soil Grass Growing for Profit '5 A Home Mixing Plant with Grinding Machine for Chemical Fertilizers. supplies are available. The results of experiments con- ducted through a period of nine years, and in different sections of the State, show that upon soils which will produce crops ranging from one to three tons per acre, a gain in yield of from 9 to 54 per cent., or an average increase of 32.7 per cent., may be expected from the use of from 100 to 150 pounds per acre, which would show an average gain in yield of 654 pounds per acre; based on the average yield of 1.25 tons per acre, the gain would be 820 pounds. This increase, at an average price of $12 per ton, would mean about $5 per acre, or $2 more than the cost Grass of the material. A very satisfactory profit, when it is Growing remembered that it is obtained at the same cost of labor for Profit anc j Q f ca p£tal invested in land. 16 „ According to Dr. Wheeler's experiments in Rhode Island, soils are less exhausted when complete fertilizers are used with Nitrate than when no Nitrate is used. The soda always left behind after the Nitrate of Soda is used up aids always the lime and potash, and unlocks the soil silicates and thereby frees potash, lime and magnesia. The feeding value of hay is far greater when Nitrate is used as a fertilizer in this connection. A Rhode Island Formula. Nitrate of Soda 300 ibs. Sulphate of potash 200 lbs. Acid phosphate or its equivalent 400 lbs. Practical Conclusions. From these striking results it must be evident that grass land as well as tilled fields is greatly benefited by Nitrate, and that it would be to the advantage of most farmers to improve the fertility of their soils by growing good crops of grass, aided thereto by liberal fertilizing. Top-Dressing The a PP 1Ication . should be in the form r^ . , of a Top-Dressing, applied very early in Urass Lands. , . . , f r , r , the spring in order that the first growth may find readily available material for its support and be carried through the season with no check from partial starvation. On land which shows any tendency to sourness, a ton to the acre of slaked lime should be used every five or six years. This makes the land sweet and nromotes the growth of grass plants of the best kinds. Lime should be sown upon the furrows and harrowed into the soil. Top-dressing with lime after seeding will not answer, and, in the case of very acid soils, the omission of lime at the proper time will necessitate re-seeding to secure a good stand of grass. F i nl ^^ t ^ ie e l ements °f fertility are essen- and Profitable t ' a ^ so t ' lat or dinarily complete fertilizers Practice ma ^ ^ e usec ^' Nitrate being used as a Top- Dresser, though on some soils rich in phos- for Profit i- phoric acid or potash, one or both of these ingredients may Grass be used in small quantity. This is particularly true of Growing phosphates after lime has been applied to the soil, since lime aids to set the phosphoric acid free from its natural insoluble combinations. Grass seems to demand less phosphoric acid than was applied in the test; but it responds with increasing profit to applications of Nitrate of Soda up to 3^0 pounds to the acre when potash and phosphates are present in abundant available forms. A Nitrate Distributor for Top-Dressing, in Use. 1906. On such soils as that of these plats, the best fertilizer combination for annual application appears to be: 400 pounds phosphate. 200 pounds sulphate of potash. 300 pounds Nitrate of Soda. No stable manure has been used upon the field under experiment for over twenty years. „ OPINION OF Growing U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FARMERS' BULLETIN No. 227, (PREPARED IN THE OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS.) A. C. TRUE, Director. for Profit 18 EXPERIMENT STATION WORK." Vol. II. No. 10. Top-Dressing Grass Land/ Grass lands require special fertilizer treatment. After the meadow has been established on land of good fertility and in good tilth and crops of hay are removed each year, the original supply of plant food is diminished and the productiveness of the meadow necessarily decreases. In order to maintain its profitable yielding capacity the supply of plant food must be kept up through fertilization. The method of applying fertilizers presents some difficulties which are not encountered in fertilizing the soil for most of the other crops. The grass remains upon the land con- tinuously for a series of years and there is no opportunity for plowing under green manure or applying barnyard manure or commercial fertilizers and incorporating the same into the soil from the time one crop is removed until the succeeding one is put in, as can be done in the culture of annual crops. Furthermore, the coarser undecomposed material of barnyard manure which remains upon the meadow is likely to be raked up with the hay, which is a decided disadvantage, and the manure sometimes also has the effect of reducing the quality of the grass by causing a rank growth and by the introduction of weeds. The use of commercial fertilizers on meadows has the advantage of leaving the barnyard manure produced on the farm avail- able for other crops, to which it can be more readily and satisfactorily applied. If barnyard manure is to be used on a meadow it should be applied as a uniformly fine and well-rotted compost. a A progress record of experimental inquiries, published without assumption of responsibility by the Department for the correctness of the facts and conclusions reported by the stations. b Compiled from Rhode Island Sta. Buls. 57, 71, 82, 90, 103. For the different reasons given, and also on account Grass of the greater availability of the plant food they contain. Growing certain commercial fertilizers are better adapted to top- J^L- 10 — dressing grass lands than barnyard manure. The farmer 19 must know, however, the kinds and quantities of fertilizers best suited for this purpose, at what time the application should be made, and whether under ordinary conditions he may expect a profitable return. These questions have been studied by the Rhode Island Station in an experiment Whole Field, except Center, Fertilized with Fourteen Per Cent. Acid Phosphate, Six Hundred Pounds ; Sulphate of Potash, Two Hundred Pounds ; Nitrate of Soda, Two Hundred Pounds; yield, three tonscured hav per acre. Square in Center of Field had Six Hundred Pounds Acid Phosphate, and Two Hundred Pounds Sulphate of Potash, but no Nitrate of Soda ; yield, one ton cured hav per acre. Highland Experimental Fatms, New York. extending over a period of six years, and the results obtained are here briefly summarized. The experiments were begun in 1899 on three plats, numbered 17, 19 and 21. Since 1893 these plats had been devoted chiefly to the growth of leguminous crops and had received annually 180 pounds of muriate of potash and a Grass quantity of phosphoric acid approximately equivalent to an Growing application of 1,200 pounds of acid phosphate containing for Profit from 13 to 14 per cent, of available phosphoric acid. 20 During this same period plats 19 and 21 received each year 150 and 450 pounds of Nitrate of Soda per acre, respectively, while plat 17 received no Nitrogen and had probably not received this element for from fifteen to twenty years. In 1897 all plats were treated with one ton per acre of slaked lime. In 1898 7.5 pounds each of common red clover and redtop and 15 pounds of timothy The Tedders follow the Mowing Machines for rapid curing of heavy crops of hay. per acre were sown, with barley as a nurse crop. The yields of hay obtained in 1899 were as follows: Plat 17, 5,075 pounds; plat 19, 6,300 pounds, and plat 21, 6,913 pounds per acre. The hay from the no-Nitrogen plat consisted almost entirely of clover, while the crop from the other two plats was largely redtop and timothy. The results of this season indicated that large crops of grass require considerable quantities of immediately assimilable Nitrogen applied early in the season, and that good crops of clover can be grown on limed land without supplying Nitrogen in the form of commercial fertilizers. Allowing twenty per cent, for shrinkage in the hay and estimating the value of the different crops at from $9 to $15 per ton, plat 17 gave a difference of $6.09 per acre over the cost of the fertilizer applied; plat 19 a difference of $14.34. and plat 21 of $19.62. In 1900, soon after the grass started to grow, all plats received the regular dressing of potash, phosphoric acid and Nitrogen, but in 1901 the fertilizer application per acre Grass Growing for Profit Seeding Full of Daisies, not Nitrated. Seeding of Clear Timothy, Nitrated. was changed to 807.5 pounds of acid phosphate, containing 130 pounds of phosphoric acid; 200.52 pounds of muriate of potash, furnishing 100 pounds of potash, and 133.52 pounds of Nitrate of Soda on plat 19 and 400.56 pounds on plat 21, supplying 21 and 63 pounds of Nitrogen, respectively. Throughout the entire experiment plat 17 received no Nitrogen; plat 19 a one-third ration, and plat 21 a full ration. The results obtained with the modified application Grass Growing for Profit emphasized the need of properly adjusting the quantities of the different elements given in the fertilizer application. The reduction of the Nitrate of Soda from 450 to 400.56 pounds and of the acid phosphate from 1,200 to 807.5 pounds and the increase of the muriate of potash from 180 to 200.52 pounds reduced the cost of the application and resulted in higher profits. The treatment of the plats in 1902 was essentially the same as the year before, with the exception that the quantity of muriate of potash was raised to 303.26 pounds, furnishing 150 pounds of actual potash per acre. During the last two years of the six-year period the fertilization was the same as in 1902. The principal data secured in the experiment are shown in the following table : Results Obtained in a Six-year Fertilizer Experiment on Grass Land at the Rhode Island Station. General application. Plat 17, no Nitrogen. Plat 19, one-third ration. Plat 21, fuU ration. Year. Potash. Phos- phoric acid. Hay per acre. Value of crop over fertilizer. Hay per acre. Value of crop over fertilizer. Hay per acre. Value of crop over « fertilizer.' 1399 1300 1902 Pounda 88.31 90.38 100.00 150.00 150.00 150. CO Pounds. 164.1 191.1 130.0 130.0 130.0 130.0 Tons. 2.54 2.00 1.65 1.48 1.64 1.25 $6.09 13.42 12.13 7.44 7.70 3.60 Tons. 3.15 2.80 2.78 2.43 1.85 2.05 $14.34 20.37 a 23.97 16.52 9.38 1 0.71 Tons. 3.46 . 4.10 4.70 4.10 3.83 4.07 $19.63 30.40; 40.70 -" '32.74 1903 27.81' 1904 30.3B Average... 1.76 8 40 2.51 15.68 4.03 . 30.27 The results for the six years show that without Nitro- gen an average of 1.76 tons, with one-third the full application 2.51 tons, and with the full application of Nitrogen 4.03 tons of field-cured hay was secured per acre. A satisfactory stand of timothy was maintained for the six years only on the plat which received the full ration of Nitrogen, and this plat also produced the highest market grade of hay. It was found that where the full ration of Nitrogen was given a ton of field-cured hay removed from the soil 32 pounds of potash, 13.1 pounds of Nitrogen, and 6.5 pounds of phosphoric acid. In each of three years in which determinations were made more Nitrogen was supplied in the full ration than was removed by the crop. With potash and phosphoric acid alone the value of the crop per acre exceeded the cost of the fertilizers on an average per year by $8.40; with one-third the full Nitro- gen application, by $15.88, and with the full application of Nitrogen by $30.27. Determinations of the shrinkage in barn-curing hay showed that it ranged from about 13 to 19 per cent. For three years an experiment was conducted on two plats to determine the best quantity of phosphoric acid to be applied per acre. An average annual yield of 4.16 tons of barn-cured hay was obtained where 40 pounds of phos- phoric acid was applied, and 4.54 tons of field-cured hay Grass Growing for Profit 23 Crop of Grass Grown by Nitrate Top-Dressing. 190(1. where 60 pounds was used. A potash test was conducted on the same plan. The average annual yield of field-cured hay where 150 pounds of potash were used was 5.1 tons per acre, and where 200 pounds were used 5.3 tons. The data derived from the experiments show that good financial returns may be obtained from grass culture with the use of commercial fertilizers alone. The use of 400 to 500 pounds of acid phosphate and 300 to 350 Grass pounds of muriate of potash and Nitrate of Soda per acre, Growing applied from April 15 to 25, is suggested as being best for Profit adapted for use as an annual top-dressing on grass lands 2+ where a good stand of timothy and redtop already exist, where a too great degree of soil acidity does not prevail, and where commercial fertilizers only are used. FERTILIZING HAY CROPS. From the California Experiment Station Annual Report, 1904. (The Cereals are Much Used for Hay Crops on the West Coast.) The California experiments with fertilizers on hay crops, begun in 1901, were continued during the season Crop of Grass Grown by Nitrate Top-Dressing. 1906. of 1902-3. During the season of 1901-2 it was found that the use of Thomas phosphate slag and sulphate of potash with Nitrate of Soda did not pay as well as Nitrate of Soda used alone. The experiments during the last season were planned to test the availability of the phosphate after the first season. It was thought last year that there was a possibility that the insoluble slag phosphate would become more available the second season after applying it. The plots used in the 1901-2 experiments were subdivided and given different applications of Nitrate of Soda used alone and in combination with sulphate of potash used at the rate of 300 pounds per acre. The yield of hay was lower on both fertilized and unfertilized plots during the season of 1902-3 than it was in 1 90 1-2. This difference is undoubtedly due to an unfav- orable season. The late spring rainfall failed almost entirely, and to this no doubt must be attributed the decreased yield. Two Horse Hay Tedder, ready to operate. An inspection of the summary of results tabulated below shows that the heaviest yields of hay on both red and granite soils and the largest money returns per acre were obtained from the plots which were fertilized with phos- phate during 1901-2. On red soil with oats the gain from the use of Nitrate of Soda on the plot which had phosphate the year previous was $11.70 per acre, as against only $3.72 per acre where the Nitrate was used on land having no previous fertilization. Grass Growing for Profit -5 Grass On granite soil with oats, there was no gain from the Growing phosphate. The use of Nitrate of Soda alone without pre- for Profit v ; ous fertilization yielded $9.44 per acre profit, while on 26 the plots having phosphate applied the previous year, the gain was only $5.74 per acre. The heaviest yield of hay and the largest profit per acre in 1903 were obtained with wheat on granite soil which had an application of Thomas slag, sulphate of potash, and lime in 1902. Nitrate of Soda was used at the rate of 320 pounds per acre in 1903. The yield of hay was 5,772 A Side-delivery Rake in Operation. Highland Experimental Farms, New York pounds per acre, and the resulting profit $12.89 P er acre - It should be remarked here, however, that this plot was fertilized at a loss of $21.50 per acre in 1902; and as the application of Nitrate was larger than was used on any other plot, the increased returns were at least partly due to the increased supply of the Nitrate. Through some misunder- standing, there was no corresponding wheat plot on granite soil with Nitrate only. The use of sulphate of potash in combination with Nitrate of Soda, on granite soil, did not pay in 1903. Potash was used at the rate of 300 pounds per acre. In most cases the fertilizer cost more than the increased crop of hay was worth; hence its use incurred a loss of from 76 cents to $4.57 per acre. The experiments with Nitrate of Soda used alone were broadened in 1903 to test the efficacy of different amounts per acre and the division of the application into two doses. The results show that in 1903, 160 pounds of Nitrate of Soda per acre in one application yielded the largest profits, viz.: $9.44 and $8.90 per acre, respectively, on two plots, on granite soil. In all cases the yield was reduced when the fertilizer was put on in two applications; thus, with 160 pounds per acre applied in two doses, only $4.82 and $7.27 per acre were yielded by two plots on granite soil. Fertilizer Experiments on. Meadow Land. (KENTUCKY Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin, No. 23, February, 1890.) On low and decidedly wet land : Timothy. Grass Growing for Profit 27 Kind of Fertilizer Used. Suphate of potash. . Muriate of potash . . Nitrate of Soda. . . Sulphate of ammonia No fertilizer Stable manure . . . Tobacco stems . . Amount Yield of Hay Per Acre in Pounds in Pounds Per Acre 160 1,900 160 2,320 160 2,670 130 2,520 ■ . . i,6zo 20 loads 2, zoo 4,000 3»35° Clearing and Reclaiming Lands. In recent years, dynamite has come to be generally used for the preliminary clearing and reclaiming of land, and especially for the shattering and pulverizing of rocks and the removal of stumps. Modern tools and machinery, such as the disk-harrow and leveler and improved plows and scrapers, permit the preparation of land on the Atlantic Seaboard fully as workable, and as convenient in every way Grass f or the best improved heavy hay and harvesting machinery Growing as j g ^ case £ j anc j s f ^g Mississippi Basin. These remarks apply also to land adapted to general use as well as - 8 to farming. Almost every farmer shall be able to clear from five to thirty acres of such land, and he may become an effective competitor of the more favored Western producer to a greater extent than ever before, if he chooses. In the preparation of both old and new lands for grass, thorough tillage is desirable, and the surface of the ground Whole Field, except center, Fertilized with Fourteen Per Cent. Acid Phosphate, Six Hundred Pounds ; Sulphate of Po ash, Two Hundred Pounds ; Nitrate of Soda, Two Hundred Pounds ; yield, three tons per acre of cured hav. Square in Center of Field had Six Hundred Pounds Acid Phosphate, and Two Hundred Pounds Sulphate of Potash, but no Nitrate of Soda j yield, one ton per acre of cured hav. Highland Experimental Farms, New Vork. should be well smoothed, in order that modern machinery may be operated successfully and economically. This remark applies especially to New York and Pennsylvania and to New England, where the character of the country is largely rolling and frequently rocky. Thousands of acres of virgin land remain in these States to be reclaimed for cultivation. From the standpoint of proximity to good markets, such lands should well repay the cost of clearing, if it be thoroughly done. Such a plan, with modern facil- ities, offers to the farmer in these States, an opportunity to increase his acreage and the productive capacity of his farm. This means an added value to every farmer's holding. Photographs are shown in the text of the clearing of land for grass-seeding, including the removal of timber; and, secondly, the shattering of rocks by means of dynamite. Usually one pound of 40 per cent, dynamite Grass Growing for Profit Plot readv for Record of Weights to be Taken. Highland Experimental Farms, New York. will throw a large stump and will shatter a large rock in sufficiently small pieces to remove by wagon or stone-boat. After the land is cleared, the disk-harrow and leveler should be used to pulverize the soil and kill the weeds. Several harrowings are usually necessary for this purpose. During such harrowing, the mineral fertilizers and liming may be applied. Nitrate of Soda should not be used until the following Spring, and on new seeding 100 pounds to the acre of Nitrate of Soda as a top-dressing is all that should be used the first season. This applies, however, only to the Grass fj rs t year of the new seeding. Afterwards, 200 pounds of Growing Nitrate may be used, provided adequate mineral applica- tions of phosphate and potash are made also. 3° When Nitrate is used alone as a top-dressing — that is, unless the minerals have been previously applied — 100 pounds per acre is enough; but it should be remembered that to make as small an application as 100 pounds per acre requires considerable care, the tendency being, unless such care is exercised, to make the application unnecessarily heavier with consequent possible loss of profit. Nitrate can sometimes be used alone some seasons at very great profit and, especially on old meadows, frequently the production of hay can be very materially increased. In the long run a full ration of the minerals is better for both the soil and the crop. Generally speaking, in the Hay Belt of the United States, two crops of grass may be grown at a profit every year. Immediately after harvesting the first crop, the minerals and Nitrate should be applied, and a satisfactory formula is as follows. This applies to intensive practice: 100 lbs. Nitrate of Soda. 100 lbs. Sulphate of potash. 400 lbs. ground bone, or acid phosphate. The illustrations shown in the text are intended to include the whole operation of the preparation and seeding of grass-lands, the application of fertilizers, the cutting and harvesting and storing of hay and preparation of the same for market. The photographs are taken from actual opera- tions in the field and are intended to give a complete out- line of the whole industry of grass growing. The machinery and tools have been found to be very satisfactory and to do their work thoroughly in every respect. The average yields, at Highland Experimental Farms, per acre of field-cured hay on the uplands were as follows for 1905: No Nitrate, 3,180 pounds per acre. Where 200 pounds of Nitrate were used, 8,340 pounds per acre. The average yields on the lowlands were as follows : No Nitrate, 6,985 pounds per acre. Where 200 pounds of Nitrate were used, 8,712 pounds per acre. In the season of 1906 the average yields per acre of Grass field-cured hay on the uplands were as follows : Growing No Nitrate, 3,200 pounds per acre. for Pr0 " 168 pounds Nitrate, 6,240 pounds per acre. 3 1 The average yields per acre of field-cured hay on the lowlands were as follows : No Nitrate, 5,920 pounds per acre. 112 pounds Nitrate, 8,030 pounds per acre. The Loader is of great service in handling hay quickly. Comparison of Yields. Uplands. SEASON 1905. No Nitrate, 3,180 lbs.; 200 lbs. Nitrate, 8,340 lbs. 1906. No Nitrate, 3,200 lbs.; 168 lbs. Nitrate, 6,240 lbs. Lowlands. SEASON 1905. No Nitrate, 6,985 lbs.; 200 lbs. Nitrate, 8,712 lbs. 1906. No Nitrate, 5,920 lbs.; 112 lbs. Nitrate, 8,030 lbs. Yield of original "No Nitrate" plot in four-acre field of timothy and Red Top — Season of 1906, 1,760 pounds; Season of 1905, 3,180 pounds. Note. — Yields are much lower for 1906 than for 1905, owing to smaller applications of Nitrate and also to the fact that there was much less rainfall during the latter part of the growing season. Gra sS New York Rules for Grading. Growing for Profit 31 Established by the New York Hay Exchange Association (Incorporated). Prime Hay: Shall be pure timothy, properly cured, bright, natural color, sound and well baled. No. 1 Hay: Shall be timothy, not more than one- eighth ( }i ) mixed with other tame grasses, properly cured, bright color, sweet, sound and well baled. No. 2 Hay: Shall include all timothy not good enough for No. 1, fair in color, proportionally mixed with other tame grasses, sweet, sound and well baled. No. 3 Hay: Shall include all hay not good enough for other grades, not over one-third ( Yz ) clover, but may be natural meadow, free from wild or bog, sweet, sound and well baled. Shipping Hay: Shall consist of hay not good enough for No. 3, sound and well baled. No Grade Hay: Shall include all hay badly cured, stained, threshed or in any way unsound. No. 1 Packing Hay: Shall consist of all fine grasses, of good color, free from flag and thistles, sound and well baled. Fancy Clover Mixed Hay: Shall be bright, green, colored timothy and clover of medium growth, containing not over one-third (^) clover, sound and well baled. No. 1 Clover Mixed Hay: Shall be timothy and clover mixed, with at least one-half (yi) timothy, good color, sound and well baled. No. 2 Clover Mixed Hay: Shall be timothy and clover mixed, with at least one-third (%) timothy, sound and well baled. No. 1 Clover Hay: Shall be bright, medium growth clover, sound and well baled. No. 2 Clover Hay: Shall be clover of fair color, sound and well baled. No. 1 Rye Straw: Shall be bright, clean, long rye straw, pressed in bundles in large or upright pressed bales, sound and well baled. No. 2 Rye Straw : Shall be clean, long rye straw, of fair color, pressed in bundles in large or upright pressed bales, sound and well baled. No. i Tangled Rye Straw: Shall be bright, clean straw, of fair length, sound and well baled. No. 2 Tangled Rye Straw : Shall be reasonably clean, fair color, sound and well baled. No. i Oat Straw : Shall be clean, bright, oat straw, of fair length, practically free from chaff and thistles, sound and well baled. No. i Wheat Straw : Shall be bright, clean straw, of fair length, sound and well baled. 717 No treatment. 2200 lbs. hav per acre. 7'S 160 lbs. Nitrate of Soda. 3550 lbs. hav per acre. 7 ' 6 320 lbs. Acid Phosphate. 160 lbs. Nitrate of Soda. 3840 lbs. hav per acre. Fi T . 18. — These plats show in a verv marked way the influence of Nitrate of Soda on the yield of hay. (Cornell Univ. Bulletin No. 232.) CORNELL UNIVERSITY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. Bulletin 232. The most important result as shown, both in the growing crop and in the weights of hay was the influence of the Nitrate of Soda. In every instance where Nitrate of Soda was applied a marked increase in the vigor of growth as well as in the weight of hay was produced. The influence of the phosphoric acid and potash was much less Grass Growing for Profit 33 Grass Growing for Profit 34 marked in all instances. When Nitrate of Soda was doubled without increasing the acid phosphate or the muriate of potash the apparent increase in yield was more than doubled, but when the phosphoric acid was doubled without increas- ing the Nitrate of Soda or the muriate of potash the yield was decreased. (See cut below.) RHODE ISLAND EXPERIMENT STATION. Bulletin 104. " Some readers of this Bulletin will recall the rabid attacks upon Experiment Station chemists made a few years ago in the agricultural press by the late Andrew H. Ward, of Boston, in which he denounced the chemists for not giving the same recognition to soda as to potash as a manure, upon the ground of its al'eged ability to replace potash in plant production. To such as may have known of those published criticisms, the verdict against the 1. Without Nitrogen. 2. '/^ Ration of Nitrogen-. 3. Full Ration of Nitrogen. All three fertilized alike with muriate of potash and acid phosphate. — R. I. Bui. 103. equality of soda in plant production returned in this experiment by the plants themselves, ought to remove any further doubt concerning the merits of the case. It can not be disputed, however, that soda is of some use in some manner with many varieties of plants, when the supply of potash is quite limited, and also with at least a few varieties of plants even in the presence of a fairly abundant supply of potash. Whether sodium sabs would be rendered useless with all varieties of plants if the supply of potassium salts were greatly increased is a point which is not as yet fully proved, nor is it fully clear as yet in just what manner the sodium salt has been helpful in this particular experiment. This is a question which will be considered later in connection with the chemical analyses of the crops. It may, however, be stated here that sodium salts seem to liberate at least phosphoric acid and potash, so that under certain circumstances they may act as indirect manures. They also appear under certain conditions to prevent plants from assimilating large amounts of potash in excess of their needs, thereby conserving the potash supply within the soil. It does not appear unlikely, when the supply of potash is limited, that sodium salts may aid in some degree in performing some function of potassium." 35 The After-effect of Sodium and Potassium Salts. Grass (From RHODE ISLAND Agricultural Experiment Station . „ ... v for Profit Bulletin, No. 106, May, 1905.) This experiment was a continuation of tests upon the same forty-eight plots upon which annual applications of sodium and potassium salts had been made since 1894. In 1902, 1903, and 1904 no further applications of sodium or potassium salts were made, but each plot con- tinued to receive annual applications of phosphoric acid and Nitrogen. Where the large applications of potassium salts had been made previously, it was found that timothy and clover were much better able to persist than elsewhere. The influence of the previous applications of potassium salts still continued in a most striking manner even the third year, in all cases where large amounts were used at that time as was fully demonstrated by the much greater yields of hay. Considerable evidence was afforded that the earlier applications of sodium salts were now helpful by way of increasing the crops of hay in those cases where the previous applications of potassium salts had been large. It seems possible that this may have been due, in part at least, to the retention in the soil of a part of the previous applica- tions of potassium salts, by virtue of extra soda having been taken up by the preceding crops in the place of superfluous potash,, whereby the potash supply in the soil was really conserved. Owing to the marked peculiarities of different varieties of plants, it was not expected that direct manurial benefit to the grass would necessarily result from the use of the sodium salts, even if such a direct effect might possibly occur in the growth of radishes, beets, turnips, and certain other plants. Stack Cover or Barrack. Extract from The Ohio Farmer (Dec, 1905). J. E., Avery, O., requests that we publish a portable roof for stacks, one that can be raised and lowered. We present a brief description and picture that first appeared in Gras9 Growing for Profit 36 , The Ohio Farmer of February 20, 1904. The diagram, here- with, shows the true way to frame around the cor- ner post and the manner of arranging the sweep for raising and lowering. Four straight chestnut poles 22 feet long are selected from the woods and bored with holes one foot apart to receive the 1 l t 1 • 1 ,1 BARRACK FRAME— CP, corner post ; R, bolts Which Support the „[ at . B) brace ; P, plate ; Y, yoke ; T, temple; roof. They are Set four S, sweep; AA, roof boards. feet in the ground and 18 feet apart, as that is a convenient size to make a barrack. The plates are four by six inches, made of white pine or some other light wood, as is all the material of the roof. Lightness is important and the roof boards are made of one-half inch material. The brace across the corner is made of 2-inch plank spiked strongly to the plates. It is of such a height that the rafter which rests on it if projected through the corner post, would meet the frame at intersection of the plates. The roof boards are cut around the corners, leaving a hole a few inches larger than the corner posts. A little rain that gets in at the corners or through the roof does practically no harm as the open condition of the barrack favors quick drying. Barracks are much to be preferred to stacking; are convenient and cheaply built. — G. DAVIS. EXPERIMENT STATION WORK. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Vol. II. No. 18 Loss of Nitrogen from Soils/ Nitrogen is the most expensive element of plant food as well as the one most easily lost from the soil. A funda- mental basis of the best systems of farming is the increase b Compiled from Minnesota Sta. Bui. 04. and conservation of nitrogen in the soil. With certain sys- Grass terns of mixt farming in which an abundance of manure is Growing produced and with rotations in which the nitrogen-gather- o r Profit ing leguminous plants are freely used as green manures, it 37 is possible to maintain and even increase the nitrogen supply in the soil. With clean culture crops and continuous grain cropping, on the other hand, there is a continual drain upon the nitrogen supply of the soil, and as H. Snyder, of the Minnesota Station, has shown, there are large losses of this most important element and a resultant decline in the productive capacity of the soil. It is becoming a matter of common observation that thruout the regions where grain has been grown continuously there is a general decline in nitrogen of the soil and a marked falling off in average yield. Professor Snyder's experiments indicate "that the main loss of nitrogen is due to oxidation of the humus, of which nitrogen is one of the constituent elements, rather than to the removal of large amounts by the grain crops." As a result of the oxidation of the humus the nitrogen es- capes into the air in the free gaseous form. A crop of wheat yielding 30 bushels per acre removes less than 40 pounds of nitrogen per year, but tests have shown that in twelve years of exclusive grain cultivation the loss of nitrogen in the case of rich soils has approxi- mated 1,600 pounds per acre. Numerous analyses of soils that have been under cultivation for different periods have shown similar losses of nitrogen. * * * The loss of nitrogen from four grain farms in ten years amounted to from three to five times more than was removed by the crops. This loss was due to the rapid decay of the humus and the liberation of the nitrogen, which forms an essential part of the humus. * * * Where clover was grown, crops rotated, live stock kept, and farm manure used, an equilibrium as to the nitro- gen content of the soil was maintained, the mineral plant food was kept in the most available condition, and maxi- mum yields were secured. Grass Growing for Profit 3* AMERICAN HAY JOURNAL. Timothy and Mixed Hay. Their Comparative Value. Timothy has the advantage of being more easily cured and much less subject to dust and mould than clover. It is specially adapted to driving horses and those which do severe work, as it furnishes a large amount of crude fibre, a requisite necessary where horses are fed a heavy grain ration. It does not possess the laxative properties of clo- ver, and too laxative a condition is more likely to occur in such animals than in those doing light work or at rest. Being less palatable than clover, there is less danger from overfeeding, which often occurs on the farm where the feeding is done by hired help. Clover must be fed in limited amounts to horses for satisfactory results; if not, a horse is likely to gorge him- self with it, which will interfere with free respiration. When fed freely it also furnishes more protein than is needed, and this surplus must be excreted by the kidneys, which may overtax these organs. Dusty hay, if fed for any considerable length of time, is very likely to interfere with respiration and finally cause heaves. As clover is much more subject to dust than timothy it has prejudiced many men from ever feeding it to their horses. Mixed hay may run largely to clover or contain but a sprinkle. Pure timothy being more easily recognized and graded, it has established a prestige with city team owners and consequently they will usually buy nothing but choice timothy or upland prairie hay. General Directions for the Use of Nitrate of Soda on Staple Crops. The use of Nitrate of Soda alone is never recom- mended, except at the rate of not more than one hundred pounds to the acre. It may be thus safely and profitably used without other fertilizers. It may be applied at this rate as a Top-Dressing in the Spring of the year, as soon as vegeta- tion begins to turn green; or, in other words, as soon as the crops begin new growth. At this rate very satisfactory results are usually obtained without the use of any other fertilizer, and the Soda residual, after the Nitrogenous Ammoniate Food of this chemical is used up by the plant, has a perceptible effect in sweetening sour land. In most of our Grass experiments where Nitrate was used alone at the rate of but One Hundred Pounds per acre, not only was the Aftermath, or Rowen, much improved, but Grass Growing for Profit 39 Hay Caps for Protecting Hay While Curing. in the subsequent seasons, with nothing applied to the plots, a decidedly marked effect was noticed, even on old meadows. This speaks very well indeed for Nitrate of Soda not leaching out of the soil. The readily soluble elements are the readily available elements. The natural capillarity of soils doubtless is, in most instances, a powerful factor in retaining all readily soluble elements of fertility both during and after the season of growth. If this were not so, all the fertility of the world in our humid regions would, in a season or two, run into the ocean, and be permanently lost. This is mentioned on account of certain critics having taken the trouble to object to the use of Nitrate on the Grass grounds that it would leach away. A case is yet to be seen Growing wnere the after-effect of Nitrate is not distinguishable, and, for Profit 40 in certain cases, such effects have been most marked. Process of Stacking Hay. 1906. When it is desired to use a larger amount than one hundred pounds per acre of Nitrate of Soda as a Top- Dressing, or in any other way, there should be present some form of Phosphatic and Potassic Plant Food, and we recom- mend not less than two hundred and fifty pounds of either Growing for Profit Acid Phosphate or fine ground Raw Rock, and two hundred Grass and fifty pounds of some high-grade Potash Salt, preferably the Sulphate, or wood ashes in twice this quantity. A much larger amount than one hundred pounds of Nitrate per acre, when used alone on staple crops, is generally sure to give an unprofitable and unbalanced food ration to the plant. For Market Gardening Crops, Hops or Sugar-Beets, however, somewhat more may be used alone. When the above amounts of Phosphatic and Potassic Fertilizers are used, as much as three hundred pounds of Nitrate of Soda may be applied with profit. In applying Nitrate in any ration it is desirable to mix it with an equal quantity of land plaster or fine dry loam or sand. If you have any reason to suspect adulteration of the Nitrate you may buy, send several pounds of it to your Experiment Station for analysis, giving date of purchase, full name and address of agent, and of the Company which the seller represents. Generally on the Pacific Coast Nitrate may be applied as a Top-Dressing after the heavy Spring rains are over, but before crops attain much of a start. Stack Cover or Barrack for Hay. In use in New Jersey. Grass Growing for Profit 42 Table Showing Prices of Nitrate of Soda on the Nitrogen Basis. Figured on Basis of 313 Pounds Nitrogen in One Ton of Nitrate of Soda. Equivalent Equivalent Cost per Cwt. of Cost per ton of Cost of Nitrogen Cost per Cwt. of Cost per ton of Cost of Nitrogen Nitrate. Nitrate. per lb. Nitrate. Nitrate. per lb* $2.00 $40.00 $0,128 $2.75 $55.00 $0,174 2.05 41.00 0.131 2.80 56.00 0.177 2.10 42.00 0.134 2.85 57.00 0.180 2.15 43.00 0.137 2.90 58.00 0.183 2.20 44.00 0.140 2.95 59.00 0.186 2.25 45.00 0.144 3.00 60.00 0.189 2.30 46.00 0.147 3.15 63.00 0.198 2 35 47.00 0.150 3.20 64.00 0.201 2.40 48.00 0.153 3.25 65.00 0.204 2.45 49.00 0.156 3.30 66.00 0.207 2.50 50.00 0.159 3.35 67.00 0.210 2.55 51.00 0.162 3.40 68.00 0.213 2.60 52.00 0.165 3.45 69.00 0.216 2.65 53.00 0.168 3.50 70.00 0.219 2.70 54.00 0.171 355 71.00 0.222 This table enables one to compare commercial quota- tions with accuracy. The figures themselves are not quota- tions in any sense of the word, and all the figures of the table refer only to one grade of Nitrate of Soda, namely: that containing 15.65 per cent, of Nitrogen. The Cost of Nitrate of Soda. Its Use More Profitable Than Ever. The steady upward movement in prices of Nitrate of Soda has been attracting widespread attention, and the un- interrupted gradual rise in prices is warranted, based on solid facts which govern the industry. Labor troubles and the extra cost of production, together with the steady in- crease in the consumption, have been and are factors in the situation. The increase in the consumption in this country for 1906 was about twenty per cent., and for this coun- try and Europe together about one hundred thousand tons. Grass Labor troubles became acute in the nitrate regions follow- G r0 p in ^ ing the earthquake there, as the laborers wended their way to Valparaiso and other sections of the country where bet- 43 ter wages were paid them. This caused considerable ir- regularity of shipments, and vessels experienced long de- lays, owing to the scarcity of labor to move the goods. The tremendous demand for Agricultural Purposes, however, has really caused the rise in price. The Consump- tion all over the World for Agricultural purposes has ex- panded at a very great rate lately, and perhaps more partic- ularly in this country in the Cotton Belt than anywhere else. This great demand has grown very rapidly, hence the effect on prices. Production is likely to expand so as to fully meet the fresh demand as rapidly as the supply of labor can be provided for on the West Coast of Chili. The great earth- quake has been followed by a wave of rebuilding activity which has made labor very scarce and high. Looking at the prices current, taking the prices for all Ammoniates, it will be noted that they have likewise risen. Many observers of the Ammoniate Market for the past years have asserted that there are not enough Ammoniates annually produced to meet the Consumptive requirements, and the tendency on the part of Fertilizer Manufacturers is to make lower grade goods ; a policy which seems to have invariably a disastrous effect on those who follow it. It is proper to observe also that all the Nitrogen in Nitrate of Soda is available. In the other Ammoniates generally quoted the Nitrogen is, of course, not completely available from an Agricultural Standpoint even though some may be soluble in water. A further point of interest is the very satisfactory in- crease in the prices of Agricultural Commodities whereby farmers are getting a very handsome return on their produce, a notable example being the case of hay. It would seem therefore, that on the whole Nitrate of Soda is still the cheapest Ammoniate on the market, and it is to be expected that its intelligent use will yield more profit than ever. Nitrate always pays handsomely on hay, and one hun- dred pounds per acre alone is a very effective application. Even at the present prices for Nitrate, one hundred pounds without the use of any other fertilizer,will produce an in- Grass creased yield of more than half a ton of barn-cured hay. Growing *p ne use f Nitrate on this crop promises to be very remu- for Profit . r r ' nerative. 44 ■ v,-."- fefe*. .-■..■■• ■''•'^ ftwmaF'W,! *^- Hay Pressing in Operation. SUMMARY OF INCREASED YIELDS. From an Application of ioo Pounds per Acre of Nitrate of Soda. It should be pointed out that in the recorded experi- ments with Nitrate of Soda on Money Crops heretofore published in Experiment Station Reports „. . p . f and Bulletins, farm products were much „ "' r. ,'" 1 • • t-l ■ r ■ , i rarm Products, lower in price, the prices or agricultural products have risen to a high water mark, and in certain cases the advance has been to extreme figures, and all farm commodities are now higher than they have been for some years. Our statements heretofore published showing the profit resulting from the crop increases due to the use of Nitrate of Soda, if re- arranged on a basis of present values for Margin of Profit Greater. crops, would show more profit than before. It should also Gr»s s be remarked that the prices of other Ammonia have risen ^ p'"f higher than Nitrate of Soda, and it is, as ~ . . heretofore, the cheapest of all Ammoniates , „. , +5 . . ', „. r mates Higher in the market. , N - Economists of authority tell us that p . . . the cost of living is to remain for a con- _ .... „ -j , , . 6 . , . , , . Stability of siderable time on the high basis now es- r ,, , , ,. , , ... & . , , Farm Values, tablished, so that it is to be expected that the prices of agricultural products will remain at a high level. In this connection your attention is called to many experiments with Fertilizers in which p , R . Nitrate of Soda is said to have been used rv , »,.„ . . . . , , . , Due to Nitrate, in order to produce results to be exploited as due to materials other than this Standard Money Crop Producer. Further, one may add, that when Nitrate is used at the rate of ioo pounds per acre, the actual cash increase in Fertilizer cost per acre is very small, Slight Added and when used in mixed goods it cheapens Cost Per Acre the cost per ton of the Fertilizer. and p er Ton The highest agricultural authorities f Fertilizer, have established by careful experimenta- What Nitrate tion that ioo pounds of Nitrate of Soda has done for applied to the crops quoted below has Crops, produced increased yields as tabulated Rj se in Price of hereunder: Farm Products. Barley 400 pounds of grain. Corn 280 pounds of grain. Oats 400 pounds of grain. Rye 300 pounds of grain. Wheat 300 pounds of grain. Potatoes 3)6oo pounds of tubers. Hay 1,000 pounds, barn-cured. Cotton 500 pounds seed-cotton. Sugar-Beets 4,000 pounds of tubers. Beets 4,000 pounds of tubers. Sweet Potatoes 3,900 pounds of tubers. Cabbages 6,100 pounds. Carrots 7,800 pounds. Grass Growing for Profit 46 Onions 1,800 pounds. Turnips 37 per cent. Strawberries 200 quarts. Asparagus 100 bunches. Tomatoes 100 baskets. Celery 30 per cent. It should be remembered that plants take up most of their Nitrogen during the early period of their growth. Pressing Hay. Process Interrupted. // is now known that there is not as much danger of it being leached out of the soil by the rains during the growing season as has been generally believed, since the rains seldom reach lower than the bottom of the furrow, and the move- ment of the soil moisture is up instead of down. Besides, soil moisture is strongly held by good soils by capillary at- traction. Nitrate of Soda looks somewhat like common dairy salt, and horses, cows and sheep, if they can get to it, may eat it to an injurious extent. The emptied bags, especially in damp weather, have Grass more or less Nitrate adhering to them. After emptying, it . r °p r in { 8 it is a good plan to soak in water, which will make an excellent liquid manure, say one empty bag to a barrel of water. 47 // lumpy, the Nitrate should be broken up fine, which is easily done by pounding it on the barn floor with the back of a spade or shovel, or by a hand grinding machine made especially for home mixing, which is now in common use in Europe and beginning to be used in America. Nitrate of Soda, unlike sulphate of ammonia, dried blood and other complete mixed fertilizers, can be mixed with lime or ashes without loss of Nitrogen. Index. PAGE Abstract of Rhode Island Experiments 7 After-effect of Sodium and Potassium Salts . . 35 Alkaline Soil, An all 10 Annual Crop, Great Bulk Produced 5 Average Increase from Use of Nitrate of Soda 8 Barrack Frame (Illus.) 36, 41 Cereals are Much Used for Hay Crops 24 Chief Hay Producing States 5 Clark's Grass Cultivation 12 Clearing and Reclaiming Lands 27 Clearing Land for Seeding (Illus. ) 6 Clearing Land for Grass Growing (Illus. ) 13 Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 232. . 33 Economical and Profitable Practice 16 Effect on Quality of Hay 9 Excess of Value of Hay , 12 Extract from Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 23 27 Fertilizer Experiments on Meadow Land (Ky.) 27 Fertilizing Hay Crops ..... 24 Financial Profit from Use of Nitrate 11 General Directions for Staple Crops 38 Grass 16 Grass Crop will Remove, Good 5 Grass Growing for Profit 1 Grinding Machine (Illus. ) 15 Hay 15 Hay Loader (Illus. ) 31 Hay Tedder (Illus.) 25 How it Pays 11 How Careful Cultivation May Aid 13 How Nitrate Improves Quality 9 How Nitrate Neutralizes Soil Acids 10 Increased Yield per Acre of Crops Receiving Nitrate of Soda Over Those Receiving None 45 Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 23 27 Lime Should be Sown 16 Lime After Seeding Will Not Answer 16 Making Two Blades Grow 7 New York Rules for Grading Hay 32 New York State Produced 5 Nitrate Distributor (Illus.) 17 Nitrate if Used Under Proper Conditions 8 Nitrate Improves Quality 9 Nitrate Neutralizes Soil Acids 10 Opinion of U. S. Department of Agriculture 18 Percentage of Timothy 9 Plot Ready for Record of Weights (Illus. ) 29 PAGE Practical Conclusions 1 6 Potassium Salts and Sodium, After-Effect 35 Preparing Land After Clearing (Illus. ) 14 Process of Stacking Hay (Illus.) 40 Redtop Does Well on Acid Soils 10 Reliable Top-dressing 7 Results in a Six Year Experiment (Rhode Island) 22 Results of Experiments on Timothy (Illus. ) 19 Rhode Island Formula 16 Rhode Island Experiments, Abstract and Review 7 Rhode Island Experiment Station Bulletin No. 104 34 Rock Before Blasting (Illus.) 10 Rock Shattering (Illus. ) 1 .... 8 Rock Shattering (Illus. ) 2 9 Rock Shattered (Illus.) 11 Seeding Should Be Done > Shrinkage in Weights 5,6 Side Delivery Rake in Operation (Illus.) 26 Sodium and Potassium Salts Af ter-Effects 35 Sour Grass Lands 5 Stack Cover or Barrack (Illus.) 36, 41 Staple Crops, General Directions for 38 Table Showing Prices of Nitrate of Soda on Nitrogen Basis 42 Timothy Grass 27 Timothy and Related Grasses 5 Top-dressing Grass Lands 18 Top-dressing Old Grass Lands 5 What the Figures Show 7 Wheeler's (Dr.) Experiments in Rhode Island 16 Yield of Cured Hay Under Different Rates of Nitrogenous Fertilization 7 Supplement to "Food for Plants" HAY AND FORAGE CROPS INCLUDING TIMOTHY AND ALFALFA MYERS PUBLISHED BY William S. MYERS, D. Sc, F. C. S., Director, Nitrate of Soda Propaganda. Late of New Jersey State Agricultural College. JOHN STREET AND 71 NASSAU, NEW YORK. Preface. These experiments conclude the work of field ex- periments intended as demonstrations in Farm Practice of what may be accomplished by the rational use of Nitrate of Soda under average farm conditions in a typical dairy section of New York State. The earlier results have appeared from time to time in "Food for Plants," "Grass Growing for Profit," and "Growing Timothy Hay for Market," all practical Farm Books of value, based on actual scientific and sound practical data. Studies having been made of methods of crop growing from the preparation of the land to handling and marketing the crops ; it is believed that these volumes have unique and unusual value. WILLIAM S. MYERS. New York, October, 1909. r I. Product of one square foot of ground 2. Product of one square foot of ground in held yielding over three tons per acre of in adjoining field (not fertilized with Nitrate cured timothy hay fertilized with Nitrate of of Soda) yielding one ton per acre of cured Soda. hay. Highlands Experimental Farms, New York. A Resume of Experiments Conducted at the Highlands Experimental Farms Being a Concluding Report, and Covering Hay Forage Crops Including Timothy and Alfalfa. These farms are located on the eastern-central graz- ing and dairy plateau of New York State where agri- cultural practice is, on the whole, extensive. Large areas of the higher lands are rough and only suitable for pasturing, while the lands in the lower valleys are rich and suitable for forage and hay — the meadows are subject to overflow and are naturally rich and well suited for hay, for which they are largely used. The methods of practice are not modern, and no real attempts to improve methods of culture, or to in- crease the crop-producing value of the soils, had been previously made. The high lands are becoming poorer and poorer each year, due to the exhaustion of the soil, both in humus and mineral plant-food, while the low- land has been fairly well maintained, owing to the in- crement due to the annual overflow of the rivers. The upland, where not too steep (more particularly the plateau portions) , is of such a character as to be capable of great improvement. The great need being soluble nitrogen and mineral food. These conditions of soil, together with the general lack of progress in methods of culture and cropping, more particularly for forage crops, made experiments and demonstrations which would show the possibilities of these lands for hay and for other forage crops of great value. As was to be expected from the conditions de- scribed, much preliminary work was necessary, in order to prepare the upland for the easy use of the necessary machinery and handling of the crops. The experiments Forage an( j demonstrations, therefore, included a study of the Crops question of whether the cost of the necessary physical and chemical improvement of the soil would be met by the increased crop-producing power. Complete records were published of preparations in growing timothy hay for market. The work was begun in 1904; considerable areas, typical of very large areas in four counties, of both uplands and lowlands, were included in the experiments. In the first place, the larger rocks were blasted and these, together with the stones, were removed from the SEASON 1908. Plot with 150 Lbs. Nitrate Without Nitrate, yield at per Acre, yield at rate rate of , Ton Acre of 3 Tons per Acre. uplands, in. order to make the conditions of seeding and handling the crop later much less expensive. This work, together with the extra plowing and leveling of the lowlands, made the initial expenses rather heavy. In all these preparations, however, only such work was done as seemed necessary to provide the best possible conditions for securing a stand of the various crops and their proper cultivation, as well as permanent grass meadows. Notwithstanding this heavy expense of preparation, fertilizing and seeding, the results obtained show that Nitrate could be used most profitably. When seeding down, the special fertilizing consist- Fora g e ed of supplying and distributing in the soil an abun- rops dance of the minerals, phosphoric acid, potash and lime. The Nitrogenous fertilizing consisting of top-dressings of Nitrate of Soda in the spring — 200 lbs. per acre be- ing used on the uplands and 168 lbs. on the lowlands. The yield of the hay crops in 1905, the first year in which they could be obtained, were on the uplands over 162 per cent, larger than were those which received no Hay Caps for Protecting Hay While Curing. special treatment, and on the lowlands the increase from the improved methods was 24.5%. The average yields, without the use of Nitrate of Soda, on the uplands, was about lj tons, and on the lowlands about 3 tons, show- ing that the character of the soil on the upland was capa- ble of a very large increase in fertility, and responded favorably to good treatment and proper fertilization. The net profit per acre on the highlands being $20.50, or a net return of $4 for each dollar invested in Nitrate, Forage w \al e on the lowlands the net profit was $3.14 per acre, a — —^ good return on the investment. The lowlands, which as before pointed out, were not specially deficient in plant-food, and Nitrogen not being the limiting factor, were, however, very considerably benefited by good preparation of soil and the judicious supplies of Nitrate of Soda. The same areas upon which crops were obtained in 1905 served as experimental plots again in 1906, using Nitrate mainly as the extra supply of fertilizer con- stituents, reducing the amounts to 112 lbs. per acre on the lowlands, and to 168 lbs. on the highlands. These crops also responded very profitably to these applica- tions, notwithstanding that the total crops were much lower than in the previous year. The gain in yield from the use of Nitrate on the upland being 95%, and on the lowland 36.5%. The net profits from Nitrate being $10.20 per acre on the highlands, and $7.36 on the lowlands, a decrease on the highlands and an increase on the lowlands. The yield without Nitrate on the highland was practically the same in 1906 as in 1905, while on the lowlands the yield on the no-Nitrated field was less than in 1905. It is quite evident, therefore, that the application of Ni- trate in 1906 should have been increased rather than de- creased in that year. On the average, the increase due to Nitrate in the two years being a net gain of over $15 per acre for the highlands and over $5 per acre for the lowlands, and this for a comparatively low value for the dried hay, or but $12 per ton. This is a most striking illustration of the use of improved methods of preparation of the soil, of seeding, and of fertilizing, not only, but of the use of immediately available and soluble plant-food at the time of the greatest need of the plant. It would have been interesting to continue these experiments for a period of years as was originally planned, as it is evident from the character of the stand at the end of two years that this relatively profitable increase would have been con- tinued during the next four years, or in other words, that the productive capacity of the land would have been so increased that the returns for both upland and low- Fora 8 e land would have been sufficient to pay the interest on an rops increased value of $200 per acre where, before, hay growing on the uplands was not profitable in any case. As has already been pointed out, the areas possible to be improved are relatively very large, as the character of the lands and the methods are practically identical on the cleared land of many counties in that part of the State, Fertilizer, 300 Pounds per Acre Minerals and 150 Pounds per Acre Nitrate of Soda. Rate of Yield, 100 Bushels Ears per Acre, excellent quality. Fertilizer, 300 Pounds per Acre Minerals only. Rate of Yield, 80 Bushels Ears per Acre, poor quality. and there is no good reason to believe that a large part of this would not have been equally benefited by the methods used in the experiments. This demonstration of the importance of good methods of soil preparation and of the judicious use of Nitrate of Soda as a source of Nitrogen, under condi- tions which superficially were most discouraging, is of untold value to the community. It proved that hay Forage growing could be made a paying proposition — the one i^E 3 thing needed, in order to stimulate the farmer to greater effort. Another experiment suggested by the results ob- tained in hay growing was carried out at Highland Farms in 1907, which has a very important bearing upon the development and improvement of farm methods in that section, was the experiments on other forage crops, notably oats and peas for hay. The ob- ject of this experiment was to learn, not only whether Nitrate of Soda was a useful form of Nitrogen, but Highlands Experimental Farms, New York. «&i 30 Bushels of Ears per Acre. Fertilized with 10 Tons of Stable Manure and 200 Pounds fine-ground Bone. 100 Bushels of Ears per Acre. Fertilized with 200 Pounds Nitrate of Soda, and 200 Pounds Minerals. whether the profitable culture of this forage would en- able the sale of high quality hay, which the other experi- ments show can be produced in this neighborhood. The experiments were planned to learn the relative advan- tage of growing the oat and pea as a forage crop for that location and the importance of Nitrate of Soda as a source of Nitrogen in increasing the yields. The experiments were sufficient in number to study fully the question of the most profitable amount of Ni- trate to apply, ranging from 100 to 300 lbs. per acre. The Nitrate was applied at time of seeding on lands Forfl g e previously well prepared, and upon which 500 lbs. per rop3 acre of an even mixture of ground bone, acid phosphate and sulphate of potash had been used to provide the nec- essary mineral constituents. These experiments were very striking in showing, not only the advantage of pre- paring the land well, but the profits that might be de- rived from the use of Nitrate of Soda. The yields Avith- out Nitrogen averaged about 2500 lbs., or a ton and a quarter per acre. The largest yield was 2f tons, or a gain of If tons of hay per acre from an application of 300 lbs. of Nitrate of Soda, a net increased value of crop Corn and Oats Experimental Fields, Highlands Farms. from the use of Nitrate of $14.50 per acre. In other words, the judicious use of minerals and Nitrate resulted in multiplying the yield more than two-fold and at a profit that would make the net returns indicate an in- creased value of land for that season of nearly $300 per acre. Other experiments were carried on in 1908, which showed the very great advantage of the use of Nitrate of Soda in seasons of extreme drouth, or when practical- ly no rain fell after seeding such crops as oats or after the first dressing of Nitrate had been made to timothy hay. Forage The experiment on oats for hay showing a gain of Crops 43 per cent., or an average gain of over one-half ton of Iz dried hay, and where the Nitrate was used to the fullest advantage, a net profit per acre of $11.20, and when used as a top-dressing for timothy hay the results of all previous experiments have been abundantly confirmed, namely, that Nitrate of Soda is the only form of Nitrogen which not only overcomes natural deficiencies of soluble Nitrogen at a critical time in the growth of the plants, but makes it possible, even in dry seasons, to very large- ly increase the yield at a small expense; a gain of over one ton of hay having been obtained with an average net profit of $8.70 per acre. Also, with oats and peas the effect of Nitrate of Soda was very marked, notwith- standing the crop was such as to be injured to a greater degree by the drouth than the well-rooted timothy or the earlier seeded oats. In no case was the profit on money invested less than 60 per cent. The experiments conducted at Highlands Farms, therefore, have demonstrated beyond question the very great advantage of the use of Nitrate for forage crops, and it now remains merely to impress upon the farmers of the great State of New York the absolute necessity of good methods and proper use of Nitrate to make farming operations a financial success. Field Experiments with Nitrate of Soda at Highlands Farms 1908. In the spring of 1908, other experiments were planned and carried out for the purpose of studying two fundamental questions: — First, whether it would pay to use Nitrate of Soda; and second, whether it would pay to make more than one dressing. It was also planned that the applications of Nitrate should be such as to encourage the practical farmer to begin its use — that is, not to use a larger dressing than he would be willing to purchase, and thus make the work educa- tional in two directions. 13 Six experiments were planned with the following Fora £ e crops : — ■ Oats and peas Timothy hay Oats Field corn Barley White potatoes and in each experiment six plots, one-tenth of an acre in area, were used; these plots were separated by strips five (5) feet wide, which were cultivated and kept free from weeds. In all cases, except for potatoes, the following min- A Home Mixing Plant with Grinding Machine for Chemical Fertilizers. eral fertilizer was applied at the rate of 300 lbs. per acre, spread broadcast and well harrowed into the soil : — Ground bone 100 lbs. Acid phosphate - 200 lbs. Sulphate of potash 100 lbs. and for potatoes 300 lbs. per acre of the following mix- ture was broadcasted : — Ground bone 100 lbs Acid phosphate 350 lbs Sulphate of potash 250 lbs. and at the time of planting 400 lbs. per acre was well distributed in the row. The amounts of Nitrate and the method of application for the different crops were as follows : — ■ Forage Oats and Peas. C r0 P s Plot Treatment Minerals + lbs. per plot Applied 14 1 Nitrate of Soda 10 When seeded. 2 Check Minerals only „ . ., rt .._. c o 1 in One-half at time of seeding; balance 3 Nitrate of Soda 10 3 weeks later. 4 Nitrate of Soda 5 Check 6 Nitrate of Soda 15 When seeded. Minerals only „ , „ One-half at time of seeding; balance 15 3 weeks later. 1 Nitrate of Soda 2 Check 3 Nitrate of Soda Oats. 10 When seeded. Minerals only ln One-half at time of seeding; balance 10 3 weeks later. 4 Nitrate of Soda 5 Check 6 Nitrate of Soda 15 When seeded. Minerals only , 1K One-half at time of seeding; balance 15 3 weeks later. 1 Nitrate of Soda 2 Check 3 Nitrate of Soda Barley. 15 When seeded. Minerals only .. _ One-half at time of seeding ; balance J-0 3 weeks later. 4 Nitrate of Soda 5 Check 6 Nitrate of Soda 20 When seeded. Minerals only 9n One-half at time of seeding ; balance ^ 3 weeks later. 1 Nitrate of Soda 2 Check 3 Nitrate of Soda Timothy Hay. 15 When grass is well started. 15 One-half as soon as grass is well start- ed ; balance 3 weeks later. 4 Nitrate of Soda 5 Check 6 Nitrate of Soda 1 Nitrate of Soda 2 Check 3 Nitrate of Soda 20 20 When grass is well started. One-half as soon as grass is well start- ed ; balance 3 weeks later. Field Corn. 15 When planted. Minerals only ,„ ., 1t; lu lbs. when planted; o lbs. at first 10 cultivation. 4 Nitrate of Soda 5 Check 6 Nitrate of Soda 15 Minerals only 15 7.5 lbs. at first cultivation ; 7.5 lbs. at third cultivation. 7.5 lbs. at time of planting; 7.5 lbs. at third cultivation. 1 Nitrate of Soda 2 Check 3 Nitrate of Soda 4 Nitrate of Soda 5 Check 6 Nitrate of Soda White Potatoes. 20 At time of planting. Minerals only „„ One-half at time of planting ; one-half M broadcast at first cultivation. 25 At time of planting. Minerals only oc . One-half at time of planting: balance z0 at first cultivation. •5 The land in all cases was similar to that already de- F° ra g e scribed for the highlands, namely, naturally good soil, Tops but deficient in physical character and in humus. With the exception of timothy, the crops were all planted at such times in the spring as was deemed most satisfactory; timothy hay being seeded in the previous year. In all of the experiments, the germination of seed was good, and conditions were favorable for a brief period only, as one of the worst drouths in many years prevailed throughout the entire season. In fact, but little rain fell from the first of May until after the crops were harvested, or practically from the time the crops were planted until they were harvested. Naturally, the results of the experiments were ex- ceedingly variable, and thus less satisfactory than if the seasonal conditions had been nearer the average. The records are as follows: — i. Oats for Hay Forage. lot. Yield per Plot, Hay. lbs. Yield per Acre, Hay. lbs. Gain in Yield from Nitrate. lbs. 1 320 3200 900 2 230 2300 3 310 3100 800 4 280 2800 500 5 230 2300 6 410 4100 1800 It will be observed that the yields were not large. The oats were cut when the grain was in the dough state and straw still green, or in the most suitable state for hay. Under average seasonal conditions, the yields should have been at least 50 per cent, higher. Never- theless, the value of Nitrate is very clearly shown in all cases, and reasonably uniform, except in the case of plot 6. The percentage gain on the different plots range from 21.5% on plot 4, to 78.3% on plot 6. The average for the whole being 43% increase, or an average gain per acre of 1000 lbs. of dried oat hay. Forage Crops These experiments show very clearly, therefore, that even in seasons of excessive drouth, the Nitrate con- tributes very materially to the yield of crop and to profit. Oat hay, while not ordinarily a marketable crop, was worth on the farm at that time, in comparison with other marketable hays, $18 per ton, hence the average increase in yield would be worth $9, which, less the cost of Nitrate applied, would leave a net profit of $5.25 per acre ; only on plot 6 was the Nitrate utilized to the fullest advantage, or the Nitrogen usually available from Ni- Highlands Experimental Farms. Oats. 200 Pounds Bone Dust and 8 loads of Stable Manure per Acre. Yield, 30 Bushels per Acre. 1,000 Pounds Lime, 400 Pounds Acid Rock, 200 Pounds Muriate of Potash and 100 Pounds Nitrate of Soda per Acre. Yield, 60 Bushels per Acre. trate of Soda secured in the crop. The increased crop on plot 6 would be worth, on the same basis as the aver- age, $16.20, or a net profit for each acre of $12.45, which corresponds with the increase which should, and prob- ably would have been obtained in an average season. 2. Timothy Hay. As was the case with oats, the season was such as to prevent normal development — there was only one light rain after the first application of Nitrate was made, and none after the second application. The records are as F° ra 8 e follows:— ^- Gain from Nitrate per Acre. Plot. lbs. lbs. lbs. 1 780 7800 2575 '7 Yield per Plot. Yield per J lbs. lbs. 780 7800 575 5750 745 7450 770 7700 470 4700 680 6800 3 745 7450 2225 4 770 7700 2475 5 6 680 6800 1575 The yields were good, notwithstanding the season; the average yield on the unfertilized plots being over two and one-half tons per acre, and although there was a large variation in the yields of the two check plots, it was not so great as to vitiate the results obtained, as the differences between the yields of the two check plots was not as great as the difference between the lowest yield on the fertilized plot and the average of the check plots. The increase in yield ranged from 1575 to 2575 lbs., or an average for all of the plots of 2212 pounds, or over one ton per acre. No special influence was observed, either from the larger application or from the method of application — the one application, made at the time the plants had well started, under the conditions prevailing this year, gave the largest yield. This was to be expected, owing to the fact that after the second application there were no rains to distribute the Nitrate. Deducting the cost of Nitrates, the net profits ranged from $4.45 to $11.70, or an average of $8.70 per acre. The hay was valued at $12 per ton, as stored in the barn; the average loss in the barn was 18.5%. Inasmuch as barn-cut hay was selling at $14 per ton, the valuation of $12 was fair for this season. This experiment, while not as illuminating as would have been the case if the seasonal conditions had been good, still verifies the conclusions arrived at from the results obtained in previous experiments, namely, Nitrate of Soda is one of the most important, Forage use f u i anc [ valuable forms of Nitrogen to use, and the most profitable form to use as a top-dressing for grass iS fields in spring. Oats and Peas for Forage. The experiment with oats and peas suffered in common with the others, due to the season, although ap- parently in a greater degree, as the hot weather affected the growth of the peas to a greater extent than it did the oats alone. Unfortunately, through an error, the crop ''. w,l '-/::--';■>'•' ':■'. .- -''i:^::v^ "mijiMm __ ' ;• ' ;■ Oats and Peas. Yield, 3,500 Pounds per Acre. Yield 2,300 Pounds per Acre. Fertilizer, 300 Pounds Minerals and 300 Pounds per Acre 150 Pounds per Acre Nitrate of Soda Minerals only. on plot 1 was harvested before the others, and no record was made of it. Discarding this, we find the yields to be as follows : — ot. 1 2 Yield per lbs. Plot. Y ield per Acre, lbs. G iip from Nitrate per Acre, lbs. 250 2500 3 4 350 330 3500 3300 1100 900 5 230 2300 6 290 2900 500 The yields were not large, and were quite variable Fora & e — the average on the cheek plots being but slightly in excess of 1 ton per acre. The increase in yield from the use of Nitrate of Soda ranged from 500 to 1100 lbs. per acre, or an average of 834 lbs., an increase of about 60 per cent. Hence, notwithstanding the unfavorable sea- sonal conditions, a profit was secured, the average net profit at $12 for hay being $1.85 per acre, or for each dollar invested there was a return of nearly $1.60. Crops Corn, Potatoes and Barley. The crops of corn, potatoes and barley, on the other experiments, although they grew well in the beginning, One Hundred Bushels of Ears ot Corn per Acre, Before Harvesting. Minerals and 200 Pounds Nitrate of Soda per Acre. were a failure, owing to the continued drouth. There was practically no moisture in the soil when the crops on the other experiments were harvested, at which time the corn and potatoes were in the greatest need of moisture — the corn to enable it to develop and form ears and the potatoes to set tubers and to provide for their growth. Forage Crops Typical Reports of Trials of Small Samples of Nitrate, Season of 1909 George Richardson Picton, Ontario, Canada Plot without Nitrate produced Plot with Nitrate produced - Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, Date of completing harvesting of the crop, - 139 lbs. 197 lbs. May 7, '09 July 2, '09 Remarks : At present after cutting the after-grass on trate plot is away ahead of rest of field. I, and every man has seen results are pleased. Ni- who ' ' I am by this mail sending your postal card with results of your Nitrate on plot of second crop meadow, only meadow I had next to public road. I had three plots tested, all same size, one without barn manure, which gave only 87 lbs. of hay ; next plot, with barn manure, without any Nitrate, 139 lbs. hay; next, with barn manure with your Nitrate, 197 lbs. hay. Since cutting, 2nd July, the aftergrass is far ahead of remainder of field. I am highly pleased with results ; in fact, all who passed by could see the difference before coming opposite to plot. GEORGE RICHARDSON." M. D. Jamison, Dayton, Pennsylvania. Plot without Nitrate produced 79 lbs. Poor Hay. Plot with Nitrate produced 207 lbs. Good Hay. Date of applying Nitrate of Soda, April 23, '09. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, - - - Aug. 10, "09. Remarks : Satisfactory beyond all expectations. 'Nitrate' reached or spread out for thirty inches all around Nitrated plot. 'Nitrate' Hay clean and relished by horses. No Nitrate' Hay wasted by horses to extent of 40%." Alfalfa. F ° ra s e Crops Very satisfactory and successful results have been obtained by the use of seventy-five pounds per acre of Nitrate of Soda applied at seeding time. This usually gives alfalfa a splendid start during the most critical time of its growth. The following report from Mr. Thomas H. Hewes, of Oscar, La. , shows how an apparently dying field of alfalfa was recovered and made to yield an unusually heavy crop by the use of Nitrate of Soda : In March last I found that an eight acre field of fall planted alfalfa was yellow, sickly, and about to be choked with weeds and die out. I saw your advertisement offering a free sample of Nitrate for testing purposes and wrote you for it. As there was some delay and misunderstanding the sample did not come. I ordered a two hundred pound bag of Nitrate of Soda, one of Acid Phosphate and one of Muriate of Potash. I divided a portion of the field into small plats and applied the fertilizer at the rate of 100 lbs. per acre, broad- cast by hand, each separately and each in various combinations with the other. In three or. four days I could note a marked change in the appear- ance on the plats where Nitrate had been applied but none on the other plats. Tlie change was an improvement in color and appearance of the plants, and was so satisfactory that I at once ordered and applied Nitrate to the entire field. At the time of the application the plants were .yellow and appeared to be on the point of dying out. Three weeks later I cut a half Ion per acre and five weeks afterwards I cut nearly one and one-half tons per acre. It is now about two weeks since the last cutting and the plants are about six inches high and growing vigor- ously. Apparently every four weeks during the season (until frost) I can get a good cutting. I have planted alfalfa many times and always failed with it. / would certainly have failed this time had it not been for the Nitrate Q.fSoda. ,, The Alfalfa, Cow Pea and Clover Question. This class of plants has the j3roperty of taking inert Nitrogen from the air and transforming it into combi- nations more or less useful as plant food. This feature is of great value to agriculture, but not so much from the plant food point of view as from the fact that these plants are rich in that kind of food substance commonly called "flesh formers." Liberally fertilized, and not Forage omitting Nitrate in the fertilizer, we have a crop con- — ro i 5Si taining more Nitrogenous food (protein or flesh formers) than the Nitrogen actually given as fertilizer could have made by itself. The most common plants of this class are: alfalfa, alsike clover, crimson clover, red clover, Japan clover, cow peas, lupines, Canadian field peas, the vetches, etc. All these forage crops should be sown after clean culture crops. The best method of fertilizing is to apply from 300 to 500 pounds of fertilizer, in the early autumn and every autumn; in the spring, top- dress with 200 pounds of Nitrate of Soda, and repeat with about 100 pounds after each cutting. It is true clovers may supply their own nitrogenous plant food, but this is an experiment experienced farmers do not often repeat. A fair green crop of clover, for example, removes from the soil some 160 pounds of Nitrogen, while in 500 pounds of Nitrate of Soda there are less than 100 pounds. Undoubtedly, the Nitrogen taken from the air is a great aid, but we cannot expect too much of it. The method of seeding clovers depends much upon locality and soil needs with reference to previous crops. Crimson clover and Canadian field peas are usually sown in August, after earlier crops have been removed, or even in corn fields. Red clover is commonly sown in the spring on wheat or with oats. THE HOME MIXING OF FERTILIZERS AND STRAIGHT FERTILIZER FORMULAS PUBLISHED BY WILLIAM S. MYERS, D. Sc, F. C. S., Director Chilean Nitrate Propaganda Late of New Jersey State Agricultural College 25 MADISON AVENUE, NEW YORK Reprinted from Farmers' Digest Results from Use of Home Mixed Fertilizers on Wheat and on Rye. Wheat— 14 Bushels. Wheat— 37 Bushels. Average Product per acre for the The Product of an acre of Wheat U. S. of Wheat with Average Farm Fertilized with Nitrate of Soda, Home Fertilization — 1910. Mixed with Phosphates and Potash — 1910. Rye— 18 Bushels. Average Product per acre for the U. S. of Rye with average Farm Fertil- ization -1910. Rye— 36 Bushels. The Product of an acre of Rye Fer- tilized with Nitrate of Soda, Home Mixed with Phosphates and Potash — 1910. History of Home Mixing of Fertilizers in England and in Europe The very interesting figures published by the United States Department of Agriculture not long since, showing the average yields per acre of wheat, oats and barley in the United States and in comparison with those of Germany, disclosed an extraordinary and humiliating condition here in America. The average yields of wheat, oats and barley in Germany, covering a recent ten year period, is 28.4 bushels per acre for wheat; 47.3 bushels for oats; and 34.4 bushels for barley. The United States shows an average yield for the same period of 14 bushels per acre for wheat; 30 bushels for oats; and 26 bushels for barley per acre, in round numbers. In view of our soils being so much newer than those of Germany, and having been in use for com- paratively few years, the early soil exhaustion of our lands compared with the splendid returns obtained in Germany, makes the comparison a very mortifying one for our American farmers. If one looks at the history of the fertilizer busi- ness in this country, one may perceive some possible causes to account for these striking differences. The rational use of fertilizers has obtained in Germany from the time commercial fertilizers began to be used; that is to say, German farmers have always known Nitrate of Soda, acid phosphate and potash salts by their proper scientific names and their uses, because the Experiment Stations in Germany were organized in advance of the commercial fertilizer industry, and Mix"° m of tau § nt the farmers from the very beginning the Fertiule°s nature, composition and precise scientific use of them. On the other hand, here in America, our Experi- ment Stations were not established until a false and irrational use of fertilizers had become firmly rooted among our farmers and planters; and even yet com- paratively few of our American farmers know any- thing about the real nature of the several hundred compounds which are foisted upon them every year by fertilizer mixers. The constituents of these numer- ous compounds may comprise a group of certain chemi- cals this year, and a group of wholly different ones next year; and, as a rule, the printed matter in fertilizer manufacturers' booklets and on the fertilizer bags does not disclose anything whatever of the real nature and character or composition of the constituents of the contained fertilizers. We have pure food laws which are now fairly effective. Our fertilizer laws curiously, however, are most defective in that they do not show anything as to the percentage of available Nitrogen; although they may occasionally show the percentage of available phosphoric acid and of available potash. The really important element in the fertilizer, both from a com- mercial as well as an agricultural food producing standpoint, is its Nitrogen. Since the cheaper forms of Nitrogen are but im- perfectly available, and, in fact, sometimes scarcely available at all, — and command in the open market several times the value of the best and most available forms of phosphoric acid and potash, our Experiment Stations would do an additional excellent work by pre- scribing an official analytical method for available Nitrogen fertilizers. We sincerely hope that they will continue to advocate Home Mixing and the use of straight fertilizers. As long as valueless fillers are used, involving a high cost of freight on the filler material which the farmer must pay, and as long as the most inferior and least available forms of Nitrogenous fertilizers receive !^?™ e . _ Mixinc of the highest valuations by our Experiment Stations, Fertilizers just so long will our farmers be at a disadvantage in 7 comparison with German farmers in producing maxi- mum crops at minimum cost. The use of fertilizers of the highest availability — in other words, the rational use of fertilizers, namely, the practical method used in Germany, is what we must come to here in order that our farmers may pro- duce a larger quantity of food stuffs at a lower price. This, in turn, will react upon the general fertilizer business and cause a tremendously increased consump- tion of all the best forms of fertilizer materials, as is the case in Germany. It seems extraordinary that our fertilizer industry refuses to get in line with modern progress, if only merely for the sake of its own prosperity. Home Mixing of Fertilizers The Home Mixing of Fertilizers A hundred years ago the farmers of America and Europe had at their disposal but few materials for in- creasing the fertility of the land. Barnyard manure was then the great fertilizer, but only capable, as we realize now, of restoring but incompletely the plant- food carried away by the crops. Yet barnyard manure was justly esteemed for its fertilizing value, and on many a farm cattle were kept, not because they were in themselves profitable, but because of the manure that they produced. However, for all of the cattle kept on the farms of Europe, the productive power of its soils was declining. At this time the use of bones be- came prevalent and this marked the beginning of more rational methods of soil treatment. The Rise of the Fertilizer Mixing Industry. It was not Until the second quarter of the nine- teenth century, however, that new and important fer- tilizer materials came into the market. The increasing number of soil and crop analyses had demonstrated the invariable presence of the essential constituents in both soils and plants; while the numerous vegetation experi- ments showed that Nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash were often present in the soil in amounts too small for profitable yields. There then came into being a great fertilizer mix- ing industry. Peruvian guano held for a time a promi- nent place in the agriculture of contemporary Europe. It was not long, however, before the supply of the best grades of guano became depleted, though this did not occur until the chemist pointed the way to new treas- ures of plant-food. Nitrate of Soda, the most valuable source of commercial Nitrogen at present, came to play an increasingly important role after the middle of the nineteenth century. The potash salts of the German mines became a marketable commodity when the last battles of our civil war were being fought; and when ^in of the great conflict was over, the phosphate deposits of Fertilizers South Carolina, and subsequently of Florida and Ten- nessee, were ready to supply the third important con- stituent of commercial fertilizers. 9 The Make-Up of Commercial Fertilizers. The fertilizers sold to American farmers are valu- able in so far as they contain the essential available constituents, — Nitrogen, Phosphoric Acid and Potash. When all are present the fertilizer is said to be complete, otherwise it is incomplete. It is the aim of the fertilizer mixers to supply to farmers both incomplete and com- plete fertilizers, chiefly the latter. Furthermore, usage and state legislation compel them to guarantee that their various brands contain a certain proportion of the essential constituents, but, unfortunately for the farmer, they do not require any disclosure whatever as to the availability of the most valuable content, viz., Nitrogen; hence, the attempt to state a, formula on the bags, or on the tags attached to the latter, is a wholly incomplete affair. As an example, we may take a fertilizer whose formula is 4-8-10, that is, one containing 4 per cent, of Nitrogen, 8 per cent, of phosphoric acid and 10 per cent, of potash. Materials of various qualities and grades are em- ployed for the preparation of so-called complete fer- tilizers, as may be seen from the following list: Materials Furnishing Materials Furnishing MaterialsFurnishing Nitrogen. Phos. Acid. Potash. Nitrate of Soda Thomas Slag Potash Salts (from Nitrate of Lime, Acid Phosphate, Germany) , Sulphate of Ammonia, Bone Meal, Unleached Wood Calcium Cyanamid, Phosphatic Guano, Ashes. Dried Blood, Fish Scrap, Tankage, Bone Tankage. Fish Scrap, Cottonseed Meal, Horn and Hoof Meal , Hair and Wool, Leather Scrap. Mi X ta° m of Aside from these materials, there are others that are Feruufers occasionally employed by mixers to furnish filler. 10 Availability in Fertilizers. In the making of complete goods from the various straight fertilizers the mixer is largely guided by the cost, as well as the quality of the latter. The question of quality is particularly important, since no high grade fertilizer can be made from inferior ingredients. The conception of quality has been gradually developed by investigators and farmers and the term Availability is commonly employed when the value of straight or mixed fertilizers is considered. We call a fertilizer Available when the Nitrogen, phosphoric acid or potash contained in it may be readily used by the crop; and not Avail- able when it is transformed so slowly in the soil as to offer but little plant-food to the crop at any one time. A striking illustration of the significance of Availability in fertilizers is found in the action of comparatively small amounts of Nitrate on grass or grain applied early in the spring. It has been repeatedly observed that soils containing as much as .15 per cent, of Nitrogen, or 6,000 pounds per acre-foot out of a total of 2,000 tons, which such an acre-foot weighs, and capable of yielding about one ton of hay per acre, may be made to produce two tons of hay when top-dressed in the spring with only 100-150 pounds of Nitrate. At first it may seem strange that the 23 or 24 pounds of Nitrogen in 150 pounds of Nitrate of Soda should produce this magic effect, when measured against the 6,000 pounds of ordinary Nitrogen already in the soil. But the mys- tery is made clear to us when we remember that Nitrate of Soda is a soluble food that may be directly taken up by plant-roots, whereas the Nitrogen of the soil itself is nearly all locked up in inert humous compounds which must first pass through the various stages of Nitration before they become available. With some qualifica- tions a similar comparison could be made between the phosphoric acid in ground phosphate rock, known as "floats," and that in acid phosphate; or between ^°™^ of potash in feldspar rock or clay and that in sulphate of Fertilizers potash. ^ In order to protect the farmer against fraud, fer- tilizer laws have been enacted in most of the Eastern States. These laws compel the mixers and dealers to guarantee their goods, that is, to state on the bags or tags how much Nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash their fertilizers contain; furthermore, they are also compelled, but in an incomplete measure, to guarantee the quality, i. e., Availability, of the plant-food sold by them. The farmer is given, however, a fair measure of protection in so far as the phosphoric acid and potash purchased by him are concerned. He is told definitely how much phosphoric acid is present in available form. He knows, also, that the potash in mixed fertilizers is derived almost exclusively from the German potash salts, all of them readily available. On the other hand, he is given little protection in his purchase of Nitrogen. To be sure, the fertilizer laws compel the mixer to state how much Nitrogen there is present in this commodity; yet he is not compelled to tell the exact source or avail- ability of the Nitrogen employed by him. From the consumer's standpoint this is a serious question, since a pound of Nitrogen costs about four times as much as a pound of either phosphoric acid or potash. If the law required merely the stating of the total per cent, of phosphoric acid or of potash without giving the amount of soluble or available percentages of the same, how incomplete the essential information would be as to the nature or value of the "so-called" complete fertilizers. More than that, the Nitrogen is not only costly but calls for greater farming skill in its use, lest the yields and quality of the produce be unfavorably affected. The Activity as well as the Availability of Nitrogen in materials like leather scrap, hair or peat is but one- fifth to one-tenth as much as that in Nitrate of Soda, and we can therefore realize the necessity of complete knowledge as to the agricultural use of Nitrogen. It is conceded by all authorities that more accurate knowledge in this direction may be secured by the prac- Home t i ce f HOME-MIXING, that is, by the purchase of Fen'mfers the straight fertilizers and their mixing at home on the ~ farm in amounts and proportions best suited for any particular soil and crop. Barley Pots manured with Phosphoric Acid, Potash and Nitrate of Soda. Nitrate oi Soda 1 2 gr. 3gr. In agricultural practice from 76 lbs. to 200 lbs. of Nitrate of Soda per acre is applied in one or more dressings. Advantages of Home Mixing. The practice of home-mixing has its friends as well as its opponents, but when all the arguments pro and con are summed up the decision must be entirely in its favor. The advantages claimed for home-mixing are: — 1 . Better adaptation to soil and crop. Soils vary in S°™^ of their chemical composition, and in their previous Fertilizers history, as to cropping and fertilization. One soil j^ may be deficient in available Nitrogen, another de- ficient in available phosphoric acid. In one in- stance a heavy application of manure, a crop of crimson clover, or alfalfa stubble may have been plowed under; and in a second instance a thin timothy sod. Evidently a crop of corn would not find the same amounts and proportions of food in these cases, and it is therefore idle to assume that a so-called corn fertilizer, whatever its composition, would prove as efficient in the one case as in the other. Again, it is common knowledge that some crops are particularly grateful for applications of Nitrogen, while others are responsive to applica- tions of phosphoric acid or of potash. Yet even here the soil and climate exert an important modi- fying influence. For instance, clovers and other legumes are capable of securing' their Nitrogen from the air and, except in the early stages of growth, are independent of the supply in the soil or fer- tilizers. On the other hand, they require large amounts of potash, phosphoric acid and lime. Nevertheless, certain limestone soils require only applications of potash, while many silt loam or clay soils require only applications of phosphoric acid. In a word, then, no single formula for any particular crop can be devised to suit all soils and seasons. When the mixing is done on the farm, proper adjustment can be made to suit local con- ditions, known best by the farm manager after adequate experience. One advantage of ZTome-Mixing is that the farmer may make any combination of plant-food he wishes, and know the form and availability of the ingredients of his own fertilizer, and he will save not only the high price paid for filler, but also the cost of transporting it. Home Mixing of Fertilizers 14 2. Better information concerning the quality oj materials. The present high prices of organic am- moniates are forcing the fertilizer mixers to employ various organic materials of inferior quality. Since the fertilizer laws do not require any distinction Carrots Pots manured with Phosphoric Acid. Potash and Nitrate of Soda Nitrate of Soda IU 41. > In agricultural practice from 2 cwt. to 4 cwt. of Nitrate of Soda per acre is applied in one or more dressings. between the sources of Nitrogen, mixers feel free to meet competition and to reduce the cost of mixing by employing inert materials like leather-scrap, hair, wool and garbage tankage. Moreover, even the belter grades of organic ammoniates like dried 15 blood, tankage, and ground fish are now adulter- 5?"?' , -i i<» i tt • • Mixing oi ated more than formerly. Home-imxmg protects Fertilizers the farmer against the use of inferior materials and permits him to purchase his Nitrogen in the readily available forms. Many of the ingredients used by the manu- facturers of "complete" fertilizers are produced directly or indirectly by themselves. Others, like Nitrate of Soda, potash salts and basic slag, are not produced in this country. Naturally the manufacturers will use as much as possible of the materials produced by themselves, on which they make both a raw material and a mixing profit, and spend as little as possible for imported materials on which they can make but one profit. The "complete" fertilizer manufacturers use large quantities of low grade materials which the farmers would not buy for Home-Mixing because of the doubtful value of the Nitrogen owing to its not being available, that is, indigestible as plant food. But the manufacturer finds them doubly valuable as filler, because he can label his goods as containing so and so much Nitrogen, notwith- standing its indigestible quality as a plant food. 3. Lower cost per unit of plant-food. As shown by the analyses and valuations of fertilizers made by different experiment stations, the so-called overhead charges made by the mixers amount, on the aver- age, to more. than six dollars per ton. Otherwise stated, the farmer who buys mixed fertilizers is made to pay about six or seven dollars per ton for mixing, bagging, shipping, agents' commissions, profit, long credit, etc. The overhead charges tend to increase the cost per unit of plant-food in all fertilizers, and to a particularly marked extent in the cheaper brands. Home-mixing enables the farmer to secure available plant-food at a lower cost per unit. 16 Home 4 More profitable returns from the use of fertilizers FerTiiifers may be secured when one understands their com- position and the functions of their single ingredients. The man who takes the trouble to make himself acquainted with the origin, the history and the action of different fertilizers is perforce bound to secure larger returns from them than the man who blindly follows the experience of others. For this reason the home-mhdiig of fertilizers is an educa- tional factor of great importance. The farmer who does his own mixing is bound to observe the effect of season, of crop and of rotation. He is bound to learn something of the particular influences of Nitrogen, of phosphoric acid and of potash. In the course of time he is led to experiment ior him- self, with different mixtures, proportions and methods of application, and doing all these things he becomes more skilled and successful in the busi- ness of crop production. The opponents of ^ome-mixing have claimed, on their part, that the farmer cannot prepare mixtures as uniform as those made at the factory. They have also claimed that the mixtures made at the farm are more costly than similar mixtures made at the factory. As to the first of these objections, it bas been demonstrated by most of the experiment stations in the East and the South that home-mixtures can be made mechanically as satisfactory as the best of the commercial brands. It is merely necessary to screen the single ingredients and to use some sort of a filler like dry peat or fine loam to prevent caking. The second objection is not at all borne out by the actual experience of farmers who have been using home-mixtures for years. Equipment and Methods for Home -Mixing. The equipment required for home-mixing is very simple and inexpensive. It consists of a screen with three (3) meshes to the inch, and about 4-5 feet long and \Yi to 2 feet wide, a shovel with square point, an iron rake, and platform scales. The mixing may be done on a tight, clean barn JJ°^ of floor, and a heavy wooden post is useful for crushing Fertilizers big lumps of the material; frequently the use of a ^ sieve may be dispensed with by this means. Previous to mixing, the materials are screened, the lumps broken up and again screened. The mixing may then be best accomplished by spreading out the most bulky constituent in a uniform layer about six inches thick. The next most bulky constituent is then similarly spread out on top of the first, and is followed in its turn by the others until the pile is complete. The several layers are then thoroughly mixed by shovelling the en- tire heap three or four times. Thorough mixing is shown by the absence of streaks of different materials. The mixture may be put in bags or other convenient receptacles and kept in a dry place until needed. In mixing various materials some knowledge is re- quired concerning the action of different ingredients upon each other. Such knowledge will prevent the danger of loss of constituents or the deterioration of quality. The materials that should not be employed together in mixed fertilizers are known as incompatibles. As is pointed out in this connection in Farmers' Bulletin No. 225, U. S. Department of Agriculture, it should be remembered that " (1) When certain materials are mixed chemical changes take place which result in loss of a valuable constituent, as when lime is mixed with guano, Nitrogen escapes; or in a change of a constituent to a less available form, as when lime is mixed with super- phosphates, the phosphoric acid is made less soluble; and (2), mixtures of certain materials, as, for example, potash salts and Thomas Slag, are likely to harden or 'cake,' and thus become difficult to handle if kept some time after mixing." Potash salts may be mixed with Thomas phosphate powder, but acid phosphate should not be mixed with quick lime, nor sulphate of ammonia with basic slag. The modern farmer in America is beginning to understand the nature of straight fertilizers as well as 18 Mix£ om e f tne farmer m Germany. He knows fairly well the FerTiiifers character and qualities of the materials now used in mixing fertilizers; and can thus form his own judgment as to what is best for the different crops and soils. It is better to spread- fertilizers broadcast by hand, or by a top-dressing machine; fertilizer drills, as a rule, are not of sufficient capacity. Broadcasting is always a more thorough method of applying fertilizers, and gives the following crops a better opportunity to utilize all the material and prevents too much concentra- tion of plant food by the plants. It also gives a better root development, since the plants are compelled to utilize a larger feeding area to no disadvantage, since it is nature's way. It is generally better to harrow in fertilizers after they are applied, except on the seeded crops or on sod lands. Calculations for Mixing Fertilizers. As an example of how the proportions of the differ- ent ingredients in a mixture may be calculated, let it be assumed that a farmer wishes to prepare a 4-8-6 potato fertilizer out of Nitrate of Soda containing 15 per cent, of Nitrogen; acid phosphate containing 16 per cent, of available phosphoric acid and sulphate of potash con- taining 50 per cent, of actual potash. Remembering that each one hundred pounds of the required mixture is to contain 4 pounds of available Nitrogen, 8 pounds of available phosphoric acid and 6 pounds of available potash, we may best determine the amounts of each per ton by multiplying the given figures by l 20. Thus: — 4 x "-20 = 80 lbs. Available Nitrogen per ton. 8 x °20 = 160 Available phosphoric acid per ton. 6 x 20 = 120 " Available potash per ton. Hence each ton of the mixture is to contain 80 pounds of available Nitrogen, 160 pounds of available phosphoric acid and 120 pounds of available potash. We next determine the amount of each ingredient S°"? e f necessary to furnish the required quantities of plant- Fertilizers food. Since each one hundred pounds of Nitrate con- " ^ tains 15 pounds of Nitrogen, the 80 pounds of Nitro- gen required would represent as many hundreds or fractions thereof, as 15 is contained in 80; or 80 + 15% = 533 lbs. Nitrate of Soda 160 -r- 16% = 1000 lbs. Acid Phosphate 120 H- 50% = 240 lbs. Sulphate of Potash Filler 227 lbs. Pine dry loam, or peat, or land plaster (gypsum) 2000 lbs. Calculations of Formula of Mixed Materials. It is desirable, at times to determine the propor- tions of plant-food in any given mixture. For instance, a mixture is made up of 200 pounds of Nitrate of Soda, 200 pounds of tankage, 1,000 pounds of acid phosphate and 200 pounds of sulphate of potash, what is the formula if the Nitrate contains 15 per cent, of avail- able Nitrogen, the tankage 5 per cent, of Nitrogen and 10 per cent, of phosphoric acid, the acid phosphate 16 per cent, of phosphoric acid, and the sulphate of potash 50 per cent, of potash. The amounts of plant food would then be: — Nitrogen Phos. Acid Potash lbs. lbs. lbs. Nitrate of Soda 200 lbs. x .15 = 30 Tankage 200 lbs. x .05 = 10 Tankage 200 lbs. x .10 = 20 Acid Phosphate 1000 lbs. x .16 = . 160 Sulphate of Potash 200 lbs. x .50 = . . . . 100 Total 40 180 100 A ton of the mixture would thus contain 40 pounds of Nitrogen, 180 pounds of phosphoric acid and 100 pounds of potash. To get the weight per hundred we divide each of these amounts by 20, obtaining a formula that may be represented by 2-9-5. Home To Calculate the Value of Mixed Fertilizers. Mixing of Fertilizers 20 When acid phosphate with 16 per cent, available phosphoric acid can be bought at §15.50 per ton; sul- phate of potash with 4S per cent, of potash at £.50. 00 per ton, and Nitrate of Soda containing 15 per cent, of Nitrogen., at §5 -2. 00 per ton; what would be the value of a mixed fertilizer guaranteed to contain 6 per cent, of available phosphoric acid, 5 per cent, of potash, and 3s25 per cent, of Nitrogen? As a prehminary step we have to determine the cost per pound of the constituents in the sTraiiiz fer- tilizers. Thus: — •2000 lbs. of titrate of Soda x .15 = 300 lbs. avails': ie?n±rogeii &H 00 divided by 300 lbs. = - :: 5 per lb. 2000 lbs. of Acid Phosphate i .16 = 320 L~s. Phusgnnrrr * ri rf §15 . 50 divided by 320 lbs. = ^ )-£ -jer lb. £000 lbs. of Sulphate of Potash x -4S = Mf» lbs icnuu Potash $50 . 00 divided by HW» p*. = *i la^ ptrlb. >. est comes the determination g£ ~^s± ~ataL plant- food in the m ix ed fertilizer. Thus: — 3.25 <-\ s 2000 lbs. = 65 lbs. >. Itrogen which at * ~3 awrlh. - - i. 25 6.00%x2iii'<.i lbs. = 120 lbs. Phosphoric Acid which at.. fl>. ->p«rlb.= a. ~o 5.00f t x2000 lbs. = 100 lbs. Potash which at 0.*5iperlb.= 5-2'» ■2-i 21 Assuming that all the Xi'r^cer. in fck* mixed fer- tilizer was derived from Nitrate, the value per tun would be ig-i^.^l, exclusive of the cost of mixing attid baggmu: Straight Fertilizer Formulas for £ g «* Farm, Fruit, and Market Garden Crops. Fertilizers 21 The primary object in the preparation of fertilizer formulas is to show the kinds and amounts of materials to use in order to provide in a mixture good forms and proportions of the constituents, which shall be in good mechanical condition. It is not believed that any one formula is the best for all conditions, these vary as widely as the soils and different methods of manage- ment. Substitutions That May Be Made. It is not intended that the kinds of materials shall be absolutely adhered to, for in many cases substitutions of others may be made not only without materially changing the composition of the resultant mixture, but which may also reduce its actual cost. For example, tankage or dried ground fish may be substituted for cot- ton-seed meal in any mixture, and if the right grades are obtained, will substitute the amount of nitrogen in it, though it may be in a slightly less available form; besides, the former contains considerably more phos- phoric acid. In other instances, dried blood may be substituted with advantage for the tankage or cotton- seed meal, though naturally one pound of high grade blood will furnish practically twice as much nitrogen as one pound of the others. Again, bone tankage, which is quite similar to ground bone in its composition, may be substituted for bone, and vice versa, the substitu- tion depending upon the cost, as the availability of the constituents is not materially different. In the case of potash, the sulphate may be substituted for the muriate without changing the percentage of actual potash in the mixture; whereas if kainit is substituted for the higher grades, four times the weight must be included in order to obtain the same amount of potash, and the amount of . Home the mixture applied per acre must be doubled in order Feruiif ers to obtain the same number of pounds of the constituents — ^ for a given area. For example, if in a mixture of Nitrate of Soda 100 lbs. Ground Bone 100 " Sulphate of Potash 100 " 400 pounds of kainit is substituted for the 100 pounds of sulphate of potash, the percentage composition of the mixture would be just one-half the former, as the con- stituents are distributed throughout twice the weight. Importance of Mechanical Condition. In the next place, care should be exercised in the preparation of mixtures, in order to obtain good me- chanical condition. It is sometimes a difficult matter to obtain a dry mixture from the use of purely mineral fertilizing materials, as superphosphates, and muriate of potash, or kainit — it is apt to become pasty in the drill or planter, whereas, if some dry material, as bone or tankage, is added, the mixture is much improved and the composition not materially affected. The Kinds and Amounts to Apply. It should also be remembered that the suggestions in reference both to the particular form of the constitu- ents and the amounts to be applied have reference to their application under average conditions of soil and methods of practice, and as a supplement to the manures of the farm. Where a definite system of rotation is used, and the materials are applied with the purpose of pro- viding the specific crop with the constituents especially needed, the formulas may be very materially changed. Where the condition of soil is not good, or where ma- nures are not used, the amounts recommended should be largely increased, practically doubled in most cases, and also, particularly for the cereals, a greater proportion of nitrogen should be used. As a rule, soils that are not in good condition will require a larger application of fertil- izers to obtain the same unit of increase than those in 23 good condition, because in the first case they do not ^°™ n e of permit the ready penetration of the roots and the easy Fe'nu^ers distribution of the constituents. The indiscriminate use of fertilizers on poor soils is seldom followed by as large a return per unit of plant food applied as where systematic methods obtain. Methods of Application. The method of application should depend upon the character of the soil, the crop and the material. On good soils and for crops which require large quantities, a part at least, of the material should be applied broadcast and thoroughly worked into the surface-soil; the re- mainder may be used in the row at the time of seeding or setting the plants. It is particularly desirable that formulas that are rich in potash should be in part broad- casted, in order that this element may be thoroughly intermingled with the soil, as the rate at which this con- stituent fixes, particularly on soils of a clayey nature, is very rapid, and unless thoroughly harrowed in the fixing will take place largely at the surface, and thus not be within reach of the feeding roots. On sandy soils, and for such crops as sweet potatoes, the concentration of the fertilizer in the row is more desirable than in the case of good soils and for white potatoes, though the minerals phosphoric acid and potash may be distributed in part. When applied in the row for sweet potatoes, it is desir- able that it should be done two or three weeks, at least, before the plants are set, thus avoiding possible injury from the excess in the soil. Most manufacturers and dealers in fertilizers are willing to supply farmers with the materials suggested, or to mix them at reasonable rates. If you cannot conveniently get all the materials for mixing your formulas and can secure any reputable brand of ordinary commercial fertilizer, buy a bag of Nitrate of Soda and mix it with four to six bags of such commercial fertilizer ; and the mixing may be done on your barn floor. You will thereby improve and fortify the brand you are buying in a way to vastly en- hance its crop-making powers. 24 . H° me If the Nitrate should happen to be lumpy, the use FtertUifen of a straight, heavy fence post, rolled oyer it two or three times will reduce it to splendid condition for home- mixing. One hundred pounds of Nitrate of Soda is equal in bulk to about one bushel, or 25 pounds to about one peck. Materials Not To Be Mixed. Certain Ammoniates contain iron, and if mixed with acid phosphate you will lose a considerable portion of your available phosphoric acid. Lime should not be mixed with Sulphate of Am- monia and materials containing lime, should not be used in this connection without advice from an ex- perienced fertilizer chemist. Excessive quantities of lime should not be mixed with Superphosphate, Barnyard Manure or Bone Meal. Sulphate of Ammonia should not be mixed with Thomas Slag and Norwegian Nitrate. Basic Slag should not be mixed with Sulphate of Ammonia, Blood or Tankage as the lime affects these materials and releases Ammonia. If mixed with Kainit it must be applied shortly after mixing. Cyanamid must not be mixed directly with Sul- phate of Ammonia, but if mixed according to directions will give good results. Home-Mixing Table. To ascertain the quantity of each material neces- sary to make 1,000 pounds of Fertilizer of any desired analysis. Home Mixing of Fertilizers 25 Percentage Required. Available Nitrogen from Available Phosphoric Aci( L Availab Potash fr e am e From 14 % From 16 % Sulphat 1>1Uu.LC Ul UUUo. Acid Phosp bate. Acid Phosp hate, of Potash. 1% 67 lbs. 71 lb s. 63 lb s. 19 lbs. 2% 133 " 143 ' 125 ' 38 ' 3% 200 " 214 ' 188 ' 58 ' 4% 267 " 286 ' 250 ' 77 ' 5% 333 " 357 ' 313 ' 96 ' 6% 400 " 429 ' 375 ' 115 ' 7% 467 " 500 ' 438 ' 135 ' 8% 533 " 571 ' 500 ' 154 ' 9% 600 " 643 ' 563 ' 173 ' 10% 667 " 714 ' 625 ' 192 " Example: A common and profitable formula for Oats is 4-7-5, that is 4 per cent. Nitrogen, 7 per cent, phosphoric acid, 5 per cent, potash. From the table we ascertain that 4 per cent, available Nitrogen is ob- tained by using 267 pounds Nitrate of Soda, 7 per cent, available phosphoric acid is obtained by using 438 pounds 16 per cent, phosphate and 5 per cent, available potash is obtained by using 96 pounds sulphate of potash, making a total of 801 pounds which contains the same amount of plant food as 1,000 pounds of 4-7-5 ready-mixed fertilizer. Should it be desired to make an even thousands pounds, add a sufficient amount of fine dry loam. Home Mixing of Fertilizers 26 Formulas for Farm Crops. Corn. (No. 1) Nitrate of Soda 200 lbs. Acid Phosphate 500 " Sulphate of Potash 100 " Fine Dry Loam 200 " 1,000 lbs. Application at the rate of 600 pounds per acre. Composition: — Available Nitrogen 3.00 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 8.00 per cent.; available potash 5.00 per cent. (No. 2) Nitrate of Soda 150 lbs. Acid Phosphate 500 " Sulphate of Potash 100 " Fine Dry Loam 250 " 1,000 lbs. Application at the rate of 600 pounds per acre. Composition: — Available Nitrogen t 2. t 25 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 8.00 per cent.; available potash 5.00 per cent. Formula No. 1 is best suited for sandy loams or soils. Formula No. 2 is for medium and heavy loams. Oats and Spring Wheat. (No. 1) Nitrate of Soda. . . . Acid Phosphate. . . . Sulphate of Potash. Fine Dry Loam . . . . Mixing of Fertilizers 250 lbs. 27 450 " * 100 " 200 " 1,000 lbs. Application at the rate of 400 pounds per acre. Composition: — Available Nitrogen 3.75 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 7.20 per cent.; available potash 5.00 per cent. (No. 2) Nitrate of Soda 200 lbs. Acid Phosphate 500 " Sulphate of Potash •. 100 " Fine Dry Loam 200 " 1,000 lbs. Application at the rate of 400 pounds per acre. Composition: — Available Nitrogen 3.00 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 8.00 per cent.; available potash 5.00 per cent. Formula No. 2 is best suited for use in connection with a leguminous green manure. Winter Wheat, Rye and Hay or Grass Lands. (No. 1) Nitrate of Soda 100 lbs. Acid Phosphate 600 -" Muriate of Potash 50 Fine Dry Loam 250 " 1,000 lbs. Application at the rate of 400 pounds per acre. Composition: — Available Nitrogen 1.50 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 9.60 per cent.; available potash 2.50 per cent. Home (No. 2) Mixing of Nitrate of Soda 200 lbs. Fertilizers Acid Phosphate 500 " 28 Sulphate of Potash 100 " Fine Dry Loam 200 " 1,000 lbs. Application at the rate of 400 pounds per acre. Composition: — Available Nitrogen 3.00 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 8.00 per cent.; available potash 5.00 per cent. Mixture No. 1 is best adapted for heavy soils; mixture No. 2, for medium and light loams. Barley. Nitrate of Soda 250 lbs. Acid Phosphate 450 " Sulphate of Potash 100 " Fine Dry Loam 200 " 1,000 lbs. Application at the rate of 400 pounds per acre. Composition: — Available Nitrogen 3.75 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 7.20 per cent.; available potash 5.00 per cent. Clovers, Alfalfa, Cow Peas, Soy Beans and Vetch. Nitrate of Soda 70 lbs. Acid Phosphate 550 " Sulphate of Potash 100 " Fine Dry Loam 280 " 1,000 lbs. Application at the rate of 300-500 pounds per acre. Composition:— Available Nitrogen 1.05 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 8.80 per cent.; available potash 5.00 per cent. Cotton. Home , Mixing of Fertilizers 29 Nitrate of Soda 250 lbs. Acid Phosphate Sulphate of Potash Fine Dry Loam 600 " 50 " 100 " 1,000 lbs. Application at the rate of 400 pounds per acre. Composition: — Available Nitrogen 3.75 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 9.60 per cent.; available potash 2.50 per cent. Rice. Nitrate of Soda 100 lbs. Acid Phosphate 800 " Sulphate of Potash 100 " 1,000 lbs. Application at the rate of 300 pounds per acre' Apply soon after mixing. Composition: — Available Nitrogen 1.50 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 12.80 per cent.; available potash 5.00 per cent. Tobacco. Nitrate of Soda .... Acid Phosphate. . . Sulphate of Potash. Fine Dry Loam .... 540 lbs. 100 " 200 " 160 " 1,000 lbs. Application at the rate of 1,000 pounds per acre. Composition: — Available Nitrogen 8.10 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 1.60 per cent.; available potash 10.00 per cent. As a general rule, and subject to any special soil conditions, we recommend that the above Nitrate of Soda mixture intended to be applied to the tobacco crop be given in three equal dressings. The first of these should be incorporated with the soil just before the planting out, the second should be given . « ome as a top dressing at the time of the first hoeing and the FerTiiilers last instalment, in the same manner, about a fortnight ^ or three weeks later. Sweet Potatoes. Nitrate of Soda 200 lbs. Acid Phosphate 550 " Sulphate of Potash 150 ^ Fine Dry Loam 100 1,000 lbs. Application at the rate of 1,000 pounds per acre. Composition: — Available Nitrogen 3.00 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 8.80 per cent.; available potash 7.50 per cent. Early and Late Irish Potatoes. (No. 1) Nitrate of Soda 320 lbs. Acid Phosphate 480 " Sulphate of Potash 100 Fine Dry Loam 100 " 1,000 lbs. Application at the rate of 1,000 pounds per acre. Composition: — Available Nitrogen 4.80 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 7.68 per cent.; available potash 5.00 per cent. In order to secure a satisfactory mechanical con- dition, this mixture will require about 300-400 pounds additional of fine dry loam for each 1,000 pounds of material. (No. 2) Nitrate of Soda 260 lbs. Acid Phosphate 440 " Sulphate of Potash 100 " Fine Dry Loam 200 " 1,000 lbs. Application at the rate of 1,000 pounds per acre. Composition: — Available Nitrogen 3.90 per cent.; JJ"^ of available phosphoric acid 7.00 per cent.; available Fertilizers potash 5.00 per cent. ^ Hops. Nitrate of Soda. . . . Acid Phosphate. . . . Sulphate of potash. Filler 600 lbs. 200 " 100 " 100 " 1,000 lbs. Application at the rate of 1,000 pounds per acre. Composition: — Available Nitrogen 9.00 P er cent.; available phosphoric acid 3.20 per cent.; available potash 5.00 per cent. Formula for Market Garden Crops Asparagus, Beans, Beets, (early), Cabbage, Carrots, Cauliflower, Ceiery, Cucumbers, Egg-Plant, Endive, Kale, Lettuce, Muskmelons, Onions, Peas, (early), Peppers, Pumpkins, Radishes, Spinach, Squash, Tomatoes and Watermelons. Nitrate of Soda 300 lbs. Acid Phosphate 400 " Sulphate of Potash 100 Fine Dry Loam 200 " 1,000 lbs. Application at the rate of about 1,000 pounds per acre, at the time of seeding and an additional applica- tion at the rate of about 500 pounds to be made between the rows later in the season. Composition: — Available Nitrogen 4.50 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 6.40 per cent.; available potash 5.00 per cent. MixSjTf Formulas for Fruits and Berries Fertilizers 32 Apples, Pears, Peaches, Plums, Grapes, Currants, Strawberries, Raspberries, Blackberries, and Gooseberries. (No. 1) Nitrate of Soda 300 lbs. Acid Phosphate 400 " Sulphate of Potash 100 " Fine Dry Loam 200 " 1,000 lbs. Applications at the rate of about 1,000 pounds per acre for berries and 400-800 pounds for fruit trees. Composition: — Available Nitrogen 4.50 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 6.40 per cent.; available potash 5.00 per cent. (No. 2) Nitrate of Soda 200 lbs. Acid Phosphate ,, 300 " Sulphate of Potash 100 " Fine Dry Loam 400 " 1,000 lbs. Application at the rate of about 1,000 pounds per acre for berries and 400-800 pounds for fruit trees. Composition: — Available Nitrogen 3.00 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 4.80 per cent.; available potash 5.00 per cent. Formula 1 is best adapted for medium and heavy soils, Formula 2 for sandy soils. Formulas for Citrus Fruits 5££f g of Young Orange Trees* Nitrate of Soda 350 lbs. Acid Phosphate 350 " Sulphate of Potash 100 " Fine Dry Loam 200 " 1,000 lbs. Application at the rate of 1,000 pounds per acre. Composition: — Available Nitrogen 5.25 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 5.60 per cent.; available potash 5.00 per cent. Old Orange Trees. Nitrate of Soda 375 lbs. Acid Phosphate 435 " Sulphate of Potash 90 " Fine Dry Loam 100 " 1,000 lbs. Application at the rate of 1,600 pounds per acre. Composition: — Available Nitrogen 5.62 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 7.96 per cent.; available potash 4.50 per cent. Mandarin Oranges. Nitrate of Soda 375 lbs. Acid Phosphate 420 " Sulphate of Potash 80 " Fine Dry Loam 125 " Fertilizers 33 1,000 lbs. Mix^°™ e f Application at the rate of 1,200 pounds to the acre. Fertilizers ^ Composition: — Available Nitrogen 5.62 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 6.72 per cent.; available potash 4.00 per cent. Grape Fruit. Nitrate of Soda 375 lbs. Acid Phosphate 435 " Sulphate of Potash 90 " Fine Dry Loam 100 " 1,000 lbs. Application at the rate of 1,800 pounds per acre. Composition: — Available Nitrogen 5.62 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 7.96 per cent.; available potash 4.50 per cent. Lemons. Nitrate of Soda 375 lbs. Acid Phosphate 435 " Sulphate of Potash 90 " Fine Dry Loam 100 " 1,000 lbs. Application at the rate of 1,600 pounds per acre. Composition: — Available Nitrogen 5.62 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 7.96 per cent.; available potash 4.50 per cent. Formulas for Olives. Young Olive Trees. Nitrate of Soda 300 lbs. Acid Phosphate 450 " Sulphate of Potash 150 " Fine Dry Loam 100 " 1,000 lbs. Application at the rate of 660 pounds per acre. Composition: — Available Nitrogen 4.50 per cent.: available phosphoric acid 7.20 per cent.; available potash 7.50 per cent. Old Olive Trees. Nitrate of Soda 260 lbs. Acid Phosphate 520 " Sulphate of Potash 85 " Fine Dry Loam 135 " 1,000 lbs. Application at the rate of 1,150 pounds per acre. Composition: — Available Nitrogen 3.90 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 8.32 per cent.; available potash 4.25 per cent. Home Mixifig of Fertilizers 35 THE HOME MIXING OF FERTILIZERS IN CALIFORNIA AND IN OTHER IRRIGATED REGIONS PUBLISHED BY William S. Myers, d. Sc, f. c. s., Director, Chilean Nitrate of Soda Propaganda. Late of New Jersey State Agricultural College. 25 MADISON AVENUE, NEW YORK The Home Mixing of Fertilizers in California. Despite arguments to the contrary, the facts which obtain are still overwhelmingly in favor of the plant food theory of fertilization; that is, while fer- tilizers doubtless exert certain marked influences on soils and crops other than those produced through their functioning as plant foods, the latter is their most im- portant power. So much granted, the next question to settle is how to make use of fertilizers in the most econ- omical way and, while through their use increasing the yield of crops, to leave the fertility of the soil unim- paired. Starting with the well established idea that fertilizers are not means adequate in themselves to maintain a soil's high crop producing power, but are merely supple- mentary measures for assisting the practice of fertiliz- ing, with stable and barnyard manures, green manures and other organic materials, and nature's weathering forces, to maintain an available supply of plant food in the soil, it is obvious that commercial fertilizers must be so compounded as to suit the needs of the particular soil and crop for which they are intended. We find upon the manufacturer's list and on the market two large classes of fertilizers: first, complete fertilizers, or those which furnish all of the three essen- tial elements of plant food — nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash; and, second, the "straight" fertilizers or "simples," as they are technically called, each of which furnishes only one of the above named. The complete fertilizers are again divided into "general" and "special" brands, the first being so compounded as to suit the Mixin* nee( ^ s °^ an y cro P s an d an y soils, while the second is in based upon the chemical analyses of crops and intended California j n th e case f eac h cr0 p f or w hich it is compounded to e replace the constituents which that particular crop with- draws from the soil. Now to both of the latter types of fertilizers some serious objections must be urged. Fertilizers of a "gen- eral" type cannot possibly be mixed so as to suit the re- quirements of any crop and soil and can succeed only when by chance they may be suited to a certain crop on a certain soil. Moreover they are always mixed in such proportions and such ways as to necessitate the addi- tion of loam, gypsum or similar material to fill out the amounts lacking to make a ton of the complete fertilizer, and the purchaser must pay for the added cost of mix- ing, sacking, loading, and shipping valueless "filler." Then, also, while the fertilizer laws of the several states usually require the chemical composition of any fertilizer to be given on the outside of the sack contain- ing the material, there is never any clear or complete indication in these analyses as to the form of the vari- ous materials to make up that "complete" fertilizer. So that it frequently happens that a very unavailable form of any of the three important ingredients may be mixed with the fertilizer and show very slight results when applied to the soil. To illustrate this, we may take the case of leather meal being mixed with some form of phosphoric acid and some form of potash, which on the outside of the sack will show a certain percentage in ni- trogen and yet the nitrogen in the leather meal be so un- available as to be of very little value to the crop for which it is intended for several years. Again in the case of the "special" mixed fertilizers, while they are prepared to suit the needs of certain crops based on the analyses of those crops, the manu- facturer in compounding them does not take cognizance of the fact that the same crop is very frequently grown on soils of a widely varying character. It, therefore, stands to reason that any "special" fertilizer will not give the same results and especially the results sought from the crop for which it is intended on two soils which S?^ 16 Mixing in differ widely chemically and otherwise. California THE HOME MIXING. In view of the fact above given, we are confronted by some very serious disadvantages in the "com- plete" fertilizer of whatever type it may be. Its use, not merely cannot be depended on to bring forth the desired results, but proves in the end to be a rather expensive mode of fertilization. To avoid the serious defects of the "complete" fertilizer, authorities on the subject of fertilization therefore recommend the use of materials known as "home mixtures" as a substitute. By "home mixtures" we mean a combination of two or more "simples" or "straight" fertilizers, each of which contains one of the principal fertilizer ingredients as above explained, in such a way as to meet the demands of a crop and the soil upon which it is grown. This gives us the opportunity of purchasing fertilizers with a high degree of availability, to mix them as we need them, and avoid the extra cost of freight and sacking involved in the use of fillers, and to supply our particular soil and crop, in the light of our present knowledge of soil fer- tility, with the fertilizing ingredients which they need. IN REGION OF RAINLESS SUMMERS. While the home mixing of fertilizers is of the great- est importance in the case of any soil or any crop, the practice is of particular significance and importance on soils and crops of the arid region, because for the most part in such regions, the soils are well supplied with the mineral ingredients essential to good plant growth and lacking usually only in humus and nitrogen, the phos- phoric acid content being about average and needing re- plenishment from time to time by means of small quan- tities of fertilizer. Under such conditions, with the use of "complete" fertilizers, especially since they are used in very large applications in the case of the citrus fruits, a large part of the expenditure of money on "complete" fertilizers would go toward paying for freight on filler, Home f or sacking filler and also for other ingredients which in the soils and crops in question do not need. California Where a citrus tree can, by the application of one of 8 the essential fertilizer ingredients, be supplied with all that it lacks for perfect development in fruit production, it should not be given any more than that one ingredient. Where it lacks two, it should receive those two and in such proportions as will do the greatest good. There- fore, while no general rule which will apply to all soils and all crops of the arid region can be laid down here to guide people in the use of fertilizers, the following im- portant facts must be urged as being of fundamental importance in determining the proper methods for fer- tilizing groves. Taken by and large the soils of the arid regions are deficient in humus and no thought must be given to fer- tilization before the proper supply of humus is given to the soil. The methods for producing the humus we have often urged are those which are strongly emphasized by the experiment station people in the states in question. The most important phase of the maintenance of humus in the soils consists of green manuring and we need not go into a discussion here of the kinds of cover crops and the methods of green manuring, since they are already well known to the farmers and growers of the region under consideration. One point with reference to this matter, however, relates directly to the question of fertilization of soils and that is, that not merely the humus content of soils, but the nitrogen content can be largely maintained and improved through this practice. Since there are but few soils in the arid regions not well supplied with potash, whether it be in the soluble or insoluble form, it behooves the farmer and the grower to give their attention first to the question of the nitrogen and the phosphoric acid fertilization. The "home mixing" of fertilizers offers, under such condi- tions especially, great advantages because the nitrogen can be purchased in the available form and only in quan- tities sufficient to supplement the soil's supply of that element which is slowlv but steadilv being made availa- ble through the activity of micro-organisms in the soil, ^brine The phosphoric acid fertilization can be regulated by in knowing the phosphoric acid content of the soil and the California amount of that material removed by the crop grown. 9 In view of these facts, it is necessary to use nitrogen in the most available form in which it can be obtained, namely, the nitrate form and at the times in the year when the natural processes producing nitrates in the soil are inactive, so as not to give the tree any set-back by reason of a lack of available nitrogen at any part of its growing season. Phosphoric acid, on the other hand, should be sup- plied partly in the available, partly in the unavailable form, thus allowing of a smaller expenditure on this fertilizer and yet insuring to the tree a constant supply of available phosphoric acid. To accomplish this pur- pose, phosphoric acid fertilizers of the superphosphate and the steamed bone meal forms would be the most ad- visable; the superphosphate or soluble form being used during the v spring of the year, the bone phosphate dur- ing the fall. Most of the citrus groves and many of the deciduous groves as well, have arrived at that stage in their culture where a combination of at least these two important fertilizing ingredients will have to be used to maintain good fruit production. In deciding on the fertilizer formula, the general rule to follow will be to have before one an analysis of the soil so far as the phosphoric acid, humus and nitrogen are concerned; and, from numerous analyses of the citrus fruit, an ac- count of the actual material in the form of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash which this fruit removes from the soil. Knowing then the condition of the soil and the amount of these materials removed by the crop, it can, by simple arithmetic, be calculated how many pounds of the important fertilizing ingredients should be added to the soil to make up for the loss or inadequacy of the soil in the necessary plant foods. Since the deter- minations for humus, nitrogen, and phosphoric acid are comparatively simple to make and not expensive, it should be the plan of every grower to ascertain the quan- tities of these materials in his soil and so be guided in jj[°.™ e the use of fertilizers largely by facts and not surmises, in In cases of heavy and poorly aerated soils nitrate California f SO( j a ma y be mixed to amount, with an equal quantity 10 " of gypsum before applying. NECESSARY PRECAUTIONS. In order to obviate losses in the home mixing of fer- tilizers, cognizance must be taken of what is known as the "incompatibility" of certain "straight fertilizers" or "simples" with one another. This means that when some fertilizers are mixed together, they may either pro- duce losses of plant food, or they may produce sub- stances which are injurious to plant growth; and these are, therefore, mentioned here in order to acquaint the reader with the facts so that no mistakes may be made. Muriate of potash should not be mixed with Sul- fate of ammonia, because of the production through that mixture of ammonium chlorid which is poisonous to plant growth. Muriate of potash should not be mixed with lime when lime is used with fertilizers, because there may be, through the production of calcium chlorid, a loss of lime from the soil. Sulfate of ammonia should not be mixed with lime, because through that mixture there may be a direct loss of ammonia. Superphosphate should not be mixed with lime, because it tends to make the phosphoric acid insoluble. Sulfate of ammonia should not be mixed with basic slag, because of the loss through that mixture of ammonia. Potash salts should not be mixed with Thomas slag, because the mixture tends to form a hard cake which cannot be broken up and, therefore, is difficult to distribute evenly in the field. When, however, some loam or gypsum is used with this mixture, it is entirely permissible. Among the mixtures which can be safely made are superphosphates and am- monium sulfate, potash salts and nitrate, and any com- bination between these four classes of substances. It is not advisable, however, to mix nitrates with barnyard manure. Ammonium sulfate may be mixed with sodium nitrate and potash salts. Nitrate of soda may be mixed with potash salts, K?™ e superphosphates or bone phosphates, but should not be i n mixed with Thomas slag unless used immediately after California mixing. Since some of the fertilizers may come in the " n form of chemical salts, which absorb moisture from the atmosphere, it may. frequently be feasible to mix them with loam or some other dried material to prevent their caking, thus making their distribution in the field diffi- cult. It may be better, in general, even when the physical condition is good, to mix with the more concentrated fertilizers, like sodium nitrate or potassium sulfate or chlorid, some loam or similar material to make the mix- ture less concentrated, and thus facilitate its even distri- bution in the soil. METHODS. A good tight floor is necessary. A screen for sifting, four to six feet long and two to three feet wide, having about three meshes to the inch, is one recommended by Myers in his book "Food for Plants," and is a good one for such purposes. This will be necessary in order to put the fertilizing material, after mixing, into the proper fineness for an even distribution in the field. Shovels and rakes are also necessary to facilitate the mixing on the floor, and an ordinary crushing block to break up any lumps that may be formed by the conglomeration of the ingredients of the mixture. When sodium nitrate is lumpy it can readily be broken fine enough with the back of a shovel. When two or three ingredients are mixed, they should be turned over from one side of the mixing floor to the other three or four times in order to insure a uniform distribution of the ingredients through- out the mixture. The farmer and the grower can always get addi- tional specific information added to this general state- ment in favor of the home mixing of fertilizers from the experiment station of his state, which is ready to co- operate with him in determining the best method of fer- tilizing his soil. Home Mixing in California 12 Formulas for Farm Crops. Spring Wheat and Oats. (No. 1) Nitrate of Soda 250 lbs. Acid Phosphate 450 " Sulphate of Potash 100 " Fine Dry Loam 200 1000 " Composition: — Available Nitrogen 3.87 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 7.20 per cent. ; available potash 5.00 per cent. (No. 2) Nitrate of Soda 200 lbs. Acid Phosphate 500 " Sulphate of Potash 100 Fine Dry Loam 200 " 1000 " Composition: — Available Nitrogen 3.10 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 8.00 per cent. ; available potash 5.00 per cent. Either mixture may be used at the rate of about 400 pounds per acre. Formula No. 2 is best suited for use in connection with a leguminous green manure. Barley. Nitrate of Soda 250 lbs. Acid Phosphate 450 " Sulphate of Potash 100 " Fine Dry Loam 200 " 1000 Composition: — Available Nitrogen 3.87 per cent.; ^£™£ available phosphoric acid 7.20 per cent. ; available potash in 5.00 per Cent. California 13 Application at the rate of 400 pounds to the acre. Winter Wheat, Rye and Hay or Grass Lands. (No. 1) Nitrate of Soda 100 lbs. Acid Phosphate ' 600 " Sulphate of Potash 100 " Fine Dry Loam 200 " 1000 " Composition: — Available Nitrogen 1.55 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 9.60 per cent. ; available potash 5.00 per cent. (No. 2) Nitrate of Soda 200 lbs Acid Phosphate 500 " Sulphate of Potash 100 " Fine Dry Loam 200 " 1000 " Composition: — Available Nitrogen 3.10 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 8.00 per cent. ; available potash 5.00 per cent. Mixture No. 1 is best adapted for heavy soils ; mix- ture No. 2, for medium and light loams. Either mixture may be applied at the rate of 400 pounds per acre, containing 40-80 pounds of Nitrate, at the time of seed- ing down. jJ|°P' Clovers, Alfalfa and other Legumes. in California 14 Nitrate of Soda 70 lbs. Acid Phosphate 550 Sulphate of Potash 100 " Fine Dry Loam 280 " 1000 " Composition: — Available Nitrogen 1.08 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 8.80 per cent. ; available potash 5.00 per cent. Application at the rate of 300-500 pounds per acre. Cotton. Nitrate of Soda 250 lbs. Acid Phosphate 600 " Sulphate of Potash 50 " Fine Dry Loam 100 " 1000 " Composition: — Available Nitrogen 3.87 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 9.60 per cent. ; available potash 2.50 per cent. To be applied as a top dressing early in April at the rate of 400 pounds per acre which amount would contain 100 pounds of Nitrate of Soda. Rice. Nitrate of Soda 100 lbs. Acid Phosphate 800 " Sulphate of Potash 100 " 1000 Composition: — Available Nitrogen 1.55 per cent.; jJhring available phosphoric acid 12.80 per cent.; available in potash 5.00 per cent. Home Mixing in California 15 Application at the rate of about 300 pounds per acre, carrying 30 lbs. of Nitrate. Apply soon after mixing. Early and Late Irish Potatoes. (No. 1) Nitrate of Soda 320 lbs. Acid Phosphate 480 " Sulphate of Potash 100 " Fine Dry Loam 100 " 1000 " Composition:- — Available Nitrogen 4.96 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 7.68 per cent. ; available potash 5.00 per cent. In order to secure a satisfactory mechanical condi- tion, this mixture will require about 300-400 pounds additional of fine dry loam for each 1000 pounds of material. (No. 2) Nitrate of Soda 260 lbs. Acid Phosphate 440 " Sulphate of Potash 100 " Fine Dry Loam 200 " 1000 " Composition: — Available Nitrogen 4.03 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 7.00 per cent. ; available potash 5.00 per cent. Application of either mixture at the rate of about 1000 pounds per acre, containing 260-320 pounds of Ni- trate. 16 Mi*£ Formulas for Market Garden Crops. in a Asparagus, Beans, Beets (early), Cabbage, Carrots, Cauliflower, Celery, Cucumbers, Egg-Plant, Endive, Kale, Lettuce, Muskmelons, Onions, Peas (early), Peppers, Pumpkins, Radishes, Spinach, Squash, Tomatoes, and Watermelons. Nitrate of Soda 300 lbs. Acid Phosphate 400 " Sulphate of Potash 100 " Fine Dry Loam 200 1000 " Composition: — Available Nitrogen 4.65 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 6.40 per cent. ; available potash 5.00 per cent. Application at the rate of about 1000 pounds, carrying 300 pounds of Nitrate, per acre, at the time of seeding and additional quantities at the rate of about 500 pounds, containing 150 pounds of Nitrate, per acre, application to be made between the rows later in the season. Formulas for Fruits and Berries. Apples, Pears, Peaches, Plums, Grapes, Currants Strawberries, Raspberries, Blackberries, and Gooseberries. (No. 1) Nitrate of Soda 300 lbs. Acid Phosphate 400 " Sulphate of Potash 100 " Fine Dry Loam 200 " 1000 " Composition: — Available Nitrogen 4.65 per cent.; JJ™ e available phosphoric acid 6.40 per cent. ; available potash in 5.00 per Cent. California 17 (No. 2) Nitrate of Soda , 200 lbs. Acid Phosphate 300 " Sulphate of Potash . 100 " Fine Dry Loam 400 " 1000 " Composition: — Available Nitrogen 3.10 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 4.80 per cent.; available potash 5.00 per cent. Formula 1 is best adapted for medium and heavy soils, Formula 2 for sandy soils. Applications at the rate of about 1000 pounds for berries and 400-800 pounds for fruit trees. Formulas for Citrus Fruits. Young Orange Trees. Nitrate of Soda 350 lbs. Acid Phosphate 350 " Sulphate of Potash 100 " Fine Dry Loam 200 " 1000 Composition: — Available Nitrogen 5.42 per cent.; available phosphoric caid 5.60 per cent.; available potash 5.00 per cent. Application at the rate of 1000 pounds per acre. b£°"! Old Orange Trees. in California Nitrate of Soda 375 lbs. 18 Acid Phosphate 435 Sulphate of Potash . 90 " Fine Dry Loam 100 1000 Composition: — Available Nitrogen 5.81 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 7.96 per cent. ; available potash 4.50 per cent. Application at the rate of 1600 pounds per acre. Mandarin Oranges. Nitrate of Soda 375 lbs. Acid Phosphate 420 " Sulphate of Potash 80 " Fine Dry Loam 125 " 1000 " Composition: — Available Nitrogen 5.81 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 6.72 per cent. ; available potash 4.00 per cent. Application at the rate of 1200 pounds to the acre. Grape Fruit. Nitrate of Soda 375 lbs. Acid Phosphate 435 " Sulphate of Potash 90 " Fine Dry Loam 100 " 1000 " Composition: — Available Nitrogen 5.81 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 7.96 per cent. ; available potash 4.50 per cent. Application at the rate of 1800 pounds per acre. Lemons. S° me Mixing Nitrate of Soda ., 373 lbs. California Acid Phosphate 435 " Sulphate of Potash 90 " 19 Fine Dry Loam 100 " 1000 *' Composition: — Available Nitrogen 5.81 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 7.96 per cent. ; available potash 4.50 per cent. Application at the rate of 1600 pounds per aere. Formulas for Olives. Young Olive Trees. Nitrate of Soda 300 lbs. Acid Phosphate 450 " Sulphate of Potash ' 150 " Fine Dry Loam 100 " 1000 " Composition: — Available Nitrogen 4.65 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 7.20 per cent. ; available potash 7.50 per cent. Application at the rate of 660 pounds to the acre. Old Olive Trees. Nitrate of Soda 260 lbs. Acid Phosphate 520 " Sulphate of Potash 85 " Fine Dry Loam 135 " 1000 " Composition: — Available Nitrogen 4.03 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 8.32 per cent. ; available potash 4.25 per cent. Application at the rate of 1150 pounds to the acre. Market Gardening with Nitrate PUBLISHED BY WILLIAM S. MYERS, D.Sc, F.C.S., Director Chilean Nitrate of Soda Propaganda Late of New Jersey State Agricultural College 25 Madison Avenue, New York PREFACE. The following pages describe the results of a prac- tical study of conditions on a large truck farm, near New York. In every case the operations of the farm were carried out on a strictly business basis. The soil was a heavy clay with a rather intractable clay subsoil, decidedly not a soil naturally suited to growing garden crops. The weather was unfavorable, including a most severe drought. Details by crops follow. William S. Myees. 25 Madison Avenue, New York. Market Gardening With Nitrate Successful Results in an Unfavorable Growing Season. Asparagus. The bed was twenty years old, and had been neglected. As soon as workable, it was disc-harrowed, and later smooth-harrowed with an Acme harrow. Nitrate of Soda was applied to the best test plots April 10th, 200 pounds per acre, sown directly over the rows and well worked into the soil. A second application of 100 pounds per acre was made to plot 1, April 24th ; and, on the 29th, a third application of equal amount. The experiment comprised three plots, two fertilized with Nitrate of Soda, and one without Nitrate, plot 3. Plots 1 and 2, treated with the Nitrate, produced market- able stalks ten days in advance of plot 3, a very material advantage in obtaining the high prices of an early market. The results were as follows, in bunches per acre: Plot and Fertilizer. Bunches per acre. Gain. 3. No Nitrate 560 2. 200 lbs. Nitrate 680 120 1. 400 lbs. Nitrate 840 280 The financial results are as follows, prices being those actually obtained in the New York markets : Plot 1. Plot 2. Plot 3. Fertilizer, Nitrate 400 lbs. 200 lbs. Gross receipts $207.90 $161.50 Cost of Nitrate 8.40 4.20 Applying Nitrate 2.00 1.00 Net receipts 197.50 156.30 $112.00 Nitrate made gain 85.50 44.30 Garden- The use of 40 ° P ounds of Nitrate of Soda produced ing with on plot 1 a gain of $85.50 on a fertilizer and application Nitrate cost of $10.40; the use of 200 pounds of Nitrate returned 6 a similar gain of $44.30 on a fertilizer and application cost of $5.20. Snap Beans. The beans were grown for pods, or what is known as string beans. Three varieties were experimented with,. Beans (Valentine Vines). 400 lbs. Nitrate of Soda to the acre in i applications. No Xitrate. Challenger, Black Wax, and the Red Valentine. Seeds were drilled in May 10th, in rows two feet apart; on May 22nd, 100 pounds of Nitrate of Soda per acre was applied, and on the 27th, another application of 150 pounds was drilled in. June 12th, an application of Increase in Crop and Bet- ter Quality Resulted as well as Saving in Time 50 pounds was drilled along the vows Market . Garden- followed by 100 pounds June 19th; in big with all 400 pounds of Nitrate of Soda per Nitrate acre. Half the field was not treated 7 with Nitrate. In the ease of the Black "Wax beans, the Nitrated land gave a crop 6 days in advance of the part not Green Pole Bean Pods. No Nitrate. 400 lbs. Nitrate of Soda to the acre in 4 applications. treated with Nitrate, and the same gain was made by the Nitrated Valentine beans. The Black Wax beans treated with Nitrate produced 75 per cent, more market- able crop than the non-Nitrated portion, and the Valen- tine variety 60 per cent. Taking into consideration the enhanced price due to earlier ripening, the average price of the Nitrated Black Wax beans averaged some 60 per cent, higher than the portion of the field not treated with Nitrate of Soda; in like manner, the increased price of the Valentine beans was 45 per cent. Market Garden- ing with Nitrate 8 Lima Beans 300 lbs. Nitrate of Soda to the acre No Nitrate, in 3 applications. Beans (Challenger Seed). «#; ■afe 4(10 lbs. Nitrate of Soda to the acre in 4 application. No Nitrate. Beans (Valentine Seed). 400 lbs. Nitrate of Soda to the acre in 4 applications. No Nitrate. Nitrate Rpptc Market Beets - Garden- Table Beets The crop must be forced to quick ing with Grown on growth in order to obtain tender, crisp Nitrate were vegetables, readily salable and at good Ready for Mar- prices. Nitrate of Soda was compared ket 16 Days with unfertilized soil, with the result Ahead of Un- that on the Nitrated plots marketable fertilized Plots. beets were pulled 56 days from seed- ing; the unfertilized plot required 72 days to produce marketable vegetables. Nitrate of Beets. 500 lbs. Nitrate of Soda to the acre in 4 applications. No Nitrate. Soda was applied at the rate of 500 pounds per acre, in four applications. Early Cabbage. The cabbage plots were thoroughly worked up, and planted to Henderson's Early Spring Variety. Part How a Crop of the soil was treated with Nitrate of was Saved from Soda at the rate of 575 pounds per Total Failure, acre, in five applications ranging from May 1st to June 17th. The part of the plot not treated with Nitrate of Soda was a total failure, but allowing the same number of plants as the fertilized c2*~ portion, and also allowing for difference in price on ac- Market . . Garden- A Dollar Spent count of later ripening, the crop on the ing with in Nitrate Re- portion not treated with Nitrate should Nitrate turned $21.00 have returned a gross amount of „ in Increased $292.50. The Nitrated portion re- Crop, turned gross receipts of $720, from which deducting $19.50 for fertilizer o Sh O o 2; Market an( j application of Garden- Same, we have $700.50 for Nitrate of ing with Soda as compared with $292.50 without Nitrate, a net ~\ profit for the Nitrate of $40S. That is, for every dollar spent for Nitrate of Soda, the crop returned an addi- tional $21 nearly. Nitrate 12 Carrots. Pots Fertilized with Phosphoric Acid, Potash and gr. iy 2 gr. 3 gr. 4U gr. Nitrogen as Nitrate of Soda The carrots were planted April 21st and treated the same as the beets. The Nitrated plot yielded matured carrots June 27th. Carrots were first pulled t'rom the not Nitrated plot about the middle of September. Car- rots from the Nitrated plot sold for 5 to S cents a bunch more than those from the non-Nitrated plot. Cauliflower. Market Garden- Nitrated Plot The cauliflower plot was treated ex-^ r ^ h Yields Profit, actly the same as the cabbage plot. Not Nitrated a The plants were set on April 26th. I3 Total Loss. The Nitrated plot matured 80 per cent, of the plants set early in the season. Cutting began on July 1st, when high prices ruled. The plot on which no Nitrate was used failed to mature a single plant so that no comparative figures can be given. All the profit in the Nitrated plot was gain over the non- Nitrated plot. Celery. Crisp stalks of rich nutty flavor are a matter of rapid, unchecked growth, and plant food must be present in unstinted quantity, as well as in the most quickly avail- able form, the best example of which is Nitrate of Soda. The soil was plowed early in May, and subsoiled, thor- oughly breaking the soil to a depth of 10 inches. Thirty Extraordinary bushels of slacked lime per acre was Returns on broadcasted immediately after plowing, Celery. followed by a dressing of 20 tons of stable manure, all well worked into the soil. Plants were set May 10th. The tract was por- tioned into three tracts for experimental purposes ; plot 1 received 675 pounds of Nitrate of Soda per acre in six applications, May 16th, 22nd, June 1st, 10th, 17th and 24th. Plot 2 received 475 pounds in five applications, May 16th, 22nd, June 1st, 17th and 24th. Plot 3 was not treated with Nitrate of Soda. Plot 1 was ready for market July 6th, and was all off by the 10th. Plot 2 was ready for market July 11th and was all harvested by the 14th. Plot 3 was practi- cally a failure and was not harvested. Plot 1, being first in the market, had the advantage of the best prices ; the gross receipts were, per acre, $957.80; from which Market Garden- ing with Nitrate 14 Early Celery. 675 lbs. Nitrate of Soda to the acre in 6 appli- cations. 475 lbs. Nitrate of Soda to the acre in 5 app- plications. No Nitrate. must be deducted $18.67 for Nitrate of Soda and the application of same — a net result of $939.13 per acre. Plot 2 gave a gross return of $676.30, from which $13.72 must be deducted for fertilizer, leaving $662.58 per acre net. Plot 1 makes therefore a gain of $276.55 over plot 2, simply from the earliness in maturing, due to the heavy applications of Nitrate, for the total crop was approximately the same for both plots. Cucumbers. Market Plants were set in box frames May 4th. The frames ing with were well filled with rotted manure, and were banked Nitrate as a protection against late frosts. A portion of the 1S field was treated with Nitrate of Soda; on May 10th each plant was given a quart of a solution made by dis- solving three pounds of Nitrate of Soda in 50 gallons of water. Applications in quantity the same were made on the experimental plot May 16th, 22nd, 29th, June 3rd, 9th, 15th, 22nd and 26th; making a total of 165 pounds of Nitrate of Soda per acre. On June 27th the experimental plot was setting fruit rapidly, while the plot not Nitrated was just coming into bloom. The Nitrated plot was given on June 29th a quart of a solu- tion made by dissolving two ounces of Nitrate of Soda in a gallon of water; and this application was repeated July 3rd, 7th, 15th, 24th and August 8th. This practi- cally doubled the Nitrate application. Gain in Time The first picking on the Nitrated plot in this Crop was made July 1st, on the non-Nitrated Very Remark- plot July 22nd, when prices were at the able, Two lowest point. After the early market Weeks in season was over, the vines were treated Advance. for pickling cucumbers, the Nitrated plot receiving Nitrate dissolved in water as before ; later, two applications of a quart each, containing half an ounce per gallon. The result was that the vines continued bearing until cut down by frost. The estimated yields were as follows : Nitrated plot, per acre, 6,739 dozen, plot not Nitrated gave per acre 948 dozen. Sweet Corn. The crop was planted on rather poor soil. Seed was planted May 4th, and the cultivators started May 12th. A portion of the field was selected for experiment, and on this 75 pounds of Nitrate of Soda per acre was ap- plied May 20th, drilled close to the row. A second Market Garden- ing with Nitrate 16 ft o u O !h O o 13 3 £ O CO Nitrate 17 application of the same amount was made May 26th, j?* 1 ^. and on June 5th a third application. On June 17th, 100 i D g with pounds per acre was applied and cultivated into the soil. The total Nitrate applied to the experimental plot amounted to 325 pounds per acre. The Nitrated plot ripened corn 5 days ahead of the non-Nitrated portion, and produced 994 dozen ears against 623 dozen from an acre not treated with Nitrate of Soda. The Nitrated crop, being earlier in the market, brought better prices; the gross return being $99.40 per acre as compared with $62.30 for the non-Nitrated plot. The cost of the Nitrate and its application expenses amounted to $9.75 per acre, leaving a net gain from the use of Nitrate of Soda of $27.35 per acre. Egg-Plant. The plants were set in the usual manner, part of the tract being treated with Nitrate of Soda at the rate of 475 pounds per acre to observe the practical value of the Endive. !00 lbs. Nitrate of Soda to the acre in 2 applications. No Nitrate. i8 Market Nitrate for forcing. Before setting, the plants were ing with given a light application of Nitrate in solution. June Nitrate j_ s ^ 159 pounds was applied, on the tenth this was re- peated and on June 22nd a third application was made. The Nitrated plot produced marketable fruit July 5th, the non-Nitrated plot did not reach the market until July 26th. The Nitrated plot produced per acre 33,894 fruits, all of f/ood quality; the non-Nitrated plot pro- duced only 8,712 fruits per acre. Endive. The photograph of average specimens from a plot which received 300 pounds of Nitrate of Soda to the acre, in two applications, and from one which received none, shows the beneficial result we obtained from the use of Nitrate of Soda. Kohl-Rabi 300 lbs. Nitrate of Soda to the acre in 2 applications. No Nitrate. Kale. An application of 50 pounds of Nitrate of Soda and 100 pounds of Dried Fish per acre, in May, increased the growth 30 per cent. The Kale from the Nitrated plofMarket Garden- ' ing with was tender, sweet and succulent, while that from the „ untreated plot was tough, coarse-fibred and not very Nitrate palatable. ig Early Lettuce. The plants were started in the hot-house, and pricked into cold frames ; April 26th they were set in the held. The Nitrate applications on the experiment plot were per acre as follows: April 29th, 100 pounds; May 4th, 150 pounds; May 12th, 200 pounds; May 18th, 200 pounds ; May 23rd, 100 pounds ; a total of 750 pounds Early Lettuce. 750 lbs. Nitrate of Soda to the acre in 5 applications. No Nitrate. per acre. The Nitrated plot was first cut May 26th, and at this time the non-Nitrated plot was just begin- ning to curl a few leaves towards the heart for heading. Approximately, the Nitrated plot produced per acr'e, 1,724 dozen heads, and so early to the market that the average wholesale price was 25 cents per dozen; per acre, $431.00. From this we must deduct $20.00 for Nitrate and the expense of applying same, leaving net $411.00. On the non Nitrated plot only about 4 per ^Market cmt Q j t ] lt , pi an f s headed, and these reached the market ing with three iveeks late. The financial statement shows 48 Nltrate dozen heads at 10 cents, or a net return per acre of 20 $4.80. That is, without the Nitrate dressing, the crop was a failure. Musk Melons. Musk Melons were transplanted from the hot house on May 4th; 325 pounds Nitrate per acre was applied Musk Melons. 525 lbs. Nitrate of Soda lo the acre in 15 applications. No Nitrate. on fifteen occasions, about 6 days apart, between May ^j^. 10th and August 8th. The first ripe fruit was picked ing with July 19th, 88 days after planting- seed and 76 days after Nitrate transplanting from hot house. The yield was at the 21 rate of 9,6S0 melons per acre, none of which sold for less than 5 cents, and many for 10 cents. The vines on the non-Nitrated plot failed entirely. Onions. The soil was in bad condition, and was liberally limed. Seeding was completed April 15th, and the plants were rapidly breaking ground by the 28th. The tract was divided into three plots ; plot 1 received 675 pounds of Nitrate of Soda in six applications at inter- Onions. 675 lbs. of Nitrate of 375 lbs. of Nitrate of No Soda to the acre in Soda to the acre in Nitrate 6 applications. 4 applications. vals of a week or 10 days; plot 2 received 375 pounds in four applications ; plot 3 was not treated with Nitrate. The Nitrated plots seemed least affected by the excep- tionally dry weather, but the crop on all the plots was no doubt reduced by the unfavorable conditions. The fol- lowing table gives the results by plots, computed to an a a e basis. Market Nitrate Nitrate No Garden- ing with 675 lbs. 375 lbs. Nitrate Kltrau Total yield 756 bu. 482 bu. 127 bu. 22 Per cent, scullions... 1.5 1.7 19.0 Average price per bushel 75 cts. 65 cts. 35 cts. Total receipts $567.00 $313.30 $44.45 Fertilizer cost 20.17 9.30 Total net receipts... 546.83 304.00 44.45 The results show very clearly that but for the Nitrate applications, the crop must have been a failure in every respect. Early Peas. This crop was planted under the same conditions and in like manner to snap beans ; 300 pounds of Nitrate of Soda per acre was applied to the experiment plots. Two varieties were planted, early and late. The results were : Early. Late. Nitrate. Nothing. Nitrate. Nothing. Date planted April 15. April 15. May 1. May 1. First picking .... June 8. June 17. June 29. July 4. Gain to Market ... 9 days. 5 days. Period of bearing. 11 days. 8 days. 10 days. 6 days. Crop on first pick- ing 55 p. c. 40 p. c. 57 p. c. 38 p. c. Total yield (p. c.).. 165 100 168 100 The season was very unfavorable for this crop, yet the results show that the Nitrate made a powerful effort to offset this disadvantage. The earliness to market in this case is as pronounced as in the other garden crops, and is one of the most profitable factors in the use of Nitrate of Soda. The lengthening of the bearing period is an added advantage. Peas (Early). Market Garden- ing with Nitrate 23 300 lbs. Nitrate of Soda to acre. No Nitrate Peppers. Nitrate Doubles Pepper plants were transplanted Yield. May 22nd, when Nitrate of Soda at the rate of 100 pounds to the acre was ap- plied, followed by a second application of 200 pounds on May 31st, and others of 100 pounds each on June 7th and June 19th. The yield from the plot treated with 500 pounds of Nitrate was at the rate of 14,620 dozen per acre, and pulling was begun June 30th. The plot without Nitrate treatment yielded at the rate of 7,432 dozen per acre and pulling did not begin till Au- gust 7th, 38 days later. Nitrate Market Early Potatoes. ing with Ploughing was finished the second week in April, and the plot limed at the rate of 35 bushels per acre. Fur- rows were opened three feet apart, and 750 pounds per acre of a high-grade fertilizer worked into the rows. May 1st the potatoes were breaking ground, and 100 pounds of Nitrate of Soda per acre was applied on the experiment plot. On the 11th, 200 pounds of Nitrate was applied, and on the 29th, 150 pounds more was cultivated in with a horse-hoe. The total Nitrate appli- cation per acre was 450 pounds. The Nitrated plot was harvested July 6th, and retailed at an average price of $1.60 per bushel; the plot not treated with Nitrate was dug July 17th, eleven days later, and the highest price obtained was 80 cents per bushel. The Nitrated plot produced per acre 19 bushels unmarketable tubers, the non-Nitrated_ plot 46 bushels. The total crop market- able was 297 bushels for Nitrate, and 92 bushels for non- Nitrated plot. Deducting the cost of Nitrate of Soda and the expense of applying same, the Nitrated crop was worth $463.30 per acre, while the non-Nitrated plot returned only $69.00 rjer acre. For every dollar ex- pended for Nitrate of Soda, the crop increase gave $30.1 S return. Early Potatoes. 4.">l> His. Nitrate of Soda to the acre in '■'• applications. No Nitrate. Nitrate 25 Late Potatoes. Market Garden- Conditions same as in the case of early potatoes, ing with except the Nitrate of Soda was used at the rate of 500 pounds per acre, in five applications. The crop of mar- ketable tubers, per acre on the Nitrated plots, amounted to 374 bushels; on the non-Nitrated plot the yield amounted to 231 bushels marketable tubers. The gain for Nitrate of Soda was 143 bushels, or nearly 62 per cent, increase. Late Potatoes. Yield without Nitrate. Yield with Nitrate. Radishes. Quick Yield The ground in which radishes were Procured by planted was newly turned Timothy sod, Nitrate. not fertilized for 10 years. Seed was drilled in April 12th. Nitrate of Soda, 75 pounds to the acre, was applied April 20th, followed by an application of 150 pounds a week later. Radishes on the Nitrated plot matured evenly and were marketed Market Garden- ing with Nitrate 26 Si 03 1- ■■ - on May 15th at 5 cents a bunch retail, the wholesale Market price ranging from $2 to $2.50 per hundred. The irfg with radishes on the non-Nitrated plot matured unevenly and Nitrate when ready the market was glutted. 27 Late Spinach. The ground used for this experiment, though under cultivation for generations, had never been fertilized. Nitrate of Soda at the ratio of 350 pounds to the acre was used in two applications. The photograph, taken of the product of an equal space of row from the Ni- trated plot and non-Nitrated plot, tells the result better than words. Late Spinach. 3.50 lbs. Nitrate of Soda to the acre in two applications. No Nitrate. Early Tomatoes. With this crop the object is to mature quickly, rather than obtain a heavy acre yield; one basket of early tomatoes at $1.25 is worth more than 15 baskets later in the season, when the price is about 8 cents per basket. The plants to be used on the Nitrated plot were treated with a diluted solution of Nitrate four separate times. Plants were field set May 17, and given six applications of Nitrate of Soda ; 1st, 100 pounds per acre soon after clrden* Settin 8' 0ut ' 2lld > 3rd and 4th ing with otli and 6 tli of 50 pounds each Nitrate per acre The results were : of 75 pounds each; and - in all, about 450 pounds 28 Plants set out in field First picking Days, setting to first picking Crop at $1.00 and upward per basket .75 .50 " " .30 " " .25 " " .15 " " .08 " " Estimated yield per acre, baskets. . . . Gross receipts Cost of fertilizer and application .... Net receipts Gain per acre for Nitrate Nitrate . No Nitrate. May 1 7. May 17. June 30. July 19. 43 62 40 per cent. - 30 " 10 per cent. 20 " 15 10 " 20 • 25 15 15 500 600 $377. 50 $190.20 10. 35 - 367 15 190.20 176. 95 - In the basket, and lying on 12-inch rule, 400 lbs. Nitrate of Soda to the acre in 2 applications. To the right back of rule, no Nitrate. Strawberries. The experiment was with a field of Bubachs. One plot was given 400 pounds of Nitrate of Soda to the acre in two applications. Another received no Nitrate. Q^rden- On June 3rd all the ripe fruit was picked from equal ing with length of row of each plot. The photograph shows the Nltrate result. 29 The indicated gain amounts to a return of $17.09 for every dollar expended for Nitrate of Soda. The experiments detailed in this pamphlet are all on a working basis. In every case the object was to force the crop to an early yield, and while the applications of Nitrate of Soda seem large and are large in proportion to the actual needs of the crops grown, at the same time the nature of market- gardening requires free use of immediately available plant food, and the results show that such use is very profitable. Abstract of Bulletin No. 52, New Mexico College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, on Onion Culture. This bulletin gives the results of the investigations on the different cultural methods, irrigation, tests of the keeping qualities of different varieties, time of trans- planting, cost of onion production, effect of second growth, increase of yield due to the addition of sodium nitrate, and test of varieties. The onion, which is a surface feeder, needs a light, rich and moist soil. If the soil is too adobe it cracks open and loses too much moisture, and, when irrigated, it bakes and packs around the bulb and reduces the size of the onion. Practically all the onions now grown in New Mexico are grown according to the ' ' old method ' ' or from seed sown in the field. This method is not as satisfactory as that of transplanting from a seed-bed, because of the tendency of the soil to run together and pack when irri- gated. This often tends to produce a slow and somewhat uneven germination. In field culture from 4 to 6 pounds Marnet f see( j i s enough to the acre. The seed germinates bet- ing with ter when sown not deeper than an inch and irrigated Nitrate immediately afterwards. The thinning of onions in the 3 o field is not entirely satisfactory because of the expense. The poorer the germination and the. more the irrigation during the winter the more laborious and expensive the thinning is. The cost of thinning onions in the field was $41.00 per acre. Better results may be had if the seed is sown during September or the first of October, and thinned during March. Sowing onion seed in seed-beds or cold frames and later transplanting to the field was found to be more satisfactory. When a good germination is secured 3 to 4% pounds of seed will produce enough plants for an acre. If the seed is started in open seed-beds it should be sown in the fall, and kept irrigated during the winter. It was found that better results could be secured by trans- planting during the latter part of February or earlier part of March, even if the onions were not half as large as a lead-pencil, than to wait until later in the season when the onions are larger. Later transplanting tends to produce too many scullions. It was also found ad- visable to do the work quickly and to have a boy drop the onions in the row for three planters. A quick planter can transplant about 5,000 onions a day. With hand cultivation the rows should be from 12 to 15 inches apart and the onions 4 to 4% inches distant in the rows. With horse cultivation the rows should be 30 inches apart. The average estimated cost for trans- planting where hand cultivation was practiced, for a period of three years, was $29.33 per acre. This amount was considerably less than the cost of thinning onions in the field. Immediately after the onions are transplanted they should be irrigated and this should be followed by a second irrigation 6 to 8 days later. The subsequent irrigations will van- more or less, depending on the soil and climatic conditions, but good results were obtained by irrigating every 10 to 15 days with a cultivation between every two irrigations. Light and frequent irri- gations do more good to the crop than heavy ones at long intervals. The water should not be allowed to J?*^. stand too long in the plats, as this is detrimental to the i ng W ith onions. Good results were secured when very muddy Nitrate water was used for irrigating purposes, even after the 3I bulbs had formed. No especial cultivation was necessary and very satis- factory results were secured by simply keeping the sur- face soil clean of weeds and loose close to the onions, with horse cultivation it was impossible to get any closer than 6 inches on each side of the row. This made necessary the use of the hand Planet Junior Wheel hoe, practically the same as with hand cultivation. Hand cultivation is preferable to horse cultivation, since twice as many onions can be grown to the acre with very little additional cost. Irrigation should stop when the ripen- ing begins. The onions should be harvested when the tops have turned yellow or have died. Do not remove the tops until the onions have been pulled and sunned for a few days. An ordinary pair of pruning shears is preferable to a knife for removing the tops. The yield of different varieties in 19'03 without fer- tilizers was at the rate of 32,000 pounds per acre for the Red Victoria and 29,000 pounds for the Prize Taker. In 1904, the Gigantic Gibraltar, a variety, which resem- bles the Prize Taker, without fertilizers produced at the rate of 31,250 pounds per acre. This same variety, when sodium nitrate was used as a fertilizer at the rate of 600 pounds per acre, applied at four different times, yielded considerably more, due to the sodium nitrate. The following shows the yield from the fertilized and unfertilized plats : Fertlized. Unfertilized. Difference. Area 1-25 acre. 1-25 acre. Fertilizer applied ... 24 lbs Actual yield 1,618 lbs. 1,250 lbs. Actual difference 368 lbs. •Estimated yield per acre 40,450 lbs. 31,250 lbs. Estimated difference 9,200 lbs. At 2 cents per pound $809.00 $625.00 Estimated difference $184. 00 *In 1908 some of the yields from plats where Nitrate was used averaged 60,000 lbs per acre ing Market As may be seen from the table, the unfertilized plat ?g with yielded at the rate of 31,250 pounds of onions per acre ; Nitrate while the fertilized plat yielded at the rate of 40,450 ~ pounds per acre, the increase in yield being 9,200 pounds or 29.6 per cent. If the onions had been marketed at two cents per pound, the increased value would have been $184.00 to the acre. Since 600 pounds of Nitrate of Soda cost $32.40, and its cost of application to the soil was $2.00, there remained a net increase in the profits of $149.60. It was found that the cost of production was less in New Mexico than in the East and South. The cost of growing an acre of onions varied from $107 to $111.75 without fertilizers and rent of land. Of the varieties tested the Eed Victoria gave the largest yield in unfertilized soils. The Prize Taker and the Gigantic Gibraltar are also heavy yielders in addi- tion to being good keepers. The Gigantic Gibraltar is preferable to the other two mentioned. The Australian Brown proved especially satisfactory as a small and late keeping variety. Neither insect pests nor fungous dis- eases have as yet been observed to seriously affect the onion crop in New Mexico. It was observed that if onions received a check in growth when the bulb was forming and then started into a second growth, as a result of irrigation, there was a tendency for the onions to divide into two or more parts, which injured the bulbs for commercial and keep- ing purposes. If the growth is checked when the crop is near maturity it should not be irrigated after that. It was found that the best keeping varieties lose less in weight than the poor keeping kinds. Small specimens keep better than large ones of the same variety. The best keeping and commercial varieties were the Aus- tralian Brown, Prize Taker, Eed Victoria, Gigantic Gibralta, and Philadelphia Silver Skin. The first four mentioned verieties were grown on a somewhat large scale. The Spanish type of onions grew better and larger and were milder than the American type. The old El Paso onion, which was long grown to perfection in the Eio Grande valley, is a Spanish onion. Fabian Garcia. INDEX Asparagus 5 Beans, Snap 6 Beets 9 Bulletin No. 52, New Mexico College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts 29 Cabbage, Early 9 Carrots 12 Cauliflower 13 Celery _ 13 Corn, Sweet 15 Cucumbers 15 Early Cabbage 9 Early Lettuce. 19 Early Peas 22 Early Potatoes 24 Early Tomatoes 27 Egg-Plant 17 Endive 17 Kale 18 Kohl-Rabi 18 Late Potatoes 25 Late Spinach 27 Lettuce, Early 19 Musk Melons 20 Onions 21 Onion Culture 29 Peas, Early 22 Peppers 23 Potatoes, Early 24 Potatoes, Late 25 Radishes 25 Snap Beans 6 Spinach, Late 27 Strawberries 28 Sweet Corn 15 Tomatoes, Early 27 Potatoes, Late 25 Market Garden- ing with Nitrate 33 The Cultivation of the OLIVE. A Short Treatise with Special Reference to Fertilization. HILLMAN. Second Edition, Revised and Extended 1907. EDITED AND PUBLISHED BY William S. Myers, f. c.s., Director, Nitrate of Soda Propaganda. Late of New Jersey State Agricultural College. John Street and 71 Nassau, New York, U. S. A. Published March, 1907. The Cultivation of the Olive. A Short Treatise with Special Reference to Fertilization. The olive tree responds well and continuously to good cultivation, to irrigation in conditions which call for it, and to the application of suitable fertilizers in adequate quantity and in proper season; but if it be cultivated negligently or not at all, it must not be expected to bear remunerative crops. It is true that the olive, in a state of nature, is not exacting in respect of soil; it establishes itself on the sides of mountains, among the clefts of the rocks, and amid loose stones, scarcely less well than in the richest and best watered of garden soils. But when it comes to the cultivation of the olive for profit, considerations of climate, soil, irri- gation, tillage, and — by no means last or least — of fertiliz- ing, have to be carefully studied. The inclination which has shown itself in many quarters to act as if the olive tree might be left to take care of itself, and be expected to thrive and to yield abundantly in circumstances in which no other fruit tree would live, has not improbably arisen from a following of the traditions of olive growing in the Old World, where the majority of cultivators appear to think, either that the soil is a store- house of plant food so inexhaustible that olive trees of a hundred years' growth will have been unable to deplete it, or that the olive is a tree which consumes nothing, and that it is therefore needless to restore anything to the soil on which it grows. The inequalities and intermittency of yield to which the olive is subject when rational fertilizing is neglected, indicate to those acquainted with the subject the default of avail- able plant food in the soil. Climatic Conditions Suitable to Olive Cultivation. It is dangerous to plant olive trees in any region where the temperature often falls below 20 F. The olive tree has survived a temperature 14 F. in California, but the The f ru it is injured by a slight fall below the freezing point. Cultivation -phis tends to render unprofitable the cultivation of late va- rieties which carry their ripening season into the winter 6 months. At 10° F. the whole tree is destroyed. In spring, after new growth has started, a very moderate degree of cold is harmful. The tree thrives best in a uniform and moderately high temperature. It will not withstand extremes of heat or cold. As we have seen, 18° of frost is fatal to the tree, while 6° is fatal to the fruit. On the other hand, intense heat, especially in the blooming season may ruin the prospects of a crop. In the matter of climate, the larger part of Cali- fornia is well adapted to olive culture. In the Sierra Ne- vada range, in 37 North, it is said to do well at an alti- tude of 3000 feet. Its success is assured where the mean temperature of the coldest month does not fall below 43" F. Soils. The olive will thrive best in a light, friable soil, moder- ately warm and moist, rich in lime and potash contents. It will yield scanty crops of fruit of poor quality on heavy, clayey, or ill drained soils. It is a mistake to suppose that the olive will give profitable crops on poor soils without adequate aid by the judicious application of fertilizers. The olive requires less water than many other trees on account of its sparse foliage and its strong root system, which penetrates to a great depth even in rocky sub-soils, if they be well drained. It will not, however, produce heavy yields in a soil lacking in moisture. Where the rain- fall is deficient, it must be supplemented by irrigation. This must not, however, be excessive, and the water level must be kept low, otherwise the quality of the crop will be infe- rior and the tree subject to disease. Selection of Varieties. Besides the wild and semi-wild types represented by dwarf and medium sized trees, the report of the State Board of Horticulture on the California Olive Industry ( 1900) par- ticularizes no less than 35 cultivated varieties, ranging from The "vigorous, tall, spreading trees," and trees whose fruit is "large and very fleshy," to trees of "dwarf habit" — "a bush" — and "a shy bearer." At the Agricultural Experiment Station of the Univer- sity of California, during the eight years, 1894 — 1902, as many as fifty-seven varieties were examined, and not- withstanding this immense amount of research and labour expended, the Report for the years 1898 — 1901 states that there were still no sufficiently extensive or accurate data upon the question of yields by the different varieties. In spite, however, of all the efforts made to secure a better olive than the old Mission variety, it is stated by Wickson (California Fruits, third edition,) that three-fifths of all the planting which has been done during the last few years has been of the old Mission variety. There can be no doubt that this variety is well suited both for pickling and for oil making, and that it is, in all the different regions of California, a good "all-round" variety, and one safe to plant, especially upon new and untried lands. It produces an oil of good quality, which keeps well, and it is also well adapted to pickling; a combination of qualities which fur- ther recommends it to the grower. The tree is of great longevity, of large dimensions, of thrifty growth, erect and hardy. It grows in almost any kind of soil, if well drained. Its great drawback is that it ripens late and unevenly ; some, however, consider the late ripening an advantage, as the picking is done in winter, when labour is comparatively cheap. For oil-making the Manzanillo is a prominent variety, and for pickling purposes the San Joaquin Valley Manza- nillos are said to be superior to all others in size. The Col- umbella, imported from France, is a variety largely employed for pickling, and its oil is of very good quality. The chief merit of the Redding Picholine is that it makes an excel- lent grafting-stock. The Sevillano, one of the largest olives known, is pre-eminently a pickling variety. The fruit of the Gordal is large, it ripens well and is uninjured by frost. It is an olive of very fine appearance, and the trees yield good crops. The Nevadillo Blanco gives an exceptionally high yield of oil, and its habit of regular bearing renders it one of the Cultivation of the Olive The varieties best adapted for oil making. Unfortunately it is Cultivation j; a bl e J n ma nv localities, to a bacterial disease causing soft >f the Olive , ' - , * . 7 . liable, in many lo of the Olive , ' , , , / . decay or the fruit a Propagation. The olive is propagated from seed, and from cuttings of various kinds and sizes. Growth from seed is seldom had recourse to in California, because growth from cuttings is easy, and gives the desired variety without grafting. The researches of the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of California tend to show, however, that the strongest, heaviest-bearing, and longest lived trees are those grown from seed. Seedlings have a stronger and deeper seated root system, and grow into more regular and hardier trees than those produced from cuttings. The objec- tion to their use is that they are some years longer before commencing to bear. With care and intelligent cultivation, however, this delay may be reduced to one or two years, and the larger crops and healthier trees resulting, are said to more than compensate, in the long run, the loss of time. In growing from seed, the olives should be freed from the pulp by letting them rot in a pile, or by putting them into an alkaline solution. To hasten germination, the pits should be broken, care being taken not to injure the germ. The ker- nels should be kept moist in a compost, and sown thickly in the month of April. Most of the seeds will then germinate the first year. Unless the pits are broken, or the shell softened in a lye solution, the seeds may remain dormant for two years or more. The seedlings always revert more or less to the wild type, so that it is necessary to graft or bud them with the variety which it is desired to propagate. The seedlings are usually not large enough for grafting until after the second spring. Two-year-old wood should be used for grafting, and the graft be inserted at the neck of the roots, just below the sur- face of the ground. If, however, the seedlings are large and have thick bark they may be budded in the stem just above the ground. Of late years, propagation by small cuttings has been almost exclusively practiced. The cuttings are made from very small shoots, and both the tips and the lower cuts are T he used. It is important to take the small cuttings just when the wood is in the right condition, not too soft nor too hard. They should be planted immediately in shallow boxes of sand, placed in a greenhouse or a warm, shady place and kept moderately moist. In three or four months most of them will be well rooted, and should be transplanted to a nursery where they will receive more sun. Trees two or three years old can be planted out with per- fect success, provided they receive careful cultivation during the first few years and be watered and suitably fertilized. For the first four or five years, whether the young trees are planted out or left in the nursery, great care should be taken to prevent them from growing into an undesirable shape. They should be well staked to keep them vertical, and the lateral shoots from the lower part of the stem should be early removed, in order to avoid the necessity of making large wounds later. Setting Out. In transplanting the trees from the nursery to the orchard, both roots and tops should be protected as much as practicable from the sun and wind. They should be taken up in as dormant a condition as possible. In California, they are usually in this state in January and February. The soil should be settled about the roots with water. As some of the roots will be cut off in the process of removal, some of the branches should be cut back at the time of planting; but this should be done only to a very moderate extent. Nothing is gained by planting out too early in the spring. Both cuttings and rooted plants will do better if planted after the soil becomes well warmed, and after the heavy rains of the winter are over. During the first summer the young plants will need occasional watering or mulching, and the surface soil should be kept stirred. Olive trees are planted at various distances, according to the habit of growth of the several varieties, but the usual intervals are twenty to twenty-five feet. This allows the trees to bear for a number of years before they crowd each other, and then removing alternate trees gives ample space for future growth. Cultivation of the Olive The Pruning. Cultivation of the Olive Obviously, it is desirable to hold the olive to a low ~ ~ growth, in order that the fruit may be readily and cheaply gathered, and this may be done by proper pruning from the outset of growth. After a low, vase-form tree has been de- veloped, satisfactory bearing will depend upon regular prun- ing to secure new bearing shoots, and thinning to prevent the tree from becoming too dense and bushy. The olive bears upon the wood which grew the preceding year, and upon no other. For this reason a new crop of shoots each year is essential to regular bearing. The art of pruning can only be learned by practice and experience, but it will be found useful to keep the following points in mind: Cut away all dead or diseased twigs or branches; thin out wherever the branches are too close; cut back the branches that tend to grow too long, in order to make them send out side shoots for fruiting wood. It should also be remembered that heavy pruning confines the sap to fewer outlets, and results in the production of vigorous sterile or wood-bearing shoots; whilst light pruning, leaving a larger number of buds, results in a large number of weaker and more fertile shoots. A tree, therefore, which has sent out an inordinate number of sterile shoots, should not be cut back much ; while a tree that has been enfeebled by any cause must be more heavily pruned. Fertilization. A succession of crops, of whatever nature, taken from a soil, exhausts, sooner or later, the store of natural fertility, or, in other words, the supply of plant food, which the soil originally contained; and unless the crop constituents abstracted be made good, that is to say, unless the food mate- rials which the crops have removed be restored to the land, sterility more or less complete must necessarily follow. The application of dung, or farmyard manure, is the time-honored method of restoring to the soil the elements of plant food of which successive crops have depleted it; but an adequate supply of farmyard manure supposes the maintenance of a sufficient head of stock, a condition which is frequently absent from the surroundings incidental to olive culture. vm ^ T^r J\ TOM i,-"S, f : - ■ \i,'te. The Cultivation of the Olive Olive Tree. Cultivation of the Olive The Moreover, although farmyard dung is, in a general sense, a complete fertilizer, and it is of special value for its mechanical action on soils, its application does not by itself meet economically the food requirements of the olive, the proportion in which the constituents of plant food occur in it needing to be modified if sustained cropping and vigorous growth are to be secured. Again, the number of trees to an acre of olive grove differs widely. There may be from 50 to 150 trees in that area. We have taken, however, as a basis for our calcula- tions as to the volume of fertilizers to be applied, a grove containing 60 trees to the acre, and we have had in view and made provision for the attainment of an annual yield of 15,000 pounds of fruit per acre. Besides the plant food abstracted from the soil annually by the crop, we have to take into consideration the yearly loss in fallen leaves and by pruning; but it is only in the matter of nitrogen that these sources of loss are of import- ance, especially as the greater part of the leaves that are shed fall under the trees, and their constituents, decomposing in the soil, become again available as plant food. The olive tree is not, relatively, a gross feeder, and the oil, which constitutes the most valuable portion of the fruit, is not formed from substances removed from the soil, but from water and carbonic acid gas. In order, however, that the oil may be formed, the processes of plant life must be active, and, to induce this activity, abundance of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash must be available, when a healthy development of the organs of the tree and increased vitality will result in the production of a corresponding abundance of oil. To enable us to determine with an approach to accu- racy the nature and quantity of the plant foods necessary for the production of maximum yields — in other words, to enable us to arrive at a rational system of fertilizing — we have to take as a basis the analysis of the various parts of the particular plant, the volume and constituents of the crop, and the conditions of vegetation. A careful and compre- hensive study of these factors will indicate to us approxi- mately the fertilizing elements to be employed and the pro- portions in which they have to be applied. In applying the principles which have been briefly stated above to the case of the olive, we are met by a diffi- The culty arising out of the large number of varieties of the tree, Cultlvatlon differing in size, natural habit, and productiveness, which ° are under cultivation. '3 No one of the three indispensable plant foods — nitro- gen, phosphoric acid, and potash — fulfills by itself the essen- tials of a complete fertilizer; each supplements the others, each is the complement of the others, each modifies the action of the others, and conjointly and in suitable pro- portions they supply the food wants of the plant. And here it has to be borne in mind that our object in fertilizing a plantation of olive trees should be, not merely to provide for the maintenance of healthy vegetation and the production of an average crop year by year, but to force production and to obtain maximum yields. It will be well to remember, further, that -in applying fertilizers it is only in the case of nitrogenous fertilizers that it will be dangerous or wasteful to err on the side of ex- cess. In supplying phosphates and potash salts, if we fertilize too liberally we are only storing up in the soil elements which the plant may not, indeed, be able to appropriate at once, but of which it will avail itself at a time when its increased development may call for them or when fertilizing may have been intermitted for a year or two. On the basis of the foregoing considerations, we arrive at the conclusion that the following may be taken as a typi- cal formula of chemical fertilizers per acre of olive planta- tion containing sixty adult trees in full bearing : Nitrate of Soda 400 pounds Superphosphate of lime 500 " Sulphate of potash 125 " In the case of olive groves which contain more than sixty trees per acre, and especially if irrigation be employed, the quantities given in this formula should be proportion- ately increased if it be desired to place the trees in conditions of intensive cultivation. On the other hand, if the soil of the plantation be naturally one capable of producing only moderate yields, if the trees be only of medium size, and irrigation difficult, the same fertilizers should be employed and in the same pro- portion, but the application must be less in quantity; and in The fixing that quantity the skill and judgment of the grower Cultivation w j U come j n _ of the Ohve Again, the above formula must be modified according h to local circumstances. If the particular soil be rich in read- ily assimilable potash, the quantity of sulphate of potash in the foregoing formula may be diminished; if it be excep- tionally rich in phosphates, which unfortunately is not often the case, less superphosphate may be employed; and if, last- ly, it contains a large proportion of organic matter, or humus, the proportion of Nitrate of Soda should be reduced. As a phosphatic fertilizer, superphosphate of lime ("acid phosphate") is generally to be preferred; but basic slag (Thomas Phosphate) may be employed on heavy soils poor in lime, and on those inclining to be "sour" and full of humus. With regard to potash, it is probably indifferent whether the muriate or the sulphate be applied. As a nitrogenous fertilizer, the preference should be given to Nitrate of Soda, for it has to be borne in mind that nitrogen, from whatever source it may be derived, must be in the form of nitric nitrogen, or a nitrate, before it can enter into the vegetable organism. Thus, if dung, or other manures containing organic nitrogen, or sulphate of ammonia, containing ammoniacal nitrogen, be applied, whether to the olive tree or to any other plant, the nitrogen which they hold has to undergo in the soil a natural process, known as nitrification, before it can become a plant food and be assimilated by the plant. This natural process is dependent upon the presence in the soil of minute organisms which convert the ammoniacal or organic nitrogen of the manures into nitric acid and nitrates. Time and favorable conditions are required for this conversion — the soil must contain a sufficiency of carbonate of lime and of moisture, and the temperature must be genial. It has further to be remarked that, whilst the process lasts, losses of nitrogen — the most costly constituent of fertilizers — occur by the giving off of free nitrogen, which the plants are unable to utilize and which is lost in the atmosphere. To afford an illustration of these facts, it may be men- tioned that horn shavings and Nitrate of Soda contain, in equal weights, about the same quantity of nitrogen, and that, notwithstanding this, their value as fertilizers is very differ- ent. The nitrogen of the Nitrate of Soda is in a form in The which it is immediately available as plant food, whilst that C f ul ^ iv ^ i ] ? n contained, in organic form, in the horn shavings, requires . three or four years for the completion of the process of nitri- '5 fication. The like is the case with barn-yard manure and all other animal or vegetable manures, although the nitrification of the organic nitrogen of some of them is completed, under favorable conditions, in the course of two years or less. When we remember that 15 per cent of the weight of Nitrate of Soda, of the ordinary commercial purity (95 per cent) , is represented by nitrogen, and that one hundred- weight of it therefore contains as much nitrogen, immedi- ately assimilable by the plant, as ultimately becomes available from the decomposition of a ton and a half of rich barn-yard manure, the activity and rapidity of action of this fertilizer, and at the same time the control which the cultivator is able to exercise over its effects, are readily to be understood. Another important characteristic of Nitrate of Soda is the freedom with which it permeates the soil. The roots have not to wait to grow down to it, neither have they to seek it immediately below the surface, with the consequent dis- advantage of shallow rooting; and thus plantations dressed with Nitrate of Soda suffer less from drought than those de- riving their nitrogen from other sources. In the case of soils poor in lime, it will be well to apply 300 to 400 pounds of gypsum (sulphate of lime) per acre. The olive tree requires for the nourishment of its foliage and wood a regular supply of lime, and, if this is not present in the soil, the vegetation of the tree will suffer, even though nitrogenous, phosphatic, and potassic fertilizers be supplied in quantity. In such circumstances, a dressing of gypsum pro- duces excellent effects, since it renders available the potash present in the soil, besides supplying to the tree lime in a readily assimilable form. Where barn-yard manure is at disposal, it should be spread over the soil of the plantation lightly, so that each tree receives annually a small quantity. Good results are also to be obtained by ploughing under, every second or third year, a leguminous crop. Among the plants suitable for green-manuring which have been tested at the Experi- ment Station of the University of California, a variety of Horse Bean, Vtcia faba, has been found to be one of the The most suitable for use in plantations. All the horse beans Cultivation ma j ce ra pi(J winter growth, and growth ceases with the coming of hot weather. Thus, the crop can be ploughed 16 under early in the spring, and the ground be subsequently thoroughly pulverized for the retention of moisture during the summer drought. Their abundant root growth is an advantage in favour of these beans for green manuring. Not only do the roots assist in opening the soil, but by their decay they add materially to the humus contents of the soil. The pomace of the fruit of the olive, extracted with bisulphate of carbon, may also be utilized to maintain the store of humus. Young Olive Trees. The first necessity for these is rapid development of the trunk and foliage; the following is a suitable dressing, per acre of the plantation. Nitrate of Soda 200 pounds Superphosphate of lime 300 " Sulphate of potash . . . 100 " or Barn-yard manure 5 tons Nitrate of Soda 150 pounds Superphosphate of lime 250 " Sulphate of potash 50 «' Old Olive Trees. Old olive trees contain much fixed lime in the branches and foliage, and they need to have activity imparted to the sap, florescence and fructification. In view of this, the following application is to be recommended: Nitrate of Soda 450 pounds Superphosphate of lime 600 •' Sulphate of potash 50 " Fertilizers for Sickly Olive Trees. Nitrate of Soda 4.00 pounds Superphosphate of lime 600 " Kainit 100 " Sulphate of iron 75 " or Farmyard manure 10 tons Nitrate of Soda 250 pounds Superphosphate of lime 500 " Sulphate of iron 1 00 " Fertilizers for Olive Trees Producing Much The Cultivation Flower and Little Fruit. oftheOHve Superphosphate of lime 600 pounds 17 Kainit zoo " Sulphate of lime 500 " Nurseries of Olive Trees. Per 100 square yards: Barn-yard manure I ton Nitrate of Soda 50 pounds Superphosphate of lime 50 " Sulphate of potash 25 " It may be well here to remind the agriculturist that increased applications of fertilizers are not necessarily followed by increased yields. Once the limits are reached of what the healthily developed plant can assimilate — and those limits are approximately represented by the quantities indicated in the foregoing formula; — any heavier dressing that may be given will not be productive of improved or economical results. Time and Manner of Application of Fertilizers. The date of the application of the several fertilizers will vary, within certain limits, with the climate, the soil, and the period at which the gathering of the crop is com- pleted. Olive plantations in the soil of which clay predominates should be deeply plowed, and lighter soils should receive a shallow plowing immediately after the crop is gathered. Advantage may be taken of this plowing to turn under any barn-yard manure or olive pomace that it is intended to apply. Green manures may be applied somewhat later, after the coldest weather is past. The superphosphate and potash salts should be culti- vated in during the dormant season of the trees, or, at latest, sometime before active vegetation commences in the spring. The Nitrate of Soda should be broadcasted, one-half at the outset of vegetation in the spring, and the remaining half from a fortnight to a month later. The Cultivation of the Olive 18 From Report on Investigation Made bv the State Board of Horticulture of the California Olive Industry; Sacramento, 1900. (p. 5] of Report.) Sulphate of iron is best applied, finely pulverized, a The Cultivation of the Olive few days after the last dressing of Nitrate of Soda. Sulphate of lime may be mixed with the last dressing of Nitrate of Soda and broadcasted with it. L 9 Fertilizers must not be applied during, or immediately before the flowering period. It has to be borne in mind that the earlier or later maturity of the crop depends, within certain limits, upon the period at which the fertilizers are applied, since the earlier the nutritive principles are taken up and assimilated, the more quickly will the development of the fruit be completed. Accordingly, if early ripening is desired, the application of the last dressing of Nitrate of Soda should be advanced; if, on the other hand, it is wished to retard the maturity of the fruit, the application must be correspondingly delayed. The practice of burying the fertilizers in a trench or hole in close proximity to the trunk, which is general in the olive-growing countries of Europe, should be discarded. The fertilizers should be evenly distributed over the entire area beneath the branches, with the exception of a circle about 2 feet distant from the trunk. By applying the fertilizers at the foot of the tree, the main roots and their ramifications are stimulated, whilst the needed nutriment is diverted from the smaller rootlets by which its absorption chiefly takes place. Cultivation. The main objects of cultivation, using the term in its widest sense, are two : Winter cultivation for moisture re- ception, and summer cultivation for moisture retention. The securing of these objects underlies the practice of the various methods of tillage ordinarily employed. Olive plantations require nothing exceptional in the way of cultivation. The orchard should be kept free from weeds, which sap the soil of its moisture, and the surface of the ground should be kept well pulverized. Tillage should follow irrigation as soon as the land is dry enough to admit of it. Diseases of the Olive. The most formidable, and, indeed, the only serious pest affecting the olive is black, scale. The excrement Tne from this scale is deposited on the leaves and fruit, and forms Cultivation of the Olive a smut, which is very detrimental to the growth and fruitage of the tree and also detracts from the value of the fruit either for pickles or for oil. The prompt and persevering use of one of the standard emulsions or washes should suffice to control the attacks of Mission Olive of California (Single Olive Natural Size). black scale and other parasites, if the trees are maintained in a thoroughly healthy condition and in vigorous growth by skillful fertilization and effective cultivation. Gathering the Fruit. Whether olives are to be used for pickling or oil-making, it is very important that they should be picked carefully and at the right time. For green pickles they should be picked very soon after they attain full size, and before they have begun to colour or soften. For ripe pickles they should be gathered at the same The stage of ripeness as for oil-making; that is, when they contain c , u, , ttv ^!? n .1 - r -i -PL- -ii i_ u .i c ^ of the Olive the maximum amount or oil. Inis will be shortly after they are become well coloured, and before they have attained the 2I deep black which signifies over-ripeness. If the olives are gathered before the proper degree of ripeness is attained, the oil will be bitter; it they are too ripe, it will be rancid. On account of the varying coloration in different varieties of olives, it is somewhat difficult to tell from their appear- ance when they should be gathered. When they can be easily shaken from the tree they are sufficiently ripe. If they commence to fall without vigorous shaking they are over- ripe. For whatever purpose the olives are to be used they should be carefully gathered by hand. Rakes or sticks should never be used, as they bruise the fruit and break off numerous fruit-shoots needed for bearing in the following year. It is well to sort the olives as they are being picked, and to set aside bruised, diseased, or under-ripe fruit. We have avoided in the foregoing pages any attempt to lay down hard and fast rules — practical agriculturists know well that any such rules are liable to do more harm than good. It has been our aim to state principles for guidance, to make suggestions rather than to give directions, leaving it to the intelligent and skilled cultivator to apply those prin- ciples and to adapt those suggestions to the particular con- ditions of soil and climate amid which he is working. The Cultivation of the Olive Manzanillo Grown by G. C. Roeding, Fresno. (Reduced.) General Directions for the Use of Nitrate of Soda on Staple Crops. The use of Nitrate ol Soda alone is never recommended, except at the rate of not more than one hundred pounds to the acre. // may be thus safely and profitably used without other fertilizers. It may he applied at this rate as a T op- Dressing in the Spring of the year, as soon as vegetation be- gins to turn green; or, in other words, as soon as the crops begin new growth. At this rate very satisfactory results are usually obtained without the use of any other fertilizer, and the Soda residual, after the Nitrogenous Ammoniate Food of this chemical is used up by the plant, has a perceptible The effect in sweetening sour land. ^^l " 6 _ of the Olive In most of our Grass experiments where Nitrate was used alone at the rate of but One Hundred Pounds per acre, * 3 not only was the Aftermath, or Rowen, much improved, but in the subsequent seasons, with nothing applied to the plots, a decidedly marked effect was noticed, even on old meadows. This speaks very well indeed for Nitrate of Soda not leaching out of the soil. The readily soluble elements are the readily available elements. The natural capillarity of soils doubtless is, in most instances, a powerful factor in retaining all readily soluble elements of fertility. If this were not so, all the fertility of the world in our humid regions would, in a season or two, run into the ocean, and be permanently lost. This is mentioned on account of certain critics having taken the trouble to object to the use of Nitrate on the grounds that it would leach away. A case is yet to be seen where the after-effect of Nitrate is not distinguishable, and, in certain cases, such effects have been most marked. When it is desired to use a larger amount than one hundred pounds per acre of Nitrate of Soda as a Top- Dressing, or in any other way, there should be present some form of Phosphatic and Potassic Plant Food, and we recom- mend not less than two hundred and fifty pounds of either Acid Phosphate or fine ground Raw Rock, and two hundred and fifty pounds of some high-grade Potash Salt, preferably the Sulphate, or wood ashes in twice this quantity. A much larger amount than one hundred pounds of Nitrate per acre, when used alone on staple crops, is generally sure to give an unprofitable and unbalanced food ration to the plant. ■ For Market Gardening Crops, Hops or Sugar-Beets, however, somewhat more may be used alone. When the above amounts of Phosphatic and Potassic Fertilizers are used, as much as three hundred pounds of Nitrate of Soda may be applied with profit. In applying Nitrate in any ration it is desirable to mix it with an equal quantity of land plaster or fine, dry loam or sand. If you have any reason to suspect adulteration of the Nitrate you may buy, send several pounds of it to your Experiment Station for analysis, giving date of purchase, full 24 The name and address of agent, and of the Company which the oMhe"li« Sellef re P resents - Generally on the Pacific Coast Nitrate may be applied as a Top-Dressing after the heavy Spring rains are over, but before crops attain much of a start. It should be observed that Farm Fertilizer Chemicals, including Nitrate of Soda, should never be offered or fed to stock or animals as a substitute for Common Salt. This has happened with disastrous results; but, fortunately, only rarely. Table Showing Prices of Nitrate of Soda on the Nitrogen Basis. Figured on Basis of 313 Pounds Nitrogen in One Ton of Nitrate of Soda. Cost per Cwt. of Nitrate. Cost per ton of Nitrate. Equivalent Cost of Nitrogen per lb. Cost per Cwt. of Nitrate. Cost per ton of Nitrate. Equivalent Cost of Nitrogen per lb. $2.00 $40.00 $0,128 $2.75 $55.00 $0,174 2.05 41.00 0.131 2.80 56.00 0.177 2.10 42.00 0.134 2.85 57.00 0.180 2.15 43.00 0.137 2.90 58.00 0.183 220 44.00 0.140 2.95 59.00 0.186 2.25 45.00 0.144 3.00 60.00 0.189 2.30 46.00 0.147 3.15 63.00 0.198 2.35 47.00 0.150 3.20 64.00 0.201 2.40 48.00 0.153 3.25 65.00 0.204 2.45 49.00 0.156 3.30 66.00 0.207 2.50 50.00 0.159 3.35 67.00 0.210 2.55 51.00 0.162 3.40 68.00 0.213 2.60 52.00 0.165 3.45 69.00 0.216 2.65 53.00 0.168 3.50 70.00 0.219 2.70 54.00 0.171 3.55 71.00 0.222 This table enables one to compare commercial quota- tions with accuracy. The figures themselves are not quota- tions in any sense of the word, and all the figures of the table refer only to one grade of Nitrate of Soda r namely: that containing 15.65 per cent, of Nitrogen. Increased Yield per Acre of Crops receiving Nitrate at the rate of ioo pounds to the Acre over those receiving none. Barley Corn Oats Rye . Wheat Potatoes Hay . Cotton Sugar-Beets Beets Sweet Potatoes Cabbages . Carrots Onions Turnips Strawberries Asparagus . Tomatoes . Celery 400 pounds of grain. 280 pounds of grain. 400 pounds of grain. 300 pounds of grain. 300 pounds of grain. 3,600 pounds of tubers. 1,000 pounds, barn-cured. 500 pounds seed-cotton. 4,000 pounds of tubers. 4,000 pounds of tubers. 3,900 pounds of tubers. 6,100 pounds. 7,800 pounds. 1,800 pounds. . 37 per cent. 200 quarts. 100 bunches. . 100 baskets. . 30 per cent. The _ Cultivation ' of the Olive *5 Index. " Acid Phosphate " 14 Ammonia, Sulphate of 14 Authorities Consulted Preface Barn-yard Manure 10, 14 Barn-yard Manure, How to be Applied 1 J Barn-yard Manure, Insufficient as a Fertilizer for Olive Trees 10 Barn-yard Manure, Value of the Mechanical Action of 10 Barn-yard Manure, When to be Applied 17 Basic Slag 14 Bearing, Regular, Pruning to Secure 10 Black Scale 19 Black Scale, Control of 20 Black Scale, Remedy for 20 Columbella Variety, The 7 Cultivation 19 Cultivation, Objects of 19 Cultivation, Summer 19 Cultivation, Winter 19 Cuttings for Propagation, Treatment of 8 Cuttings for Propagation, When to be Taken 8 Cuttings, When to be Transplanted 9 Fertilization 10 Fertilization, Theory of 10, 13 Fertilizers, Absorption of, by Rootlets 19 Fertilizers, Applications of, to be Limited 17 Fertilizers, Formula of 13 Fertilizers, How to be Distributed 17 Fertilizers, Must Not be Applied During Flowering Period 17 Fertilizers, Not to be Deposited in a Trench 19 Fertilizers, Time and Manner of Application of 17 Formula of Chemical Fertilizers 13 Formula of Chemical Fertilizers, In What Circumstances to be Modified 1 3 Fruit, Annual Yield of 12 Fruit, Gathering the 20 Fruit, Gathering the, Care Necessary in 2 [ Gathering the Fruit 20 Gathering the Fruit, Care to be Taken in 21 Gordal Variety, The 7 Graft, The, Where to be Inserted 8 Grafting, Two-Year-Old Wood to be Used for 8 Green Manures 17 Green Manuring 15 Growth From Seed 8 Gypsum 15 Horn Shavings 14 Horn Shavings, The Nitrogen Contained in 14 Horse Beans 15 Horse Beans, Habit of Growth of 15 Horse Beans, When to be Ploughed Under 15 Humus, Store of, in the Soil, How to be Maintained 16 Illustrations 11, 18, zo, 22 Irrigation 19 Irrigation, Must Not be Excessive 6 Irrigation, Necessary to Supplement Deficient Rainfall 5 Irrigation, Tillage Should Follow 19 Kainit 16 Leguminous Crop, Results of Ploughing Under 15 Lime in the Soil 6 Lime, Sulphate of 13 Lime, Superphosphate of 13 Manures, Organic, Application of 14 Manzanillo, Illus 22 Manzanillo Variety, The 7 Maturity of Crop, Date of 19 Maturity of Crop, Date of, Dependent on Time of Application of Fertilizers 19 Mission Olive of California, Illus 20 Mission Variety, The 7 Mission Variety, The, Characteristics of 7 Moisture, Necessary to Production of Heavy Yields 19 Moisture, Retention of, in the Soil 15 Nevadillo Blanco Variety, The 7 Nitrate of Soda 13, 15 Nitrate of Soda, Dates of Application of 13 Nitrate of Soda Mitigates' the Effects of Drought 15 Nitrate of Soda, Nitrogen Contents of 15 Nitrate of Soda Permeates the Soil 15 Nitrate of Soda, Rapidity of the Action of 15 Nitrate of Soda, The Action of, is Under Control 15 Nitrate of Soda, to be Applied in Two Dressings 17 Nitrate of Soda, to be Broadcasted 17 Nitrification 14 Nitrification, Conditions Favorable to : 14 Nitrogen, Ammoniacal 14 Nitrogen, Losses of 14 Nitrogen, Loss of, in Leaves and Prunings iz Nitrogen, Nitric 14 Nitrogen, Organic 14 Nitrogen, The Form of, in Which Assimilated by Plants 14 Oil, Abundance of, How Induced 12 Olive Cultivation, Climatic Conditions Favorable to 5 Olive, Diseases of the 19 Olive-growing, in the Old World 5 Olive Oil, From What Substances Formed 12 Olive Pomace, How and When to be Applied 17 Olive Pomace, How to be Treated 16 Olives for Green Pickles 20 Olives for Oil Making 20 Olives for Pickling 20 Olives for Ripe Pickles 20 Olives Should be Gathered by Hand 21 Olives Should be Sorted During Picking 21 Olive, The Cultivation of the, for Profit 5 Olive, The, How Propagated 8 Olive, The, in a State of Nature 5; Olive, The, Negligent Treatment of 5 Olive, The, Responds Well to Suitable Fertilization 5 Olive, The, Will Not Withstand Extremes of Temperature 5, 6 Olive Tree, The, Not a Gross Feeder 12 Olive Tree, Illus 1 i Olive Trees, Number of, to Acre of Land 12 Olive Trees, Nurseries of 17 Olive Trees, Old 16 Olive Trees, Producing Little Fruit, Fertilizers for 16 Olive Trees, Sickly 16 Olive Trees, Temperatures Affecting 5,6 Olive Trees, Young, Fertilizers for 16 Orchard, Surface Soil of, to be Kept Well Pulverized 19 Orchard, to be Kept Free from Weeds 19 Phosphates, Are Stored up in the Soil 13 Plant Foods, Action of 1 2, 1 3 Plant Foods, The Three Indispensable 12,13 Planting Out, Best Time for 9 Planting Out, Distances Between Trees 9 Planting Out, Treatment After 9 Plowing, Depth and Date of 17 Pomace of the Olive, How to be Utilized 16 Potash, Liberation of 13 Potash, Muriate of 14 Potash Salts, Are Stored up in the Soil 13 Potash, Sulphate of 14 Propagation •. 8 Propagation by Small Cuttings 8 Pruning 9 Pruning, Heavy, Results of 10 Pruning, Light, Results of 10 Pruning, Objects of 9 Pruning, Points to be Kept in Mind in 10 Rainfall, Deficient, Must be Supplemented by Irrigation 6 Redding Picholine Variety, The 7 Ripeness, How to be Tested 21 Ripening, Early, How to be Induced 19 Ripening, How to Retard 19 Seed, Growing from 8 Seedlings, Advantages of Growing from 8 PAGE Seedlings Must be Grafted 8 Seedlings Revert to the Wild Type 8 Seedlings, When Large Enough for Grafting 8 Selection of Varieties 6 Sevillano Variety, The 7 Setting Out 9 Soils 6 Soils Most Suitable to the Olive 6 Soils Unsuited to the Olive 6 State Board of Horticulture of California, Report of, 1900 Preface Sulphate of Ammonia 14 Sulphate of Iron 16 Sulphate of Lime 16 Superphosphate and Potash Salts, to be Cultivated in 17 ■Superphosphate of Lime 16 Temperatures Affecting Olive Trees 5,6 Thomas Phosphate 14. Tillage 19 Transplanting, Directions for 9 University of California, Agricultural Experiment Station of 7 University of California, Agricultural Experiment Station of, Report of for Years 1 898-1 901 7 University of California, Varieties Examined at 7 Varieties, Cultivated, Number of 6 Varieties, Selection of 6 Vicia Faba 15 Wickson " California Fruits " 17 Yield, Irregularity and Intermittency of 5 Yields, Maximum, to be Secured by Fertilizing 13 Young Trees, to be Staked 9 Young Trees, Treatment of, in Nursery and Orchard 9, 1 6 Young Trees, When to be Planted Out 9 Abstract of Bulletin No. 52 ON ONION CULTURE New Mexico College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, N. M. PUBLISHED BY WILLIAM S. MYERS, D. Sc, F. C. S., Director, Chilean Nitrate Propaganda Late of New Jersey State Agricultural College 25 MADISON AVENUE, NEW YORK, U. S. A Abstract of Bulletin No. 52 New Mexico College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts ON Onion Culture This bulletin gives the results of the investigations on the different cultural methods for onions, irrigation, tests of the keeping qualities' of different varieties, time of transplanting, cost of production, effect of second growth, increase of yield due to the addition of sodium nitrate, and test of varieties. The onion, which is a surface feeder, needs a light, rich and moist soil. If the soil is too adobe it cracks open, loses too much moisture, and when irrigated, it bakes and packs around the bulb and reduces the size of the onion. Practically all the onions now grown in New Mexico are grown according to the " old method " or from seed sown in the field. This method is not as satis- factory as that of transplanting from a seed-bed, because of the tendency of the soil to run together and pack when irrigated. This often tends to produce a slow and somewhat uneven germination. In field culture from 4 to 6 pounds of seed is enough to the acre. The seed germinates better when sown not deeper than an inch and irrigated immediately afterward. The thinning of onions in the field is not entirely satisfactory because of the expense. The poorer the germination and the more the irrigation during the winter the more laborious and expensive the thinning is. The cost of thinning onions in the field was $41 per acre. Better results may be had if the seed is sown during September or the first of October, and thinned during March. Culture Sowing onion seed in seed-beds or cold frames and ur L later transplanting to the field was found to be more 6 satisfactory. When a good germination is secured 3 to 4i/2 pounds of seed will produce enough plants for an acre. If the seed is started in open seed-beds it should be sown in the fall, and kept irrigated during the winter. It was found that better results could be had by trans- planting during the latter part of February or early part of March, even if the onions were not half as large as a lead-pencil, than to wait until later in the season when the onions were larger. Later transplanting tends to produce too many scullions. It was also found ad- visable to do the work quickly and to have a boy drop the onions in the row for three planters. A quick planter can transplant about 5,000 onions a day. With hand cultivation the rows should be from 12 to 15 inches apart and the onions 4 to 4V 2 inches distant in the rows. With horse cultivation the rows should be 30 inches apart. The average estimated cost for trans- planting where hand cultivation was practiced, for a period of three years, was $29.33 per acre. This amount was considerably less than the cost of thinning onions in the field. Immediately after the onions are transplanted they should be irrigated and this should be followed by a second irrigation 6 to 8 days later. The subsequent irri- gations will vary more or less, depending on the soil and climatic conditions, but good results were obtained by irrigating every 10 to 15 days with a cultivation between every two irrigations. Light and frequent irrigations do more good to the crop than heavy ones at intervals. The water should not be allowed to stand too long in the plats, as this is detrimental to the onions. Good results were secured when very muddy water was used for irri- gating purposes, even after the bulbs had formed. No especial cultivation was necessary and very satis- factory results were secured by simply keeping the sur- face soil clean of weeds and loose close to the onions. With horse cultivation it was impossible to get any closer than six inches on each side of the row. This made neces- sary the use of the hand Planet Junior Wheel hoe, practi- cally the same as with hand cultivation. Hand cultiva- 2 n j°° re tion is preferable to horse cultivation, since twice as many onions can be grown to the acre with very little 7 additional cost. Irrigation should stop when the ripen- ing begins. The onions should be harvested when the tops have turned yellow or have died. Do not remove the tops until the onions have been pulled and sunned for a few days. An ordinary pair of pruning shears are preferable to a knife for removing the tops. The yield of different varieties without fertilizers in 1903 was at the rate of 32,000 pounds per acre for the Red Victoria and 29,000 pounds for the Prize Taker. In 1904, the Gigantic Gibraltar, a variety which resembles the Prize Taker, without fertilizers produced at the rate of 31,250 pounds per acre. This same variety, when sodium nitrate was used as a fertilizer at the rate of 600 pounds per acre, applied at four different times, yielded considerably more, due to the sodium nitrate. The following shows the yield from the fertilized and unfertilized plats : Fertilized Unfertilized Difference Area 1-25 acre. 1-25 acre. Fertilizer applied 24 lbs. Actual yield 1,618 lbs. 1,250 lbs. Actual difference 368 lbs. * Estimated yield per acre 40,450 lbs. 31,250 lbs. Estimated difference 9,200 lbs. At two cents per pound $809.00 $625.00 Estimated difference $184.00 As may be seen from the table, the unfertilized plat yielded at the rate of 31,250 pounds of onions per acre ; while the fertilized plat yielded at the rate of 40,450 pounds per acre, the increase in yield being 9,200 pounds or 29.6 per cent. If the onions had been marketed at two cents per pound, the increased value would have been $184 to the acre. Since 600 pounds of Nitrate of Soda cost $32.40, and its cost of application to the soil was $2, there remained a net increase in the profits of $149.60. * In 1908 some of the yields from plats where Nitrate was used averaged 60,000 lbs. per acre. Cuitur -^ was f° un d that the cost of production was less in New Mexico than in the East and South. The cost of 8 growing an acre of onions varied from $107 to $111.75 without fertilizers and rent of land. Of the varieties tested the Red Victoria gave the largest yield in unfertilized soils. The Prize Taker and the Gigantic Gibraltar are also heavy yielders in ad- dition to being good keepers. The Gigantic Gibraltar is preferable to the other two mentioned. The Aus- tralian Brown proved especially satisfactory as a small and late keeping variety. Neither insect pest nor fun- gous diseases have as yet been observed to seriously affect the onion crop in New Mexico. It was observed that if onions received a check in growth when the bulb was forming and then started into a second growth, as a result of an irrigation, there was a tendency for the onions to divide into two or more parts, which injured the bulbs for commercial and keeping pur- poses. If the growth is checked when the crop is near maturity it should not be irrigated after that. The best keeping varieties lose less weight than the poor keeping kinds. Small specimens keep better than large ones of the same variety. The best keeping and commercial varieties are the Australian Brown, Prize Taker, Red Victoria, Gigantic Gibraltar, and Philadel- phia Silver Skin. The Spanish type of onions grow better and larger and are milder than the American type. The old El Paso onion, which was long grown to perfection in the Rio Grande valley, is a Spanish onion. Fabian Garcia. Directions for the Use of Nitrate of Soda on Staple Crops "We never recommend the use of Nitrate of Soda alone, except at the rate of one hundred pounds to the acre for seeded crops and two hundred pounds to the acre for cultivated crops. It may thus be safely and prof- itably used without other fertilizers. It may be evenly ap- plied at this rate as a Broadcast Top-Dressing by hand, or by machine, in the Spring of the year, as soon as crops O n j° n begin rapid new growth. At this rate very satisfactory results are usually obtained without the use of any other 9 fertilizer, and the Soda residual, after the Nitrogenous Pood of this chemical is used up by the plant, has a per- ceptible effect in sweetening sour land. One hundred pounds of Nitrate is equal in bulk to about one bushel. When it is desired to use a larger amount than one hundred pounds of Nitrate per acre for seeded crops, or two hundred pounds per acre for cultivated crops, there should be present some form of available Phosphatic and Potassic plant food, and we recommend two hundred pounds of Acid Phosphate and one hundred pounds of Sulphate of Potash. In most of our Grass experiments, where Nitrate was used alone at the rate of only One Hundred Pounds per acre, not only was the Aftermath, or Rowen much im- proved, but in subsequent seasons, with no further appli- cation of fertilizers to the plots, a decidedly marked effect was noticed, even on old meadows. This speaks very well indeed for Nitrate of Soda not leaching out of the soil. The readily soluble elements of fertility are the readily available elements. The natural capillarity of soils doubtless is, in most instances, a powerful factor in retaining all the readily soluble elements of fertility, otherwise all the fertility of the world in our humid regions would, in a season or two, run into the ocean, and be permanently lost. This is mentioned on account of certain critics having taken the trouble to object to the use of Nitrate on the grounds that it would leach away. A case is yet to be seen where the after-effects of Nitrate are not distinguishable, and in most cases such effects have been marked. The two thousand tons of active top soil in an acre of land has a powerful holding capacity for all the useful, available elements of fertility. For Market Gardening Crops, Corn, Hops, Sugar- Beets, and other cultivated crops, two hundred pounds of Nitrate per acre may be used alone to great advantage. When the above amounts of Phosphatic and Potassic fertilizers are used, as much as two hundred and fifty pounds of Nitrate, or even more, may be applied with profit. Onion jf y OU h ave any reason to suspect adulteration of ultur e Nitrate, send a pound or so of it to your Experiment Sta- 10 tion for analysis, giving date of purchase; full name and address of dealer and of the Company which the seller represents, with description of marks on the bag or bags from which you draw the sample. Generally on the Pacific Coast Nitrate may be ap- plied as a Top-Dressing after the heavy Spring rains are over, but before crops attain much of a start; although recent experience in California suggests that Nitrate may be applied to better advantage just as soon as growth starts in the Spring, or better, just before seeding or planting. Nitrate of Soda- looks somewhat like common dairy salt, and horses, cows and sheep, if they can get to it, may eat it to an injurious extent. Farm Fertilizer Chemicals, including Nitrate of Soda, should never be offered or fed to stock or animals as a substitute for Common Salt. This has happened with disastrous results; but, fortunately, only rarely. Increased Yield per Acre of Crops receiving Nitrate at the rate of 100 pounds to the Acre over those receiving none. Barley 400 pounds of grain. Corn 280 pounds of grain. Oats 400 pounds of grain. Eye 300 pounds of grain. Wheat 300 pounds of grain. Potatoes 3,600 pounds of tubers. Hay 1,000 pounds, barn-cured. Cotton 500 pounds seed-cotton. Sugar-Beets . . , 4,000 pounds of tubers. Beets . . 4,000 pounds of tubers. Sweet Potatoes 3,900 pounds of tubers. Cabbages 6,100 pounds. Carrots 7,800 pounds. Onions 1,800 pounds. Turnips 37 per cent. Strawberries 200 quarts. Asparagus 100 bunches. Tomatoes 100 baskets. Celery 30 per cent. Results of Onion Experiments. culture James H. Jepson, North Windham, Maine. Plot without Nitrate produced 691 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 1320 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, June 10. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Sept. 10. I will say there was 231 lbs. of poor Onions where there was NO NITRATE and 76 lbs. where there was NITRATE. Neighbors intend using it another year. A. J. Richardson, G-irard, Pennsylvania. Plot without Nitrate produced 80 bushels. Plot with Nitrate produced 125 bushels. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 15. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Sept. 28. I think it pays 40 per cent to use NITRATE OP SODA. E. Cruse, Tunnell Hill, Illinois. Plot without Nitrate produced (from 3 bu. sets bedded) [5 bushels. Plot with Nitrate produced (from 3 bu. sets bedded) [20 bushels. li THE CULTIVATION OF PEACHES PUBLISHED BY WILLIAM S. MYERS, D.Sc, F.GS., Director Chilean Nitrate of Soda Propaganda Late of New Jersey State Agricultural College 25 Madison Avenue, New York The Cultivation of Peaches. Not many years ago staple farm crops were practi- cally the only ones raised and sold from the farm. The growing of fruit was limited. Fruits were regarded as luxuries and the area given to them on most farms was only sufficient to meet the needs of the home. The small orchard of a few trees is still common but the demand for this class of products has so increased that the de- velopment of this branch of farming on a commercial scale is now a potent factor, in the agriculture of the country. Years ago when the home orchard was com- mon, the opinion that trees are indigenous to most soils prevailed among farmers. It was thought that fruit trees were similar to forest trees and needed no atten- tion and no fertilization. A thorough study, combined with practical experience, has shown that forest growth and fruit growth are very different, and that the latter needs care and attention just as the staple farm crop, even on soils of richest fertility. Because it is the object of this discussion to consider mainly the culture of the tree, especially the peach, it seems appropriate to point out a few of the differences in the character of the growth of tree and the growth of staple farm crops. 'The latter are more common, more is known about their development, culture and plant- food requirements. An explanation of the differences should assist the practical grower of fruit to develop a iational method of cultivation and fertilization. The important variations are in habit of growth, character of crop produced and relation to soil exhaus- tion. Cereals, grasses and vegetables require but a single year, with few exceptions, to bring to completion the main processes of vegetation. Fruit crops require a preparatory period of growth before any crop is pro- duced, which is longer or shorter according to the kind of bush or tree — two to three years in the case of peaches, and when fruit bearing begins the vegetative processes continue coincident with the growth and ripening of the The Cui- f ru it. In fruit growing it is essential that conditions be tlvatl ° f such as to provide for a constant transfer of the nutri- Peaches tj ve juices from the tree to the fruit throughout the 6 entire growing season. The growth for the succeeding year is dependent upon the food stored in buds and branches as well as that secured directly from the soil. Rapid exhaustion of the soil in the production of fruit is more likely because there can be no change of crop from year to year and the demand for food of a specific nature' and in definite proportions is constant. The amounts needed vary directly in proportion to the favorableness of other conditions which partly deter- mine size of crop and amount of wood growth. It is really continuous cropping as opposed to general farm- ing, where the nature of each year's crop under a rational cropping system is quite different in its plant- food requirements. Dealing specifically with the peach, it is the intention of the author to discuss primarily the maintenance of soil fertility. Such discussion must necessarily include three main topics; the soil, cultivation, and the fertil- ization. It does not seem wise to consider in this brief article matters relating to setting, varieties, spraying, pruning, harvesting and marketing, which are to a greater or less degree dependent upon local conditions. The Soil. It is most important in peach culture that the soil should be well drained. Peaches are best adapted to good soils. Soils should contain sufficient clay to give body and to furnish minerals, sand to enable them to be easily worked and to warm up quickly, lime to supply calcium and make in the soils a favorable medium for chemical and bacteriological activities, and humus to make them retentive of moisture and plant food. Such soils, possessing good mechanical condition, well drained and cultivated are naturally adapted to peach pro- duction without apparent exhaustion for many years, but such soils are the exception rather than the rule. The growth of trees on soils of different characteristics cannot be continued without an artificial supply of the fertility elements and the maintenance of the humus T? ^ 1 " supply. of The subsoil should be examined. A loamy soil over- Peaches lying a stiff clay, dense and hard, would not be so well 7 adapted to peach production as a lighter soil with an open porous subsoil admitting of a freer circulation of air and water and easier penetration of roots ; and yet, neither soil nor subsoil should be such as to allow a too rapid movement of water, which would tend to carry away plant-food and possibly dry out too quickly in a dry season. Nor is humus, which assists to overcome these difficulties, so easily maintained in such soils, be- cause it burns out too readily. Soils overlying rocks are even less desirable, regardless of their character, be- cause moisture which has once percolated through the surface soil is lost and cannot be brought back by capillary attraction — a matter of very great import- ance, where every effort must be exercised to conserve moisture. In general, soils for peach trees should possess a good physical character, sufficiently open and porous to permit the free movement of air and water so important in assisting the change of dormant into active forms of plant-food. 'The subsoil must be easily penetrated by water, air and roots, and yet of a character sufficiently retentive to prevent any loss of plant-food by leaching. Gravelly loams, overlying medium clay subsoils may be regarded as possessing typical physical character. Chemical characteristics are likewise important. Good peach soils should have an abundance of the essen- tial elements of plant-food and sufficient lime and vege- table matter to provide for those chemical and bacterio- logical activities that are so essential in the changing of dormant into active food, already mentioned. Soils derived largely from the original rock, possessing good physical character, and located with good air drainage are typical peach soils because in addition to their good physical character they possess large quantities of potential plant-food which would supply the needs for peaches for a long time. Th ° cni- Cultivation. tivation °f The cultivation of the peach orchard should start be- Peaches fore the trees are set. It is better that cultivated land s be used for the orchard. Before setting deep plowing and thorough working of the soil are essential and, as. soon as the trees are set, cultivation should begin under a definite plan. Intercropping is good in young orchards, especially if legumes are grown, peas, beans, etc., but it should be kept in mind that the production of two crops on the same soil requires greater quantities of plant-food even though the trees may not be in bearing, because they need liberal quantities of food for wood and leaf growth. Cultivation not only destroys weeds, but is an import- ant factor in controlling the temperature of the soil and conserving soil moisture. When spring opens and the land dries enough to permit plowing, conditions are ready for the first working of the soil. This plowing should be deep and as close to the trees as proper prun- ing methods will allow. It should then be harrowed immediately. This operation should be repeated every ten to fourteen days until mid-summer, keeping in mind that the primary object of this work is the conservation of moisture which is best accomplished by a shallow dust mulch or thin layer of loose soil on the surf nee. Maintenance of Vegetable Matter. Some of the advantages of humus or decaying vege- table matter have already been related. Without humus soils become inert, inactive, dead; they are difficult to work, compact, sticky, and lose their power of retaining moisture. Humus evenly distributed and well worked into a soil not only makes the soil more retentive of moisture and plant-food, but it makes it a more favor- able medium for the spread and development of bacteria which play so important a part in soil building. The application of barnyard manure is undoubtedly one of the most efficient methods of supplying humus, if judiciously practiced, and care is used to avoid too' large applications, which often result in an uneven develop- ment of tree and fruit. The use of green manure crops is the alternative. They have been well studied and The Cui- f acts obtained point to the maintenance of permanent x J a 10 ° fertility if efficient use of commercial fertilizers is com- Peaches bined with the production and use of such crops. Green ' ~ manure crops may be divided into two classes ; legumes or nitrogen gathering plants, and non-legumes or non nitrogen gathering plants. Crimson clover, red clover, alfalfa, sweet clover, winter vetch, soybeans, cowpeas, and rye, wheat, oats and barley, are among the most common crops used for this purpose. Crimson clover gives the best results where the season is long enough to obtain a good start and maintain a good stand over winter. A mixture of — 60 lbs. of rye, or wheat. 20 " " winter vetch. 10 " " crimson clover. to the acre gives splendid results. Other mixtures are as follows: 40 lbs. of oats or barley. 20 " " winter vetch. 10 " " crimson clover. or 40 " soybeans or cowpeas. 15 " crimson clover. Combinations are generally considered better than single crops. The green manure crops have the addi- tional advantage of using the soil moisture during August and September. This checks the growth of the tree and causes it to form fruit buds for another season; and further, it is often possible to use certain of these crops to advantage in other ways ; for example, soybeans sown with rye in an orchard may be pastured before the . 'first frost in winter by hogs or sheep. 'The planting of such crops should be done just pre- ceding the last cultivation in the latter part of July or first part of August. It is not uncommon to have very dry weather at this season. Often seeds are wasted because proper preparation is not given the seed bed. Pains should be exercised to obtain a firm seed bed and the seeds should be well worked into the soil, not too Peaches T tfvatioi dee P> and y et the y should be placed 'as near the soil ^of moisture as possible. Green manure crops should in no case be allowed to grow too rankly before plowing down because a thick mat of organic matter decays slowly and may break the flow of water by capillary attraction from below. In case of too large spring growth it should be cut to pieces with a disc harrow before plowing. If cover crops, through neglect, are allowed to remain in the orchard until they mature, they not only absorb food that may be necessary for the growth of the tree and the fruit, but moisture as well, and thus frequently injure rather than improve the fruit prospects. Whatever the plant or combination of plants grown to provide organic matter, it must not be forgotten that the use of these crops is for the pur- pose of feeding the tree and not for the crops themselves, and, therefore, they should be used with the greatest care. Fertilization. The peach industry has so extended in the past few years that soils of natural high fertility possessing ideal conditions for peach production have long ago been utilized. The peach crop is no longer a luxury in the farmer's home, but a staple food commodity in 'all of the markets of the country. Many orchards are located on the poorer soils, and many more are being planted annually, and this is especially true of peaches which may be grown successfully on the lighter types of soils. In order that the health and vigor of the trees be main- tained, it is necessary to supply plant-food in abundance. At the same time the demand for natural manures, yard and stable manure, has increased, and with the advent of motor drawn vehicles the supply has decreased, leav- ing the use of commercial fertilizers the logical means of supplying the necessary food for the tree. If commercial fertilizers are to be used efficiently, something must be known of the habits of the tree and of the kinds, and amounts of plant-food required. Voor- hees states that " good warm, naturally well-drained soils, even though they contain relatively small amounts S e ti ^ 11 ' of plant-food, are better adapted for peaches than for f apples, because the former are shorter lived, growing Peaches relatively more rapidly and have a relatively greater „ power of acquiring food than the longer lived trees." This statement brings out the character of the tree. Work done at the New Jersey Experiment Station, New Brunswick, N. J., shows the kinds and amounts of plant- food that are needed in order to grow the tree and to make mature fruit. " It was shown in that experiment that an acre of peaches would require annually aftei coming to the period of bearing, and averaging 2,000 baskets of peaches to the acre in ten years — Nitrogen 71 lbs. Phos. Acid 22 " Potash 48 " or an equivalent each year of nitrogen equal to 460 lbs. of nitrate of soda, phosphoric acid equal to 150 lbs. of acid phosphate, and potash equal to 100 lbs. of muriate of potash." At about the same time experiments conducted in Ger- many showed the average quantities of nitrogen, phos- phoric acid and potash, and lime removed by apples to be — Nitrogen 71 lbs. Phos. Acid 20 " Potash 80 " Lime 95 " ■ and for pears the quantities removed per acre were — Nitrogen 91 lbs. Phos. Acid 18 . 5 " Potash 71 Lime 120 " The results confirm in a remarkable manner those obtained in this country for peaches, more particularly the large amounts of plant-food required annually in the T tfvaUon g rowt h of tnese crops. In the German experiments the of greater amounts of potash are in all probability due to Peaches the more liberal supply at the disposal of the German I2 farmers. The amount of lime is likewise interesting and remarkable. With these figures in mind it is obvious that upon soils of poor chemical character, but possessing good physical condition, much larger amounts would be required than upon those soils which are well supplied in this respect, but whatever the soil the tree will need additional food for proper growth, assuming, of course, that a part of the food necessary is derived from the stores of the soil. Assume also, more particularly in the case of sandy soils, that lime should be liberally used, because it is a well known fact that the lime does have a very important influence in causing fruiting and encouraging that vigor and stockiness of wood growth that is so important. The foregoing points very clearly to the need of arti- ficial fertilization of peaches. No definite rules can be laid down as to the amounts to be applied, except that the moment a tree is hungry food should be supplied, and the evidence of hunger is so apparent in most orchards that much more fertilizer than is now used could be applied with very great profit. One should remember also that not only is the fertilizer necessary in order to feed the plant, but that an ample supply of food contributes to the power of the tree to resist insects and fungus attacks, to outgrow slight injuries, which would result, in the absence of proper nourishment, in very materially injur- ing the fruit prospects. It has already been mentioned that it is well to have the soil in good condition before setting. It is not so necessary with peaches as with apples and pears, but it is a good practice to make an application of 300 to 500 lbs. to the acre of a mixture of equal parts of ground bone, acid phosphate and muriate of potash before the trees are planted, especially upon poor soils. For later years the following recommendations are made, based upon the results of experimental work conducted by the New Jersey Experiment Station : For young trees, 2 to 3 years old, before coming into jj^c^i- bearing — of Peaches Nitrate of Soda 175 lbs. Acid Phosphate 500 " '3 Sulphate of Potash 175 " Fine Dry Loam '. 150 " 1,000 lbs. • Application at the rate of 600 pounds per acre. Composition: — Available Nitrogen 2.63 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 8.00 per cent. ; available potash 8.40 per cent. For the first and second year bearing: Nitrate of Soda 200 lbs. Acid Phosphate 500 " Sulphate of Potash 125 " Fine Dry Loam 175 " 1,000 lbs. Application at the rate of 800 pounds per acre. Composition: — Available Nitrogen 3.00 per cent.; .available phosphoric acid 8.00 per cent. ; available potash 6.00 per cent. During mature bearing: Nitrate of Soda 250 lbs. Acid Phosphate 500 " Sulphate of Potash 125 " Fine Dry Loam 125 " 1,000 lbs. Application at the rate of 800 pounds per acre. Composition: — Available Nitrogen 3.75 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 8.00 per cent. ; available potash 6.00 per cent. These mixtures are by no means inviolable. Con- ditions modify their use. The. character of the growth and yield of the trees will be a suitable guide to the application of fertilizers. If the yield is poor one year, Ovation tlx ' e a PPli ca tion of the next spring may be reduced 30 of per cent., and also where leguminous cover crops are Peaches grown as green manures, the amount of nitrate of soda 14 in the mixture may be reduced 25 per cent. The tree itself will show in its growth indications of either proper nourishment or lack of it, which assists in the manage- ment of the orchard. Formulas for Fruits and Berries. Apples, Pears, Peaches, Plums, Grapes, Currants, Straw- berries, Raspberries, Blackberries, and Gooseberries. No. 1. Nitrate of Soda 300 lbs. Acid Phosphate 400 " Sulphate of Potash ' 100 " Fine Dry Loam ■ 200 " 1,000 lbs. Applications at the rate of about 1,000 pounds for berries and 80O pounds for fruit trees. Composition: — Available Nitrogen 4.50 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 6.40 per cent. ; available potash 4.80 per cent. No. 2. Nitrate of Soda 200 lbs. Acid Phosphate 300 " Sulphate of Potash 100 " Fine Dry Loam 400 " 1,000 lbs. Application at the rate of about 1,000 pounds for berries and 800 pounds for fruit trees. Composition: — Available Nitrogen 3.00 per cent.; available phosphoric acid 4.80 per cent. ; available potash 4.80 per cent. Formula 1 is best adapted for medium and heavy soils and for young trees. Formula 2 for sandy soils. THE CULTIVATION OF RUBBER Dr. E.V.WILCOX PUBLISHED BY WILLIAM S. MYERS, D. Sc, F. C. S., Director, Nitrate of Soda Propaganda. Late of New Jersey State Agricultural College. JOHN STREET AND 71 NASSAU, NEW YORK. The Cultivation of Rubber. With the enormous increase which has taken place in recent years in the use of rubber for old and new purposes, interest has been awakened in the value and importance of wild forest rubber and in the possibilities of profitable rubber planting. The Custom House records of New York City for December, 1909, show an importation of 10,000,000 pounds of rubber. Dur- ing the year 1909 the output of rubber from planta- tions in British India amounted to nearly 380 tons per month. The consumption of rubber in the United States and Canada has constantly increased from 14,000 tons in 1896 to 31,000 tons in 1909. These figures, relating to the rapid increase in the use of rubber, might be duplicated for other civilized countries and show that the importance of this product is rapidly increasing. Since the world was for a long time sup- plied with rubber from wild trees, it was feared when the commercial planting of rubber was undertaken that the markets would soon be so flooded with rubber as to greatly reduce the price. It was freely predicted that the price of rubber might be driven down to twenty- five cents per pound, and that when this event took place all rubber plantations would be driven to financial ruin, except such as were in the fortunate position of being able to produce rubber at twenty-five cents per pound. Contrary to these predictions, we have re- cently seen very high prices for rubber and a demand in excess of the available supply, in the face of large outputs which are being marketed from plantations. It seems safe to assume that with the increase in the supply of plantation rubber the use of rubber will be extended so as to take up the increase without lower- ing the price beyond a profitable figure. Kinds of Rubber Trees. Much speculation has been indulged in regarding the relative advantages of the different species of rubber The trees. In Mexico attention has been given chiefly ^Rubber to Castilloa - In Ceylon and the Straits Settlements, Ceara was tried, partly as a shade for other crops, and partly as a source of rubber. It has been gradually discarded, however, for Hevea rubber which gives greater promise than any other species in the enormous plantations of the British provinces of India. Like- wise in Hawaii, where at first Ceara rubber was chiefly in favor, the trend of opinion was later toward Hevea and recent plantings have been chiefly of the latter species. As is well known to the rubber world, the stand- ard of excellence in rubber has been set by Hevea in the Indian provinces. Nevertheless, profitable prices are received for Castilloa and Ceara rubber and also for various wild rubbers from the original forests. Recently a quotation of $1.97 per pound was received for Ceara rubber produced on the Hawaiian rubber plantations. Cultivation Desirable. Since rubber was first obtained from forest trees growing under wild conditions, it was thought that plantations might adopt similar methods and grow rub- ber trees practically as a forest, without attention in the way of cultivation. This idea, however, has been pretty effectually dispelled. In numerous instances it has been found that rubber trees respond as promptly to cultivation and artificial care as other tree crops. On some of the Hawaiian plantations there are culti- vated Ceara trees one year old which are larger and of more vigorous growth than three-year-old trees grown under similar conditions, but without cultivation. The time factor in securing a yield from rubber is of the greatest importance. Even under the best condi- tions, there is a long wait from planting until the age for tapping, and financial success with rubber will be greatly influenced by any methods which may be adopted to hasten the maturity of the trees. When the trees are 8 or 10 years old one can begin to extract the Latex. At 30 years the trees are at their maximum of production. The success obtained from the judicious use of Th * Nitrate of Soda with forestry and nursery stock, sug- gests great success with Nitrate of Soda for hastening the maturing of rubber trees. Soil Requirements. With regard to the soil and climatic conditions favorable for rubber production, it is a difficult matter to make specific statements. The requirements are not so exacting that rubber trees will not thrive under quite a variety of soil and rainfall conditions. We often see the statement that Ceara rubber and the related species, Manihot dichotoma and M. piauiensis, will grow in very dry regions. While this statement is perfectly true, it is also quite true that all of these species will grow more rapidly, reach maturity more quickly and yield more heavily where the rainfall conditions are more favor- able. In very dry regions the period of rest, during which the leaves are shed from Ceara rubber, is greatly prolonged, and the date of maturity of the tree is thus delayed. Experiments thus far conducted, and observations made on the natural habitat of the rubber trees, show that these trees will thrive on a great variety of soils. Nevertheless, the best growth is obtained on soils which are reasonably fertile and of which the physical proper- ties are such as to prevent undue caking or stagnation of the water supply. In other words, rubber, like most other crops, will thrive best on soils which have a high power of retain- ing moisture, and from which the moisture is given up slowly. In such soils aeration is satisfactory, and the application of fertilizers will have the most effect. Fertilizers for Rubber Plantations. With regard to the use of fertilizers on rubber plantations, experimental information is very meagre. In the large amount of literature on rubber cultivation one meets everywhere with tentative suggestions regarding the application of barn-yard manure, green Cultivation of Rubber The manures and artificial fertilizers to rubber trees. These ation of Rubber n suggestions, however, are, for the most part, not based on actual experiments. The best advice that can be given on the subject at present is to have an analysis made of the soils and then supply such elements as are actually deficient or as are removed by the growth of the rubber trees. In the cultivation of young plantations it may prove profitable, and even desirable, to grow inter- crops between the rows of rubber trees. This is easily possi- ble if the trees are planted at intervals of twenty feet. The crops to be grown between rubber trees will depend somewhat upon the nature of the soil and the amount of rainfall. If legumes are grown as inter-crops the necessary humus and a portion of the required Nitrogen will thus be supplied to the soil. If other crops, such as cotton, corn or sweet pota- toes, are planted between rubber trees, it must be remembered that they, in turn, will take their share from the soil fertility; and this point must be borne in mind in considering the fertilizer problem of the whole plantation. Until more extensive experiments have been made, it is impossible to make more specific recommendations as to a plan of fertilizing rubber plantations to encourage the growth of the trees. Nitrate of Soda for Increasing Flow of Latex. It has often been suggested that a scheme of fer- tilization might be devised whereby the flow of latex could be temporarily energized at each tapping period. In order to gain evidence on this point, a series of experiments were undertaken in Hawaii with Nitrate of Soda. The fertilizer was applied, at the rate of one-fourth and one-half pound per tree, a few days before tapping. It was found best to incorporate the fertilizer deeply and thoroughly in the soil over the young and actively growing rootlets. If the soil, at the time of application, be excessively dry immediate effects may not be noticed from the application of Nitrate of Soda until a rainfall occurs, or until artificial irrigation is applied. If, on the contrary, the soil is moist at the time of application, and gentle rains occur soon afterward, quite striking results are shown within The . . two or three days, but a deep and thorough incorpora- ^^°^ tion of the Nitrate in the soil will be of advantage. In some cases the yield of Ceara rubber trees was doubled during the fall tapping period by the application of one-half pound of Nitrate of Soda per tree. It has not been determined exactly how the Nitrate of Soda brings about this stimulation in the flow of latex, but the fact appears to be true, and is believed to be well worth considering at tapping time on commercial plan- tations. The coagulation of the latex likewise appears to be much improved from the use of the Nitrate of Soda. Experiments with Nitrate of Soda on Ceara Rubber were begun by Prof. Jared G. Smith in 1905 and continued by the author, so that Dr. Wilcox has had first hand experience based on personal knowledge of conditions controlling the growth of India Rubber. No doubt the growth of large, healthy trees is promoted most advanta- geously by the rational use of fertilizer. WILLIAM S. MYERS, Director. NITRATE OF SODA FOR PROFIT WITH SUGAR-BEETS By Maercker Supplements By Danielson of the Colorado Experiment Station BULLETINS OF U. S. EXPERIMENT STATIONS Abstract of Bulletin No. 115 of the Colorado Station By Danielson Published by WILLIAM S. MYERS, D. Sc, F. C. S., Director Chilean Nitrate Propaganda Late of New Jersey State Agricultural College 25 MADISON AVENUE, NEW YORK Preface The following leading authorities, among others, have been con- sulted in the preparation of this work: 1. Dr. Maercker, Government Privy Councillor, German Agricultural Association. 2. Fertilizer Experiments; Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station, Abstract of Bulletin No. 115, by A. H. Danielson. 3. Sugar Beet Investigations; Michigan Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion, Bulletin No. 179, by J. D. Towar. 4. Sugar-Beet Investigations; Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 132. 5. Effect of Each Class of Fertilizer; Nebraska Agricultural Experi- ment Station, Extract from Bulletin No. 73. 6. Progress of the Beet Sugar Industry in America; from Beport No. 80, Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture. C. 0. Townsend. 7. Farmer's Bulletin No. 251, United States Department of Agri- culture. 8. Fertilizers for the Sugar-Beet; from " The American Sugar-Beet Industry," 1906. WILLIAM S. MYERS. New York, January, 1910. SUMMARY Sugar-Beets for Profit Abstract of Dr. Maercker's Lecture The Somewhat popular idea that certain Almost all types of soils are necessary for profitable Kinds of Soils Sugar-Beet culture seems to have no foun- Suitable for dation in fact. Almost any type of soil is Sugar-Beets suitable for sugar-beets, so long as moisture and tillage, and the necessary plant food are supplied. Even heavy clay soils, by systematic liming, may re- wto-™ a i\ turn regularly very satisfactory sugar- ~ . beet crops. Sugar-beets require a warm soil and sub-soil; that is, a soil free of stagnant water both above and below the surface. In practice, this means a soil well drained, if not natu- q 0O j r) ra ni affe rally, then artificially. Drainage alone is N ecess it v not sufficient, however, if the conditions are such that the soil is apt to become cloddy; on these soils lime must be used freely, broad- L . . g .. casted in the early spring. With the soil ■p_„„-«,u« mellowed by lime and proper drainage, we come to the next essential in the profitable culture of sugar-beets — deep cultivation. If soils are at all heavy, they should be fall plowed, and even cross D „ ... plowed, the roughly turned soil left to the +. , action of the winter weather. The crop T - ■ requires a deeper tilth than other crops, as w ,. it seems to have little power of soil burrow- , .. , . ing on its own account, especially in soils at all compact naturally; yet, a well-proportioned tap root seems to be one of the conditions of a high sugar Nitrate ot content. Not only must the soil be deeply worked in its Soda for preparation for planting, but it must have Sugar - Beets . ?« h * use of continuous and thorough cultivation dur- 6 e oe ing the growing season. The earth mulch must be maintained, and the soil kept free of weeds and surface crusts ; these crusts are a result of using very high grade plant foods, but intensive cultivation de- mands their use. The plant food of sugar-beets is, of Acid Phosphate course, the same as for other crops, — am- moniates, phosphoric acid and potash. The phosphoric acid must be used in ample quantities in order to push forward a well nourished early growth, and with this crop water-soluble phosphoric acid should be used — the form found in acid phosphate. There is no direct connection between sugar formation and phosphoric acid plant food, but phosphates unques- tionably prepare the way for the development of sugar by influences to come later in the growing season. Abundant phosphoric acid in the earlier stages of growth puts the crop through to an early ripening, and the earlier sugar-beets are matured the more time they have for sugar-making. The ammoniate plant food best for the sugar-beet is a matter of some discussion, but the Farm Yard roughage ammoniates of the farm, such Manure as ^ aTTCi -J ar ^ manure, etc., are used ex- tensively, and with proper care are effec- tive. The best practice seems to be to broadcast the Nitrate the manure and plow down in the fall — it is Most Suitable never w ^ se ^° top-dress sugar-beets with of the manure of the roughage type in the spring. a™w,™4„+<«, The best form of plant food ammoniate is Ammoniates ,, , T ., . , ^ . . „.. „ _. , for Suear-Beets Nitrated ammonia of Nitrate of Soda. Sugar-beets take all their ammoniate plant food in the form of a Nitrated ammonia; while all am- moniates are in time converted into the Nitrated form in the soil, the action is always irregular and is accom- panied by a heavy loss of ammonia. With Nitrate of Soda all these disadvantages disappear. It is estimated that sulphate of ammonia loses fifteen per cent of its ammonia in this process of transforma- tion, and that packing-house ammoniates lose thirty-five per cent, farm-yard manures lose from forty to eighty per cent. For all this great loss, the disadvan- tage is probably not so much the actual loss of ammonia as the irregularity with which the plant food ammonia Great losses from Use of Ordinary Ammoniates Nitrate of Soda for Sugar-Beets Row Irrigation of Sugar-Beets. Bulletin No. 170,, California Experiment Station, 1906. is supplied to the crop. If the Nitrated plant food is not present when wanted, the crop must wait for it, and nature in agriculture waits with very bad grace. It is claimed that for an average year, 100 pounds of Nitrate of Soda will produce an increased crop of sugar- beets of from 2,500 to 3,000 pounds per acre. Experi- ments conducted bv Professor Maercker-, , „„ . „ • Good Effect of gave an increased yield ot from 4,000 to . ,. .. „ ° onn , e ■ ,. ,. '„ 1 _ n Application of 4,800 pounds tor an application ot 150 „.. . . .. , ' i « -KT-., , e A r Nitrate of Soda pounds or Nitrate of Soda per acre, a second application of the same amount also resulting in an increased yield of 4,000 to 4,800 pounds per acre, but a third application of the same amount gave an increased yield of but 1,600 to 2,000 pounds. Nitrate of Nitrate of Soda spreads rapidly soda for lime and throughout the soil, aud this is one of its Sugar-Beets Method of great * advantages in qmck l y bringing 8 Application plant food tQ the growillg pi an t S) but the same principle may prove a disadvantage in case of a too lavish use, as more or less of the Nitrate of Soda is lost through simple seepage. Fall applications are not advisable for this same reason. The best way to apply 300 pounds per acre is to broadcast 150 pounds when the soil is being prepared for seeding in the spring, and the remaining 150 pounds from six to eight weeks later ; the second application as a top-dressing, well worked into the soil. After top-dressing, the surface tillage should be deepened, and the treatment made more thor- ough; where high-grade plant food materials are used as a top-dressing, there is always a tendency to form surface crusts. The remedy is simply a trifle more thorough cultivation and a little deeper. FORMULA FOR SUGAR-BEETS — PER ACRE 300 pounds acid phosphate. 100 pounds sulphate of potash. 300 pounds Nitrate of Soda. The Nitrate of Soda may be divided into two equal portions before mixing, and 150 pounds only put in the mixture, and the other 150 pounds reserved for use as a top-dressing. Tor sugar-beets -when soil is light, apply 160 pounds of Nitrate at the time of planting, and later, 140 pounds at the time of the first hoeing. With heavy clay soils, 300 pounds may be put on at time of planting, and this followed later by thorough hoeing. SUGAR-BEETS Nitrate of Soda for Quantity of xt;a__ i fa ]_ Time of fertilization ' Sugar-Beets Nrtrateoxboua to be applied Character of soil Remarks « to the acre 150 lbs Upon light soils. . . . At the time of The application of Nitrate of planting. Soda increases the yield of sugar-beets very largely, and And still by proper use produces sugar- further 150 At the time of the beets very rich in sugar. In lbs. first hoeing of the the use of large quantities of beets. Nitrate one obtains beets rich in sugar when choice varie- ties of sugar-beets are culti- Or 300 lbs. vated; and when it is applied at onetime. early it is quickly appro- In the case of heavy At the time of priated by the beets. clay soils, a large planting. application of Ni- The delaying of the ripening trate may promote process is prevented when the formation of a bountiful supplies of avail- crust, which must able phosphoric acid are be prevented by present in the soil. Every careful hoeing. 224 lbs. of Nitrate of Soda is The richer the soil able, according to Wagner, and the more freely to produce an increased yield it is fertilized, the of 14,080 lbs. of sugar-beets closer the sugar- rich in sugar and a corre- beets must be sponding increase in tops or planted. leaves. Work of Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station Abstract of Bulletin No. 115 Fertilizer Experiments with Sugar-Beets BY A. H. DANIELSON Colorado Station These experiments extended over three years and were made to test the effects of different artificial fertil- izers and manure on the yield and quality of sugar-beets under practical field conditions. Nitrate of rj^g experiments consisted of a series of plots with Sugar-Beets utilizer containing the three essential elements, Nitro- • gen, phosphoric acid and potash, alone and in all pos- sible combinations. After preliminary experimenting the source of the elements chosen as being more easily soluble in the soil was, for Nitrogen — Nitrate of Soda; for phosphoric acid, — acid or soluble phosphate rock and bone, and for potash, — high-grade sulphate of potash. Other fertilizers used were also raw bone meal, ground oyster shell, basic slag and dried blood. The size of the plots ranged from one-tenth to six-tenths of an acre each, the yields were from 10 tons to 25.5 tons, and the profit from the most effective ele- ment, from $6.00 to $15.00 per acre over the cost of application. Colorado soils are chemically exceptionally rich in phosphoric acid and potash, with an excess of lime, only Nitrogen and humus are likely to be somewhat low. Colorado soils and climate have proven under irrigation to be capable of producing a very satisfactory yield of high quality sugar-beets under normal condi- tions. However, the need is being felt for some fer- tilizer to increase the yield where farm manure is becoming scarce or not available. The most essential of the results as obtained each year are briefly given: 1903 Cow manure alone at the rate of from 15 up to 60 tons per acre, and Nitrate of Soda alone at the rate of 150 pounds per acre, had about the same effect, each increasing the yield about four tons per acre. The results from the potash and phosphatic fer- tilizers were largely negative, and Nitrogenous fertil- izers, when used together with the preceding, were also ineffectual in increasing the yield. The quality of the beets was good, but poorer with the larger quantity of manure; the average sugar 14.6 per cent, purity 84.4. Nitrate of Soda for Sugar-Beets 11 4» "~ H Ph J 5: a; o a) h -a bo H 3 bfi Nitrate of 1904 sugar-Beets The fertilizer containing Nitrate of Soda gave the highest yields, except where used in " complete " fertil- izer with potash and phosphoric acid. Nitrate of Soda at the rate of 175 pounds per acre seemed to be the best amount to use on this soil, increas- ing the profit about $9.00 to $10.00 per acre over the cost of application. There appeared to be no difference between the results from applying the entire amount of Nitrate of Soda at the time of seeding, and in several applications throughout the season. Potash seemed to increase the yield somewhat this season, but only just about paid for its application. Eefuse lime cake from the sugar factories was in- effective. The quality of all the beets was good, the average being : — sugar, 15.4 per cent ; purity, 87.8. 1905 This season those plots with Nitrogen in the form of Nitrate of Soda gave the highest yields. ■ The same tendency is shown as in the previous years, of the apparent neutralization of the effects of Nitrate when used together with potash and phosphoric acid in ' ' complete ' ' fertilizer. By the use of 200 pounds of Nitrate of Soda per acre it was possible to increase the net profit $6.00 to $7.00 per acre over the cost of fertilizer. The shape and size of the beets were excellent, average sugar 14.9 per cent, purity, 86.5. Residual Effects of Manures and Fertilizers The increased yield from cow manure about cov- ered the cost of the manure and its application the first season. The second year the larger yield of the manured plots over those not manured was about the same, therefore clear profit. The third year the effects of the manure entirely disappeared. As good yields were obtained with medium amounts Nitrat e of Soda for Sugar-Beets of manure as from large to excessive quantities In the case of the artificial fertilizers there ap peared to be little after-effects, except there appeared 13 to be decided residual effects from Nitrate of Soda in the year after its application. The Beet and the Leaf or Top There was found to be no definite relation between the size of the beet and the percentage of tops, to sugar contents and purity. That is, on the average, the qual- ity of the beet does not seem to be influenced much by its size or amount of tops. The average weight of fresh, green tops was found to be 44 per cent of the weight of the beet. Estimating that the tops will air-dry to one-eighth the original weight a 15-tbn crop of beets will produce eight-tenths (0.8) ton dry tops per acre. The present current price of beet tops for pasture is from $2.00 to $3.00 or more per acre. Maturing of Beets From samples taken during several years, from beginning to end of harvest period, it is shown that there is comparatively slight increase in sugar contents and purity, or yield, after the last week in September. Practical Suggestions The Kind of Fertilizer to Use on Sugar-Beets Nitrogenous fertilizers are the only ones which have proven to have any decided effect in increasing the yield of beets. Nitrate of Soda, being easily soluble, has proved most satisfactory. The Soil The most profitable use of this material will prob- ably be on soils which are not in condition to produce close to the maximum tonnage of the district. The best results would be obtained by using Nitrate of Soda along with a light coating of manure, to supply the necessary humus. Nitrate of The Beet Soda for , , , • i j? at, Sugar-Beets No injurious effects have been noticed from the use of moderate amounts of Nitrate of Soda or manure upon the quality of the beet. A strong, thrifty, green growth is secured from the time plants are up, the difference beinsr marked throughout the whole season. Topping and Weighing Samples of Beets in Fertilizer Experiment Tests to Determine Per Cent Tops. — Colorado Experiment Station. Excessive quantities of either Nitrate or manure would tend to lower the sugar content and purity. No bad effects from the use of Nitrate upon the tilth of the soil have been noticed. How Used The most rational amount of Nitrate of Soda which can be used on Colorado soils is probably from 150 to 300 pounds per acre. The larger quantities can better be used on poorer soils- After screening it can be applied by broadcasting with hand, or machine, and harrowed in before seeding. Drills for distribution can also be used, or by at- Nitrate of Soda for Sugar-Beets tachment to the seed drill, it can be applied with the seed at time of seeding. When so used it favors strong germination of the seed, as all soluble fertilizers used 15 have been found to do. The expense of application by broadcasting will be about 15 cents per acre. (Signed) A. H. Daniblson. 1907. The Use of Nitrate of Soda on Sugar-Beets in Colorado In the few years that the sugar-beet industry has been established in Colorado, we have found that our conditions of soil and climate are such that we can grow better beets and more of them than any other State in the Union. For instance, several districts of several thousand acres have been able to report averages of 15 tons and more, per acre, with sugar at 16 to 18 per cent. This is more than remarkable when it is considered that the averages include many areas that made only one to two tons per acre, this poor product being the fault of the farmer more than the land. The industry has also been one of the strong factors which have caused the greatly increased value of good farm lands in Colorado and the cutting up of the land into smaller tracts. And no wonder! The writer knows of several instances where the price of the land at more than $100 per acre has been cleared in one season. To give these kinds of returns the land must be in good condition from previous growing of alfalfa on the land or using good manures. The best yields are ob- tained by a combination of both. When the land plays out by too long growing of sugar-beets we can, of course, bring it back in shape again by alfalfa in a few year's. But the trouble is that it takes two or three years for alfalfa to become well established, and when once established it hardly pays to plow it up right away. It is very desirable, then, that the land be kept in good Nitrate of condition for the production of paying crops of sugar- Soda for beetg ag long as p 0SS ible. This is made more necessary Sugar-Beets fey the fact algo that many farmers h ave gone into debt 16 for the land and want to pay for it as quickly as possible. And to do this there is no surer crop than the sugar-beet, if the yield can be kept up. Alfalfa, of course, will make the land as good as ever again, but it will take several years to do that. Good manures have also proved to have wonderful effects in increasing the yield of our soils. But this fact has also been discovered by others, so that often it is impossible to get them, unless the farmer is in shape to feed cattle or sheep on his own farm, and this often is not possible. Even those that are able to secure a quantity of manure, often can not get enough to cover all the land they would like to put in beets. Thus the farmer is often " up against it," and would use commercial fertilizers if he were sure what kind would do any good. What Elements a Soil Needs to Grow Crops Long ago science found out that only three or four ele- ments in the soil were used to such an extent by crops that it would ever be necessary to replace them to keep the soil from running out. Those elements are Nitrogen, Potash, Phosphoric Acid and Lime. Sometimes one or more of these things are naturally absent in the soil, or may be in such shape that plants cannot easily use or get them. When such is the case, crops are increased by adding the lacking element in fertilizers ; and the best results are obtained if this element in the fertilizer is in such chemical combination that the plants can easily use it. Colorado Soils Chemical analysis has shown that our soils contain more than enough of most elements to grow good crops. Lime is present in such large quantities that there would be some to give away. The only things which are apt to be short in our soils are Nitrogen and humus. Humus is the decayed part, of animals or plants, and when there is enough of it in the soil we say it is mellow, which means, usually, rich. Both Nitrogen and humus in our J^ at f e or °* dry climate are used up pretty fast. Both can be re- s ° g * r _B eets placed by growing such plants as alfalfa, peas, vetches . and beans, or by manure. For it is the large amount of 17 Nitrogen in manures which makes it chiefly valuable, but without these it takes years to grow alfalfa and simi- lar crops. What is Best for Sugar-Beets? The chemist can tell us, of course, what is in our soils, and whether there is enough of everything, but he cannot so easily tell us whether it is in such shape that the plants can make the best use of it. And, moreover, different plants use more of one element than another. When it comes to finding out which are the right elements to use on sugar-beets for best results, or in what form such elements should be, about as good a way as any is to mix them with the soil where beets are to be grown, using the different materials alone and in all possible mixtures, on different patches of land, and do this for several years to make sure. The writer has been in a position to make numerous experiments on the effects of the several necessary ele- ments on sugar-beets from different sources for several years, and has been asked to give briefly the results and the best way to use such fertilizers. In these experiments it was found that neither potash nor phosphoric acid alone or together had any decided effect upon the sugar-beets in increasing the yield, — not enough even to pay for themselves. Nitrogen, however, from Nitrate of Soda, or manures, gave a decided profit over the cost of application. It was also found that the potash and phosphoric acid from the commercial ferti- lizers had a strong tendency to neutralize the effect of Nitrate of Soda upon the yield, when all were used to- gether. Nitrate of Soda was chosen as the source of Nitrogen, because the Nitrogen in it is in the form that is easily and quickly used by plants, and it is also the most easily soluble and most completely available of all forms, so that it diffuses throughout the soil within easy reach of the roots of plants. This quality is especi- Nitrate of a n y valuable with a plant like the sugar-beet, which is soda for ratlier weak wll ile a young plant. It is in the early part sugar-Beets of ^ seagon that ener gi z i n g f growth, if needed, is is likely to be the most effective, for it is at this time that the tonnage is made in the case of the sugar-beet. Where and How to use Nitrate of Soda As it takes from eight to twelve tons of sugar-beets per acre to pay the expenses of growing them, no land is likely to be planted to beets which will give less than ten tons, and twenty tons is a pretty good yield. As nearly everyone can get a little manure, and our soils needs humus anyhow, the best plan is generally to use Nitrate with a light coating of manure. In this way the maximum effect of both would be obtained. But it must be understood that no fertilizers will take the place of poor preparation of the soil, or poor care of the crop. The land must be in good physical condition to make the best use of the plant food already in it, or to be added to it. Will Nitrate Injure the Quality of the Beet, or the Soil? Excessive quantities of either manures, or Nitrate of Soda, are not recommended. This would not be profit- able anyhow, because the large quantities of either would not pay for themselves in the increased yield. We have also the advantage of irrigation, by the proper use of which the quality of the beet can be influenced. As to the effect of the Nitrate of Soda upon -the soil, it might be argued that the Nitrate in producing a large yield would use up so much of the other ready plant foods that there would be none left for the next crop. Contrary effect, however, has resulted in actual prac- tice. In our soils we have ample quantities of the other two necessary elements, potash and phosphoric acid, and these are held in reserve and are constantly being made available or set free for the use of plants through the chemical action in the soil, which is always going on. It has been claimed by inexperienced critics also that Nitrate of Soda has a tendency to make the soil more ]!) compact, or less easily workable. In practice it is diffi- Nitrate of cult to see how this could take place with the many hoe- ° a ° r . L ■ Sugar-Beets mgs and cultivations the beet crop is bound to receive, and, in fact, it does not take place. But if both causes as to injurious effect should be partly true, it would be set right by the rotations with grains, alfalfa, or other crops, which is finally inevitable for the best all-around results in crop production. Topping Beets. — Colorado Experiment Station. How Much Nitrate is Best to Use The amount of Nitrate which is most profitable to use depends upon the condition of the soil. A reasonable quantity will be from 150 to 300 pounds per acre. When and How to Use Nitrate — Cost of Application While there has been found to be little difference in results between applying all the intended quantity at Nitrate of once; before, or at the time of seeding, and the same Soda for q uan ftty used partly at the time of application and the balance in a couple of dressings later at different periods 20 during the growing season, it will probably be best, until this matter is better understood, to apply the Nitrate in two portions, half the quantity at or before the time of seeding, and the balance broadcasted over the beets after they are well established, before the first hoeing and thinning. No matter in what manner the Nitrate may be applied, the lumps must be broken up and all passed through a %-inch or %-inch sieve, or screen. The Nitrate can then be broadcasted just before the last harrowing before seeding. This can be done by the use of an endgate seed or fertilizer sower, by which two men with a team and wagon can cover 40 to 50 acres per day. At 40 acres a day and $6 for man and team, this will be at an expense of 15 cents per acre. The labor of screening and resack- ing should not exceed 5 cents per hundred pounds. The broadcasting can also be done by means of a fertilizer distributor made for the purpose, something after the manner of a grain drill. By the use of this sower, one man and team could probably cover half the above number of acres. There are objections to the endgate sower, as it is quite difficult to sow the fertilizer evenly in a wind. The Nitrate can also be sown at the same time as the seed, and in the same row, by the use of a fertilizer attachment to an ordinary drill. Beet drills are also manufactured especially for this purpose with two hop- pers or boxes to contain seed and fertilizer. The ferti- lizer falls after the seed from a separate spout or tube in such a way that the seed is covered by a layer of soil and the fertilizer comes on top of this layer when all is covered by the soil. It might be supposed that a strong, soluble chemical sown with the seed in this way would injure the seed, but, on the contrary, it has been found that this favors strong germination of the seed. The Nitrate is so soluble that in contact with the moist soil, it disappears into the soil in a few days, before the beet seed is ready to sprout. 21 What Returns to Expect Nitrate of Soda for Anyone who is contemplating using fertilizers on Sugar-Beets sugar-beets is naturally anxious to know what to expect in probable returns. It may be stated that in official ex- perimental work covering three years, and also in prac- tice, the returns due to Nitrate of Soda in quantities mostly of 200 pounds per acre and less, have given re- turns in value of beets over tbe total cost of the Nitrate Weighing Samples in Nitrate Experiments. — Colorado Experiment Station applied amounts, estimated at $3 per 100 pounds, ranging from about $7 to $15 per acre. It may also be stated that the use of Nitrate of Soda on sugar-beets in Colorado has passed the experimental stage, one fac- tory district alone having used several hundred tons during the last two or three years with profit. Under Colorado conditions, the result of my experi- ments, shows that all the Nitrate can be applied at the time of planting the seed, or immediately before, and harrowed into the soil. Nitrate of The Nitrate of Soda should all be passed through a Soda for screen f y or 1/ mc h mesh before application, and can Sugar-Beets be broadcasted through " endgate " seeders, or applied with ordinary grain seed drills fitted with agitators of some sort. I sowed the Nitrate with an ordinary grain drill fitted with a revolving rod, carrying cross-pieces over each feed " hole," and seeded the beet seed imme- diately afterward. Nitrate of Soda, or any other fertilizer, can also be applied by an attachment to the ordinary sugar-beet seed drill, although in the case of Nitrate of Soda, this is not recommended, because these attachments are not yet fitted with agitators to prevent the Nitrate from " bridging." Every sugar-beet grower understands what the meaning of this is. A. H. Danielson. Supplement I Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 179 Sugar-Beet Investigations BY J. D. TOWAR Abstract What the Coarse manure applied some two months Michigan before sowing the beets resulted in some Authorities increased yield and beets of a normal g ay percentage of sugar. Carefully prepared home mixed fer- tilizer gave higher yields and better beets than stable manure. Nitrate of Soda in combination with other elements generally increased the yield with a normal per cent of sugar. But in every case, Nitrate of Soda gave higher yields than sulfate of ammonia. Wood ashes and salt increased the yield of beets only slightly. One ton of air-slaked lime per acre slightly increased Nitrate of the yield of beets on the uplands without affecting the Soda for , j. ^ ° Sugar-Beets percentage 01 sugar. _ On muck land, one ton of air-slaked lime per acre, in 23 combination with other fertilizers decreased the tonnage eleven per cent, and reduced the sugar content from 9.64 to 7.68 per cent. When lime was applied alone on muck land, increased applications increased the tonnage of beets but decreased the percentage of sugar. Early planting gave larger yields and slightly higher percentage of sugar. Clay loam soil produced the largest tonnage and the highest percentage of sugar, followed by other soils in the order below, except that the tonnage on muck is next to clay loam; sandy loam, sand clay, muck. Throughout the period of growth there was a slightly greater development of leaf on the plots receiving lime than on those under similar treatment, though unlimed; while TO THE CREDIT OF NITRATE OF SODA was earlier germination and a decidedly greater devel- opment of the plants all through, the first half of the season. Attention is called in the following table to the effect of Nitrate of Soda, as compared with sulfate of ammonia, as a fertilizer for sugar-beets. In complete fertilizer. Plots 5 and 7 t In complete fertilizer, with lime. Plots 6 and 8 Alone. Plots 11 and 12 Yield pounds Per cent sugar .Yield pounds Per cent sugar Yield pounds Per cent sugar Nitrate of Soda Sulfate of Ammonia. . . . 15,630 15,000 15.25 15.10 17,750 14,630 15.48 15.78 13,680 13,620 15.34 13.98 Gain in favor of Nitrate of Soda 630 .15 3,120 — .30 60 1 36 The yield in every case was in favor of Nitrate of Soda, while the varying per cents of sugar leave that feature of the question still very inconclusive. In connection with the College Farm soil test experi- ment a comparison of ammonia and Nitrate Nitrogen Nitrate of was ma de. The soil was medium loam and of uniform n character, dissolved prosphate rock and muriate of potash were applied in like quantities in each case. Sugar-Beets 24 Yield, pounds Per cent per acre sugar Purity Complete Fertilizer, containing Nitrate Nitrogen. . 11,471 15.22 81.9 Complete Fertilizer, containing Ammonia Nitrogen 9,688 12.69 67.0 In favor of Nitrate Nitrogen 1,783 2.53 14.9 Michigan Experiments on Sugar-Beets in 1901 (Extract from Michigan Bulletin 197, Issued 1902) A field was planned to test the effect of excessive amounts of each of the various fertilizing elements in comparison with normal applications in the form of com- mercial and home-mixed fertilizers. A standard brand of commercial fertilizers was se- lected and a mixture equal in fertilizing value to 250 pounds was prepared. This required 32 pounds of Nitrate of Soda, 25 pounds muriate of potash, and 137 pounds of dissolved phosphate rock. The six plots of the experiment received applications as follows : Plot 1. — Nothing. Plot 2. — 147 pounds mixture plus 24 pounds Nitrate of Soda. Plot 3. — 147 pounds mixture plus 103 pounds dissolved phosphate, rock. Plot 4. — 147 pounds mixture plus 20 pounds muriate of potash. Plot 5. — 195 pounds mixture. Plot 6 — 250 pounds commercial fertilizer. It will be seen by the above that Plots 2, 3 and 4 re- ceived but three-fourths of the mixture as applied to Plot 5 ; the other fourth being supplied by doubling the amount of Nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash respec- tively. The yields of beets, percentage of sugar, and pounds of sugar per acre are given in the following table : Per cent sugar in beets 15.98 Sugar Nitrate of per acre pounds Soda for 2 709 Sugar-Beets 16.23 15.85 15.64 17.04 15.66 4,083 25 3,621 3,412 3,220 2,778 Yield per acre Plot Fertilizers pounds 1 Nothing 16,793 2 Excessive Nitrogen 25,098 3 Excessive Phosphoric Acid 22,843 4 Excessive Potash 21,817 5 Normal Home Mixture 18,900 6 Commercial Fertilizer 17,740 These figures show decidedly in favor of increasing the Nitrogen content of the sugar-beet fertilizers. Not only is the yield of beets greater, but the percentage of sugar is higher where an excessive amount of Nitrate of Soda is applied. The marked difference in yield of sugar from the home mixed fertilizer over the commer- cial fertilizer suggests the possibility of Nitrate Nitro- gen being superior to the form of Nitrogen found in the commercial fertilizer. While there is no experiment comparing in equal quan- tities organic Nitrate and ammonia Nitrogen, the gen- eral results so far favor the Nitrate. In the fertilizer experiment on page 130, the Nitrogen in the commercial fertilizer analyzing 2.24 per cent am- monia was undoubtedly of organic origin. The results from three years' experiments show a yield of 20 per cent more sugar from Nitrate Nitrogen than from the commercial fertilizer containing dried blood or some other organic Nitrogen. Nitrate Nitrogen vs. Ammonia Nitrogen This experiment has been in progress for three years. The results recorded are from experiments in three dif- ferent fields of the College Farm. In every case the potash and phosphoric acid applied on the compared plots were identical. The quantity of Nitrate of Soda and sulphate of ammonia was in each case regulated according to the ammonia content of the two materials, so calculated that the same quantity of Nitrogen was ap- plied in every case where results were compared. The following is a fair comparison of Nitrate of Soda and sulphate of ammonia as a source of Nitrogen for sugar-beets, and being the average result from five differ- Nitrate of en ^. experiments conducted for three years in succession, Sugar-Beets an< ^ snow i n & a yield of over 11 per cent more sugar from the Nitrate than from the ammonia presents conclusive 26 evidence of the superiority of the former. Nitrate Nitrogen Ammonia nitrogen Character of soil Yield per acre Per cent sugar Sugar per acre Yield per acre Per cent sugar Sugar per acre 1 Light sandy Lbs. 20,408 20,136 16,479 18,789 15,058 12.45 13.19 14.09 13.43 13.29 Lbs. 2,463 2,656 2,323 2,524 2,003 Lbs. 19,387 16,412 15,899 15,572 13,916 12.68 12.44 14.19 13.19 13.19 Lbs. 2,459 2,041 2,255 2,176 1,837 2 Clay loam 3 Sandy loam (complete fertilizer) . 4 Same as 3, plus one ton lime 5 Sandy loam (as single elements) . . Average sugar per acre 2,394 2,154 Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No, 132 1902 Sugar-Beet Investigations in 1901 BY JOHN W. AMES . Fertilizer Experiments at Neapolis, Ohio A series of plots containing 1-20 acre each, on light sandy soil at Neapolis, were treated with fertilizers for the purpose of showing the effect, if any, of phosphoric acid, potash and Nitrogen on the quality of beets and yield per acre. Acid phosphate, potassium sulfate, potas- sium chlorid, Nitrate of Soda, tankage and barnyard manure were used as carriers of the phosphoric acid, potash and Nitrogen. The same variety of seed, Original Kleinwanzlebener, was planted on all the plots. Table VII. Fertilizer Experiments on Black Sand Nltrate of AT NEAPOLIS. ?° da f " , Sugar-Beets 27 6 55 o s Fertilizer applied v per aore Date analyzed °a ss & a 1 m X ~. a 3 s a 1 a .0 8 a3 a) P. ■a '1 E§ « O =3 P. a % is a p. ■a-8 % a ■&i 1* ft cS . bfl 3 ' en Oj T «* Milm - GENERAL EAST AND WEST SECTION OF THE NITRATE DISTRICT OF OMILI. VERTICAL SCALE EXAGGERATED. into Nitrate. The following treatise may serve to answer this purpose. Nitrate is not found in the Nitrate beds in the form in which it comes to market, but in the form of a min- eral, which is called "Caliche." Occurrence of Nitrate. Nitrate beds are found in Chile between the 18° S. and 27° S. latitude, that is, chiefly the Province of Tara- paca, which is the province farthest north in Chile, and which, up to the year 1880, formed the part farthest south of Peru; in the year 1880 the bloody war between Peru and Chile was fought on account of these deposits. Occurrence Composition of the "Caliche." ing of Ni- The raw Nitrate, "Caliche," contains the material trate of Soda for Nitrate of Soda, and we know, technically, three 6 ~ " qualities of it; the best contains 40 to 50 per cent. Nitrate of Soda, the medium 30 to 40 per cent., the lowest 17 to 30 per cent. There are great quantities of raw Saltpeter with less than 17 per cent., which General View of Junin. to-day is not considered worth exploiting. We can only say "to-day." for a time will come when this raw Saltpeter will also have to be carefully gathered. Experts claim the caliche beds of Chile will last say from 300 to 400 years; and before the complete ex- haustion of the Saltpeter beds, caliche containing less than 17 per cent, of nitric acid soda will be used. The caliche occurs in different colors — /. e., from dazzling white to an earth gray. The one appearing of an earth gray color is more or less mixed with earth ingredients; the pure white, which looks much whiter than the commercial Saltpeter, at the most contains only .50 per cent, of Nitrate of Soda; the remainders are mixtures of different salts, as 0c , cu " ence chloride of sodium, sulphate of potash, sulphate of f" of Ni _ " Soda, sulphate of lime, magnesia salts, Nitrate of trate of Soda potash, some iodide of potash, and at times some borax. — The caliche bed very rarely reaches the surface; as a rule, it is underneath a covering of from 2 to 10 feet in depth. Disposition of the "Caliche." The surface of the Nitrate ground usually forms a layer of gypsum sand called "Chuca." In this sand many loose crusts and rough pieces of a gray-white color are found imbedded, consisting of Sulphate of Lime not containing any water. These, often on a line of cleavage, show a similarity to pottery clay, and for that reason are called "Loza" (in English, Stone- ware) . Beneath this lies a rocky kind of conglomeration General View of Caleta Buena. of clay, gravel, fragments of feldspar, porphyry and greenstone, cemented up with sulphate of calcium, sul- phate of potash, sulphate of soda, sulphate of magne- sium and a little chloride of sodium. This layer is called "Costra." It reaches downwards into another in which, Occurrence and Obtain- ing of Ni- trate of Soda besides sulphites, chloride of sodium and chloride of magnesium are predominant, and which already con- tain a small percentage of Nitrate. As the exterior of this layer resembles a frozen stretch of gravel contain- ing water, it has been named "Kongelo," which means frozen together. Beneath the Kongelo is found "Caliche," i. e., the raw Nitrate; and beneath this a : " . ■'■ - :-' ■■---'■..-•■■ .- — - gdEgS^^^c,^^^-^^^^'^',^: .-' ,.v^v^r^"^^^^^^ir "• 1 ^^^'-'^"^i ffl^gKBS^^^^B^BSSPSHMpMggiSMftWrWll 1 iffiyyEBZK&Bs^* i"~ * ""^ — "- 1 "jj~ ~*" - _ ^-.- . ~T- - ' ~ Js ^* m - ■ y -=>— - - .- ,- -~ '-~-' — -.---=-■ --■- ■ _: -- -- — >■ - . - "- --"■ "r^~-~^ ~\\ . _ _,, - ^~'S~z"--~^"- "" " - " - - — ^r" - -":, - '--'.- ■■■ ' : : -~. : . :>_- -. . . .~ --_"" ^- - _T"-' '~"\ -~ 7: : 7r_ — --5S t^"-"'~ - ---- -- "-""" "T-'~ - "- -■ - v „\ r -. _^ ^~~ — ^'"*-»'^r— ;j -~ — " -- -~^- . . .. -■ ~--^_ -r - _ ~~ ,—T^~E—- ^T^—- -' ' ' - "--~ii»"-~ ~~ -■*=- - ~ - ~ ; ~ r . " ~ ~- *■*-= — ~ ~^-^% - 7-^~ "\ ~ ~---~ feT-v^--' : *--- ~'~~~. '. -J7:-~ ■-'--- -~ ■-- ~ -* ~ - ~: -^5$3 — "~^^^hI rC'zZ'—:- : V " ■■' '-'- -'- General View of Tocopilla. layer of clay called "Coba." This layer of clay is of great importance for the exploration of the Nitrate beds, because it lies on the primitive rock, and no more Nitrate appears beneath it. The before-described conditions of the beds refer to the most important Nitrate district, i. e., the Pro- vince of Tarapaca, the "Hinterland" of the ports of Pisagua and Iquique. But there are also great varia- tions in these conditions of the beds, and particularly in the southern districts. Other Occurrence of Nitrate. Nitrate beds of this kind have been known until the present time only in these parts of Chile. However, for a much longer time we have known in the Nitrate of Occurrence potash of Egypt and India to exist a Nitrate which not a n nd ° b ^ n " only is as good as the Nitrate of Soda, but even more trate of Soda valuable because potassium is worth more than soda — — in Egypt and India. These layers of Nitrate have hitherto been found in Chile only, and there is no prospect that they will be found anywhere else. But why not? Those Nitrate grounds are situated in districts absolutely lacking rain ; often for a period of from three to five years there is no «*#!:- General View of Pisagua. rain whatsoever, and should it even rain during this long period, it rains so extraordinarily little as to not even dampen through the top layer. It is a well-known fact that Nitrate readily dissolves in water, and that the caliche is even hygroscopic, i. e., it draws water from the atmosphere and is dissolved. For this reason cali- che can be found only in countries without rain. As there are not any countries without rain in existence, except some deserts still unexplored, and also as no Nitrate has been found in those known, little hopes Occurrence ma y be entertained that valuable beds of Nitrate will be 311(1 ^/nT discovered m the future. trate m of°Soda Of * a * e Nitrate beds are reported to have been dis- covered in some parts of California (Death Valley) . The reports about the composition of the raw materials, however, have been skeptically received, but one fact is certain, that these beds are situated in a very barren country, which is already implied by the name, "Death Valley." In the localities described before as caliche beds the coast rises abruptly to a height of about 3,000 feet, continues then towards the east as a hilly and mountainous country, and ends finally in the level and desert "Pampas," which reach to the foot of the Cordil- leras. The caliche is found in this hilly country, particu- larly in the eastern parts towards the Pampas de Tamarugal and the desert of Atacama from 3,000 to 5,000 feet above the sea level. It is found mostly in the cavities of the valleys, ascending on the slopes of the General View of Iquique. hills, while the parts situated the lowest contain sea salt beds which extend for miles. The distance of the caliche beds from the coast amounts to from 30 to 45 miles. The "Oficinas," i. e., the factories which work the Occurrence caliche into Nitrate, are built into the caliche beds to f" d ° b ^; n " minimize the expense for the transportation of the raw \ Tate o{ Soda materials as much as possible. The Formation of the Caliche. How were these caliche beds ever formed? There are many theories on this subject, but we shall mention only two here, that are greatly opposed to each other. Boring Test Holes. The first insists that these beds are decomposed ex- crements of animals and even their carcasses, similar to the "Guano" beds in Peru. This theory is refuted by two very important considerations : First, these beds do not contain any phosphoric acid, which we know to always be an indispensable element with animal ex- crements and with decaying animal bodies, as is shown in the Guano of Peru: and in the second place these beds are exceedingly rich in iodine: but we know of no animal bodies or excrements which contain iodine. Occurrence and Obtain- ing of Ni- trate of Soda Another theory which is much more convincing was given by C. Xollner in the year 1868. It is the follow- ing: In the ocean there are old meadows of sea-grass. These are gigantic islands of sea plants swimming in the ocean. These sea-grass meadows, claims Xollner, became isolated by volcanic rising of the ground, and after the evaporating of the sea water, they remained and de- caved Blasting a Test Hole. This theory is probable because we know sea plants contain iodine, and in fact, they furnish the market with a small part of the iodine brought there. Iodine is principally obtained in the Nitrate "Oficinas" by its being worked out from the lye of the Nitrate containing iodine. This iodine naturally comes from the caliche and this goes to show that the original caliche beds were formed from sea plants, as Xollner claims. If we suppose this theory to be correct, then the formation of Nitrate can easily be understood. At first the sea water evaporated in the beds, which had been formed. The sea plants remained behind and decayed like all organic substances; thereby chloride of ammonia was formed. If there is present a suffi- cient amount of oxygen, this ammonia is changed into acid of nitrogen and finally into nitric acid, which is the final product of all decaying and nitrogenous bodies. The nitric acid produced by this decaying could Occurrence and Obtain- ing of Ni- trate of Soda 13 Opening Up Trench After Blasting : Showing Extraction of Caliche by Piece-work. not have remained as such, there being bases enough, to- gether with that acid, to form simple salts. Thus at first it formed with carbonated lime, Nitrate of lime, carbonic acid and water, a simple reaction. This Nitrate of lime then, together with the abundantly pres- ent sulphate of soda, changed into Nitrate of Soda. Obtaining of the Caliche. After these observations about the geological find- ing of the caliche, we shall now proceed to the descrip- tion of its extraction and manufacture. First of all. the hilly covering must be removed. This is done by u Occurrence blasting. The boreholes, which serve for the purpose and Obtain- Q f pj ac j n g the blasts, are driven through the before- trate'^f Soda mentioned layers as far as the Coba; that is to say, - right into the footwall. Therein is placed the charge, and by firing, the hilly covering is thrown up and the caliche bed at the same time broken up. The purpose of this is to loosen and to lift the covering with the greatest possible rupturing, and for that purpose a slowly exploding blasting powder is used which is manufactured in the Oficinas out of the Nitrate ob- tained there. After the blast, one proceeds to the clearing away of the worthless hilly covering, to obtain the caliche which is in open trenches of greatly varying depth. AVith the JsJS^SaP. SJ #* ■^*&'M'^iM:< < i P^iT^i, '^^^^X^^^*^*s iv*i - -'---ji-*!-*. "** t* - - * ---. -i, - Loading Caliche into Railway Trucks. aid of heavy hammers placed on long handles, steel wedges and iron sticks having steel points, are driven into the calicbe and it is thus broken up. The ground permits only a few Oficinas to transport the raw ma- terial by railroad; in most cases this is done by strongly built two-wheeled carts drawn bv mules. Before load- ing, the big pieces are first broken up, either by means of strong hammers, or, as this would be too slow a pro- cess in the case of large rocks, by blasting with dyna- mite. Manufacturing of the Nitrate. The exploitation of the raw material obtained in Occurrence and Obtain- ing of Ni- trate of Soda 15 ^j^.^^% . l ^rrf^-; Loaded Train Arriving at Crusher-Hopper. that manner varies between 30 and o0 per cent. Crush- ing machines worked by steam break up the caliche and drop it into funnel-shaped carriages, which carry it on tracks to the boiling kettles. Solution. The boiling kettles are in the different Oficinas of various sizes, forms and equipment. They are heated by means of steam pipes and serve to dissolve all the soluble components of the caliche, separating later from this solution by means of crystallization the foreign salts. trate 16 Occurrence With one operation proper, lye for crystallization a "n ^N? is obtained (showing 1.55 specific weight, with 110 to of Soda 120 degrees C.) through intense steam pipe heating, which lye after cooling off for four days, furnishes about thirty-five pounds crystallized Nitrate for each Eng- lish cubic foot. Crystallization. The hot lye flows through canals to the forged iron Top of Caliche Hopper; Carts Tipping Caliche. crystallizing pans, of which for a daily production of 7,000 hundred-weight, there are about 230 pans of 500 cubic foot capacity, and each having a 225 square foot cooling surface. The mother-lye (Agua vieja) flowing out of the crystallization pans, is again pumped high up by steam pumps, and after the extraction of the iodine begins again the revolution with the lixiviation of new rough material. After the cooled-off mother-lye has run off, the crystallized Nitrate, after being allowed to drip off for ° CC1 £™£ twelve hours, is shoveled onto sheetiron-covered dry- f^ q{ ^ n " ing platforms where it remains four days longer, in trate of Soda order that the remainder of the mother-lye may drip - off. From the diagonal drying platforms the Nitrate comes into the so-called Cancha — that is, a supply space -7 Interior of a Boiling-Tank. Occurrence and Obtain- ing of Ni- trate of Soda Gang Ready to Enter Boiling-Tank to Discharge Refuse. Conveying Refuse from Underneath Boiling-Tank to Dump. with smooth, cemented ground — where it dries fourteen °" u " en " days more and then is shipped in bags containing about ™ o{ ^ n " 200 pounds. trate of Soda The quantity of the Nitrate eliminated in the crystallization pans corresponds to the difference be- tween the solubility of the Nitrate at usual temperature, 17 to 20 degrees C, and the boiling heat 110 to 120 degrees. 19 Dumping; Refuse. The Oficinas are furnished with the very best tech- nical equipments. There all machinery is driven by steam, lately even some by electricity. According to the location of each Oflcina, the water is pumped for miles with steam pumps. Considering the high solu- bility of the Nitrate and the circumstance that not only Occurrence the crystallizations, but also the deposits of the manu- ^ d ° b f ta ,J,"" f ac tured Nitrate are without roof, every rain would trate 1 of Soda 1 " destroy the whole work already done. But they risk nothing, because no rain ever comes. Running off Saturated Solution of Nitrate of Soda from Boiling-Tanks. The Nitrate manufactured as described above is the Nitrate in commerce, as it is employed for fertilizer, and contains: Per cent. Nitrate of Soda 95.0 Sodium Chloride 2.0 Sulphate 0.6 Insoluble matter 0.1 Moisture 2.3 Total 100.0 Occurrence and Obtain- ing of Ni- trate of Soda General View of Crystallizing Pans. The Nitrate in commerce is a gray or slightly yel- low salt, which somewhat resembles our kitchen salt. If the hot lye before its running in the crystallizing pans is left standing in a steam-heated clarifying basin for another half hour or more, we find suspended crys- stals or sodium chloride precipitate, together with other mechanical soiled matters, and one obtains a Nitrate containing over 96 per cent. Nitrate of Soda and less than one per cent, of sodium chloride. This is a very fine white salt that is employed by the chemical indus- try, and comes into market by the name of "Refined Nitrate of Soda." Occurrence and Obtain- ing of Ni- trate of Soda Pans for Straining Mother-Liquor After Leaving Crystallizing Pans. Crystallizing Tans Full, Filling, and Empty. Shipping to Market. The Nitrate which is now ready and in bags, is brought down from the Oficinas on the mountains to the port by means of railroads. The view of the port of Caleta Buena shows its railway plants with their high grades. The railways for the greater part use locomo- tives. The last few years, however, in the ports Junin and Caleta Buena, an arrangement was installed, which Occurrence and Obtain- ing of Ni- trate of Soda 23 Crystallizing Pans After Running off Mother-Liquor, Showing Deposit of Nitrate Crystals. the German navy engineers call "Bremsberg;" that is, coupled together, the descending full carriage pulls up the empty. The latter, as far as the weight corre- sponds, is at the same time used for the pulling up of coal and other supplies. The importance of Nitrates in technical processes, as well as in providing a quickly and certainly avail- able plant food for admixture with chemical fertilizers, or for use alone, by the agriculturist, cannot well be over- Occurrence estimated. It is comparatively a few years since the and Obtain- yast s t ores f Sodium Nitrate in Chile have been suffi- trate in of°Soda ciently exploited to impress the world with their im- portance as a source of supply for the above demands. The rate at which the use of Sodium Nitrate is in- creasing in the United States, is shown by the follow- ing: -4 Emptying Crystallizing Pans into Cars. The yearly consumption in the United States for 1898 was 145,000 tons. The total consumption of the world for 1898, 1,210,000 tons. In 1906 it was 362,000 tons for the United States and 1,640,000 tons for the world. It speaks volumes for the influence of scientific men upon the development of practical agriculture in the world, when we remember that it is scarcely twenty years since the agricultural experiment stations and scientific investigators began to vigorously direct pub- lic attention to this source of plant food. In fact, in this country, it is only within the last few years that our experiment stations have been able to readily procure it. 25 There are two reasons for this rapid development: Occurrence (1) The almost absolute certainty of securing ? *£ ° f ^ n " satisfactory results when a scientific man or a farmer trate of g da uses it for experimental or practical purposes. (2) The wonderful influence it has had upon the development of the beet-sugar industry in Germany and other parts of the world. Its action upon vegetation is so certain and so uni- form, and the demand of crops for additional supplies of it in the soil is so universal, that an Experiment Sta- tion can scarcely mistake in recommending the use of Piers with Cars for Conveying Contents of Crystallizing Pans Drying Floors. to Sodium Nitrate, where the conditions affecting the pro- duction of bountiful crops are obscure. It is probably the most energizing fertilizer in the market, and while the most satisfactory results can be obtained from it when in combination with proper supplies of available phosphoric acid and potash, which if not already found in the soil, should be applied to it in order to secure most bountiful harvests, yet as a special fertilizer a moderate Present application of Nitrate alone, on most soils proves highly IITsSS remunerative - Nitrate At present, the entire supply of Sodium Nitrate - comes from Chile. The portion of the west coast of Chile, where it is found, between latitudes 19 deg. 12 26 Drying Floors and Bagging of Xitrate. min. south, and 20 deg. 45 min. south, extends over a length of approximately 260 geographical miles. The principal deposits are found in the provinces of Tara- paca and Antofagasta, in Chile, and the center of trade is Iquique. It exists in a long, narrow strip, averag- ing about two and one-half miles in width, extending along the eastern slope of the Coast Range, at an aver- age distance of perhaps fourteen miles from the ocean, but in a number of cases it is probably as much as forty miles from the coast. The region where it is found is a rainless desert, absolutely devoid of vegetation. The Nitrate beds exist at a height of from 3,000 to 5,000 feet above sea level, and extend down toward the valley of Tamagruel. The rough sketch on page .5, not drawn to of Sodium Nitrate scale, will serve to illustrate the characteristic surface Present of the portion of Chile where the caliche is found. It Knowledge will be seen that it lies between the Coast Range and the Cordilleras or Andes. The most satisfactoiy explanation of the origin of these beds as previously stated seems to be that they have resulted from the decay of enormous quantities of organic matter, particularly seaweed, which probably ac- cumulated in a long, narrow strip of water, somewhat like Core Sound on the coast of North Carolina. This accumulation became elevated in the course of ages. One of the evidences of this lies in the fact that the remains of seaweed are found in the Nitrate deposits. The beds are above the valley of Tamagruel, and extend i'i Ij ^l ^Jsf^f^iPRfT" mJpl » i\ ■•^^~ '■ ^- , ---.^-ft:*\^MC^^s>e^^gia.*r:- i ^»g?''»^ t i^m^jr '% mi ***'--- i ■ -^ ! JRL, f&9^*f^* ■ St test *• ■- ■!:-' 7l I5fl &*■£$?& 1 anw> ~~. r^W- ■ ' - '""j * 1 Vm^i^""" :&; V •: Jg0l» prag$«g| BBSs ^K $H93 ■Z^iJc. Mr nWi '*rn H» - s H^j&i'*r<*IH -: "« = ..i>* II Loading Railway Trucks for Conveyance to Port of Shipment. down toward it, decreasing in value as they approach it, until they finally disappear upon reaching it. The beds exist under the following conditions, and skilled prospectors can generally locate them with considerable certainty by the surface indications. The surface for a depth of approximately ten inches is covered with a layer of fine, loose sand; under Present the sand is found a layer of amorphous porphyry, feld- Knowiedge S p ar ^ sodium chloride, and other mineral matter, Nitrate cemented together by gypsum into a compact mass, varying in thickness from six to ten feet. This is called costra or crust. Under this crust is found the caliche Train Fully Loaded with Nitrate of Soda Leaving Works for Port. or impure Sodium Nitrate, varying in thickness from a foot and a half up to about twelve feet. The caliche occurs in a great variety of colors, as yellowish white, orange, blue-gray, and dirt color. This deposit is a regular stratum, with all the appearances of a rock for- mation, firmly cemented together, and is displaced from its natural position, by blasting. The system of blast- ing is peculiar in that they drill a hole through the crust and through the caliche down to the clay surface beneath, large enough to admit a boy, who is let down and excavates the clay under the caliche so that the blast can be placed under the material to be broken up, the object being to thrust up as large a mass of caliche as possible. This is then broken up by the tools of the workmen into chunks the size of an orange, and the im- purities as carefully as possible removed by the process Present of selection. This crude material is then trans- , n ° w , e . ge 11 i i • • .1 i 7 °' Sodium ported to the works, where it is run through a crusher, Nitrate and dissolved in hot water. The better quality of caliche contains from forty to fifty per cent, of Sodium Nitrate, the average quality from thirty to forty per cent, of Sodium Nitrate, and the poorest quality that is worked, from seventeen to thirty per cent, of Sodium Nitrate. The best quality of caliche runs about as fol- lows: Exterior of Iodine House and Water Deposit-Tanks. Per Cent. Sodium Nitrate 50 Sodium chloride 26 Sodium sulphate 6 Magnesium sulphate 3 Insoluble 14 Sodium iodate i Sodium nitrite j Magnesium chloride J- 1 Potassium chloride Magnesium Nitrate 1 00 Present Knowledge of Sodium Nitrate 30 Under ordinary conditions it is not profitable to mine caliche with less than about thirty per cent, of Nitrate. The refining of caliche and the extraction of the Sodium Nitrate, depends upon the fact that Sodium Nitrate is very much more soluble in hot water than in Interior of Iodine House; Packing Iodine in Ke° cold water, while the solubility of salt in water is little increased with increased temperature. However, the solubility of the Nitrate in water at 20 degrees C. is affected by a solution of salt, and while 100 parts of water, at 20 degrees C. should dissolve 88 parts of Sodium Nitrate, when it contains 23 parts of Sodium Chloride in solution, it will dissolve only 52.8 parts of Sodium Nitrate. The details of the three systems in use in carrying out the solution, crystallization, and drying, of the Sodium Nitrate, are well understood by all chemists. The crystallized Sodium Nitrate is removed from the mother-liquor and allowed to drain some time, after which it is put into sacks, where it drains still further, for a certain length of time, and the granulated appear- ance of the sacks as they come into our market is due Present to the crystallization of this drainage material upon the Kn ° wled s e . • -i « .1 i of Sodium outside ol the sacks. The mother-liquor, from which the first crop of Nitrate 31 Subliming Retort in Iodine House. crystals is taken, can be used for dissolving a fresh sup- ply of caliche, but it is not practicable to use it more than twice or three times. This mother-liquor, which Present contains the impurities of Sodium Nitrate, is worked Knowledge over f or ^ e [ ^[ ne contained in it. In fact, practically Nitrate a ^ °^ ^ le iodine in the market at present, is produced as a by-product in the refining process of Sodium Nitrate. There are two grades of Sodium Nitrate in the market: One grade containing not less than ninety- six per cent, of Sodium Nitrate, or over sixteen per cent, of nitrogen, is imported for technical purposes — manufacture of chemicals and chemical industries. Then there is the second grade, called ninety-five per cent. Nitrate, which contains not less than fifteen and one-half per cent, of nitrogen, imported more especially for fertilizer purposes. The Sodium Nitrate as it comes into this country is of very uniform composition, and can generally be relied upon to analyze very close to the figures given. It generally contains from one to two per cent. Sodium Chloride, which is largely due to the difficulty of crystallizing out the Sodium Nitrate on a large scale without also securing a little of its impurities. General View of Nitrate and Iodine Plant. Sodium Nitrate is used (1) As a special fertilizer. (2) In compounding fertilizers. (3) In the manufacture of sulphuric acid. (4) In the manufacture of nitric acid. (5) In the manufacture of nitrate of potash. (6) In the manufacture of arsenate of soda. (7) In the manufacture of fireworks. Present Knowledge of Sodium Nitrate 33 Fresh Water Distributing Station. (8) In the manufacture of fusing mixtures. (9) In the purification of caustic soda. (10) In the manufacture of steel. (11) In the manufacture of glass. (12) In the manufacture of minium. (13) For making chlorine in the manufacture of bleaching powders. From the above list of the uses to which Sodium Nitrate is put it will be seen at once that it plays a very important part in the industrial development of the country, and the question naturally comes up, "How long will the available supply last?" As stated above, the consumption amounts to approximately 1,000,000 tons a year. There are at present exploited in Chili, beds of caliche estimated by different geologists to con- Nitrate 34 Present ta j n f rom 63,000,000 to 120,000,000 tons of Nitrate, Knowledge and it seems t i iat on i v a very small proportion of the : ' territory where Nitrate is likely to be found has yet been exploited, so that we need have no fear of the sup- ply giving out during the next three hundred years. Its use as a fertilizer, as it becomes known, will undoubtedly extend very widely. At present prices it is the cheapest source of nitrogen in our markets. Agricultural chemists in particular have been laboring for years upon the problem of furnishing some cheap, natural means of producing Nitrate rapidly, and in season for agricultural uses. It has been demon- strated beyond the shadow of doubt that the majority of agricultural crops appropriate their nitrogen in the form of Nitrates, some being able to secure nitrogen Dispensary, with Doctor in Attendance. supply by the action of micro-organisms which develop tubercles upon their roots, and enables them in this way to appropriate supplies of nitrogen which may be secured from the air or from nitrogenous compounds decomposing in the soil. There has sprung up, in con- nection with the study of these problems almost a new Present branch of chemistry ; that is, the study of the chemical re- "° w , e ge , . , ■> '. ' . ... J of Sodium actions evolved by microscopic lite. Nitrate Stutzer and Hartleb have shown that all cultivated 35 plants, with the probable exception of the leguminosa?, ■-■■'■ - 1 . "--: ■-..<■ :^.:.-' Exterior of Administration House. appropriate their food in the form of Nitrates, which are derived either from the fertilizers applied to the land, or from the nitrogenous substances in the soil, which are converted into Nitrates by the action of the nitrating bacteria. It has not yet been shown exactly in what form the nitrogen, appropriated by the leguminosee through the bacteria existing in the tuber- cles upon their roots, is finally appropriated by the plant. These tubercles upon the roots are the labo- ratories of the plant, apparently for the purpose of transforming the nitrogen of the air into suitable plant food for that class of plants. It is also quite well estab- lished by numerous investigators that the micro- organisms found in these tubercles have the power nf producing within the soil where the plants grow, a of Sodium Nitrate 36 Present capacity for storing up nitrogen, either in the roots of Knowledge ^ le pi an t s themselves or in the soil immediately sur- rounding them, in a form which can be appropriated as plant food by succeeding crops. Thus, crops of clover or peas, beans, vetches, serradella, lupines, and similar plants, apparently cause an accumulation of available nitrogen in the soil where they grow. The amount of this nitrogen accumulated from year to year is not large, but is sufficient to produce a perceptible effect upon the succeeding crop, and if it were possible by this means to continue indefinitely the growth of crops of this character upon the same land, it might be pos- sible to fertilize the land by means of clover, peas, or other green manures of this character up to the point Railway Station at Iquique. Goods Depot. where maximum crops could be secured without the ad- dition of fertilizers from other sources. These crops, especially clover, are looked upon with much favor in sections of our country where extensive farming, in contradistinction to intensive farming, is largely pur- sued. Not only do these crops, whether in the form of green manures plowed under, or simply as nitrogen P resent stores, accumulate nitrogen within limited margins Know edge but they also improve the physical condition of Ni trate the soil, so as to enable the succeeding crops to more readily secure plant food existing in the soils. The Pier for Lighters. process is so slow in yielding results that few farmers can afford to put their land out of commission for one year merely to secure a supply of nitrogen. Hellriegel and Wilfarth found that certain soils would not produce satisfactory crops of these nitro- gen gatherers unless they had been derived from fields where these crops had been grown, even when provided with abundant supplies of nitrogen in the form of or- ganic compounds, or of Nitrate. However, they could be made to produce luxuriant growths of these nitro- gen gatherers, if watered with the extract of the soil where the plants had grown. If the plants were wat- ered with the sterilized solution of the soil, no growth was produced. The same soils, however, would produce a growth when watered with the unsterilized solution of the soil. 37 Present Knowledge of Solium Nitrate 33 Nobbe went one step further, and reasoned that these unfruitful soils could be made fruitful if inocu- lated with the micro-organisms existing in, and prob- ably producing, the tubercles. His experimental work was carried out with the view of determining the truth or falsity of this hypothesis. Operating upon sterilized soils containing ample supplies of available plant food, he found that his nitrogen gatherers would not grow be- yond the point where they derived their supplies of ni- trogen from the seed in sterilized soil, and that no tu- bercules were developed upon the roots of these plants, If, however, the soil was treated with a solution of pure culture of the bacteria existing in the tubercles, it imme- diately became fruitful and developed plants with abun- dant root tubercles. He found, further, that while the Loading Lighters. pure cultures indicated that the micro-organisms exist- ing in the tubercles of the various nitrogen growers ap- peared to be the same under the microscope, yet they were not capable, except in a minor degree, of produc- ing tubercles upon other members of the leguminosae. For example : The pure culture derived from the tubercles of the pea would produce tubercles upon the different varie- ties of peas, but might have little or no effect upon beans, or upon clover. So that he arrived at the conclu- sion that each plant had its particular class of micro- Present Knowledge of Sodium Nitrate 39 Loaded Lighters en Route for Vessels. organisms capable of producing ample supplies of tu- bercles upon the roots of its own or closely related species, but incapable of producing tubercles upon plants remotely related to it. The inoculation of the soil with these so-called ni- trogen germs is effected in two ways : ( 1 ) By moistening the seed with a solution of the inoculated agar-gelatine. (2) By moistening dust or fine earth with a solu- tion of inoculated agar-gelatine, and working it into the soil. Probably the best results have been obtained from the latter process. It has been found experimentally that soils which would not produce particular crops of these nitrogen Present Knowledge of Sodium Nitrate 40 gatherers before inoculation, could, in some cases be made to produce fair crops by the inoculation. As a scientific curiosity it is of great value. In practice, how- ever, it has failed to yield satisfactory results, and the time does not yet seem to have arrived when this system can be economically applied by the farmer. It should be remembered also that this principle applies only to the nitrogen gatherers, or plants deriving their nitrogen supply through tubercles. It costs about two dollars an acre to properly inoculate a field with the organisms necessary to produce any particular kind of leguminous plant. The uncertainty of the success of the inoculation is so great, that Prof. Paul Wagner, Director of the Darmstadt Experiment Station, Germany, recom- mends the farmers of that country not to attempt it.* Jii»««s-*~ Griffith —■ V' g A Nitrate Port in Chile. Fully Laden Train of Nitrate Ready for Putting on a Nitrate Ship. Caron-Ellenbach has gone one step further than the above, and has attempted to increase the capacity of the soil for directly absorbing nitrogen from the air. He has isolated and produced the pure culture of an or- *The most successful work done in this country upon this subject is by J. F. Duggar, Ala. Exper. Station Bull. No. ST. ganism which has been christened Bacillus-Elleribach- Present ensis a, which he finds possesses, in high degree the Kn ° wl * d s e £ ix. .i. r i i , i ■ -j. oi Sodium power ot causing the soil to absorb atmospheric nitrogen Nitrate and transform it into available plant food. His claim is that soil inoculated with this bacterium increases its ca- pacity for yielding up nitrogen in an available form for cereals and other crops, and that it absorbs large quanti- ties of nitrogen from the air, and produces ample sup- plies for the use of the plants without resorting to ex- pensive commercial fertilizers. The culture of this bac- terium is also called, commercially, Alinit. This prepa- ration, like Nitragin, has in practice been found to be a scientific curiosity, but while Nitragin has consider- able experimental evidence to show that it frequently may increase the production of the leguminosEe, there is not, so far as I have been able to discover, any appre- ciable amount of scientific evidence to substantiate the claims set up for Alinit. In fact the Bacillus-Ellenbach- ensis a seems to be such a delicate creature that the prob- ability of its ever attaining any prominence in increas- ing the world's production of cereals, is relegated to the distant future. While both of these discoveries are of great scien- tific interest, neither of them, I think, can be considered as anything more than demonstrating the fact that scien- tific men are working along very close to the lines where scientific discoveries of great practical value might be made. The meteorological conditions most favorable to the production of Nitrates are quite well known. But these we cannot control. It is demonstrated that there is con- tinual change going on in the supplies of Nitrates pres- ent in the soil. They are carried down by the heavy rains, and they rise to the surface as the soil dries, so that there is a continuous movement of them in the soil. If the supply is ample, it is shown by a dark green, luxuriant growth of vegetation. If it is inadequate, it is indicated by a stunted growth, and a yellowish-green color. The experimenter, therefore, is always in a posi- tion to determine, approximately, whether his plants are securing a sufficient supply of Nitrates. Present an- Until comparatively recently the methods of Knowledge a jy S j s f or detecting Nitrates were not sufficiently deli- Nitrate cate to throw full light upon the problem. Since, how- ever, it has been discovered that the sulphate of dipheny- lamine is a sufficientlv delicate test for Nitrate to iudi- Transferring Nitrate from Vessel to Cars at Port of Entry. cate one part in 100,000,000, it has been possible to shed much light upon the movements of Nitrates, and the ex- istence of Nitrates in plants. Serno lias found Nitrates in almost all families of plants. The largest quantities occur in Malvaceae, Cruciferccv,, Papaveracecc, Convol- vulacece, Labiatcc, Compositcc, and Urticaeecc. In many plants it occurs only in the roots, and more especially only in the newly formed absorbing roots. He rinds that it is stored in the roots during the winter in some; in others it is found only in the spring. In annuals the Nitrates occur abundantly in all parts. Deherain has found that wheat will store as much as one per cent, of Nitrates in the roots of the plant during the winter time, and that if dry roots be dipped in a solution of the sulphate of diphenylamine, they take on a deep blue color, indicating the presence of a very large percentage of Nitrates retained in the roots preparatory for use when growth starts in the spring. Present JDamussy has found that these Nitrates are not washed ^V**-^* out from the roots by cold water, although they are read- Ni trate ily extracted by warm water, or when the roots are sub- jected for some time to an atmosphere of chloroform and then washed with cold water. This, he thinks, indi- cates that the Nitrates are held in the roots in some very unstable compound, perhaps with the protoplasm, and resume their normal condition whenever the protoplasm is modified by an elevated temperature or by chloroform. Serno is of the opinion that Nitrates stored in the roots of plants during the winter, which, as growth be- gins in the spring, may be traced into the stems of the plants as they move up to the leaves and finally lose their identity in them, are converted by the changes tak- ing place in the growing plant, into some form of amides, especially, perhaps, asparagine. Our methods of analy- sis, however, are not yet sufficiently perfected to trace these compounds exactly to the point where this change takes place. They can be followed up to the plant in the spring, quite distinctly in the roots, less distinctly in the stem, and they gradually disappear as they rise. This principle applies to a very large number of agri- cultural plants, and the power of these plants to store up Nitrates in their roots is of great advantage in keep- ing a supply of available nitrogenous plant food within reach. It is familiar to all of us that the Nitrates form in greatest quantities during the moist, warm summer months, and that they exist in the soil in the largest proportions in the latter part of the summer. This storing capacity of plants, therefore, is of great import- ance. S. Winogradsky has devoted a large amount of time and attention to the study of the nitrifying organ- isms which convert ammonia salts into Nitrates. He began by operating upon the soils around Zurich, and has extended his investigation to cover samples of soil taken from many countries of the world and from all climates. He has succeeded in isolating and preparing the pure culture of a group of organisms, called by him "nitromonas," which he is disposed to consider rather Knowledge of Sodium 44 Present as a g r0 up of bacteria than as a single species whose special function is the oxidation of ammonia. He had Nitrate already isolated bacteria whose special function was the oxidation of sulphur compounds and also the oxidation of iron compounds, which he named respectively "sulfo- bacteria" and ferro bacteria." He therefore named those producing Nitrate, "nitro-bacteria." He found that the nitromonas secured from different parts of the world possessed varying degrees of intensity of action. In the pure cultures, those from Europe acted slowly, and after a few generations of pure cultures, lost the power of oxidizing ammonia salts, while those secured from the soils of South America and Africa attacked the ammonia salts with great energy, and seemed to ac- quire greater activity with successive generations. He has done an immense amount of work in the study of these bacteria, and has shed much light upon the pecu- liarities of their actions. He also found that the nitromonas developed nor- mally either in the light or darkness, and that they can assimilate the carbon from carbon dioxide in entire dark- ness. They are able, in entire darkness, to appropriate this carbon from carbonates or from carbon dioxide, and cause it to combine with the nitrogen to form organic matter, without the aid of the sun's rays. He believes that some sort of an amido compound is pro- duced at the expense of the carbon dioxide and the ammonia. These chemical changes developed by the nitromonas, differ materially from those which occur with chlorophyl. In the action of chlorophyl, carbon dioxide is decomposed by the sun's rays, the oxygen liberated, and the carbon unites with the hydrogen and oxygen to form carbo-hydrates, but the investigations of Winogradsky indicate that the nitro-bacteria, instead of decomposing the carbon dioxide and setting oxygen free, effects its union with ammonia and makes use of the oxygen of the air to oxidize the nitrogen to nitrous and nitric acids, the energy for this change being sup- plied to them from the oxidation which they bring about. At this point there is room for still further investigation , The conditions favorable for the oxidation of nitro gen compounds to nitrous and nitric acids, by the respec- tive nitrifying organisms whose special function is to bring about these changes, have been studied exten- sively by Warrington, Schlosing, Winogradsky, and others, and the conditions favorable to the production of Present Knowledge of Sodium Nitrate 45 Nitrate Sailing Ship. Nitrates in the soil are quite thoroughly understood, and if we were able to control the meteorological condi- tions, it would perhaps not be a difficult matter to develop in the soil a very large quantity of Nitrates suitable for plant food. As we are unable, however, Present t control the meteorological conditions, the best that ^°wle d ge can be done is to see that the soil is properly drained, Nitrate properly cultivated, and supplied with a sufficient quan- tity of hme or other alkali, to prevent the acidity from 4 interfering with the regular processes of nitrification. Even with this, however, it has been found by E. Breal that there may be an extensive destruction of Nitrates by the action of an antagonistic bacterium or ferment, which he finds developing extensively, especially upon straw and other vegetable refuse. This ferment has the power of attacking the Nitrates and liberating the nitrogen as free nitrogen. It has long since been shown that putrescent fermentation reduces Nitrates to the lower oxides and finally to ammonia. This ferment, however, acts differently in that it does not reduce the Nitrates to lower oxides, but sets the nitrogen free. In one case, one-third of the nitric acid under experimentation disappeared; in another sixty- seven per cent, of the nitrogen disappeared. The rapid- ity of the decomposition has been measured and the products of decomposition analyzed. He has shown that when the soil containing Nitrates is drying, and the Nitrates rising, if covered with wet straw or other vegetable refuse, and allowed to dry out slowly, Nitrates are not found either in the straw or surface soil. This condition, in his judgment, accounts for the failure to find Nitrates in meadows, forests or other lands strewn with large amounts of vegetable refuse, a fact which was also noticed by Boussingault. It also accounts probably for a large amount of the loss of nitrogen which occurs when green manures are used. It is a notorious fact that a large percentage of the nitrogen stored in a crop used as a green manure seems to escape, and the dis- covery of this ferment by Breal probably accounts for it. We are therefore confronted by these difficulties in the production of Nitrates in the soil : (1) The reduction of Nitrates by putrefactive fermentation. (2) By the action of Breal's bacterium. It seems impossible to produce in a soil under nor- mal conditions, more than a very small percentage of Nitrate, and, rarely, enough to answer the maadmum Present requirements of a large crop. rf'sodfam It is well known that there is great diversity in Nitrate what is known as the availability of nitrogen in its " ^ various forms when used in compounding fertilizers, or when used as a direct fertilizer upon the land. This variation in availability is dependent upon the readiness •with which the nitrogen compound, whether it be am- monia salts or vegetable or animal refuse, is converted into Nitrates. Recently Johnson, Jenkins and Britton, of the Connecticut Experiment Station, undertook an inves- tigation to determine the availability of a number of the chief sources of nitrogen, used for compounding our commercial fertilizers. They used for this purpose, oats, Hungarian grass, and rye. The soil upon which the experiments were conducted was quite thoroughly exhausted by previous crops, and ordinary precautions to prevent errors creeping in were observed. They de- temined the percentages of availability in different sources of nitrogen, as shown by the plants indicated in pot experiments as follows : Per Cent. Sodium Nitrate 100.0 Dried Blood 73.3 Dried fish 93.9 Ground bone 16.7 Tankage 49.4 Horn and hoof powder 63.3 Linseed meal 68.9 Cottonseed meal 64.8 Castor pumice 64.6 It will be noticed in this experiment, as is now the general custom, that Sodium Nitrate is taken as the standard of availability. In brief: (1) Sodium Nitrate is the most important source of available nitrogen at the present time. Present (2) The efforts of scientific men to provide it, or of n °Sodiu ge f urn i sn a substitute for it, shows the importance of the Nitrate Subject. 48 (3) Their investigations bearing upon it, show the important relations of bacterial life to the production and destruction of Nitrates in the soil. In conclusion, science has failed, so far, to provide a complete substitute for Nitrate of Soda, and it is more economical to avail ourselves of natural supplies. These probably represent the accumulated work of bacterial ferments during protracted geological periods of the past, in what is now desert regions of Chile. To rely upon the inadequate and imperfect work in our soils under the unfavorable natural climatic conditions is unwise from the standpoint of the practical farmer, who is a man of business. In these desert regions, the work of Nitration of organic forms of Nitrogen doubtless proceeded precisely in method as Nitration is proceeding in every soil all over the surface of the earth to-day wherever there is vegetation. In Chile this work went on in great mass and in enormous quantities; many millions of tons were pro- duced so that it is commercially possible to-day to extract Nitrate of Soda. The occurrence and extrac- tion of this fertilizer are described in the preceeding pages. N. Y. Wall Street Journal, February 9, 1909. Present Knowledge of Sodium Nitrate Deposits of Chile Nitrate Contradiction of Rumor that Deposits of the Salt in that Country Will soon be Exhausted. Washington — Commenting on the Chilean Ni- trate of Soda deposits, the board of engineers of that country, according to Consul Hanna, says: "It is the current opinion in Europe and the United States that our nitrate deposits will be ex- hausted after a maximum period of forty years, and so widely spread is this error that the subject has been con- sidered in the annual report of the Secretary of Agri- culture, presented to the Congress of the United States. Perhaps the data submitted by the delegations in for- mer years caused the lack of confidence, but the data then given were the results of this office up to that time; and at present the aspect is entirely different. The experience of the last ten years has shown that the former figures do not nearly approximate the actual conditions. "There are undeniably 4,843,000,000 Spanish quin- tals of Nitrate of Soda in sight, which by the methods in use at the present time, may be produced from the lands measured and estimated in the nitrate region. With an annual exportation of 35,000,000 quintals, which is more than that exported in 1907, there is suffi- cient to satisfy the entire consumption of the world for one hundred and thirty years." A Spanish quintal is equal to 101.61 pounds, so that according to the Chilean report, there is available a sup- ply of 492,097,230,000 pounds of Nitrate of Soda. N. Y. Evening Post, Dec. 19, 1907. At the present rate of extraction the nitrate beds of Chile will last for at least 250 years more. The same 49 Present agents which formed these gigantic beds are still at Knowledge work and new nitrate is forming every day. An old Nitrate Chile working had lain idle for many years, and the tailing, which contained between 3 and 5 per cent, of 50 Saltpeter when the mine was closed down, was worked over and 95 per cent, of Saltpeter was extracted. The moisture from the sea settles on the rocks and a chemi- cal reaction sets in, forming Saltpeter. Genera] view of Xitrate and Iodine plant. !*'.? >. THE NITRATE INDUSTRY By Senor Enrique Cuevas Counselor of the Chilean Embassy to the U. S. A. Published by WILLIAM S. MYERS, D. Sc, F. C. S., Director Chilean Nitrate Propaganda Late of New Jersey State Agricultural College 25 MADISON AVENUE, NEW YORK INTRODUCTORY NOTE BY THE PUBLISHER Since the outbreak of the European war, resulting in the destruction of much shipping, the need of promoting an effective Entente Cordiale between the countries of South America and those of North America has been strongly emphasized. It has been especially gratifying, therefore, to witness a sec- ond Pan-American Congress called in Washington for the pro- motion of such an Entente with Latin-America. The temporary closing of the Panama Canal, after merchants had come to know its great convenience so well, further disclosed the vital need of promoting transportation between the two Continents. It is not by any means necessary to confine it to water transportation. Water freights for Nitrate of Soda have been as high as thirty dollars ($30.00) a ton of late, and this would be less by all rail, were such facilities in existence. The completion of the Longitudinal Railway of the American Continent is greatly to be desired. With such a railway, North America need not be cut off from the indispensable Chilean Nitrate of Soda as a munition of war in time of need. On the other hand, the transportation of all necessities, at all times, to the South American Countries would render all rail route between Kansas City and Buenos Aires of inestimable value. As is well-known by all scientific men who have approached the subject with an open mind, the Nitrate supplies of Chile are for all practical purposes inexhaustible. The Central Empires of Europe imported from Chile in the five years ended December 31, 1914, an unheard of tonnage of Nitrate of Soda amounting to about five million (5,000,000) tons. The area of the Central Empires is hardly greater than the combined areas of California and Texas. These Empires imported more than all the rest of Europe for the period named. It is not improbable that a very great amount of this five million (5,000,000) tons is still held in reserve in Germany, and it is privately reported that no Chilean Nitrate is to be permitted to be used in agriculture for some time to come. It is believed that the views set forth by some experts at the Pan-American Congress, suggesting our entire independence of this most important South American product, should not be taken too seriously, and it may prove so later when subjected to the cold, dry light of hard-headed business experience. These views, therefore, while animated and most interesting, did not touch upon the eminently desirable proposal of Sefior Cuevas, which is entirely within the sphere of practical things. It is strongly urged that his able Address be read by North Americans from the standpoint of friendly presentation of the broad views of a statesman. It is, in effect, an invitation to trade with them and not a proposal for us merely to buy or for South Americans merely to sell, but rather that ladings may be always full in both directions. Our merchants and manufacturers have a very keen desire to sell their goods to South America, which is a new market; and Pan- Americanism points to trade development that will enable South Americans to sell goods to North Americans, as well as to buy them from us. It still remains for diplomatic expressions of good will to be translated into terms of practical trade reciprocity, which is to be of mutual advantage to the people of both Continents. Should the States of North America enter the field of manu- facturing Air Nitrate, Chile might add a plant for direct com- petition by water power since that is quite adequate in that country for large production. It is a great pleasure indeed to be able to reproduce the views expressed so vividly by Counselor Cuevas of the Chilean Embassy at "Washington, in his description of the Chilean Nitrate Industry in the succeeding pages. His high position with his government and his long experi- ence in that service as Governor of one of the large provinces of Chile, guarantee a sincerity of expression which, it is believed, will be fully appreciated in the perusal of his Address. New York, April, 1916. CONTENTS General Remarks. History of Nitrate. Origin of the Deposits. Nitrate as it is found. Cateos. Extent of Nitrate Deposits in Chile. Technique of the Industry. Cost of Production. Uses of Nitrate. Nitrate of Soda as a fertilizer. Economic Importance of Nitrate. Competition with Atmospheric Nitrate. Lahor Problem in the Industry. Effect of the European War Upon the Nitrate Industry. Nitrate Combination. Nitrate Railways. Nitrate of Soda in the United States. Part Played by the Industry in the Economic Life of the Country. Conclusions. Appendix. The Nitrate Industry By Enrique Cuevas. General Remarks. In the great desert of Northern Chile lies an area of over 450 miles in length, barren and desolate, bereft of trees, shrubs or even weeds. Yet, it is the one spot upon which the world is dependent for its supply of the most effective means of increasing the productiveness of its soil, for along this arid region stretch the vast deposits of the precious mineral, from whose exports alone the Government derives an annual revenue of over $35,000,000 U. S. Currency. For the benefit of those who are not acquainted with the origin and preparation of nitrate, it may not be amiss to say a few words on this point. Owing to the fact that the nitrate industry is carried on in no other country than Chile, many of the technical words used in connection therewith have no exact equivalent in other languages, and it thus becomes necessary to explain the meaning of such terms as will be employed in the course of this discussion. The area in reference is commonly known as the Pampa Salitrera — the nitrate plain — where lie the de- posits of caliche, the raw material from which saltpeter is extracted. This salt contains nitrate of sodium in the proportion of 95 per cent, the commercial standard. Chuca, costra and tapa are the layers found above the caliche, while those lying below are called conjelo and coba. The survey for locating caliche beds and determining the quantity and standard of the material is known as cateo. Oficinas salitreras is the name applied to the various establishments which operate the deposits and prepare The i d itr t ate tlie nnisne d product for the market. They are scattered n us ry throughout the Pampa like small cosmopolitan towns, in- 8 habited by Chileans and people of different nationalities. Each oficina stands in the midst of the field from which its caliche is obtained. It is a group of buildings equipped with modern machinery, chemical laboratories, crushers, boiling tanks, settling vans, offices, and living quarters. An important part of this group, which should be men- tioned in passing, though one subordinate to the main object of securing as much nitrate as possible, is designed for the extraction and preparation of iodine from the mother lye. The nitrate zone is situated at an altitude ranging between 2,000 and 5,000 feet above sea level, within i- < K H Z v^ I Plain of TamaruGal ~l COAST Huts I SCA LEtl£L — . — p— — — — — — ^-^ Jv ISMikts to 3S Mites - - - . ?» - .About *S Mmi... GENERAL EAST AND WEST SECTION OF THE NITRATE DISTRICT OF chili. VERTICAL SCALE EXAGGERATED. 19° 11' and 27° South latitude. In the north it is sepa- rated from the coast by a distance of about 16 miles, and by nearly 90 miles in the south. It is connected with the shore by a number of railway lines. The climate prevailing is a peculiarly dry one, there being hardly any precipitation. However, it is to this lack of rainfall that the nitrate beds owe their very existence, as the water filtering into them would naturally dissolve their components. History of Nitrate. The history of nitrate may be divided into three dis- tinct phases, to wit: (1) History of the discovery of the substance; (2) history of the methods of prepara- tion, and (3) history of the manner of acquiring the £ h d e us ££ rate lands. History of the Discovery of Nitrate. According to tradition, the first discoveries of caliche were made in Tarapaca by the Indians, and it was first applied as a fertilizer by a priest at the head of a parish in Camina. It is said that a party of Indians had straggled into what is known to-day as the Pampa Salitrera, and, as a protection against the intense cold, they built them- selves a bon-fire. To their amazement, they noticed that the fire soon began to run along the ground in every direction, causing what to them were strange and un- accountable noises. Terrified at so unusual a sight they fled from the spot, which they firmly believed to be the abode of the evil spirit. The flames, spreading out sometimes to quite a distance from the original fire, were to their minds the evil spirit itself. So they went to the priest and told him of their terror and its cause. He quickly understood that the phenomenon was simply due to the existence of some special substance in the soil, and asked the Indians to take him to the place. They read- ily agreed, believing the priest possessed with the power of banishing the evil spirit, and an expedition was or- ganized. He gathered many specimens, which he took to his house, and, with the meagre chemical outfit at his disposal, made an analysis of these samples, which showed the presence of nitrate of soda. The samples which had not been used in the analysis, he piled up in his garden, and a few days later he no- ticed an extraordinary development in the plants which happened to be near the piles. Convinced that he had discovered a powerful tonic for plants, he undertook to experiment with it on his crops, finding after the first year that the products were much larger and far superior to those he had obtained in his previous agricultural experience. Then the priest announced to his parishioners that the soil was not the abode of the evil spirit, but a gift of Providence for increasing the productiveness of the earth. So much for tradition. 9 The industr 6 0fficial documents of the time of Philip the Fifth show ill that saltpeter was then already known. In the 18th Cen- !0 tury, the mines of Huantajaya and others were exten- sively exploited, and the miners used the caliche in the preparation of the gunpowder which they used in work- ing their mines. History of the Manufacture of Nitrate. Tarapaca was the cradle of the nitrate industry. The Indians used to prepare the substance, for gunpowder purposes, in large copper caldrons. The working process was very simple. The caliche was placed in these caldrons when the water had reached the boiling point. The solution was finally transferred to large wooden vats where the nitrate finally crystallized. This method was in use until the beginning of the 19th Cen- tury, when a more scientific process of dissolution was adopted. The first oficinas were established in 1812. Wood was still used as fuel and the working implements differed very little from those used by the Indians. The process of manufacture, however, varied somewhat. The In- dians used to boil the water first; the caliche was then put in and the solution stirred for some time with large iron bars. Then the water was taken out of the caldrons with huge iron spoons and put into the wooden vats for its decantation ; the solution was afterwards transferred to other vats in which it finally crystallized. There was no specially adapted machinery for extracting the caliche and carrying it to the working plant. It may be readily seen that under this method only a very small part of the caliche extracted was finally prepared, the greater portion being lost in the process. Owing to imperfect ways and means, a large quantity was lost in the extraction, as the water did not dissolve a large percentage of the nitrate in the caliche, and a great portion of the solution leaked through the wooden vats. About 1855, a new era was inaugurated for the nitrate industry with the introduction of steam as a means of heating the water for the solution. At first, the steam was applied directly, being forced into the water. Twenty years later the use of steam in coils was adopted, the same principles governing the Shanks system for the production of soda being applied to the manufac- The titrate ture of nitrate. This system is very successful in the working of the caliches of Tarapaca, which are soft and u porous, and at present the same methods, more or less modified, are employed in the different oficinas. • History of the Acquisition of Lands. Until the year 1868, the nitrate fields, like other min- eral lands, were unclaimed. Almost anybody could for the asking secure from the government a grant of two estacas, an estaca comprising about 36,000 square yards. The method of surveying the boundaries of lots was a very imperfect one. A justice of the peace attended to the conveyance of the property. The instruments used were a compass and a rope about 45 yards long. The surface was marked off by lines traced on the ground by means of a hammer dragged at the end of the rope. Small piles of stones were then placed at the intersections of such lines, and at right angles therewith small stones were laid just far enough to show the direc- tion of the dividing lines. This was the official basis for deeding the property, and, as one can easily imagine, the position of these markings could be changed without much trouble whenever the owner found out that the standard of the caliche in his grant was not high enough. The regulations in force at that time prescribed no other limitations than that of restricting nitrate grants to two estacas per person; consequently it was an easy matter for a large family, for instance, to form an ex- tensive holding by joining the lots of its different members. In January, 1873, the Peruvian Government assumed the monopoly of the nitrate industry, and fixed the ex- port duty on the article at 4 cents per quintal (1 Span- ish quintal being equal to 101.44 pounds), increasing it later to 15 cents. In 1875, the Peruvian 1 Congress passed a law of eminent domain authorizing the Government to spend the amount of 7,000,000 pounds sterling in the condemnation of oficinas salitreras and in the construc- tion of nitrate railways. In 1876 it was enacted that in July of the following year the oficinas should be turned over to the government and that their operation should cease. The Nitrate Under the law, commissions of engineers were ap- Industry pointed to ascertain the value of grants and oficinas to 12 be purchased by the Government. Nevertheless, the method of procedure followed by these commissions was inadequate. In the main, they trusted altogether to the data furnished them by the proprietors, and, with- out verifying the actual limits of the property, gave out certificates to the owners. From this arose the diffi- culty encountered by the Chilean Government after the Pacific War, — which left Chile in possession of the nitrate zone, — in turning over the property to the hold- ers of the certificates. At present, most of the titles have been cleared up, and lands owned by the Govern- ment are sold from time to time at public auction and accurately surveyed. Origin of the Deposits. This is a mooted question on which no two geologists agree. There are, however, some theories which are generally accepted as more or less correct. One is that in prehistoric times, the entire nitrate zone was a part of the Pacific Ocean, and that through volcanic disturb- ances that portion of the sea was cut off and the water evaporated by a very slow process. Fish skeletons found in the caliche furnish good proof of this asser- tion, as does the fact that the Pacific coast is rising gradually. This theory is, however, contradicted by the fact that no bromine exists there, — a substance naturally looked for in deposits thus formed. Another theory attributes the origin of the caliche to an electrical process. The passage of an electric spark through the moist air produces a combination of nitro- gen and oxygen resulting in nitric acid. Electrical storms, — a frequent occurrence in the Andes, — may have acted in this way and formed great quantities of nitric acid. The water charged with the acid, coming into contact with the lime in the rocks, may have pro- duced nitrate of lime, which together with sulphate of soda, may in turn have formed nitrate of soda, freeing the sulphate of lime. A later theory maintains that the deposits are an accumulation of land drainage brought down through ^he Nitrate ages from the highlands along the coast. Others explain the formation as the work of microbes, 13 or as the result of the action of volcanoes discharging through their craters ammonia-charged steam there condensed. Leaving the solution of the problem to geologists, we may now proceed with a consideration of the substance as found on the spot. Nitrate as it is Found. Nitrate is found mixed with other substances in ir- regular sections of the soil, forming a stratum fre- quently interrupted by sterile sections. It is generally considered that no more caliche is found below the coba, but in some cases there is a second nitrate-bearing layer, called banco. The chuca, the layer with which the nitrate field is always covered, is usually not over ten inches thick, and is formed by the decomposition of porphyry, its color varying from gray to brown. In this layer many loose crusts and rough pieces of a gray-white color are found embedded. The costra, the layer beneath the chuca, is a sort of rocky conglomeration of clay, gravel, porphyry and feldspar, cemented together with sulphate of calcium, sulphate of potash and soda, nitrate of soda, etc. This is a very hard mass, and is difficult to remove without the aid of explosives. The tapa is the layer found immediately above the caliche and is composed of sand and clay, common salt and sulphate of calcium. The costra and tapa have a depth of from one to three feet. The caliche stratum, with a depth varying from a few inches to six or more feet, is a mixture of which there are technically three different grades: (1) the best, containing from 40 to 70 per cent or more of nitrate; (2) the medium, containing from 30 to 40 per cent; and (3) the lower, containing from 18 to 30 per cent. Caliche averaging below 17 per cent is not considered worth working at present. The appearance and composition of caliche differ in The Nitrate the various zones. It is often white as snow; in other Industry instances it is yellow, gray, or sometimes violet. It has 14 a salty taste, and is very soluble in water. The standard of nitrate of sodium in the fields under exploitation varies -from 18 to 70 per cent, the aver- age being from 20 to 50 per cent. The caliches of higher standard are found in Tarapaca and Tocopilla. The substances of which the caliche is composed, and the proportions in which they are found, vary a great deal. One of the numerous analyses we have examined gives the following composition: Per cent. Nitrate of sodium 34.2 Common salt 32 . Insoluble matters (clay, gravel, etc.) 14.5 Sodium sulphate 8.4 Calcium sulphate 6.3 Nitrate of potassium 1.6 Magnesium sulphate 2.0 Water 1.0 100.0 The conjelo, the layer immediately below the caliche, is composed of sand, different salts, and clay, and very often a great quantity of small selenite crystals. The coba, the stratum under the conjelo, moist as a general rule, is formed of calcium sulphate, clay, etc. Cateos. This operation consists of ascertaining the existence of the caliche, the depth of the strata lying over it, the standard of the material, etc. This is done by blasting at certain depths and regular distances. It is not diffi- cult, when the ground is thus broken, to determine the width of the vein, to compute the degree of difficulty in its extraction, by taking its depth into account, and to ascertain the average standard by making an analysis of the caliche in the different places. So, by means of this process, it is practicable to estimate with more or less accuracy, the quantity of nitrate in the soil under cateo. The quantity thus determined is called the theo- The Nitrate retical quantity. The amount of nitrate that can actu- ally be exploited is obtained by subtracting from this 15 figure the caliche of a law standard. The commercial price of a salitrera depends, of course, upon the standard of the caliche, the depth of the veins, the amount of the water available for the working process, and the location of the fields, i. e., distance from the shipping port and transportation facilities thereto. Extent of Nitrate Deposits in Chile. According to the latest official report presented to the Chilean Government by Mr. Francisco J. Castillo, the Inspector-General of the nitrate deposits, the zone The Nitrate f nitrate-bearing grounds comprises nearly 200,000 Indnstry square kilometers,* of which only 5,811 square kilomet- 16 ers, that is to say, less than three per cent of the total area, have thus far been surveyed and their contents ascertained by excavations and test holes. These 5,811 square kilometers belong to the existing companies, private, firms, and part of them are still in the hands of the Chilean Government. UNEXPLORED NI TRATE G ROUND IN CHILE : 74,976 SQUARE MILES EXPLORED NITRATE GROUND 2,244 SQ. MILES The estimated contents of these 5,811 square kilo- meters were 290,300,000 tons of nitrate, of which up to the present 50,000,000 tons have been extracted and ex- ported, leaving in the surveyed portion of the area, 240,300,000 tons of nitrate, equal at the present rate of production, to a supply for an additional 100 years. * 1 square kilometer — 0.386 square mile. •Mm* S > > *' • • '. %t<^ Caliche ready for transport to ofieina. Top of Caliclie liopper; Carts tipping Cali Packing Nitrate into bas liirhti As the unexplored part is some 34 times larger than The Nitrate the grounds explored, it is safe to estimate that it con- n us ^ tains altogether at least twice the quantity of nitrate of n soda, and consequently the nitrate zone in Chile can certainly provide nitrate of soda for another 300 years at the present rate of production. The quantity of nitrate of soda in the surveyed grounds is distributed as follows: Tons remaining:. Tarapaca Province 33,000,000 Tocopilla District 27,000,000 Antofagasta (Central) 31,000,000 Antofagasta ( Aguas Blancas District) 48,000,000 Taltal 93,000,000 Chanaral and Copiapo 8,000,000 Total 240,000,000 The i N a itr t£ T]bie Ina P ect or-General of nitrate grounds, in his re- n " s ^ port to the Chilean Government, has arrived at these !8 figures in the following manner: In these surveyed grounds no raw material containing less than 17 per cent of nitrate of soda has been taken into considera- tion, nor grounds where the thickness of the nitrate- bearing layer was less than 1 foot, except in the cases of raw material with at least 25 per cent of nitrate of soda, in which cases thickness of 8 inches or over has been included. The superficial area of each portion of ground has been divided by the total number of test holes made, in order to arrive at the area applicable to each test hole, and this consequently determines the total nitrate-bearing area. From the theoretical quantity of pure nitrate of soda resulting from the above opera- tions, a reduction of 40 per cent has been made in order to allow for losses in extraction, manufacture, errors in calculation, etc. There remain, besides, vast quantities of lower grade ore which have been excluded from these estimates, be- cause they cannot be profitably extracted under the present system of operation; but as improvements are constantly being made, there is every reason to assume that even this low-grade material will be worked when the richer ores are exhausted. These statements, therefore, demonstrate conclusively that there is no fear of the Chilean nitrate deposits being exhausted for 300 years, at least. Technique of the Industry. As the foregoing historical sketch of the manufacture of nitrate shows the process has been about the same from the beginning, the only difference consisting of some mechanical modifications and the use of improved machinery. Chemistry, no doubt, has contributed most toward the betterment of the system, but there is still plenty of room for improvement. The system used at present is based upon the degree of solubility of the principal salts contained in the caliche at a temperature above 100° Centigrade. These salts, as we have seen, are nitrate, chloride and sulphate of sodium. The higher the temperature of the water, the greater the solubility of the nitrate of sodium, and- this solubility is in inverse j^ s f" rate proportion to that of the sulphate and chloride of so- . dium. However, this system does not solve the commer- 19 cial side of the problem, since, in order to raise the tem- perature of the water, a greater quantity of fuel must be consumed, and the better results thus obtained are not sufficient compensation for the expense of this extra fuel. It is also necessary to bear in mind the fact that a heightened temperature would affect, through the dis- solving power of the water, the other salts contained in the caliche, in proportion to the relative quantity of each. Moreover, a rise in temperature would affect like- wise the salts contained in the water used in the dissolv- ing or lixiviation process. The technique of the industry comprises two different operations : (1) The mining of the caliche and its trans- portation to the machine in which it is to be worked, and (2) The production of the nitrate. The first process is very important, as the amount of profit depends largely upon the expense involved. It is extremely simple when compared with the elaborate machinery necessary in ex- tracting other minerals. The second process comprises four different opera- tions: (1) the crushing of the caliche. (2) the dissolving of the caliche in Water; (3) the segregating process, and (4) the crystallization of the nitrate. Crushing machines worked by steam break up the caliche and drop it into funnel-shaped carriages, which carry it on tracks to the boiling kettles. For the dissolving process, a great variety of ma- chines has been employed, but all may be classified under two heads : (1) — -those that cause the caliche to revolve about in the water to dissolve it; (2) — those that allow the water to percolate through the caliche. Heat is used to give the water the greatest possible dissolving power. This heat has been obtained either by direct contact with fire, or by steam in open or closed pipes. As may be easily understood, the solution thus ob- tained contains not only substances soluble in water, but also some which are not soluble, Those not soluble are segregated by allowing them to settle. The precipi- The Nitrate tation of those in solution is produced by reducing the n ° s T temperature of the solution to a degree corresponding 20 to its density, affecting first the common salt and then the nitrate. This cooling process is a delicate one, for as soon as the sodium chloride has settled, the precipita- tion of the nitrate begins, and these two precipitations must take place in different receptacles. For the pre- cipitation and the crystallization of the nitrate, large shallow receptacles are used, called vats (bateas), in which the temperature of the solution is reduced to that of the atmosphere. This takes from 24 to 40 hours, or longer. When the water reaches the atmospheric tem- perature, the nitrate crystallizes on the walls and bottom of the batea. Then the water is pumped out and the nitrate gathered together to dry. From this water (mother lye) iodine is extracted, and it is then used again for the lixiviation of fresh caliche. The nitrate which has already crystallized is placed in drying pans for three or four days to allow the remaining water to drain off. It is then taken to the cancha, a smooth cemented floor, where it remains from 12 to 15 days until it is entirely dry. It is then packed in bags containing about 200 pounds each, and is finally ready for export. The oficinas are now equipped with the best and most modern machinery, propelled by steam or electricity. Saltpeter, as exported, is of gray or yellow color, and its composition is as follows : Per cent. Nitrate of sodium 95.0 Sodium chloride 2.0 Sulphate 0.6 Insoluble matter 0.1 Moisture 2.3 Total 100.0 The process of manufacture, apparently so simple, is really a very complicated one, not only because of the great variety of machinery employed, but also on ac- count of the accuracy required throughout the different stages of the process. The nitrate or saltpeter thus ob- tained is, as already stated, 95 per cent pure, the com- ^ e us f^ rate mercial standard, and contains over 15 per cent nitrogen. From these facts, one can readily see what an impor- 21 tant role water plays in the production of nitrate, and the nitrate zone is in the midst of a desert. A considerable quantity of water is needed in every oficina, not only for consumption by the inhabitants, but also for draft animals and for the process of produc- tion. The quality of the water is an important factor, as it forms the basis of production, fulfilling as it doesi two functions in the process : One, physical, modifying the volume and the state of cohesion of the caliche, and the other, chemical, giving rise to combinations. Its action upon the caliche varies according to the salts it contains, as the dissolving power is modified and the ebullition point reached at different temperatures. In order to obtain satisfactory results, it is necessary, therefore, to make an accurate analysis of the water to be employed. The amount necessary for the production of each Spanish quintal is about 46 litres, according to an average taken from several reports. This quantity is augmented or reduced in accordance with the stand- ard of the caliche to be treated, a larger quantity being required when the caliches are of a lower standard, and a smaller amount when of a higher grade. Besides, the quantity of water necessary also varies according to the type of machine used and the process of manufac- ture. The water obtained from the wells of the desert differs in quality according to locality. The second factor playing an important part in the process is fuel. The fuels used in the nitrate industry are coal and gasoline. The greater part of the coal im- ported, until the outbreak of the European war, came from Great Britain and Australia in sailing vessels which returned laden with nitrate. The gasoline is im- ported from Peru. Although the use of the latter fuel requires machinery specially adapted, the capital therein invested is repaid, for the cost of transporting gasoline is less and the quantity wasted smaller than in the case of coal. The consumption of coal may be estimated from the fact that for every unit of coal used, five of nitrate are Tie Nitrate produced. As in the case of water, the consumption of n us ry coal depends upon the standard of the caliche. The 22 richer the caliche, the smaller the amount of coal con- sumed, since the quantity to be heated is smaller, while the nitrate is more concentrated. The consumption of gasoline is somewhat greater than that of coal, and, therefore, it is used as fuel only in the treatment of rich caliches. The average consumption is only one to four. A most important feature of the heating problem is that of attaining maximum economy in the use of fuel without impairing the ultimate production of nitrate — at present a considerable percentage of caloric power is wasted. Cost of Production. This is quite a difficult matter to determine, for the reason that it varies considerably according to the con- ditions of each particular field, — the standard of its caliche, the depth of its nitrate-bearing layers, and so on. In order, therefore, to arrive at an approximate basis for estimating the cost of nitrate production, we must assume an oficina operating in deposits containing the average caliche of 30 per cent nitrate, and taking into consideration the various factors entering into the final cost, such as wages, operating expenses, fuel, wear and tear of machinery, etc., we arrive at the figure of 50 cents United States currency per quintal at the cancha. In the Appendix will be found a description of the method of transacting nitrate sales. Uses of Nitrate. Nitrate of sodium is found in the market in two dif- ferent grades, viz.: The commercial, with 95 per cent, used for fertilizing purposes, and the refined, with over 96 per cent, applied to manufacturing uses. The fol- lowing is a partial list of the many uses to which Nitrate is devoted : As a special fertilizer. In compounding fertilizers. In the manufacture of glass. In the manufacture of explosives. In the manufacture of fireworks. ^e ?i* rate In the manufacture of fusing mixtures. In the manufacture of nitric acid. 23 In the manufacture of nitrate of potash. In the manufacture of arsenate of soda. In the manufacture of steel. In the manufacture of minium. For making chlorine in the manufacture of bleaching powders. In the purification of caustic soda, etc. Nitrate of Soda as a Fertilizer- The results obtained in the application of artificial manures are most satisfactory when used in such com- binations as to supply the soil with the three principal constituents of plant life, — nitrogen, phosphate, and potash. Generally speaking, plants can be supplied with nitro- gen in four different forms: First, organic nitrogen (dung, green manure, bone meal, blood, fish, etc.) ; second, nitrogen in the form of ammonia (sulphate of ammonia) ; third, nitrogen in combination with carbon and lime (nitrolim, calcium cyanamid) ; fourth, nitro- gen in the form of nitrate (nitrate of soda, nitrate of lime.) Of these four forms, the last named, that of nitrate, is the most beneficial to the crop, for the plant can practi- cally absorb its nitrogen only in this form. It is thus that nitrate of soda takes the first place among nitroge- nous fertilizers. Nitrate of soda, on account of its extreme solubility, is easily absorbed by the plant, thereby entering imme- diately into its organism and strengthening its roots. This explains the vigorous growth which immediately follows. On the other hand, nitrate of soda does not exhaust the soil because it really prevents an excessive absorp- tion of phosphoric acid and potash. It also helps to prevent disease and insect pests. The positive results of experiments undertaken at dif- ferent times and places by several experts acting inde- pendently, coupled with the universal admission of the The I ^trate increase in weight and value of crops through the !!1L application of nitrate, bear witness to the fact that 24 nitrate of soda is the best form in which nitrogen can be supplied to the plant. Nitrogen in other forms must first be converted into nitrate before it is ready for the plant, but this process is dependent upon temperature and is practically stopped by excessive moisture or drought. This is the reason why nitrogen is not of equal value in the dif- ferent forms above mentioned. Several scientists in different countries have indi- vidually conducted experiments with the various kinds of nitrogenous fertilizers, and the results obtained have been practically the same, — a fact which furnishes strong evidence of the correctness of their conclusions. Dr. Edward B. Voorhees, at the New Jersey Experi- ment Station, carried on experiments for quite a number of years. The results he obtained have been entirely confirmed by similar experiments conducted in Darmstadt and other places in Germany by Dr. Paul Wagner. Both experts reached the conclusion that for every 100 pounds contained in the respective manures, the following weights of nitrogen were recovered in the crop: Nitrogen Recovered in Crop A Manure Voorhees Wagner Nitrate nitrogen 62 lbs. 62 lbs. Ammonia nitrogen 43 lbs. 44 lbs. Organic nitrogen (dry blood) 40 lbs. 40 lbs. The results obtained in Belgium by Dr. 6. Smets, of Liege, are similar. Taking nitrate of sodium as a basis, he makes the following comparison of the relative amounts of nitrogen taken up from the different man- ures : Nitrate of soda, 100 ; sulphate of ammonia, 75 ; nitrolim, 69 ; dry blood, horn-shavings, oil cake and green manure, 65; all others, under 60. Economic Importance of Nitrate. Although the population of the world increases rap- idly, the consumption of bread increases at a still greater 25 rate, this being due to the fact that its use among the ^ e us ^ itrate lower classes is becoming more and more general every . day. This growing demand may be met in two ways : Either by cultivating the virgin lands still available, or by a more intense farming of those already under cultiva- tion. Both methods have been tried, and a glance over the world statistics suffices to show the enormous devel- opment that has taken place during the last twenty years in the cultivation of new lands and in the con- sumption of fertilizers. However, of the two, the second method is the most scientifically economic, since it is cheaper to double the production in an area already prepared for cultivation than to open up new lands. It may be stated as an axiom that the consumption of nitrate increases in different countries in proportion to their scientific development. Competition with Atmospheric Nitrogen. There is, and there can be, no competition between Chilean nitrate and atmospheric nitrate. The produc- tion of the latter is so small in comparison with the out- put of Chilean nitrate, that the price of the Chilean article is the one factor that is to determine whether any particular process for the fixation of atmospheric nitrate can be profitable or not. If any danger of competition should arise, it must be due to either of the following causes : When the production of atmos- pheric nitrate becomes many times larger than at present, or when the Chilean caliches begin to be ex- hausted. The first case is extremely doubtful ;, the second cannot happen for many, many years to come, as has been shown in the part of this discussion dealing with the extent of nitrate deposits in Chile. It should be borne in mind that the principal factor in the manufacture of atmospheric nitrate is water power, and, certainly, water power throughout the world is becoming more and more expensive on account of its practical application to the more lucrative industries. Vast sums of money would be required to increase the present production of atmospheric nitrate, while those 26 The Nitrate seeking an investment would undoubtedly hesitate and be afraid to devote their money to its manufacture be- cause of the uncertainty of being able to compete with Chilean nitrate, a competition which would be bound to be unfavorable to atmospheric nitrate in the probable event of a drop in the price of Chilean nitrate. More- over, ever since the manufacture of atmospheric nitrate was undertaken, its promoters have been promising and prophesying an enormous output of their article, and yet, in spite of the many years elapsed since then, it has failed to materialize and is very far from attaining the figures promised or even from reaching the low prices expected. Chilean nitrate can be stored in bags and used at any moment and in any quantity without the slightest detri- ment to what may be left in the bag, and it is not difficult to handle. Labor Problem in the Industry. There have been some disturbances in the Pampa Sali- trera due to differences between capital and labor. The Chilean Government has appointed special commissions to look into the situation, and has already made im- portant changes. Life in the nitrate zone is very hard for everybody, — owners, employees and common workmen alike. The first two classes used to find compensation for this hard life in a good table and other material comforts; the workmen, in alcohol. The trouble between capital and labor was based upon the injustice suffered by workmen in some of the oficinas, — instances which although exaggerated by the labor element, were nevertheless supposed to be general in all the oficinas. The principal causes of difference were : First, the cost of necessaries, all of which were sold by the oficinas; second, the fact that I he laborers were not paid in legal currency, but in a special money which the agencies exchanged at the ports ; third, the practice of discharging workmen and their families without due ex- planation. The result of such a state of affairs can be easily imagined. These commissions reported that it was necessary to The Nitrate provide the lower classes with better material comforts, schools for children, hospitals, places of amusement, etc. ; 27 also to suppress the special currency and allow the laborers the free exercise of the right of buying their pro- visions wherever they chose. The oficinas began to pro- vide for these necessities and many of them spent large sums with this end in view. There was one more thing which called for attention, namely special legislation providing compensation for accidents among workmen, in other words, an employers' liability law, a need which has been met during the past year. Formerly, workmen who met with accidents had no right to compensation unless they could prove that the accidents were due to negligence on the part of the em- ployers. An accident may occur not only through the negligence of the employer, but also through the fault of the workman or an unforeseen chance. In other words, statistics show that less than 25 per cent of accidents are due to the employers' negligence, while another 25 per cent may be traced to the fault of the workmen and 50 per cent to chance. So, under the regulations as they existed prior to the passage of the law above referred to, 75 per cent of the accidents were not attended to. By this law a workman is entitled to half of his salary from the moment the accident occurs until such time as he is able to resume his work. If the accident in- capacitates him for life, he is entitled to an income equiv- alent to 50 per cent of his salary. If he is only partially disabled, he receives a compensation corresponding to two years' salary. In case the workman loses his life, his family is entitled to a yearly income of 20 per cent of his salary, the amount being fixed by the court and the salary paid monthly. If the salary was a variable one, the judge fixes an average. This law provides not only for the nitrate industry, but also for all the other in- dustries in Chile. Effect of the European War on the Nitrate Industry. The first result of the European war has been an upset in the statistics of the industry, not only on account of The i I fl itr ? te ^ e difficulty in obtaining accurate information from the countries involved in the war, but also because the quan- 28 tities of nitrate used for industrial purposes have, without doubt, been far above the normal figures for the previous years. Many of the more important consuming markets have been cut off, and the means of transportation, consider- ably curtailed. These conditions influenced almost im- mediately the production of nitrate. Some oficinas closed down at once, but the greater number continued in opera- tion during the month of August, 1914. In September of the same year the output showed a remarkable decrease, and of the 170 oficinas at work before the war, only 34 were active at the end of the year. The pro- duction, which had averaged about 5,000,000 quintals a month fell to less than 2,000,000. The stocks on the Coast, in August and September 1914, exceeded 1,100,000 tons, as a result of the heavy production in June and July, coupled with small shipments in August and Sep- tember. Soon after the declaration of war, nitrate ex- ports to Germany, Belgium, and very important dis- tricts of France, ceased. Then, again, the scarcity of bottoms, due to loss and internment of ships, has pro- duced an enormous increase in freight rates. The ordinary freight rate from Chile to Europe before the war ranged from $6 to $7.50. As the war progressed the rate rose, and by degrees went up to $20, at which figure it remained for some time, only to rise again lately to $25, and even higher. The exports from July to December, 1914, reached only 14,003,252 quintals; making a total for the vear 1914 of 40,147,500 instead of 60,000,000 exported in 1913. During the first half of the present year, the exportation was 18,067,462 quintals, while during the second half, with estimated figures, for the months of November and December, it will amount to 22,600,000 quintals; making a total for the year of 40,067,462 quintals. The war has diminished the exportation in 1914 by 20,000,000 quintals, and for the present year by a sim- ilar figure; and over and above this figure there is the failure of the natural increase which was reasonably expected, considering that each year the export figure ^ h d e us ^. rate has increased by several million quintals. Of course, the price for the consumer has likewise ^ 9 been affected, not only on account of the rise in freight rates, but also by reason of the speculation in the dif- ferent markets due to fear of lack of transportation facilities. However, the ultimate effect upon the finances of the country has not been so disastrous as has been said. It is true that the Government has received only two- thirds of the normal export duties, but this curtailment in the income of the Treasury has been compensated by an additional tax and by economies introduced in the budget. In regard to the country itself, the results were a serious crisis during the second half of 1914, followed by a much healthier condition during the present year. The crisis caused the restriction of credit in the banks, a decrease in the imports, and consequently, a diminution in payments in foreign markets, which has resulted in the slow but steady rise in the ratio of exchange and econ- omy among the people. In May, 1915, many of the oficinas that had been closed resumed work as a consequence of the rise in nitrate prices and the pampa is now in full activity. Nitrate Combination. The world consumption of nitrate did not keep pace with the rapid development of the industry after the Pacific War, which gave Chile possession of the Nitrate Zone (1881), and, naturally the price of the article fell. This crisis of the industry was felt more intensely on account of the crisis that the sugar beet industry was undergoing at the same time in Europe. Such a situa- tion forced the different companies to unite and form a Combination, which had for its object the division of the world consumption among its various members, eaeh being allotted a quota of production in proportion to its own producing capacity. This measure almost immedi- ately caused a rise in the price. At any rate the oficinas salitreras were able to produce almost twice the amount The Nitrate allotted to each of them. Very expensive machinery had Industry already been acquired for production on a larger scale, 30 and the necessity of increasing the world consumption was evident. This was the reason for the organization of a committee, which took up the work of propaganda, not only in those countries where nitrate was known, but also in such where the possibility for new markets was evident. After a short time, the wonderful work of this committee became manifest. Between 1886 and 1890' it managed to raise the world consumption from 9,000,000 to 23,000,000 quintals. To-day it has organized sub-com- mittees or delegations in almost every country in the world. The propaganda is essentially of a scientific nature, and the delegations attend to all technical in- quiries from consumers. The committee has its head- quarters in London. The exportation of nitrate began in very small quan- tities in 1830. In the period between 1830 and 1835, 360,000 Spanish quintals were exported. At the present time, in a like period, the exportation reaches 300,000,- 000 Spanish quintals. Nitrate Railways. As a logical result, the development of the nitrate in- dustry brought about the construction of railway lines needed for transporting the article to the shipping ports. The first railway built in the nitrate zone was that from Iquique to Moria, the construction of which was begun in 1868 by the firm of Montero & Brothers, under a contract with the Peruvian Government. Its operation was begun in 1875. The nitrate railways have been constructed by private companies independent of each other, with the result that there is no harmony in the whole, their gauges, rolling stock and systems of operation being quite different. The ports to which the various lines lead are, from North to South : Pisagua, Junin, Caleta Buena, Iquique, Tocopilla, Mejillones, Antofagasta, Caleta, Coloso and Taltal. The railway systems affording an outlet for nitrate to the ports mentioned belong, as already stated, to different companies, for which reason we will con- sider them by groups according to companies. The Nitrate Railways Company carries the nitrate to ^^Nttrate the ports of Pisagua and Iquique ; the Junin Railway, to the port of the same name; the Agua Santa line, to 31 Caleta Buena; the Anglo-Chilean Nitrate and Railway Company, to Tocopilla; the Antofagasta and Bolivia Railway Company, to Antofagasta; and the Coloso and Taltal lines to the ports of these names. The characteristic of the nitrate railways is that they are formed by trunk lines from which radiate a series of branches to the different oficinas, and that they have been built under special contracts guaranteeing a mini- mum tonnage of freight. The capital invested in nitrate railways proper ex- ceeds 12,000,000 pounds sterling. Nitrate of Soda, in the United States. The enormous development in agriculture that has taken place in this country during the last years, — a development no doubt due to the more general instruc- tion in agriculture, and to the work of experiment sta- tions established throughout the different states, — is the cause of the rapid increase in the use of fertilizers, among them, nitrate of soda. In 1850 there were 1,449,073 farms, with a total acreage of 293,560,614. In 1880 there were 4,008,907 farms, with a total acreage of 536,081,835. In 1910 there were 6,361,502 farms, with a total acreage of 878,798,325. If we look into the statistics of production, we will find that the increase is proportionately larger than that of the land under cultivation. This difference is due to improved methods of cultivation, the use of fertilizers, the better organization of the industry, the wider dis- semination of agricultural training, and the experiment stations. established in different states. In the last ten' years the consumption of nitrate has doubled. The importation in 1904 was 293,574 tons, and in the year ending the 30th of June 1914, it was 564,000 tons. The consumption for the present year is over 600,000 tons. At no distant date this figure will 32 The i N d itr t te a ^ most rea °h that which represents the present produc- n us ry tion of nitrate in Chile. This result appears almost certain if we study the increasing percentage of culti- vation, together with the constant increase in the lands under cultivation. Without taking into consideration the commercial in- terchange of other products between the United States and Chile, the urgent necessity of providing steamship facilities between the two countries is manifest. United States exports to Chile in 1904 amounted to , $4,798,526, while in 1914 they were $17,408,724. Chilean imports into the United States, which in 1904 amounted to $10,775,810 have now reached the figure of $25,722,128. The above figures show at present a balance of trade in favor of Chile amounting to $8,289,736, but it must be pointed out that very often a wrong conclusion is drawn from them. The commercial exchange between the United States and Chile must be studied ' without regard to the trade in nitrate of soda, as this country cannot buy this substance anywhere else, and if we deduct the value of this article, the proportion of ex- change and the result are opposite. Chile buys five dollars ' worth of products in the United States for every dollar's worth which the United States buys in Chile. Part Played by the Nitrate Industry in the Economic Life of the Country. When it is considered that the nitrate industry by itself supports numerous railway companies, and con- stitutes almost 50 per cent of the total freight of the coastwise trade, — since the zone itself is sterile and almost all the articles and provisions required for its consumption have to be brought from other parts of the country, — the important part it plays in the eco- nomic life of the country may be easily understood. Five per cent of the total population is found in the nitrate zone. Aside from agriculture, this industry pays in salaries one-third of the total amount devoted to sala- ries in all the other domestic industries. One-fourth of the capital invested in the various industries in Chile is devoted to the nitrate trade. Conclusions. Jheftote Industry "Why is it that Chilean nitrate, its qualities as a — ■ fertilizer being well knoAvn, is not used now throughout the world, and in much larger quantities ? This question does not imply that its consumption has not increased considerably. One can easily see in the tables of exports that its use is becoming more general every day; but has it reached the figure that it should, considering the fertilizing properties of the substance? No ; and as this phase of the problem is very interesting, we must study it. Propaganda of a scientific nature, which is more serious and profitable, has not been disregarded, but it could well be more intense. Industrial and commer- cial propaganda, it may be said, exists only on a very small scale.* So far, the nitrate industry has not attempted to popularize the use of this product in other ways than as a fertilizer. What has been done in tbis direction is due to the efforts of manufacturing in- dustries throughout tbe world, on their own initiative. As we have said, commercial propaganda, properly speaking, does not exist in tbe industry. Tbis system bas reached a high degree of development in tbe United States in all industries, with results well known to every one, and it might well serve as an example to the nitrate trade of Chile. But at the same time, it ought to be ac- companied by facilities for the acquisition of the sub- stance. This part of the problem does not interest Chile alone; it should interest still more the agricultural countries, since the productive power of the land is doubled by the use of nitrate, at a very small expense comparatively. Besides, competition of other fertilizing * Publisher's Note. — In this connection it is interesting to note that nothing was done, by way of Scientific Propaganda in North America, until 1898, when the Office of Propaganda was established here in New York. The three year period tonnages of Nitrate Consumption in the United States are especially interesting as fairly indicating the result of this work. Three-Year Period Tonnages of Nitrate Consumption in the United States. 1889-91 281 ,000 Tons 1892-94 304,000' " 1895-97 ' 340,700 " 1898-00 480,000 '' New York 1901-03 677,000 " Propaganda 1904^06 940,900 " Office 1907-09 1,059,400 " Opened 1910-12 1,509,700 " March, 1898 The Nitr ?te products ought to be considered, and this is what in- n tts , terests the nitrate industry more than it does other 34 countries. The only solution of the problem lies in the reduction of the price, but how shall this be accom- plished? Very different factors must here be considered, and they must be classified before we can gain an exact knowledge of the question. One factor is the cost price of the nitrate, and the other is its price when it reaches the consumer. In dealing with the cost price, we must take into consideration different things, the price of the raw material, that is, the price of the caliche on the ground, the cost of production, transportation to the port, shipping facilities, discount on the drafts corresponding to the total value of the sale price, and the profit which must be left to the capital invested in the industry. These factors con- stitute the -first group. A second group may be formed by maritime and land freights, insurance and commis- sion to middlemen. Finally, speculation, profit of the dealer in fertilizers, and interest on the value of the quantity bought by the farmer, who generally pays for his fertilizer when he harvests his crops; these may form the third group. We shall now analyze each group, to see in which one the price might be reduced. The cost of the Nitrate land is a value more or less fixed, with a tendency to increase. As in every industrial business, the price tends to increase in greater propor- tion than the interest on the capital, and it could not be much modified by the action of the industry. The cost of production might be lowered by perfecting the methods in use, for the purpose of extracting the greatest possible quantity of nitrate from the caliches, and econo- mizing fuel. As for transportation to the port and shipping facilities, these have advanced a great deal; but conditions might still be bettered, and the Chilean Government is now giving attention to this matter. Discarding these factors, which give little promise of economy, we come to those related to the commercial side of the nitrate industry. Freight Charges. — The disturbed conditions resulting from the war in Europe have brought about a complete change in all freight charges, including those on nitrate. The Nitrate The destruction of a considerable number of steamers, . and further losses in this direction, which may be ex- 35 pected before the war ends, will reduce appreciably the means of transportation. So the freight rate, after the war, will be, if not the same as at present, at any event higher than before the war. The nitrate trade, as well as other industries, not only in Chile, but also in other countries, will require an increase in steamship facilities in order to replace the service formerly furnished to a great extent by companies in the belligerent countries. This policy is in process of development in the United States, and in Chile it may easily be encouraged by laws promoting the development of our national steamship lines. What is said in regard to steamship facilities may also be said in regard to insurance companies in Chile, for which there is a great chance for growth. The commissions earned by middlemen who often spec- ulate, form a group in which reductions of importance may be brought about, by changing the system now used for another, such as the project of the centralization of sales, a system that would result in real economy of expense, and also prevent fluctuations in the price, — a very important feature in the increase in consump- tion. Any marked fluctuation in the price has a two-fold influence. The farmer is not inclined to pay more for his fertilizer one year than he has paid the previous year. He is very quick to complain of a rise in price, but takes no notice of a reduction when it comes. On the other hand, the dealer in fertilizers, when the price fluctuates, never knows what profit he is to derive from the sale of a certain quantity of nitrate, and sometimes even the profit is changed to loss. For this reason he prefers to encourage the sale of other fertilizers which bring him a sure margin of gain, and he then becomes a propagandist against the use of nitrate. I know of some merchants who have nitrate in their stores solely to avoid the accusation that they have not a complete stock of fertilizers; and in some instances they sell nitrate only on condition that the farmer buys a much larger proportion of other fertilizers. The Nitrate There are numerous markets which, are closed to- Industry day to Chilean nitrate,— markets in which there is no 36 consumption because there is no nitrate on sale, and others where there is none on sale because there is no consumption. The time has now come to break down this syllogistic circle, and this may easily be accomplished by commercial propaganda. The nitrate industry must be reorganized, and taking into consideration the different parties interested, this cannot be accomplished without the intervention of the Government. Some of the nitrate companies produce the substance at a low price, the desideratum for them being to produce and sell great quantities at such a price as will leave them some profit. Others produce at a higher cost, pre- ferring to produce less and sell at a high price. On the other hand, the object of the middlemen is to buy at a low price and sell at a higher one. The interest of the Chilean Government lies in the ex- portation of the greatest possible quantity, the utiliza- tion to the utmost of the substance as found in the soil, and the increase of consumption by regulating the price in the different markets as nearly as possible. So the interest of the Government and that of the producers are not separate; and the Government, being interested, as it is, in the production of all the different companies, has not only the right, but almost the duty to interfere in the organization of this industry which constitutes the most important basis of its economic life. This is not something new and unusual. The German Government interfered in the potash industry without owning the raw material. And in Sicily, in the sulphur industry, the same thing has been done. APPENDIX [37] CONTENTS Nitrate Exports. Method of Transacting Nitrate Sales. Nitrate of Soda as a Fertilizer (Results of Experiments). Nitrate Railways. Statistics for the United States. Nitrate Companies. [39] APPENDIX. Nitrate Exports. The exportation of nitrate began in 1830, in very small quantities. Now it has reached the high figures shown in the following table. The amounts are stated in Spanish quintals, one quintal being equal to 101.44 pounds. Years. 1830-1834. 1835-1839. 1840-1844. 1845-1849. 1850-1854. 1855-1859. 1860-1864. Spanish Quintals. 361,386 761,349 1,592,306 2,060,592 3,260,492 5,638,763 6,979,208 1865-1869 10,594,026 1869 2,507,000 1870 3,943,000 1871 3,606,000 1872 4,421,000 1873 6,264,000 1874 5,583,000 1875 7,191,000 1876 7,317,000 1877 4,901,000 1878 7,023,000 1879 3,161,000 1880 4,869,000 1881 7,739,000 1882 10,701,000 1883 12,820,000 1884 12,152,000 1885 9,478,000 1886 9,805,000 1887 15,495,000 1888 16,682,000 Spanish Years. Quintals. 1889 20,682,000 1890 23,373,000 1891 18,739,000 1892 17,478,000 1893 20,655,161 1894 23,947,014 1895 27,285,205 1896 25,175,832 1897 24,971,648 1898 27,903,553 1899 30,213,532 1900 31,741,293 1901 27,691,298 1902 30,089,440 1903 31,694,954 1904 32,696,180 1905 36,717,472 1906 37,564,460 1907 35,987,237 1908 44,587,177 1909 46,390,656 1910 50,781,241 1911 53,250,327 1912 54,197,439 1913 59,529,110 1914 40,147,463 1915( Jan. to June) 18,067,462 1915 ( July to Nov. ) 21,500,325 [41] The Nitrate Method of Transacting Nitrate Sales. Industry The following is a brief account of the different trans- actions which Nitrate undergoes from the time it is> purchased at port of shipment to the time it is delivered to the consumer. The operations vary to some extent, such as for instance in the case of Valparaiso and London payment, weighing on arrival, etc.; but in gen- eral the various operations are, briefly as follows: Under the contract Nitrate is purchased for delivery at a named port on a specified date, and the buyer is allowed 40 days from that date in which to provide a vessel to load the Nitrate at the particular port named in the contract. If the vessel is not ready to load within the time allowed, the Nitrate remains in the warehouse at the risk of the buyers, who must pay rent thereon. Payment for the Nitrate is due at the expiration of 30 days from the delivery date, whether or not the Nitrate is loaded. On arrival of the vessel to load the Nitrate, notice is given by the buyers to the sellers in accordance with contract, and the Nitrate is thereupon delivered by sell- ers under superintendence of buyers, and lightered to the vessel. Samples are taken by both buyers and sellers, and sent to the official assayers in Valparaiso for analy- sis, the mean of two being the basis for calculating re- fraction. In due course, advice of delivery on the contract is telegraphed to Valparaiso, and if it is " Coast; pay- ment," payment is made in Valparaiso in first class drafts on London at 90 days' sight. If the contract is for-" London payment," sellers retain Bills of Lading and forward them to London, where in due course they are taken up by buyers against payment in cash under discount, or free of discount if the vessel has not ar- rived before due date reckoned at 90 days sight from arrival of Bills of Lading in London. In the case of " London payment," buyers have to insure the Nitrate, and deposit the insurance cover with the sellers until payment is made. Upon the vessel completing her loading, buyers give the Captain her sailing orders, which may be for a direct port or for a port for orders. Upon arrival of the vessel at destination she must be T ^ e Nitrate discharged according to the custom of that particular J? port unless any special conditions are stated in the 43 charter. Usually the Nitrate is weighed on arrival, and either put in storage in the port or into lighters or rail- way trucks for delivery into the interior, where it is either stored or sent straight through to consumers. Freight is payable at port of destination — one-third on arrival of the vessel and the balance when called for according to the quantity discharged. Such bags as may have become damaged on the way are, provided that they are not too much damaged, re- paired, and any loose Nitrate rebagged into new bags. These operations are done on board, the receivers pro- viding the bags and twine, and the ship the labor. The ship pays the stevedoring at the port of discharge. It is customary to insure against Marine risk and War risk now and in the case of an exporter selling on cost and freight or cost, freight and insurance terms, the Ni- trate has to be covered for 10 per cent over the sale price. There is another custom with regard to sales made on cost and freight or cost insurance and freight terms, which is that the Nitrate is invoiced on the shipping weight in quintals converted at the rate of 101.44 pounds English net equal to 100 pounds Spanish net. Freight is deducted from the invoice to the c. & f. or c. i. f. buyer at the arbitrary conversion of 10,000 quintals Spanish net equal to 435 tons English gross, while the buyers pay the freight to the ship owners on the actual outturn weight. On this conversion the freight payable by the buyer is roughly 3.94 per cent greater than the sum deducted in the Invoice. In c. & f. sales Marine Insur- ance and War Risk is covered by sellers for buyers ac- count — buyers refund the gross cost on lifting docu- ments while sellers retain any allowances granted by underwriters in the way of discount or what not. As to brokers, it is customary to employ them both on the coast and in Europe. Th ^Sry Nitrate of Soda as a Fertilizer. 44 Nitrate of Soda and sulphate of ammonia being the two most important of all fertilizers, have been very closely studied. Stutzer published a table giving the average increase in various crops due to the use of ni- trate of soda instead of sulphate of ammonia. It is as follows : Average increase Number of in pounds. Crop. experiments. 196 Eye 4 55 Wheat 88 125 Barley 81 360 Potatoes 36 2,02-1 Beets 144 321 Hay 38 3,825 Mangolds 36 The following tables and illustrations show the results obtained in some of the experiment stations. Experiments with Fertilizers on Sweet Potatoes. Bushels per acre. Kind of Fertilizer and quantity per acre. Fertilizer. Large. Small. Total. 1. No manure 157 gj 208 2. 320 lbs. bone-black, 160 lbs. Muriate of Potash $7.70 205 36 241 3. 200 lbs. Nitrate of Soda, 320 lbs. bone-black, 160 lbs. Muriate of Potash 12.34 270 58 328 4. 20 tons stable manure $30.00 263 61 324 South Carolina Experiment Station. (Clemson College, S. C.) Cotton. The Nitrate Industry 45 Results of experiments in 1906. Fertilizer Yield per acre. per acre. Lbs. Lbs. None • • • • 610 352 Acid Phosphate 627 44 Muriate of Potash. .. 651 352 Acid Phosphate, 44 Muriate of Potash.. 677 352 Acid Phosphate, 44 Muriate of Potash, 88 Cottonseed Meal 726 352 Acid Phosphate, 132 Nitrate of Soda 891 352 Acid Phosphate, 44 Muriate of Potash, 132 Nitrate of Soda 1,040 '352 Acid Phosphate, 88 Cottonseed Meal, 132 Nitrate of Soda 1,133 352 Acid Phosphate, 44 Muriate of Potash, 88 Cottonseed Meal, 132 Nitrate of Soda 1,215 Results of experiments in 1908. Fertilizer Yield per acre. per acre. Lbs. None Lbs, 704 Acid Phosphate . . . 88 Muriate of Potash. . 704 Acid Phosphate, 88 Muriate of Potash. . 704 Acid Phosphate, 88 Muriate of Potash, 176 Cottonseed Meal . , 704 Acid Phosphate, 264 Nitrate of Soda. . . 704 Acid Phosphate, 88 Muriate of Potash, 264 Nitrate of Soda... 349 689 410 636 901 954 993 704 Acid Phosphate, 176 Cottonseed Meal, 264 Nitrate of Soda 1,033 704 Acid Phosphate, 88 Muriate of Potash, 176 Cottonseed Meal, 264 Nitrate of Soda 1,073 Hops. A Record of Four Years' Experiments with Hops. The experiments were conducted at Golden Green, Hadlow, near Tunbridge, England, and under the super- vision of Dr. Bernard Dyer. Seven plots were arranged, all except No. 7 receiving equal and ample quantities of phosphoric acid and potash, but varying amounts of Nitrate of Soda, and (plot 7) thirty loads of stable manure. The fertilizing of the plots, and the average crop, kiln dried hops per acre, with the percentage of gain over the plot not treated with Nitrate, are shown in the following table. The Nitrate , . ?l In Gain t Industry plot and Fertilizer - drled hop8, pcr oe t- - 1. No Nitrate 9.75 ewt 46 2. 2 ewt. Nitrate 12.00" 23 3. 4 " " 13.67 " 39 4. 6 " " 13.75 " 41 5. 8 " " 14.58 " 49 6.10 " " 14.58 " 49 7. 30 loads manure 10.25 " 5 Wheat. According to the " Book of Kothamsted Experi- ments," 1905, the average crops produced during a period of 51 years on plots of ground fertilized with different manures was as follows : Bushels per acre. No manure 13.1 Minerals with no Nitrogen 14.9 Minerals with 43 lbs. Nitrogen 24 Minerals with 86 lbs. Nitrogen 32 . 9 Minerals with 129 lbs. Nitrogen 37 and the increases in straw are even more marked. It is also said that experiments covering a period of ten years (1892-1902) showed that nitrate of soda pro- duces more nitrogen than ammonia salts, yielding 16 per cent more grain and 26 per cent more straw. Barley. The following table is given as representing the result of 50 years ' experiments on barley : Dressed grain. Straw. Average Average 50 years. 50 years. Manure. Bu,hela. Cwta. No minerals and no Nitrogen 15 . 3 8.8 Superphosphate only and no Nitrogen 20.0 10.2 Alkali salts only and no Nitrogen 16 . 2 9.0 Complete minerals, no Nitrate 20.5 ]0.7 Nitrate of Soda alone 30.5 18.2 Superphosphate and Nitrate 43.9 26.2 Alkali salts and Nitrate 31.7 19.9 Complete minerals and Nitrate 43 . 6 27.4 Yield per acre. Lbs. per acre. in 1905 in 1906 lbs. lbs. 300 750 930 300 . 42 1,116 900 300 . 84 1,272 1,284 300 . Maryland Agricultural Experiment Station. Bulletin No. 91, Page 44, Table 7. Nitrate of Soda vs. No Nitrate of Soda Applied on Wheat; Wheat Unfertilized in Fall. Yield of grain Plot per acre, No. bushels. 1. Neither fertilizer nor Nitrate of Soda 10.4 2. Nitrate of Soda with no other fertilizer 18.1 Top-Dressing Experiments. The official Agricultural Experiment Stations have made many experiments to determine the value of top- dressings of Nitrate of Soda, particularly the New Jer- sey Station. The work of this station demonstrated the profit value of Nitrate top-dressing on various fruits and vegetables. The Rhode Island Experiment Station made a top-dressing test on grass land and the results also indi- cated a profitable use of this chemical fertilizer. 47 Cotton. The Nitrate Industry The following table shows the results of experiments ■ made on the farm of Mr. J. C. Moore near Auburn, Ala- bama. The ground was laid off into four plots, each containing ten rows, and covering one-sixth of an acre. Plot. Fertilizers used. 1. Acid Phosphate 2. Acid Phosphate Nitrate of Soda 3. Acid Phosphate Nitrate of Soda 4. Acid Phosphate Nitrate of Soda 126 1,440 1,776 It will be readily seen by this table that through the addition of nitrate of soda, the yield of both dressed grain and straw was more than doubled in every case. The Nitrate rph e experiment was made on three plots, all of which n us ry were treated with ample quantities of Phosphoric Acid 48 and Potash. One plot received no Nitrate, one plot a top-dressing of 150 pounds per acre, and the remaining plot a top-dressing of 450 pounds of Nitrate per acre. The seed used was one-quarter red clover, one-quarter redtop, and one-half timothy. The yield in barn-cured hay was as follows : Tons No Nitrate 1.60 150 lbs. Nitrate 2.24 450 lbs. Nitrate 3.28 The season was not good hay weather on account of an early and severe drouth, yet the top-dressing of 150 pounds of Nitrate of Soda, per acre increased the crop of hay 40 per cent, and the top-dressing of 450 pounds gave an increase of 105 per cent. In summarizing the results the Station reports that in spite of the weather being so unfavorable that there was practically no second crop, a top-dressing of 150 pounds of Nitrate of Soda per acre increased the crop in value $6.94, at a cost for Nitrate of $3.30; a top-dressing of 450 pounds per acre increased the value of the crop $16.98 at a cost of $9.90. Experiments on Tobacco at the Kentucky Experiment Station. Yield of tobacco, pounds. Value of tobacco Fertilizer per acre. Bright. Red. Lugs. Tips. Trash. Total. per acre 1. No manure 200 360 60 540 1,160 $67 20 2. 160 lbs. Nitrate of Soda 230 450 310 90 530 1,610 138 40 3. 160 lbs. Sulphate of Potash; 160 lbs. Nitrate of Soda 190 755 605 120 140 1,810 190 45 4. 320 lbs. Superphos- phate; 160 lbs. Sulphate of Pot- ash; 160 lbs. Ni- trate of Soda. . 310 810 420 10 360 2,000 201 20 49 Wheat Experiments in England. SaUtS™* 6 From 100 to 150 pounds of Nitrate of Soda per acre ■ should be broadcasted on wheat, as soon as the new growth shows in the spring. The results of such treat- ment are shown by experiments made by three English gentlemen, which are tabulated as follows, mineral plant food being present in abundance : I. No Nitrate, 23 bu. 300 lbs. Nitrate, 33.5 bu. Gain 46 per cent. II. No Nitrate, 15 " 300 lbs. Nitrate, 28.0 " Gain 87 " " III. No Nitrate, 34 " 300 lbs. Nitrate, 49.0 " Gain 44 " " Average gain 59 per cent. REPORTS OF OFFICIAL EXPERIMENTS. South Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station. From Bulletin No. 56, Page 5. Wheat. I. Comparison of Varieties. IV. Home Manures. II. Quantity of seed per acre. V. Commercial Fertilizers. III. Experiment with Nitrogen. VI. Tillage. If wheat is sown upon land deficient in organic matter, it is wise to use a complete fertilizer, containing Nitro- gen, phosphoric acid and potash. If wheat shows an unhealthy appearance in early spring, especially upon sandy lands, an application of seventy-five pounds of Nitrate of Soda will prove bene- ficial provided there is enough phosphoric acid in the soil to co-operate with it to make the grain. Experiment with Nitrogen. To compare effects of Nitrogen from cotton-seed meal and Nitrate of Soda, the latter applied with the seed and as a top-dressing, the intention was to use on each plot a constant quantity of phosphoric acid and potash as the equivalent of these ingredients in 200 pounds of cotton- seed meal. Bus. The first plot received Cottonseed Meal alone — yield 17.5 The second, Phosphoric Acid, Potash and Nitrate of Soda all applied with u. seed — yield 20.8 The third received only ± hosphoric Acid and Potash — yield . 17 . 6 The fourth received in addition to Phosphoric Acid and Pot- ash applied with the seed, Nitrate of Soda as a top-dress- ing — yield 19.4 The Nitrate Nitrate Railways. Industry ■ 1. The Nitrate Railways Company (including the 50 Pisagua and Lagunas Branch)— Value of lines, £4,000, 000 ; length of lines, 585 kilometers ; gauge, 1.435 meters ; annual traffic, about 500,000 passengers and 1,200,000 tons of freight. These lines connect the Tarapaca deposits with the ports of Iquique and Pisagua. The trunk line is 250 kilometers, and the branches, 335. Starting from Pisagua, the trunk line goes inland as far as Jazpampa, from whence it takes a southerly di- rection as far as Lagunas. Another section starts from the port of Iquique and connects with the trunk line at La Noria. 2. The Junin Railway. — This line affords an outlet through Caleta de Junin for the nitrate produced in the Department of Pisagua. It is owned by the Compania de Salitres y Ferro-carril de Junin. The line starts from the height of Junin at 664 meters above sea level, and connects with La Caleta by means of inclined planes. Gauge, 0.762 meters; length of line with branches, 103 kilometers ; cost of line, £265,000. 3. The Caleta Buena and Agua Santa Railway. — This line connects the nitrate fields in the Agua Santa, Negre- iros and Huara with Caleta Buena. The line in the height is linked with La Caleta by means of inclined planes which overcome the altitude of 745 meters above the pier. This line belongs to the Compania de Salitre y Ferro- carril de Agua Santa. Gauge, 0.762 meters ; length, 103 kilometers. At kilometer 29 the line divides, one branch going to Agua Santa and the other to Huara. It is valued at £460,000 and carries an annual traffic of about 6,000 passengers and some 400,000 tons of freight. 4. The Anglo-Chilean Nitrate Railway. — This line operates in the nitrate fields of the Toco district. Its value is estimated at £650,000, with an annual traffic of about 65,000 passengers and 400,000 tons of freight. The extent of the line is 123 kilometers, p. d its gauge, 1.067 meters. 5. The Antofagasta and Bolivia Railway. — This line, although an international one, since it connects the Chil- ean port of Antofagasta with the cities of Oruro and La fte Nitrate Paz in Bolivia, has not lost its original characteristic as a nitrate railway, because its most ^important section has 51 for its object the transportation of nitrate. It is owned by the Antofagasta and Bolivia Bailway Company, the value of whose railroads and water works is about £9,000,000. The total length of the line is 1,156 kilo- meters, of which 435 kilometers are comprised in the Chilean section between Antofagasta and Ollague, not in- cluding the branches to the nitrate districts, which branches, with their sub-branches, have a length of 425 kilometers. The gauge is 0.762 meters. It carries yearly some 280,000 passengers, and about 1,500,000 tons of freight. Its receipts amount to £l,- 000,000 per year, approximately. Its principal branches are: KilometerB. Prat-Mejillones 77 Antofagasta to above branch 35 Boquete branch Ill Collaguasi branch 96 Minor branches 106 6. The Caleta Coloso-Aguas Blcmcas Railway. — The production from the nitrate fields in the Aguas Blancas district finds an outlet through this line, whose length is 186 kilometers, besides 50 kilometers in branches and sub-branches. Its gauge is 0.762 meters. At kilometer 92 it divides into two series of branches ; those of the north reaching as far as the Oficina de Cas- tilla, and those of the south, as far as the Oficina de Val- paraiso ; at about the same point another branch starts, connecting with Pampa Bica. It carries yearly about 250,000 tons of freight. The cost of this railway and the port works amounts to £950,000. Its revenues may be estimated at £112,500 a year. 7. The Taltal Railway. — This railroad gives an out- let to the nitrate from the interior of the Atacama desert. It belongs to the Taltal Bailway Company. Its length is 300 kilometers; its gauge, 1.067 meters, and its cost is estimated at £1,250,000. Its annual business amounts to some 85,000 passengers and 500,000 tons of freight. The Nitrate Industry 52 Imports of Nitrate of Soda to the United States. Year. 1889. 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. 1901. Tons. 79,000 104,000 98,000 97,000 107,000 100,000 127,000 106,500 107,200 145,000 155,000 180,000 192,000 Year. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1906. 1907. 1908. 1909. 1910. 1911. 1912. 1913. 1914. Tons. 107,000 264,000 274,000 305,000 361,900 351,600 308,800 399,000 503,600 537,000 469,100 560,000 527,895 Average Price in the United States. From July, 1913, to present, date. January . . February . March April May June July August . . . September October . . . November . December . 1913. 1914. 1915. $2.24 $1.88 2.24 2.08 2.26 2.19 2.24 2.27 2.21 2.30 2.15 2.29 $2.18 2.12 2.28 2.45 2.18 2.32 2.40 2.04 2.41 2.40 1.93 2.79 2.31 1.93 2.95 2.20 1.93 3.00 Nitrate Companies. ShJST* In its earliest days, it was British, capital that con- — tributed most to the development of the industry. At present Chilean and German money are also freely in- vested. The following table shows the different companies and the proportionate production: Production Name of The Oficina. Stock. In one year. Total. 1. Abra 21,176 125,760 146,936 2. Aconcagua (Antofagasta) 136,874 677,485 814,359 3. Adriatico (ex-Neuva Palmira).. 31,084 28,338 59,422 4. Aguada 41,593 186,014 227,607 5. Agustin Edwards (Antofagasta) 226,158 1,300,461 1,526,619 6. Agua Santa 104,418 435,747 540,165 7. Alemania (Taltal) 133,585 728,452 862,037 8. Alianza 426,765 1,422,380 1,849,145 9. Alianza (Taltal) _ 10. Amelia 85,727 257,750 343,477 11. Angamos (ex-Carmen) (Anto- fagasta), 25,500 610,069 635,569 12. Angela 90,353 330,563 420,916 13. Anibal Pinto (Antofagasta) . . . 139,837 1,146,869 1,286,706 14. Anita (Antofagasta) 183,520 556,341 739,861 15. Aragon 16. Argentina 151,888 144,865 296,753 17. Arturo Prat (Antofagasta) 706,095 706,095 18. Atacama (Taltal) 19. Aurelia (Antofagasta) 253,018 253,018 20. Aurora 125,448 125,448 21. Aurrera ' 307 202,614 202,921 22. Ausonia (Antofagasta) 150,675 722,115 872,790 23. Avanzada (Aguas Blancas) 72,157 439,958 512,115 24. Ballena (Taltal) 66,909 461,341 528,250 25. Barcelona 26,403 114,921 141,324 26. Bellavista 100,000 918,385 1,018,385 27. Bonasort (Aguas Blancas) 94,232 478,061 572,293 28. Britannia (Taltal) 29. Buen Retiro 30. Buena Esperanza (Toco) 70,866 198,698 269,564 31. Buenaventura 32. Cala-Cala 190,099 437,978 628,077 33. California 67,296 206,543 273,839 Forward 2,637,422 13,216,269 15,853,691 The Nitrate Industry 54 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. Name of The Oflcina. Forward Camilla Candelaria (Antofagasta) Carmela (Antofagasta) Carmen Bajo Castilla (Aguas Blancas) Cecilia (Antofagasta) Celia (Antofagasta) Compania Condor Constancia Cota (Aguas Blancas) Chile (Taltal) Cholita y Yungay Bajo Coya (Toco) Curico (Antofagasta) Delaware (ex-Carolina Taltal) . Democracia Diana Domeyko (Antofagasta) Elena (ex-Rosario de Negreiros) Empresa (Toco) Enriqueta Esmeralda Esperanza (Taltal) Eugenia (Aguas Blancas) Felisa Filomena (Antofagasta) Flor de Chile (Taltal) Florencia (Antofagasta) Francisco Puelma (Antofagasta) Galicia (ex-Cataluna) Ghyzela (Taltal) Gloria Grutas (Toco) Hervatska, Higinio Astoreca (Antofagasta) Huascar (v. Reducto) Iberia (Toco) Jazpampa (v. Paccha) Joseflna Jose Santos Ossa (Antofagasta) Keryma Production Stock. In one year. Total. 2,637,422 13,216,269 15,853,691 4,049 325,205 329,254 109,106 377,755 486,861 125,089 413,879 538,968 163,609 697,469 861,078 234,089 720,885 954,974 198,396 198,396 23,816 154,337 178,153 71,253 131,641 148,580 91,998 39,039 207,738 33,760 31,496 365,562 367,447 496,648 1,329,766 173,135 1,653,121 740,314 429,644 80,228 113,893 1,222,286 438,700 628,289 1,478,346 265,133 1,692,160 948,052 463,404 80,228 145,389 1,587,848 270,185 1,027,902 1,298,087 23,167 65,340 190,659 114,499 76,580 75,479 258,910 931,429 205,182 664,204 322,134 98,646 324,250 1,122,088 205,182 778,703 398,714 279,985 152,423 115,481 130,856 97,354 1,241,454 178,626 321,943 291,213 647,103 137,025 78,8] 6 1,521,439 178,626 474,366 406,694 777,959 234,379 78,816 129,233 370,078 499,311 86,100 232,086 318,186 201,407 1,277,442 1,478,849 28,474 180,080 208,554 Forward 6,379,990 31,151,783 37,531,773 Production The Nitrate Name of The Oficina. Stock, in one year. Total. Industry Forward 6,379,990 31,151,783 37,531,773 76. La Americana (Aguas Blancas) 203 203 °° 77. La Granja 178,640 498,946 677,586 78. La Palma 219,226 619,690 838,916 79. La Patria 80. La Perla 81. Lagunas 178,720 507,341 686,061 82. Lastenia (Antofagasta) 225,754 807,748 1,033,502 83. Lautaro (Taltal) 50,277 314,167 ' 364,444 84. Leonor (Antofagasta) 85. LiHta (Taltal) 97,389 213,135 310,524 86. Los Pirineos (v. Providencia) 87. Luisis (Antofagasta) 184,101 675,166 859,267 88. Mapocho 66,749 227,309 294,058 89. Maria (Antofagasta) 301,884 1,185,003 1,486,887 90 Maria Teresa (Aguas Blancas) 91. Maroussia 73,746 180,312 254,058 92. Mercedes 173,148 173,148 93. Miraflores (Taltal) 94. Moreno (Taltal) 236,025 673,811 909,836 95. North Lagunas 155,445 428,097 583,542 96. Oriente (Aguas Blancas) 94,334 268,547 362,881 97. Paccha y Jazpampa 118,236 521,173 639,409 98. Pampa Rica (Aguas Blancas) . . 1,000 65,000 66,000 99. Pan de Azucar 100,573 434,583 535,156 100. Paposo y Limenita 101. Pena Chica 123,627 524,828 648,455 102. Pepita (Aguas Blancas) 103. Peregrina (Toco) 273,199 344,813 618,012 104. Perseverancia (Antofagasta) 11,000 11,000 105. Peruana 106. Petrolina (Aguas Blancas) 14,880 194,388 209,268 107. Pissis (Antofagasta) 317,464 1,190,197 1,507,661 108. Porvenir 106,287 281,321 387,608 109. Primitiva 68,645 392,479 461,124 110. Progreso 54,520 212,870 267,390 111. Prosperidad (Toco) 338,550 1,367,748 1,706,298 112. Providencia y Los Pirineos 19,441 222,268 241,709 113. Puntilla de Huara 123,224 384,965 508,189 114. Puntunchara 95,929 427,087 523,016 115. Ramirez 178,344 621,268 799,612 116. Recuerdo 35,713 25,793 61,506 117. Reducto y Huascar 35,402 327,598 363,000 Forward 10,447,517 45,473,582 55,921,099 The Nitrate Production Industry Name of The Oflcina. Stock, in one year. Total. . Forward 10,447,517 45,473,582 55,921,099 56 118. Restauracion 1,000 18,140 19,140 119. Resurreccion (ex-Iquique) 43,249 111,612 154,861 120. Rica Aventura (Toco) 186,944 778,509 965,453 121. Riviera (Antofagasta) 122. Rosario de Huara 194,889 601,230 796,119 123. Rosario (Aguas Blancas) 364,791 364,791 124. Sacramento 87,355 310,625 397,980 125. Salinitas (Taltal) 126,441 498,377 624,818 126. San Antonio 75,524 294,574 370,098 127. San Donato '. 64,955 323,340 388,295 128. San Enrique 129. San Francisco 26,817 115,562 142,379 130. San Gregoria (Ags. Blancas) 131. San Jorge 26,890 209,989 236,879 132. San Jose 75,502 410,728 486,230 133. San Lorenzo 132,341 261,638 393,979 134. San Manuel 13,588 6,118 19,706 135. San Pablo 28,097 248,923 277,020 136. San Patricio 59,081 218,985 278,066 137. San Pedro 180,955 180,955 138. San Remigio 77,169 193,753 270,922 139. Santa Ana 140. Santa Catalina 100,313 305,640 405,953 141. Santa Catalina (Taltal) 142. Santa Clara 143. Santa Elena 43,685 82,740 126,425 144. Santa Fe (Toco) 222,106 652,666 874,772 145. Santa Isabel (Toco) 190,406 337,535 527,941 146. Santa Lucia 81,605 483,760 565,365 147. Santa Luisa (Taltal) 168,561 1,052,824 1,221,385 148. Santa Rita y Carolina 88,820 390,605 479,425 149. Santa Rosa de Huara 22,108 277,498 299,606 150. Santiago 98,550 295,485 394,035 151. Sara 30,688 238,737 269,425 152. Savona (Antofagasta) 282,351 917,446 1,199,797 153. Sebastopol 154. Serena 155. Slavonia 156. South Lagunas 146,918 547,153 694,071 157. Tarapaca 11,457 132,258 143,715 158. Transito 103,124 451,083 554,207 159. Tres Marias 66,946 312,689 379,635 Forward 13,324,997 57,099,550 70,424,547 Production The Nitrate Name of The Oficina. Stock, in one year. Total, industry Forward 13,324,997 57,099,550 70,424,547 160. Tricolor (Taltal) 56,180 161,694 217,874 57 161. Trinidad 162. Union 75,675 183,531 259,206 163. Valparaiso 79,613 325,597 405,210 164. Valparaiso (Ags. Blancas) 165. Victoria (ex-Sloga) 27,989 151,453 179,442 166. Virginia 130,857 298,132 428,989 167. Vis 13,695,311 58,219,957 71,915,268 This table corresponds to the Nitrate year 1912-1913. The Nitrate (Extracts from The Mining Congress Journal of Jan. 7, 1916, with Senor Industry Cuevas' Rejoinder.) 58 TELLS OF CHILE'S NITRATE. The most important subject discussed during the day was that of the nitrate industry. A very able paper on this subject was read by Enrique Ouevas, counselor of the Chilean Embassy. He gave a brief history of the Chilean nitrate fields, and described at length their char- acter and composition, as well as the methods of extract- ing and treating the material. He emphasized the fact that those deposits are practically inexhaustible, and that they probably will continue for several centuries to pro- duce as much as they are doing today. DISCUSSION BY SENOR CUEVAS Of His Paper Read at the Pan-American Scientific Congress. The development of the industry for the fixation of nitrogen from the air is, on the one hand, slow, and on the other, requires great capital. So far, experience has shown that the financial results are much inferior to those expected. The production of nitrogen from the air falls far short of reaching the figures before estimated. Owing to these circumstances, the saltpeter from Chile (nitrate of soda), and the sulphate of ammonia are still the arbiters for the price of nitrogen. Chilean nitrate is taxed with a rather heavy export duty, which may be reduced or abolished by Chile, a circumstance which offers a real danger to the industry of atmospheric nitro- gen, because, the reduction of the cost of Chilean nitrate being possible, there is no safe basis from which to calcu- late the financial results of an industry so far uncertain. This danger has no doubt been considered, inasmuch as the promoters of this business, already established, feeling the necessity of obtaining more capital to save that invested, and in order to convince European capi- talists of the necessity of devoting more money to this industry, informed them that the Chilean nitrate was very nearly exhausted. In the paper which I presented to the Second Pan- American Scientific Congress, I stated that there is sufficient nitrate in Chile to supply the needs of the world ^JJjl™* 6 for at least three hundred years. This figure I have given as a sure one, for if I were to give one not so 59 certain or so probable, I would surely have been obliged to name a much longer period of years. So if, from the technical point of view, the extraction of nitrogen from the air is a resolved problem, from the practical and financial point of view its resolution is unknown. The United States has no doubt enormous hydraulic powers that may be devoted to the extraction of nitrogen from the air, but there is only one objection to it, in my opinion a very strong objection, — namely, that this power applied to any other industry will give much greater profits. From the agricultural point of view, which is no doubt the most interesting one for this country, it is necessary to keep in mind the fact that the physical conditions of the products obtained by the different systems already known for the extraction of nitrogen from the air do not answer the agricultural requirements; in the first place, because the products so obtained are difficult to handle, and further, because they cannot conveniently be distributed over the soil. As soon as the receptacle is opened, the contents must be used; otherwise they are spoiled by the absorption of humidity from the air. The losses resulting from this condition, as well as the cost of the receptacle, make atmospheric nitrogen more expen- sive. Chilean nitrate does not offer any of these disad- vantages. The article may be used at any moment in the required quantity, and may be distributed in the soil in mathematically exact proportions, while that which remains unused does not spoil. The receptacle, more- over, is only a common sack. So far, the atmospheric nitrogen industry has not given to the farmers the cheap fertilizer promised. At the session of the Scientific Congress at which I read my paper on the " Nitrate Industry in Chile," it was said that the United States was paying Chile more than $17,000,000 every year for the nitrate it consumes. This, in my opinion, is no argument, for if every one of the different countries of the world should begin to take account of the millions of dollars that they pay yearly to The Nitrate the industries of the United States, and should begin to n us ry invest the capital necessary to produce such articles at 60 home, in order to leave in their own countries the money now paid to the United States, all the foundations upon which the commercial systems of the world rest would give way. It was also said that in case of an international conflict, in which the United States became involved, this country would find itself in a difficult position to obtain the nitrate necessary for the manufacture of explosives. The remedy for this situation is at hand. Why does not the United States buy great quantities of nitrate and store an amount sufficient to meet the necessities of a long campaign? The article does not suffer from stor- age, and the quantity required is not so very great. Germany who holds such a strong position in the present European conflict was thus enabled by her importing nitrate from Chile in enormous excess quantities up to the very day when war was declared to meet with ease her great crisis. So the United States, with its enormous coast line on the two oceans, possessing, moreover, the key of the Panama Canal, will certainly be able at any moment to import nitrate from Chile, even in the midst of a con- flict. Therefore I do not understand the urgency of investing capital in an industry of such uncertain financial results, although I do understand perfectly well the patriotic spirit that moves those who are advocating this idea. Before concluding, lest some one think that the pre- vious arguments are partial, it may not be out of place to say to those who are not familiar with the nitrate indus- try in Chile, and the fiscal interest in the same, that : The financial systems of the different countries adjust themselves to the requirements of those countries. Chile, for instance, sends to the United States its mineral products without receiving any profit from them. The exportation of iron and copper is not taxed in any form. Millions of tons of these minerals are coming and will come from Chile to the United States, where they are manufactured, and constitute afterwards one of the greatest sources of income to this country. This is due to the fact that the export duty on nitrate is sufficient ^he Nitrate to procure for the Chilean Treasury the money necessary ^ . for its expenditures. It is only logical and anyone will 61 understand, that if that income should be reduced by the reduction of the export duty on nitrate, following limita- tion of the exportation of nitrate, an equilibrium would be established by fixing new export duties on other sub- stances. And certainly these duties would be imposed first of all on those minerals that are exported in the greatest quantities — iron and copper. So the previous arguments do not indicate partiality on my part. General Information. On the Use of Nitrate of Soda as a Fertilizer. How to Fertilize. Every farmer knows that plants need Food as much as cattle. He knows, too, that plants cannot get all the Food they need out of the ground alone. He must sup- ply them with certain Foods himself, or they will not thrive and bear their full yield of fruit. Exactly as he supplies hay and oats to his horse, so he must supply Nitrogen and phosphate to his plants. He may buy these in the open market exactly as he does his hay or his oats, or he can buy them in combination in the form of a " complete fertilizer." There is no secret value in the " complete fertilizer," it is nothing more nor less than the ingredients combined and sold at a higher price. Nitrogen is by far the most expensive as well as effective of plant foods, and it will pay the farmer well to stop and think before he buys it in this combination form. The Best and Cheapest Nitrogen. The cheapest and most practical form in which to furnish Nitrogen to plants is Nitrate of Soda. In the rainless region of Chile are stored away vast quantities of Nitrogen in what are known as Nitrates — the only form in which Nitrogen can be utilized by a plant. The Nitrogen which exists in organic matter — that is, roots, stems, dead leaves, weeds, leather, dried blood, etc. — and also Nitrogen in the form of Ammonia salts, must first be changed to Nitrate before it can be taken up by plants. This change is dependent upon conditions of weather. If the season is backward, or there be a pro- longed drouth, this change may be so retarded as to deprive the plant altogether of Nitrate Food at the very time it needs it most ; moreover, Nitrogen in the form of Ammonia salts leaves acid residues in the soil. Nitrate of Soda, on the other hand, is entirely independent of weather and leaves the alkali behind as a soil sweetener. [3] Fertilize ^ ^ s i mme diately available under any circumstances, for it is readily soluble, and as soon as it comes within reach 4 of the roots of plants it is taken up by them. It can, therefore, readily be seen that the practical value of various forms of Nitrogen ranges from nothing at all, where conditions of temperature or soil prevent Nitro- gen, to 100 per cent, as Nitrate of Soda, where Nitration has already completely taken place. Moreover, the process of transforming the Nitrogen of cotton seed meal, dried fish, dried blood, tankage, and other Nitro- genous constituents of " complete fertilizers," etc., into Nitrate is very wasteful, for much valuable Nitrogen is lost in the process, as well as by natural oxidation. Soil experiments have shown that 100 pounds of Nitrogen in these organic forms has only about one-half to three- fourths the manurial value of 100 pounds of Nitrogen in its nitbated form of Nitrate of Soda. A Great Saving. In view of these facts it seems extraordinary that farmers should continue to purchase their Nitrogen in compound form in a ready mixed fertilizer, when they can procure it much cheaper, and ready for the plants' immediate use, in the form of Nitrate of Soda. The New Jersey Experiment Station, after analyzing nearly 200 different " complete fertilizers," found the average value or market price of the various constituents to be $25.66 per ton, while the average selling price was $34.23 per ton. In some instances the actual value of the plant food was as low as $15.00 per ton, while the price per ton was $35.00. When you buy Nitrate of Soda, which costs between two and three cents a pound, or from $40.00 to $60.00 per ton — depending on how much you buy — it means that the available Nitrogen contained in the said Nitrate of Soda costs between 13 and 19 cents per pound. It costs from 25 to 30 cents a pound in so-called " complete fertilizers," and even then is often in a form which is not available as food for the plants, for it must first be converted into Nitrate. The time required to do this varies from a few days to a few years, according to the temperature of the soil and the kind and condition How to of the material nsed in the " complete fertilizer." _! !L It must be recognized that the farmer should have a 5 chance to derive some profit from the use of a fertilizer, and wise buying is a prerequisite to successful use. How It Helps Crops. If a young pig or a young calf does not have an abundance of the right kind of feed when it is young, it becomes stunted in growth, and never recovers fully, no matter how judiciously it is afterwards fed. The intel- ligent cultivator has learned that this holds good in the feeding of plants. Nitrogen is the 'element which enters most largely into the building up of the plant itself — root, stem and leaves. Most plants need to take up the greater part of their Nitrogen during the early stages of their growth, as in oats. It is plain, therefore, that the cultivator cannot afford to overlook Nitrate, and thus endanger the chances of his crops, which must have Nitrogen in a form the plants can use. The presence of Nitrate at the outset enables the plant to get its food when it needs it most, and develops a vigorous growth of roots, leaves and stems capable of withstanding the scorching rays of the sun or sudden changes of tempera- ture, disease, or the attacks of parasites. Nitrate of Soda is of high value for early crops, such as peas, corn, beets, cabbage, etc., where rapid maturity is desirable. It is a special help to hay, grain, rye, wheat, timothy, cereals and orchards, all of which are unable to obtain sufficient Nitrogen from the soil just when they need it. It is a great specific in the produc- tion of sugar beets, potatoes, cotton and cane. Small fruits, such as blackberries, currants, raspber- ries and gooseberries, which need a steady, even growth, are greatly benefited by Nitrate of Soda, which can be furnished all ready for digestion when the plants require it. The highest agricultural authorities have established by careful experimentation that 100 pounds per acre of Nitrate of Soda applied to crops has produced the INCREASED yields tabulated as follows: How to Barley 400 lbs of grain. Fertilize Corn 280 " " —r~ Oats.'.'.' 400" Rye 300" Wheat 300 " Potatoes 3 , &0 ° " Tubers. Hay, upwards of 1,000 " Barn cured. Cotton &0 ° " Seed cotton. Sugar Beets 4,000 lbs. tubers. Beets 4,900 " Sweet Potatoes 3,900 " Cabbages 6,100 pounds. Carrots 7,800 pounds. Turnips '37 per cent. Strawberries 200 quarts. Onions 1,800 pounds. Asparagus 100 bunches. Tomatoes 100 baskets. Celery 30 per cent. Hops 100 pounds. Nitrate of Soda is a plant tonic, and an energizer ; it is not a stimulant in any sense of the word. It may be used alone without other fertilizers, as a Top-Dressing, at the rate of not more than 100 pounds to the acre. Results on Hay. For four years samples of Nitrate of Soda have been sent to farmers to experiment on timothy. In each experiment two patches were marked out in the hay field, side by side. One received an application of Nitrate of Soda, equivalent to 100 pounds per acre, the other had none. The following are fair samples of the results reported, giving the weight of cured hay in each case : Horace Field, Mattapoisett, Mass. Plot without Nitrate, 60 lbs. ; Plot with Nitrate, 90 lbs. " Hay was well made. Nitrate plot ready to cut 10 days earlier than plot without Nitrate, and the growth now is much heavier on the Nitrate plot." William Norman, Toledo, O. Plot without Nitrate, 36 lbs. ; With Nitrate, 62 lbs. " This is what I call dynamite soda." E. P. Nance, Oak Level, Ky. =£*,& Plot without Nitrate, 70 lbs. ; With Nitrate, 104 lbs. Ole 0. Hatledal, Benson, Minn. 7 Plot without Nitrate, 20 lbs. ; With Nitrate, 52 lbs. " Plot with Nitrate now thick with grass again and will produce second crop of hay. Plot without Nitrate will not be worth cutting again." Hebbebt J. Fbance, Blairsville, Penna. Plot without Nitrate, 63 lbs. ; With Nitrate, 118 lbs. " Hay was thoroughly cured when weighed. Plot with Nitrate kept six or eight inches ahead all summer." Alonzo J. Bbyan, Hunterdon, N. J. Plot without Nitrate, 31 lbs. ; With Nitrate, 63% lbs. "The Nitrate made wonderful results." Chas. J. Gteoth, Springville, N. Y. Plot without Nitrate, 78 lbs. ; With Nitrate, 147 lbs. " Cut Nitrate plot twice." E. B. Stbong, Canning, Nova Scotia. Plot without Nitrate, 68 lbs.; With Nitrate, 91 lbs. " Much pleased with results." Leonard D. Spicknall, La Belle, Mo. Plot without Nitrate, 44 lbs. ; With Nitrate, 69 lbs. " I consider Nitrate of Soda a most valuable producer, as hay seems softer and brighter from Nitrate plot than from the other." The average of these tests shows an increase at the rate of 2,775 pounds of field-cured hay per acre, with the use of 100 pounds Nitrate of Soda. Bearing in mind the cost of Nitrate of Soda per 100 pounds, it is very evident that it pays to use it. Plants Like Horses, Must Have the Proper Food. Farm teams could not do good work on an hour's grazing at noontime. They need oats, cured hay, corn — something that makes muscle and energy. The oats, corn and hay, on which they are fed must also have the right kind of food — cannot grow in largf stalk, in full and solid grain, with rich, nourishing qual- ities, from the meagre amount of plant food that is left in an old worn soil. how to Soil Loses Its Best Plant-Food First. Fertilize If the grocer allows customers to select fruits and 8 vegetables from his open boxes, the first comers will take the finest. Nature compels plants to select the best food there is in the soil. They are all greedy for Nitrate of Soda, for they thrive best on that ; and when there is little of it left, they dwindle, simply because they are starving. There is only one thing to do when the Nitrate is exhausted; the soil must be supplied with more. There are Three Ways of Supplying the Soil with Nitrate. I. You can do it by putting in raw Nitrogen. You have the raw Nitrogen in such common fertilizers as weeds, leaves, grasses, tankage, offal, dried blood or fish, or any kind of organic matter. There are disadvantages in this plan, however, which it is well to clearly understand. In the first place, plants cannot eat raw Nitrogen any more than horses can eat cord wood. The plants must wait until Nature puts her forces to work and changes the raw Nitrogen into Nitrate of Soda. This work is done by a certain kind of bacteria. These bacteria propagate in sufficient num- bers only when the weather is favorable. With continu- ous warmth and frequent light rains — i. e., with perfect weather — a part of the work will be done in a month or two; but a great deal of the raw Nitrogen will not be converted into Nitrate for a much longer time. Low grade fertilizers require a year or two. You see that the plants will have but a small portion of the Nitrate from raw Nitrogen at the particular time when they need it. This fact will be referred to again. It is a vital fact. It is also a fact that much of the Nitrogen is lost as gases during this process of conversion into Nitrate. That is clear loss. Still another fact of special importance is that in the change from raw Nitrogen to Nitrate there is often an acid by-product thrown out which sours the soil and seriously injures the quality of the crop. When these losses and hindrances are summed up, you ? ^.. t0 will find that all organic fertilisers are needlessly eocpen- sive; and do not give you the crops you pay for put- 9 ting in. Nitrate of Soda instead of souring a sweet soil, will sweeten a sour soil. "When all its Nitrogen is used up, its residue is wholesome. II. Nitrate of Soda can also be supplied to the soil in " combination." Now let us candidly examine this plan and see whether it is any better than the raw Nitrogen plan. This plan is to use what are called " Complete Fertilizers," which contain a certain per cent, of soda. Now, if the per cent, were really certain, both as to amount and as to quality, there would remain but one objection. That objection is very practical. The " Com- plete Fertilizer " costs a great deal too much. Figures that are Interesting. At the New Jersey Experiment Station, 195 " Com- plete Fertilizers " were analyzed, and their prices tabu- lated, with the following results: The average price was $34.23 per ton. They contained, on the average, about 16% per cent: of actual plant food. To get a ton of real plant food you must buy six tons of the " Com- plete Fertilizer," at an expense of $205.38 — for about twenty acres. Nitrate of Soda, every ounce of which is the best pos- sible plant-food, will cover your twenty acres with a bigger and finer crop for about HALF the money. III. The right way to replenish a worn soil is to put in Nitrates. — The pure stuff, as it comes direct, under government inspection from the Nitrate mines of Chile, where nature completed her great chemical work ages ago, is Nitrate of Soda. Nitrate of Soda Gives Plants the Essential ' ' Good Start in Life." Young animals must have a good start. If they are not well nourished during the first few weeks they be- come stunted and never can make a full and fine growth. How to You know that is especially true of grains — a backward, dwindling start never can be made up. io Plants require their richest nourishing when their fine spraying rootlets are new and tender. If they do not get it then, the rootlets quickly harden to a small size, and will not expand or extend sufficiently for the plants to get full nourishment later on. The loss cannot be made up. Nitrate of Soda, all of it, as soon as you put it in the ground, is ready to be taken up by the tender rootlets and assimilated into the fibre and fruit of the plant. With Nitrate, plants do not have to wait until Nature's little cooks, the bacteria, get a late dinner ready — with the cooks often on a strike because the weather is bad. Ages and ages ago the work was all done — the wasted gases all thrown off — and here is their pure and per- fect food. These three plans — the use of raw Nitrogen, the use of " Complete Fertilizers," the use of Pure Product in Nature-made Nitrate of Soda — only need this plain statement of facts to show you which is the proper method. Nitrate of Soda May be Used Alone or with Manures. On naturally good soils Nitrate of Soda alone is fre- quently sufficient. If the soil is badly worn, use 100 pounds to the acre. If but partly deteriorated, 75 pounds will give splendid results. For seeded crops, 100 pounds per acre, equal in bulk to one bushel, is very profitable; while for the cultivated crops, from 150 to 200 pounds per acre may be used. Results in Cash of Nitrate of Soda Alone. A large number of experiments on timothy have been made by farmers all over the country showing that the use of 100 pounds of Nitrate of Soda to the acre pro- duced an average increase of 2,775 pounds of field-cured hay over the plot where Nitrate was not used. The Nitrate of Soda cost, on an average, at the time the experiments were made, $2.75 per 100 pounds. You know what you can get for 2,775 pounds of the finest, cleanest, richest, field-cured timothy. You make from*j[owt^ 150 to 200 per cent, on your investment in three or four months. " Potatoes, Beets, Cabbages, Carrots, Oats. Similar experiments — by scores of farmers through- out the country, using 100 pounds of Nitrate of Soda (alone) to the acre — show average increase per acre of Potatoes 3,600 lbs. Beets 4,900 " Cabbages 6,100 " Carrots 7,800 " Oats 400 " Figure it up yourself, and see what an enormous profit you have on the small outlay necessary for 100 pounds of Nitrate of Soda per acre. Nitrate of Soda is a Magic for All Early Crops. Peas, beets, lettuce, onions, radishes, beans, sweet corn and all truck gardening that you want eariy, with a rapid and luscious growth, will get the proper nourish- ment from Nitrate of Soda, which is a perfect plant food, ready for them on the instant. The Only Plant Food that can be Used Week by Week. Blackberries, gooseberries, raspberries and currants, as every gardener knows, should not make a rush growth, but a steady and even growth, which means that they must be fed little and often. A sprinkling of Nitrate of Soda every week or ten days will show surprisingly fine results. Nitrate of Soda is the only fertilizer that will feed them instantly whenever they require special nourishing. For Planting in Succession and Ripening of Garden Truck. Nitrate of Soda is a perfect fertilizer. It is always ready for assimilation. With a trifling outlay for 100 Y°Zy° pounds to the acre you have fresh, rich, " early vege- tables " in September — just as luscious as in June. The Need of Common Business Care in Farming. If railroad men and manufacturers neglected their rolling stock and machinery as many farmers neglect their soils, they would go bankrupt in a year. With ordinary care in keeping up the soil, farming becomes a splendid business — the profits doubling and trebling. General Directions for the Use of Nitrate of Soda on Staple Crops. The use of Nitrate of Soda alone is never recom- mended, except at the rate of not more than 100 pounds to the acre. It may be thus safely and profitably used without other fertilisers. It may be applied at this rate as a Top-Dressing in the Spring of the year, as soon as vegetation begins to turn green, or, in other words, as soon as the crops begin new growth. At this rate very satisfactory results are usually obtained without the use of any other fertilizer, and the Soda residual, after the Nitrogenous Ammoniate Food of this chemical is used up by the plant, has a perceptible effect in sweetening sour land. In most of our Grass experiments where Nitrate was used alone at the rate of but One Hundred Pounds per acre, not only was the Aftermath, or Kowen, much im- proved, but in subsequent seasons, with no further appli- cation of fertilizer to the- plots, a decidedly marked effect was noticed, even on old meadows. This speaks very well indeed for Nitrate of Soda not leaching out of the soil. The readily soluble elements are the readily available elements. The natural capillarity of soils doubtless is, in most instances, a powerful factor in retaining all readily soluble elements of fertility. If this were not so, all the fertility in the world in our humid regions would, in a season or two, run into the ocean, and be permanently lost. This is mentioned on account of certain critics having taken the trouble to object to the use of Nitrate on the grounds that it would leaeh away. A case is yet to be 2°*..*° seen where the after-effect of Nitrate is not distinguish- able, and, in certain cases, such effects have been most J 3 marked. When it is desired to use a larger amount than 100 pounds per acre of Nitrate of Soda as a Top-Dressing, or in any other way, there should be present some form of Phosphatic and Potassic Plant Food, and we recom- mend not less than 250 pounds of Acid Phosphate or Thomas Phosphate Powder, and 250 pounds of some high grade Potash Salt, preferably the Sulphate. A much larger amount than one hundred pounds of Nitrate per acre, when used alone on staple crops, will generally give an unprofitable and unbalanced food ration to the plant. For Market Gardening Crops, Hops or Sugar Beets, however, 150 pounds per acre may be u?ed alone. When the above amounts of Phosphatic and Potassic Fertilizers are used, as much as 200 pounds of Nitrate of Soda may be applied with profit. If you have any reason to suspect adulteration of the Nitrate you may buy, send several pounds of it to your Experiment Station for analysis, giving date of pur- chase, full name and address of agent, and of the Com- pany which the seller represents. Generally on the Pacific Coast Nitrate may be ap- plied as a Top-Dressing after the heavy Spring rains are over, but before crops attain much of a start, although recent experience there suggests that Nitrate may be applied to better advantage just as soon as growth starts in the Spring or even just before seeding or planting. WILLIAM S. MYERS, Director. Chilean Nitrate Propaganda, 25 Madison Avenue, New York. 14 Fertile RE PRINT FROM A PAPER BY DR. WILLIAM S. MYERS, PAN-AMERICAN CONGRESS, FEBRUARY, 191 1, WASHINGTON, D. C. The present exhaustion of our American soils, as is clearly shown by their really pitiful average yields for our staple crops as compared to those of Europe, points strongly to the rational use of Fertilizers as an import- ant First Aid to our Farmers. Intelligent cultivation goes, of course, hand in hand with rational fertilization, but the most available form of Nitrogenous plant food is what is most needed and is what is most essential for our North American soils. The Nitrate Producers of Chile are now able to pro- vide for this need in the best form, viz. : Nitrate of Soda. Our American farmers have already shown their appre- ciation of this product of Chile by trebling their use of it in the last decade. The Legumes as a source of Nitrate are rather too slow in action to give real immediate profits when used to produce great money crops. Hence, for their urgent needs our American farmers' appreciation of the quick acting Chilean Nitrate is easily understood. The development of Agricultural Co-operation by European farmers for purchasing supplies and for mar- keting produce, places them in a much stronger position than our farmers. Moreover, it induces a clearer under- standing of the farmers' power in the business world, for with financial strength comes generally a clearer vision of actualities. The early established European custom of directly using the fertilizer simples, and notably the rational use of the Nitrate of Chile, accounts, with thorough cultiva- tion, for the splendid average yields of staple crops now enjoyed by most European States. The application of more than one Science to European Agriculture thus in- duced the early and widespread use of Chilean Nitrate in Europe. Beside Europe had an immense advantage to start with in that her Agricultural Experiment Stations were started before commercial fertilizers began to be used, and hence the early rational use of Nitrate of ^°^ *° Chile, and in marked contrast to our farmers ' disadvan- tage in having had our Experiment Stations established *s long after the manufacture of commercial fertilizers had begun thus permitting irrational practice to become a habit. A comparison of the average yields per acre of two staple crops only will suffice to show the striking differ- ences between the countries as to their agricultural prac- tice, viz. : Wheat Oats United States, average yield per acre , 14 bu. 30 bu. Germany " " " " 28 " 48 " England " " " " 33 " 45 " and similar contrasts obtain for other crops. It seems plain that Europe has practically solved the problem of soil exhaustion. As part of the rational use of fertilizers in Europe, the enormous consumption of Chilean Nitrate has had a most potent influence in soil conservation. For outside of Russia, Europe takes over a million tons of Chilean Nitrate annually, and for use on a smaller total acreage than is under cultivation in the United States, whereas here we take less than 300,000 tons per annum for agricultural purposes. Our 400,000,000 acres of tillable lands might profit- ably take 20,000,000 tons of Chilean Nitrate per annum, and eventually will take a vastly greater tonnage than at present, and without doubt immediately after the Panama Canal is opened. Our plantations and our farms could readily add, by the rational use of Chilean Nitrate : — 10,000,000 bales of Cotton, 300,000,000 bushels of Wheat, 600,000,000 bushels of Corn, 300,000,000 bushels of Oats, and enormous increases in the annual pro- duction of other staple crops on our present acreages. Moreover an annual North American consumption of even 5,000,000 tons of Chilean Nitrate would not only add a handsome item of revenue to our transportation F°!i]i° com Panies, on its own account, but it would add im- mensely to such annual revenues by virtue of the result- 16 ing out-bound tonnage of increased agricultural produce, and to the extent of many millions of dollars. Abundant employment for labor generally would thus certainly result and the sale of the vastly increased tonnage of agricultural products would bring great pros- perity to our farmers and almost immediately to our factories. Incidentally our food supply would be greatly increased and more reasonable prices for those import- ant items, which are now so high as to constitute the chief obstacles in the way of a more reasonable cost of living. For the products of the west coast of South Amer- ica the future is brilliant for their use here in North America; but for an early realization of this as one of the very important purposes of Pan-American Reci- procity, it is for us, Northern Pan-Americans, to pro- mote the northern use of this most valuable and unique item of Pan-American Commerce for the mutual benefit of the countries concerned. It is only thus that we may forestall becoming a food importing country, as our honored President has already suggested. was a possi- bility of the not very distant future. Consular and Trade Reports, February 1, 1909. NITRATE OF SODA SUPPLY. FUTURE SUPPLY OF NITRATE OF SODA IN CHILE. There are then undeniably 4,843,000,000 Spanish quintals of nitrate of soda in sight, which by the methods in use at the present time may be produced from the lands measured and estimated in the nitrate region. With an annual exportation of 35,000,000 quintals, which is more than that exported in 1907, there is sufficient to satisfy the entire consumption of the world for one hun- dred and fifty years. WHAT CHILEAN NITRATE HAS DONE IN CALIFORNIA PUBLISHED BY William S. Mykrs, d. Sc, f. c. s., Director, Chilean Nitrate of Soda Propaganda. Late of New Jersey State Agricultural College. 25 MADISON AVENUE, NEW YORK The following pages include a record of Nitrate of Soda experimentation in California for a number of years and the results are deemed to be of interest to readers of our West Coast. William S. Myers. Fertilizing Hay Crops in California. From the California Experiment Station Annual Report, 1904. (The Cereals are Much used for Hay Crops on the West Coast.) The California experiments with fertilizers on hay crops, begun in 1901, were continued during the season of 1902-3. During the season of 1901-2 it was found that the use of Thomas phosphate slag and sulphate of potash with Nitrate of Soda did not pay as well as Nitrate of Soda used alone. The experiments during the last season were planned to test the availability of the phosphate after the first season. It was thought last year that there was a possibility that the insoluble slag phosphate would become more available the second sea- son after applying it. The plots used in the 1901-2 experiments were subdivided and given different appli- cations of Nitrate of Soda used alone and in combination with sulphate of potash at the rate of 300 pounds per acre. The yield of hay was lower on both fertilized and unfertilized plots during the season of 1902-3 than it was in 1901-2. This difference was undoubtedly due to an unfavorable season. The late spring rainfall failed almost entirely, and to this no doubt must be attributed the decreased yield. The heaviest yields of hay on both red and granite soils and the largest money returns per acre were ob- tained from the plots which were fertilized with phos- phate during 1901-2. On red soil with oats the gain from the use of Nitrate of Soda on the plot which had phosphate the year previous was $11.70 per acre, as against only $3.72 per acre where the Nitrate was used on land having no previous fertilization. On granite soil with oats, there was no gain from the phosphate. The use of Nitrate of Soda alone with- Nitr"/ 1 out P rev i° us fertilization yielded $9.44 per acre, profit, in while on the plots having phosphate applied the previous California year, the gain was only $5.74 per acre. 6 The heaviest yield of hay and the largest profit per acre in 1903 were obtained with wheat on granite soil which had an application of Thomas slag, sulphate of potash, and lime in 1902. Nitrate of Soda was used at the rate of 320 pounds per acre in 1903. The yield of hay was 5,772 pounds per acre, and the resulting profit $12.89 per acre. It should be remarked here, however, A Side-delivery Rake in Operation. that this plot was fertilized at a loss of $21.50 per acre in 1902; and as the application of Nitrate was larger than was used on any other plot, the increased returns were at least partly due to the increased supply of the Nitrate. Through some misunderstanding, there was no corresponding wheat plot on granite soil with Nitrate only. The use of sulphate of potasli in combination with Nitrate of Soda, on granite soil, did not pay in 1903. Potasli was used at the rate of 300 pounds per acre. In most cases the fertilizer cost more than the increased Chilean crop of hay was worth; hence its use incurred a loss of Nitrate from 76 cents to $4.57 per acre. '" ... . ,,-,, . , 1 . , _-.. . _ California I he experiments with A urate of Soda used alone - were broadened in 1903 to test the efficacy of different amounts per acre and the division of the application into two doses. The results show that in 1903, 160 pounds of Nitrate of Soda per acre in one application yielded the largest profits, viz.: $9.44 and $8.90 per acre, respectively, on two plots, on granite soil. In all cases the yield was reduced when the fertilizer was put on in two applications; thus, with 160 pounds per acre applied in two doses, only $4.82 and $7-27 per acre were yielded by two plots on granite soil. The Loader is of Great Service in Handling Hay Quickly. Hops. A Record of Four Years' Experiments with Hops. The experiments were conducted at Golden Green, Hadlow, near Tunbridge, England, and under the supervision of Dr. Bernard Dyer. Seven plots were ar- ranged, all except No. 7 receiving equal and ample quantities of phosphoric acid and potash, but varying amounts of Nitrate of Soda, and (plot 7) thirty loads of stable manure. The fertilizing of the plots, and the average crop, kiln dried hops per acre, with the percent- Chilean age of gain over the plot not treated with Nitrate, are Nitrate shown in the following table. in California Plot and Fertilizer. Kiln dried Hops. Gain Per Cent ■ 1 No. Nitrate 9.75 cwt. — 8 2 2 cwt. Nitrate 12.00 " 23 3 . 4, " " 13.67 " 39 4 6 " " 13.75 " 41 5 8 " " 14-58 " 49 6 ' 10 " " 14.58 " 49 7 30 loads manure 10.25 " 5 The results show a material gain in the crop from the use of Nitrate of Soda, but the applications. on plots 5 and 6 are perhaps greater than will prove econom- ical. The quality of the crop was given exhaustive ex- amination, with the results that plots 2, 3, 4 and 7 graded all the same, and the highest. The quality on the other plots was not materially different. As a re- sult of the investigation, Dr. Dyer recommends Nitrate of Soda strongly for hop growing, but suggests early applications. Formula for Hops: Nitrate of Soda 600 lbs. Acid phosphate 200 " Sulphate of potash, 100 lbs., or unleached wood ashes .... 400 " Lime 100 " SUMMARY OF INCREASED YIELDS. From an Application of ioo Pounds per Acre of Nitrate of Soda. It should be pointed out that in the recorded experi- ments with Nitrate of Soda on money crops heretofore published in Experiment Station Reports and Bulle- tins, farm products were much lower in price. The prices of agricultural products have risen to a high water mark, and in certain cases the advance has been to ex- treme figures, and all farm commodities are now higher than they have been for some years. Our earlier statements, showing the profit resulting from the crop increases due to the use of Nitrate of Soda, if rearranged on a basis of present values for crops, would show more profit than before. It should also be re- marked that the prices of other Ammoniates have risen higher than Nitrate of Soda, which latter is still, there- fore, the cheapest of all Ammoniates in the market. Economists of authority tell us that the cost of liv- Chilean ing is to remain for a considerable time on the high basis Nitrate now established, so that it is to be expected that the ™ lifornia prices of agricultural products will remain at a high level. 9 In this connection your attention is called to many experiments with Fertilizers in which Nitrate of Soda is said to have been used in order to produce results to be exploited as due to materials other than this Stand- ard Money Crop Producer. Further, one may add that when Nitrate is used at the rate of 100 pounds per acre, the actual cash in- crease in Fertilizer cost per acre is very small. The highest agricultural authorities have estab- lished by careful experimentation that 100 pounds of Nitrate of Soda applied to the crops quoted below has produced increased yields as tabulated hereunder: Increased Yield per Acre of Crops receiving Nitrate at the rate of ioo pounds to the Acre over those receiving none. Wheat 300 pounds of grain. Oats 400 pounds of grain. Corn 280 pounds of grain. Barley 400 pounds of grain. Potatoes 3,600 pounds of tubers. Sweet Potatoes 3,900 pounds of tubers. Hay 1,000 pounds, barn-cured. Cotton .500 pounds seed-cotton. Sugar-Beets 4,000 pounds of tubers. Cabbages 6,100 pounds. Carrots 7,800 pounds. Onions 1,800 pounds. Turnips 37 per cent. Strawberries 200 quarts. Asparagus 100 bunches. Tomatoes 100 baskets. Celery 30 per cent. Rye 300 pounds of grain. Beets 4,000 pounds of tubers. It should be remembered that plants take up most of their Nitrogen during the early period of their growth. Chilean jf } s no > w known that there is not as much danger of B it being leached out of the soil by the rains during the in California 9 ro>w i n 9 season as has been generally believed, since the rains seldom reach lower than the bottom of the furrow, and the movement of the soil moisture is up instead of down. Besides, soil moisture is strongly held by good soils by capillary attraction. Nitrate of Soda looks somewhat like common dairy salt, and horses, cows and sheep, if they can get to it, may eat it to an injurious extent. The emptied bags, especially in damp weather, have more or less Nitrate adhering to them. After empty- ing, it is a good plan to soak them in water, which will make an excellent liquid manure, say one empty bag to a barrel of water. // lumpy, the Nitrate should be broken up fine, which is easily done by pounding it on the barn floor with the back of a spade or shovel, or by a hand grind- ing machine made especially for home miacing, which is now in common use in Europe and is beginning to be used in America. Nitrate of Soda, unlike other Ammoniates and "complete fertilizers," can be mixed with lime or ashes without loss of Nitrogen. The fallow in modern agriculture, S. Rhodin (K. Landtbr. Akad. Handl. och Tidskr., 45 (1906), No. 1, pp. 57-72, fig. 1 ) . — The evidence and views in regard to the value of bare fallow, especially in Swedish agricul- ture, are briefly discussed. While bare fallow of loose sandy soils is not to be recommended, because the losses of Nitrogenous substances occurring, generally speak- ing, exceed the gains through Nitration, this is not the case with other types of soils. Here an accumulation of Nitrates takes place through the fallow, which greatly benefits the following grain crop. Field experiments with cabbages in 1903 and with potatoes in 1904 and 1905 were conducted for the pur- pose of determining whether inoculation of sandy soils with fallow soil would prove beneficial on account of the large bacterial content of the latter. California Fertilizer Experiments on Hay from the Cereal Crops. (Official.) A series of soil tests with fertilizers is given in the Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of California, for the years 1898-1901. These experiments, being part of the official work of the Sta- tion, were subject to the searching supervision of Di- rector Hilgard, and are, of course, absolutely authentic in every particular. The work itself was conducted by Mr. Charles H. Shinn, Inspector of Sub-stations, and the results thus bear the mark of a painstaking investi- gator, whose name is too well known in California to require comment here. Chilean Nitrate in California ii Wheat— 14 Bushels. Average product per acre for the U. S. of Wheat with Average Farm Fertilization— 1910. Wheat— 37 Bushels. The Product of an acre of Wheat Fertilized with Nitrate of Soda, Home Mixed with Phophates and Potash — 1910. Chilean Experiments conducted some years previous to this Nitrate investigation, on granite and slate soils, increased the Calif ornk cro P ( na y) from aDout one-quarter of a ton per acre to one and one-quarter tons the first year, and one and one- 12 Plot No. 1. Unfertilized. Plot No. 2. Fertilized with Nitrate. Oats-Hay Specimens. California Experiment Station. half tons the second and third years. This was with the Chilean use of Nitrate of Soda and Thomas slag phosphates. Nitrate The soil tests, the subject of this report, were made ™ ... . chiefly on two of the leading soils of the Sierra foot- hills: (1) granitic, usually very coarse and unproductive, 13 and (2) slate soils, quite variable in quality and depth. Oats were tested in 1900, the soil (granitic) was as deeply plowed as possible in the early fall and the seed Corn in Ear — 24 Bushels. Average Product per half acre for U. S. of Corn with Average Farm Fertilization — 1911. Corn in Ear — 56 Bushels. The Product of half an acre of Corn Fertilized with Nitrate of Soda, Home Mixed with Phosphate and Potash — 1911. drilled in December 23rd, 1899. The crop was cut for hay. Two plots were used, each one-eighth of an acre in area, and similar in all particulars, except that one plot was top-dressed March 1st, with Nitrate of Soda at the rate of 175 pounds per acre, and muriate of potash at the rate of 128 pounds per acre. In eight days the crop showed a much darker color than that of the unfertilized plot. On April 1st, a second fertilizer application was made consisting of Nitrate of Soda 85 jiounds, muriate of potash 100 pounds, and Thomas slag 180 pounds per acre. The hay was cut May 30th, with results as follows : riot No. i. Unfertilized. Plot No. 2. Fertilized with Nitrate. Wheat-Hay Specimens. California Experiment Station. Cured Hay. Chilean Fertilized plot 4,995 lbs. per acre. Nitrate Unfertilized plot 2,400 lbs. per acre. Gain 2,595 lbs. per acre. California The season of 1900 was one of light rainfall and 1S great summer heat, yet the fertilizer in its first year more than doubled the crop. A barley (grown for hay) test was made on soil of the slate type, seed sown in November, 1899, and hay cut May 15th, 1900. The two plots were alike in all particulars, the fertilized plot receiving Nitrate of Soda at the rate of 175 pounds per acre March 1st. In six days beneficial results were evident as compared with the unfertilized plot. April 1st a further application of Nitrate of Soda was made, at the rate of 85 pounds per acre, in all an application per acre of 260 pounds. The results were as follows : Cured Hay. Fertilized plot 5,925 lbs. per acre. Unfertilized plot 3,000 lbs. per acre. Gain from Nitrate 2,925 lbs. per acre. The fertilizer on an acre basis cost $5.20 while the increased crop was worth $13.16, making a net gain for the Nitrate of Soda of $7.96, that is, a return of over 153 per cent, on the money spent for Nitrate of Soda. Winter wheat was grown (for hay) under precisely the same conditions as the barley, the fertilized plot receiving Nitrate of Soda at the rate of 125 pounds per acre March 1st, followed by 85 pounds April 2nd. The results were: Cured Hay. Fertilized plot 6,295 lbs. per acre. Unfertilized plot 3,815 lbs. per acre. Gain from Nitrate of Soda 2,480 lbs. per acre. The fertilizer cost about $4.20 per acre, while the increased crop from its use was worth $11.17, leaving a net gain from the use of the Nitrate of $6.97 per acre, or nearly 166 per cent, on the investment for Nitrate of Soda. In 1900-1901 tests were made with oats, for hay, using an excessive quantity of plant food, the results showing an increase in crop from the use of fertilizer Chilean Nitrate in California 16 Plot No. 1. Unfertilized. Plot No. 2. Fertilized with Nitrate. Barley-Hay Specimens. California Experiment Station. more than equal to the crop on the unfertilized soil. Cllilean All these experiments were made at the Amador Sub- ?* ltrate Station. California At the Southern Coast Range Sub-station, near 17 Paso Robles, similar tests were made, using a fairly stiff adobe soil. The season (1899-1900) was at first fairly favorable, but later suffered from two months of almost entire drought. There were several frosts in April which materially lessened the yield. The fertilizer applied was Nitrate of Soda at the rate of 90 pounds per acre in February and an equal application the fol- lowing month; a total of 180 pounds per acre. The crop (wheat) was both cut as hay and matured as grain. The following table shows the results computed to an acre, for that portion of the crop cut as hay. Cured Hay. Fertilized plot 3,340 lbs. per acre. Unfertilized plot 2,200 lbs. per acre. Gain from Nitrate 1,140 lbs. per acre. The yield of grain showed even better results, as the following table shows: Grain. Fertilized plot 1,375 lbs. per acre. Unfertilized plot 625 lbs. per acre. Gain from Nitrate of Soda. 750 lbs. per acre. The wheat hay resulted in a gain per acre of about $5.50, while the grain returned a gain of about $7.00. This is not wholly in accord with the general opinion of the action of Nitrate of Soda alone on the grasses. Ni- trate is supposed to promote the growth of leaf and straw at the expense of the grain; that is, the more valuable portion of the crop is made subordinate to that portion having usually the lowest sale value. These experiments show very clearly that with an application of Nitrate alone, the crop cut as hay was increased more than 51 per cent., while the grain was increased 120 per cent. The evidence seems to point to the importance of a free supply of Nitrate Nitrogen in order to enable the plant to make use of such fertility as may exist naturally in the soil. Chilean Directions for the Use of Nitrate in Nitrate of Soda on Staple Crops California 18 We never recommend the use of Nitrate of Soda alone except at the rate of one hundred pounds to the acre for seeded crops and two hundred pounds to the acre for cultivated crops. It may be thus safely and profitably used without other fertilizers. It may be applied evenly at this rate as a Broadcast Top-Dressing by hand or machine in the Spring of the year, as soon as crops begin rapid new growth. At this rate very satisfactory results are usually obtained without the use of any fertilizer, and the Soda residual, after the Nitrogenous Food of this chemical is used up by the plant, has a perceptible effect in sweetening sour land. One hundred pounds of Nitrate is equal in bulk to about one bushel. When it is desired to use a larger amount than one hundred pounds of Nitrate per acre for seeded crops, or two huridred pounds per acre for cultivated crops, there should be present some form of Phosphatic and Potassic Plant Food, and we recommend, if the soil is not rich, one hundred and fifty pounds of Acid Phos- phate and one hundred and fifty pounds of Sulphate of Potash. In most of our Grass experiments where Nitrate was used alone at the rate of only One Hundred Pounds per acre, not only was the Aftermath, or Rowen, much improved, but in the subsequent seasons, with no further application of fertilizers to the plots, a decidedly marked effect was noticed, even on old meadows. This speaks very well indeed for Nitrate of Soda not leaching out of the soil. The readily soluble elements of fertility are the readily available elements. The natural capil- larity of soils doubtless is in most instances a powerful factor in retaining all readily soluble elements of fer- tility, otherwise all the fertility of the world in our humid regions would, in a season or two, run into the ocean, and be permanently lost. This is mentioned on account of certain critics having taken the trouble to object to the use of Nitrate on the grounds that it would leach away. A case is yet to be seen where the after Chilean effect of Nitrate is not distinguishable and in most cases . ltrate in such effects have been marked. The two thousand tons of California the active top soil in an acre of land has a powerful holding capacity for all the useful available elements of fertility. These 2000 Tons form the part usually sub- ject to cultivation and might be called service soil. For Market Gardening Crops, Hops, Sugar-Beets, and other cultivated crops, two hundred pounds of Nitrate per acre may be used alone to great advantage. When the above amounts of Phosphatic and Potas- sic Fertilizers are used, as much as two hundred and fifty pounds of Nitrate, or even more, may be applied with profit. If you have any reason to suspect adulteration of Nitrate, send a pound or so of it to your Experiment Station for analysis, giving date of purchase, full name and address of dealer and of the Company which the seller represents, with full description of marks on the bag or bags from which you draw the sample. Nitrate may be applied as a Top-Dressing after the early Spring rains are over, but before crops attain much of a start; although recent experience in Califor- nia suggests that Nitrate may be applied to better ad- vantage just as soon as growth starts in the Spring, or better, just before seeding or planting. CROP. Name, A. B. Ganyard, BARLEY P. O. Address, Lathrop, 1909 R. F. D., 1, State, California. Plot without Nitrate produced Average. Plot with Nitrate Produced Extra good. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, March 20. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Cut for Hay in June. REMARKS: Could see a marked difference in the two plots at quite a distance. I shall always use NITRATE OF SODA on my Barley. Chilean Nitrate in California 20 CROP. Name, R. R. Pefiey, BARLEY P. O. Address, Murrieta, 1909 R. F. D., State, California. REMARKS: The NITRATE OF SODA test I put out in the Spring on Barley yielded considerably more than twice as much as the adjoining plot. The results are so good that I intend to use the NITRATE on my Grain crops in the future. CROP. Name, J. F. Brumund, CANTALOUPES P. O. Address, Turloch, 1907 R. F. D., State, California. Plot without Nitrate produced 20 Crates. Plot with Nitrate produced 26 Crates. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 15. CROP. Name, Chas. Beedle, OATS P. O. Address, LosGatos, 1909 R. F. D., 15, Box 108, State, California. Plot without Nitrate produced 133 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 190 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, March 15. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, May 81. REMARKS : The crop of Oats was harvested for Hay instead of Grain. The NITRATE did not have a fair test as there wasn't any rain after it was applied. Special Reports. Report on Experiment made with Nitrate of Soda on Wheat Hay. by W. M. Rutherford, Petaluma, California. Wm. S. Myers, Director, 17 Madison Ave., New York. Dear Sir: — Wheat sown about .the 8th of January. NITRATE OF SODA applied early in February. Early in the season the one-acre plot, which received 100 lbs. of NITRATE OF SODA, showed distinctive gain, and continued to make a better growth and maintain a better color throughout the season. At harvest time the acre receiving no NITRATE OF SODA, nor any other fertilizer, yielded 8,000 lbs. of wheat hay. The plot receiving 100 lbs. of NITRATE OF SODA yielded 4,000 lbs. of wheat hay; an increase of 1,000 lbs. The hay sold for $16 per ton at the farm, which gave an in- Chilean crease of $8 per acre from the use of 100 lbs. of NITRATE OF Nitrate SODA. in From March to harvest time it was extremely dry. California Report of Results from the Use of Nitrate of Soda on Oranges by D. Mackenzie, Pomona, California. "I bought an Orange Grove five years ago, very much run down, and followed practically the method you recommend in the bulletin. From a crop of 106 Boxes, there is now estimated 2,000 Boxes on the trees and the limit has not by any means been reached." Santa Rosa, California. Wm. S. Myers, Director, 17 Madison Ave., New York. My dear Sir: — A year ago last March I planted 50 odd acres in trees — one half Gravenatein apples and the other half French prunes. Before planting I dug very large holes, 3 to 4 ft. in diameter, 30 to 36 in. deep refilling the hole with top dirt after I had scattered a little quick lime in the bottom of the hole. After setting the tree in the ground and partially covering and packing the roots I scattered about 2 oz. of Nitrate of Soda around the tree. The first season I made two additional appli- cations — using about 1 oz. to each tree. I have made two appli- cations of about same amount this year. Many people think I have a marvelous growth. I under- stand that a Professor of the Agricultural Dept. of Washington, D. C, was here some time ago in my absence and took a large number of photographs of the trees and my men report that he said it was the most wonderful orchard of its age that he ever saw. I attribute some of the growth, in fact a good deal of the vigorous growth to the Nitrate of Soda. The orchard has had intensive cultivation. I am planning to plant cabbage this fall in the entire field, using one of the automatic machines for transplanting. I should greatly appreciate any information that you can give me as- to using Nitrate of Soda during the fall and winter where we have rather cold weather with heavy rainfall. I expect to trans- plant Nov. 1st, when it will be necessary to use the water tank on the transplanting machine. How much Nitrate of Soda per gallon at this time of planting should I use? Would I materially add to the growth of the plants by applying Nitrate of Soda during the winter months a few times? We have here a rainfall of 30 in. or better for the season, mostly in the months of January, February and the first of March. Chilean I shall greatly appreciate any information you can give me. Nitrate I have received from time to time various publications sent in out by your propaganda which I have enjoyed very much, for California w hi c h I thank you. 22 Very truly yours, E. D. Seaton, Santa Rosa, California. Messrs. Balfour, Guthrie & Co. Gentlemen : — After testing a great variety of Fertilizers on my Orchard and Experimental Grounds, I find that the Nitrate of Soda and Thomas Slag Phosphate have given the best results at the least expense, and I shall not look further at present, as my trees, bulbs, plants, flowers and fruits have been, by the use of about 150 lbs. each per acre, nearly doubled in size and beauty in almost every instance. The above named fertilizers have more than doubled the product of my soil at a very small outlay per acre. Where the Nitrate of Soda is used, I find a greatly increased ability in trees to resist drought, and lack of cultivation. Luther Burbank. San Jose, California. By applying 150 lbs. of Nitrate of Soda per acre on 50 acres of Hay Land, my crop is more than .double my 1910 crop. The application was on wheat, oats and barley. The wheat land shows best results, but oats and barley have also surprised me with results obtained. Yours truly, R. P. Keeble. R. F. D. No. 1, Box 33, San Jose, Cal. Burbank's Experimental Farms, Yuba City, Cal. Balfour, Guthrie & Co. Dear Sirs: — Last March we took an acre of Wheat and Barley and gave it a good top dressing of Nitrate of Soda with very good results. This year we want to fertilize a two hundred acre field of barley. We intend to use it from 50 to 100 pounds per acre. Will you also send me what information you can on the subject of grain fertilizing. Miss E. Wilbur. in California EXTRACTS FROM UNITED STATES FARMERS' Chilean BULLETIN No. 162, EXPERIMENT STATION Nitrate WORK, XXI. As with the cabbage crop, 300 and 400 pounds per acre of Nitrate of Soda were used on different plats in two and three 2 3 equal dressings. The average increased yield of all the plats, due to the use of Nitrate, was 17,810 or 132 per cent. This was on good land previously well fertilized with 450 pounds of high grade fertilizers. No marketable celery whatever was obtained when the Nitrate was not used, and the use of the ground, expense of growing, etc., was a total loss. Where the Nitrate was used the crop was worth on the average of $378.10 per acre. The cost of the Nitrate was but $7. This is an equivalent to a gain of $54.01 for every $1. invested in the Nitrate of Soda. As to the influence of the amount applied the average increased gain due to the use of 400 pounds of Nitrate was 255 marketable roots, worth $25.19. When £he Nitrate was applied in three equal dressings there was an increased gain on the average of 495 plants, worth $31.19 over the yield obtained when the application was made in two equal dressings. The gain from the third application was considerably larger when the 400 pounds of Nitrate was applied than when 300 pounds were used, the value of the increased gain in the former case being $16 and in the latter $56.38. These results indicate the value of a liberal quantity of Nitrate of Soda for celery as well as a judicious distribution throughout the season. San Francisco, Cal. Messrs. Balfour, Guthrie & Co., San Francisco, Cal. Dear Sirs: — Regarding the Nitrate of Soda purchased from you last spring, I beg to state that I used the same upon my fields of oats according to your directions, at the rate of 75 pounds per acre, with a result eminently satisfactory to me and surprising to my neighbors. Very truly yours, H. W. Plummer. Nordhoff, Cal. Messrs. Balfour, Guthrie & Co., San Francisco, Cal. Gentlemen : — I have your favor of the 10th inst., in reference to my experi- ence with Thomas Phosphate Powder, and Nitrate of Soda as a fertilizer for Orange Trees in this district. As to Nitrate of Soda, I can say that I have had very good effects from using it upon Orange Trees, and especially where they were out of condition, evidenced by yellow foliage. Chilean I have not had sufficient experience with the Thomas Phos- Nitrate phate Powder to as yet report any result, but hope to do so later, in Yours truly, California N. L. Hall. 2 4 Porterville, Cal. Messrs. Balfour, Guthrie & Co. I am in receipt of yours of the 7th regarding my experience with the Thomas Phosphate Powder and Nitrate of Soda as • fertilizers. With regard to the former I regret that I am not in a position to form a very definite opinion as to the benefits received by its use. I have only used it one year and while the results in my lemon orchard seemed to be satisfactory, I also used other fertilizers on the same piece of ground, and so I cannot say positively that the credit is all due to the Phosphate applied. I have used Nitrate of Soda for several years and have the highest opinion of it when applied early in the spring before blossoming. It is quick and certain and there is nothing equal to it in my opinion in restoring trees that have become a little yellow or mottled, and it seems to me in every way to improve the health and vigor of the trees to which it is applied. W. E. Sprott. Glendora, California. Messrs. Balfour, Guthrie & Co., Los Angeles, Cal. Gentlemen : — With regard to the beneficial results of Nitrate of Soda, some people discourage its use, but my orchard, and a neighbor I supplied, is the most convincing object lesson. Yours, George Matheson. Dimond, California. Balfour, Guthrie & Co. Dear Sirs : — The fertilizers I tried last year proved to my mind that they were a great benefit; the trees grew splendidly for an old orchard. Fertilizers used: — 100 lbs. Nitrate of Soda. 100 lbs. Thomas Phosphate Powder. 100 lbs. Potash. Fifty pounds of Nitrate mixed with 100 lbs. each of the others before plowing. 50 lbs. Nitrate applied after fruit set. No other fertilizers ever used ; land is hilly ; no artificial water. Results: Very heavy growth, and a heavy crop of extra fruit, except cherries which were a complete failure, probably caused by frost — trees made good growth. Quality of fruit compared with unfertilized — Extra good. The above fertilizers are certainly good for fruit and flowers, Chilean as my Apricots were overloaded, and still the fruit was of good Nitrate size, and extra quality. The peaches the same. hi And the roses grew all summer, although they are on hill land, California and have no irrigation. They never stopped blossoming. 2 - A. C. Brendemuhl. Redding, Shasta County, California. I used a bag of Nitrate of Soda on Early Rose Potatoes, at the rate of 50 lbs. an acre, and gave it two dressings. I did not give the potatoes water but fair cultivation. It was very pleasant to watch the results of the Nitrate; it made the Haulm grow so well, and it gave such shade, etc. ; the result was just fine; I got 1% cents a lb. for all I had, and I was selling potatoes when no one else had any fit to eat. One week after I had finished they were at % cent per lb. W. J. B. Martin. FERTILIZER EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT AT MILLS STATION. Sacramento County, California. One-Acre Plots. Thomas Wheat No. Phosphate Nitrate of lbs Plots Powder Soda per acre 1 none 120 lbs. One-half plowed in before sowing, balance top dresing 1268 2 500 lbs. none All plowed in before sowing 1067 S none 150 lbs. Two-thirds plowed in before sowing balance top dressing 1380 4 600 lbs. 150 lbs. All of Phosphate and one-half of Nitrate plowed in before sowing, balance Nitrate top dressing 1370 5 none none (Blank) 1128 6 120 lbs. All top dressing 1806 7 500 lbs. 140 lbs. All of Phosphate and Potash, one Also 100 lbs. Potash half of Nitrate plowed in before sow- ing, balance of Nitrate top dressing 1300 8 500 lbs. 60 lbs. All cultivated in with seed Light Top dressing put on April 15th (grain 6 inches high). Soil dark, sandy and gravely loam. Wheat sown December 13th and 14th, immediately after plow- ing 80 lbs. seed to the acre. Light rain on 14th December. Balance of season favorable for growth of plant. The above shows the beneficial result of the use of from 120 to 150 lbs. of Nitrate of Soda, used alone. No Fertilizer, yield 1128 lbs. 150 lbs. Nitrate, yield 1380 lbs. Gain per acre 252 lbs. WHAT NITRATE HAS DONE IN THE FARMERS' OWN HANDS In North America From Maine to California and from Alaska to Florida Published by WILLIAM S. MYERS, D. Sc. F. C. S., Director Chilian Nitrate Propaganda 25 Madison Avenue, New York PREFACE. The following pages contain a few typical reproductions (verbatim) of direct Reports from farmers' own experiments with Nitrate on the crops mentioned covering a period of sev- eral years and selected at random from thousands (upwards of twenty thousand) of successful experiments . from the use of experimental samples of Nitrate of Soda. These reports conclusively confirm and establish the scien- tific experiments heretofore published by Official State Experi- ment Stations, and show how well Nitrate works as a profitable and practicable business proposition. The plots with and without Nitrate were of equal size in every case, were located side by side, in most cases were one twenty-fifth of an acre in area, and comprised upwards of twenty different crops. Generally the rate of application has been 100 lbs. per acre. WILLIAM S. MYERS, Director. New York, 1916. WHAT NITRATE HAS DONE IN THE FARMERS' OWN HANDS AT THE AVERAGE RATE OF 100 LBS. TO THE ACRE. CROP. Name, Thomas H. Hewes, ALFALFA P. 0. Address, Oscar, 1909 R. F. D. State, Louisiana. REMARKS: At the time of the application (of Nitrate) the Alfalfa was yellow and appeared to be on the point of dying out. Three weeks later I cut a half ton per acre and five weeks afterwards I cut nearly one and one-half tons per acre. . Apparently every four weeks during the season (until frost) I can get a good cutting. I would certainly have failed this time had it not been for Nitrate of Soda. CROP. Name, H. E. Ashelby, ALFALFA P. 0. Address, 1909 R. F. D. State, Michigan. Plot without Nitrate produced 75 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 125 lbs. REMARKS : I have been treating a plot of ground here for 3 years and could not get the Alfalfa started till I used Nitrate of Soda. So well pleased with results that I will exoeriment on a 10-acre plot for Alfalfa next Spring. CEOP. Name, H. B. Scott, ALFALFA P. 0. Address, Mercer, 1915 E. F. D., No. 1, State, Pennsylvania. Plot without Nitrate produced 164 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 180 lbs. Date of completing harvesting of crop, Aug. 28. EEMAEKS : The Alfalfa was a better color where I used the Nitrate of Soda and grew so much higher you could see the plot when a distance off. CEOP. Name, John E. Philp, BARLEY P. 0. Address, Maple Lane, 1909 E. F. D. State, Ontario, Canada. Plot without Nitrate produced 85 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 90 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 6. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Aug. 23. EEMAEKS: All Barley sown in this district was exceed- ingly short, supposed to be caused by a long dry period directly after seeding. Well headed and filled. CEOP- Name, A. B. Ganyard, BARLEY P. 0. Address, Lathrop, 1909 E. F. D., 1, State, California. Plot without Nitrate produced Average. Plot with Nitrate produced Extra good. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, March 20. # Date of completing harvesting of the crop, cut for Hay in June. EEMAEKS : Could see a marked difference in the two plots at quite a distance. I shall always use Nitrate of Soda on my Barley. CROP. Name, John B. Devroy, BARLEY P. 0. Address, Manistique, 1909 E. F. D., 2, State, Michigan. Plot without Nitrate produced 322 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 402 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, June 4. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Sept. 6. CROP. Name, F. M. Travis, BARLEY P. 0. Address, Marlboro, 1909 R. F. D., 1, State, New Hampshire. Plot without Nitrate produced V/ z bushels. Plot with Nitrate produced 2% bushels. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 18, 1909: Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Aug. 5, 1909. REMARKS : The Barley where Nitrate was used was 8 inches taller than the Barley where no Nitrate was applied. I am well pleased with the results obtained. CROP. Name, Geo. Geissler, BUSH LIMA P. O. Address, McKinley, BEANS R. F. D., Box 13, 1911 State, Pennsylvania. Plot without Nitrate produced 9% bushels. Plot with Nitrate produced 15% bushels. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, June 12-26. Date of completing harvesting of crop, Sept. 28. REMARKS: Beans were twice as large with the Nitrate. This is the first time to use it. Will never plant without it. CROP. Name, J. E. Lawrence, BEETS P. 0. Address, Rowe, 1915 R. F. D. State, Massachusetts. Plot without Nitrate produced 12 bushels. Plot with Nitrate produced 16 bushels; Beets larger. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, June, July. Date of completing harvesting of crop, Aug. 12-20. REMARKS: Applied at intervals of 10 days or 2 weeks during June and July. CROP. Name, J. L. Berstler, BEETS P. 0. Address, Coatesville, 1907 R. F. D. State, Pennsylvania. Plot without Nitrate produced 1288 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 1560 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, July 1. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Oct. 30. CROP. Name, L. G. Bartlett, BEETS P. O. Address, Morris, 1907 R. F. D., 1, State, Pennsylvania. Plot without Nitrate produced 225 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 337 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, July 6, 1907. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Nov. 15, 1907. REMARKS : The dry weather in August was very hard on the crop, but the rows that had the Nitrate of Soda on them held their green foliage the best. CROP. Name, Josef Schippen, BEETS AND P. 0. Address, Simpson, CARROTS E. F. D. 1908 State, Pennsylvania. Plot without Nitrate produced 482 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 549 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, July 2. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, October 14. CROP. Name, W. G. Paul, CABBAGE P. 0. Address, Sylvester, 1908 R. F. D. State, Georgia. Plot without Nitrate produced 438 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 619 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, June 7, 1908. Date of completing havesting of the crop, Aug. 20, 1908. CROP. Name, E. Cruse, CABBAGE P. O. Address, Tunnel Hill, 1909 R. F. D. State, Illinois. REMARKS : Plot with Nitrate produced large, perfectly hard heads ready for market, were of the Early Jersey Wakefield variety, and were two weeks earlier than any other Cabbage grown here, only 37 days maturing. The crop of Cabbage on this same ground last year failed abso- lutely without the use of Nitrate. We recommend Nitrate for Market Gardening, or for the home garden; its use on either or both is profitable. CROP. Name, W. E. Nbyes, EARLY CABBAGE P. O. Address, East Lebanon, 1907 R. F. D. State, Maine. REMARKS: Also used it on Early Cabbage getting it on my table before my neighbors from 6 to 10 days. They wfirfi the larsrest and best I ever grew. CROP. Name, D. E. & D. B. Peters, EARLY CABBAGE P. 0. Address, Princess Anne, 1907 R. F. D., 4, State, Maryland. Plot without Nitrate produced 12 Barrels. Plot with Nitrate produced 24 Barrels. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 15, 1907. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, July 4, 1907. CROP. Name, W. H. Laxton, CABBAGE P. 0. Address, King's Creek, 1909 R. F. D., 1, State, North Carolina. Plot without Nitrate produced 300 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 430 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, about May 1. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, in July. CROP. Name, J. F. Brumund, CANTALOUPES P. O. Address, Turlock, 1907 R. F. D. State, California. Plot without Nitrate produced 20 Crates. Plot with Nitrate produced 26 Crates. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 15. CROP. Name, Chas. B. Bohm, CELERY P. O. Address, Sentinel Island, L. K., 1907 R. F. D., Juneau, Alaska, State, District of Alaska. Plot without Nitrate produced 12 to 14 inches high. Plot with Nitrate produced from 18 to 24 inches high. Dates of applying the Nitrate of Soda, June 10, 19 and 27. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Sept. 23. REMARKS : Crisp stalks of rich nutty flavor. Plot 2 was a failure. The season has been very wet. The ground here is two years old. CROP. Name, Hull Brothers, CELERY P. 0. Address, Waymart, 1909 E. F. D. State, Pennsylvania. REMARKS: We have tested the Nitrate of Soda on this crop, satisfying ourselves that the use of about 500 to 700 lbs. per acre would make about $600.00 difference per acre in the crop. CROP. Name, R. W. Brown, CORN P. O. Address, Dora, 1909 R. F. D., 1, Box 32, State, Alabama. Plot without Nitrate produced 32 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 62 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 8. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Oct. 27. REMARKS : The above is weight of Corn in shuck. CROP. Name, John W. Hays, CORN P. O. Address, Gadsden, 1909 R. F. D., 4, State,- Alabama. Plot without Nitrate produced 60 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 150 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 3, 1909. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Sept. 3, 1909. REMARKS : I think it fine to rush a crop. CROP. Name, C. G. Marsh, CORN P. O. Address, Donaldson, 1915 R. F. D. State, Arkansas. Plot without Nitrate produced 16 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 24 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, April 20. Date of completing harvesting of crop, Sept. 27. t>™, a t>t^c. . mui„ „„„ n wag in ear _ CEOP. Name, M. A. Stoff els, CORN P. 0. Address, Bowman, 1911 R. F. D. State, California. Plot without Nitrate produced 1% bushels. Plot with Nitrate produced 3 bushels. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 15. Date of completing harvesting of crop, Sept. 10. REMARKS : Plot with Nitrate needed not as much water to be kept in good condition as plot without Nitrate. CROP. Name, John A. Phillips, CORN P. O. Address, Moosup, 1909 R. F. D., 1, Box 60, State, Connecticut. Plot without Nitrate produced 19 lbs. Corn — 50 lbs. Stalks. Plot with Nitrate produced 50% lbs. Corn — 52 lbs. Stalks. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 12, 1909. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Sept. 30, 1909. REMARKS : I can say that the Nitrate beats anything I ever saw as the season was dry and where the Nitrate was the ground was moist and the Corn had a chance to ear. Where there wasn't any Nitrate the ground was so dry that it could not ear. CROP. Name, M. A. Freeman, CORN P. O. Address, Homeland, 1908 R. F. D. State, Georgia. Plot without Nitrate produced rate per acre 933% lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced rate per acre 2800 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 1. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, July 28» REMARKS : I think Nitrate of Soda is just what is wanted for this soil. It is fine. CROP. Name, Joseph Allen, CORN P. 0. Address, Altha, 1915 R. F. D. State, Florida. Plot without Nitrate produced 70 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 120 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, April 1. Date of completing harvesting of crop, Sept. 15. REMARKS : Corn grew taller and fodder one-quarter heavier. CROP. Name, L. C. Sweat, CORN P: d. : Address, O'Brien, 1911 R. F. D., 1, Box 35. State, Florida. Plot without Nitrate produced 210 lbs. Shelled Corn, 102 lbs. Hay. Plot with Nitrate produced 630 lbs. Shelled Corn, 190 lbs. Hay. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, March 30 and May 1, Date o-f completing harvesting of crop, Sept. 30. REMARKS : I put on half the Nitrate at planting, then the other half at bunch for tassels. The severe hail storm in June cut off fully two-thirds of all the crop. It pays well to use Nitrate for Corn. CROP. Name, B. S. Edwards, CORN P. O. Address, Starke, 1909 R.F.D., 1, State, Florida. Plot without Nitrate produced 40 lbs, on cob. Plot with Nitrate produced 52 lbs. on cob. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 31, 1909. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Oct. 9, 1909. REMARKS : Corn and stalks made about one-third gain: Well pleased with the results. Will use heavy next season. I recommend it id all farms. CROP. Name, Raleigh Thompson, CORN P. 0. Address, Underwood, 1909 R. F. D., 1, State, Indiana. REMARKS: The boys cut my Plot with the rest of the Corn before I knew it, but it was way ahead of any other Corn in the field, almost twice as good. It will pay to use it. CROP. Name, V. W. Reed, CORN P. 0. Address, Federalsburg, 1909 R. F. D., 2, State, Maryland. Plot without Nitrate produced 74 lbs. Corn — 60 lbs. Fodder. Plot with Nitrate produced 102 lbs. Corn — 90 lbs. Fodder. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, July. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Oct. 18. REMARKS : The Corn with Nitrate had a rich dark green color throughout the growth — corn much more solid and heavier, the experiment very satisfactory. CROP. Name, B. F. Headrick, CORN P. O. Address, Craft, 1909 R. F. D. State, Mississippi. Plot without Nitrate produced 70 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 125 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 5, 1909. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Oct. 1, 1909. REMARKS : We all want to use it next year for I know it is fine for Corn. CROP. Name, Wm. S. Winsor, CORN P. 0. Address, Ellsinor, 1915 R. F. D., 1, State, Missouri. Plot without Nitrate produced 325 Small Ears. Plot with Nitrate produced 612 Very Large Ears. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, June 18, 1911. Date of completing harvesting of crop, Oct. 16, 1911. REMARKS : I shall try several sacks of Nitrate next year and if it does as well as this year, will use large quantities. CROP. Name, Geo. A. Blakely, CORN P. O. Address, Omaha, 1909 R. F. D., 1, State, Nebraska. Plot without Nitrate produced 15 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 50 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, June 1, 1909. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Sept. 15, 1909. REMARKS: I. planted Sweet Corn on a plot of worn out land. There were no ears on the Plot without Nitrate and but 11 pounds of ears on the Plot with Nitrate. CROP. Name, Joseph B. Clift, CORN P. O. Address, Sewell, 1909 R. F. D., 3, State, New Jersey, Plot without Nitrate produced 23% lbs. Corn — 46% lbs. Stalks. Plot with Nitrate produced 37 lbs. Corn — 49 lbs. Stalks. CROP. Name, Peter Ghiarenio, CORN P. 0. Address, Sewell, 1908 E. F. D., 3, State, New Jersey. Plot without Nitrate produced 7 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 40 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, when up 3 inches. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Oct. 1. REMARKS: The season was very unfavorable — too dry, but think the Nitrate very good and shall use it next year. Out here we had two rains in six months. CROP. Name, Fred Babcock, CORN P. 0. Address, Rensselaer Falls, 1915 R. F. D., 1, State, New York. Plot without Nitrate produced 2% Bushels. Plot with Nitrate produced 4% Bushels. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, Date of completing harvesting of crop, Sept. 18. CROP. Name, Charlie Foster, CORN P. 0. Address, Hawk, 1915 R. F. D. State, North Carolina. Plot without Nitrate produced 48 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 140% lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 15, 1915. Date of completing harvesting of crop, Oct. 8, 1915. REMARKS: I am only a 14-year old farmer and think Nitrate of Soda is fine. CROP. Name, J. E. Hansen, CORN P. 0. Address, Hickory, 1915 R.F. D.,5, State, North Carolina. Plot without Nitrate produced 540 lbs. Corn, 732 lbs. Fodder. Plot with Nitrate produced 901 lbs. Corn, 1207 lbs. Fodder. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, June 7 and 28. Date of completing harvesting of crop, Sept. 17. REMARKS : Ground on which I raised this corn was new ground, being first time it had ever been cropped. Expect to use Nitrate of Soda next year on all my corn. CROP. Name, Aaron Frey, CORN P. 0. Address, Canton, 1909 R. F. D., 7, State, Ohio. Plot without Nitrate produced 48 lbs. Fodder — 80 lbs. Ear Corn. Plot with Nitrate produced 51 lbs. Fodder — 95 lbs. Ear Corn. CROP. Name, John Kihn & Son, CORN P. O. Address, East Claridon, 1909 R. F. D., 1, State, Ohio. Plot without Nitrate produced 80 lbs. Corn — 168 lbs. Fodder. Plot with Nitrate produced 120 lbs. Corn — 250 lbs. Fodder. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 15. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Sept. 25. REMARKS : The Corn weighed is good, hard and very nice. The Fodder was also in good shape for feed. Think it is worth a man's trouble to try it as results show. CROP. Name, Perry A. White, CORN P. 0. Address Newark, 1909 R. F. D, 2, State, Ohio. Plot without Nitrate produced 179 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 220 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 27. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Sept. 22. REMARKS : I noticed my Plot on which I used Nitrate of Soda was a little more forward than the other Corn, the ears being very fine and large. CROP. Name, L. B. Klingaman, CORN P. 0. Address, Steinsville, 1915 R. F. D. State, Pennsylvania. Plot without Nitrate produced .39 bushel of Ears. Plot with Nitrate produced .96 bushel of Ears. ; • Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 17. Date of completing harvesting of crop, Sept. 28. ' '■'' ^ ! : r ' REMARKS : The quality of corn is much improved. Expect to use most of it as seed corn and make it a point to use NaN0 3 as a regular fertilizer. Well pleased. CROP. Name, J. Spurgeon Holland, CORN P. 0. Address, 109 Manning Ave., 1915 Sumter, R. F. D. State, South Carolina. Plot without Nitrate produced 1 bushel. Plot with Nitrate produced 3% bushels. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 5, 1915. Date of completing harvesting of crop, Sept. 16, 1915. REMARKS : I am well pleased with the results of Nitrate of Soda. If the season had been good the results would have been much better. Shall always use Nitrate. CROP. Name, J. J. Hair, CORN P. 0. Address, Athens, 1915 R. F. D., 3. Box 73, State, Texas. Plot without Nitrate produced 3% lbs. shelled. Plot with Nitrate produced 7% lbs. shelled. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, June 3, corn knee high. Date of completing harvesting of crop, June 15. REMARKS : I put it on my poorest sandy land planted late. CROP. Name, Curtis L. Smith, CORN P. 0. Address, Criders, 1915 R. F. D. State, Virginia. Plot without Nitrate produced 98 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 147 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, June 1. Date of completing harvesting of crop, Sept. 30. CROP. Name, C. G. Huntley, CORN P. 0. Address, Ellerson, 1915 R. F. D. Box 157. State, Virginia. Plot without Nitrate produced 25 bushels. Plot with Nitrate produced 40 bushels. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, June 20, 1915. Da^te of completing harvesting of crop, Sept. 20. REMARKS : The plot with Nitrate of Soda when harvested 'was green and made good fodder, and the rest of the field was fired up, and made podr fodder. It is a good fertilizer. CROP. Name, W. S. Armstrong, CORN P. 0. Address, Clifton Mills, 1915 E. F. D., 1, State, West Virginia. Plot without Nitrate produced V/ 2 bushels Ears. Plot with Nitrate produced 2% bushels Ears. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, April 30, 1915. Date of completing harvesting of crop, Sept. 15, 1915. REMARKS : It was of the Big Calico kind. The ears were very large and well filled out — from 10 to 12 inches in length. Nitrate of Soda is a wonderful improvement on the corn crop. I want to buy a ton for 1916 crop. CROP. Name, F. H. Schumann, CORN P. 0. Address, Harrisville, 1909 R. F. D., 1, State, West Virginia. Plot without Nitrate produced 274 lbs. Corn — 465 lbs. Fodder. Plot with Nitrate produced 350 lbs. Corn — 680 lbs. Fodder. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, June 1. Date of completing harvesting of crop, Sept. 30. REMARKS : Had some stalks that were 14 ft. 9 in. tall. CROP. Name, E. C. Johnson, CORN P. O. Address, Eland, 1909 R. F. D., 1, State, Wisconsin. Plot without Nitrate produced 138 lbs. Stalks — 50 lbs. Grain Ears. Plot with Nitrate produced 162y 2 lbs. Stalks — 60U lbs. Grain Ears. REMARKS : The Nitrate appeared to ripen the Corn better as well as to increase the amount CROP. Name, P. C. Casiday, COTTON P. 0. Address, Elba, 1911 R. F. D. State, Alabama. Plot without Nitrate produced 150 lbs. Seed Cotton. Plot with Nitrate produced 350 lbs. Seed Cotton. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, June 23. Date of completing harvesting of crop, Oct. 15. CROP. Name, H. F. Lyle, COTTON P. 0. Address, Somerville, 1908 R. F. D., 3, Box 60, State, Alabama. Plot without Nitrate produced 87 lbs. Cotton. Plot with Nitrate produced 207 lbs. Cotton. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, April 17. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Oct. 10. REMARKS: Nitrate Plot did not shed off fruit in dry weather like the other plot, in fact did not shed any. One- third larger stalk. Did not have more than half stand on plots. CROP. Name, Judson C. Davis, COTTON P. O. Address, Rome, 1911 R. F. D., 2, State, Georgia. Plot without Nitrate produced 69 lbs. Seed Cotton. Plot with Nitrate produced 97 lbs. Seed Cotton. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, June 25. Date of completing harvesting of crop, Nov. 1. REMARKS : On plot Nitrated, picked over twice. Plot with- out Nitrate, three pickings. Cotton stalks are still grow- ing and blooming where Nitrate was used. I am using Nitrate on my plantation next year. Cotton picked easy where Nitrated. CROP. Name, P. M. Boggan, COTTON P. 0. Address, Enterprise, 1911 R. F. D., 1, State, Mississippi. Plot without Nitrate produced 55 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 93 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, June 15. Date of completing harvesting of crop, Oct. 10. REMARKS : The Nitrate has paid me wonderfully this year. CROP. Name, W. E. Lott, COTTON P. 0. Address, Seminary, 1909 R. F. D., 1, Box 6, State, Mississippi. Plot without Nitrate produced 75 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 125 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, April 23, 1909. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Oct. 6, 1909. REMARKS : The yield would have been a great deal more if it had not been for the Mexican flea. CROP. Name, W. C. White, COTTON P. O. Address, Charlotte, 1909 R. F. D., 1, State, North Carolina. Plot without Nitrate produced 1100 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 1640 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, June 1. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Dec. 24. CROP. Name, Oscar Greene, COTTON P. O. Address, Mt. Gilead, 1909 R. F. D., 3, State, North Carolina. Plot without Nitrate produced 14 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 24 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, July 20. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Oct. 6. CROP. Name, W. E. Noyes, CUCUMBERS P. 0. Address, East Lebanon, 1907 R. F. D. State, Maine. REMARKS : Also used it on Cucumbers, getting them on my table before my neighbors from 6 to 10 days. CROP. Name, A. H. Burroughs, GRAPES P. 0. Address, Bristol, 1909 R. F. D., 117 Third Street, State, Tennessee. REMARKS : I spread Nitrate of Soda around the roots of my Grape vines and the effect was gratifying. My friends would exclaim, " I never saw such a crop of Grapes on so small a piece of land. ' ' CROP. Name, Ben Gallant, GRASS P. O. Address, St. Raphael, 1909 P. E. Island, Canada. Plot without Nitrate produced 90 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 120 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, June 1, 1909. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Aug. 6, 1909. REMARKS: This report is only for half of the area men- tioned in directions. Therefore I put on double coat on account of lateness of arrival of the Nitrate. CROP. Name, F. E. Darby, GRASS P. O. Address, Lafayette, 1915 R. F. D., Box 272, State, Louisiana. Plot without Nitrate produced 132 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 205 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, June 10. Date of completing harvesting of crop, Sept. 27. REMARKS: No rain from July 4 (rain on that date) to Sept. 30. I mean rain to wet the ground. CROP. Name, J. R. Lawrence, GRASS P. O. Address, North Berwick, 1914 R. F. D., 2, State, Maine. Plot without Nitrate produced 90 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 153 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, April 20, 1914. Date of completing harvesting of crop, July 14, 1914. REMARKS: Nitrate used on exceptionally poor piece of grass land. Grass cut on Nitrate plot better color and made better hay than other plot. Whole farm needs Nitrate of Soda. CROP. Name, Perley Goodwin, GRASS P- 0. Address, Wells Depot, 1914 R. F. D. State, Maine. Plot without Nitrate produced 110 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 149 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, April 14, 1914. Date of completing harvesting the crop, July 15, 1914. REMARKS : About one-third more grass — thickened up at bottom. Think if Nitrate of Soda had been used a week later, would have given even better results. Grass on Nitrate plot looks better than other a month after cutting. CROP. Name, Ralph A. McGeoch, GRASS P. 0. Address, Argyle, 1915 R. F. D., 1, State, New York. Plot without Nitrate produced 18.25 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 26.25 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 20, 1915. Date of completing harvesting of crop, July 31, 1915. REMARKS : This plot made a gain on an average of 800 lbs. per acre, for about $3 invested for 2y 2 months — pretty good interest, besides good pay for the labor incurred. CEOP. Name, 0. H. Smith, GRASS (Millet) P. 0. Address, Little Valley, 1907 R. F. D. State, New York. Plot without Nitrate produced 61 lbs.- (thoroughly dried). Plot with Nitrate produced 125 lbs. (thoroughly dried). Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, June 25, 1907. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Sept. 23, 1907. REMARKS: It was surprising to see the difference right away after the sowing ; which to me is a valuable education what Nitrate of Soda will do. * S . LJ CROP. Name, M. H. O'Brien, GRASS P. 0. Address, Upper Middleboro, 1909 R. F. D. State, Cumberland Co., N. S. Plot without Nitrate produced 120 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 210 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 15. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, July 28. REMARKS: Could see where the Nitrate was put on one yard away. The hay grew thicker and the quantity much heavier. Much pleased with Nitrate. CROP. Name, George A. Frame, GRASS P. O. Address, Shubenacadie, 1909 R. F. D., Hants County, State, Nova Scotia. Plot without Nitrate produced 160 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 232 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 1, 1909. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, July 22, 1909. REMARKS : This was the second crop on a rich upland field previously fertilized with wood-ashes in the autumn of 1908. As to.quality it was clean Timothy No. 1. Well pleased with Nitrate. CROP. Name, Victor Hanslik, GRASS P- 0. Address, South Euclid, 1915 B. F. D., 2, State, Ohio. Plot without Nitrate produced 98 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 169 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, April 5. Date of completing harvesting of crop, July 20. CROP. Name, Stephen Clark, GRASS P. 0. Address, Corry, 1907 B. F. D., 11, State, Pennsylvania. Plot without Nitrate produced 96 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 180 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, June 5. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, July 24. , ,^ REMARKS : Grass was about 5 or 6 inches high when Nitrate was applied, but it nearly doubled the yield. CROP. Name, Jacob Larsen, GRASS P. O. Address, Franklin, 1907 B. F. D., 3, State, Pennsylvania. Plot without Nitrate produced 1500 lbs. to the acre. Plot with Nitrate produced 2600 lbs. to the acre. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, April 19. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, August 29. CROP. Name, John G. Mayes, GRASS P. O. Address, Hazen, 1907 R. F. D. State, Pennsylvania. - Plot without Nitrate produced 280 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 390 lbs,. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda>< June 10. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Aug. 7. REMARKS : You could see the difference. i,n growth of Grass. also in color — it was a darker green. I expect to try 4 acres next season. CROP. Name, F. L. Benjamin, GRASS P. 0. Address, Kizer's, 1907 R. F. D. State, Pennsylvania. Plot without Nitrate produced 58% lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 120% lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, June 1, 1907. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, July 18, 1907. REMARKS: Too little rainfall partly responsible for light- ness of yield. One week after applying Nitrate difference in color of Grass was noticeable. CROP. Name, Adelbert Eddy, GRASS P. O. Address, Youngsville, 1907 R. F. D., 2, State, Pennsylvania. Plot without Nitrate produced 200 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 300 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, June 5. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, July 30. REMARKS : Where I put the Nitrate on is starting up more than the other. I am convinced it pays to use it. CROP. Name, Chas. A. Eaton, GRASS P. O. Address, North Scituate, 1909 R. F. D., 1, State, Rhode Island. Plot without Nitrate produced 125 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 223 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, April 29. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, July 20. REMARKS : The two plots were side by side right on the highway, with no fence to obstruct the view, and they attracted quite, a lot of attention and a great many inquiries. There was quite a difference in the looks of the two plots.; CROP. Nattte, F. 0. Ekstedt, GRASS P. O. Address, Pearson, 1907 R. F. D., 1, State, Washington. Plot without Nitrate produced 148 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 165 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, June 8. Date of completing harvesting of the" crop, July 16. REMARKS : The crop' Was nearly a foot high when applied or the difference might have been larger. CROP. Name, F. C. Lulovsky, GRASS P.O. Address, Watertown, 1915 R,F. D., 122 Hall St., State, Wisconsin. Plot without Nitrate produced 87 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 122 lbs. Date of r applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 28. Date of completing harvesting of crop, July 10. REMARKS: Plot with Nitrate was darker green than the other. CROP. Name, J. C. Noble, TIMOTHY. P. 0. Address, Calvert City, 1915 R. F. D. State, Kentuckv. Plot without Nitrate produced 1200 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 1900 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, April 10. 1915. Date of completing harvesting of crop, July 16, 1915. CROP. Name, F. W. Swain, TIMOTHY HAY P. O. Address, Baden, 1907 R. F. D., 1, State, Pennsylvania. Plot without Nitrate produced about 200 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced about 380 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 20. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Aug. 20. REMARKS: I received the Nitrate too late for best results. As it was the Nitrate almost doubled the crop. Some was lying down. CROP. Name, E. R. Styer, HAY P. O. Address, Glen Moon, 1907 R. F. D. State, Pennsylvania. Plot without Nitrate produced 109 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 177 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, June 1. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, July 11. REMARKS : One week after I could see a change ; the Grass took on a greener appearance and kept ahead of the other plot. CROP. Name, N. W. Hemminger, HAY P. O. Address, Mt. Pleasant, 1907 R. F. D., 4, Box 41, State, Pennsylvania. Plot without Nitrate produced 94 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 150 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 26. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, July 13. REMARKS : Am well pleased with results and expect to con- tinue its use, and would be obliged for all information on all crops. CROP. Name, Jos. L. Pendleton, TIMOTHY HAY P. 0. Address, Oaks, 1907 R. F. D. State, Pennsylvania. Plot without Nitrate produced 982 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 1163 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 25, 1907. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, July 16, 1907. REMARKS: I would. have secured better results if Nitrate had been applied earlier in the season. Both plots were top- dressed with fresh manure (12 loads to the acre). CROP. Name, F. E. Kerr, HAY P. 0. Address, Strawn, 1907 R. F. D. State, Pennsylvania. Plot without Nitrate produced 140 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 225 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, June 15, 1907. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Aug. 10, 1907, CROP. Name, Willard P. Barber, HOPS P. O. Address, Malone, 1907 R. F. D., 3, State, New York. Plot without Nitrate produced 64% lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 87% lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 20. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Sept. 7. CROP. Name, Henry Childs, HOPS P. O. Address, Owl's Head, 1907 R. F. D. State, New York. Plot without Nitrate produced 48 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 60 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, about June 8, 1907. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Sept. 21, 1907. CROP. Name, R. G. Brown, HOPS P. 0. Address, Chard, 1907 R. F. D. State, Ontario. Plot without Nitrate produced 57 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 64 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 27. Date of completing harvesting of the crop. Oct. 11. REMARKS : The Nitrate of Soda did not get altogether fair play; however, there was an improvement. CROP. Name, J. R. Lawrence, LETTUCE P. 0. Address, Rowe, 1915 R. F. D. State, Massachusetts. Plot without Nitrate produced 300 Heads, averaging 1% lbs. each. Plot with Nitrate produced 420 Heads, averaging 2 lbs. each. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 15, and every 2 weeks. Date of completing harvesting of crop, July 30. REMARKS : Applications made every 2 weeks to the grow- ing crop until all had headed. CROP. Name, J. A. Winbourne, MELONS AND P. O. Address, Limrock, TOMATOES R. F. D. 1907 State, Alabama. REMARKS : Think my Melons and Tomatoes were benefited at least 40 per cent. Used no other fertilizer except a little stable manure. CROP. Name, S. L. Bishop, OATS P. 0. Address, Slackland, 1909 R. F. D. State, Alabama. Plot without Nitrate produced 9 bundles. Plot with Nitrate produced 23 bundles. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, Febr. 16, 1909. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, June 18, 1909. REMARKS : This was under very unfavorable conditions, there being so much rain. The Plot with Nitrate besides producing more than double the amount of Bundles, if threshed, would more than treble it. There was no other fertilizer used. CROP. Name, Chas. Beedle, OATS P. 0. Address, Los Gratos, 1909 R. F. D., 15, Bos 108, State California. Plot without Nitrate produced 133 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 190 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, March 15, 1909. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, May 31, 1909. REMARKS: The crop of Oats was harvested for Hay instead of Grain. The Nitrate did not have a fair test as there wasn't any rain after it was applied. CROP. Name, W. H. Demoss, OATS P. O. Address, Shreveport, 1915 R. F. D., 3, Box 110, State, Louisiana. Plot without Nitrate produced 19 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 24% lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 1. Date of completing harvesting of crop, June 5. CEOP. Name, J. A. Wells, Sr., OATS P. OfAddress, Mt. Olive, 1909 E. F. D., 4, Box 61, State, Mississippi. Plot without Nitrate produced 77 lbs. in bundles. Plot with Nitrate produced 178 lbs. in bundles. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, March 10, 1909. Date of completing harvesting of crop, May 20, 1909. EEMAEKS : I applied the Nitrate of Soda as a top dressing on my Oats and I could see a big difference in 7 days. The Nitrate Plot is now twice as large as the balance of the field. Everybody that sees the Oats says that it beats anything that they ever saw. I have just bought 800 lbs., which J. aim to try on my Corn and Cotton. I don't think it will be any trouble for me to make up a carload next season. Every- body that sees my Oats Says they aim to buy some Nitrate of Soda next year. CEOP. Name, W. S. Cherry, OATS P. O. Address, Washington, 1909 E. F. D., 1, Box 21, State, North Carolina. Plot without Nitrate produced 23 lbs. Oats — 30 lbs. Straw. Plot with Nitrate produced 36 lbs. Oats — 55 lbs. Straw. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, March 10. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, June 4. CEOP. Name, Wm. E. Porter, OATS P. O. Address, Eoxabell, 1915 E. F. p„ 1, State, Ohio Plot. without Nitrate produced 16 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 24 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, April 10, 1915. Date of completing harvesting of crop. EEMAEKS : Weighed each shock of straw and all on adjoin- ing plots. The fertilized plot grew ahead of other and was better filled as weights indicate, but don't think straw was any stiff er. If a wet season, Oats are liable to get down. CROP. Name, De Witt Stevens, OATS-HAY P. 0. Address, Cottage Grove, 1909 E. F. D. State, Oregon. Plot without Nitrate produced 90 lbs. field cured Hay. Plot with Nitrate produced 160 lbs. field cured Hay. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, April 12, 1909. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, July 2, 1909. CROP. Name, J. M. Winder, OATS P. O. Address, Williamsport, 1909 R. F. D. State, Pennsylvania. Plot without Nitrate produced at rate of 17 bu. per acre. Plot with Nitrate produced at rate of 35 bu. per acre. REMARKS: The plot with Nitrate could be very plainly seen while growing. CROP. Name, J. H. Patteson, OATS P. O. Address, Ashland, . 1909 R. F. D., 3, State, Virginia: REMARKS : I cut my Oats this year for hay. The two plots were laid off next to the main road. The one with Nitrate of Soda produced more than double as many Oats as the other. I am going to buy more Nitrate to-day. CROP. Name, A. S. Hoard, OATS P. O. Address, Sassafras, 1915 R. F.D. State, Virginia. Plot without Nitrate produced V/ 2 pecks. Plot with Nitrate produced 2% pecks. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, April 14. Date of completing harvesting of crop, June 9. REMARKS: I find that Nitrate of Soda has helped the plot fertilized very much. I notice that it sweetens land. CROP. Name, E. Cruse, ONIONS P. 0. Address, Tunnel Hill, 1909 R. F. D. State, Illinois. Plot without Nitrate produced (from 3 bu. sets bedded) 5 bushels. Plot with Nitrate produced (from 3 bu. sets bedded) 20 bushels. CROP. Name, George C. Lemley, ONIONS P. 0. Address, Washington. 1907 R. F. D., 5, State, Iowa. Plot without Nitrate produced 456 lbs. to the 4 rows 100 ft. long. Plot with Nitrate produced 684 lbs. to the 4 rows 100 ft. long. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 20, 1907. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Sept. 10, 1907. REMARKS : I think Nitrate of Soda a fine thing and it will pay to use it on any kind of crop. I sowed mine broadcast i; with ashes at the rate of 1 lb. to the- row, each containing 100 feet, and I could see this difference — to walk across the patch I could tell the rows. CROP. Name, James H. Jepson, ONIONS P. O. Address, North Windham, 1907 R. F. D- State, Maine. Plot without Nitrate produced 691 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 1320 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, June 10. Date of completing harvesting of the crop. Sept, 10. REMARKS : I will say there was 231 lbs. of poor Onions where there was No Nitrate and 76 lbs. where there was Nitrate. Neighbors intend using it another year. CEOP. Name, W. C. Stick, ONIONS P. 0. Address, Hampstead, 1909 R. F. D. State, Maryland. Plot without Nitrate produced 1 bushel Onions. Plot with Nitrate produced 2 bushels Onions. Date of applying- the Nitrate of Soda, about April 15, 1909. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, July 29, 1909. REMARKS : I think Nitrate of Soda will do all it is recom- mended to. I think my garden is one of the best in my town. I have used it on my Wheat crop this Fall. CROP. Name, J. R. Lawrence, ONIONS ;i P. 0. Address, Rowe, 1915 R. F. D. State, Massachusetts. Plot without Nitrate produced no matured Onions. Plot with Nitrate produced between 3 and 4 bushels. Date of applying the Nitrate- of Soda, July, Aug.; every 2 weeks. Date of completing harvesting of crop, Sept. REMARKS : Onions not a practical crop on soil used, or in climate of North Berwick, Me., where test was made. Got matured onions only on plot where used Nitrate of Soda. CROP. Name, Berwind Plent, ONIONS P. 0. Address, Twinsburg, 1915 R. F. D., 2, State, Ohio. Plot without Nitrate produced iy 2 bushels. Plot with Nitrate produced 2% bushels. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May. Date of completing harvesting of crop, October. REMARKS: Onions where Nitrate was applied were much larger and matured earlier. Cabbage, cauliflower and cucumbers also were of greater size and more vigorous growth than those without Nitrate. CROP. Name, A. J. Richardson, ONIONS P. 0. Address, Girard, 1907 R. F. D., 1, State, Pennsylvania. Plot without Nitrate produced 80 bushels. Plot with Nitrate produced 125 bushels. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 15. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Sept. 28. REMARKS : I think it pays 40% to use Nitrate of Soda. CROP. Name, Richard L. L. Davies, ONIONS P. 0. Address, 124 Water St., 1915 R. F. D., Punxsutawney, State, Pennsylvania. Plot without Nitrate produced Onions-seed a failure. Plot with Nitrate produced 2 bushels of fine Onions. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, April 13, 19151 , Date of completing harvesting of crop, Sept. 2, 1915. CROP. Name, Lillibrook Farm, EARLY PEAS P. 0. Address, Still River, 1909 R. F. D. State, Connecticut. Plot without Nitrate produced lf>% pecks. Plot with Nitrate produced 23 pecks. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, April 19 and 29. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Nitrated June 24, Non-Nitrated June 28. REMARKS : Average price 42 1 /£ cents a peck on Nitrated Plot, "SlVz cents a peck on Non-Nitrated Plot. CROP. Name, W. O. Tolbert, PEAS P. 0. Address, Hineston, 1908 R. F. D. State, Louisiana. Plot without Nitrate produced 54 lbs. Peas in hull. Plot with Nitrate produced 74 lbs. Peas in hull. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, July 11, 1908. Date of completing harvesting of crop, Sept. 17, 1908. REMARKS : Am well pleased with the result: I believe the yield would have been greater had the Nitrate of Soda been put out at planting of Peas. CROP. Name, W. E. Noyes, PEAS P. O. Address, East Lebanon, 1907 R. F. D. State, Maine. Plot without Nitrate produced 1 bushel 1 peck. Plot with Nitrate produced 2 bushels 1 peck. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, June 8. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, July 21. REMARKS: Planted Peas 18th of May. July 9 picked 2 pecks ; July 15, 4 pecks, July 21, 3 pecks. Many who had planted Peas about the 1st of May got Peas only 3 or 4 days earlier than I. Farmers were surprised at this yield and only 52 days after planting. CROP. Name, E. F. Randolph, . PEAS P. O. Address, Greatkills, 1911 R. F. D. State, New York. Plot without Nitrate produced 2 pecks. Plot with Nitrate produced 4 pecks. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 12, 1911. Date of completing harvesting of crop, June 26, 1911. REMARKS : Plots were of equal size and side by side. Dif ference in vines showed at end of first week. CROP. Name, A. 0. Willis, POTATOES P. 0. Address, Plainfield, 1915 E. F. D. State, Illinois, Plot without Nitrate produced 2*4 bushels. Plot with Nitrate produced 4 bushels. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, June 9, 1915. Date of completing harvesting of crop, Sept. 10, 1915. REMARKS : When it comes to using Nitrate of Soda you may call me an up to date fan. It is the best fertilizer I have ever used. I shall continue to use it. CROP. Name, M. J. Weber, POTATOES P. 0. Address, Lyons Station, 1907 R. F. D., 13, State, Indiana. Plot without Nitrate produced 360 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 425 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 27, 1907. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Sept. 28, 1907. CROP. Name, T. H. Rhodes, POTATOES P. O. Address, Leitchfield, 1908 R. F. D., 1, State, Kentucky. Plot without Nitrate produced 5% bushels. Plot with Nitrate produced 11% bushels. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 14. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Oct. 13. CROP. Name, J. H. Sharnel, POTATOES P. O. Address, Winston-Salem, 1910 R. F. D., 7, State, North Carolina. REMARKS: I also planted 7 Irish Potatoes cut into 42 pieces. Put Nitrate of Soda in at time of planting, April 2. Applied Nitrate again May 4; on each side of hills, and again May 29. Dug them July 7. The yield was 2 bushels CEOP. Name, Elisha B. Steere, POTATOES P. 0. Address, Oakland Beach, 1911 R. F. D. State, Rhode Island. Plot without Nitrate produced 6 bushels Potatoes. Plot with Nitrate produced 8 bushels Potatoes. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 15, 1911. Date of completing harvesting of crop, Oct. 3, 1911. REMARKS: The finest chemical for sweetening land in vicinity ever known around these parts. CROP. Name, R. I. Barnes, POTATOES P. 0. Address, Amelia C. H., 1908 R. F. D., 1, State, Virginia. Plot without Nitrate produced 480 lbs. — 8 bushels. Plot with Nitrate produced 675 lbs. — 11% bushels. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 10, 1908. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Aug, 10, 1908. REMARKS : Showed an improvement within ten days. CROP. Name, H. A. Markley, RHUBARB P.O. Address, Roxborough, Philadelphia, 1909 R. F. D., 530 Leverington Ave., State, Pennsylvania. REMARKS: I used 2 oz. of Nitrate of Soda to 1 gal. water • on Rhubarb plant — 1 qt. to plant — and had the pleasure of eating pie from same Sunday. One week showed marked improvement. CROP. Name, David Smith, RYE P. O. Address, South Haven, 1911 R. F. D., 2, State, Michigan, Plot without Nitrate produced 47 lbs. Grain, 86 lbs. Straw. Plot with Nitrate produced 57 lbs. Grain, 105 lbs. Straw. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, end of April. Date of .completing harvesting of crop, July 8. CROP. Name, W. A. Bixby, RYE P. 0. Address, Par Hills, 1909 R. P. D. State, New Jersey. Plot without Nitrate produced 53 lbs. Straw — 12 lbs. Grain. Plot with Nitrate produced 66 lbs. Straw — 17 lbs. Grain. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 6, 1909. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, June 28, 1909. REMARKS : No difference in length of Straw, but Nitrate Plot Straw was dark green and grain looked plumper. CROP. Name, Rudolph Sinay, RYE P. 0. Address, Coxsackie, 1911 R. F. D., 1, Box 32, State, New York. Plot without Nitrate produced 7 lbs. Rye, 16% lbs. Straw. Plot with Nitrate produced 12% lbs. Rye, 22% lbs. Straw. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, June 3," 1911.' Date of completing harvesting of crop, July 7, 1911. REMARKS : I do not know the exact day when I applied it, I only guess at that. i CROP. Name, E. L. McGee, RYE P. O. Address, Knoxville, 1909 R. F. D., 9, Box 22, State, Tennessee. Plot without Nitrate produced 50 lbs. Green Feed. Plot with Nitrate produced 75 lbs. Green Feed. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, April 1, 1909. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, June 10, 1909. REMARKS: Rye with Soda was taller, heads larger and heavier, with a better grade of Straw. It ^topfed^hetter, having at least 25 heads to stool, while the unfertilized averaged 15, with poor heads and Straw. Ground was very poor red mulatto. CROP. Name, F. H. Cardozo, STRAWBERRIES P. 0. Address, Tuskegee, 1907 R. F. D., Agr. Exp. Station, State, Alabama. Plot without Nitrate produced 100 quarts Strawberries. Plot with Nitrate produced 140 quarts Strawberries. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, March and April 1. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, July 17. REMARKS: I had some on hand before receiving yours'. Fine returns. All who ever had anything to do with this chemical know its power to increase profits, if wisely applied. CROP. Name, G. W. Dunning, STRAWBERRIES P. O. Address, Cassopolis, 1911 R. F. D., 7, State, Michigan. Plot without Nitrate produced 103 quarts. Plot with Nitrate produced 129 quarts. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, June 10, 1911. Date of completing harvesting of crop, July 1, 1911. CROP. Name, E. C. Chatham, SUGAR BEETS P. 0. Address, Boaz, 1908 R. F. D., 2, State, Alabama. Plot without Nitrate produced 1200 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 2000 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, July 17, 1908. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Nov. 8, 1908. CROP. Name, John W. Farrimond, SUGAR BEETS P. 0. Address, St. Anthony, 1906 R. F. D., State, Idaho. Plot without Nitrate produced 350 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 480 lbs. REMARKS: Selected out of about 40 acres and as good a stand for each plot as I could find side«by side; thinning, hoeing, irrigating and topping done by Japanese ; delivered at receiving station Nov. 9, 1906. CROP. Name, Vinal D. Kelsey, SUGAR BEETS P. O. Address, Box 6, Walpole, 1909 R. F. D. State, Maine. Plot without Nitrate produced 9 bushels. Plot with Nitrate produced 13 bushels. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 27, 1909. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Oct. 27, 1909. REMARKS : The severe drought which we had in this sec- tion was very much against said crop, but we call it a fine gain. CROP. Name, F. P. Stevens, SUGAR BEETS P. O. Address, Manchester, 1911 R. F. D. State, Massachusetts. Plot without Nitrate produced 2% bushels. Plot with Nitrate produced 3% bushels. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 10. Date of completing harvesting of crop. REMARKS : The Beets where Nitrate was used I marketed at least two weeks earlier and they were of much better quality. Will use it on nearly all of my crops next year. CEOP. Name, I. A. Kierstead, SUGAR BEETS P. 0. Address, Lakeview, 1907 E. F. D., 1, State, Michigan. Plot without Nitrate produced 539 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 661 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, June 1. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Nov. 8. CEOP. Name, Howard Bros., SUGAR BEETS P. 0. Address, Wallaceburg, 1909 E. F. D. State, Ontario. Plot without Nitrate produced 8 baskets. Plot with Nitrate produced 9 baskets. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, about June 1, 1909. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Oct. 8, 1909. EEMAEKS: The leaves of the plants were larger and greener, and showed more signs of growth and strength than the unfertilized. CEOP. Name, Clarence J. Springer, SUGAR BEETS P. O. Address, Middletown, 1907 E. F. D., 3, State, Pennsylvania Plot without Nitrate produced 9 bushels. Plot with Nitrate produced 15 bushels. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, June 1. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Nov. 4. EEMAEKS : Dry weather cut the yield, I think ; also received Nitrate of Soda too late in season to give it the chance it should have had. Did well, I think, everything considered. Would be glad to make a test again next year. CROP. Name, Louis Lorquet, SUGAR BEETS P. 0. Address, Farnham, 1909 E. F. D. State, Quebec. Plot without Nitrate produced 480 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 780 lbs. Date of applying Nitrate of Soda, June 25. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, October 20. REMARKS: " Je suis tres satisfait de l'effet prodigieux de votre Nitrate de Soude. 300 lbs. de surplus sur 4 sillons delOOpds." CROP. Name, John J. Cunningham, SUGAR BEETS P. O. Address, Milan, 1907 R. F. D., 5, State, Tennessee. Plot without Nitrate produced at rate of 100 bu. per acre. Plot with Nitrate produced at rate of 200 bu. per acre. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, about May 16. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, about July 4. REMARKS : I put it in at two applications, and it was plain to everybody to see its effect on the crop. CROP. Name, W. M. Hannah, SWEET P. O. Address, Warrior, POTATOES R. F. D., 1, 1907 State, Alabama. Plot without Nitrate produced 490 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 770 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, July 1. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, Nov. 1. CEOP. " Name, G. C. Edwards, TOBACCO P. 0. Address, Henderson, 1907 R. F. D. State, North Carolina. Plot without Nitrate produced 20 lbs. Tobacco. Plot with Nitrate produced 55 1/5 lbs. Tobacco. REMARKS : Tobacco grown on Nitrate plot sold at 17 cents per pound. Tobacco grown on No-Nitrate plot brought only 9 cents per pound. CROP. Name, Harry H. Stauffer, TOBACCO P. 0. Address, Lititz, 1907 R. F. D., 3, Box 31, State, Pennsylvania. Plot without Nitrate produced 78 lbs. of good leaf. Plot with Nitrate produced 93 lbs. of good leaf. REMARKS : Am well pleased with the results. CROP. Name, M. D. Woodard, TOBACCO P. 0. Address, Springfield, 1908 R. F. D., 6, State, Tennessee. Plot without Nitrate produced 986 lbs. per acre. Plot with Nitrate produced 1148 lbs. per acre. REMARKS: Both plots were cured out and carefully weighed. The test on young Tobacco Plants was very satis- factory. Came on and ready to transplant 10 days earlier than those not treated with Nitrate of Soda. CROP. Name, W. L. Miller, TOMATOES P. O. Address, Attapulgus, 1915 R. F. D. State, Georgia. Plot without Nitrate produced nothing, — a failure. Plot with Nitrate produced a good crop, — fine. REMARKS : Had a very dry season, and none of my neigh- bors made any. Those without Nitrate were a failure with Nitrate were good. CROP. Name, F. W. Hoyt, TOMATOES P. 0. Address, Salamanca, 1907 R. F. D. State, New York. Plot without Nitrate produced 5 bu. green Tomatoes — less than 1 bu. ripe. Plot with Nitrate produced about 10 bu. green, with a larger proportion ripe and much earlier. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, about June 26. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, October 4, 1907. REMARKS: We lost our early plants from early frost, so didn't set out others until June 12. Could readily discern the effect of Nitrate of Soda. Shall use it on crops next Spring. Am well pleased with results. CROP. Name, R. S. Hays, TOMATOES P. 0. Address, Elkhart, 1915 R. F. D. State, Texas. Plot without Nitrate produced at rate of 200 crates to acre. Plot with Nitrate produced at rate of 400 crates to acre. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, June 4. Date of completing harvesting of crop, July 10. REMARKS : I received the Nitrate too late for the Oat crop. Was harvesting Oats when it came in June. I tried it on Tomatoes as they were forming young fruit. On the Nitrate plot they were twice as large and ripened earlier. CROP. Name, D. C. Turner, WHEAT P. O. Address, Northport, 1915 R F. D., 1, Box 11, State, Alabama. Plot without Nitrate produced 8 quarts. Plot with Nitrate produced 13 quarts. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, April 1. Date of completing harvesting of crop, June 10. REMARKS : I am more than pleased with results. Will say there is nothing equal to Nitrate for top dressing wheat. More for me. CROP. Name, W. C. Allinson, WHEAT P. 0. Address, Napa, 1906 R. F. D., 1, State, California. Plot without Nitrate produced 22 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 45 lbs. REMARKS: Nitrate applied April 16. Marked change in color in 10 days. The result was a surprise to me. CROP. Name, A. T. Hawley, WHEAT P. O. Address, Godfrey, 1915 R. F. D., 2, State, Illinois. Plot without Nitrate produced 10 bu. per acre. Plot with Nitrate produced 15 bu. per acre. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, April 27, 1915. Date of completing harvesting of crop, June 26, 1915. REMARKS : Decided difference where used on poor ground, — darker green, — one foot higher, and heads longer. Other experience shows much less difference on richer soil. CROP. Name, Thos. N. Magruder, WHEAT P. 0. Address, Glendale, 1915 R. F. D., 1, State, Maryland. Plot without Nitrate produced 2 qts. Seed Wheat. Plot with Nitrate produced 3 qts. Seed Wheat. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, April 15, 1915. Date of completing harvesting of crop, July 10, 1915. REMARKS: Very marked distinction in every particular; namely, straw longer,— grain larger,— and grass more vigorous. CEOP. Name, James A. Hughes, WHEAT P. 0. Address, Central Lake, 1909 R. F. D. State, Michigan. Plot without Nitrate produced % bushel. Plot with Nitrate produced 1 bushel. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 16, 1909. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, July 10, 1909. REMARKS : I, myself, and everyone who saw my crop think that Nitrate Fertilizer is the very best thing that can be put on any land. CROP. Name, James Mitchell, WHEAT P. O. Address, Burt, 1915 R. F. D., 29, State, New York. Plot without Nitrate produced 161% lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 219 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 14. Date of completing harvesting of crop, July 20. REMARKS : I am well pleased with the results of the tests, and expect to use Nitrate of Soda for Wheat and Oats next year. CROP. Name, Frank I. Stevenson, WHEAT P. 0. Address, Perry, 1909 R. F. D., 1, State, Ohio. Plot without Nitrate produced 75 pounds. Plot with Nitrate produced 138 pounds. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, April. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, August. REMARKS : Crop was on gravel land, rather dry for it most of the Summer. CROP. Name, Jas. Lebow, WHEAT P. 0. Address, Cottage Grove, 1906 R. F. D. State, Oregon. Plot without Nitrate produced 27 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 45 lbs. REMARKS : The Nitrate plot was better quality of Wheat than the No-Nitrated plot was. CROP. Name, J. 0. Leary, WHEAT P. 0. Address, Toledo, 1915 R. F. D. State, Oregon, Plot without Nitrate produced a couple of handfuls. Plot with Nitrate produced 1 bushel. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, April 28. Date of completing harvesting of crop, Aug. 20. REMARKS : The plot without Nitrate practically worthless. CROP. Name, Z. Ellsworth Steyer, WHEAT R. F. D. 1909 State, Pennsylvania. Plot without Nitrate produced 88 lbs. Plot with Nitrate produced 134 lbs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, March 26, 1909. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, July 6, 1909. CROP. Name, R. B. King, WHEAT P. O. Address, Portland, 1915 R. F. D., 2, State, Tennessee. Plot without Nitrate produced 5 lbs. 1 oz. Plot with Nitrate produced 17 lbs. 3 ozs. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, April 1, 1915. Date of completing harvesting of crop, June 10, 1915. REMARKS : Nitrate was sowed on the very poorest spot in the field, — a red clay, washed knoll. Well pleased with result. CROP. Name, F. E. Welton, WINTER WHEAT P. 0. Address, Napavine, 1907 R. F. D. State, Washington. Plot without Nitrate produced 112%- Plot with Nitrate produced 129%. Date of applying the Nitrate of Soda, May 7, 1907. Date of completing harvesting of the crop, July 31, 1907. REMARKS : Sowed Nitrate of Soda on plot of ground 40 x40 feet, Winter Wheat. The above is the result of same. We had very heavy frosts the last of April and first of May. I think it hurt Wheat. This is on clay soil, ground cleared 10 years ago. No other fertilizer. SPECIAL REPORTS REPORT ON EXPERIMENT MADE WITH NITRATE OF SODA ON WHEAT HAY, BY W. M. RUTHERFORD, PETALUMA, CALIFORNIA. Wheat sown about the 8th of January, 1909. Nitrate of Soda applied early in February, 1909. Early in the season the one-acre plot, which received 100 lbs. of Nitrate of Soda, showed distinctive gain, and continued to make a better growth and maintain a better color throughout the season. At harvest time the acre receiving no Nitrate of Soda, nor any other fertilizer, yielded 3,000 lbs. of wheat hay. The plot receiving 100 lbs. of Nitrate of Soda yielded 4,000 lbs. of wheat hay ; an Increase of 1,000 lbs. The hay sold for $16 per ton at the farm, which gave an increase of $8 per acre from the use of 100 lbs. of Nitrate of Soda. From March to harvest time it was extremely dry. REPORT OF RESULTS FROM THE USE OF NITRATE OF SODA ON ORANGES, BY D. MACKENZIE, POMONA, CALIFORNIA. " I bought an Orange Grove five years ago, very much run down, and followed practically the method you recommended in the bulletin. From a crop of 106 boxes, there is now esti- mated 2,000 boxes on the trees and the limit has not by any means been reached. THE HOME MIXING OF CATTLE FEEDS Dairying is business and the successful dairyman must be an execu- tive. His two main problems, particularly, demand one quality that marks the merchant prince, the ability to select. First, the dairyman must be able to select for his herd, and in it, those ccws that can handle most effectively the crude materials he pro- vides, — feeds, — aud transform them profitably into his marketable product, milk. If he lacks selective ability and retains many cows whose feed alone costs three quarters of what he can get for the milk they prodiice, he is on the road to financial ruin. Second, he must select, for growth or purchase, those crops aud feeds that will most economically maintain his cows and allow them to use to best advantage the superior milk-giving capacity for which he has. chosen them. With the first problem we are not to deal ; nor will we discuss those- broad phases of feed selection that relate to the proper balancing of home production and outside purchasing; for these relate more strictly to farm management than to the dairy. Our aim is to show the herd owner, as simply as possible, how he can combine the feeds available to him into healthful, palatable, productive rations. No mechanical method can take the place of reason and discrimination in the stable; but home-mixing of rations depends on a few principles, which any thoughtful feeder can easily comprehend. If he builds upon these he can always offer his cows the kinds and amounts of food constituents, needed to maintain productive health, and can choose economically, under the prevailing conditions of supply and cost, so that the feeds may produce milk profitably. CHOICE OF FEEDS FROM GENERAL CHARACTER. Cattle feeds must, first, be healthful. Most of them are so, and selection along this line limits the choice but little, even if with health of the animal we include ability to produce milk free from taint or smell, and butter not excessively hard or soft. The hays (except clovers), dry fodders generally, and cottonseed meal, may produce con- stipation if used without more laxative feeds. They should be joined with silage, roots, wheat bran or oil meal, which are loosening in their effect. Silage, cabbage, rape and turnips should always be fed after milking rather than before, so that the unpleasant odors they produce may not taint the milk either through the air during the milking, or through the animal's system. Such odors and taints usually disappear in the intervals between milkings unless the materials are fed to excess. Cottonseed meal is said to make a very hard, tallowy butter, soy beans one less hard, while buckwheat middlings, distiller's grains and potatoes give a soft, lardy, or oily product; therefore none of these feeds should make up the greater part of a ration, though each is useful in proper combination. The cottonseed products may sometimes be used to advantage when summer conditions tend to produce soft butter ; but should, however, never be used to excess. Two to three pounds daily may safely be fed to cows, but not more except under special care- fully considered conditions. Palatability of rations depends largely on succulence and on variety ; -•and, by utilizing these, practically any feed not distinctly unwholesome ■or repellant may be introduced into a ration. Cows seem to become Accustomed quite readily to new feeds that are unpalatable at first, like isweet clover or soy bean hay, gluten feed, cottonseed meal and brewers' ■or distillers' grains. Any of these can usually be introduced quickly into a ration by combining with it some feed the animal likes; as by moistening a small quantity of the new roughage and sprinkling wheat bran or corn meal on it; or by spreading gradually increased amounts of the unpalatable concentrate on silage or sliced roots. The animal will soon become accustomed to the new taste and accept the feed as part of her ration. A variety of feeds, especially of grains or other concentrates, will generally be eaten better for a long period than one alone; but sudden and frequent changes often reduce productivity more than does a slight monotony in the feeding. While not always possible to provide it, one succulent feed like silage, roots or well moistened beet pulp makes rations decidedly more palatable for most cows. A large amount of coarse, bulky material can be handled by cattle. to advantage, and is, indeed, helpful in insuring proper mastication and digestion. No fixed rule can be given as to the ratio between concen- trates and coarse feed (fodder, roughage, roughness), for the relative amounts will vary with conditions. Individuals differ widely in their ability to handle coarse feed; and the same cow when giving a heavy 2 flow of milk requires much more of her feed in concentrated form than when she is nearly or quite dry. Usually the ability and desire of the animal may be taken as a guide to the quantity of roughage in her ration, allowing her all of such feed that she will quickly eat up clean, and adjusting the grain mixture accordingly. Roughly speaking, two- thirds of the '' dry matter " of the feed may come from the hay, silage and other coarse fodder, if such an amount supplies the needed food constituents economically. Even with the grain mixture, however, at- tention must be paid to lightening the feed ; for a combination of buck- wheat middlings, cottonseed meal and corn meal would be liable to cloy the appetite and to be poorly masticated ; and might lead to unde- sirable fermentations and loss of food value in digestion. At least one concentrate in a ration should be light and bulky, like wheat bran or brewers' grains ; or the combination of heavy grains should be thor- oughly mixed with part of the silage, sliced roots, beet pulp, or cut, moistened hay. CHOICE OF FEEDS BY COMPOSITION. These general principles should always be considered in making up a ration ; but with no other guide than these we might come far short of securing an effective, economical ration, even though it were ?nade up of healthful, palatable materials in considerable variety and properly proportioned as to light and heavy grains and roughage. To feed a ration of clover hay, corn-and-soy-bean silage, malt sprouts, buckwheat middlings and oil meal would probably soon ruin the cow and certainly would not be economical, yet all these are good, wholesome feeds and the combination fills most of the requirements of the preceding prin- ciples. It does not, however, meet the cow's needs as a living animal and as a milk-making machine. Every ration must do this if it is to be both efficient and economical. We must select feeds, then, not only by their general character but also with reference to their composition ; for the different chemical components of feeds fulfill different functions in the body of the animal. HOW FEEDS MEET THE BODY'S NEEDS. Water is an imperative demand of every animal; but need not be considered in the feeds, except for succulence. Moisture is found in every feed, even the dryest, and is deducted when figures are given for " dry matter." The dairy cow requires lime, phosphorus, potassium and other minerals to build. and repair her bony framework and other tissues, and, through her milk, to build up the body of her offspring ; for milk is, primarily, food for her calf and must meet its needs. These minerals are known as the ash elements, since they remain unconsumed when milk, bones or body tissues are burned. These elements will usually be found in sufficient quantity in any good mixed ration, so they need not be specially considered usless the feeder is using, quite largely, materials like gluten, feed, corn meal, distillers' grains, corn fodder and hay of the grasses, which are somewhat low in ash. Suck feeds as these should be supplemented by alfalfa or clover hay, wheat bran, malt sprouts, buckwheat middlings or cottonseed meal, which con- tain more ash than most feeds. The ash may also require attention if the cow is yielding heavily and at the same time carrying a calf, as the two demands, on a ration low in ash, may so divide the supply as to cause weakness in the young. Wheat bran comes in excellently at such a time, both as a source of ash and as a gentle laxative to keep the cow in good digestion and productive health. Protein. — The only class of food constituents that must be con- sidered independently, in computing rations, is that collection of nitrogen-containing compounds to which chemists give the name pro- tein. The protoplasm or living principle of the cells from which both plant and animal bodies are built up contains much protein, and protein compounds of great diversity are found in both kingdoms. Animal proteins are usually unlike those in plants; but may be pro- duced from them, and not, so far as we know, from any other classes of vegetable compounds. Muscles, skin, hoofs, horns, hair, a large part of the blood, and the casein and albumin of milk are composed principally of protein, so the demand for this constituent of feeds is constant and heavy; while it makes up only a small part of most vegetable products and in none docs it reach one-half. The need for protein is very great in all building and repair work in the body and in milk secretion. It is furnished only sparingly by feeds, so it is usually by far the most expensive component of rations. The computations center round it. Of all the other parts of feeds, only fats and carbohydrates are represented in the animal body, fats sometimes in considerable quanti- ties, as stored material; but carbohydrates in only small proportions, as glycogen, or animal starch, principally in the liver, and milk sugar in the secretion of the udder. The fats in the body may be formed from the fats in the feeds, though not usually the same ; but thev may also be formed from other materials. All rations contain an ample supply of fat-formers, so that we need not consider fats in the feed as 4 we must consider protein, — as necessary building material. This is also true of carbohydrates, for the supply for construction is always ample. Energy. — The fats and carbohydrates, as well as the other con- stituents of feeds included among the chemist's groups of " fat," "nitrogen-free extract " and " crude fiber " may all be considered merely as fuel, burned in the body to furnish energy. They may furnish some construction, repair or storage material; but any short- age would not be felt first along this line, but rather in a lack of the energy necessary to move muscles, to transport material, to mak-3 tis- sues, glands and other organs function properly, to perform- external work, to reproduce the species, to secrete milk and to carry on the mani- fold activities of the body. The amount of energy contained in any material can be readily measured by burning a definite quantity of it and registering the heat produced ; for heat is one form of energy. The unit adopted to express energy, as shown by the heat produced, is the " therm," which represents the amount of heat necessary to raise 1,000 pounds of water, about 4°F. The burning of one pound of good, hard coal would produce about 3.6 therms of heat or energy. This measurement has been made with considerable care for most of our feed stuffs and for the separate groups of constituents contained in them, so that we know quite definitely how much " energy " a unit weight of protein, fat, starch, fiber, etc., will produce when completely burned. But these materials are not completely burned in the animal's body, for part of each passes through undigested. This part is useless to the animal, and must be deducted from the amount in the feed when we calculate rations; for the proportion of undigested matter differs greatly, not only for the different classes of constituents but for the same constituent in different feeds. It is only by most careful experi- mental work that these proportions of digestible and indigestible ma- terial have been determined ; since for each feed we must supply to an animal, for considerable periods, definite amounts of the feed, carefully analyzed, and then collect and analyze the voidings that come from that feed to determine what part of it has passed through untouched by the digestive fluids. By such experiments, with the analyses of feeds made in connection with them and many more independently, we have come to have a pretty fair knowledge of the composition and digesti- bility of feeds ; and these figures, collected in tables, have, until within a few years been our best guide to the selection of feeds. Feeding standards. — By much more complex investigations, involv- ing the use of tight chambers in which an animal could be confined, so that careful measurements could be made not only of the food and water taken in, but of the air breathed, as well, and not only of the liquid and solid excreta, but also of the gases given off from lungs and skin, we have learned how much feed an animal needs under different conditions of rest, work and productivity, and how this amount will vary with animals of different sizes. By much work of this kind we have established " feeding standards," which serve to show the needs of all our common farm animals at different ages and under different conditions of life, — the growing young, the work animal when idle or when actively laboring, the dry cow and the one in full flow, and the fattening hog or sheep or steer. Balanced rations. — By such studies and by thousands of general feeding trials, we have found that, in each condition of an animal, we can secure the best results from the food eaten if there is a more or less definite relation between the different parts of the feed ; that is, if the protein, or building and repair material, is properly " balanced " by the energy producers, — fat, carbohydrates, fiber, etc. This balance, it should always be remembered, is not a fixed mathematical Tatio; for many conditions may make it advisable to vary the relative propor- tions of protein and energy-producers. A small cow giving a certain amount of milk requires a slightly "' narrower " ratio, that is, less energy-producing material in proportion to protein, than a large cow giving the same product ; and any cow, large or small, must have a lit- tle more protein in the ration if her yield increases. On the other hand, a cow giving rich milk can get along with a wider ration than an animal of the same size giving the same quantity of milk poorer in fat. Very frequently also, if any particular feed is abundant or cheap, it may be economical to use it freely, even though it changes the ratio considerably from that theoretically best. Rations on " digestible nutrients " basis. — In all computations made in America previous to five years ago and in most of those made to- day, the " nutritive ratio " of a ration has been secured by estimating the digestible protein contained in the feeds we wish to use, and pro- portioning against it the sum of the digestible carbohydrates and diges- tible fiber and 2*4 times the digestible fat. If the first arrangement did not give the desired nutritive ratio, some of the feed was" taken out which was high in protein and low in energy, or the reverse as con- ditions demanded, and replaced by another low in protein and high in energy, or vice versa, until, after considerable '• cutting and trying " the proportions desired were secured.* ♦Cornell Station Bui. No. 321 is one of most convenient of the reference bulletins for computation of rations on the basis of digestible material in the feeds. The following table shows, at a glance, this method of computation r The prices quoted were correct ai time and place ot computing. The feeder should substitute his own figures based on aclual prices for his locality. Protein Digestible Nutrients DIGESTIBLE CARBO- HYDRATES Crude fibre Nitro- gen free extract Cost Dry matter Concentrates 3 lbs. corn at SO. 70 per bushel. 2 lbs. buckwheat middlings at $25 j per ton 1 lb. wheat bran at S25 per ton . . . 1 lb. oil meal at $33 per ton 2 lbs. cottonseed meal at £31 per ton Roughages 8 lbs. timothy hay at $14 per ton. 13 lbs. corn stalks at $3.50 per ton. Totals. 0.249 0.440 0.136 0.2S3 0.626 0.272 0.442 0.036 0.018 0.045 0.026 1.344 2.444 1.917 0.688 0.431 0.281 0.218 2.272 2.990 0.141 0.108 0.032 0.074 0.238 0.096 0.091 $0,037 0.025 0.012 0.016 0.031 0.056 0.022 2.445 I 3.913 8.777 0.780 $0,199 1.736 0.881 0.908 1.836 6.944 10.062 8.034 17.006 25.040 8.777+3.913+(0.780x2J) =14.445 14.445^2.445 = 1 : 5.9 or one of protein to 5.9 of Digestible nutrients. The total dry matter consists, as may be seen, of roughages, 17.006, and concentrates, 8.034. The food content consists of Protein 2.445 Crude fibre 3.913 Nitrogen-free extract 8 . 777 2\ times fat 1 . 755 16.890, which costs $0,199 As will be explained later, the values given to feeds in the older tables that show " digestible nutrients " are only approximate, so it is really hardly worth while to' make very exact calculations of rations on this basis. Experience has proven that for ordinary conditions a some- what rough-and-ready method, used with judgment, gives about as good results as more carefully planning of rations based on the old figures. " RULE OF THUMB " METHOD OF RATION-MAKING. This short method has been made very simple by Prof. Wing, of Cornell University Station, and can easily be followed by any feeder. It is given, slightly changed, in the following table: Table I— Protein* Values of Grains and Other Concentrates. (Heavy feeds in bold face type.) Pro- Pro- Pro- tein Feeds tein Feeds tein Feeds in 100 low in protein. in 100 medium in protein in 100 high in protein Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 4 Corn-and-cob meal 10 Wheat bran 20 Unicorn dairy ration t 5 Sucrene feed 11 Buckwheat feedf 20 Gluten feed, best 7 Corn, corn meal 11 Rye bran 22 Corn distillers' grains 7 Hominy feed 12 Mixed wheat feed 22 Ajax flakes 7 Dried beet pulp 12 Malt sprouts 22 Buckwheat middlings 8 Rye 13 Wheat middlings 28 Linseed oil meal 8 Barley 14 Corn hearts 30 Soy bean mealf 8 Oats, ground 15 Flour middlings 33 Gluten meal 9 Wheat 17 Pea meal 35 Cottonseed meal 10 Rye distillers' grains 18 19 Union grainsf Brewers' grains, dried * Digestible " true protein ' f Estimated . values lower than in Wing's table. Directions. — The ordinary coarse feeds in dairy sections are mixed hay, corn silage and corn stalks or corn fodder, all much alike in rela- tion between protein and carbohydrates, though differing in moisture so that quite different amounts must be fed to get the same dry matter. This last, however, can be left quite largely to the animal. Let her ■eat all the roughage she will, unless she puts on flesh too fast ; and bal- ance the ration by the grain fed. For variety, use at least three grains, and to secure proper amount of protein to be used with the forage men- tioned, select one from each protein (High, Medium and Low) and let at least one of these be a " light " grain. (The heavy feeds are printed in bold-face type.) Mix equal weights of these three feeds and feed cows in full flow giving 4 per cent, milk or better, one pound of the mixture for each 3 or 3y 2 lbs. of milk, or one pound to each 3y 2 or 4 lbs. of milk if the fat is below 4 per cent. If clover hay, alfalfa, oat-and-pea hay or corn-and-soy bean silage is used, the protein feeds may be largely taken from those heading the lists, which are lower in protein ; but if the coarse fodder includes no legumes the feeds toward the bottom of the lists should be sought, or the quantity of those used increased. For a herd of a dozen cows averaging 1,000 lbs. apiece and producing 250 lbs. of 4 per cent, milk, for example, the owner might give each animal about 10 lbs. of timothy hay and 30 lbs. of corn silage, providing succulence, and balancing ■ con- stipating and loosening forage, while he allowed each, according to her yield, from 6 to 8 pounds of a mixture made up of 30 lbs. each of corn meal, cottonseed meal and buckwheat middlings. If the feeder gives mixed hay instead of timothy hay, corn-and-cob meal might be substi- tuted for the straight corn meal, or wheat bran for the cottonseed meal. As stated, this is only a quick, simple method and makes no preten- sions to accuracy ; but in the hands of an observant feeder, who studies his animals, understands how forage varies in quality in different sea- sons, knows feed prices and watches the milk flow, it may give remark- ably economical production. If any cow seems to be putting on fat rapidly, without decline in milk her roughage may be decreased ; if she gains in weight and milk declines faster than it should naturally, the roughage may be cut down and a little richer protein feed be included in the grain mixture; while if she runs down in both flesh and milk, the feed should be increased and enriched. DIGESTIBILITY NOT TRUE MEASURE OF FOOD VALUE. These rough approximations, however, can not satisfy the careful feeder or the one who wishes to know exactly how to feed each cow for best results under all conditions. He should have well constructed feeding tables and study them with care; and recent studies have proven that even the best of the old tables are faulty. The figures they give showing the amounts of digestible matter contained in feeds do not really represent the relative values of these feeds for animal pro- ductivity, either in work or in milk secretion. A considerable portion of the energy in the digestible portion of any feed is dissipated in the animal's body by the work of mastication, digestion, transportation, assimilation and excretion of wastes. These factors differ greatly with different classes of feeds, so that, for example, only 6 per cent, of the total energy of wheat straw, or 15 per cent, of that in timothy hay can be really used for any purpose that profits the dairy cow's owner, while more than 40 per cent, of the energy in corn meal is thus finally avail- able for profitable production. Measured by " digestible nutrients," the wheat straw is apparently half as valuable as corn meal, but by the time the animal has masti- cated, swallowed and moved through the intestines the undigested mat- ter of the straw, and digested and assimilated the remainder, more than seven-eighths of the energy has disappeared without chance to perform any useful function so far as milk production is concerned. These facts regarding the final use made of the food have been, worked out by most ingenious methods of study of animals in a modi- fied respiration apparatus, in which the heat produced by the destruc- tion of food in the body is measured, and all elements of the food thus traced to their final use 1 . The portion of the value of the feed left for productive purposes is called the " net energy " ; and if we balance cor- rectly the protein (construction and repair material), with the energy needed to construct and repair, we will have rations that are truly effective. TRUE BASIS FOR USE OF FEEDS. These computations must be made by the chemist and student of nutrition but when once made and arranged in tables the work of the feeder is much simplified ; and he can figure his rations on a more satis- factory basis than before. Quantity of food needed by cows. — A thousand pound cow, not milking and not pregnant, requires about one-half pound daily of di- gestible protein to repair body wastes alone and to keep in healthy '' working" condition, without gain or loss in weight; while to supply the energy required for her bodily functions under these conditions she needs 6 " therms," net, in the feed. A smaller cow would need less of each, and a larger animal more, in this " maintenance" ration; though the decrease or increase would not be exactly in proportion to the relative weight of the animals, but more nearly in accordance with their skin area or surface. Thus, a 750 lb. cow would require .4 lb. of protein and 4.95 therms of net energy, while a 1,500 lb. animal would not take twice as muck, but about 1 5/8 times as much, or .65 lbs. of protein and 7.9 therms of energy. For production, however, up to the animal's capacity, both protein and energy must be increased in direct proportion to the increase in amount of milk. That is, in addition to her " maintenance " requirement of a half pound of digestible protein and 6 therms of net energy, the 1, 000-pound cow must receive an addi- tional half pound of protein and 3 therms of energy if she is giving 10 lbs. a day of -1 per cent, milk, or a pound more of protein and 6 therms of energy if she gives 20 lbs. a day. If the milk is greatly above or below the 4 per cent, in fat, the protein must be increased or dimin- ished one-tenth for each 1 per cent, and the net energy increased or diminished one-fourth. These requirements for. cows of different weight and capacity are shown below : 10 Table II.~Digestible True Protein and Net Energy Needed to Keep Cow and Produce Milk. For Maintenance Weight of cow. Digestible true protein Net energy Weight of cow. Digestible true protein. Net energy. Lbs. 750 900 1,000 Lbs. 0.40 0.47 0.50 Therms. 4.95 5.80 6.00 Lbs. 1,100 1,250 1,500 Lb. .55 .60 .65 Therms. 6.50 7.00 7.90 For Milk Production T3 3% Milk. 3J% Milk. 4% Milk. 4i% Milk. 5% Milk. SJ% Milk. 6% Milk. 6J% Milk. 0) P. E. P. E. P. E. P. E. P. E. P. E. P. E. P. E. T,bs Lbs. Thms. Lbs. Thms. Lbs. Thms. Lbs. Thms. Lbs Thms. Lbs. Thms. Lbs. Thms. Lbs. Thms. 10 .45 2.6 .47 2.8 .50 3.0 .53 3.3 .55 3.6 .58 4.0 .62 4.5 .66 5.0 12 .52 3.1 .56 3.4 .60 3.6 63 4.0 66 4.3 70 4.8 74 5.4 78 6.0 IS .68 3.9 .71 4.2 .75 4.5 .79 5.0 .83 5.4 .88 6.0 .93 6.8 .98 7.S IS .78 4.7 .84 5.0 .90 5.4 95 5.9 99 6.5 1 , 05 7.2 1 11 7.2 1 17 9.0 20 .90 5.2 .95 5.6 1.00 6.0 1 05 6.6 1 .10 7.2 1.17 8.0 1 .24 9.0 1 31 10.0 25 1.13 6.4 1.19 7.0 I , 25 7.5 1 31 8.3 1 38 9.0 1.46 10.0 1 55 11.7 1 64 12.5 30 1.35 7.8 1.43 8.4 1.50 9.0 1.58 9.9 1.65 10.8 1.75 12.0 1.86 13.5 1.97 15.0 These figures indicate the needs of practically all cows when giving milk. Every dairyman should know, not only the yield, hut also the fat content of the milk of each cow in his herd ; but if he does not, he may figure that his animals, if Holsteins, are giving ,3^ per cent milk; if Shorthorns, Ayrshires or Brown Swiss, 4 per cent; and if pure Jerseys or Guernseys, 5^ per cent. Rations which meet the needs of the cows as shown in Table II, and which are based on the general principles already given for selecting feeds, should be productive. That they may also he economical re- qiiires still closer selection, based on actual prices of the materials on the farm and in the feeder's market. ISTo figures in a table can be taken as a guide in this selection, except in a general way, since feed prices vary widely both by localities and by seasons. In Table III are given some feed prices, and, based on these prices, the comparative cost of protein or energy in the feeds. (Before drawing conclusions from these " cost " figures the reader should study carefully the table foot- 11 note. ) The main purpose of Table III, however, is to show the amount of true digestible protein and of energy supplied by different quanti- ties of several common feeding stuffs; so that we may have a con- TABLE III. Dry matter, Protein and Energy in some feeding stuffs, with pound cost and unit cost* of Protein at ton price given. CHARACTER AND NAME OF FEED. When cost per ton t is. Cost of one pound protein, f Cost of one therm energy. f Pounds of of dry matter in 100 pounds. Pounds of digestible true pro- tein in 100 pounds. Therms of energy in 100 pounds. Roots and Tubers: Carrots Mangel wurzels Potatoes Rutabagas Turnips Succulent Forages: Clover, red Corn fodder, green Corn silage Rye, green Timothy, green Alfalfa, green .. Hay and Dry. Coarse Fodders: Alfalfa hay Clover, red, hay Corn forage, field cured. . . Corn stover Cowpea hay Millet Hay Mixed Hay Soy bean hay Timothy hay Straws: Oat straw Grains: Barley Corn, corn meal Corn-and-cob meal Oats Wheat By-Products: Brewers' grains, dried Buckwheat middlings Cottonseed meal Corn distillers' grains .... Gluten feed Gluten meal Linseed meal Malt sprouts Wheat bran Wheat middlings SB. 00 4.00 5.CC 4. 00 3.00 3.00 2.00 3.00 2.50 5.00 4.50 18.00 12.00 6. CO 5.00 12.00 9.00 11.00 10.00 16.00 9.00 28.00 30.00 20.00 30.00 32.00 27.00 28.00 35.00 33.00 32.00 35.00 34.00 23.00 27. CO 29.00 $0,811 1.428 0.556 0.228 0.682 0.069 0.244 0.17 0.087 0.24 0.09 0.13 0.111 0.141 0.139 0.07 0.15 0.138 0.065 0.39 0.413 0.169 0.22 0.221 0.179 0.18 0.071 0.063 0.05 C.075 0.08 0.053 C.06 0.C93 0.134 0.116 S0.C383 C.0433 0.0138 0.025 0.0261 0.0093 0.008 0.0089 0.0105 0.0131 0.018 0.C261 0.0173 0.0098 0.0094 C.0147 0.0102 00149 0.0129 0.0238 0.0173 0.016S 0.0132 C.0226 0.0193 0.0225 0.0184 0.0208 0.C208 0.C202 0.0223 0.0222 0.0248 0.C279 0.0173 11.4 9.1 21.1 11.4 9.4 29.2 2C.7 25.6 23.4 38.4 28.2 91.6 84.7 57. .8 59.5 89.3 92.3 87.1 88.7 86.8 90. 89.1 89.1 84.9 89.0 89.5 92.0 88.2 91 8 93.0 91.9 90.5 90.4 89.8 88.1 84 n 0.37 0.14 0.45 0.88 0.22 2.21 0.41 0.88 1.44 1.04 2.50 5.41 2.13 1.8 8.57 3.00 3.97 7.68 2.05 1.09 8.37 6.79 4.53 8.36 8.9 19.04 22.34 35.15 21.93 19.95 33.09 28.40 12.36 10.21 12.79 7.82 4.62 18.05 8.00 5.74 16.17 12.44 16.56 11.63 19.08 12.45 34.41 34.74 30.53 26.53 40.76 44.03 36.75 38.65 33.56 80.75 88.84 72.05 66.27 82.63 60.01 75.92 84.20 79.23 79.32 78.49 76.80 46.33 48.23 77.65 * TheBe " unit costs " are not true values; but are intended merely for comparison. The " cost " in each case is found by dividing the ton price of the feed by the number of units a ton furnishes, either of energy or protein, disregarding the other. Of course, every feed contains both protein and energy pro- ducers, and both have food value; but the feeder often needs to buy only one ana desires to know where he can secure what he wishes cheapest. •(•Illustrative only; fairly correct at time and place of computing, not under other conditions. The feeder should substitute for these figures others based on his own feed prices. 12 venient guide in combining feeds to meet the needs of an animal or herd as shown in Table II. The figures, of course, represent averages only, and would not hold true if the particular feed was very good or very poor; but it is probable that their use will give rations better adapted to the requirements of the animal than those figured on any other basis. Computing a ration. — The mathematics involved in using these tables is quite simple. From Table II, we find what our animal or herd needs and from the feeds available to us, we build up, by using the figures in Table III, a ration which will approximately meet those needs. For example, if the herd consists of Jersey cows averaging 900 lbs. in weight and producing 15 lbs. each of 5 per cent, milk, each cow would need : For maintenance 47 lbs. protein and 5 . 80 therms energy For 15 lbs. 5 per cent. milk 83 lbs. protein and 5 . 40 therms energy Total 1.30 lbs. protein and 11.20 therms energy The home feeds are mixed hay, clover hay, corn silage and corn, which has been ground into meal ; and the market is regularly supplied with wheat bran, cottonseed meal, linseed meal, gluten feed and brewers' grains, dried. From these feeds we start our ration, as follows : Protein Energy Cost Silage, 25 lbs 22 1b. 4.14 3.75 cts. Mixed hay, 10 lbs 40 1b. 3.67 5.5 cts. Wheat bran, 2 lbs 20 1b. .96 2.7 cts. Corn meal, 1 lb 07 lb. .89 1.5 cts. Cottonseed meal, 1 lb 35 lb. .84 1,75 cts. Totals 1.24 lb. 10.50 15.20 cts. But we need 1 . 30 lb. 11 . 20 ; that is, a little more protein and considerably more energy. We can increase the energy by giving more silage, but if we do this we should decrease the other roughage, as these are small cows. We note that clover hay will give more protein in 8 pounds than the mixed hay in 10 pounds, and furnish the protein a little cheaper. We will still lack energy, however, and we see that corn furnishes this cheaply, so we make the amount 3 13 lbs. instead of one. But six pounds of grain would be too much for such small yield cows, so we drop one pound of the bran. We then have Silage, 30 lbs Clover hay, 8 lbs. . Wheat bran, 1 lb . . . Corn meal, 3 lbs. . Cottonseed meal, 1 lb. Protein .26 lb. 4 Energy 1)7 therms 4 Cost 5 cts. .43 lb. 2 78 therms 4 8 cts. .10 lb. 48 therm*- 1 35 cts. .20 lb. 2 (iC therms 4 5 cts. .35 lb. S4 thelitis 1 75 cts. 1.34 lb. 11.73 therms 16.9 cts. This should be a productive ration, — is it also economical ? Yes, at the prices given ; for we have silage furnishing energy cheapest of any succulent feed obtainable in winter and corn meal cheapest of any con- centrate at hand; while clover hay and cottonseed meal are cheap -sources of protein, and the bran is necessary to lighten the grain mix- ture. If we had another light grain in the ration, we might substitute a half pound of gluten feed for the bran, as this would furnish practi- cally the same nutrients, .10 lb. protein and .38 therm energy and cost a half cent less, but for its ash, its lightness and its laxative effect the bran is needed. For 1,100 lb. cows, giving 20 lbs. each of 4% per cent, milk the re- quirements are: Protein Energy For maintenance . 55 lb. 6.50 therms For 20 lbs. 4l/ 2 milk 1 . 05 lb. 6 . 60 therms 1.60 lb. 13.10 therms With corn silage, alfalfa hay, wheat and oats on the farm, and buck- wheat middlings, corn meal, gluten feed, corn distillers' grains, wheat bran and pea meal available in the market, the ration mav develop along these lines: Protein Energy Cost Silage, 40 lbs 34 lb. 6.62 therms 6 . cts. Alfalfa hay, 5 lbs 35 lb. 1.72 therms 4 . 5 cts. Wheat, 2 lbs IS lb. 1.65 therms 3 . 2 cts. Buckwheat middlings, 1 lb 22 lb. .76 therms 1.4 cts. Dried distillers' grains, com, 1 lb. .22 1b. . 70 therms 1.65 cts. Corn meal, 3 lbs 20 lb. 2 . 66 therms 4. 5 cts. 1.51 lb 14.20 therms 21.25 cts. This requires more protein and less energy, and the grain mixture needs lightening. It would be better to sell the wheat and buy bran 14 or more distiller's grains to give bulk to the grain mixture, but the dis- tiller's grains, at the price quoted is a cheaper source of both protein and energy. While not as well supplied with ash as bran, any de- ficiency in this respect will probably be met from the alfalfa hay. Making these necessary changes we secure : Protein Energy Cost Corn silage, 35 lbs. . 31 lb. 5.80 therms 5.25 cts. Alfalfa hay, 5 lbs 35 lb. 1.72 therms 4 . 5 cts. Dried distillers' grains, corn, 2 lbs. .44 lb. 1 . 58 therms 3.3 cts. Buckwheat middlings, 1 lb 22 lb. .7(3 therms 1.4 cts. Corn meal, 4 lbs 27 lb.. 3.55 therms 6 . cts. 1.59 lb. 13.41 therms 20.45 cts. The ration is high in cost, largely because of high prices quoted for corn and alfalfa, but is about as economical as it could be made from the feeds available. In mixing, liberal weight would need be given the buckwheat middlings to bring the protein up a trifle. Another ration for these- cows, with other feeds, would be: Protein Energy Cost Corn stover, shredded, 15 lbs 27 lb. 3 . 98 therms 3.75 cts. . Mllet hay, 8 lbs 24 lb. 3.52 therms 3 . (10 cts. Rutabagas, 8 lbs 07 lb. . (34 therms 1 . 60 cts. Cottonseed meal, 1 lb 35 lb. .84 therms 1.75 cts. Dried brewers' grains, 2 lbs 38 lb. 1.20 therms 2.70 cts. Corn meal, 4 lbs 27 lb. 3.55 therms 6 . 00 cts. 1.58 lb. 1 3 . 73 therms 1 9 . 40 cts. For a herd of 1,250 lb. Holsteins giving 30 lbs. each of 3 per cent, milk, the requirements are: For maintenance 60 lb. protein and 7.00 therms energy For 30 lbs. 3 per cent milk 1.35 lb. protein and 7.80 therms energy Total 195 lb. protein and 14.80 therms energy This herd is being kept on the soiling system and the summer rations allow a wider range of succulent food, — some silage left over, alfalfa, green rye, and growing timothy, with ear corn in the crib, and gluten feed, malt sprouts, cottonseed meal, linseed meal and rye bran on the market. 15 As a preliminary we take: Protein Silage, 10 lbs 09 lb. Green alfalfa, 20 lbs 50 lb. Green timothy, 10 lbs 10 lb. Corn-and-cob meal, 6 lbs 27 lb. Gluten feed, 2 lbs 40 lb. Cottonseed meal, 1 lb 35 lb. Wheat bran, 2 lbs 20 lb. Knergy Cost 1 . 6 6 therms 1.5 ots. 2 . 49 therms 4.5 cts. 1 .91 therms 2.5 cts. 4 . 32 therms 6.0 cts. 1 . 59 therms 3.2 cts. . 84 therms 1.75 cts. . 96 therms 2.70 (.'tS. 1.91 lb. 13. 77 therms 22.15 cts. Here we need energy and can secure it cheapest by use of corn products, so we increase the silage and add straight corn meal at the same time decreasing the alfalfa to hold the protein down. We also note that green rye is a much cheaper feed than green timothy at the prices quoted, so that we substitute 15 lbs. of it for the timothy. We can also cheapen the ration by replacing the gluten feed by cottonseed meal. It then becomes : Protein Energy Cost Silage, 25 lbs 2:2 lb. 4. 14 therms 3.75 cts. Green alfalfa, 5 lbs 12 lb. .62 therms 1.13 cts. Green rye, 15 lbs 22 lb. 1 . 74 therms 1 . 88 cts. Corn-and-cob meal, 4 lbs 18 lb. 2.88 therms 4.00 cts. Corn meal, 3 lbs 20 lb. .2.67 therms 4.50 cts. Cottonseed meal, 21,4 lbs 79 lb. 1.89 therms 3.94 cts. Wheat bran, 2 lbs 20 lb. .96 therms 2 . 70 cts. 1.93 lb. 14.90 therms 21.90 cts. These illustrations should make plain to any intelligent feeder the process of working out rations. Though it seems somewhat complex at first, it soon becomes easy with practice ; and the results in economy of production will certainly pay well for the time spent in adjusting to each other the animal's demand and supply. Jfi FARM AND HOUSEHOLD THERAPY WITH CHILEAN IODINE By WILLIAM SHIELDS MYERS, D. Sc. F. C. S. AND W. LAMBERT MYERS, B. A. (Harvard) CHILEAN IODINE PRODUCERS 25 MADISON AVENUE NEW YORK Preface. THE successful use of Iodine in various forms for the prevention of infections and for promoting the rapid healing of wounds has received much stimulus by the great European War. Its qualities are now so thoroughly established that it seems proper to present its unique and admirable advantages in form to be useful on the farm and in the household. Whilst the increased production of food-situffs is in itself both necessary and important, it is none the less essential to conserve the life and health of farm animals, and in the long run the livestock industry should be much benefited by such care and conservation. " Safety first " in the household is not to be forgotten and Iodine should have a place in every home. The more remote a rural locality is from a physician or surgeon, the more essential it is to have such articles for first aid as can be easily applied, such as Tincture of Iodine. There is a certain solid comfort to be derived from the feeling that the first direct clinical step can be taken at one 's own home in case of trouble. Iodine, among other qualities, has the advantage of sealing superficial wounds over instantly, thus enabling one to get along without cotton bandaging, as the scratch, cut or open wound is made air-tight. That it is valuable and desirable is con- firmed by the fact that most physicians and veterinarians have a solution of Tincture of Iodine ready for use in their offices. To these ends we trust that the little booklet " Farm and Household Therapy with Iodine " may be of such service as to justify its presentation. William Shields Myebs and W. Lambebt Myebs. 25 Madison Avenue, New York. [31 Chilean .Iodine is obtained from the mother liquor resulting from the manufacture of Chilean Nitrate. The Iodine thus pro- duced is made on a large enough scale to permit a thoroughly uniform quality of product which presents less difficulty in re-subliming than Iodine made elsewhere. There is thus no likelihood of temptation on the part of the manufacturers of re-sublimed Chilean Iodine to slight any of the essential steps in the process. [4] Exterior of Iodine House and Water Deposit-Tanks. Interior of Iodine House; Packing; Iodine in Kegs. I z a Introduction IODINE has reached the one hundredth anniversary of its use and it seems fitting that this little publication should appear at this time. The word " Iodine " is derived from the Greek term ' ' lodes ' ' meaning ' ' violet, ' ' the name having been given by Sir Humphrey Davy in 1814, after its discovery by Courtois, a Paris manufacturer of Saltpetre. The commerical source of Iodine up to 1862 was sea- weed; that obtained from the rocks around the Channel Islands having been most used. Iodine was first employed in pharmacy in 1819 by Doctor Coindet for goitre. As early as 1836 it was used as an ointment to remove pain. In 1860 record was published by the Sydenham society year book of a case of hereditary scrofula having been cured by the sole use of iodized bread. Doctor Finlay Dun of Edinburgh recommends its inter- nal administration in connection with a solution of potassium iodide. For external purposes the tincture and compound solutions are recommended. According to Doctor Dun, iodine is a most powerful and active germicidal antiseptic whether in the form of a gas, fluid, or solid. One part in seven thousand destroys both bacilli and their spores, according to Koch. Iodine is almost the only substance that penetrates unbroken skin. The nutritive processes may be stimu- lated by it and the absorption of inflammatory products greatly arrested. Congestion and pain are frequently relieved even in parts distant from the area of appli- cation. • Its action is sustained for a considerable period. Medicinal doses are absorbed and stimulate glandular activity and promote metabolism and liquefaction. [S] 6 Farm and Household Therapy with Chilean Iodine Iodine should not be administered internally except by the advice and prescription of a physician or veterin- arian. Horses have been given as large as 60 grains twice daily for fourteen days without serious effects. Several ounces have been given to cattle with similar effects. Its slow absorption in the solid form may account, however, for cases of tolerance of large doses. In the liquid form doses should be smaller. Crude iodine and crude iodides in general should be avoided in medical and veterinary practice, for they may frequently nullify the good effects which would otherwise come from the use of pure drugs and by failure to effect cures discredit the practitioner, although its external application may be safe in certain cases. Iodine solution is a deodorizer, but must not be allowed to come in contact with metallic substances of any sort. It is five times as heavy as water and is soluble in twelve parts alcohol and in solutions of sodium iodide. Iodine, of course, is liable to intentional adulteration, as well as accidental impurities, and care should be taken in its handling and use. It volatilizes slowly at ordinary temperatures and, therefore, should be kept in closely stoppered bottles or containers. It dissolves in alcohol and chloroform readily, also in a solution of potassium iodide. The stains produced by iodine can generally be removed by the use of alkali carbonates or ammonia or by a solution of sodium or potassium iodide. According to Doctor Butler, the internal dose of the Tincture is 6/100 of a centimeter, or 1/10 of a grain. The material itself has been administered to the extent of V4 of a grain. The dose of potassium iodide is 7% grains, and the same may be said of sodium iodide and stron- tium iodide. The dose of zinc iodide is one grain. It is an interesting fact that Iodine occurs in cod liver oil to the extent of 32 parts in 100,000. Introduction 7 The tincture will kill all pathogenic bacteria within one minute while it takes ordinary mercuric chloride half an hour to destroy these micro-organisms before applying the tincture. It is well to cleanse the skin with soap and hot water or with alcohol or with gasolene, if same is convenient. In emergency, when it is not possible to use cleansing operations, the iodine may be applied at once. Under the care of a physician iodine is very useful in pleurisy and certain forms of tuberculosis. Its chief effects after absorption, when used internally, are due to its action on the thyroid gland. The tincture may con- tain cyanogen, chlorine, and bromine. Iodine cannot be administered with mineral salts or metallic acid, and it is incompatible with oil of turpentine and ammonia. Its principal uses are as a powerful antiseptic and eounterirritant and some of the special diseases for which it is successfully used are : Asthma, aneurisms, arterio- sclerosis, angina pectoris, goitre, haemophilia, Bright 's disease, bronchitis, pleurisy, chilblains, inflammation of the joints, ringworm, and as a parasiticide; and for abrasions, cuts, bites, scratches, and stings. When the salts of iodine are used they must be free from iodates, otherwise symptoms of indigestion and catarrh are apt to manifest themselves. The use of ammonium carbonate in connection with the salts, how- ever, is apt to nullify this effect of the iodate. The iodides of potassium, sodium, ammonium, stron- tium, and zinc are also used as Materia Medica. Absorption of pathological products is explained by the quality iodine has of combining with serum and albumen, which combination is readily removed from the system. The iodides of potassium, sodium, and ammonium generally produce the effects of iodine, but are less irri- tant and less active as thyroid gland stimulants. 8 Fabm and Household Thebapy with Chilean Iodine Iodine is prescribed as an alterative and resolvent in enlargement of the glands, and in cattle for treatment of the udder, chronic rheumatism of the joints, for hydro- thorax, ascites, and in persistent cases of psoriasis. The inhalation of steam or warm water medicated with a little iodine tincture is useful for the relief of dry conditions of the respiratory mucous membrane and for sore throat. Iodine is permanently useful in diabetes of horses and its antiseptic effects are used to control excessive pro- duction of injurious enzymes. Tincture of Iodine given in cases of obstinate inap- petence following febrile diseases has proven very successful. Iodine has always given excellent results in the treat- ment of infected wounds, or any condition in which pus is present. Externally iodine is used as an antiseptic and stimu- lant resolvent for chronic synovitis, strains, swelling of the joints, hardening of the udder, and other glands; also as a counterirritant for sore throat in horses and for attacks of lung congestion and pleurisy in dogs ; and for malignant wounds it is admirable. Farm Therapy with Chilean Iodine FARMERS, like other people, want to get their money's worth whenever they buy something. It is quality that counts in the long run, in other words, something that will do the job and do it right. For First Aid use in case of injury iodine has no equal. In using disinfectants one should desire to be certain that the germicidal disinfectants used leave nothing undone in the way of killing the bacteria that cause the trouble, nature will do the rest. Therapy means the application of a remedy to a dis- eased condition. Where the diseased condition is one that can be reached from the outside, an antiseptic should be applied. Now an antiseptic is a substance that will prevent infection and kill bacteria. Of these antiseptics there are several, one of the very best and surest of which is Tincture of Iodine — that is to say, iodine crys- tals dissolved in alcohol at the rate of 70 parts iodine and 50 grams KI made up in 1,000 parts of alcohol. This is the standard " tinctura iodi " of the United States Pharmacopoeia (U. S. P.). This is more efficacious than bichloride of mercury, and has the additional advantage of penetrating very easily through the dry skin. It is very important to have the skin dry when applying iodine. In case of deep or large "vounds medical advice must be secured. We do not recommend the use of decolorized iodine solutions. The chemicals used to decolorize it dilute the solution and reduce its action ; in fact, all free iodine is thereby completely nullified. The U. S. P. tincture of iodine contains % parts iodine in 100 parts of alcohol. Most veterinarians use it in 7 [9] 10 Fabm and Household Therapy with Chilean Iodine per cent, strength, that is, 7 parts iodine in 100 parts of alcohol. The U. S. P. compound solution of iodine, or Lugol's Solution, is made up of 5 grams iodine, 10 grams potas- sium iodide, and 95/100 parts distilled water. This should be kept in glass stoppered bottles. Iodine ointment is made up of 4 parts iodine, 4 parts potassium iodide, 12 per cent, glycerine, 93 parts ben- zoated lard. Iodine paint is the tincture of iodine spontaneously evaporated to one-half its bulk. In support of our recommendations for the various uses of iodine alone and in compounds we refer those interested to the following : Finlay Dun's " Veterinary Medicines." The United States Pharmacopoeia. U. S. Dept. of Agric. " Diseases of the Horse," 1903. U. S. Dept. of Agric. " Diseases of Cattle," 1908. ' ' Hand Book of Local Therapeutics ' ' — Allen, Harts, Van Harlingen and Harlan. Winslow's " Veterinary Materia Medica." Any up-to-date veterinarian should be able to give proper advice as to the use of these various preparations. Where the word " iodine " is used, resublimed iodine is meant. Where potassium iodide is used, we refer to the chemical salt, KI, called iodine of potash and named also potassium iodide. The Farm Uses of Chilean Iodine FOR CATTLE AND YOUNG CALVES Joint 111 (pyaemic and septicaemic inflammation of joints). The calf becomes lame and does not suck, has high fever and breathes fast, the navel swells and dis- charges pus. Cattle and Young Calves 11 Paint daily with tincture of iodine, or rub biniodide of mercury (1 dram) and lard (2 ounces) daily on joints until blistered. In case of swelling containing pus, draw off the pus through the nozzle of a hypodermic syringe. Inject solution of 1 dram compound tincture of iodine, boiled (or distilled) water 2 ounces. Give internally twice daily 5 grains quinine and 15 grains hyposul- phite of soda, or give 20 grains salicylate of soda three times a day. This treatment is recommended in the U. S. Dept. Agric. Report " Diseases of Cattle." White Scours or Acute Contagious Scouring. This is a violent and deadly form of diarrhoea in newborn calves. Prevention consists in the following : Make sure the navel is disinfected. Sprinkle carbolic acid solution on the bedding of the cow which is about to calve. Sponge the tail, hips and vulva of the cow with y% oz. carbolic acid to the quart of water, inject the vagina with 2 drams to a quart of the same. Change bedding so that calf is dropped on a fresh carbolized one. Tie the navel string at once with a cord soaked in strong carbolic acid. Then paint both the stumps of the cord and an area three inches in diameter surrounding it with iodine % dram, potassium iodide y 2 dram, water 1 quart. Equal parts boric acid, powdered alum and flowers of sul- phur should be dusted on the cord twice daily. Rinse the mother's udder with a dip solution before the calf is suckled. Disinfect and clean the stable. Goitre. Inject 10 drops tincture of iodine every other day for from 10 to 20 times. Follow treatment for goitre in dogs, p. 16. Periostitis. This is inflammation of the external covering of bone, called periosteum, produced by wounds, 12 Farm and Household Therapy with Chilean Iodine pressure, or crushing of the part. Apply cold water the first few days to check inflammation, then hot fomenta- tions (warming application), then massage with Lugol's Solution. Chronic periostitis may be treated with biniodide of mercury to blister the part. This treatment is recommended in the U. S. Dept. Agric. Report 1908, " Diseases of Cattle." Sprains. When the lameness keeps up for more than ten days, after rest and cold water applications fail, apply by rubbing in a blister composed of 1 dram powdered can- tharides, 1 dram biniodide of mercury, 1 oz. vaseline. Keep it on 3 days, then smear with lard or vaseline every other day till the scabs fall off. Iodex may be used to advantage here in place of the lard or vaseline. Repeat if necessary in 3 weeks or a month. Ozena (Ozaena) . Irrigate the infected part with a solu- tion of 1 dram tincture of iodine in 1 pint physiologically* normal salt solution. (Winslow's Vet. Materia Medica and Therapeutics.) Inflamed Upper Air Passages. Add y 2 dram of iodine to 1 pint of boiling water and cause this to be inhaled. (Winslow's Vet. Materia Medica and Therapeutics.) Abscess at base of ear. Cut into abscess, wash it out then inject tincture of iodine. Enlarged Brisket. Rub daily with iodine ointment. One may have to liberate serum enclosed in the lump. Soft Swelling on the Leg. Rub in once daily a lini- ment made up of 4 drams iodine, 4 drams potassium iodide, 4 oz. alcohol, 4 oz. glycerine. ' ' Iodex " is a very good form of ointment for this purpose. Soft Swelling on Knee. Camphor Gum, 4 oz.; Tr. Iodine, 4 oz. ; Turpentine, qs. 32 oz. Apply twice daily. * 0.85% NaCL. Cattle and Young Calves 13 Tumor. A tumor may be painted daily with, tincture of iodine. If it keeps on growing, have it cut out or opened and packed with caustic. Warts on the Teats. . Apply 2 oz. tincture of iodine in 2 oz. castor oil as a paint twice daily after milking. Grease 30 minutes later with vaseline to prevent the skin blistering. Lumpy Jaw (Actinomycosis of the Jaw). Iodine tinc- ture painted on the outside and potassium iodide sprinkled on the food will cure this malady. The treat- ment is a specific for this trouble. Wooden Tongue (Actinomycosis of the Tongue). Scar- ify the tongue and swab it with tincture of iodine twice a week. Give 1 dram twice daily of potassium iodide for several periods of ten days each, with two-week intervals between such periods. Mange. Paint the affected spots with tincture of iodine. Iodine is a specific for this disease. 2 parts iodine, 1 part potassium iodide, 4 parts wood tar oil, and 32 parts lard make a serviceable dressing. Contagious Abortion. This is due to a germ, the bacil- lus abortus. Eemove and burn the afterbirth, then flush the uterus with Lugol's Solution, already referred to, strength 2%, flushing this out in turn with a salt solution. Ringworm. Scrub the spots daily with soft soap and water, then apply equal parts tincture of iodine and glacial acetic acid. Poisoning. (From ' ' Diseases of Cattle " — U. S. Dept. of Agric. 1908.) 1. Chronic Lead Poisoning. This occurs in lead mining districts where the water drunk by the cattle may contain lead in solution. It is shown by a blue line on the margin of the gums. Use purgatives and give potassium iodide. 14 Faem and Household Therapy with Chilean Iodine Acute Lead Poisoning 1 from licking fresh paint, or drinking water conducted through lead pipe3. Give bromide of potash in y 2 oz. doses every 4 or 5 hours and apply cold water to the head. Give Epsom Salts, 1-2 fibs, in warm water. When the acute symptoms have van- ished, give potassium iodide in doses of 2 dram3 each, three times a day for a week. Mercury Poisoning. This may arise from bichloride of mercury washes or calomel. Give 2-4 oz. doses of sul- phur, follow with the whites of eggs mixed with water, and with linseed tea. This failing, give 1 dram potassium iodide twice daily. Diabetes Insipidus (Polyuria, Diuresis, Excessive Urine). Give doses of 2 drams iron sulphate and 2 drams potassium iodide twice daily. Tuberculin Test. When injecting serum for this test, paint the point of the needle puncture with tincture of iodine. Wounds and Contusions of the Lips. When the swelling has become hard, treat it daily by painting it with tincture of iodine. Scratches, etc. Many scratches or wounds of the udder become infected, boils form and spread. Keep the udders clean and swab daily with tincture of iodine. For teat sores use the same treatment. For inflamed milk duct, paint with the tincture every day or so, and milk carefully, using a tube if necessary. The tube mu3t be boiled to sterilize it each time, and smeared with carbolated vaseline before inserting. For cow pox, which appears on the teats first as small blisters, turning later into sores, wash the teats before and after milking, then anoint the sores with an ointment made up of 1 oz. tincture iodine, 1 dram iodine crystals, 4 oz. lard oil. Cattle and Young Calves — Chickens 15 Bloody Milk. This is caused by inflammation. The cow should be given one pound Epsom salts as a drench, and the inflamed part of the udder should be painted with equal parts spirits of camphor and tincture of iodine twice daily. Another treatment is to rub in a combination of 1 part iodine ointment, 2 parts soft soap. Careful milking is necessary. This treatment is recommended in the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin ' ' Diseases of Cattle. ' ' Milk Fever (Parturition Fever). Parturient apoplexy, or parturient collapse. This disease occurs only at or near the time of calving. It is due to rich and dense blood. Inject teats and milk ducts with a solution of potassium iodide iy 2 drams in 1 quart of boiled water as per direc- tions in the U. S. Dept. of Agric." Diseases of Cattle." Inflamed Udder ( Simple Mammitis ) . This follows calv- ing. If the inflammation is slight and there is little or no fever, rub well with a weak iodine ointment, and milk 3 to 6 times a day, rubbing the bag and squeezing, but not pulling the teats. Garget (Congestion of the Udder). This follows calv- ing. Paint the udder daily with tincture of iodine till well blistered, keep the bowels open, and give a teaspoon- ful of saltpeter twice a day in the feed. Cut down on heavy grain feeding and give light feeds only for a time. CHICKENS Rheumatism. The feet will draw up and seem to be paralyzed. Shelter the birds and put potassium iodide at the rate of 15 grains to 1 quart of water in the drinking water. Sorehead, or Chicken Pox. Disinfect the houses or coops. If the ground is damp lime it and spade it up. 16 Farm and Household Theeapt with Chilean Iodine Isolate the infected birds, put a few drops of carbolic acid in the drinking vessels. Moisten the scabs with warm water and kerosene, scrape them off and burn them. Bathe the head with tincture of iodine, or use iodine ointment, or Iodex. DOGS Spaying. Iodine tincture should be used in connec- tion with all spaying operations on bitches. Goitre. The tumor may be painted repeatedly with tincture of iodine and from one to three grains of desiccated thyroid gland or potassium iodide adminis- tered twice a day internally. As an alternative the gland itself may be treated by injecting ten to fifteen drops of tincture of iodine at intervals of three days and from ten to twenty injec- tions may be given. This treatment should be given by a veterinary surgeon. It is recommended by Winslow in his Veterinary Materia Medica and Therapeutics, for details of which that authority should be consulted. Iodism is a condition involving diarrhoea and other disorders due to too much iodine being given an animal internally. It is dangerous to dogs, though not to other animals. HORSES Growths Due to Skinning. Apply a mixture of equal parts flowers of sulphur and slaked lime daily for ten days then apply with cotton a mixture of 1 oz. tincture of iodine, 1 oz. glycerine, Va oz. tannic acid. For a gristle formation on the skin use 1 part tincture of iodine, 1 part spirits of camphor twice daily. Next try blistering with 2 oz. vaseline, 2 drams red iodide of mercury, 2 drams powdered cantharides. In 24 hours wash the part with Horses 17 warm water and soap. Tie the horse so he cannot gnaw the part. New Splints. The growth of new splints may be stopped by applying a mixture of equal parts tincture of iodine, turpentine and ether once daily for several days. Soft and Hard Lumps on the Leg. Eub tincture of iodine over the swelling daily with a tooth-brush. This must be done for several weeks. Iodex is an excellent ointment for use in these cases. Bone Spavin. The horse should have absolute rest. Clip off hair and apply 1 part red iodide of mercury and 4 parts lard every two weeks. Iodide is sometimes mixed with Mercuric Biniodide for this treament. Chronic Brain Inflammation (Encephalitis, Meningitis, Cerebritis). Give potassium iodide in 2 dram doses three times a day, and 1 dram of calomel once a day. Give tonics, such as iodide of iron 1 dram, with 2 drams pow- dered hydrastis every 6-8 hours as soon as the acute fever has gone down. This treatment is recommended by the U. S. Dept. Agric. in " Diseases of the Horse." Apoplexy (Cerebral Hemorrhage). Place the animal in a cool quiet place. Give 2 drams potassium iodide in the feed or the drinking water twice a day for several weeks. St. Vitus' Dance (Chorea). In a few cases, if given early, 1 dram iodide of iron, 1 dram pulverized nux vomica, 1 oz. pulverized Scutellaria given in feed once a day for two weeks may be of benefit. Lead Poisoning. Give 2 drams potassium iodide three times a day. Inflammation of Eyelids. Due to Erysipelas. Paint the skin with a solution of 20 grains iodine in 1 oz. 3% carbolic acid; give % oz. tincture of muriate of iron three times a day in a bottle of water. 18 Faem and Household Therapy with Chilean Iodine Due to Anthrax. Paint the swelling with tincture of iodine. If very- angry inject the tincture into the swelling with a hypo- dermic needle. Give potassium iodide 2 drams three times a day. Diseases of Sidebones. Soak the feet frequently in water at first. Later paint with the tincture of iodine several times a day, or an ointment made of 1 dram iodine crystals in 2 oz. vaseline rubbed in once a day. Sprains. Treatment same as for Cattle. Capped Hock. Massage the swelling three times a day. At night swab it with a mixture of 1 oz. tincture of iodine, 1 oz. turpentine and 2 parts alcohol. Do not rub this in. Capped Knee. Apply iodine ointment as above. Running Large Sore on Hock. Clip the hair; paint every other day with tincture of iodine. Inject once daily into discharging places a little of a mixture of 1 dram iodoform in 1 oz. sulphuric ether. Keep this bottle tightly corked and away from an open light, as it is very explosive. Swelling on Belly. Give 1 dram potassium iodide twice a day in solution. Rub the skin once a day with iodine ointment. Strangles. Give hypodermic injections. Paint the abscess once daily with tincture of iodine. Inject tincture into the discharging places. Give soft feed only. Curb. The horse should have continued rest; should be shod with a high-heeled shoe. Use an absorbent liniment composed of 4 drams iodine, 4 drams potassium iodide, 4 oz. alcohol, 4 oz. glycerine. Apply daily and rub in with smart friction. Distemper. Apply equal parts tincture of iodine and camphorated oil to the throat three times a week. Chronic Cough. Incipient Heaves. Feed no clover, or musty feed. Feed mostly grain and silage or vegetables. Horses 19 Rub the throat with one part tincture of iodine and two parts camphorated oil daily. Give y 2 dram fluid extract of mix vomica, 1 dram fluid extract of lobelia, 3 drams Fowler's Solution in feed or water three times a day. Grease Heel. This occurs just below the hock, the hair comes off, and the place discharges water and is swollen and sore. Wash the sore place with soap solution. When dry, swab with a mixture of 1 part tincture of iodine and 3 parts carbolated oil. Give a tablespoonful of saltpeter in the feed three or four times a week. Dry leg off well when coming in from work. Treatment to be given at night. In addition, a mixture of equal parts powdered alum, flowers of sulphur and calomel may be used. Ringbone. Apply a blister composed of 2 oz. vaseline, 2 drams powdered cantharides and 2 drams red iodide of mercury. Allow this to remain 24 to 30 hours, then wash it off with warm water and soap. Make a second applica- tion in 4 or 5 days. Anthritis in Colts. Paint the umbilical cord on birth of the colt. One application should be sufficient. Ridgling Castration. The parts should be painted after the operation with tincture of iodine. Erysipelas. A cure has been effected recently on a horse with erysipelas of the prepuce. The treatment with iodine is said to have been satisfactory. Mange (Acariasis — from an animal parasite). Apply 1 part of iodine and 15 parts fresh lard 3 times a week. Another mixture that is good is 2 parts iodine, 1 part potassium iodide, 4 parts wood-tar oil, 32 parts lard or oil. Skin Scabs. Paint the diseased place with tincture of iodine every other day, and give Fowler's Solution in y 2 oz. doses twice daily. Dhobie Itch. This is a tropical disease. Remove the scabs and apply tincture of iodine daily. 20 Farm and Household Therapy with Chilean Iodine Fistula of Withers. Paint the sores with tincture of iodine occasionally. Chronic Lymphangitis (" Milk Leg " or " Monday Morning Disease ")• Feed the animal, unless it is a preg- nant mare, with bran only for 24 hours, then give 8 drams of aloes and 2 drams ginger to purge, continuing the bran the second 24 hours. Then give 1 dram potassium iodide twice daily. Eub the leg at night ; apply a rubber bandage. Iodine ointment may be rubbed in at night. Canker. Apply equal parts zinc oxide, powdered alum, and boric acid to sore twice a day. Paint the sore with tincture of iodine three or four times a week. Keep the sore clean and dry. Wounded Eyeball. Mix one part calomel and 3 parts boric acid. Blow a little on the opaque part of the eyeball 3 times a week. Give 20 grains potassium iodide at a dose twice a day. Excessive Secretion of Urine (Diabetes Insipidus, Poly- uria, Diuresis). In this disease the animal may pass 20-30 pints of urine daily, be extremely thirsty, and lose strength and flesh. Give once daily a ball made of y 2 dram iodine crystals 2 drams iron sulphate, 4 drams pow- dered gentian mixed with treacle, syrup, or meal and water. Give the dose twice daily in bad cases. Influenza (Pink Eye, Epizootic, Epihippic Fever, Typhoid Fever, Hepatic Fever, Bilious Fever). Potas- sium iodide reduces the congestion of organs so affected, and thereby the temperature. This drug in moderate quantities stimulates the digestive tract and acts as a kidney stimulant. In complication of the lungs potassium iodide and digitalis are used. Eecommended in the IT. S. Dept. of Agric. Book " Diseases of the Horse." Anasarca (Purpura Hemorrhagica). This is commonly caused as an after effect of influenza, and consists of tumors appearing on forearm, leg, belly or side of head. Hobses — Pigs — Sheep 21 Give potassium iodide in small doses as a digestive tonic, reducer of inflammation and kidney stimulant (diuretic). Inject 8-12 drams into the trachea twice daily of a solu- tion of 1 part iodine, 5 parts potassium iodide, 100 parts water. Make the injection slowly to avoid coughing. Bursae. Inject solution of 16 grams iodine, 16 grams potassium iodide, 1 oz. sterilized glycerine or distilled water. The ointment sometimes gives good results in distension of joint capsules, bursae and synovial sheaths and occasionally in bony enlargements. Horse Pox (Equine Variola, Pustular Grease). If fever results, give potassium iodide in 1 dram doses. Ozena. Treatment same as for Cattle. Inflamed Upper Air Passages. Treatment same as for Cattle. Pneumonia. In cases of pneumonia in horses iodine given intravenously has acquired no little popularity of late at the various remount stations in this country and aboard.* PIGS Lameness in Joints. Paint the swollen joints with tincture of iodine once a day, and give the pig emulsion of cod-liver oil twice daily, two teaspoonfuls at a dose. Scabs. Swab the affected parts with iodine ointment (U. S. P.) once a day. The U. S. P. iodine ointment (4%) is composed of 4 parts iodine crystals, 1 part potassium iodide, 12 parts glycerine, 93 parts benzoated lard. Injecting Hog Cholera Serum. Use iodine at the point of the needle puncture. Posterior Paralysis. A few cases of posterior paralysis in sows were treated with potassium iodide with very * See also American Journal of Veterinary Medicine for August, 1917. 0,9 Faem axd Household Therapy with Chilean Iodine good results, in fact to such an extent that it is almost considered a specific for this trouble. It is believed that LugoPs Solution will give equally good results. SHEEP Goitre in Lambs. The same treatment may be given as for dogs. Footrot. Footrot in sheep hoofs should be thoroughly cleansed, pared down and washed. After this treatment a 3 per cent. Tincture of Iodine can be used every two or three days in connection with such other treatment as may be prescribed by the veterinarian. All woodwork, troughs and sides of interior of sheep barns or sheep sheds should be thoroughly treated with freshly made lime water. Household Uses of Chilean Iodine General Surgery. The part to be operated upon is first cleaned with gasoline to remove grease, then painted with tincture of iodine. For those of a sanguine tempera- ment, in whom the skin is fair and the hair light, the stronger preparations must be used with caution. If an application containing iodine causes pain, the iodine should be washed off with alcohol, whiskey, cologne, or best of all, a solution of potassium iodide, and a starch poultice applied. Consumption. Tincture of iodine allays harassing cough and checks secretion. Pleurisy. Apply the tincture to the chest as a paint. This will check the attack of the disease and aid the absorption of the fluid from the lung. Chronic Pneumonia. To hasten the drying up of the inflammation rub the following ointment over the Household Uses of Chilean Iodine 23 chest thoroughly — y 2 dram of iodine, 1 dram potassium iodide, 1 ounce lanolin. Chronic Rheumatism, Chronic Gout, Chronic Syno- vitis. Paint the joints with the tincture of iodine. The swellings should increase suddenly, as the iodine acts as a hlistering agent. Then apply an ointment made of equal parts belladonna ointment and blue ointment (Vj$ mercury and lard) spread on lint and bandage the joint. Tendo-Synovitis. A few coats of tincture of iodine painted over the affected surface, and the part kept at rest, will usually cure the trouble. Neuritis. Relief may be had by painting a number of coats of the tincture over the course of the painful nerve, and repeating till too painful to bear. Pain may be relieved by hypodermic injections of atropine and morphine near the painful part. Chilblains. Take equal parts tincture of iodine and solution of ammonia and paint the frost-bitten parts morning and evening. Another remedy, which should be compounded by a druggist, is: 30 grains pure car- bolic acid, 30 grains tannin, 30 drops tincture of iodine, 2 ounces simple ointment. Apply the latter twice a day. Croup. Give calcium iodide % grain every 15 minutes until relieved. Goitre. Prepare a mixture of 1 part iodine and 2 parts glycerine. Paint the enlargement with this mix- ture. The stain is absorbed in 2 to 3 hours. Or inject 8 to 10 drops tincture of iodine with a hypodermic syringe every 3 to 5 days. Cuts, Bruises, Insect Bites, Pimples. The wound, if such, should be thoroughly cleansed of all dirt and foreign matter such as hair, and loose tissues. Then apply tincture of iodine, either alone or in combination with glycerine, using 1 part iodine and 4 parts glycerine. 24 Faem and Household Therapy with Chilean Iodine Iodine is the best and surest antiseptic. It stimulates healing, tends to stop minor hemorrhage, and will, by the use of pure soap and warm water first, followed by alcohol, destroy any of the common bacteria that reach the wound. It is an especial enemy of lockjaw (tetanus) germs. Mosquito Bites, etc. Use tincture of iodine, in ordinary or in double strength. This will act as a counter irritant. This treatment is recommended in Farmer's Bulletin 754 " Bedbugs " of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. Caution.- Use iodine with caution on the tender skin of small children and on the skin of those affected with or disposed to eczema disorders. Certain proprietary preparations of iodine may be used to advantage under the advice of a physician. As a Military Antiseptic. The tincture of iodine is used in the European armies as a disinfectant and to correct bad odors coming from wounds. Other iodine preparations are used in the armies abroad. The appli- cation of iodine to wounds must be made with iodine which is free from hydriodic acid. The United States Pharmacopoeia advocates the addition of an alkaline iodide, such as potassium iodide, which is said to limit the formation of hydriodic acid to harmless proportions. Appendix Detection of Sausage Frauds The adulteration of sausages is accomplished by add- ing cereal water and seasoning to cheap cuts of meat. Cereal water contains starch, which turns blue if a drop of iodine be added. In this way the housewife may detect the fraud. The Household or Dairy Medicine Chest Every household and barn should have a medicine chest stocked at all times with simple remedies, such as iodine, saleratus, ether, ginger, sulphate of iron, cam- phor, castor oil, etc. Iodine applied locally will dissipate almost any swelling. The Kansas State Agricultural College, Department of Animal Husbandry, recommends two liniments to be kept on hand by every stockman, one mild, which is composed of 1 ounce turpentine, 1 ounce strong ammonia, 48 grains of camphor gum, y 2 ounce iodine, alcohol to make a pint. The stronger liniment is made up of 2 ounces camphor, 2 ounces turpentine, 4 ounces tincture of iodine, 16 grains bichloride of mercury, 8 ounces alcohol. The latter lini- ment should not be rubbed on unless a blister is desired. In that case, use 2 ounces cerate cantharides and 1 dram bichloride of mercury, or 1 part cantharides and 8 parts lard. Recommendations The State Veterinarian of Mississippi, recommends the tincture of iodine for general farm use. *W. S. Eggleston, V M. D., New Berlin, N. Y., says in speaking of the tincture of iodine, "It is in my 26 Faem and Household Therapy with Chilean Iodine estimation one of the most useful drugs in the veterinary- profession. It is used as an antiseptic, absorbent, in puncture wounds, open wounds, open joints, infected bursae tendon sheaths, on enlarged glands, for internal injections (not for too deep ones as this produces ab- scess), douches, etc., and to disinfect operation areas after alcohol, and for quick operations. It is a drug every farmer and household should continually have at hand." The National Formulary 4th edition 1916 prescribes 7 per cent, solution of iodine. Iodine For Wounds From the Pacific Homestead, August 9, 1917 One of the most interesting pieces of information given by a Eed Cross nurse, recently returned from France related to the amount of good that has been done in the medical line by the extensive use of iodine, a tincture that before the war was questioned by many authorities as to its' efficacy as a preventive of blood poisoning. " Every soldier carries a vial of iodine wrapped in cotton in a container in his tunic," said the nurse. " If he is wounded and able to assist himself he breaks the vial and pours the liquid over the wound. If you could see the wounded as they come to us in France — dirty, mud stained, and wearing the clothes they sometimes had not taken off in four or five weeks, and stop to think that bullets penetrating the body have passed through this filth — you would appreciate the good iodine has done."— E. First Aid Hints From the Ohio Farmer, October 6, 1917 Many people have erroneous ideas about the use of some of the more common remedies. It is a common Appendix 27 practice to apply spirits of turpentine to all cuts or bruises of man or beast when the skin is broken. Tur- pentine is not an antiseptic and it is doubtful if it does any good. It weakens and devitalizes tbe tissues, thus retarding healing rather than promoting it. It formerly was a common practice among veterina- rians and physicians to wash wounds with large volumes of an antiseptic solution in water, but it has been shown that so much washing weakens the tissues and washes off the protective serums that nature supplies for the repair of the injury. It is the common practice now, especially among veterinarians, to clean up the wound or injury by removing all dirt, hair, loose tissues, etc., and then to apply a coating of tincture of iodine, either alone or in combination with glycerine, using one part of iodine to four parts of glycerine. Others prefer dry antiseptic dressing, of which there are several good ones. Iodine is one of the best antiseptics that we have; it stimulates healing, tends to stop minor hemorrhage and will destroy any of the common bacteria that may gain access to the wound. In nail wounds or calk wounds of horses' feet there is no agent that will give better results than iodine. Clean the wound thoroughly by removing all dirt, hair, loose horn and any other foreign substance, using very little water — none if you can help — as it will tend to wash the different disease germs down into the depths of the wound, where the antiseptic can not reach them. If a person meets with an accidental injury from a corn cutter, ax, nail, or any other object, iodine is as good an application as can possibly be used. Keep the injury clean and the doctor will have very little to do other than make an inspection and give some advice to the injured. If there is a great amount of hemorrhage, appy tincture of iodine, soak absorbent cotton and apply 28 Farm and Household Therapy with Chilean Iodine to the injury and then bandage if possible. It is handy to apply and is safe and reliable. Keep at least a half-pint of the tincture of iodine, a pound of absorbent cotton, and a quarter dozen three- inch cotton bandages about the house. You then will be able to take care of most injuries and cuts in a very satisfactory manner until you can secure professional help. — G. H. Conn, D. V. M. Sandusky county, Ohio. Index. PAGE Air passages, Inflamed upper 12, 21 Abortion, Contagious 13 Abscess at base of ear 12 Anasarca 20 Aneurisms 7 Angina pectoris 7 Anthritis 19 Antiseptic, Military 24 Apoplexy 17 Arterio-sclerosis 7 Asthma 7 Belly, Swelling on 18 Bilious Fever 20 Bloody Milk 15 Bone spavin 17 Brain, Chronic inflammation 17 Bright's disease 7 Brisket, Enlarged 12 Bronchitis 7 Bruises 23 Bursae 21 Calves ■ 10 Canker 20 Capped hock 18 Capped knee 18 Cattle : . . 10 Chickenpox 15 Chickens 15 Chilblains 7, 23 Congestion of the lungs 8 Congestion of the udder : . . . 15 Consumption 22 Contagious abortion 13 Contusions of the lips 14 Cough, Chronic 19 Cowpox 14 Croup 23 Curb 18 Cuts 23 Dhobie itch 19 [29] 30 Farm and Household Thekapy with Chilean Iodine PAGE Diabetes insipidus 14 Distemper 18 Dogs 16 Dose, Internal 6 Ear, Abscess at the base of 12 Enlarged Brisket 12 Epihippic Fever 20 Epizootic 20 Erysipelas 19 Eyeball, Wounded 20 Eyelids, Inflammation of 17 Fevers (Epihippic, Typhoid, Hepatic, Bilious) 20 Fistula of withers 20 Footrot 22 Gout, Chronic 23 Grease heel 19 Growths due to skinning 16 Goitre 7, 11, 16, 22, 23 Garget 15 Haemophilia 7 Hardening of the udder 8 Heaves, Incipient 19 Hepatic Fever 20 Hock, Running sore on 18 Hog cholera serum, Injecting 21 Horses 16 Household uses of Iodine 22 Influenza 20 Insect bites 23 Internal dose 6 Iodides 7 Itch, Dhobie 20 Jaw, Lumpy 13 Joint ill 10 Joints, Inflammation of the 7 Joints, Lameness of 21 Joints, Swelling of the 8 Knee, Soft swelling on the 12 Lead poisoning 14, 17 Leg, Lumps on the 17 Leg, Soft swelling on the 12 Lips, Wounds and contusions of the 14 Lumpy jaw 13 Lung congestion g Lymphangitis, Chronic 20 Malignant wounds 8 Index 31 PAGE Mange 13, 19 Mercury poisoning 14 Milk, Bloody 15 Milk duct, Inflamed 14 Milk fever 15 Milk leg 20 Monday morning disease 20 Mosquito bites 24 Neuritis 23 Ozena 12, 21 Periostitis 11 Pigs 21 Pimples 23 Pink eye 20 Pleurisy 7, 8, 22 Pneumonia 21 Pneumonia, Chronic 22 Poisoning 14 Posterior Paralysis 21 Pox, Chicken 15 Pox, Cow 14 Pox, Horse 21 Rheumatism 15, 23 Ridgling Castration 19 Ringbone 19 Ring worm 7, 13 St. Vitus' dance 17 Scabs 21 Scouring, Acute contagious 11 Scratches 14 Sheep 21 Sidebones, Diseases of 18 Skin scabs 19 Sore head 15 Sore throat 8 Spavin, Bone 17 Spaying 16 Splints, New 17 Sprains 12, 18 Strains 8 Strangles 18 Synovitis 8, 23 Teats, Warts on the 13 Tendo-Synovitis 23 Tongue, Wooden 13 Tuberculin test 14 32 Faem and Household Theka.pt with Chilean Iodine PAGE Tumor 13 Typhoid fever 20 Udder, Congestion of the 15 Udder, Hardening of the 8 Udder, Inflamed 15 Upper air passages, Inflammed 12, 21 Urine, excessive secretion of 20 Warts on the teats 13 White scours 11 Wooden tongue 13 Wounds of the lips 14 Wounds, Malignant 8