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Cornell University Library 
 
 arV14831 
 
 The elements of rhetoric and composition 
 
 3 1924 031 672 797 
 olin,anx 
 
THE ELEMENTS 
 
 OP 
 
 RHETORIC AND COMPOSITION 
 
 A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES 
 
 BY 
 
 DAVID J. HILL, LL.D. 
 
 PRESIDENT OP THE TJNIVBRSITT OF ROCHESTEE, AND AUTHOR OF HILL'S 
 RHETORICAL SERIES AND- THE ELEMENTS OF PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 NEW EDITION 
 
 IB 
 
 SHELDON & COMPANY 
 
 NEW YOEK AND CHICAGO 
 
A. 32238I 
 
 PEESIDENT HILL'S TEXT-BOOKS. 
 I. 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC AND COMPOSITION. 
 
 II. 
 THE SCIENCE OF RHETORIC. 
 
 ni. 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF LOGIC. 
 
 IV. 
 THE ELEMENTS OP PSYCHOLOGY. 
 
 COPTEIGHT 
 
 1878, 1884 AND 189S, 
 
 Bt Sheldon & Company. 
 
 or 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 It is the purpose of this book to make good writers. 
 The extensive and constantly increasing use of the work 
 as a text-book demonstrates the confidence of teachers in 
 the method which is its distinguishing feature. Based 
 upon the educational maxim, " Learn by doing," it applies 
 the principle fruitfully by aiding the learner in doing the 
 right thing at the right time. Teaching by practice is 
 successful only when the learner is interested in his work. 
 When he feels that his efforts are rewarded and that he 
 needs more theory to improve his practice, his powers are 
 fully awakened to action. 
 
 It is taken for granted that those who will use this book 
 can both read and write simple English sentences. For 
 such students, the mere making of sentences is an unprof- 
 itable exercise. What they especially need is direction 
 in concentrating the mind upon the work of compos- 
 ing. The only way to acquire skill in writing is by actual 
 practice in the various processes of the art. Accord- 
 ingly, learners should first be assisted in finding a sub- 
 ject of thought, and then be shown how to accumulate, 
 arrange^- and express the ideas connected with the theme. 
 This view has given shape to the treatment of composi- 
 tion in this book. The learner isconducted, step by.step, 
 through the entire work of writing a composition, includ- 
 
iv PBEFAGE. 
 
 ing the selection of a subject, the accumulation of mate- 
 rials, the arrangement of the materials, the choice of 
 words, the construction of sentences, the uses of figures, 
 the variation of expression, the preparation of the manu- 
 script, the criticism of the completed production, the clas- 
 sification of it as a specific form of composition, and the 
 resources of the English language for finer workmanship. 
 
 In carrying out this plan, an effort has been made to 
 stimulate the student with enthusiasm in his work. Many 
 remarks and suggestions have been introduced in the 
 smaller type, as a help to the earnest student, rather than 
 with the intention that they shall be learned for close 
 recitation. 
 
 The present edition differs from the preceding in the 
 following particulars : (1) many verbal improvements have 
 been made throughout the volume ; (3) a chapter on the 
 English Language has been added ; (3) in response to re- 
 quests from teachers, the exercises have been more tlian 
 doubled in quantity. They are retained at the end of the 
 book, for two reasons : they make the text more compact ; 
 and they may be used in the class-room without allowing 
 the student to make too frequent reference to the text. 
 Some of the plans are adapted from Graham's "Englisli 
 Style." The entire work has been newly electrotyped. 
 
 A Glossary has been combined with the Index. This is 
 regarded as a valuable feature of the book, for two reasons: 
 it makes the volume useful as a work of reference, without 
 burdening the text with technicalities ; and it serves as a 
 pronouncing and defining dictionary of diflBcult rhetorioal 
 terms. 
 
PBMPAOE. V 
 
 Attention is invited to the following 
 
 Suggestions to Teachers. 
 
 (1) The topical method of recitation is recommended. 
 The book is especially designed for this, and pains have 
 been taken to make the analysis clear and exact. The 
 parts in the fine type need not be recited in this way, 
 but may be brought out by means of questions. 
 
 (3) Have the class work out the Exercises in connection 
 with the daily recitations, using a blackboard. Eequire 
 the students to know the principles so well that reference 
 to the text will be unnecessary. 
 
 (3) Do not exact too much at first, but insist that 
 every principle once learned be applied in all subse- 
 quent exercises. 
 
 (4) Call attention to the Glossary, and encourage the 
 learner to use it habitually. All the most difficult terms 
 have their pronunciation marked. It is hoped that this 
 will prevent any class-room discussion about sim-iles and 
 hyperboles ! 
 
 (5) Encourage the best students to recite verbatim what 
 they can of the matter in fine type, but require of the 
 class only the substance, assigning lessons accordingly. 
 This plan will stimulate the more capable and ambitious 
 students. 
 
 (6) Assign frequent reviews, and require the learner to 
 observe all the rules in his periodical compositions. The 
 book should be -used as a handbook for reference after it 
 has been finished in the class-room. 
 
 Datid J. HllL. 
 September, 1893. 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of tliis book is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There "are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031672797 
 
CONTENTS, OR ANALYSIS. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 1. Definition of Khbtohic : 
 
 3. Relations of Rhbtokic to Grammar and Logic 3 
 
 3. Utility of Rhetoric 3 
 
 4. Division of the Subject 3 
 
 CHAPTEE I. 
 
 INVENTION. 
 
 1. Meaning of Intention 5 
 
 2. Processes of Invention 6 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 THE CHOICE OP A SUBJECT. 
 
 1. Importance of Choosing a Subject 6 
 
 3. How to Obtain a Subject 7 
 
 8. Qualities of a Good Subject 7 
 
 4. Relation of the Subject to the Writer 8 
 
 5. Relation op the Subject to the Occasion 9 
 
 6. Adapting a Subject 9 
 
 7. Statement of a Subject 10 
 
viii ANALYSIS. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 THE ACCUMULATION OF MATERIALS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 1. Importance of Collecting Materials 11 
 
 3. The Sources of Materials 12 
 
 3. How TO Use the Sources ; 13 
 
 4. Rules for Reflection 18 
 
 5. Rules for Reading 14 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 THE ARRANGEMENT OF MATERIALS. 
 
 1. Importance of Arrangement 16 
 
 2. Parts of a Composition 16 
 
 3. The Introduction 17 
 
 4. The Discussion 18 
 
 5. The Conclusion 19 
 
 6. The Two Methods of Arrangement 19 
 
 7. Adyantagbs of the Two Methods 21 
 
 CHAPTEK II. 
 
 STYLE. 
 
 1. Definition of Style 23 
 
 2. The Importance of Style 24 
 
 3. The General Law of Style 25 
 
 4. Division of this Chapter 35 
 
ANALYSIS. ix 
 
 SECTIOlSr I. 
 DICTION. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 1. Definition of Diction 35 
 
 3. Means op Acquibinq a Vocabulaiit 36 
 
 3. The Essentials of Good Diction 37 
 
 I. PURITY. 
 
 1. The MEANIN& of Purity 38 
 
 3. Babbabisms 39 
 
 3. The Naturalization of Words 31 
 
 4. The Fobmation of Woeds 31 
 
 II. PROPRIETY. 
 
 1. Meaning of Pbopbiett 33 
 
 3. Rules fob Propbiety 34 
 
 III. PRECISION. 
 
 1. Meaning of Precision 37 
 
 3. Rules fob Pkecision 88 
 
 SECTIOlSr II. 
 
 SENTENCES. 
 
 1. Definitions 43 
 
 3. Division of this Subject 44 
 
 I. CONCORD. 
 
 1. Rules fob Simple Sentences 45 
 
 3. Rules fob Compound and Complex Sentences 51 
 
X ANALYSIS. 
 
 II. CLEARNESS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 1. The Importance of Clbakness 53 
 
 3. EuiBS FOR Clearness 54 
 
 III. UNITY. 
 
 1. Meaning of Unity 58 
 
 3. Rules for Unity 59 
 
 IV. ENERGY. 
 
 1. Meaning of Energy 63 
 
 2. Rules for Energy 63 
 
 V. HARMONY. 
 
 1. The Value of Harmony .- 66 
 
 2. RtJLES FOR Harmony 67 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 PARAGRAPHS. 
 
 1. The Importance of Paragraphs 71 
 
 3. Rules for Pabagraphs 72 
 
 3. Examples of Paragraphs 75 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 FIGURES. 
 
 1. Definition of Figures 77 
 
 2. The Origin of Figures 78 
 
 3. The Advantages of Figures 79 
 
 4. Kinds of Figures 81 
 
 (1) Simile 83 
 
 (3) Metaphor 83 
 
ANALYSIS. xi 
 
 PAGE 
 
 (8) Personification . . ; 83 
 
 (4) Allegory 84 
 
 (5) Synecdoclie 85 
 
 (6) Metonymy 86 
 
 (7) Exclamation 87 
 
 (8) Hyperbole 87 
 
 (9) Apostrophe 88 
 
 (10) Vision 88 
 
 (11) Antithesis 89 
 
 (13) Climax 89 
 
 (13) Epigram 90 
 
 (14) Interrogation 90 
 
 (15) Irony 90 
 
 5. Rules fob Figukbs 91 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 VARIATION OF EXPRESSION. 
 
 1. Impoktance of Vakiett 93 
 
 2. Kinds of Vabiation 94 
 
 3. Vabiation of Diction 94 
 
 4 Vabiation of Stbuctubb 97 
 
 CHAPTEK III. 
 
 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 
 
 1. The Pebpabation of Manhsobipts 101 
 
 3. The Pubpose op Punctuation 103 
 
 3. Classification of the Points 103 
 
xii ANALTaiS. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 THE GRAMMATICAL POINTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 1. Rules foe the Comma 104 
 
 Rule 1. — Parenthetical Expression 105 
 
 RtTLE 3. — Words in Apposition 106 
 
 Rule 3. — Relative Clauses 106 
 
 RtTLE 4. — Words in a Series 107 
 
 Rule 5. — Continued Sentences 107 
 
 Rule 6. — Dependent Clauses 108 
 
 Rule 7.— Transposed Parts 108 
 
 Rule 8. — Logical Subject 108 
 
 Rule 9. — Absolute Constructions 108 
 
 Rule 10.— Words in Pairs 108 
 
 Rule 11.— Ellipsis of a Verb 109 
 
 Rule 13. — Words in the Vocative 109 
 
 Rule 13.— Brief Quotations 109 
 
 RxjLB 14. — Numeral Figures 109 
 
 2. Rules fob the Semicolon 109 
 
 Rule 1. — Short Sentences Connected 110 
 
 Rule 2. — Subdivided Members 110 
 
 Rule 3. — Added Clauses 110 
 
 Rule 4. — Particulars in Apposition 110 
 
 Rule 5. — Common Dependence Ill 
 
 3. Rules fok the Colon Ill 
 
 RxjLE 1. — Subdivided Members Ill 
 
 Rule 2. — Supplementary Clauses 112 
 
 Rule 3. — Formal Quotations 112 
 
 Rule 4.— Title-Pages 113 
 
 4. Rules fob the Pebiod 113 
 
 Rule 1. — Complete Sentences 113 
 
 Rule 2. — Abbreviations 113 
 
 Rule 3. — Title-Pages and Headings 114 
 
ANALYSIS. xiii 
 
 SECTION 11. 
 THE RHETORICAL POINTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 1. Rules for the Interrogation Point 114 
 
 Rule 1. — Direct Questions 114 
 
 Rule 2.— Doubt 115 
 
 3. Rules for the Exclamation Point 115 
 
 Rule 1. — With Interjections 115 
 
 Rule 3. — Strong Emotion 116 
 
 3. Rules for the Dash 116 
 
 Rule 1. — Abrupt Changes 116 
 
 Rule 3. — Rhetorical Pauses 116 
 
 Rule .3. — Rhetorical Repetition 117 
 
 Rule 4.— The Parenthetical Dash 117 
 
 Role 5. — Omissions 117 
 
 Rule 6. — Dependent Expressions 118 
 
 Rule 7. — ^Headings and Authorities 118 
 
 4. Rule for the Parenthesis 119 
 
 5. Rules for the Quotation 130 
 
 RuiE 1. — Direct Quotations 130 
 
 Rule 3. — Quoted Quotations 131 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 PRINTERS' MARKS. 
 
 1. Accents 121 
 
 3. The Apostrophe 133 
 
 3. Braces 133 
 
 4. Brackets 133 
 
 5. The Caret 133 
 
 6. The CEiJiLLA 133 
 
XIV ANALYSIS. 
 
 7. DiBKBSis 122 
 
 8. Ellipsis 123 
 
 9. Emphasis 122 
 
 10. Thb Hyphen 123 
 
 11. Italics 123 
 
 12. Lbadbhs 123 
 
 13. Leads 123 
 
 14. Paragraphs 123 
 
 15. QtTANTiTT Marks 123 
 
 16. Reference Marks 123 
 
 17. The Section 123 
 
 18. The Tilde 123 
 
 19. Types 124 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 CAPITAL LETTERS. 
 
 RtTLE 1. — First Words 125 
 
 IJdlb 2. — Headings 125 
 
 Utile 3.— Quoted Titles 125 
 
 iiULB 4. — Names of the Deity t . . . . 125 
 
 Rule 5. — The Bible 126 
 
 Rule 6. — Proper Names 127 
 
 Rule 7. — Derivations from Proper Names 127 
 
 Rule 8.— Titles of Office and Honor I37 
 
 Rule 9. — Personification 127 
 
 Rule 10.— Terms Defined 128 
 
 Rule 11. — Numbered Items 128 
 
 Rule 12. — The Pronoun I and the Interjection 128 
 
 Rule 13. — Important Words 128 
 
 Rule 14. — Roman Numerals 128 
 
ANALYSIS. XV 
 
 SECTION V. 
 THE CORRECTION OF PROOFS. 
 
 PAOE 
 
 1. The Pkbpaeation of Copt 129 
 
 3. The Reading op Peoop 130 
 
 OHAPTEK IV. 
 
 CRITICISM. 
 
 1 Definition of Criticism 134 
 
 3. The Value of Criticism 134 
 
 3. Kinds of Litbbart Criticism 135 
 
 4. Method op Treatment 136 
 
 SECTION I 
 
 TASTE. 
 
 1. Definition of Taste 137 
 
 3. Analysis of Taste 188 
 
 8. The Qualities of Taste 139 
 
 4. Taste Unitersal 139 
 
 5. The Variation of Taste 140 
 
 8. The Standard of Taste 141 
 
 7. The Claim of this Standard 143 
 
 8. The Cultitation of Taste 143 
 
 9. Catholicity of Taste . 144 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 THE PLEASURES OF TASTE. 
 
 1., Kinds of Esthetic Pleasure. .:. .^. ..;.... . 145 
 
 .2. The Beautiful ; ■, .. ..^ . , ,.; 147 
 
xvi AJS-ALTSIS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 3. The Sublimb 151 
 
 4. Thb Witty 154 
 
 5. The Humobotis 156 
 
 6. The Pathetic 158 
 
 CHAPTEE V. 
 
 SPECIAL FORMS OP COMPOSITION. 
 
 1. Kinds op Composition 161 
 
 2. Method op Tbbatmbnt 163 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 DESCEIPTIONS. 
 
 1. Qualitibs op a Good Dbscription 164 
 
 2. The Process op Describing 165 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 NARRATIVES. 
 
 1. Qualities op a Good Narrativb 167 
 
 2. The Plot op a Naerative 168 
 
 3. Thb Qualities of a Plot 169 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 LETTERS. 
 
 1. The Purpose op Letters 170 
 
 2. The Kinds op Lettbes 170 
 
 3. The Pabts op a Letter 177 
 
 4. Genbral Bulbs for Writing Letters 184 
 
ANALYSIS. xvii 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 OEATIONS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 1. The Natorb of an Oration 186 
 
 3. Kinds of Obatort 187 
 
 3. The Natuee of Persuasion 188 
 
 4. The Qualities of an Oration 189 
 
 5. The Parts of an Oration 190 
 
 6. The Management of the Feelings 191 
 
 7. The Qualifications of an Orator 193 
 
 SECTION" V. 
 
 POEMS. 
 
 1. The Nature of a Poem 194 
 
 3. KiNBS of Poems 195 
 
 3. The Method of Poetry 198 
 
 4. Versification 300 
 
 CHAPTER YI. 
 
 THE ENGLISH LANaUA&E. 
 
 1. Definition of Language 206 
 
 3. The Development of Language 307 
 
 3. The Eelationship of Languages 208 
 
 4. The Indo-European Languages 209 
 
 5. The Affiliations of English , 211 
 
 6. Division of this Chapter 213 
 
xviii ANALYSIS. 
 
 SECTIQN I. 
 THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH. 
 
 PAQE 
 
 1 . Thb Oeiginal Home of English 213 
 
 3. The Migrations op the Anglo-Saxons 213 
 
 3. The Charactbkistics op Anglo-Saxon 215 
 
 4. The Inpltjencb op the CHtmoH 216 
 
 5. The Inplubncb op the Danes 217 
 
 6. The Norman Conquest 219 
 
 7. The Fdsion op the Elements 231 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 THE ANGLO-SAXON ELEMENT. 
 
 1. The Anglo-Saxon Vocabxjlart 233 
 
 3. The Lost Words op Anglo-Saxon 234 
 
 3. The Lost Inflections op Anglo-Saxon 325 
 
 4. Anglo-Saxon Idioms 326 
 
 5. The Transliteration of Anglo-Saxon 227 
 
 6. Anglo-Saxon Prefixes and StrppixBs 238 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 THE LATIN ELEMENT. 
 
 1. The Latin VocABtrLART 230 
 
 2. The Modes op Latin Influence 232 
 
 3. Latin Stems, Prefixes, and Suffixes 233 
 
 4. The Latin Numerals 240 
 
 5. The Extent op the Latin Element in Engi,ish 241 
 
 6. The Latin Element at Different Periods 243 
 
AJfALTSIS. xix 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 THK GREEK ELEMENT. 
 
 FAOE 
 
 1. The Gbebk Vocabttlaky 344 
 
 2. Gkbbk Stems, Pebpixes, and Suffixes 346 
 
 3. The Gkebk Numerals 348 
 
 4. The Tbansliteration op Greek 349 
 
 SECTIOlSr V. 
 
 INCIDENTAL CONTRIBUTIONS. 
 
 1. The Incidbntal Sources op English 349 
 
 3. Words Derived prom Places 351 
 
 3. Words op Mythic and Personal Origin 351 
 
 4. The Destiny op English 353 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 OHAPTEE I. 
 
 INVENTION. 
 
 Section I. — Tlie Choice of a Subject 357 
 
 Section II. — The Accumulation of Materials 360 
 
 Section III. — The Arrangement of Materials 365 
 
XX ANALYSIS. 
 
 CHAPTEK II. 
 
 STYLE. 
 
 PAOB 
 
 Section 1. — Diction 379 
 
 Section II. — Sentences 285 
 
 Sbction III. — Paragraplis 300 
 
 Section IV. — Figures 301 
 
 Section T. — Variation of Expression 313 
 
 CHAPTEK III. 
 
 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 
 
 Section I. — The Grammatical Points 321 
 
 Section II.— The Rhetorical Points 329 
 
 Section III.— The Use of Capitals 333 
 
 CHA.PTER V. 
 
 SPECL^ FORMS OP COMPOSITION. 
 
 Section I.— Descriptions 338 
 
 Section II. — Narratives 839 
 
 Section III. — Letters 341 
 
 Section IV. — Poems 343 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 General Exbkciseb 346 
 
 Index and Glossabt 351 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 1. Definition of Rhetoric. 
 
 Bhetoric is both a science and an art. It is a science 
 when it discovers and establishes the laws of discourse, 
 an art when the laws are applied in practice. Ehetoric 
 is, therefore, the science of the laws of eflFective discourse, 
 or the art of speaking and writing effectively. 
 
 The word Bhetoric was first applied to spoken discourse only. 
 It is derived through the Greek juriTopudi (rheiorihe) from }>^up 
 {rhetor), a speaker : and, accordingly, means the art of speaking. 
 The same general principles underlie and govern both oral and 
 written discourse, and hence the meaning of the word was so ex- 
 tended as to include ail kinds of composition. This is its modern 
 sense. While Rhetoric was understood to apply only to spoken 
 discourse, it included vocal delivery, and hence Elocution was re- 
 garded as a part of Rhetoric. In modern times, so much attention 
 has been paid to delivery, and, since the invention of printing, writ- 
 ing has become so important, that the oral utterance of a composi- 
 tion is ranked as a distinct art, and is no longer treated as a part of 
 Rhetoric. The reasons for this separation are : 
 
 (1) It is a bodily exercise requiring a special training. 
 
 (3) A person may be a good rhetorician without being a good 
 speaker. 
 
 (3) Penmanship would belong to Rhetoric by as good a right as 
 Elocution. 
 
2 LNTBOnUGTION. 
 
 2. Relations of Rhetoric to Grammar and Logic. 
 
 To speak or write effectively, one must be correct in 
 language, consistent in thought, and both forcible and 
 pleasing in manner. Grammar teaches us how to write 
 and speak correctly — that is, according to the best usage 
 of those who use the same language. Logic teaches us how 
 to state our thoughts consistently with one another and 
 with the laws of mind. Rhetoric teaches us how to add to 
 mere correctness and consistency such force and attractive- 
 ness as to make our thoughts clear and interesting to others. 
 
 It is evident from what is said above that Bhetoric presupposes 
 both Gframmar and Logic. No composition can be really effective 
 with educated persons unless it is grammatical and logical. Hence 
 Rhetoric is founded upon Grammar and Logic, and derives many of 
 its laws from them. In "The Science of Rhetoric '' much attention 
 is given to the Laws of Mind, which must be heeded in effective 
 writing and speaking. Anything more than an allusion to these 
 more philosophical relations of the subject would be out of place in 
 an elementary work. It is hoped, however, that no one who ear- 
 nestly wishes to be a thorough rhetorician will neglect these more 
 difficult but very important relations. 
 
 3. Utility of Rhetoric. 
 
 Nothing can be more useful to us than a knowledge of 
 Rhetoric. Some of the reasons are as follows : 
 
 (1) Discourse is governed by laws which should be 
 understood in order to be obeyed. 
 
 (2) A knowledge of principles enables us to do every- 
 thing more effectively than we could without such 
 knowledge, and this especially applies to composition. 
 
 (3) The study of Ehetoric qualifies us to criticize 
 and enjoy the finest productions of literary genius. 
 
INTRODUGTION. 3 
 
 (4) The mastery of discourse gives us power for good 
 over all intelligent beings. 
 
 It has been maintained by some, that rules fetter genius and 
 make a writer stiff and pedantic. It is true that a rule imperfectly 
 understood or clumsily applied is a hindrance to one's natural pow- 
 ers of expression, but this applies equally well to the precepts of 
 any difficult art, such as reading, playing on the piano, and swim- 
 ming. Practice alone can make the rules of any art so familiar 
 that we obey them unconsciously, and this is particularly true of 
 writing and speaking. It is also said that many have risen to emi- 
 nence without knowing the rules of literary art. However this may 
 be, it is certain that, whether these men of genius understood the 
 rules or not, they obeyed them, and their success is owing to their 
 fidelity to them. The greatest writers and speakers have been faith- 
 ful students of rhetorical art. The following story of the great- 
 est American orator well illustrates how great achievements are 
 made. "On a certain occasion Mr. Webster startled the Senate by 
 a beautiful and striking i-emark in relation to the extent of the Brit- 
 ish empire, as follows: 'She has dotted the surface of the whole 
 globe with her possessions and military posts, whose morning drum- 
 beat, following the sun and keeping company with the hours, circles 
 the earth daily with one continuous and unbroken strain of the mar- 
 tial airs of England.' On going out of the Senate, one of the mem- 
 bers complimented Mr. Webster upon this, saying that he was all 
 the more struck with it as it was evidently impromptu. ' You are 
 mistaken, ' said Mr. Webster ; ' the idea occurred to me when I was 
 on the ramparts of Quebec some months ago. I wrote it down and 
 rewrote it, and after several trials got it to suit me, and laid it up 
 for use. The time came to-day, and so I put it in.' " 
 
 4. Division of the Subject. 
 
 As this book is designed to be wholly practical, it is 
 proposed to conduct the learner along the entire path of 
 actual writing, from the choice of the subject to the com- 
 pletion of a composition. In order to do this most natu- 
 rally, we shall suppose, for the sake of thoroughness, that 
 the learner is a beginner in the art, and to set about the 
 
4 INTHOD UOTION. 
 
 work of writing for the first time. The steps of such a 
 journey are clearly as follows : 
 
 (1) Finding something to say, — or Invention. 
 
 (3) Finding how to say what is to be said, — or Style. 
 
 (3) The preparation of the manuscript for the eye of 
 another, — or Punctuation and Capitals. 
 
 (4) The critical examination of what has been written, 
 — or Criticism. 
 
 (5) The classification of the most common kinds of 
 writing, — or Specific Forms of Composition. 
 
 (6) A consideration of the resources of the language in 
 which we write, — in our case, The English Language. 
 These will be our chapters. 
 
 The stiiotly scientific division of Bhetoric, as the author conceives 
 it, has been given in his more advanced work, " The Science of 
 Rhetoric." Discourse aims to produce a change (1) in the mind, (2) 
 by means of ideas, (3) expressed through language. This view jus- 
 tifies the division of Rhetoric into Laws of Mind, Laws of 
 Idea, and Laws of Form. A more empirical method, however, 
 seems necessary in an elementary work. Nothing can be more 
 distasteful to the hegiimer than to plunge at once into facts and 
 laws of Psychology, however necessary these may be to a scientific 
 view of the subject. If any arrangement is equally repugnant to 
 the learner, it is to place the dry and technical rules of Punctuation 
 in the very beginning of a book, as some writers have done. Al- 
 though in actual composition Invention is more difficult than Style, 
 no one cares about the manner of saying anything until he has 
 something to say. The history and resources of our own language 
 have no practical value until the art of expression is sufiiciently 
 acquired to show the value of the various elements which constitute 
 our mother-tongue. The arrangement here adapted seems the most 
 natural, and, accordingly, the most inviting, to young writers. 
 
THE ELEMEI^TS OE RHETORIC 
 AND COMPOSITION. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 INVENTION. 
 1. Meaning of Invention. 
 
 The term invention (from the Latin invenlre, to find) 
 is applied to the whole process of finding out what to say, 
 from the selection of a subject to the expression of the 
 ideas. The word also means the power of contriving 
 anything, and even the thing contrived, as when we say, 
 " He is a man of great invention " ; or, " The sewing- 
 machine is a useful invention." In its rhetorical sense. 
 Invention may be defined : The preparation of the matter 
 of a composition. 
 
 In the strictest sense, Xnvention does not belong to Bhetoric. What 
 the writer or speaker says, must depend upon his subject, and 
 Rhetoric simply aids him in deciding how to say it effectively. 
 If it were otherwise, Rhetoric would be a universal science, and 
 would have to lay down rules for the lawyer, the preacher, the 
 lecturer, and even the scientific writer. This would be impossible. 
 What is necessary in each case must be determined by the facts of 
 the subject and the purpose for which one composes. In an elemen- 
 tary work, however, some rules may be given for the guidance of 
 the beginner. 
 
6 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 2. Processes of Invention. 
 
 The first step in preparing the matter for a composi- 
 tion is to select a subject upon which to concentrate the 
 thoughts. The next is to accumulate materials by which 
 to explain, illustrate, or enforce the subject. The next 
 is to select from the mass of materials that which is 
 adapted to our purpose and arrange Jt in a suitable man- 
 ner. These processes, 
 
 {1) The Choice, of a Subject. 
 
 (2) The Accumulation of Materials. And, 
 
 {3) The Arrangement of the Matter, will be treated 
 of in the following sections. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 The Choice of a Subject. 
 
 1. The Importance of Choosing a Subject. 
 
 It is impossible to write clearly unless one has a theme 
 in mind on which the attention is steadily fixed. If 
 there be no subject, words will be strung along loosely 
 and to no purpose, confusion of thought will be evident, 
 and the production will be useless. 
 
 A steady adherence to the subject, making everything bear upon 
 and support it, was the chief merit of the greatest orator of an- 
 tiquity, Demosthenes. So thoroughly was he possessed with his 
 theme that when we read his orations " it is as though we were em- 
 barked upon a mighty river. All is animation and energy, and we 
 gaze with a momentary reverie upon the deep and transparent 
 waters. But even while we admire, the current grows deeper and 
 deeper, and we are unconsciously hurried onward with increasing 
 and irresistible power." 
 
INVENTION. 7 
 
 2. How to Obtain a Subject. 
 
 Sometimes a subject is given to a writer, and he is re- 
 quired to write about it. More frequently the selection 
 is left -tQ the writer himself. In the latter case, he is 
 likely to be at a loss how to decide upon a suitable theme. 
 The best way is to begin by asking yourself questions un- 
 til something suggests itself which really interests you. 
 Having in this way obtained a theme, before finally 
 adopting it, try it carefully by the following rules, in 
 order to test its fitness. It should be suited to the writer 
 and the occasion, as well as suitable in itself. 
 
 Much should be made of the suggestion to ask youiself ques- 
 tions. This is the door to all great discoveries in science, inven- 
 tions in art, and originality in literature. If learners would only- 
 open their eyes and notice what is occurring about them every day, 
 in nature, society, and their own personal experience, they would 
 find attractive subjects suggested almost every moment. 
 
 3. Qualities of a Good Subject. 
 
 Since we cannot write equally well on every subject, 
 some rules for judging of the fitness of a subject in itself 
 may be given. 
 
 (1) A subject must have unity. By this is meant that 
 it must be one subject, and not a medley of thoughts 
 without connections. 
 
 (3) It must not be too broad. The narrower a sub- 
 ject, the more fresh and original will be the treatment. 
 This seems strange at first, but you see more things 
 with the help of a microscope than you see with the 
 naked eye ; and by examining a subject closely new ideas 
 are suggested. 
 
8 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 (3) It must be clear. In a composition everything will 
 be cloudy unless the theme be clear. The subject is the 
 sun, the paragraphs are the planets, and the sentences 
 are the satellites. The sentences reflect light on the 
 paragraphs, which shine with the light of the subject, 
 but if you omit this source of light, all is darkness. 
 
 (4) It must be fresh. Do not be satisfied with old or 
 musty themes that have no interest for any one. The 
 world is full of subjects that quicken and delight the 
 curiosity. Composition writing is a joyous occupation 
 when it is made a fountain of knowledge. 
 
 4. KelatioH of the Subject to the "Writer. 
 
 A subject may be very interesting in itself and yet not 
 suited to the writer who has chosen it. Hence we have 
 some rules on this point. 
 
 (1) The writer must be interested in his subject It is 
 very disagreeable and unprofitable to regard composition 
 writing as task-work. There is no necessity for this 
 slavish feeling. Every one is interested in something. 
 
 (2) He should choose something upon which he can ex- 
 press what he believes. Earnestness of conviction is a 
 great help to clear, strong expression, and without it 
 there is danger of all kinds of fanciful vaporizing. 
 
 (3) He should choose a subject suited to his powers. It 
 is not necessary that all the knowledge required for a full 
 treatment of the subject should be possessed beforehand. 
 One of the best results of writing is that learners study a 
 subject carefully, in order to write about it well. But the 
 subject should not be above the writer's ability to under- 
 
"iNVENTION. 9 
 
 stand, with a reasonable amount of reflection, advice, and 
 reading. 
 
 5. Relation of the Subject to the Occasion. 
 
 A subject may be good in itself and suited to the writer, 
 but still fail of its purpose because not iit for the occasion. 
 We must, therefore, consider a third class of rules. 
 
 (1) The subject should be harmonious with the feelings 
 proper to the occasion, A due regard must always be had 
 for the position, character, and sentiments of the persons 
 whom we address. 
 
 (2) The subject should be of interest at the time as 
 well as to the persons whose attention is enlisted. ISTo 
 one has the right to rob others of their time, and tax 
 their patience, in listening to what is untimely or dull. 
 
 (3) The subject should be suited to the intelligence of 
 those for whom it is intended. Unless this rule is obeyed, 
 our efforts are wasted and the previous rule is violated. 
 
 6. Adapting a Subject. 
 
 Possibly a subject may be too good to reject and yet 
 require some change, in order to suit the writer or the 
 occasion. In this case, it may often be adapted by some 
 slight limitation. Thus, for example, let us take the sub- 
 ject "Virtue." This is too broad for treatment in a single 
 composition. We may modify it in a great many ways. 
 We may say, for instance, "The Origin of Virtue," "The 
 Advantages of Virtue," "The Eewards of Virtue," "The 
 Hindrances to Virtue," etc. By breaking up the subject 
 ill this way we make the new subjects less broad, but some 
 
10 THE ELEMENTS OF BHETOBIG. 
 
 of them are quite difficult as compared with others. This 
 helps us to select from the different views of a subject 
 that which is best suited to us. We may then continue 
 the process of limitation. For instance, we may limit 
 "The Eewards of Virtue'' to some particular class, say 
 merchants, and we should have, "The Eewards of Virtue 
 to Merchants." We may further limit virtue by confin- 
 ing it to some one kind of virtue, say honesty, and we 
 should have, "The Eewards of Honesty to Merchants." 
 
 7. Statement of a Subject. 
 
 If any one will examine the last subject a little, he will 
 discover that it is ambiguous ; and this leads us to some 
 rules on the statement of a subject. 
 
 (1) The statement must be clear. " The Eewards of 
 Honesty to Merchants" may be a good subject, but its 
 meaning is not perfectly ckar. Does it mean, the re- 
 wards of those who are honest to merchants, or the rewards 
 of merchants who are honest ? It may mean either, and 
 hence should be differently stated ; as, " The Eewards of 
 Honesty in Merchants." 
 
 {%) Avoid meaningless combinations of words. A cele- 
 brated American writer calls one of his books, " The Past, 
 the Present, and the Future," and no one can guess from 
 the title upon what subject he has written. 
 
 (3) Avoid figurative expressions. No meaning is con- 
 veyed by such titles as "Sesame and Lilies," and 
 " Chips from a German Workshop," which great authors 
 sometimes give to their books. 
 
 (4) Be careful to limit properly the statement of the sub- 
 ject. If one were to write, for example, on the " Eewards 
 
mf^B2^TI02V. 11 
 
 of Virtue," and call his composition "Virtue," he would 
 
 promise much more than he would perform. 
 
 It is difficult to insist on such rules as have been laid down 
 above, when men of genius, like Ruskin, persist in giving their 
 works such fanciful titles that no one can tell what they mean. 
 Thus we have "A Crown of Wild Olives," on work, traffic, and war; 
 "The Queen of the Air," on Greek myths of cloud and storm; 
 "Unto this Last,'' on the elements of political economy. The prac- 
 tice is a vexatious one, and deserves to be discouraged. 
 
 In this section, on " The Choice of a Subject," we 
 have considered : 
 
 (1) The Importance of Choosing a Subject. 
 
 {2) How to Obtain a Subject. 
 
 {3) The Qualities of a Good Subject. 
 
 {Jf) The Relation of the Subject to the Writer. 
 
 {5) The Relation of the Subject to the Occasion. 
 
 (6) Adapting a Subject. 
 
 (7) The Statement of a Subject. 
 
 SECTION 11. 
 
 The AccuMTJLATioisr op Materials. 
 
 1. The Importance of Collecting Materials. 
 
 No one should presume to write or speak without hav- 
 ing something worth saying. It sometimes happens that 
 we can say something really valuable without much 
 efEort, but generally it is necessary to exert ourselves in 
 order to say anything appropriate. He who has an in- 
 teresting fact, an apt illustration, or a satisfactory expla- 
 nation to offer on any subject will command attention. If 
 we say only what readily suggests itself to us, we shall 
 probably r6peat only what jias already been thought of by 
 
12 THE ELEMENTS OF REETOBIO. 
 
 others. Hence, the first thing to do after selecting a sub- 
 ject is to collect facts, illustrations, and proofs with re- 
 gard to it. 
 
 Young writers are especially anxious to be original, and often feel 
 that it is unworthy of them to seek for information outside of their 
 own experience. Let any one ask himself what portion of his know- 
 ledge has originated with himself and what portion has been derived 
 from books and conversation, and his regard for his own attain- 
 ments will very much diminish. But originality in literature doep 
 not consist in an absolute creation of something out of nothing. 
 This is impossible, even in fiction, for the imagination can combine 
 only those elements which observation and instruction have afforded. 
 He is original in the literary sense who forms, a new combination of 
 facts, throws new light upon their relations, or illustrates them in a 
 new and attractive way. He is best able to do this who has the 
 widest range of knowledge. It has been well said, that invention 
 in art does not consist in finding out something new, but in finding 
 a new value in something old. 
 
 2. The Sources of Materials. 
 
 "Where are we to look for these materials ? The sources 
 from which they may be derived are four : 
 
 (1) If our subject permit it, we may obtain materials 
 by actual observation. 
 
 (3) Sometimes we may secure thoughts on the subject 
 by reflection. 
 
 (3) In most cases, if we have access to a library or 
 even to an encyclopedia, we may find sufiBcient informa- 
 tion by reading. 
 
 (4) Occasionally we cannot find just what is wanted in 
 books, but may procure help from some intelligent person 
 by conversation. 
 
 It is cruel to require learners to make bricks without straw. It 
 is not wonderful that school compositions are so often the bane of 
 the writer and barren nf h11 interest to the instructor. Nothing has 
 
INVENTION. 13 
 
 so much tended to lessen respect for rhetorical studies as the false 
 notion that Rhetoric is a mere playing with words. Let the young 
 wi'iter first of all be led to the sources of knowledge and have some- 
 thing to say before he is required to write. "Speak not at all in any 
 wise," says a great modeni writer, Thomas Carlyle, "until you 
 have somewhat to speak; care not so much for the reward of your 
 speaking, but simply and with undivided mind for the truth of your 
 speaking." Fullness of knowledge improves a writer's matter, man- 
 ner, and morals. 
 
 3. How to Use the Sources. 
 
 First of all, use your own senses. See and hear all you 
 can that will help you. Knowledge obtained by one's 
 self is always more clear, fresh, and interesting than if 
 obtained at second hand. Do not go to Homer for a sun- 
 rise, when you can see one every morning. After observ- 
 ing, reflect. Try to remember all you can that you have 
 ever known about the subject. Questions will at once 
 arise which you cannot answer. Go to books for the 
 answers. If the books do not help you, ask some person 
 who may be able to direct you. Never ask help as long 
 as you can help yourself. 
 
 It is a good plan for the teacher never to furnish assistance when 
 it is possible for the learner to accomplish his purpose without 
 aid. It is advisable to suggest authorities, but each one should be 
 required to consult them for himself, and to judge for himself what 
 wiU suit his purpose. The habit of investigation is of very great 
 value to every one who acquires it. In all the professions, such as 
 law, medicine, theology, or teaching, one of the chief occupations is 
 the consulting of authorities. The earlier the habit is acquired the 
 better. 
 
 4. Kules for Keflection. 
 
 A few plain hints about reflection may be of use. 
 (1) Sorround your subject with questions. Let us take 
 the subject "Clouds," to illustrate. You begin by asking, 
 
14 TBE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 What are clouds? How are clouds produced? What 
 are their forms? What are their uses? Why do they 
 bring rain ? Why do clouds bring wind ? How do clouds 
 cause thunder ? 
 
 (3) Try to answer your own questions. This will 
 quicken your thoughts and supply you with much to 
 say, but you will now feel the need of better answers than 
 you can give. This will lead you to consult books. 
 Kichter advises one never to read "until he has thought 
 himself hungry." 
 
 If reading precede reflection, two disadvantages follow. In the 
 first place, we are likely to be so well satisfied with the opinions of 
 others that we accept them without reflection, unless we have 
 formed views of our own. In the second place, we are not so much 
 interested in what we read as if we were previously anxious to eon- 
 firm or rectify our own ideas on the subject. Hence Gibbon com- 
 mends his own habit of reading, which he thus describes : ' ' After a 
 rapid glance on the subject and distribution of a new book, I suspend 
 the reading of it, which I only resume after having examined the 
 subject in all its relations; after having called up in my solitary 
 walks all that 1 have read, or thought, or learned in regard to the 
 subject of the whole book or of some chapter in particular. I thus 
 place myself in a position to estimate what the author may add to 
 my general stock of knowledge, and I am thus sometimes favorablv 
 disposed by the accordance, sometimes armed by the opposition c 
 our views." 
 
 5. Rules for Reading. 
 
 A few brief suggestions on reading may be helpful. 
 
 (1) Reading should be varied. If a single author be 
 followed, there is danger of being a servile copyist, or 
 even a b lagiari sti without your having any such intention. 
 The consultation of several authors leads to comparison 
 and cultivates the judgment. ~f~f 
 
INVENTION. 15 
 
 (2) Reading must be assimilated. If we do not make 
 our own that which we borrow from books, we have 
 no right to use it. We have made the matter of a book 
 our own only when we perfectly understand it, and can 
 express it in our own language. 
 
 (3) Obtain general views first. Encyclopedias, reviews, 
 and indexes will direct you to more specific authorities, 
 after giving you an outline of the subject. 
 
 A great English teacher, Dr. Thomas Arnold of Rugby, once said 
 that, in his opinion, that is the best composition " which shows that 
 the boy has read and thought for himself ; that the next best which 
 shows that he has read several books, and digested what he has 
 read ; and that the worst which shows that he has followed but one 
 book, and that without reflection.'' It is an important question how 
 far one may use the writings of others without breaking a moral 
 law. Literary property differs from other possessions in many ways, 
 but it is' none the less property. Facts are tjommon to all; but, 
 while no one may put a fence around truth and claim it as his own, 
 forms of expression, figures of speech, and combinations of thought, 
 belong to their author, for they are his products. It is always 
 wrong to make a false pretense. If extracts are taken they should 
 be acknowledged as such, and not passed off as your own. If an ab- 
 stract or paraphrase is made, giving an author's views in somewhat 
 different language, that also ought to be made known. Such sum- 
 maries may be of great service to the learner, by providing him with 
 the matter and leaving him free to use all his powers of expression. 
 
 In this section, on "The Accumulation of Mate- 
 rials," we have considered : 
 
 {1) The Importance of Collecting Materials. 
 (B) The Sources of Materials. 
 
 (3) Sow to use the Sources. 
 
 (4) Mules for Reflection. 
 
 (5) JRules for Beading. 
 
16 THE ELEMENTS OF BHETOBIC. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 The Aebangement of Materials. 
 1. Importance of Arrangement. 
 
 A mass of materials, however fine the quality, no more 
 
 constitutes a composition than a pile of bricks and lumber 
 
 constitutes a palace. The builder must select, fit, and join 
 
 together the materials before there is a building. A host 
 
 of men crowded together are not an army. Lines must 
 
 be formed and order instituted before one is ready for a 
 
 battle. A writer requires as much skill in arrangement 
 
 as a general. Words, sentences, and paragraphs are a 
 
 writer^s soldiers, companies, and regiments. 
 
 A great French Writer, Pascal, says, " The disposition of the mate- 
 rials is something new. In playing tennis both use the same ball, 
 but one places it better than the other. It might as well be objected 
 that I use current words ; as if the same thoughts did not form a 
 different body of discourse by a different arrangement, just as the 
 same words differently disposed form different thoughts." 
 
 2. Parts of a Composition. 
 
 The usual parts of a composition are three: 
 
 (1) There should be an introduction. This is not nec- 
 essary, but it is usually required to bring the discussion 
 into connection with the occasion. 
 
 (2) There must be a discussion. By this is meant that 
 we cannot establish any idea in the mind of another 
 without using facts, illustrations, or arguments to assist us. 
 
 (3) There must be a conclusion. When we invite others 
 to accompany us in our thoughts, we ai-e under an 
 
INVENTION. 1? 
 
 obligatiou to conduct them to some new state of mind. 
 Unless some end is to be attained, there is no use of writ- 
 ing or speaking. We should always have some definite 
 state of mind in view, to which everything should tend. 
 
 The ancient rhetoricians regarded an oration as having six essen- 
 tial parts, (1) the Exordium, (2) the Division, (3) the Statement, 
 (4) the Reasoning, (5) the Appeal to the Feelings, and (6) the 
 Peroration. This division is mechanical and arbitrary. The more 
 natural and fully conformed to the subject-matter and the purpose 
 the division is, the better. Sometimes no exordium is needed. 
 Often a formal division is undesirable. A statement is occasionally 
 unnecessary. Reasoning is often needless after a mere recital of 
 facts. An appeal to the feelings is sometimes wholly improper. 
 
 3. The Introduction. 
 
 The introduction should have the following qualities : 
 (1) It should be modest. If you raise great expec- 
 tations at the outset, you will either be compelled to 
 make a great effort to fulfill your promises, or bear the 
 odium of disappointing your readers. 
 
 (3) It should be moderate. Your reader is not likely 
 to feel very deeply until he has given attention to the 
 facts and arguments which may have aroused your mind. 
 Let the feelings develop with the discussion. 
 
 (3) It should be short. The object of an introduction 
 is merely to introduce the main discussion. It should 
 be proportionately brief. The vestibule should not be 
 larger than the house. 
 
 (4) It should be natural. By this is meant that it 
 should grow out of both the subject and the occasion, 
 so as to form a convenient bridge between them. 
 
 (5) It should excite interest. It is not so necessary 
 
18 THE ELEMENTS OF BHETOBIO. 
 
 that the introduction should be striking in itself as that 
 
 it should awaken a desire to follow the writer and learn 
 
 more about the subject. Attention is generally given at 
 
 the beginning, but it is soon lost, if there be no promise 
 
 of reward. 
 
 Although Cicero laid down the mle, that the introduction should 
 be written last, in order that it might spring naturally from the 
 matter under consideration, he did not always obey his own precept. 
 In one of his Letters to Atticus, we learn that he was accustomed to 
 prepare a quantity of introductions, to be used when needed. Hav- 
 ing inadvertently used the same one twice, he was informed by 
 Atticus of his blunder, and, confessing his mistake, sent him a new 
 one. Cicero's rule was better than his practice. 
 
 4. The Discussion. 
 
 The discussion will be improved by keeping in mind 
 two questions : 
 
 (1) What, precisely, do I wish to accomplish 1 If the pur- 
 pose of the composition be steadily held in mind, every fact, 
 argument, and illustration will probably be appropriate 
 to the subject and add strength and interest to the whole. 
 
 (3) How shall I accomplish my object? This question 
 will suggest heads and illustrations, and also help in 
 combining them. Whatever does not contribute to the 
 purpose must at once be rejected. A composition must 
 grow like a tree. A tree is surrounded with materials, 
 but it takes only what it can assimilate. 
 
 Much heroism is required to avoid putting thoughts, words, or 
 figures into our writings when their only claim is their intrinsic 
 beauty. At this point the difference between a cultivated and a 
 barbarous taste is evident in writing. The savage paints his face 
 with the brightest and most incongruous colors, and ornaments his 
 person with all the gorgeous articles in his possession. It is because 
 
INVENTION. 19 
 
 lie loves finery for its own sake. A similar taste is often shown in 
 writing. To put all your fine figures and phrases and illusions into 
 a composition which they serve only to ornament, but not to illus- 
 trate or strengthen, is like collecting all the fine articles in the 
 house for exhibition in a front window. 
 
 5. The Conclusion. 
 
 Some rules may be given as regards the conclusion. 
 
 (1) The conclusion should not be forced. The natural 
 and proper consequences of the discussion may be stated 
 in the conclusion, but care is necessary to avoid claiming 
 more than has been established. 
 
 (2) The conclusion may express more feeling than the 
 introduction. After considering all the facts the reader 
 is better prepared to share your emotions. The conclu- 
 sion is the place, therefore, for an appeal to the feelings. 
 
 (3) A conclusion may consist of a recapitulation of the 
 discussion. This is especially useful if, for any reason, 
 the discussion has been fragmentary or made up of many 
 details. An inverse order is best, if the strongest points 
 have been stated first. The conclusion should, like a 
 burning-glass, gather and concentrate into a focal point 
 all the separate rays of the composition. 
 
 6. The Two Methods of Arrangement. 
 
 There are two methods of arrangement which may be 
 used in combining the materials of a composition. They 
 are as follows : 
 
 (1) The analytic method begins with facts and derives 
 principles from them. It also begins with a complex 
 whole and resolves it into its elements. 
 
20 THE ELEMENTS OF BHETOBIG. 
 
 (2) The synthetic method is the reverse of the analytic. 
 
 It begins with principles and classifies facts under them. 
 
 It begins with elements and combines them into a whole. 
 
 The two methods are fully illustrated below. 
 
 Explanation. — The words Analysis and Synthesis are easily 
 confused. Analysis is from the Greek words ava and liieiv, mean- 
 ing to loosen again, — that is, to disengage. Synthesis is from the 
 Greek aim and ridevai, meaning to put together, — that is, to com- 
 pound. A fact may be regarded as a concrete embodiment of 
 principles. The elucidation of the principles involved is then 
 analysis. Beginning with a material whole, analysis resolves it 
 into its parts. Synthesis is the reverse of analysis. Beginning with 
 principles, it puts together the facts logically ranging themselves 
 under them. The distinction between the analytical and the syn- 
 thetical method may be more fully traced in Hamilton's " Logic," 
 pages 336, 340. 
 
 Examples. — Let us start with the question, What are the bene- 
 fits of railroads? Prom the various sources of information we find 
 the following to be facts: (1) Railroads facilitate purchases. (2) 
 They carry news. (3) They prevent suffering by conveying succor. 
 (4) In travel they save time, which may be used in reading. (5) 
 They make a market for produce. (6) They furnish labor to the 
 poor. (7) They arrest crime. (8) They render wai-s less probable by 
 uniting the interests of men. (9) They make men more charitable 
 by extending their knowledge of one another. If these facts were 
 stated as they are above, they would have considerable force, btit 
 they gain something by a more systematic arrangement. Let us 
 see how great an improvement this is. 
 
 First, let us try the analytic method. By this method we derive 
 principles from facts. Let us see what principles may be derived 
 from the facts given. 
 
 Railroads 
 
 (a) Facilitate purchases. 
 
 (b) Make a market for produce. 
 
 (1) Hence, promote commercial prosperity, 
 (o) Prevent suffering. 
 (S) Furnish labor to the poor. 
 
 (c) Render wars improbable. 
 
 (3) Hence, promote physical prosperity. 
 But since they promote oommereial and physical prosperity, they 
 
INVENTION. 21 
 
 I. Promote material prosperity. They also 
 
 (a) Carry news. 
 
 (b) Save time for reading. 
 
 (1) Hence, promote inielHffejice. 
 
 (a) Arrest crime. 
 
 (fi) Make men more charitable. 
 (3) Hence, promote morals. 
 But since they promote intelligence and morals, they 
 
 II. Promote social prosperity. 
 
 Result : Since they promote material and social prosperity, 
 
 RAILROADS ARE A UNIVERSAL BENEFIT. 
 
 Let US now reverse the arrangement and present the same facts 
 according to the synthetic method. First of all, we must state a 
 Theme : Railroads are a universal benefit, for 
 
 I. They promote material prosperity. 
 
 (1) By promoting commercial prosperity. 
 (a) For they facilitate purchases. 
 
 {b) And make a market for produce. 
 
 (2) By promoting physical prosperity, 
 (a) For they prevent sufEering. 
 
 (6) And furnish labor to the poor. 
 
 (c) And render wars improbable. 
 
 II. And promote social prosperity. 
 
 (1) By Tpromoting intelligence. 
 (a) For they carry news. 
 
 (6) And save time for reading. 
 
 (2) By promoting morals. 
 
 (a) For they arrest crime. 
 
 (b) And. make men more charitable. 
 
 7. Advantages of the Two Methods. 
 
 Bach method has its own advantages. The analytic 
 method is the more interesting, as one sees the truth grow 
 before his eyes. It is the method of investigation, and 
 causes the reader to feel that he is helping to reach the 
 result. The synthetic method is more clear and compen- 
 dious, and is the natural way of conveying what one has 
 fully mastered. 
 
22 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 In this section, on **The Arrangement of Mate- 
 rials," we have considered : 
 
 {!) The Impartance of Arrangement. 
 {2) The Parts of a Composition. 
 ((f) Tlie Introduction. 
 (Jj.) The Discussion. 
 {5) The Conclusion. 
 
 (6) The Two Methods of Arrangement. 
 
 (7) The Advantages of the Two Methods. 
 
CHAPTEE II. 
 
 STYLE. 
 1. Deflnitlou of Style. 
 
 Style is the manner in which thought is expressed. 
 The word is derived from the Latin stylus, meaning the 
 pointed instrument with which the ancients wrote on tab- 
 lets covered with wax. The name of the instrument was 
 soon transferred to the manner of expression, just as we 
 say that one has a charcxamg pen. 
 
 When a writer becomes addicted to a particular mode of express- 
 ing his thoughts, his peculiarities are called Mannerisms; and they 
 often lead to his detection, when he writes anonymously. Such 
 peculiarities ought not to be cultivated. They indicate narrowness 
 of mind or poverty of resources. , The perfection of style is to suit 
 the manner to the matter. A gbod, writer not only says new things, 
 but he says them in g, ni*w way. 
 
 Attempts have been made to classify the different Muds of style, 
 but they have resulted in nothing better than enumeration. Some 
 of the most common varieties may be mentioned, though no 
 pains should be taken to confine one's self to any one. (1) The dry 
 style excludes all ornament. It aims only to express the thoughts 
 accurately, without any appeal to the sense of beauty. Berkeley 
 has been classed as a dry writer. (3) The plain style does not 
 aspire after ornament, but aims to make a clear statement, using 
 such figures as illustrate without embellishing the thoughts. Locke 
 and Whately may be included among plain writers. (3) The neat 
 style employs ornaments, but very sparingly. Its figures are cor- 
 rect; its diction is pure; its sentences are clear and harmonious. 
 
24: THE ELEMENTS OF RREIORIO. 
 
 Gray and Goldsmith are neat writers. (4) The elegant style is more 
 pretentious, using every ornament which can beautify, but avoid- 
 ing every excess which would degrade. Addison has been esteemed 
 an elegant writer, but Maeaulay belongs more justly to this class. 
 (5) The florid style runs to excess and crowds the' expression with 
 superfluous and superficial ornament, combining an excess of ad- 
 jectives with the boldest and most highjy colored imagery. The 
 so-called poems of Ossian are illustrations of this style. (6) The 
 bombastic style is characterized by such an excess of words and or- 
 naments as to become ridiculous. Sergeant Buzf uz' speech, in, " The 
 Pickwick Papers," is a fair example. Other varieties of style are 
 sufficiently marked by the adjectives used to describe therti. They 
 are the colloquial, the laconic, the concise, the diffuse, the abrupt, 
 the flowing, the quaint, the epigrammatic, the flowery, the feeble, 
 the nervous, the vehement, the affected. In fact, style is as vari- 
 ous as character, of which language is the expression. A great 
 French writer, Buffon, well says, " The, style is the man himself." 
 
 2. The Importance of Style. 
 
 The value of an attractive style cannot be overesti- 
 mated. Many of the most celebrated works of literature 
 have been made immortal by the beauty of their style 
 alone. Though thought is the basis of every great com- 
 position, it will be neglected, unless style embalms it and 
 preserves it to coming ages. 
 
 "In proportion as the excellence of the form transcends the 
 value of the matter, does the literary work gain perpetuity. . . . 
 Indeed, in proportion as the very substance of a literary work, the 
 thought it contains, becomes important, is it difiicult for it to claim 
 and hold a place in literature. . . . The very interest of the 
 facts stated stimulates further inquiry, and thus pushes into the 
 background those who first contributed to it. The hard workers, 
 the investigators and compilers in the fields of knowledge, descend 
 by genesis only to those who come after them; their discoveries, 
 their theories, like wind-sown flowei-s, enrich many who are ignorant 
 of their origin. . . . There must be in the literary work, as 
 in the crystal, something which cannot be broken in on without 
 loss, something in itself specific and final." — Bascom. 
 
STYLE. 25 
 
 3. The General Law of Style. 
 
 All the qualities of an excellent style are implied in one 
 
 general law, whicli may be stated as follows : "That form 
 
 of expression is most excellent which yields its contained 
 
 idea with the least expenditure of mental power." 
 
 This law was first suggested by Herbert Spencer in his ingenious 
 essay on "The Philosophy o£ Style." The law is most fully estab- 
 lished and illustrated in the " Science of Rhetoric," where it is used 
 to explain all the ordinary rules of style. 
 
 4. Division of this Chapter. 
 
 The first step in the improvement of style is to choose 
 the right words ; the second, to combine them into correct 
 and effective sentences ; the third, to group the sentences 
 into paragraphs ; the fourth, to enrich the style with 
 appropriate figures; and the fifth, to vary the expression 
 of our thoughts. In this chapter we shall, accordingly, 
 devote a section to each of these topics: 
 
 (1) Diction. 
 
 (B) Sentences. 
 
 (3) Paragraphs. 
 
 (4) Figures. And, 
 
 (<?) The Variation of Expression. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 DiCTIOK. 
 
 1. Definition of Diction. 
 
 Diction treats of the selection and use of words. The 
 word "diction" also means the form of expression which 
 
 2 
 
26 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 a writer adopts, as when we say, "The diction of this writer 
 
 is charming." The word is here used in the first sense. 
 
 Style receives its charaoter, in a great degree, from the words em- 
 ployed ; for these, taken together, form the whole composition. The 
 architect may exhaust his skill in the arrangement of imper- 
 fect bricks, without making a structure like one of polished 
 marble. To be mean in diction, is to impart meanness to the wliole 
 production, while noble words elevate and adorn. Almost every 
 quality that can be mentioned belongs to words. " Words," says 
 Mirabeau, "are things." Emerson says of Montaigne's words, that 
 if you cut them, they would bleed. Coleridge remarks that " you 
 might as well think of pushing a brick out of a wall with your fore- 
 iinger, as attempt to remove a word out of any of the finished pas- 
 sages of Shakespeare." Volumes have been written about the 
 morality, poetry, and wonderful history of words. Whoever reads 
 the excellent books on words by Trench, White, and Matthews will 
 be convinced that the secret of literary power is chiefly the art of 
 putting the right word in the right place. 
 
 2. Means of Acquiring a Vocabulary. 
 
 It is of great importance to have a large vocabulary; for 
 this not only gives variety to style, but also enables a 
 writer to select the right words to express his thought. 
 Some rules for enlarging one's vocabulary may be given. 
 
 (1) Always note a new word. A young person can 
 scarcely read a page, or converse with an intelligent friend 
 for an hour, without meeting with some new word. Some- 
 times the meaning will be evident from the connection, 
 and sometimes not ; but, in every case, it is best to make a 
 note of the word mentally, or, if necessary, on paper. 
 
 (3) Make constant use of a dictionary. It is the prac- 
 tice of many great scholars never to allow a new word to 
 pass without an examination, if there be the least doubt 
 ftbout its origin, pronunciation, meaning, or spelling. 
 
STYLE. 27 
 
 (3) Study Etymology. It is useful to trace out the 
 origin, composition, and primary meaning of words. A 
 knowledge of Latin and Greek, especially of the former, 
 is helpful in this study. It should not be forgotten, how- 
 ever, that -.many words do not now mean what- they once 
 did, or what their derivation would seem to imply. 
 
 (4) Seek Good Society. One who has the advantage 
 of frequent association with intelligent and cultivated per- 
 sons, will acquire a good vocabulary without great effort, 
 by paying attention to their language. Low companion- 
 ship, on the other hand, reveals itself in one's choice and 
 use of words. 
 
 (5) Read the best books carefully. No mere rules 
 can ever tnake a good writer or speaker, unless he sees 
 the rules exemplified in models. Imitation is a principal 
 means of improvement in art. Caution is necessary, how- 
 ever, that the model be a good one, and not followed in a 
 slavish spirit. 
 
 3. The Essentials of Good Diction. 
 
 The words of any composition should be pure, appro- 
 priate, and precise. "We shall, therefore, consider sepa- 
 rately, (1) Purity, (3) Propriety, and (3) Precision. 
 
 The terms Purity, Propriety, and Precision have been long used, 
 and perhaps serve suflficiently well to designate the qualities which 
 diction should possess. They are figurative terms, however, and 
 may suggest erroneous ideas. A more exact method of treatment 
 would require us to consider words with regard to (1) their famil- 
 iarity, (2) their length, (3) their inclusion, and (4) their implication. 
 The general currency of these terms has led to their being retained 
 in this work. 
 
28 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 I. PURITY. 
 
 1. Meaning- of Purity. 
 
 A word is said to be pure when it belongs to the lan- 
 guage as it is at present used by the best writers and 
 speakers. Purity consists in the use of pure words only. 
 The Eoman poet Horace declared that Use is the final 
 test of language. Campbell defines good usage to be 
 
 (1) Reputable, or the practice of intelligent and edu- 
 cated writers ; 
 
 (3) National, as opposed to provincial and foreign ; 
 
 (3) Present, or the usage of the generation in which one 
 lives. 
 
 The following extract from Campbell's famous essay on " Use as 
 the Law of Language,'' will explain the reason of the authority of 
 good us^e: 
 
 " Every tongue whatever is founded in use or custom. Language 
 is purely a species of fashion, in which, by the general but tacit 
 consent of the people of a particular state or country, certain sounds 
 come to be appropriated to certain things, and certain ways of 
 inflecting and combining tliose sounds come to be established, as 
 denoting the relations which subsist among the things signified. 
 
 " It is not the business of grammar, as some critics seem prepos- 
 terously to imagine, to give law to the fashions which regulate our 
 speech. On the contrary, from its conformity to these, and from 
 that alone, grammar derives all its authority and value. For what 
 is the grammar of any language ? It is no other than a collection 
 of general observations methodically digested, and comprising all 
 the modes previously and independently established, by which the 
 significations, derivations, and combinations of words in that lan- 
 guage are ascertained. It is of no consequence here to what causes 
 originally these modes or fashions owe their existence, to imitation, 
 to reflection, to affectation, or to caprice ; they no sooner obtain, 
 and become genera], than they are laws of the language. . . . 
 Every single anomaly, therefore, though departing from the rule 
 assigned to the other words of the same class, and on that account 
 
STYLE. 29 
 
 called an exception, stands on the same basis on which the rules of 
 the language are founded, custom having prescribed for it a separate 
 rule." 
 
 3. Barbarisms. 
 
 A violation of Purity is called a Barbarism. The fol- 
 lowing rules may be given on this subject. 
 
 (1) Avoid obsolete words, or such as were once in good 
 use, but have ceased to be used by the best writers ; as, irk, 
 for weary; loMlom, for former; acception, for acceptance, 
 
 ^ °Some words are apparently in . state of transition not wholly 
 
 disused, yet gradually vanishing from the vocabulary of the most 
 polished writers. Such are betwixt, froward, hearken, amongst, 
 whilst, etc. No effort should be made to retain them, for their 
 disuse implies their uselessness. 
 
 (3) Avoid newly coined words, or such as have not re- 
 ceived the sanction of good writers ; as, enthused, loco- 
 mote, orate. 
 
 There is often the additional reason that newly coined words may 
 be malformations, to deter us from using them. It is true that 
 some of the best words in the language have been recently in- 
 troduced. The words capability, continental, criminality, origi- 
 nate, originality, and sentimental have been in our language only 
 about a century. Pope has well expressed the safe rule with regard 
 to both old and new words, in the following lines of his " Essay on 
 Criticism " : 
 
 " In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold; 
 
 Alike fantastic, if too new or old ; 
 
 Be not the first by whom the new are tried, 
 
 Nor yet the last to lay the old aside." 
 
 (3) Avoid all foreign words, unless they have been 
 naturalized.' This includes both words from the ancient 
 
30 THE ELEMENTS OF BHETdRW. 
 
 and modern languages. Nothing is more indicative of 
 afEectation and pedantry than a free use of Latin or 
 French expressions. The more languages one knows 
 really well, the less will he be inclined to display foreign 
 phrases, and the more strictly will he confine himself to 
 his own language when speaking to those who under- 
 stand no other. 
 
 Certain words that have been borrowed from other languages 
 have become so perfectly Anglicized that they are properly regarded 
 as English words. They will be more fully spoken of below. Their 
 use is not a violation of purity. 
 
 (4) Avoid all provincialisms, or local forms of expres- 
 sion. Almost every part of the country has such local- 
 isms; as, blicky, snits, hyper. 
 
 It is often difficult to ascertain which words are local, as dis- 
 tinguished from national, since we are inclined to regard as good 
 English the words which we have heard spoken all our lives, and 
 hence seldom question them. Dictionaries of Americanisms, Bart- 
 lett's or De Vere's, are useful in tracing out provincialisms peculiar 
 to different parts of the United States. 
 
 Vulgarisms are, for the most part, provincial, and those which 
 are national are proscribed for other than rhetorical reasons. All 
 low or slang words should be avoided as a matter of morals. 
 
 CoUoqaialisms, or expressions which belong to the loose style of 
 familiar conversation, are generally out of place in an elaborate com- 
 position. They tend to creep in, however, even when excluded with 
 ii jealous vigilance. Such words often seem to impart vivacity and 
 freshness to one's style, but they cause it to lose in dignity more 
 than it gains in sprightliness. The tendency is in a wrong direction. 
 
 (5) Avoid all technical terms, or such as belong to 
 special arts or sciences. These are usually known only 
 to those who understand the specialties to which they 
 apply. 
 
8TTLE. 31 
 
 In dramatic literature and in books descriptive of characters, the 
 technical expressions often serve to explain some peculiarity of persons 
 described. In such cases technical terms may be employed. When 
 t hey are addressed to technical persons, they are much more brief 
 and intelligible than the words of ordinary use. 
 
 3. The Naturalization of Words. 
 
 There are many words of foreign origin in our language 
 which have acquired a citizenship by their long residence. 
 Some of them have not changed their form ; as veriatim, 
 terminus, onmiius, fiat, phenomenon, auditorium. Others 
 have changed their original form. This has usually been 
 in one of the following ways : 
 
 (1) By change of spelling; as, honestia, honesty; ami- 
 citia, amity ; chirurgeon, surgeon ; conditio, condition. 
 
 (3) By change of inflection ; as, formula, formulas ; 
 indices; indexes ; dogmata, dogmas. 
 
 (3) By change of accent; as, adventus, advent. 
 
 (4) By change of meaning; as, character, lunatic, 
 sycophant, etc. These words at first retain the signifi- 
 cation of the original from which they are derived, but 
 they gradually lose their first sense, and their secondary 
 meaning becomes the principal one. 
 
 The English language is the most composite of civilized tongues. It 
 
 has borrowed from every quarter of the globe, and possesses a 
 power of assimilation that is unparalleled. This composite char- 
 acter of our language renders it allowable to use words of foreign 
 origin more freely than if it were more organic and self-evolved, 
 like the German. 
 
 4. The Formation of Words. 
 
 Sometimes it is necessary to form a new word, to desig- 
 
32 TEE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 nate a new object or process. Some rules on this point 
 will prove useful. 
 
 (1) The new word should be necessary. No new word 
 should be coined unless there is an imperative need for it. 
 A language is not greatly improved by having many words 
 for the same thing. We do not need donate while we 
 have give, or orate while we have speah. 
 
 (2) It should be readily intelligible. This follows from- 
 the fact that only familiar words convey an exact mea.ning. 
 A word is valueless unless it conveys some thought. 
 
 (3) It should follow the analogy of the language. When 
 two elements, derived from different languages, as the 
 French cable, and the Greek gram, are united, their result 
 is called a liyirid. 
 
 The so-called law of verbal foimation is that component parts 
 of a compound word should be of the same origin. Thus the Latin 
 termination -ity and the Saxon -nesa are affixes meaning a " state of 
 being.'' Accordingly, from the Latin stem felie, by adding the ending 
 -ity, we have felicity. In like manner, by adding the ending -neas to 
 the Saxon happy, we have happineaa. In these cases it would not be 
 possible to use the endings interchangeably. This rule is not uni- 
 versal, however, since Latin stems take Saxon endings, and Saxon 
 stems Latin endings, while some words take both, as purity, pure- 
 nesa; brevity, iriefneaa. In, is generally used with Latin stems; ttn. 
 with Saxon ; yet we have Mwconscious rather than mconscious. 
 
 The following words are not formed correctly : 
 
 Resurrect is used as meaning to raiae again; as, "He reaiirrerted 
 an old theory." As it comes from re. again, and aurgo, I rise, it 
 would mean, if anything, to riae again. 
 
 Standpoint is used in the sense of the point where one stands. 
 We have such words as atumbling bloch, block of stumbling; death- 
 bed, bed of death; dancing-girl, girl for dancing; bread-knife, knife 
 for bread; but we cannot say point for stand, or point of stand, or 
 even point to stand. Hence it is thought that standing-point, point 
 for standing, or point of view, is a preferable expression. 
 
 Experimentalize is an awkward and unnecessary formation. Ex- 
 
8TTLM 33 
 
 periment U a verb as well as a noun, and the ending -ize should not 
 be added. Jeopardize also is a malformation. The ending -ize may 
 he properly added to nouns and adjectives ; as, equalize, naturalize, 
 moralize, civilize. 
 
 Siagist, like walkist, talMst, s7iootist, etc., has been formed by the 
 addition of the Greek ending -ist — denoting the agent, or performer, 
 of an action — to a Saxon stem. The proper Saxon ending is -er; as, 
 singer, walker, talker, shooter. The ending -ist should be added to 
 Greek words ; as, telegraphist, photographist, philologist, rather than 
 telegrapher, photographer, philologer. On the other hand, however, 
 we have geographer and biographer, which have become established 
 in the language. ' 
 
 Proven, though very common, is a Scotticism for proved, and should 
 not be used. 
 
 Preventative is a malformation for preventive. 
 
 Plead, as a past tense, is frequently used for pleaded, following 
 the analogy of read. 
 
 Speciality for specialty, leniency for lenity, firstly for first, enthuse 
 for inspire, monarchial for monarchical, oasuality for casualty, are 
 all violations of the best usage in the formation of words. 
 
 II. PROPRIETY. 
 
 1. Meaning of Propriety. 
 
 Propriety consists in using words in their proper sense. 
 Here, as in the case of purity, good use is the principal 
 test of diction. It matters little what the primary ele- 
 ments of a word signify, or what the meaning of a word 
 has been. We must either use the words as others under- 
 stand them, or violate propriety. 
 
 Language is somewhat capricious in its cnanges. The word clerk, 
 for example, in the Middle Ages meant a clergyman; by Chaucer 
 it is used to designate a student at a university ; in later times, it 
 was applied to a keeper of accounts ; at present, it means a person 
 who is employed as a salesman. Prevent means, etymological ly. to 
 go before ; as in the passage, " I prevented the dawning of the morn- 
 ing." — Psalm 119: 147. Now it means to ^hinder. The word let 
 once meant to hinder ; but now it is used as equivalent to al- 
 
34 THE JjJLEMEHrrs OF BMBTORIG. 
 
 low, tlie opposite of its ancient meaning. Edify primarily signified 
 to build up, as a house is built; but now it is applied only to men- 
 tal improvement. Painful was once applied to that which required 
 the expenditure of pains, or effort, as a "painful sermon.'' Now^ It 
 refers to that which causes a sensation of pain, as a "painful 
 wound." 
 
 2. Rules for Propriety. 
 
 Although a writer must use his own judgment in each 
 particular case, and consult specific a,uthorities, — such as 
 dictionaries and examples by the best authors, — a few rules 
 may be of service in choosing appropriate words. 
 
 (1) Avoid confounding words from the same radical 
 Such words are called paronymous or conjugate words. 
 They do not always mean the same thing. Thus observa- 
 tion signifies the act or habit of noticing ; as, "A. man 
 of observation." Observance, the celebration of anything ; 
 as, "The observance of the Sabbath." We should not 
 say, "observation of the Sabbath." We must say, the 
 man observes [notices] an action, or observes [celebrates] 
 the Sabbath. 
 
 The following words should be carefully distinguished: 
 
 Construe and Construct are quite frequently confounded. A boy 
 constructs a sentence when he makes it. He construe it when he 
 explains its grammatical structure. 
 
 Conscience and Consciousness both imply a knowing together, but 
 the first is restricted to the moral sense which distinguishes between 
 right and wrong actions ; the second is used to signify the knowledge 
 of self-existence and of mental action in general. 
 
 Falseness, Falsity, and Jalsehood are all formed from the word 
 false, but differ as follows; falseness is applied to persons only, and 
 implies a deceptive character; falsity is the abstract quality of 
 untruthfulness; n. falsehood is an untrue assertion. 
 
 Contemptible and Contemptuous differ in this : contemptible means 
 that which deserves contempt, as a contemptible act; contemptu- 
 ous means filled with contempt, as a contemptuous reply. 
 
STYLE. 35 
 
 Neglect and Negligence mean respectively an act and a habit of 
 carelessness; as, " I missed the train by my neglect to notice the time 
 of day." " The house is dilapidated through negligence.'' 
 
 Predict and Predicate mean respectively /oreieW and assert. The 
 word "predicate" is also used erroneously in the sense of found or 
 base; as, "He predicated his action on a misconception of my 
 meaning." 
 
 Respectfully and Respectively are occasionally confounded. Let- 
 ters are sometimes closed with the expression, "Yours respeetmely.'' 
 
 (3) Use words in their accepted sense. This requires 
 that we attach to every word only such a meaning as 
 will be generally understood to belong to it. Thus, the 
 proper meaning of transpire is to breath through, and 
 so to become known. It is sometimes erroneously used to 
 signify the same as occur. It is correct to say, "The ver- 
 dict of the jury has not yet transpired. " It is incorrect 
 to say, "The parade will transpire." 
 
 The following are given as examples of words commonly misused 
 
 by careless writers. 
 
 Couple is often used for two ; as, ' ' He gave me a couple of 
 peaches." The word means two things joined together or paired. 
 
 Aggravate is sometimes used for irritate; as, "His manner is 
 extremely aggra/oating." The proper sense of the word is to add 
 weight to ; as, "You only aggramate the wrong by your conduct." 
 
 Character is used as equivalent to reputation. What a man is, 
 makes his character; what he is thought to be, determines his 
 reputation. 
 
 Demean is used in the sense of debase; as, "He demeaned him- 
 self by his action." It is properly equivalent to deport or behave, 
 and is not connected with the word mean. 
 
 Allow does not mean to assert; as, "He allowed that I was 
 wrong." 
 
 Calculate does not express the same meaning as intended, or fit ; 
 as in this sentence, "Sensational newspapers are calculated to in- 
 jure the morals of the young." The word means to compute, to 
 reckon, as by figures. 
 
36 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Mutual means reciprocal, not common. Hence two persons may 
 oe mutual friends, bat k cannot be a mutual friend to B and C. 
 
 Emblem is sometimes used as equivalent to sentiment or meaning. 
 The emblem of purity is ttie lily, but it is absurd to say, '*The 
 emblem of the lily is purity.'' 
 
 Except is often used for unless ; as, " He would not go accept 
 I would." Without is used wrongly in the same way. Except and 
 toithout are prepositions and require an objective case. Unless is a 
 conjunction. 
 
 As is often used for like, and like for as. As should be used 
 when a verb is expressed ; as, " He sings as I do." Like should be 
 used when a verb is not expressed or understood after it; as, "He 
 works like a man." 
 
 Beside is frequently misused for besides. The first is a preposi- 
 tion, the second an adverb. *'Two besides us sat beside the table." 
 
 Can expresses power or possibility ; may, permission or probability. 
 
 Such signifies like tJds, or like these ; so implies degree. 
 
 Into should be used after verbs of motion ; in, with words express- 
 ing rest. 
 
 Care is necessary, in the use of prepositions with verbs, nouns, and 
 adjectives, to select those which usage has sanctioned. The fol- 
 lowing list from Angus will be of use for reference: 
 
 Accord with (neuter) to (active). 
 
 Accuse of crime, by one's friend. 
 
 Acquit persons of. 
 
 Affinity to or between. 
 
 Adapted to a thing, or /or a purpose. 
 
 Agreeable to; agree wUh persons, and 
 to things. 
 
 Attend to (listen) upon (wait). 
 
 Averse to when describing feeling, 
 from when describing an act or 
 state. 
 
 Bestow upon. 
 
 Boi:at of. 
 
 Call on. 
 
 Change /or. 
 
 Confer on (give) with (converse). 
 
 Confide in,' wlien intransitive ; when 
 transitive, confide to. 
 
 Conformable to; so the verb and ad- 
 verb. Addison sometimes uses 
 with. 
 
 Compliance vdth. 
 
 Consonant to, sometimes with. 
 
 Convenient to or for. 
 
 Conversant with persons; irt affairs; 
 
 about subjects. 
 Correspond with (by letter) to (similar 
 
 things). 
 Dependent on, upon. 
 Derogatory to a person or thing ; we 
 
 derogate from, authority. 
 Die of (a disease) , or by (an accident). 
 Differ /rom, difference with a person, or 
 
 between things. 
 Difficulty in. 
 Diminution qf. 
 Disappointed qf what we do not get; 
 
 and in it when we get it and it fails 
 
 to answer our expectations. 
 Disapprove qf. 
 Discouragement to. 
 BisBGwt from. 
 Eager in. 
 Exception is taken to statements ; 
 
 sometimes against — the verb has 
 
 sometimes yT*om. 
 Expert at or in. 
 Fall under. 
 
STTLB. 
 
 37 
 
 Freedom. 
 
 Glad of Bomething gained, and of or at 
 
 what befalls another. 
 Independent of. 
 Insist upon. 
 Made of, for. 
 Marry to. 
 
 Martyr/or a cause, to a disease. 
 Need of. 
 Notice of. 
 Observance of. 
 Prejudicial to. 
 Prejudice against. 
 Profit hy. 
 
 Provide /or, with, against. 
 Recrennt to, frojn. 
 
 Reconcile to. 
 
 Replete tvith. 
 
 Resemblance to. 
 
 Resolve on. 
 
 Reduce to a state, and under subjection. 
 
 Regard for oi' to. 
 
 Smile at, upon. 
 
 Swerve /rom. 
 
 Taste of what is actually enjoyed, /or 
 what we have the capacity of en- 
 joying. 
 
 Think of or on. 
 
 Thirst/or, after. 
 
 True to (faithful) of (predicable). 
 
 Wait on (serve) at (a pIace)/or (await). 
 
 Worthy of. 
 
 Many expressions have become s tereotyped , so that a change would 
 violate propriety. Bain mentions the following : 
 
 Use or einploy means. 
 Take steps. 
 Acquire knowledge. 
 Take degrees. 
 Contract habits. 
 Lay up treasure. 
 Obtain rewards. 
 
 Win prizes. 
 Gain celebrity. 
 Arrive at honors. 
 Conduct affairs. 
 Espouse a side. 
 Interpose autliority. 
 Pursue a course. 
 
 Turn to account. 
 Serve for a warning. 
 Bear malice. 
 Profess principles. 
 Cultivate acquaintance. 
 Pass over in silence. 
 
 III. PRECISION. 
 
 1. Meaning of Precision. 
 
 Precision (from the Latin prmcidere, to cut off) re- 
 quires that we use such words as cut off all that we do not 
 mean to express. If, for example, we wish to say, "He 
 has sufficient money," but say instead, ''He has enough 
 money," we express more than we intend. Sufficient 
 means what one actually needs ; enough, what one desires. 
 The miser has sufficient, but he never has enough. The 
 precise writer chooses words which express what he means 
 without any addition or diminution. 
 
 Words which mean nearly the same are called Synonyms. 
 Strictly speaking, there are no words in our language which have 
 
38 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 precisely the same meaning. There is in every instance some slight 
 shade of di.-.tinction which gives a, word its own peculiar right to 
 exist. It may be nothing more than a mental association, wholly 
 indefinable aiul inexplicable, but the quick sense of a cultivated 
 reader at once detects some diflference from all other words. Great 
 writers and speakers have usually been masters of synonyms. Rob- 
 ert Hall was peculiarly fastidious in his choice of words. John 
 Poster wrote his essay on ' ' Decision of Character " with a painful 
 slowness. " He would spend whole days on a few short sentences, 
 passing each word under his concentrated scrutiny, so that each, 
 challenged and examined, took its place in the structure like an 
 inspected soldier in the ranks." Fox once said of William Pitt. 
 " Though I am myself never at a loss for a word, Pitt not only has 
 a word but the word to express his meaning." Thomas Moore's easy- 
 flowing verse was not the spontaneous gushing of a ceaseless fountain, 
 as it seems to the reader. Irving says that when riding with the 
 poet in Paris, the coach went into a rut, sending the inmates against 
 the roof with a bump. " By Jo ve, /'«« ^ci< jY .'" said Moore. "Got 
 what?" said Irving. " Why," was the reply, "that word I 've been 
 hunting for six weeks to complete my last song! " 
 
 The works on synonyms by Crabbe, Graham, and Whately are 
 serviceable if carefully used. Roget's "Thesaunis" is a help in 
 suggesting the right word. The best work on the subject is Smith's 
 " Synonyms Discriminated." 
 
 2. Rules for Precision, 
 
 The rules for Precision, like those for Propriety, are 
 necessarily of a very general character. The following 
 will serve to point out how to guard against a violation of 
 Precision. 
 
 (1) DiBtingmsh between generic and specific words. A 
 generic word applies to a whole class ; a specific word, to 
 a part of the class only. Thus, praise is the general word 
 for approbation, may be sincere or insincere, and is 
 bestowed by any one on any other. Commendaiion is 
 a specific word for approbation which is sincere, and is 
 the encouragement given by a superior. 
 
8TTLB. 
 
 39 
 
 Not only precision but also vividness of style is secured by the use 
 of specific rather than generic words. The more general a term is, 
 the more difficult it is to form an image of it. It is easy to picture 
 to the mind a specific and concrete object, such as a particular tree, 
 mountain, or house, that we have seen. It is possible to express 
 a thought specifically or generally, as the writer chooses. Com- 
 pare the following forms of expression: "In proportion as the 
 manners, customs, and amusements of a nation are cruel and barba- 
 rous, the regulation of their penal codes will be severe." "According 
 as men delight in battles, bull-fights, and combats of gladiators, so 
 will they punish by hanging, burning, and crucifying." The former 
 is general; the latter, specific. The former is more dignified ; the 
 latter, more vivid. 
 
 The most specific words in English are those of Anglo-Saxon origin, 
 while the general words have been borrowed from the Latin. 
 Compare the words in the following list : 
 
 Akolo-Saxoh. 
 
 Creeping 
 Walking 
 Kiding 
 Kunning 
 
 Theft 
 Robbery 
 Killing 
 Lying 
 
 Latik. 
 
 ^ =Motion. 
 
 = Crime. 
 
 ANaLO-SAXON. 
 
 Black 
 
 Blue 
 
 Eed 
 
 Green 
 
 Brown 
 
 Hissing 
 
 Grunting 
 
 Groaning 
 
 Speaking 
 
 Singing 
 
 = Color. 
 
 = Sound. 
 
 (2) DistingTiish between the different degrees of inten- 
 sity expressed by words. Teinpiraiics ii often used in the 
 sense of abstinence. The former implies a reasonable re- 
 straint upon indulgence ; the latter, a total disuse. They 
 mean the same only when the least indulgence is hurtful. 
 
 The following distinctions are worthy of notice: 
 
 Bepentance and Penitence differ in both intensity and duration. 
 We repent even of trivial m itters; we are penitent only for our 
 sins. We repent of an act but once; we are penitent for it long 
 after. 
 
 Avow, Acknowledge, and Confess express the following shades 
 
40 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 of meaning : to a/oow is to assert with some satisfaction in the state- 
 ment ; to acknowledge is to admit as true that which is disagreeable 
 to own; to confess is to admit a fault or crime. " A legislator avows 
 his opposition to some measure of the executive, and is applauded : 
 a gentleman acknowledges his mistake, and is forgiven; a prisoner 
 confesses the crime with which he is charged, and is punished." 
 
 Design, Purpose, and Intention differ as follows: a design em- 
 braces many objects, and its attainability depends on the nature of 
 the case; a purpose has one object, is definite, and its steadiness 
 depends on the temper of the mind ; an intention is vague, and may 
 be delayed. The man of purpose pushes on his plans; the man of 
 intention may consider them long before his intention becomes n 
 purpose. 
 
 Hasten and Hurry both imply a quick movement, but hurry always 
 adds the idea of excitement, perturbation, or irregularity, while 
 hasten conveys only the notion of rapid movement. 
 
 Abundance and Plenty. The former means an overflowing supply, 
 as its derivation from the Latin dbundo, to overflow, suggest.-. 
 Plenty means a sufficient supply, such as makes full without over- 
 flowing. 
 
 Industrious, laborious, and Diligent. The industrious man works 
 busily; the laborious man works with close application; the diligent 
 man works from choice. One may be industrious without being 
 laborious or diligent, diligent without being laborious. 
 
 Pride and Vanity. The proud man esteems himself; the vain man 
 desires the esteem of others. Dean Swift declares that a man may 
 be too proud to be vain. 
 
 (3) Distinguish between words which have respectively 
 an active or passive meaning. Thus, ability is active, 
 and means power to do ; capacity is passive, and means 
 power to receive. 
 
 Force and Strength. Force is power exerted, or active. Strength 
 is internal, dependent on organization, and measured by its power 
 of resistance. Strength, however, may be a cause of force, as when 
 a man of strength exerts himself in showing /orc«. 
 
 PorgetfiUness and Oblivion differ in this; the former refers to the 
 person who forgets; the other, to the state of the thing which i^ 
 forgotten. We blame a man tov forgetfulness, but do not speak of 
 
8TTLE. 41 
 
 him as guilty of oblivion. Forgotten actions pass into oblMon, but 
 not into forgetfulness. 
 
 Truth and Veracity. Truth belongs to propositions; veracity, to 
 persons. The trutJi of a statement is admitted when the veracity of 
 its author is unquestioned. We should not speak of the truth of a 
 historian, or the veracity of history ; but the truth of history and the 
 veracity of the historian. 
 
 (4) Distinguish between words which are negative and 
 those which are privative. A word is neffative when it 
 denies the existence of a quality ; privative when it 
 simply implies its absence. Thus, belief, disbelief, and 
 unbelief are respectively positive, negative, and privative. 
 Belief implies acceptance of a statement ; disbelief, an 
 absolute denial of its truth ; unbelief, the mere absence 
 of belief without denial. 
 
 Distrust and Suspicion. When one distrusts another, he imputes 
 no good to him; when he suspects another, he imputes positive evil 
 to him. Distrust is a want of faith in any one ; suspicion is a belief 
 that one is not trustworthy. 
 
 Disadvantage and Injury. A disachoantage is the absence of a good ; 
 an inju/ry is a positive evil. 
 
 Hopeless and Desperate. A man is hopeless when he is without 
 present hope ; he is desperate when he is not only hopeless but also 
 surrounded with evils which shut off all hope in the future. 
 
 (5) Avoid the use of equivocal words. An equivocal 
 word is one which has more than one possible meaning in 
 the place where it is used. Thus, " or " is used equivo- 
 cally in this sentence : " The Greeks worshipped Zeus, or 
 Jupiter." To those who are not aware that Zeus and Jupi- 
 ter are two names for one divinity, this might seem to 
 mean that the Greeks worshipped either Zeus or Jupiter. 
 
 There are few words in our language which have only one mean- 
 ing. Some have nearly a score of different senses. The mean- 
 
42 THE ELEMENTS OF BHETOBIO. 
 
 ing intended by the writer must be inferred from the connection. 
 There is usually no difficulty in this when the word is used in the 
 same sense throughout a sentence and in sentences near one another. 
 Obscurity arises, however, if the same word has two different mean- 
 ings in the same sentence. 
 
 In this section, on " Diction," we have considered : 
 
 (i) The Definition of Diction. 
 
 {2) The Means of Acquiring a. Vocabulary. 
 
 {3) The Essentials of Good Diction. 
 
 I. PURITY. 
 
 (i) The Meaning of Purity. 
 {2) Barbarisms. 
 
 {3) The Jfaturalization of Words. 
 (J-) The Formation of Words. 
 
 II. PROPRIETY. 
 
 {!) The Meaning of Propriety. 
 {2) Rules for Propriety. 
 
 III. PRECISIOSr. 
 
 {!) The Meaning of Precision. 
 (2) Mules for Precision. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 Sentences. 
 
 1. Definitions. 
 
 The following definitions should be fixed in the mind: 
 (1) A Sentence is an assemblage of words so combined 
 l^as to express a thought. 
 
 A thought contains three elements: (1) the object about which 
 we think; (3) the class or quality with which we compare the ob- 
 ject; and (8) the assertion, either affirmative or negative, of a real 
 
STYLE. 43 
 
 or possible relation between these two elements. For example, I 
 see an object lying on my table. I notice that there are certain 
 qualities. Thus far there is no thought. If, now, I mentally decide 
 that one of these qualities belongs to the object, I have a th-night. 
 The primary object may be some state of the mind as well as an 
 external thing. 
 
 The expression of the thought is a sentence. I name the object 
 ink and the quality blckck. If I put these together, thus, "Ink 
 black," I have no sentence; just as when I merely noticed the object 
 and the quality, I had no thought. If I assert a relation between 
 ink and the color Uack by using the word is, 1 have the sentence, 
 "Ink is black." If I have in mind the color green, and assert that 
 there is the relation of disagreement between the object and the 
 quality, "Ink is not green," this also is a sentence. 
 
 These three elements of a thought and of a sentence correspond 
 as follows : 
 
 (1) The thing thought about = the Subject; 
 
 (3) The quality or class compared with it = the Predicate ; 
 (3) The connection between them = the Copula. 
 This is the logical analysis of a sentence. The common gram- 
 matical analysis divides the sentence into (1) the Subject, or thing 
 ■ spoken about; and (3) the Predicate, or what is said of the subject. 
 
 (2) A Simple Sentence expresses a single thought. It 
 consists of one subject and one predicate connected by 
 a copula ; as, " Man is mortal." 
 
 (3) A Compound Sentence consists of two or more 
 simple sentences of equal importance, whose parts are 
 either expressed or understood ; as, " The earth is full of 
 beauty and the sky is full of grandeur." Or, "The sky 
 and the earth are full of beauty and grandeur." Or, 
 " The sky and the earth are full of beauty." Or, " The 
 sky is full of beauty and grandeur." 
 
 (4) A Complex Sentence consists of two or more sim- 
 ple sentences so combined that one depends upon another 
 to complete its meaning; as, "When spring comes, the 
 flowers will bloom." Here the words "when spring 
 
44 THE ELEMENTS OF BHETORIC. 
 
 comes," are dependent on the rest of the sentence for the 
 completion of their meaning. 
 
 (5) A Clause is a separate part of a complex sentence, 
 as the words "when spring comes," in the last example. 
 
 (6) A Phrase consists of two or more words not includ- 
 ing a finite verb, and does not express a thought; as, 
 "By constant effort ; to speak truly ; desirous of." 
 
 (7) An Expression is here used, for convenience, as 
 equivalent to a word, a phrase, or a clause. 
 
 2. Division of the Subject. 
 
 Having considered the choice and use of words, we 
 should now study the best modes of combining them. 
 
 There are several degrees of excellence in the structure 
 of sentences, as indicated by the following qualities : 
 
 (1) A sentence should conform to the principles of 
 grammatical Concord. 
 
 (3) It should be so arranged as to have perfect Clear- 
 ness. 
 
 (3) It should be so framed as to have Unity. 
 
 (4) It should possess Energy. And, 
 
 (5) When possible, it should have a pleasing effect upon 
 the ear by its Harmony. 
 
 We shall treat of each of these qualities in order. 
 
 Concord belongs to Grammar rather than to Bhetorio, but the in- 
 sufficient knowledge of grainraatical principles often bi-ought to 
 the study of Rhetoric, is a practical reason for offering a few hints 
 on the subject here. A brief review of some of the most important 
 rules of Syntax in connecti- ".i with their application in writing, will 
 not be irksome to good grammarians, while it will prove of incal- 
 culable advantage to those who have not mastered these rules. 
 
STYLE. 
 
 45 
 
 I. CONCORD. 
 
 1. Rules for Simple Sentences. 
 
 The following rules are framed to guard against some 
 of the most common violations of concord: 
 
 (1) Attend to the agreement of the verb and its sub- 
 ject The agreement of a verb and its subject is often 
 destroyed by confusing (1) collective and common nouns ; 
 (2) foreign and English nouns ; (3) compound and sim- 
 ple subjects ; (4) real and apparent subjects. The fol- 
 lowing illustrations explain these distinctions : 
 
 (1) A Collective TSoxm denotes a, nnmber of individnals taken to- 
 gether m a class; as, army, regiment. "When the individuals are 
 made especially prominent, a plural verb is used; as, "The class 
 are all noted for study." When the idea of the class as a unit is 
 most prominent, without reference to the individuals, a singular 
 verb should be used; as, " The army was defeated." 
 
 (2) Many nouns of foreign origin retain their foreign plnral. In this 
 case the plural verb should be used with the foreign plural, even 
 v?hen the form seems to require a, singular verb; as, "The 
 criteria of usefulness are these " ; not, "is these." 
 
 The following partial list of words with foreign plurals Is worthy 
 of careful attention : 
 
 Addendum, addenda. 
 Alumna, alumnse. (Fem.) 
 Alumnus, alumni. (Masc.) 
 Apex, apices. 
 Appendix, appendices.* 
 Aquarium, aquaria. 
 Axis, axes. 
 Basi», bases. 
 Calculus, calculi. 
 Calyx, calyces.* 
 Centum vir, centumviri. 
 
 Cloaca, cloacae. 
 Crisis, crises. 
 Cumulus, cumuli. 
 Curriculum, curricula. 
 Datum, data. 
 Decemvir, decemviri. 
 Desideratum, desiderata. 
 Dictum, dicta. 
 EtHuvium, effluvia. 
 Emporium, eraporia. 
 Erratum, errata. 
 
 Words marlced * have a regular plural in s also. 
 
46 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF BHETOBIG. 
 
 Latin.— ContinuecL 
 
 FocuB, focL 
 Foramen, foramina. 
 Formula, formulsB.* 
 Fulcrum, fulcra.* 
 Fungus, fungL* 
 Genus, genera. 
 Gymnasium, gymnasia.* 
 Herbarium, herbaria.* 
 Hippopotamus, liippopotamL* 
 Ignis fatuus, ignes fatui. 
 Lamina, laminfe. 
 Larva, lai-v£e. 
 Magus, magi. 
 Maximum, maxima. 
 Memorandum, memoranda. 
 Minimum, minima. 
 Momentum, Momenta. 
 Nebula, nebulse. 
 Kucleus, nuclei 
 
 Oasis, oases. 
 Ovum, ova. 
 Papilla, papillff*. 
 Polypus, polypi. 
 Radius, radii.* 
 Rhombus, rhombL* 
 Rostrum, rostra.* 
 Sarcophagus, sarcophagi. 
 Scholium, scholia.* 
 Seusorium, sensoria.* 
 Spectrum, spectra.* 
 Speculum, specula. 
 Stadium, stadia. 
 Stamen, stamina.* 
 Stimulus, stimulL 
 Stratum, strata. 
 Terminus, termini. 
 Vertebra, vertebrae. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Analysis, analyses. 
 Antithesis, antitheses. 
 Aphelion, Aphelia. 
 Automaton, automata. 
 Cantharis, cantharides. 
 Chrysalis, chrysalides. 
 Criterion, criteria.* 
 DiseresJs, dieereses. 
 Helix, helices. 
 
 Hypothesis, hypotheses. 
 Metamorphosis, metamorpho 
 Parenthesis, parentheses. 
 Phasis, Phases. 
 Phenomenon, phenomena. 
 Stoma, stomata. 
 Synthesis, syntheses. 
 Thesis, theses. 
 
 French. 
 
 Aid-de-camp, aids-de-camp. 
 Beau, beaux. 
 Billet-doux, billets-doux. 
 Flambeau, flambeaux. 
 Gen-d'arme, gen-d'armes. 
 Jet d'eau, jets d'eau. 
 Madame, mesdames. 
 
 Monsieur,' messieurs. 
 Morceau, morceaux. 
 Plateau, plateaux. 
 Rouleau, rouleaux. 
 Savant) savans. 
 Tableau, tableaux. 
 
 Italian. 
 
 Banditto, banditti. 
 Cicerone, ciceroni. 
 Conversazione, conversazioni. 
 Improvisatore, improvisator!. 
 Libretto, libretti. 
 
 Scudo, scudi. 
 Soprana, sopraue. 
 Soprano, soprani. 
 Virtuoso, ^irtuosl. 
 
STYLE. 
 
 47 
 
 The following have two plurals with different sigmfications, which 
 may be found in a dictionary : 
 
 Brother, brethren, brothers. 
 Die, dice, dies. 
 i( iiius, genii, geniuses. 
 Index, indices, indexes. 
 Medium, media, mediums. 
 
 Pea, peas, pease. 
 Penny, pennies, pence. 
 Phalanx, phalanges, phalanxes. 
 Stamen, stamens, stamina. 
 Vortex, vortices, vortexes. 
 
 (3) When a sentence with one verb has two or more subjects, these 
 taken together are called the Compound Subject, as in this sentence: 
 "The rose and the lUy are beautiful flowers.'' When the words 
 denote different things, and are connected by aThd, as in the ex- 
 ample, the verb should be plural. "When the words denote the 
 same thing, or are connected by or, the verb should be singular ; as, 
 "The Secretary and Treasurer is a trustworthy man." "The lily 
 or the rose is a beautiful object." But, "The Secretary and the 
 Treasurer [two different persons, as shown by the repetition of the 
 article 'the'] a/re trustworthy men." 
 
 (4) When the same verb has more than one subject of different per- 
 sons or numbers, it agrees with the most prominent in thought; as, 
 "He, and not you, is wrong.'' Here the real subject is "he," 
 "you" being the subject of a verb understood in the elliptical 
 sentence thrown between the real subject and its verb. When 
 there is no special prominence, the verb agrees with its nea/rest sub- 
 ject; as, "Whether he or I a/m prepared." 
 
 (2) Distiu^ish between the past tense and past parti- 
 ciple of strong verbs. No mistake is more common than 
 the confusion of these parts of the verb, so frequently 
 the same, and yet in many instances different. Thus, 
 we often hear, "He would have ivent," for "He would 
 have gone." "He had brohe," for "He had IroTcen." 
 
 Very close attention should be given to the so-called strong or 
 irregular verbs of our language. Lists are printed in most gram- 
 mars, ..nd the principal parts are given under the form for the pres- 
 ent tense in the dictionaries. It would be well for the teacher to 
 require the principal parts of the most irregular of these verbs, as 
 an exercise. 
 
48 TEE ELEMENTS OP BHETOBIC. 
 
 (3) Distinguish between transitive and intransitive verbs. 
 
 The verbs lie and lay, sit and set, rise and raise are 
 often confounded. We lie down, sit on a chair, and rise 
 from our seat. We lay down the book, set a chair 
 uside, and raise the window. 
 
 An intransitive verb takes no abject, as in the examples above. A 
 transitive verb takes an object. The three verbs mentioned above 
 are so frequently misused, that their principal parts should be com- 
 mitted to memory. They are: 
 
 f iNTKAlfSmVE. 
 
 f/^i^, lay, lain. 
 ' Rise, rose, riBen, 
 Sity Bat, sat. 
 
 Tbausitivb. 
 
 Lay, laid, laid. 
 Raise, raised, raised. 
 Set, set, set. 
 
 / 
 
 (4) Distinguish between the use of Shall and WiU. Shall 
 is used, in direct statement, with the first person, to ex- 
 press a simple future action; as, "I shall go to town"; 
 with the second and third persons, to express a determi- 
 nation ; as, "You shall go to town." "He shall go to 
 town." Will is used, in direct statement, with the first 
 person, to express determination ; as, " I iriU go to town '"; 
 with the second and third, to express simple future action ; 
 as, "You u'ill go to town." "He will go to town." 
 Should and would are used in a similar manner. 
 
 This distinction is commonly disregarded in the Southern and 
 Western States, but is insisted upon by all who aim to use the best 
 English. The consequences of confounding the two words are 
 amusingly illusti-ated by the story of the Frenchman, who, having 
 fallen into the water, cried out in ten-or, " I mK drown, and nobodv 
 s/iaM help me.'' 
 
 The origin of these words is as fallows: sJuiU (from the Anglo- 
 Saxon sctdan, to be obliged) implies an obligation, and means, radi- 
 cally, ought. WiU (from the Anglo-Saxon wilkm, to determine) 
 implies a determination. "I shall" is, therefore, equivalent to "I 
 
STYLE. 49 
 
 ought, and so must"; "I will," to "I purpose"; "You shall," to 
 "You ought, and so must"; " You will," to " Yoa purpose," etc. 
 
 (5) Distinguish between the declarative and the con- 
 tingent use of the verb. Statements which are intended 
 to express belief, even though conditional, should be made 
 in the declarative form; as, "If this man is innocent 
 [and I mean to imply that he is], he ought to be liber- 
 ated." Statements which are intended to express doubt, 
 ought to be made in the contingent form; as, "If this 
 man be innocent [and I do not mean to imply that he 
 is or is not], he ought to be liberated." 
 
 The words " declarative " and " contingent " are here used to ex- 
 press what many grammarians would convey by the words " indica- 
 tive" and "subjunctive." The distinction noted is, unfortunately, 
 less regarded than formerly. 
 
 (6) Distinguish between the nominative and the objec* 
 tive case. The pronouns are. the only words which re- 
 tain the ancient distinctive case-ending for the objective. 
 Special care is necessary to use the objective form (1) 
 as the object of a verb, and (2) after prepositions ; as, 
 "¥he man whom you sent ; let you and me; they said to 
 Mm and me." N"ot, " The man who you sent ; let you 
 and /; they said to he and /." 
 
 (7) Distinguish between the use of who, which, and that. 
 Who refers only to persons ; ivhich, only to things ; 
 that to either persons or things. Owing to the com- 
 mon character of that, it is to be preferred to who or 
 which in the following cases : (1) To avoid ambiguity; as, 
 " The windows which I saw, had shutters that opened on 
 
50 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 tne inside." (2) When both persons and things are in- 
 cluded in the antecedent; as, " The ladies and music that 
 enlivened the scene." (3) When the relative is very 
 closely connected with its antecedent by ellipsis; ae, " The 
 first time that [in which] I met him." (4) When a clause 
 is restrictive ; as, " The plans of life that men form in 
 hope often fail." Here, if which were used, the sense 
 would be different, the clause being no longer restrictive; 
 as, "The plans of life 2vMvh men form in hope often 
 fail." 
 
 (8) Distinguish between the comparative and superlative 
 degree of adjectives. The common errors are : (1) Using 
 the double comparative and superlative; as, "These are 
 much more preferable." "The most universal motive to 
 business is gain." (3) Using the superlative when only 
 two are compared; as, "His is the easiest manner of the 
 two." (3) Comparing objects which belong to wholly 
 dissimilar classes ; as, '' Thei-e is no easier life than a 
 preacher." (4) Including objects in a class to which they 
 do not belong; as, " The fairest of her daughters. Eve." 
 (5) Excluding an object from a class to which it does 
 belong; as, "Csesar was braver than any ancient warrior." 
 
 Attention should be given to the fact that some adjectives are 
 superlative in sense, and do not admit of comparison; a?, ultimate, 
 supreme, extreme. Others, as superior, postei'ior, prior, are properly 
 comparative. Still we have "more perfect" and even '"most per- 
 fect " in good writers. Such anomalous forms arc to be explained 
 as indicating the highest approximation to that which is absolutely 
 unattainable. A "most perfect form" means the nearest possible 
 approach to perfection. Such expressicms should not be encouraged. 
 
 The tendency of the best writers in comparing ac^jectives is to form 
 the comparative and superlative of monosyllables by adding -er and 
 
STYLE. 51 
 
 -est to the positive; as, wiae, wiser, wisest. Polysyllables are gener- 
 ally compared by using nuyre and most; as, eloquent, more eloquent, 
 most eloquent. 
 
 (9) SistinguLsh between adjectives and adverbs. These 
 are ofteu confounded (1) by using an adjective for an ad- 
 verb; as, " He behaved himself conformable to that blessed 
 example "; (3) by using an adverb for an adjective ; as, 
 "She looks beautifully." 
 
 The distinction between the instances requiring an adjective and 
 those requiring an adverb, is not clearly drawn by grammarians. 
 Remember that when the intention is to qualify the verb, an adverb 
 should be used ; when to qualify the noun, an adjective. Thus, the 
 word /eeZ is used in both an active and a neuter sense; as, "Ifeel 
 [i. e., exercise my power of feeling] powerfully"; or, " Ifeel [i. e., 
 am conscious of being] •powerful" When the neuter verb indicates 
 a degree, the adverb is properly used ; as, '^ I suffer greatly." 
 
 2. Rules for Coiupouud and. Complex Sentences. 
 
 The following rules are intended to guard against the 
 most common errors in the construction of compound and 
 complex sentences. 
 
 (1) The parts of compound sentences should correspond. 
 This rule is violated (1) by blending archaic and modern 
 forms ; (2) by using different parts of speech in corre- 
 sponding situations; (3) by using incongruous pronominal 
 forms ; and (4) by using auxiliaries which do not belong 
 to all the tense-forms of a verb to which they have a com- 
 mon reference. 
 
 These errors may be illustrated as follows : 
 
 (1) Archaic forms of the verb ending in -eth and -est are fre- 
 quently, but erroneously, used in the same sentence with modem 
 forms; as, " The Moon sendeth, [sends] to the Earth the light which 
 the Sun gimes to her." 
 
53 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC . 
 
 (3) The corresponding parts of a sentence should be expressed by the 
 same parts of speech. The following illustration is given by Abbott : 
 "He had good reason to ieliem that the delay was not an accident 
 [accidental], but premeditated, and /or supposing [to suppose, or else, 
 for believing, above] that the fort, though strong both Jy art and 
 natv/raMy [nature], would be forced by the treachery of the governor 
 and the indolent [indolence of the] general to capitulate within a 
 week." 
 
 (8) The same or corresponding prononns should be nsed thronghont a 
 sentence. The following is wrong: -'Thou art not the trustworthy 
 person I hoped you were." Use either the old or the modern form 
 throughout. 
 
 (4) In the following sentence the auxiliaries " had" and "would " cannot 
 both be used with the common verb " send " : "He siiid that he had or 
 would send the money, but I forget which." The form sent must be 
 supplied with had; as, " He said he liad sent or would send" etc. 
 
 (2) Attend to the sequence of tenses. This requires (1) 
 that references to time should be in harmony with each 
 other and with the sense, and (2) that general or time- 
 less statements should always be expressed in the present 
 tense. 
 
 (1) Beference must be made to works on Grammar for specific rules 
 on this point. The following are examples of a wrong use of tenses : 
 "If these persons had [omit the auxiliary] intended to deceive, they 
 would have taken care to have avoided [to avoid] what would expose 
 them to the objection of their opponents." " Then they said unto 
 him, what shall we do that we might [may] work the works of God." 
 "I have [omit] studied Latin last year." 
 
 (3) The following are wrong : "Let us suppose a man convinced, 
 notwithstanding the disorders of the world, that it was [is] under 
 the dij-ection of an infinitely perfect being." "He maintained that 
 only the virtuous were [are] happy." 
 
 (3) Sentences should be properly connected. This is 
 done (1) by using suitable adverbs and conjunctions ; (2) 
 
8TTLK 53 
 
 by repeating a verb, a conjunction, or the subject of a 
 sentence. 
 
 (1) The effect of leaving out the connecting words is exhibited in 
 the following paragraph, taken from Abbott : 
 
 " Pitt was in the army for a few months in ti^e of peace. His biographer 
 [accordingly] insists on our confessing, that, if the young cornet had remai.ied in 
 the service, he would have been one of the ablest commanders that ever lived. 
 {But] this is not all. Pitt \it seerds] was not merely a great puet in esse and a 
 great general m;posse, but a finished example of moral excellence. . . [The 
 truth is that] there scarcely ever lived a person who had so little claim to this sort 
 of praise as Pitt. He was [undoubtedly] a great man. [But] his was not a com- 
 plete and well-proportioned greatness. The public life of Hampden or of Somcrs 
 resembles a regular drama which can be criticized as a whole, and every scene of 
 which is to be viewed In connection with the main action. The public life of Pitt, 
 [on the other hand,] is," etc. 
 
 (S) It is often of great advantage to the reader or hearer if a verb, a 
 conjunction, or the subject of a sentence is repeated, as in the following 
 examples : 
 
 "Cardinal Richelieu hated Buckingham as sincerely as did the 'Spaniard 
 Olivares.' " 
 
 If "did" were omitted, the sentence would be ambiguous. 
 
 "We might say that the Caesars did not persecute the Christians; that they 
 only punished men who were charjjed, rightly or wrongly, with burning Rome, 
 and committing the foulest abominations in secret assemblies; and that the 
 refusal to throw frankincense on the altar of Jupiter was not the crime, but only 
 evidence of the crime." 
 
 " At school and at college, the great vision of Rome broods over the mind with 
 a power which is never suspended or disputed: her great men, her beautiful 
 legends, her history, the height to which she rose, and the depth to which she 
 fell — these make up one half of a student's ideal world." 
 
 II. CLEARNESS. 
 1. The Importance of Clearness. 
 
 The purpose of language is to convey thought from 
 one mind to another. Language is the medium of com- 
 
54 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 munication. While the thought and the expression are 
 often apparently one whole so compounded that the one 
 could not exist without the other, it is still true that 
 language is best adapted to its purpose when it is a trans- 
 parent medium. It should reveal the whole thought as 
 the writer or speaker would have it understood by the 
 person addressed. As Quintilian says, the expression 
 should be so clear that the hearer not only may but must 
 understand. 
 
 The importance of clearness is forcibly illustrated by Dr. Campbell. 
 He says: "If the medium through which we look at any object is 
 perfectly transparent, our whole attention is fixed on the object; we 
 are scarcely sensible that there is a medium which intervenes, and 
 we can hardly be said to perceive it. But if there is any flaw 
 in the medium, if we see through it but dimly, if the object is im- 
 perfectly represented, or if we know it to be misrepresented, our 
 attention is immediately taken off the object to the medium. We 
 are then anxious to discover the cause, either of the dim and con- 
 fused representation, or of the misrepresentation, of things which it 
 exhibits, that so the defect in vision may be supplied by judgment. 
 The case of language is precisely similar. A discourse, then, excels 
 in perspicuity when the subject engrosses the attention of the 
 hearer, and the language is so little minded by him that he can 
 scarcely be said to be conscious it is through this medium he sees 
 into the speaker's thoughts." 
 
 2. Rules for Clearness. 
 
 The following are the principal rules for so arranging 
 words in sentences as to secure clearness. 
 
 (1) Observe the natural order in the English sentence. 
 The natural order is, in the simple sentence, (1) the Sub- 
 ject and its modifiers, (3) the Copula, (3) the Predicate 
 and its modifiers. This order is often changed for poeti- 
 cal effect and for emphasis. 
 
STYLE. 55 
 
 Airaagement is more impoTtaut in English than in the synthetic or 
 inflected langaagea, such as the; Ltitin jind the Greek. The subject 
 and the objuutof an English sentence can generally be distinguished 
 only by the position which they occupy. Thus, " William loves 
 Charles," means that William is the one who loves and Charles the 
 one who is loved, li the order be reversed ; as, " Charles loves Wil- 
 liam," the meaning is changed. In Latin this is not so. " Ou- 
 lielmus amat Oarolum," means, " William loyes Charles," no matter 
 what the order of the words. The sentence, ' 'And thus the son the 
 fervent sire addressed," is not clear. The order is sometimes 
 changed for emphasis, but such inversions are emphatic chiefly be- 
 cause they are unusual; as, "A noble son was Oharles." 
 
 {%) Place the adverb as near as possible to the word it 
 qualifies, and so that it cannot be supposed to qualify 
 any other word. This rule is violated in the following 
 sentences : "Thales was not only famous /\ for his know- 
 ledge of nature, but for his moral wisdom." "I told him 
 to go slowly, but he /\ left the room quickly, dropping 
 the purse on the floor." 
 
 In the last example the ambiguity of reference may be removed for 
 the reader by punctuation, and for the hearer by the voice. A careful 
 writer, however, would not be willing to leave his meaning to the 
 mercy of a careless compositor or reader. Punctuation and rhetori- 
 cal pauses ought never to be relied upon to bring out the sense. 
 
 The word "only" is peculiarly liable to abuse. Abbott has shown 
 how many different meanings may be taken from four words vari- 
 ously arranged. He says : 
 
 " In strictness perhaps the three following sentences : 
 
 (1) He only beat three, 
 
 (2) He beat only three, 
 
 (3) He beat three only, 
 ought to be explained thus : 
 
 (1) He did no more than beat, did not kill, three, 
 
 (2) He beat no more than three. 
 
 (3) He beat threes and that was all he did. Here mdy modifies the whole sen- 
 tence and depreciates the action." 
 
56 THE ELEMENT8 OF BHETOBIO. 
 
 The position of the adverb, when emphatic, is after the verb; 
 as, "He walked slowly down the hill." When unemphatic, the ad- 
 verb is placed before the verb ; as, " He slowly walked down the 
 hill." Never put an adverb between "to'' and its verb ; as, "He 
 preferred to not sing." 
 
 (3) Place adverbial clauses and adjuncts as near as pos- 
 sible to the words thfey qualify. This rule is violated in 
 this sentence : " The following lines were written by one, 
 who, for more than ten years, had been confined in the 
 penitentiary, for his own diversion." This means that 
 he was conjined for his own diversion, but is intended to 
 mean that the lines were written for his own diversion. 
 
 An adverbial clause is a clause used as an adverb, to modify a 
 verb, adjective, or other adverbial expression. An adJTmct is a noun 
 governed by a preposition. 
 
 (4) Avoid the squinting construction. This is a con- 
 struction in which an expression looks both ways — that is, 
 may be taken with what precedes or with what follows ; 
 as, "The minister who /y grows less by his elevation, like 
 a little statue on a mighty pedestal, will always have his 
 jealousy strong about him." The words in italics may be 
 taken with the preceding or the following words. They 
 are intended to be taken with the preceding. 
 
 In the last example there is little probability of any one's taking 
 the words in italics with the following, after re-reading the sentence. 
 It is not safe, however, to trust one's meaning to the perseverance 
 of a i-eader. The fault in the example is obscurity rather than 
 ambiguity, the most common result of a squinting construction. 
 
 (5) Avoid the ambiguous use of pronouns. The pro- 
 noun is by nature a kind of universal noun, and may 
 
STYLE. 57 
 
 refer to anything of the same gender, number, and person. 
 Ambiguity may be avoided in four ways — namely, (1) by 
 altering the gender, or (2) the number, or (3) the person, 
 when the antecedent would otherwise be uncertain, and 
 (4) by repeating the antecedent. 
 
 (1) " I heard this from the driver, who heard it from the ppstraan, 
 who was at the gate,'' is objectionable because who refers to two dif- 
 ferent persons. This may be avoided by using that, which is of 
 common gender, instead of who, as the second relative; as, " I heard 
 this from the driver, who heard it from the postman tliat was at the 
 gate." The meaning is here slightly affected, who being relative and 
 that both relative and restrictive. 
 
 (2) The following may be improved by changing the number of 
 one of the words : " They were persons of high hopes, before they 
 [that is, hopes] were clouded over by misfortune." Say rather, 
 " They were full of hope until it was clouded over by misfortune." 
 
 (3) Ambiguity is sometimes avoided by reporting a speech in the 
 second person. Instead of "He told his father that he [his father] 
 was perfectly safe," write, "He said to his father, 'Tom are per- 
 fectly safe. ' " 
 
 (4) Sometimes the only escape from ambiguity is to repeat the 
 antecedent in full; as, "He said that he had conversed with Mr. 
 Brown and his proposition was impracticable." Here Mr. Brown's 
 should be substituted for his. 
 
 The amusing effect of disregarding the reference of pronouns is well 
 illustrated by Burton, in the following story of Billy Williams, a 
 comic actor, who thus narrates his experience in riding a horse 
 owned by Hamblin, the manager: 
 
 "So down I goes to the stable with Tom Hynn, and told the man to put the 
 saddle on him." 
 
 "GnTomFlynn?" 
 
 "No, on the horse. So, after talking with Tom Flynn awhile, I mounted 
 him." 
 
 " What ! mounted Tom Hynn ? " 
 
 "No, the horse; aud then I shook hands with him and rode off." 
 
 " Shook hands with the horse, Billy ?" 
 
 "^0, with Tom Flynn ; and then I rode off up the Bowery, and who should I 
 meet in front of the Bowery Theatre but Tom Hamblin ; so I got off and told the 
 boy to hold him by the head." 
 
 " What ! hold Hamblin by the head ?" 
 
»8 THE ELEMENTS OF BEETORIC. 
 
 "No, the horse ; and then we went and hada drink together." 
 
 "What ! you and the horse?" 
 
 "No, me and Hamblin ; and after that I mounted him again, and went out of 
 town." 
 
 "What! mounted Hamblin again?" 
 
 "No, the horse ; and when I got to Bumham, who should be there but Tom 
 IHynn,— he 'd taken another horse and rode out ahead of me ; so I told the hostler 
 to tie him up." 
 
 "Tie Tom Flynnup?" 
 
 "No, the horse 1 and we had a drink there." 
 
 "What ! you and the horse? " 
 
 "No, me and Tom Flynii !" 
 
 Finding his auditors by this time In a h&rse laugh, Billy wound up with — 
 
 "Now, look here,— every time I say hoi'se, you say Hamblin, and every time 
 I say Hamblin, you say horse. I '11 be hanged if I tell you any more about it." — 
 Quoted by Hart. 
 
 in. UNITY, 
 
 1. Meaning: of Unity. 
 
 By Unity is meant sucli expression of thought by means 
 of each sentence as to produce one impression. A build- 
 ing may be so designed as to give evidence that it is the 
 product of one architect who has carefully planned and 
 adjusted all its parts. Such a structure possesses unity. 
 Another edifice may show from its variety of materials 
 and lack of proportion that its parts were built at difEer- 
 ent times and by different persons. Such a building does 
 not possess unity of design. 
 
 A sentence, in like manner, may consist of parts so 
 combined as to produce the impression of oneness, or it 
 may be so loosely thrown together as to produce only a 
 confused and indefinite idea. A sentence, like a palace, 
 may be vast without sacrificing unity ; or, it may have 
 but few and insignificant parts, like a cottage, without 
 possessing it. The test of unity is the connection between 
 the parts. If that is close, the sentence has nnitv ; if it 
 is remote, the sentence wants unity. 
 
STYLE. 59 
 
 On the importance of unity Blair remarks: " This is a capital prop- 
 erty. In eveiy composition, of whatever kind, some degree of 
 unity is required, in order to render it beautiful. There must be 
 always some connecting principle among the parts. Some one 
 object must reign and be predominantt This, as I shall hereafter 
 show, holds in history, in epic and dramatic poetry, and in all ora- 
 tions. Bat most of all, in a single sentence, is required the strictest 
 unity. For the very nature of a sentence implies one proposition to 
 be expressed. It may consist of parts, indeed ; but these parts must 
 be so closely bound together as to make the impression on the mind, 
 of one object, not of many.'' 
 
 2. Rules for Unity. 
 
 The following are the principal rules for unity : 
 (1) Avoid changing the subject so as to confuse the 
 thought. It is not meant, as some writers on Rhetoric 
 seem to teach, that a sentence should have only one sub- 
 ject. Brery complex sentence must, from its nature, have 
 more than one subject. This rule is intended to guard 
 against the undue addition of accessory propositions. The 
 following violates the rule ; '' When we were about to go, 
 they put into my hands a bundle of books, and when I 
 undid them, they proved to be exactly what / wanted." 
 Say rather, " On our departure, a bundle of books was put 
 into my hands. When opened, they proved to be exactly 
 what I wanted." 
 
 In the last example, as remodeled, there are two sentences to 
 express what the uncorrected sentence expresses. This kind of 
 division is generally tlie most certain remedy for sentences wMch violate 
 unity. It is not necessary, however, that this rule should be pressed 
 so far as to require a reconstruction of the last sentence in the cor- 
 rected example. That sentence contains two subjects, but the 
 second is so subordipated in the expression " exactly what I wanted " 
 as not to violate unity. 
 
60 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 (3) Avoid crowding together tilings nnconnected. This 
 
 rule is violated in the following sentence : "Socrates and 
 Plato were wise and they both lived to be old men ; the 
 former being killed by the Athenians and the latter dying 
 a natural death." Here is material for two sentences. 
 
 (3) Avoid inserting relative clauses into clauses which 
 
 are themselves relative. This rule and also the previous one 
 
 are violated in the following sentence : " The march was 
 
 through an uncultivated country whose savage inhabitants 
 
 fared hardly, having no other riches than a breed of lean 
 
 sheep, whose flesh was rank and unsavory, by reason of 
 
 their continual feeding upon sea- fish." Here the second 
 
 relative clause is inserted into the first. The remedy is 
 
 to divide the sentence into two. Thus : " The march of 
 
 the Greeks was through an uncultivated country. Its 
 
 savage inhabitants fared hardly, having," etc. 
 
 When the relative clauses are coordinate, having reference to a 
 common antecedent, unity is not necessarily violated; as, '• He wa*: a 
 soldier w/to disregarded every hardship, who courted danger, andwho 
 faced it boldly and even joyfully, when found." 
 
 (4) Avoid the addition of supplementary clauses to a 
 complete sentence. The rule is violated in loose sentences, 
 and the remedy is either to divide them into separate 
 sentences or to make them periodic. In the sentence, 
 "With these writings [of Cicero] young divines are 
 more conversant than with those of Demosthenes, who, 
 by many degrees, excelled the other; at least, as an orator," 
 — the mind naturally rests at the word other as the con- 
 clusion of the sentence, but, contrary to expectation, is 
 obliged to carry back the added clause to reconstruct the 
 
STYLE. 61 
 
 previous thought. The sentence would be improved by 
 the following change : " With these writings young divines 
 are more conversant than with those of Demosthenes, who, 
 by many degrees, as an orator at least, excelled the other." 
 
 A loose sentence is one in which the end seems to be reached 
 before the sentence is completed. A periodic sentence is one in 
 which the thought is suspended until the close. Suspense is caused 
 (1) by placing the "if-clause" first, and not last, in a conditional 
 sentence; as, "If thou didst ever thy dear father love, revenge his 
 foul and most unnatural murder " ; (3) by placing, participles before 
 the words which they qualify; as, "Deserted by his friends, he was 
 forced to have recourse to those who had been his enemies " ; (3) by 
 using suspensive conjunctions; as, " Mther you must talre this 
 extremely perilous course, in which success is uncertain, and failure 
 disgraceful, as well as ruinous, or else the liberty of your country is 
 endangered." If either be omitted, the meaning is liable to be mis- 
 understood until the reader has gone half through the sentence. 
 Periodic sentences ought not to be very long. If they are, the be- 
 ginning is lost before the end is reached. A balanced sentence is 
 composed of two sentences similar in form but often contrasted in 
 meaning; as, "Worth makes the man; the want of it, the fellow." 
 
 (5) Avoid forcing abstract and concrete ideas into the 
 same grammatical government ; as, " On every side they 
 rose in multitudes, armed with rustic loeapotis and with 
 irresistible fury." 
 
 When the design is to raise a laugh by the ridiculous combina- 
 tion of dissimilar things, abstract and concrete ideas may be thus 
 blended; as, " He took his hat and lea/oe." " He was delivered from 
 dread and his wife's voice." "A 'buckwheat-cake was in her mouth, 
 a tea/r was in her eye." 
 
 (6) Avoid unnecessary parentheses. A parenthesis is an 
 inserted expression which has no grammatical connection 
 with the remainder of the sentence. Hence it is liable to 
 
62 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIO. 
 
 withdraw the attention from the main thought ; as, 
 "When this Parliament sat down (for it deserves our 
 particular observation that both Houses were full of zeal 
 for the present Government, and of resentment against 
 the late usurpations), there was but one party in Parlia- 
 ment, and no other party could raise its head in the 
 nation." 
 
 Parentheses were formerly much more frequently employed than 
 they are at present. Their excessive use indicates a deficiency of 
 art in writing. It is generally possible, by recasting and arranging 
 our thoughts, to avoid parentheses altogether. They are, however, 
 oooasionally unavoidable. Long parentheses . mar the beauty and 
 destroy the unity of a sentence. 
 
 IV. ENERGY. 
 
 1. Meaning- of Enei^ry. 
 
 A sentence may be constructed in accordance with the 
 rules for concori, clearness, and unity, and still produce 
 but little effect. Something is wanting to fix the atten- 
 tion and sustain the interest. This important quality is 
 variously called energy, vivacity, strength, force, or ani- 
 mation. Energy (the Greek JvspYsta, energeia, from sv. 
 en, in, and fe'pYOV, ergon, work) is the most exact espres- 
 • sion for the quality, because the word suggests a force in 
 the verbal form apart from the character of the thought. 
 Style is greatly affected by the strength or feebleness of 
 the thought, but even commonplace thoughts may be 
 expressed in energetic language. The quality of the 
 thought belongs to invention. The term "energy of ex- 
 pression " has reference solely to the fitness of the words 
 to convey the ideas with force. 
 
STYLE. 63 
 
 2. Kiiles for Energy. 
 
 Many of the previous rules indirectly contribute to 
 energy, since clearness and unity are essential to this 
 quality of style. The following rules are more directly 
 adapted to secure energy : 
 
 (1) Avoid all unnecessary words, AVhatever adds 
 nothing to the meaning simply clogs the expression. 
 Unnecessary words appear in three ways : (1) when they 
 repeat the thought, they are called Tautological ; (2) 
 when they are added without being necessary to the sense, 
 they are called Eedundant ; (3) when they are combined 
 in a diffuse way which may be simplified, they form a 
 Circumlocution. 
 
 (1) The effort to be clear often leads one into Tautology, as in the 
 following example: "This is so clear a proposition, that I rest the 
 whole argument entirely upon it." In such eases one or the other of 
 the words used tantologically should be stricken out. 
 
 (3) Bednndancy is most likely to show itself in the use of ad^eo- 
 Uiies. These words are usually descriptive, and hence serve to en- 
 rich the style, but when used in excess, they overburden the sentence 
 and show a pedantic taste or a strain after effect. Superlatives are 
 especially liable to disfigure the sentences of unpractised writers. 
 It is a good rule to strike out such words as "very," "inexpressi- 
 ble," "unprecedented," "stupendous," etc., whenever they are not 
 strictly required. The following are instances of Redundancy: 
 "The universal opinion of all men.'' " They returned iach again to 
 the same place /rom whence they carae/ortA." " His nery excellent 
 discourse was most intolerable and extremely inconsiderate in the 
 eyes of enemies.'' "The boundless plains in the heart of the em- 
 pire furnished inexhavMible supplies of corn, that would have almost 
 suflBced for twice the population." Note the inconsistency of inex- 
 haustible with what follows. 
 
 (3) Ciroumlooution requires the re-casting of the whole expression 
 For example ■ 
 
64 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETOBIO. 
 
 " Pope professed to have learned his poetry Irom Dryden, whom, whenever an 
 opportunity was presented, he praised through the whole period of his existence 
 with unvaried liberality ; and perhaps his character may receive some illustration. 
 If a comparison be instituted between him and the man whose pupil he was." 
 
 This sentence is thus condensed by Bain: 
 
 "Pope professed himself the pupil of Dryden, whom he lost no opportunity of 
 praising ; and his character may be illustrated by a comparison with his master." 
 
 (3) Use connective words with care. This rule is neces- 
 sarily indefinite, as no specific cautions can be framed to 
 guard against every possible fault. An attentive study 
 of the appended illustrations will show how important 
 is the judicious management of connectives. 
 
 When we are making a deliberate enumeration of particulars 
 which are designed to occupy the mind and impress it forcibly, the 
 conjunction may be repeated; as, "I am persuaded that neither 
 death, nor life, nor angels, nor principalities, nor powers, nor things 
 present, nor things to come, nor height, nor depth, nor any other 
 creature, shall be able to separate us from the love of God." This 
 repetition is called Polysyndeton. 
 
 "When, on the other hand, we wish to convey the idea of rapid 
 movement and to stimulate the mind by a vivid description or nar- 
 ration, the conjunction may be omitted; as, 
 
 " One effort, one, to break the circling host; 
 They form, unite, cJiwrge, waver, — all is lost." 
 This omission is called Asyndeton. 
 
 When a word is governed by two different prepositions, the effect 
 is awkward and feeble; as, "Socrates was invited to, and Euripides 
 entertained at, his court." This is called the Splitting of Particles. 
 
 And is sometimes used redundantly before the relative whith; as. 
 "I gave him a beautiful picture, and which I admired in the book- 
 store." And may properly precede which when it connects two rela- 
 tive clauses; as, "It was a day which all enjoyed, and which all will 
 remember with pleasure." 
 
 (3) Give important words in the sentence an emphatic 
 position. The principal thought in the sentence should 
 
8TTLB. 65 
 
 be made prominent. This is done (1) by making the 
 
 subject of the sentence clear ; (3) by changing the usual 
 
 order of words; as, "Great is Diana of the Ephesians." 
 
 Compare with the first rule for Clearness. 
 
 Compare this sentence with the next: "It is characteristic of a 
 wise and virtuous man, that, at all times, his own private interest 
 should be sacrificed to the public interest of his own particular 
 society." " The wise and virtuous man is at all times willing that 
 his own private interest should be sacrificed to the public interest of 
 his own particular society." In both these sentences something is 
 affirmed of a " wise and virtuous man." In the former this natural 
 subject of the sentence is made a mere adjunct of the word " char- 
 acteristic." In the latter it is placed prominently before the mind 
 as the subject of thought, and the statement about it is made with 
 directness. 
 
 (4) Do not close a sentence with an insignificant word. 
 
 Adverbs and prepositions should not be placed at the 
 close of a period, for they are merely qualifiers and con- 
 nectives, and should not take the place of more significant 
 words ; as. " It is absurd to judge either Spenser or 
 Ariosto by precepts which they did not attend to." This 
 would be improved thus : "It is absurd to judge either 
 Spenser or Ariosto by precepts to which they did not 
 attend." 
 
 It is not a, violation of this rule, however, to nse adverbs at the 
 end of a sentence, when by their emphatic position they express an 
 antithesis of thought ; as, "In their distress my friends shall hear 
 of me always ; in their prosperity never." 
 
 In arranging the clauses of a sentence, when possible the longest 
 should come last. 
 
 (5) Use figurative language. Wherein figures of speech 
 add energy to language, will be explained in another place. 
 It is important to note the fact that appropriate figures 
 
66 THE ELEMENTS OP BHETOBIC. 
 
 are conducive to strength. Of these Metaphor, Antithesis, 
 and Climax are particularly effective ; as, " The ship leaps 
 on." " The wichedflee when no man pursueth ; but the 
 righteous are bold as a lion." "It is an outrage to bind a 
 Roman citizen ; to scourge him is an atrocious crime ; to 
 PUT HIM TO DEATH is almost parricide; but to CRUCIFY 
 him — what shall I call it ? " 
 
 Care should be taken to avoid an excess of ontiUieses. On this 
 poiot Blair gives the following caution: " The frequent use of an- 
 tithesis, especially where the opposition of the words is nice and 
 quaint, is apt to render style disagreeable. ... A maxim, 
 or moral saying, properly enough receives this form ; both be- 
 cause it is supposed to be the fruit of meditation, and because it is 
 designed to be engraven on the memory, which recalls it more 
 easily by the help of such contrasted expressions. But where a 
 string of such sentences succeed each other ; where this becomes 
 an author's favorite and prevailing manner of expressing himself, 
 his style is faulty. . . . Such a style appears too studied and 
 labored ; it gives us the impression of an author attending more 
 to his manner of saying things, than to the things themselves which 
 he says.'' 
 
 V. HARMONY. 
 
 1. The Value of Harmony. 
 
 A sentence may be grammatical and observe the rules 
 for clearness, unity, and energy, without pleasing the ear 
 by its smoothness of sound or displaying any adaptation of 
 sound to the sense. Most sentences are constructed with- 
 out any thought of how they will sound. Only in poetry 
 and elaborate oratory does a writer study to embodv in his 
 language a soul of secret harmony. Frequently un- 
 pleasant words and combinations of words cannot be 
 
STYLE. 67 
 
 avoided without obscuring or modifying the meaning. 
 No doubt some consideration should be given to this 
 element of style, but it should be the last and the least to 
 engage our attention. In no case let sense be sacrificed 
 to sound. 
 
 With regard to the capability of our language in harmony of style, 
 the following remarks by Graham are judicious: 
 
 "English has been often accused of harshness, and it certainly 
 cannot be ranked among the most harmonious languages of Europe. 
 But, if not the most beautiful in this respect, neither can it be said, 
 on the other hand, that it is the most disagreeable ; for, though 
 inferior in harmony to Italian and Spanish, it ranks higher than 
 Dutch, or any of the Scandinavian or Sclavonic languages. Since, 
 however, even in the most melodious languages, some writers are 
 known to be far more studious of elegance and beauty than others, 
 it follows that this difference will also appear in authors who write in 
 the most nigged dialect. Whatever, then, may be said of the want of 
 softness in the English language, it is plain, as some of our writers 
 surpass others in harmony, that this is a quality to be cultivated ; 
 and there is no good reason why any one gifted with a delicate ear 
 may not, under the guidance of a judicious teacher, attain to the 
 power of writing in an easy and flowing style." 
 
 3. Rules for Harmony. 
 
 Without entering into the philosophy of harmony, which 
 is explained in the ''Science of Ehetoric," we shall limit 
 the discussion of this subject to the statement of a few 
 practical rules. 
 
 (1) Select the most melodious words. These are (1) 
 words ending in soft consonants or open vowels ; as, 
 beauty, alive, dread ; (3) words containing liquids ; as, 
 roaming, lonely, noontide; (3) polysyllables with the accent 
 near the end; as, temporality, harmdnious, soti6rousj (4) 
 words in which vowels and consonants are blended. 
 
68 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 The following table of the English alphabet will be of aid in 
 pointing out the effect of different letters upon the ear: 
 
 Consonants 
 
 'so£t.. 
 .Hard. 
 
 Labials, 
 b 
 
 Gutturals, 
 g 
 
 Unguals, 
 d 
 
 Dentals. 
 
 V 
 
 SibUants. 
 
 z 
 
 P 
 
 ok 
 
 t 
 
 i 
 
 s 
 
 Vowels 
 
 Iiiquids, or semivowels 
 Aspirates . 
 
 a 
 1 
 h 
 
 h 
 
 e 
 m 
 qu 
 f x-ks 
 C or qs 
 
 I 
 n 
 
 i-dg 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 u wy 
 
 Double letters . 
 
 
 The soft consonants are pleasing to the ear, while the hard eon- 
 sonants are more harsh. Compare slab and slap, played and plot, 
 stave and staff. The liquids are specially melodious. The aspirates 
 and double letters are more rough. 
 
 Combinations of letters of one kind are very inharmonious ; as, 
 strengtTienedst, farriering. Derivatives from long compounds are gen- 
 erally disagreeable ; as, wrongheadedness, unswccessfulness. Words 
 with a succession of unaccented syllables, and long words having the 
 accent near the beginning, are difficult to pi'onounce, and, accord- 
 ingly, unpleasant to the ear ; as, derdgatorUy, peremptorily. 
 
 (2) Avoid all disagreeable combinations of words. These 
 are caused by (1) a repetition of the same sound; as, I 
 confess with humility the sterility of my poetic ability; 
 (2) a hiatus produced by two similar sounds in succession ; 
 as, "Idea and destiny"; (3) a cumulation of consonants; 
 as, " Strengthenedst thoii, Mm in his struggles?" 
 
 (3) Arrange the words so that the distribution of accent 
 will impart rhythm to the movement of the sentences. This 
 
STYLE. 69 
 
 is especially important in compositions designed for oral 
 
 delivery. The art of rhythmical writing is one of the 
 
 most rare, but one of the most enviable, of literary 
 
 attainments. As in the composition of music and poetry, 
 
 much depends upon the natural ear. 
 
 "In the usual forms of familiar prose- writing," says Russell, 
 " little regard is paid to the placing of words, as respects the effect 
 of accent. Words in plain, unpretending composition follow each 
 other with but slight reference to the result in mere sound. Some 
 writers, however, are distinguished by a style which is more or less 
 measured and rhythmical to the ear. The stately and formal style of 
 oratorical declamation sometimes assumes this shape, as does also 
 the language of sublime, pathetic, and beautiful description. Some 
 writers, bj high excellence of natural or of cultivated ear, succeed in 
 imparting an exquisite but unobtrusive melody to their sentences, 
 which forms one of the principal attractions of their style. We 
 have instances of these various effects of the selection and arrange- 
 ment of words, in the majestic and measured declamation of Chat- 
 ham, or in the lofty and magnificent strains of Scripture. The 
 cadences of Ossian exemplify, sometimes, the power and beauty of 
 metrical arrangement, and, sometimes, the cloying effect of its too 
 frequent and uniform recurrence. Every cultivated ear is familiar 
 with the chaste and pleasing turn of the sentences of Addison, the 
 easy flow of Goldsmith's, the ambitious swell of those of Johnson, 
 the broken and capricious phrases of Sterne, the noble harmony of 
 Burke, the abruptness of Swift, and the graceful smoothness of 
 Irving.'' 
 
 (4) Attend to the cadence of sentences. By cadence is 
 meant the falling of the voice before coming to a full stop. 
 The most musical cadences are made on words of four 
 syllables, accented on the first and third; as, circumstan- 
 tial, oiservdtion. "Words of three syllables, accented on 
 the second, as, demdn strate. proportion, reflection, make 
 a very agreeable cadence. Monosyllables or a series of un- 
 accented syllables make a disagreeable cadence. Accord- 
 
70 THE ELEMENTS OF BHETOEIC. 
 
 ingly, a sentence should not close with a small word, but 
 
 with the longest words and most sonorous members. 
 
 It is impossible that every sentence should close with any particu- 
 lar kind of word, and it is absurd to insist on saciiflcing a perfectly 
 appropriate word, when its only fault is inharmoniousness, for a 
 less expressive but more musical cadence. The rule is intended 
 simply to call attention to the resources of harmony. 
 
 (5) When possible, suit the sound to the sense. Words 
 which resemble the sounds which they describe are called 
 onomatopoetic. Numerous words in our language, such as 
 Idss, whiz, clash, crash, roar, and patter, readily suggest 
 ■iheir meaning by their sound. Such words are very sig- 
 nificant. Although the associations which they recall 
 are often fanciful, they serve an important purpose in 
 description. 
 
 (6) Vary the length of sentences. "Whether long or 
 short, sentences of uniform length produce a monotonous 
 effect. A succession of short sentences is, however, more 
 monotonous than a series of long ones, on account of the 
 usual variation of structure in sentences of considerable 
 length. Skilfully introduced, short sentences impart 
 animation to the style. They have a tone of finality. 
 On the other hand, long sentences afford more opportu- 
 nity for effective climax, and better sustain the continuity 
 of thought. If the rules for clearness and unity are ob- 
 served, long sentences are not less intelligible than short 
 ones. They may even be more easily understood than a 
 succession of independent short sentences, for the reason 
 that they contain that exact combination of modifiers 
 wiiich precisely expresses the thought. 
 
STYLE. 71 
 
 In this section, ou "Sentences," we have consid- 
 ered : 
 
 (-Z) Definitions. 
 
 {2) Division of the Subject. 
 
 I. CONCORD. 
 
 (i) Rules for Simple Sentences. 
 
 (2) Rules for Compound, and Complex Sentences. 
 
 II. CLEARNESS. 
 
 {!) The Importance of Clearness. 
 {2) Rules for Clearness. 
 
 III. UNITY. 
 
 (i) The Meaning of Unity. 
 {2) Rules for Unity. 
 
 IV. ENERGY. 
 
 (i) The Meaning of Energy. 
 [2) Rules for Energy. 
 
 V. HARMONY. 
 
 [1) The Value of Harmony. 
 
 (2) Rules for Harmony. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 Paragraphs. 
 
 1. The Importance of Paragraphs. 
 
 A Paragraph is a group of sentences that are closely 
 related in thought. The great importance of paragraphs 
 is evident from the definition. They serve to give dis- 
 tinctness to the sequence of thoughts. Probably the 
 
72 THE ELEMENTB OF UHETORIO. 
 
 usual neglect of paragraphing is owing to an imaginary 
 difficulty in the art. A few simple rules will serve to 
 make the subject plain. 
 
 Nearly all the works on composition almost ignore the division of 
 discourse into paragraphs, and, as a consequence, many otherwise 
 good writers either make no paragraphs or place every important 
 sentence by itself. 
 
 2. Rules for Paragraphs. 
 
 (1) Make an analysis before writing. This may be 
 either written or mental, according to the character and 
 extent of the composition. 
 
 This diiectiou is of very great importance, and after a few trials its 
 great advantage wiU be evident. In a short time the luUM of mak- 
 ing a mental analysis will be formed, and every composition will gain 
 in clearness because of the methodical arrangement of the thoughts. 
 
 (2) Make each distinct point in the analysis the subject 
 of a paragraph. All the sentences written to expand, ex- 
 plain, or illustrate this germ thought will have a connec- 
 tion that will justify their being grouped together. 
 
 A paragraph is made by commencing on a new line, a short dis- 
 tance from the margin. The sentences are then written in close 
 succession until the paragraph is completed. This group of sen- 
 tences is a paragraph. 
 
 (3) Observe unity in the construction of a paragraph. 
 
 This rule excludes all digressions from the principal 
 thought of the paragraph. No sentence has any right to 
 a position in connection with others, unless it is closely 
 "slated to the preceding or the following sentence. 
 
STYLE. 73 
 
 It is frequently advisable to state the main thought in a brief and 
 I'lear sentence. This may be placed at the commencement of the 
 paragraph, and then explained, illustrated, proved, or contradicted, 
 as the case may require ; or, it may be placed at the end, as a kind 
 ol summary or conclusion. 
 
 (4) Construct the sentences so as to secure variety in 
 their length and rhythm. Monotony results from a con- 
 tinued uniformity of lengtli or structure. No one kind 
 of sentence is absolutely the best. Here, as everywhere 
 in composition, variety is an excellence. 
 
 The first sentence of a paragraph should be as short as the sense 
 will permit. It is discouraging to a reader to find himself lost in a 
 labyrinth at the very beginning. When interest and feeling have 
 been aroused, longer sentences are more appropriate. A very short 
 sentence after a very long one is objectionable. 
 
 Variety in a paragraph may be of less importance than some 
 other quality. For example, if a paragraph be devoted to a con- 
 tinued antithesis, a uniformly balanced structure of sentences 
 should be studied, as in the celebrated parallel between Homer and 
 Virgil : 
 
 " Homer was the greater genius ; Virgil the better artist ; in the one, we most 
 admire the man ; in the other, the work. Homer hurries us with a commanding 
 impetuosity ; Virgil leads us with an attractive majesty ; Homer scatters with a 
 generous profusion ; Virgil bestows with a careful magnificence. Homer, like 
 the Nile, pours out his riches with a sudden overflow ; Virgil, like a river in its 
 banks, with a constant stream." 
 
 ■A style characterized chiefly by short sentences is called by the 
 French the style coup^. When the sentences are long, and closely 
 joined by conjunctions, we have the style periodique. The first is 
 adapted to familiar, light, and informal writing; the latter to elal)- 
 orate, exact, and dignified composition. 
 
 (5) Hake the paragraph progressive in meaning and 
 in sound. There is little reason for writing unless thought 
 grows with the marshaling of words. As in a sentence. 
 
74 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 so in a paragraph, the efEect should ba cumulative. Hence 
 the last sentence should seldom be a short one, but more 
 sonorous than its predecessors. A terse and forcible sum- 
 mary of a paragraph constitutes a fitting close; but it 
 must be full of meaning, or it will seem insignificant. 
 
 This rule forbids " writing in a eiiele," which is almost as grave 
 a fault as " reasoning in a circle"; and the two vices are often com- 
 panions. A writer who holds this rule in mind will never become 
 tedious to an intelligent reader. lie will bring his pai-agraph to a 
 close when he has onoe expressed his thought, and not strain after 
 the una,ttainable through endless repetitions. 
 
 (6) Connect the sentences so that their relations will 
 be obvious. This is of vital importance. The highest 
 art is required to cause the stream of thought to flow 
 smoothly, bearing the reader along without doubts or 
 interruptions. Sentences are connected by the co-ordinate 
 conjunctions, and the expression of continuous thought, 
 accordingly, requires skill in their management. 
 
 The importance of using proper connectives is illustrated under 
 the third rule for Compound and Complex Sentences. A few addi- 
 tional observations maybe of value in this connection. 
 
 Subordinate conjunctions connect clauses ; co-ordinate conjunc- 
 tions connect sentences. The co-ordinate connectives are : 
 
 1 Cumulative- as \ ^^^' "^''' ^^^^^^^^< o^oin, besides, further, 
 ' ' I etc. 
 
 2. Adversative; as, -j *''*' *'**'*' ***^' ^^*' '"^^' ^"oe^theless, lum- 
 
 ' ( ever, etc. 
 H Illative • as \ ^^''^fo^^' wfierefore, hence, consequently, ac- 
 
 i cordingly. 
 
 It is by the proper use of these connectives that isolated threads 
 of thought are woven into a beautiful fabric. It requires as much 
 judgment, however, to avoid the excessive use of conjunctions as to 
 
STYLE. 75 
 
 use them correctly. Here is a passage in wliich the sentences are 
 all strung together by the unskillful use of and, : 
 
 "And then those who are of an inferior condition, that they labor atid be 
 diligent in the work of an honest calling, for this is privately good and profitable 
 unto men and their families ; and to those who are above this necessity, and are 
 in a better capacity to maintain good works properly so called, works of piety 
 an/l chai-ity and justice, that they be careful to promote a7id advance them, ac- 
 cording to their power and opportunity, because these things are publicly good 
 and beneficial to mankind." 
 
 3. Examples of Paragraphs. ■ 
 
 The most practical way of learning how to combine sen- 
 tences in paragraphs, is to analyze a variety of different 
 combinations by good writers. The following examples 
 illustrate some of the methods of constructing paragraphs. 
 
 (1) Sometimes an expanded sentence constitutes a par- 
 agraph. Jeremy Taylor furnishes the following ex- 
 ample: ^__. 
 
 "Prayer is an action and a state of intercourse and desire exactly 
 opposite to this character of anger. , Prayer is ^ n act jop/of likeness 
 to the Holy Ghost, the spirit of gentleness^and love — like simplicity, 
 r^nii nitatio r/of the holy Jesus/ whose spirit i» meek, up to the great-' 
 ness of thfe Diggest example ;, "ani,aLgOTforinity to God, whose anger 
 is always just; and marches slowly and is without transportation 
 and often hindered, and never hasty, and full of mercy .^ I Prayer is 
 the peace of our spirit, the stiJJjiess of our thoughts, the evenness of 
 recollection, the s eat o f meditation, the rest of our cares, and the 
 calm of our tempestA- Prayer 4? the issu^ dt a quiet mind, of un- 
 trouBled thoughts.rit is the daughte r of charity, and t he siste r of 
 meekness; ^. . . .' Anger is a perfect alien ation of the mind 
 from prayer^ and therefpre ^jjonirai^ to that attention Which pre- 
 sents our prayers^in aright line to God." ^ , ^ /) 
 
 * These examples, with several others, may be found in Angus's 
 "Hand-Book of the English Tongue." 
 
76 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 (3) Sometimes a general statement is followed by a 
 specific, and that by an individual instance. _The follow- 
 ing from Addison is an examples (j^lJL^lAy<--'^>-^'^-^^''"*~^^y 
 
 ■' [ffe»eraf| Music ainmlgthose who were styled the chosen peo- 
 ple ^as a religious ar t/ \_Sp6Bifie\ The songs of Zioij.^hich we 
 have reason to thinkjwere in high repute / among the courts of 
 eastern raoiiarehsJHrere nothing else but psilmsjthat adored or cele- 
 brated the Supreme Being. {IndimdimV\ The ' greatest conqueror^ 
 in this holy nation, after the manner of the old Grecian lyricsj(Jj^ 
 not only compose the word* of his divine odes, but generally ^gt 
 ^hem to music himseltt^auerwhieh, his wacljs/jJioqgh they were 
 consecrated to the tabernaclej became the national entertainment, 
 ag^ell as the devotion of his people?'^ ' O^^""^ 
 
 (3) Sometimes the hint of each snccessive sentence is 
 suggested by a previous word. This is the common 
 style of Burke. It is liable to degenerate into tedious 
 expansion. The following example from Burke illustrates ( 
 
 this method: jJ^^ W:f^'"->T ' ' f/^'^^^^ 
 
 " The other sort of men wMe the pmiticia/ia. (To them,)who had 
 little or not at all reflectecl on the subject, religicnigasvifeselflwo J 
 
 [object of love or hMrem They disbelieved it, and <Mi(Sa*iaJtifeOTral c 
 
 vwith regard to that^ject, thev^tqak the oniej' whiohnn the present 
 state of things^ nai gh t iest ^^mrmeir purpOs^ TKey soon found 
 
 A^yihat they could not do /athont the philosophers]' and the philoso- 
 pher's soon rnade theit( ''sensib l».that the destruction of religion was 
 
 r_to supply tnhn/ with means or conquesU first at h?5jne and then 
 abroad." ':t^__^ --^''^rTji^ \Jik ^/ 'yy^^'^ 
 
 (4) Sometimes the theme is stated, and then proved or 
 illustrated. The following example from Harris illus- 
 trates this mode of developing a paragraph: -y^ 
 
 " [7%«OT«] When most disguised and repressed, the wisdom of 
 the gospe^as been modifyingTpur philosoahy andf teaching! a loftier 
 system of its own. {Illustrations and Pr^s\ A-Ho\<(a#^7bundirig 
 and circMunnavigatingthe ocean of human misery! is only an obedient 
 
r-^Q^ STYLE. 77 
 
 agent of its philanthropy. /A Clarkson and a Wilberforoelhave only 
 give n uttejanee topts t ender and ris;hteou A-tiopeals for the slave. 
 £A Raikes, a Bell ajjd a Eanoasterll^ase simply reni einbere d its long- 
 negleoted injunction, ' Suffer litfle children to come unto me.' " 
 
 (5) The theme is soin!etWes proved by showing the results 
 of the contrary. The theme may be simply held in mind, 
 or it may be stated, as in the f ollomng example : 
 
 "\Themi\ Lam fully persuaded tjiaj; oift^ the best springs) of 
 generous and worthy aotiot^ is to have/geherou^ an d_ worthyjthou ghts ^ 
 of ourselves. \Ths contrary] Wh«:ver'Ji|S^a mean opimpn of'thSj 
 dignity of his natureJ willacttfn no higher a VanWthan h£TSsallotted_ 
 --jhimself in his own estim&tion?)i^ [Result of thiScontrary] If he con- 
 siders bis be ing as circumscribed /by the uncertain terra\)f a few 
 yearsShis^designs will be contVact eS i nto the same narrow 'spa ^ e hi&Jj 
 ima^ais to bound his existence." ^-^ A 
 
 In this section, on "Paragraphs," we have con- 
 sidered : 
 
 {1) The Importance of Paragraphs. 
 [2) Rules for Paragraphs. 
 {3) Examples of Paragraphs. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 Figures. 
 
 1. Definition of Figures. 
 
 A Figure of Speech is an expression in which one thing 
 is said in the form of another related to it. Figures are 
 usually divided into four classes : (1) expressions in which 
 the spelling is changed, or Figures of Orthography; (2) 
 expressions in which the form of a word is changed, or 
 
78 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Figures of Et3rmology ; (3) expressions in which the con- 
 struction is changed, or Figures of Syntax; and (4) ex- 
 pressions in which the mode of thought is changed, or 
 Figures of Rhetoric. Only the Figures of Ehetoric will 
 be treated of here.* 
 
 The distinction between figurative and literal expression, although 
 precisely stated in the definition of a figure, may be more plainly 
 indicated by means of an example. If we say, " He fought fewr- 
 lessly," referring to a soldier in battle, we express the thought lUer- 
 aMy, that is, with exact conformity to the fact. "Fear" is a real 
 sentiment of the human mind, and when we say that the soldier 
 iougM, fear-less-ly, we express the literal truth, that he fought in a 
 manner without fear. If, now, we are reminded of a lion, because a 
 lion shows no fear, and say, "He fought like a Hon," the expression 
 is figuratiiie ; for we express the exact fact in a form "related to 
 it." If we wish to express the thought with great vividness, we may 
 drop the statement of a resemblance between the soldier and the 
 lion, and say, " He was a lion in the fight." 
 
 2. The Origin of Figures. 
 
 The origin of figures has usually been referred to the 
 poverty of language in its early stages of development. 
 This is but a partial and unsatisfactory explanation. It 
 is true that new objects and acts required new names, but 
 why were old words used in new senses rather than new 
 words formed ? The answer is found in the nature of the 
 human mind. All our notions and thoughts are con- 
 nected by certain laws of association. Thus, ideas which 
 are related by resemblance, contrast, or contiguity in time 
 or space, are likely to recur to the mind togetlier. Some 
 
 * Definitions of all the figures will be found in the Glossary of 
 Grammatical and Rhetorical Terms, at the end of the volume. 
 
STYLE. 79 
 
 of these associated ideas are more concrete and specific 
 tlian others, and hence serve to express the abstract and 
 general more clearly than literal statement. These two 
 facts, the early poverty of expression and the natural pref- 
 erence for the concrete, especially in the imaginative 
 periods of life, explain the origin of figurative language. 
 
 That necessity alone does not fully explain the origin of figurar 
 tive expression, is further evident from the fact that the best moderr. 
 writers take pains to employ figurative rather than plain language. 
 This would not be the ease if figures did not in some way contribute 
 to the efEectiveness of expression. The manner in which they assist 
 in imparting force to language has been suggested above, and will 
 be more distinctly explained in the following paragraph. 
 
 3. The Advantages of Figures. 
 
 Some writers speak of figures as "ornaments," and 
 cherish the idea that their chief advantage is to embellish 
 style. While they often adorn and beautify, their real 
 excellence is more substantial. The following are their 
 principal uses. 
 
 (1) They enrich language. Every language is composed 
 of a few hundred roots variously combined to express 
 thousands of distinctions. The process by which language 
 grows is that of figurative expression. All mental opera- 
 tions are expressed figuratively, that is, through material 
 forms and processes related to them in some way. 
 
 Most of the words used to express mental action are " fossil meta- 
 phors," forms once known to be figurative, but now so familiar that 
 their figurative character is forgotten. Etymology aids us in trac- 
 ing out the history of these words. Intelleet, for example (from the 
 Latin inter, between, and legire, to gather), is based upon the pri- 
 mary notion of picking out and comparing things; and so has come 
 
80 TME ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 to designate the faculty of thought. We speak of feeling the force 
 of a remark, weighing an argument, halanciTig considerations, etc. 
 The single root spec, which expresses the general notion of iight, has 
 given rise to about 250 words, such as, species, special, especial, 
 specimen, spice, spicy, specious, specialty, specific, specialization, 
 specie, specter, spectrum, spectacle, spectator, spectral, speculum, 
 specular, speculation, suspect, aspect, circumspect, inspect, pros- 
 pect, respect, retrospect, conspicuous, perspicuity, perspective, sus- 
 picion, suspicious, etc. 
 
 (2) Figures intensify the expression of emotion. They 
 do this by associating the object of thought with those 
 objects which, from their visible, tangible, or naturally 
 affecting character, stimulate the feelings. In this man- 
 ner they dignify or degrade that with which they are asso- 
 ciated. The writer surrounds his ideal with a halo of 
 loveliness, or casts a shadow of contempt over the charac- 
 ter that he detests. 
 
 The value of figures in elevating the emotions is illustrated by the 
 following description by Campbell: 
 
 "Eternal Hope ! When yonder spheres sublime 
 Pealed their first notes to sound the march of Time, 
 Thy joyous youth began ; but not to fade 
 When all the sister planets have decayed ; 
 When wrapped in fire the realms of ether glow, 
 And Heaven's last thunder shakes the world below. 
 Thou undismayed, slialt o'er the ruins smile. 
 And light thy torch at Nature's funeral pile." 
 
 The following by John Randolph illustrates the effect of degrading 
 figures: 
 
 " It is a shame, Mr. President, that the noble bull-dogs of the administration 
 should be wasting their precious time in worrying the rats of the opposition.— 
 Bats, did I say 7 — mice ! mice ! " 
 
 (3) Figures give clearness to abstract ideas. Suppose 
 we wish to say, " When we indulge too freely in pleasure. 
 
STYLE. 81 
 
 we are sure to receive injury from the excess." Expressed 
 in tliis literal form, the thought is somewhat abstract and 
 also somewhat commonplace. If, now, we use a figure of 
 speech, we may give this thought a clear and attractive 
 expression; as, "When we dip too deeply into pleasure, 
 we always stir a sediment that renders it impure and 
 noxious." The relation of cause and efEect is at once evi- 
 dent, and the thought loses its commonplace character. 
 
 4. Kinds of Figures. 
 
 Figures of Rhetoric have been variously classified. Any 
 exhaustive classification is both tedious and useless to the 
 learner. The most important figures of rhetoric are 
 enumerated and illustrated below. 
 
 The simplest and most philosophical olassiflcation of rhetorical 
 figures is based on the forms of association by which they are sug- 
 gested. This plan is adopted in the "Science of Rhetoric," where the 
 philosophy of figurative language is fully explained in connection 
 with the general law of style — the economy of mental power. The 
 following scheme presents an outline of the classification : 
 
 !]. Simile. 
 3. Metaphor. 
 3. Personification. 
 4. Allegory. 
 
 1. Synecdoche. 
 
 2. Metonymy. 
 
 II. Pounded on Contiguity ( ^- Exclamation. 
 
 4. Hyperbole. 
 
 5. Apostrophe. 
 , 6. Vision. 
 
 1. Antithesis. 
 
 2. Climax. 
 
 III. Founded on Contrast \ 3. Epigram. 
 
 4. Interrogation. 
 
 , 5. Irony. 
 
83 THE ELEMENTS OP RHETORIC. 
 
 Some prefer to divide figures according to their effect rather than 
 according to their nature. On this principle, figures are of two main 
 classes : 
 
 I. Figures of Intuition. 
 
 II. Figures of Emphasis. 
 
 The former present an idea to the imagination in a sensible form ; 
 the latter present no picture to the imagination, but emphasize some 
 thought. The distinction points out the twofold use of figures as a 
 means of- expression, but fails as a perfect principle of division, as 
 some figures at the same time present images and emphasize tlie 
 thought. 
 
 Some writers distinguish between tropes and figures. A Trope 
 (from the Greek rpijreiv, trepein, to turn) is a word turned aside from 
 its literal meaning. The distinction between tropes and figures is 
 useless, after adopting the definition of figures already given. 
 
 (1) A Simile* (from the Latin similis, like) is a state- 
 ment of the resemblance of one object, act, or relation to 
 another. It is generally introduced by some word of com- 
 parison, such as like or as. Thus Milton says of the 
 reprobate angels' banner, that it 
 
 "Shone Uke a meteor streaming on the wind." 
 
 A simile does not always state a direct resemblance between objects. 
 Sometimes the resemblance is between the causes ; as, 
 
 " I scarcely understand my own intent ; 
 But silk-worm like, so long within have wrought, 
 That I am lost in my own web of thought." 
 
 Here the comparison is in substance: as the internal operations 
 of the insect result in its own entanglement, so the reflections of the 
 ]5oet result in his bewilderment. 
 
 Sometimes the rosomblance is one of effects; as, "The music of 
 
 * For the pronunciation of the names of the figures, see the Index 
 and Glossary at the end of the volume. 
 
STYLE. 83 
 
 Carryl was, like the memory of joys that are past, pleasant and 
 inoni'nful to the soul." There is no resemblance between music 
 and the memory of past joys, but the effects are similar. 
 
 Sometimes the resemblance is one of relations, or a mere anal- 
 ogy ; as, " Reason is to faith as the eye to the telescope." 
 
 (3) A Metaphor (from the Greek (JL£ta(])spsiv, meta- 
 pliereiii, to carry over, or transfer) is a word used to im- 
 ply a resemblance. What the simile plainly states the 
 metaphor merely suggests. " He fought like a lion/' is a 
 simile. " He was a lion in the fight," expresses the same 
 thought as a metaphor. The statement that he was a 
 lion, is understood to mean that he was like a lion. The 
 metaphor is, therefore, an abridged simile. 
 
 The metaphor is evidently a bolder and moie lively figure than the 
 simile. As it results fi'om a more intensely excited imagination, so 
 it conveys a more forcible conception. A metaphor is more like a 
 picture than a simile is, and hence the graphic use of metaphor is 
 called "word-painting." The greater vividness of metaphor maybe 
 seen liy comparing the following forms of expression, in which the 
 same idea is presented as a simile and as a metaphor : 
 
 Simile. " The king is like a bird whose feathers not only adorn, 
 but support his flight. As the bird, when stripped of his plumage, 
 remains fixed to the earth, so the king, when deprived of his honors, 
 cannot rise above others." 
 
 Metaphor. "The feather that adorns the royal bird, supports 
 its flight. Strip him of his plumage, and you fix him to the earth." 
 
 (3) Personification (from the Latin persona, person, 
 and /acere, to make) consists in treating an inanimate ob- 
 ject as if animate; as, " The morning stars sang together." 
 The figure is founded upon a resemblance of the thing 
 personified to a person. The notion of such resemblance 
 
84 THE ELEMENTS OF BHETORIC. 
 
 is produced by an excited imagination, and, accordingly, 
 tlie figure is appropriate only as the expression of strong 
 emotion. 
 
 There are two distingnisliable forms of personificaticn : 
 
 (1) When peisonallty is ascribed; as, 
 
 " A thin veU hangs over the landscape and flood, 
 And the hills are all mellow'd in haze ; 
 While FaU, creeping on like a monJc in his hood. 
 Plucks the thick rustling wealth of the maize." 
 
 (2) When some quality of life is attributed | as, " The madtempest," 
 " the hungry fi-K," "the whistling v/ind," etc. The latter kind of 
 personification is closely allied to metaphor, and is common in all 
 animated writing. The former is more appropriate to poetry and 
 passionate oratory. 
 
 Since the English language recognizes only natural gender, while 
 the Latin, Greek, French, German, and most other languages, admit 
 also a grammatical, or constructive, gender, our language is especially 
 adapted to this kind of figure. In English we may personify any in- 
 animate object, if we refer to it by the pronouns his or Tier, while in 
 many other languages such objects would regularly require one of 
 these pronouns. 
 
 Personification explains grammatical gender in the ancient lan- 
 guages, and also accounts for many of the myths of the early nature- 
 worship. The relation of personification to mythology is explained 
 in the " Science of Rhetoric." 
 
 (4) An Allegory (from the Grreek aXXo? alios, other, 
 and (if opsuetv, agoreuein, to speak) is a form of expression 
 in which the words are symbolical of something. The 
 allegory is either a "continued metaphor," or several cog- 
 nate metaphors. The following beautiful allegory by 
 Longfellow, starting with the metaphorical representa- 
 tion of the state as a ship, expands the metaphor into a 
 complete description: 
 
STYLE. 85 
 
 "Thou too, sail on, ship of state ! 
 Sail on, Union, strong and great I 
 Humanity, with all its fears. 
 With all its hopes of future years. 
 Is hanging hreathless on thy fate ! 
 We know what master laid thy keel. 
 What worlimen wrought thy ribs of steel ; 
 Who made each mast, and sail, and rope, 
 What anvils rang, what hammers beat ; 
 In what a forge and what a heat 
 Were shaped the anchors of thy hope ! 
 Fear not each sudden sound and shock — 
 'T is of the wave and not the rock ; 
 'T is but the flapping ol the sail. 
 And not a rent made by the gale ! 
 In spite of rock and tempest roar, 
 In spite of false lights on the shore. 
 Sail on, nor fear to breast the sea ! 
 Our hearts, our hopes, are all with thee ; 
 Oiu" hearts, our hopes, our prayers, our tears. 
 Our faith triumphant o'er our fears. 
 Are all with thee, are all with thee."- 
 
 Some of our finest literature is in the form of allegory. Pope's 
 "Temple of Fame," Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress," Spenser's 
 " Faerie Queene," Swift's "Taleof aTub" and " Gulliver's Travels " 
 are long allegories. Several examples are found in the. ' ' Spectator " ; 
 as, "The Vision of Mirza," 159; "The Paradise of Fools," 460; 
 " Luxury and Avarice," 55. 
 
 The chief dangers in allegorical writing are confusion and obscurity. 
 The metaphor must be developed with consistency, and this re- 
 quires considerable skill. An allegory becomes an enigma when it 
 is difB.cult to understand. 
 
 (5) A Synecdoche (from the Greek a6v, syn, with, and 
 lx5eXsa6at, to receive) is a word which expresses either 
 more or less than it literally denotes. This figure is 
 founded on contiguity. It has three principal forms : (1) 
 apart is put for the whole of an object ; as, "All hands 
 [that is, all the men] were at work " ; (2) the whole is put 
 for apart; as, "The world [that is, people generally] 
 knows his virtue " ; (3) the material is put for the thing 
 
8G THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 itself; as, "The marble [that is, the marble statue] is 
 one of the finest specimens of art." 
 
 The advantage of synecdoche seems to lie in its limitation of the 
 attention to that particular which we wish to emphasize. It is a 
 natural expedient for clothing thought in a dress of specific and 
 concrete words. 
 
 (6) A Metonymy (from the Greek [tsta, meta, indicat- 
 ing change, and ovona, onyma, name) is a designation of 
 an object by one of its accompaniments. Ehetoricians 
 have divided and subdivided metonymies until the most 
 capacious memory would be taxed to i-etain them. A 
 threefold classification will suffice for our purpose. (1) 
 The effect is put for the cause, or the cause is put for the 
 effect; as, '' Gaji gray hairs [that is, the cause, old age] 
 make folly venerable ?" (2) The sign is put for the tiling 
 signified; as, "The pen [literary power] is mightier 
 than the sword [military power]." (3) The container is 
 put for the thing contained ; as, "The House [that is, its 
 occupants] is corrupt." 
 
 Metonymy, like synecdoche, is hased on the contignity of two ohjeots 
 of thought in time or space. This explains many of the anomalous 
 uses of words. Thus we say, "Baise the window" and "He carae 
 in through the mndow.'' The word "window" evidently means 
 different things in the two sentences. In the first, it means the 
 saah; in the second the opening which the sash fills. Door, in like 
 manner, means both the doorway and the pand which iiUs it. Gold 
 means both the state of temperature which causes the sensation 
 called cold, and also the sensation itself. Heat is used in a similar 
 way. We say that a man puts shot into his gun; we then speak of 
 bearing his shot ; we then declare that he killed a bird a good shot 
 ofi; and, finally, we call the marksman himself an excellent shot! 
 
STYLE. 87 
 
 (7) An Exclamation (from the Latin ex, out, and cla- 
 mdre, to cry) is properly a vocal expression of feeling. It 
 is also applied to written forms which are intended to ex- 
 press emotion. An exclamation is as natural as any other 
 form of expression, and is figurative only when used to 
 convey a thought in the form of an emotional outburst. 
 The interjections " Oh !" "Alas !" etc., are not figures. 
 An exclamation is figurative when what would ordinarily 
 be expressed as a simple declarative sentence is thrown 
 into the interjectional form ; as, " What a piece of work 
 is man ! how noble in reason ! how infinite in faculties ! " 
 
 The ordinary way of expressing the thought would be, "Man is a 
 wonderful work ; noble in reason, infinite in faculties." The vivid 
 conception of the thought excites feeling, and this, mingling with 
 the mere thought-element, produces the exclamatory form. Such a 
 figure evidently belongs to poetry and animated oratory rather than 
 to the sober declarations of ordinary language. 
 
 (8) An Hyperbole (from the Greek oTcep, Jiyper, beyond, 
 
 and paXXstv, ballein, to throw) is an exaggerated form of 
 
 statement. It consists in magnifying an object ; as, "He 
 
 was a man of boundless knowledge " ; or in diminishing 
 
 an object ; as, "His soul grew restless in its half acre of 
 
 existence." 
 
 " In sanguine temperaments or impulsive natures," says Graham, 
 "this tendency to exaggerate is very common. With some persons, 
 everything is magnificent! splendid! sublime! ! a/wfuZ!! ! They 
 never condescend to use more ordinary or moderate terms. They 
 seem always on stilts, raised above common mortals. Sometimes 
 they will carry this feeling so far as to make use — no doubt uncon- 
 sciously — of contradictory terms. Such as 'immensely small,' 'ex- 
 quisitely ugly,' ' sublime nonsense,' etc. And such expressions are 
 not confined to their spoken language, but find their way into what- 
 
88 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 ever they may be called upon to write. It is harilly necessary to 
 state that this practice is stronfjly to be reproved. When we ex- 
 haust the superlatives of our language on trivial objects, or common 
 occasions, what is to be done for terms fitted to express the really 
 great or sublime? Besides, morally speaking, it has a pernicious 
 effect ; for when we once contract the habit of indulging in exagger- 
 ated language, no one knows how far it may carry us beyond the 
 bounds of truth." 
 
 A form of expression directly opposite to hyperbole is called 
 Litotes. This consists in excessive modesty of statement; as, "1 do 
 not think him a great man," meaning that the person spoken of is 
 not only not great, but even inferior to most men. This form of 
 expression has not always this intent. 
 
 (9) An Apostrophe (from the Greek kzo, apo, from, and 
 OTps<j)si.v, strephein, to turn) is a direct address to the ab- 
 sent as present, the inanimate as living, or the abstract 
 as personal. It is closely allied with personification, with 
 which it is often combined. The following are examples : 
 " 0, father Abraham! what these Christians are I" "My 
 country, 'tis of thee." 
 
 ** Presumptuous man ! the reason would'st thou find 
 Why formed so weak, so little, and so blind?" 
 
 This figure is expressive of strong feeling, and hence should be 
 used only when the reader or hearer is already under the influence 
 of some emotion. It is chiefly found in poetry and oratory. 
 
 (10) Vision (from the Latin videre, to see) is a figure 
 in which the past or the future is conceived of as present. 
 It is appropriate to animated description, as it produces 
 the effect of an ideal presence. Chatham uses vision 
 when he says : " Prom the tapestry that adorns these 
 walls, the immortal ancestor of this noble lord frowns 
 with indignation at the disgrace of his country." 
 
STYLE. 89 
 
 Lord Karnes thus explains the value of ideal presence : 
 
 "Upon the whole, it is by means of ideal presence that our passions are ex- 
 cited ; and till words produce that charm, they avail nothing : even real events 
 entitled to our belief must be conceived present and passing in our sight, before 
 they can move us. And this theory serves to explain several phenomena other- 
 wise unaccountable. A misfortune happening to a stranger makes a less impres- 
 sion than one happening to a man we know, even where we are no way interested 
 in him ; our acquaintance with this man, however slight, aids the conception of 
 his suffering in our presence. For the same reason, we are little moved by any 
 distant event ; because we have more difficulty to conceive it present, than an 
 event that happened in our neighborhood." 
 
 (11) An Antithesis (from the Greek avTi, anti, against, 
 and TiGsvat, titlienai, to set) is a form of expression which 
 impresses an idea upon the mind by bringing opposites 
 into one conception ; as, " Gold cannot make a man 
 happy, any more than rags can make him miserable." 
 The proper form of the antithesis is the balanced sentence, 
 as in the example. There may be antithesis of thought, 
 however, without the balanced sentence. 
 
 The following from Lord Jeffrey's description of the steam-engine 
 is a fine example of antitliesis in thought, and, to a certain extent, in 
 expression: 
 
 " It has become a thing stupendous alike for its force and its flexibility ; for 
 the prodigious power which it can exert ; and the ease, precision and ductility 
 with which it can be varied, distributed and applied. The trunk of an elephant, 
 that can pick up a pin or rend an oak, is as nothing to it. It can engrave a seal, 
 and crusli masses of obdurate metal before it ; draw out, without breaking, a 
 thread as fine as a gossamer ; and lift up a ship of war, like a bauble in the air. 
 It can embroider muslin, and forge anchors ; cut steel into ribands, and impel 
 loaded vessels against the fury of the winds and waves." 
 
 (12) Climax (from the Greek y«Xi[j,aS, klimax, a ladder) 
 consists of such an arrangement of ideas in a series as to 
 secure a gradual increase of impressiveness ; as, "Since 
 concord was lost, friendship was lost; fidelity was lost; 
 liberty was lost; — all was lost ! " 
 
90 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 The following impressive climax occurs in one of the speeches of 
 Edmund Burke : 
 
 "For eighteen months, without intermission, this destruction raged from the 
 gates of Madras to the gates of Tanjore ; and so completely did these masters in 
 their art, Hyder All and his ferocious son, absolve themselves of their impious 
 vow,, that, when the British armies traversed, as they did, the Carnatic, for hun- 
 dreds of miles in all directions, through the whole line of their march, they did 
 not see one man, not one woman, not one child, not one four-fcoted beast of any 
 description whatever. One dead, uniform silence reigned over the whole region." 
 
 The opposite of climax is Anti-climax. In this form of expres- 
 sion the idea becomes less and less impressive; as, "The enemy is 
 now hovering upon our borders, preparing to press the knife to our 
 throats, to devastate our fields, to quarter themselves in our houses, 
 and to devour our poultry ! " 
 
 (13) Epigram (from the Greek Itci, epi, and Ypatjjstv, gra- 
 phein, to write) at first meant an inscription on a monu- 
 ment. Hence it came to signify any pointed expression. 
 As a figure of speech, it now means a statement in which 
 there is an apparent contradiction between tlie sense and 
 the form of words; as, "Some are too foolish to commit 
 follies." 
 
 (14) Interrogation (from tlie Latin interrogatio, a ques- 
 tion) is not always figurative. It is' a figure when an 
 affirmation is expressed in the form of a question; as, 
 " Shall not the Judge of all the earth do right ?" This 
 r|uestion is intended to be an emphatic declaration that 
 the Judge of all the earth will do right. 
 
 (15) Irony (from the Greek stpwvsta, eironeia. dissimu- 
 lation) is a form of expression in which the opposite is 
 substituted for what is intended, with the design that its 
 falsity or absurdity may be evident; as, "Brutus is an 
 honorable man." 
 
STYLE. 91 
 
 The following distinctions are worth noting: Bidicule implies 
 laugliLer mingled witli coiitemijt; derision is ridicule from a per- 
 sonal feeling of iiostility; mockery ia insulting derision; satire is 
 witty mockery; irony is disguised satire; sarcasm is bitter satire. 
 These distinctions serve to point out the chief differences between 
 the terms. 
 
 5. Rules for Figures. 
 
 As considerable skill is required in using figurative lan- 
 guage correctly and effectively, the following rules should 
 receive careful attention. 
 
 (1) Figures should always add either clearness or impres- 
 siveness to what they illustrate. Hence they should not 
 be founded on resemblances either too obvious or too 
 obscure. 
 
 There are certain trite metaphors which add nothing to ex- 
 pression, because they have lost by continual use all freshness and 
 force. Thus the "raven tresses," "ivory brow," "lily hand," "ruby 
 lips," etc., of cheap novels, have no rhetorical value; but indicate an 
 uncultivated taste. 
 
 There is no advantage in remote resemblances, borrowed from some 
 special art or science, an unfamiliar historical occurrence, or an 
 obscure mythological story. 
 
 (2) Figures should be in harmony with the character and 
 purpose of the composition. Poetical figures, such as per- 
 sonification, apostrophe and vision, have no place in sober 
 prose. Similes and metaphors should be in keeping with 
 the dignity or playfulness of the style. 
 
 Similes, for example, being founded on resemblance, imply a cer- 
 tain coolness in using them ; for it is natural, in a state of strong 
 feeling, to overlook resemblances. Hence similes are out of place in 
 the midst of a passionate utterance, as when Shakespeare makes 
 Rutland, under terror of instant death, say 
 
92 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 '*So looks the pent-up lion o'er the wretch 
 That trembles under his devouring pains. 
 And so he walks insulting o'er his prey. 
 And so he comes to rend his limbs asunder. 
 Ah ! gentle Clifford, kill me with thy sword, 
 And not with such a cruel threat'ning look." 
 
 Such a violent hyperbole as the following is out of place in ! 
 mere description. 
 
 *' I found her on the floor, 
 In all the storm of grief, yet beautiful ; 
 Pouring forth tears at such a lavish rate, 
 That, were the world on tire, they might have drowned 
 The wrath of heaven, and quenched tiie mighty ruin." 
 
 (3) Figures shoTild be varied. , A single figure carried 
 too far, a close adherence to one kind of figures, and a re- 
 sort to one class of objects for figurative expressions, are 
 faults which are common among inexperienced writers. 
 
 When figures are carried too far, they are said to be strained. 
 Much practice in writing is required before we learn just where to 
 leave a metaphor or a simile to the imagination of the reader. 
 Smollett, in his "History of England," says, "The bill underwent 
 a great number of alterations and amendments, which were not 
 effected without violent contest; at length, however, it vms floated 
 through both Houses of Parliament on the tide of a great majority, 
 and steered into a safe harbor of royal approbation." 
 
 (4:) Metaphors should never be incongruous. Lord 
 Castlereagh's sentence, "And now, sir, I must embark 
 into the feature on which this subject hinges," combines 
 three metaphors which are incompatible. Such meta- 
 phors are ^3aid to be mixed. 
 
 This kind of confusion is often brought about by using in the 
 same sentence two different metaphors, which taken separately would 
 be unobjectionable ; as, — 
 
BTYLE. 93 
 
 "Though in their corrupt notions of divine worship, they are apt 
 to multiply their gods, yet their earthly devotion is seldom paid to 
 above one idol at a time, whose oar they pull with less murmuring 
 and more skill than when they share the lading, or even hold the 
 helm." Here the demagogue is made first an idol and then a hoat, 
 and worshiping and rowing are confnsingly mixed. 
 
 (5) Metaphorical expressions should not be blended with 
 plain language. This fault is quite as great as that of 
 mixing metaphors. Dryden exemplifies this kind of con- 
 fusion in the following : "I was sailing in a vast ocean, 
 without othei- help than the pole star of the ancients, and 
 the rules of the French stage among the moderns." 
 
 Lord EUesmere says of Sobieski, " He flung his powerful frame 
 into the saddle, and his great soul into the cause.'' 
 
 In this section on "Figures," ■we liave consid- 
 ered.: 
 
 (i) The Definition of Figures. 
 (f ) The, Origin of Figures. 
 {3) The Advantages of Figures. 
 {4) The Kinds of Figures. 
 {5) Mules for Figures: 
 
 SECTIOlSr V. 
 
 Vaeiatioit of Expressiok. 
 
 1. Importance of Variety. 
 
 Next to a clear and forcible communication of thought, 
 variety of expression is desirable. It not only displays 
 wealth of artistic resources in the composer, but adds 
 
94 TEE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 greatly to the pleasure of the reader or hearer. We soon 
 grow weary of one thing. As Nature has provided liber- 
 ally for our enjoyment by her boundless variety, so Art 
 should strive to please by the novelty and diversity of her 
 products. 
 
 "If we would keep up the attention of the reader or hearer, if we 
 would preserve vivacity and strength in our composition," says 
 Blair, "we must be very attentive to vary onr measures. This regards 
 the distribution of the members as well hs the cadence of the period. 
 Sentences constructed in a similar manner, with the pauses falling 
 at equal intervals, should never follow one another. Short sen- 
 tences should be intermixed with long and swelling ones, to render 
 discourse sprightly as well as magnificent. Even discords, properly 
 introduced, abrupt sounds, departures from regular cadence, have 
 sometimes a good effect. Monotony is the great fault into which 
 writers are apt to fall, who are fond of harmonious arrangement; 
 and to have only one tune or measure is not much better than hav- 
 ing none at all. A very vulgar ear will enable a writer to catch 
 some one melody, and to form the run of his sentences according to 
 it, which soon proves disgusting. But a just and correct ear is 
 requisite for varying and diversifying the melody, and hence we 
 so seldom meet with authors who are remarkably happy in this 
 respect." 
 
 2. Kinds of Variation. 
 
 There are two principal ways of varying expression : 
 (1) by changing the Diction, and (2) by changing the 
 Structure of a sentence. These kinds of variation will be 
 fully illustrated. 
 
 3. Variation of Diction. 
 
 The following are the methods of changing the Diction 
 without essential alteration in the sense. 
 
 (1) The expression may be varied by using synonyms. 
 Our language, composed as it is of botli Saxon and Latin 
 
STYLE. 95 
 
 elements, affords unusual facility for this kind of varia- 
 tion. Thus wo may say, " Our relations am friendly '' ; or 
 "Our relations are amicable." In general, Saxon terms 
 should be preferred, as being stronger and more familiar. 
 Latin derivatives, however, often lend more harmony and 
 dignity to the sentence. 
 
 It was once a common mode of expression to use both a, Saxon and a 
 Latin word, so as to give perfect oleai-iiess to the thought. Thus the 
 compilers of the Liturgy, being anxious to reach every understand- 
 ing, at a time when the language was not settled, used such couples 
 of words as, "acknowledge and confess," "dissemble and cloke," 
 "humble and lowly," -'goodness and mercy," "assemble and meet 
 together." Such a style is still employed by many who speak to 
 mixed audiences, but does not deserve to be cultivated. 
 
 (3) Expression may be varied by denying the contrary of 
 a proposition. This is done by using a negative with a 
 word meaning the opposite of the one previously used ; 
 as, "It is difficult to write anything new"; which, 
 changed, becomes, "It is 'not easy to write anything 
 new." 
 
 When tne form of expression is rendered more mild, as it often Is, 
 it is called a Euphemism ; as, " He was no hero " : for, " He was a cow- 
 ard." This is considered by some as a figure of speech. It differs 
 very little from Litotes. 
 
 The euphemistic style of speaking may be carried to a ridiculous 
 extreme. 
 
 (3) Expression may be varied by circumlocution (from 
 the Latin circum, around, and loqui, to speak). By this 
 method that is said in a roundabou t way which might be 
 said directly; as, "The celestial dome"; for, "The 
 sky"; " The terrestrial sphere " ; for, "The earth." This 
 mode of variation is not usually coaducive to energy. 
 
96 
 
 TEE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 The cuItiTation of this kind of variation is likely to lead to an inflated 
 verbosity. White aiimsingly illustrates the fault as follows: ""OFi.' 
 said a charming and highly cultivated woman, speaking in my hear- 
 ing of one of her own sex of inferior breeding and position, but who 
 was making literary pretensions; 'Oh, save me from talking willi 
 that woman ! If you ask her to come and see you, she never says she 's 
 sorry nhe can't come, but that she regrets that the mvltipUcity of her 
 engagements precludes her from accepting your polite invitation.' '' 
 
 (4) Expression may be varied by recasting the sentence. 
 
 This mode of changing the form of statement is often the 
 only one which will preserve the original meaning. Prac- 
 tice alone will enable the learner to throw a given sen- 
 tence into all possible forms. The following illustration 
 serves to exemplify this mode of variation : 
 
 Theme : Man is mortal. 
 
 1. Man is not to live forever. 
 
 2. Man must die. 
 
 3. Man's mortality is certain. 
 
 4. The grave awaits all men. 
 
 5. Humanity is doomed to die. 
 
 6. Mortality is the universal decree. 
 
 7. Death ends every career. 
 
 8. The end of man is death. 
 
 9. The death-penalty has been passed upon all 
 men. 
 
 10. We are all destined to fill a tomb. 
 
 11. The narrow house is the final guest-chamber of 
 all. 
 
 13. Death sways his scepter over every life. 
 
 It will be observed that some of these sentences are better than 
 others. Some are crude and commonplace; some are figurative: 
 some are deficient in clearness. This difference shows why it is 
 that the perfection of expression requires elaboration. Manv of the 
 best writers compare the foi'm of sentence that they have chosen 
 with every other admissible form before they finally adopt it. Says 
 the poet Cowper, "To touch and retouch is, though some boast of neg- 
 
 Vamations. ■ 
 
STYLE. 97 
 
 ligeace tiud otliers would be ashamed to show their foul copies, the 
 secretof almost all good writing, especially in verse. . . . What- 
 ever faults I may 'be chargeable with as a poet, I cannot accuse my- 
 self of negligence. I nmer suffer a line to pass until Ihome made it 
 as good as lean.'' 
 
 4. Variation of Structure. 
 
 The following are the modes of changing the structure 
 of a sentence without destroying its meaning: 
 
 (1) Expression may be varied by using a question in- 
 stead of a declaration. We have already seen that the 
 interrogative form not only asks a question, but that it 
 also serves to express an emphatic statement. Additional 
 force is given by using the interrogative form. Thus, 
 " Shall we do evil that good may come ?" is a more forci- 
 ble sentence than, " We should not do evil that good may 
 come." 
 
 The interrogative form is not always more forcible than the 
 declarative. In cases where the question starts a doubt, or where 
 the reader or hearer cannot instantly give a mental answer, the 
 question is a weak form of assertion, even if it be understood as an 
 assertion. 
 
 (2) Expression may be varied by using an exclamation 
 instead of a declaration. This form will generally imply 
 some emotion on the part of the composer. This will 
 render it unsuitable in many instances. In many cases, 
 however, the exclamatory form is preferable to the declar- 
 ative. Thus, "How sublime is the midnight sky!'' is 
 more animated than, "The midnight sky is sublime." 
 
 The verb is often omitted in exclamatory sentences; as, "What 
 noble conduct!" This is equivalent to, '■ What noble conduct this 
 is!" and this is the exclamatory form of the declaration, " This con- 
 duct is noble." 
 
98 THE ELLMENTS OF liMETOBIC. 
 
 (3) Expression may be varied by changing the voice of a 
 verb. The active may be substituted for, the passive, or 
 the passive for the active. Thus: Active, "A tax on 
 tea provoked the American colonists to violence." Pas- 
 sive, "The American colonists were provoked to violence 
 by a tax ou tea. " 
 
 (4) Expression may be varied by nsing "there" or "it." 
 
 Sometimes the effect of this variation is to weaken the 
 sentence by the introduction of the expletives. Emphasis 
 is sometimes gained by using these words, as the logical 
 subject of the sentence is made more prominent by its 
 unusual position. Thus, " There are two tall cliffs on the 
 mountain," is more forcible and more idiomatic than 
 " Two tall cliffs are on the mountain." 
 
 (5) Expression may be varied by substituting the direct 
 
 for the indirect form of statement. The direct form gives 
 
 the exact words of a speaker; as, " Socrates said, ' I believe 
 
 that the soul is immortal.'" The indirect form gives the 
 
 words as reported by another ; as, " Socrates said that he 
 
 believed the soul is immortal." 
 
 In the dirsct farm the exact words used mast be inclosed in marks of 
 quotation. In changing from the direct to the indirect form, the third 
 person takes the place of the first, and the past tense takes the place 
 of the present. 
 
 (6) Expression may be varied by a transposition of 
 parts. The customary or grammatical order in a sentence 
 may be changed for the sake of emphasis, and in poetry 
 the utmost freedom is allowed for the sake of rhyme and 
 meter. Compare the following examples : 
 
STYLE. 
 
 Poetical Ordee. 
 While stands the Coliseum 
 Rome shall stand. 
 
 Few and short were the prayers 
 we said. 
 
 Lands he could measure, times 
 and tides presage. 
 
 Grammatical Order. 
 
 While the Coliseum stands, 
 Rome shall stand. 
 
 Theprayers wu said were few 
 and short. 
 
 He could measure lands [and] 
 presage times and <jto. 
 
 The translation of poetical into ordinary prosaic language is called 
 Metaphrase. An amplification, retaining or explaining the sense, is 
 called Paraphrase. 
 
 (7) Expression may be varied by abridging clauses into 
 phrases or words. This process is of great value in show- 
 ing how complex sentences are but expansions of simple 
 sentences. Clauses are (1) Adverbial Clauses, which are 
 equivalent to an adverb ; (2) Adjective Clauses, which are 
 equivalent to an adjective ; (3) Substantive Clauses, which 
 are equivalent to a noun. The following substitutions 
 illustrate the principal methods of variation by this plan: 
 
 Adverbial 
 
 Clauses. 
 
 1. When profits are small — Profits being small. 
 
 2. When the war has ceascd= The wa/r ha/oing ceased. 
 
 3. As I was hopeful = I being hopeful. 
 
 4. Before he departed — Before his departure. 
 
 5. If this is true = This being true. 
 
 6. He bought it that he might use it = He bought it 
 to use. 
 
 / 1. A hope that must not be blighted = A hope not to be 
 
 Adjective 
 
 Clauses. 
 
 2. A horse which is valuable = A valuable horse. 
 
 3. The house where the river turns = The house at 
 
 the turn of the river. 
 
 4. The age when Luther died = The age of Luther.* 
 
 5. The States that rebelled = The rebellious States.* 
 
 6. He gives the reason why he does not work = He 
 
 gives the reason of his not working. 
 
 * These last expressions are less precise than those first given. 
 
100 
 
 THM ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Substantive / 
 Clauses. \ 
 
 1. Plato's desire was tluit Tie might make the world 
 better = Plato's desire was to m,ake the world 
 better. 
 
 3. That he liopes much is encouraging = His hoping 
 much is encouraging. 
 
 3. We know that the stm-i are suns = We know 
 
 tlie stars to be suns. 
 
 4. I recommend tliat you study Shakespeare = 1 
 
 recommend you to study Shakespeare. 
 
 5. He knew that we had gone = He knew of our 
 
 homing gone. 
 
 In this section, on " Variation of Expression," we 
 have considered : 
 
 (1) The ImpoHance of Variety. 
 {2) Kinds of Variation. 
 {3) The Variation of Diction. 
 {4) The Variation of Structure. 
 
CHAPTEE III. 
 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 
 
 1. The Preparation of Manuscripts. 
 
 In addition to the composition of an essay according 
 to the principles of invention and style already laid down, 
 it is necessary to prepare the manuscript for the reader or 
 -printer. This involres Punctuation, or the division of a 
 composition by significant marks so as to show the de- 
 pendence of its parts ; and the use of Capitals, by which 
 words and sentences are distinguished. 
 
 The great value of these mechanical aids to clearness may be 
 seen from the following illustrations : 
 
 A blacksmith passing a barber's window observed an unpunc- 
 tuated placard, which he read as if pointed thus: 
 
 "What do you think? — 
 I 'll shave tou fob nothino, 
 And give you a drink." 
 
 Entering the shop, he had his heavy beard removed, and then 
 coolly demanded the liquor. The barber, on the other hand, claimed 
 payment, and when the blacksmith referred him to his placard, at 
 once went to it, and read thus : 
 
 "What ! do you think 
 I 'll shave you for nothing. 
 And give you a drink ? " 
 
 An English statesman, having accused an official of dishonesty, 
 was required to make a public retraction of the charge. He read his 
 
102 THE ELEMENTS OF BBETOEIO. 
 
 apology thus: " I sai.l he was dishonest, it is true; and I am sorry 
 for it." To the surprise ot those who had accepted it as satisfaet-ory, 
 it appeared thus in the daily papers: "I said he was dishonest; it 
 is true, and I am sorry for it." 
 
 The value ot capitals in connection with points and spaces is seen 
 from the three forms of the following sentence: 
 
 I-IERELIESTHEGREATPALSEMARBLEWHERENOTHING 
 BUTSORDIDDUSTLIESHERE. 
 
 " Here lies the great." — False marble! where? 
 Nothing but sordid dust lies here. 
 
 2. The Purpose of Punctuation. 
 
 Punctuation aims chiefly to mark the grammatical con- 
 nection and dependence of the parts of a comj^osition. It 
 was once taught that points were mainly intended to aid 
 in reading. Their use in elocution is now generally con- 
 ceded to be merely incidental. They show the grammati- 
 cal sense of a composition, with some of the rhetorical 
 force, but do not mark the actual pauses in delivery. 
 
 That the same markj do not exhibit the grammatical dependence and 
 the elocutionary pauses, is evident from the following example. Wil- 
 son, in his " Treatise on Punctuation," pointing for the printer, 
 punctuates the following passage thus: 
 
 " Men of superior genius, while they see the rest of mankind painfuUf strug- 
 gling to comprehend obvious truths, glance themselves through the most remote 
 consequences, like lightning through a path that cannot be traced. They see the 
 beauties of nature with light and warmth, and paint them forcibly without effort, 
 as the morning sun does the scene he rises upon ; and, in several instances, com- 
 municate to objects a morning freshness and unaccountable lustre that is not 
 seen in the creations of nature. The poet, the statuary, the painter, have pro- 
 duced images tliat left nature far behind." 
 
 According to the system used in Vandenhoff's "Art of Elocution," 
 the same passage, marked for effective and appropriate delivery, 
 would stand thus : 
 
PU2iCTUAT10N AND CAPITALS. 103 
 
 "Men of superior genius; while tliey see the rest of mankind, painfully 
 struggling, to comprehend obvious truths ; glance, themselves, through tlie most 
 remote consequences : like lightning, through a path that cannot be traced ; 
 they see the beauties of nature, with liglit and warmth, and paint them forcibly, 
 witliout effort ; as the morning sun, does the scene he rises upon ; and in gen- 
 eral Instances, communicate to objects, a morning freshness, and unaccountable 
 lustre, that is not seen in the creations of nature. The poet, the statuary, the 
 painter, have produced images, that left nature far behind," 
 
 3. Classlflcation of tlie Points. 
 
 It is impossible to classify with exactness the various 
 marks used in punctuation, but the following division will 
 prove convenient : 
 
 (1) Four points are strictly Grammatical, being used 
 only to mark grammatical relations. They are 
 
 1. The Comma, [,] 
 
 2. The Semicolon, [;] 
 
 3. The Colon, [:] 
 
 4. The Pbeiod. [.] 
 
 (2) Five others are used to exhibit the rhetorical force 
 of the sentence, and may be called the Rhetorical points. 
 
 They are 
 
 1. The Inteerogation", [?] 
 
 2. The Exclamation, [!] 
 
 3. The Dash, [— ] 
 
 4. The Paren-thesis, [( )J 
 
 5. The Ql'Otationt. [" "] 
 
 (3) Many other marksara used to indicate various facts, 
 and these may be grouped together for convenience under 
 the head of Printers' Marks. 
 
 The sections of this chapter will be devoted to these 
 three classes of marks, the rules for Capitals, and the Cor- 
 rection of Proof Sheets. 
 
104 THE ELEMENTS OF BHETOBIC. 
 
 Most of the points mentioned above were unknown to the ancients. 
 Some of them were introduced in the third century before Christ, by 
 Aristophanes, a grammarian of Alexandria. They did not cyme into 
 general use, however, until about 1500 A. D., when Aldus Manutius, 
 11 learned and tasteful printer of Venice, began the publication of 
 the fine editions of the ancient classics which bear his name. 
 
 The names of the grammatical points were borrowed from the 
 kinds and parts of sentences recognized by the ancient rhetoricians. 
 Thus the Period (from the Greek irepioSoq, periodos, the way around) 
 •signified a complete circuit of words — that is, a complete sentence, in- 
 cluding snbject, copula, and predicate. The Colon (from the Greek 
 KiiXov, kolon, a member) was the greatest division of a [icriod. The 
 Semicolon (formed by prefixing the Latin semi, half, to the word 
 colon) was the greatest division of a colon. The Comma (from the 
 Greek Kd/i/ia, komma, a segment) was the least separate part of a 
 sentence except its constituent words and letters. The origin of these 
 tei'jns shows the natural use of the points named from them. 
 
 Two of the I'hetorical points have a history. The mark of Interro- 
 gation [?] is said to have been formed from the first and last letters of 
 the Latin word Questio, a question, written one above the other; thus, 
 %■ The Exclamation [!] is said to have baen formed from the Latin 
 word Jo, joy, written vertically; thus, L Most of the other marks 
 are arbitrary. Those having any known origin will be explained in 
 another place. 
 
 At first capitals alone were employed, and they were run together 
 without spaces or points, as in the illustration given above. Most 
 manuscripts were written in this way before the seventh century, 
 but small letters came into use about that time. The beautiful 
 printed page of to-day is the product of many centuries, and com- 
 bines all the devices of human ingenuity to please the eye and 
 express the sense. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 The Grammatical Points. 
 
 1. Rules for the Coiiima. 
 
 The Comma [,] is used to mark the least divisions of a 
 sentence. The following are the principal rules: 
 
PUNGTUATION AND CAPITALS. 105 
 
 R[JLE 1. — Parenthetical Expressions. — Expressions used 
 parenthetically should be inclosed by commas, if not 
 otherwise separated from the rest of the sentence ; as, 
 " ' Honesty,' as the proverb runs, ' is the best policy.' " 
 
 Expressions are parenthetical, when they intervene between the 
 related parts of a sentence, ami are not strictly essential to its mean- 
 ing. An expression is restrictive, when it limits some particular 
 word to some special sense. Thus, in the sentence, "The Romans 
 who conquered Greece were brave men," the italicized words may be 
 regarded as parenthetical or restrictive, according to the writer's 
 meaning. If he means that the Romans were brave men, and inci- 
 dentally throws in the statement that they conquered G-reece, the 
 expression is parenthetical, and should be pointed thus : "The Ro- 
 mans, who conquered Greece, were brave men." If the reference be 
 to the particular Romans who conquered Greece, the expression is 
 restrictive, and should either contain no commas, or have one after 
 "G-reece," to mark the logical subject. 
 
 The following words and phrases are generally parenthetical, and 
 should be set off bv commas: 
 
 accordingly, 
 
 in fact. 
 
 perhaps, 
 
 as it happens. 
 
 in fine, 
 
 surely. 
 
 as it were, 
 
 in reality. 
 
 then. 
 
 consequently. 
 
 in short, 
 
 therefore. 
 
 finally, 
 
 in truth, 
 
 too, 
 
 however, 
 
 moreover, 
 
 to be brief. 
 
 indeed, 
 
 namely. 
 
 to be sure, 
 
 in a word, 
 
 no doubt, 
 
 you know. 
 
 in brief, 
 
 of course, 
 
 
 Many of the above expressions may be used in two constructions, 
 the adverbial and the conjunctional. In the following, " however" 
 is adverbial: "However wise one is he may be unfortuiuite." In 
 the following it is conjunctional: "He was wise, however, but un- 
 fortunate." An adverbial word requires no commas. A conjunc- 
 tional word must be thus set off. 
 
 Words not parenthetical, yet placed at the beginning of a sen- 
 tence, and referring to it as ifl, whole, should be set off by a comma; 
 as, "Why, you are kind." "Yes, L think so.'' The following words 
 used in this way should be thus Fct ott» 
 
106 THE ELEMENTS OF EHETORIG. 
 
 again, 
 
 further. 
 
 well. 
 
 first, 
 
 nay, 
 
 why. 
 
 secondly, etc., 
 
 no, 
 
 yes. 
 
 Parenthetical expressions are sometimes separated from the rest 
 of the sentence by dashes, marks of p:irenthesis, and brackets. Tlio 
 marks of parenthesis are mnch less nsed than formerly, commas or 
 dashes taking their place. Parenthetical insertions are marked, ac- 
 cording to the closeness of the connection, as follows: 
 
 ;- ( ) [ ] 
 
 The commas indicate the closest connection; the brackets, the 
 remotest. 
 
 EuLE 3. — Words in Apposition. — Words nsed in apposi- 
 tion are set ofE by commas; as, "Shakespeare, tlie bard 
 of Avon, was born in 1564." 
 
 Words are in apposition when used as explanatory equivalents, 
 as in the example given above. 
 
 Words in the predicate, referring to the subject, after such verbs 
 as is, becomes, is ciiUed, is chosen, is considered, should not be sepa- 
 rated from the subject by a comma, unless separated from it by a 
 parenthetical expression. The following is right: "Milton has 
 been called the English Homer.'' 
 
 Brief and closely connected appositives should not be separated 
 from the nouns they describe; as, "John the evangelist." 
 
 EuLB 3. — Relative Clauses. — Eelative clauses, if not 
 restrictive, should be set off by commas ; as, " The Bible, 
 which is the simplest, is the profoundest of all books." 
 
 If several words are placed between the relative and its antece- 
 dent, even when the relative is restrictive, the relative should be 
 |>rece(Ied by a comma; as, "He is a man of much experience, who 
 has cross examined his own soul." 
 
 So also it should be preceded by a comma, when immediately fol- 
 lowed by an expression set off by commas; as, " The soldier, who. 
 
PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 107 
 
 without fear, oflEers Ms life for his country, deserves the admiration 
 of his fellows." 
 
 A relative with several antecedents should be preceded by a, 
 comma;, as, " No other can know the joys, sorrows, fears, and strug- 
 gles, which fill another's heart." 
 
 Rule 4. — Words in a Series. — In a series of words, of 
 the same part of speech, and in the same construction, a 
 comma should be placed between each two ; as, "Honor, 
 wealth, duty, and- safety are the leading motives of men." 
 
 When the conjunctions are expressed, the comma should be 
 omitted; as, "Let us freely drink in the soul of love and beauty 
 and wisdoiu from all nature and art and history." Some would 
 separate all these words by a comma between eMch two, but such is 
 not the best usage. 
 
 When the conjunction is omitted between the last two words in 
 a series, a comma must be placed after the last; as, "Let us try to 
 enrich, purify, ennoble, our minds." 
 
 A comma should not be placed after the last word of a series 
 when followed by a single word; as, "Life is a constant, responsi- 
 ble, unavoidable reality." 
 
 Care should be taken to avoid regarding words as in the same 
 grammatical construction because they happen to be tlie same parts' 
 of speech. In the expression, "A swift black hawk," the first, ad- 
 jective qualifies both the second adjective and the noun talcen to- 
 gether, and not simply the noun. It would be wrong to write the 
 expression, ■' A swift, black hawk." 
 
 Rule 5. — Continued Sentences. — Each simple coordi- 
 nate sentence or expression in a continued sentence, should 
 be followed by a comma ; as, " Science tunnels mountains, 
 spans continents, bridges seas, and weighs the stars." 
 
 If the coordinate elements of a sentence are complex, they must 
 be separated by semicolons; as, "Science, by the help of explosives, 
 tunnels mountains; by the power of steam, spans continents; by 
 the aid of the mariner's compass, bridges seas ; and, by her skill in 
 calculation, weighs the stars." 
 
108 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 EuLE 6. — Dependent Clauses. — Dependent clauses 
 should be set oflE by commas; as, "If the soul is im- 
 mortal, its character will determine its destiny." 
 
 A dependent clause is one that requires another to complete its 
 meaning. It is generally introduced by a conjunction; as, if, un- 
 less.untU, etc. Sometimes the conjunction is omitted, and the con- 
 dition implied by the context; as, " Were I Ca3sar. I would not be a 
 tyrant." When a clause is very closely connected with its principal 
 clause, or introduced by that, — unless removed at a consideralile 
 distance from the verb or preceded by in order, — the comma is 
 omitted; as, "He knew that it was wrong"; but "He used every 
 available form of assistance, that he might succeed"; and "He 
 reads, in order that he may gain knowledge." 
 
 EuLE 7. — Transposed Parts. — A part transposed from 
 the middle or end to the beginning of a sentence, should 
 be followed by a comma ; as, " To govern for a moment, 
 he betrays a sacred trust." 
 
 EuLE 8. — Logical Subject. — When the logical subject 
 of a sentence ends in a verb, or consists of parts subdi- 
 vided, by commas, or is very long, the subject should be 
 followed by a comma ; as, " Those who falter, fail." "A 
 life of folly, pleasure, and sin, ends in ruin." 
 
 EuLE 9. — Absolute Constructions. — Clauses in the ab- 
 solute construction should be separated from the rest of 
 the sentence by commas; as. "The doors being open, 1 
 saw far into the interior of the house." 
 
 EuLE 10. — Words in Pairs. — Words or expressions in 
 pairs should have a comma after each pair; as, "Hope 
 and despondency, joy and sorrow, pleasure and pain, 
 diversify life with their sudden contrasts." 
 
PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 109 
 
 EuLB 11. — Ellipsis of a Verb — When, in a continued 
 sentence, a common verb is omitted, its place is marked 
 by a~ comma ; as, "Homer was the greater genius ; Virgil, 
 the better artist." 
 
 EuLB 13.— Words in the Vocative. — ^ Words in the case 
 of address should be pointed ofE from the rest of the sen- 
 tence ; as, " I am sure, Henry, that you are right." " Sir, 
 I rise to ask a question." 
 
 EuLE 13. — Brief ftuotations. — A brief quotation, or a 
 sentence resembling a quotation, should be introduced by 
 a comma ; as, "The first words of the Bible are, 'In the 
 beginning God created the heaven and the earth. ' " "One 
 of the first lessons of a judicious education is. Learn to 
 think and to discriminate." 
 
 EuLE 14. — Numeral Figures. — N'umbers espressed in 
 figures, except dates, are punctuated according to the de- 
 cinial system, which requires a comma before every group 
 of three figures, beginning at the right; as, "The Eocky 
 Mountains rise 13,500 feet above the level of the ocean ; 
 the Andes, 31,440 feet." 
 
 When numerals are written in word', no commas are used. Thus, 
 the sentence given above would be written as follows: " The Rocky 
 Mountains rise twelve thousand five hundred feet above the level of 
 the ocean; the Andes, twenty-one thousand icur hundred and forty 
 feet." 
 
 2. Rules for a Semicolon. 
 
 The Semicolon [;] is used to mark the divisions of a 
 sentence next greater than those requiring a comma. The 
 following are the principal rules : 
 
110 THIS ELEMENTS OF BHETORIC. 
 
 Rule 1. — Short Sentences connected. — When several 
 connected short sentences, without grammatical depend- 
 ence, are written one after the other, they should be 
 divided by semicolons ; as, " There is good for the good ; 
 there is virtue for the virtuous ; there is victory for the 
 valiant ; there is spirituality for the spiritual." 
 
 The practice ol! writers differs in the cases covered by the rule. 
 Some insist on using a period in all such cases. One objection is 
 that it makes the p ige seem crowded with capitals. When there is 
 a very close connection, the period indicates less connection than the 
 case demands. In pi'actice, the comma, semicolon, colon, or period 
 is used, according to the closeness of the connection. 
 
 Rule 2. — Subdivided Members. — Members of sentences 
 subdivided by commas, unless very closely connected, 
 should be separated by semicolons; as, "Prosperity is 
 naturally, though not necessarily, attached to virtue and 
 merit ; adversity, to folly and vice." 
 
 Rule 3. — Added Clauses — When a clause stating a 
 reason, inference, or explanation is added to a complete 
 sentence, if introduced by a connecting word, the added 
 clause is preceded by a semicolon; as, " E.xaminations 
 are formidable even to the best prepared; for the great- 
 est fool may ask more questions than the wisest man 
 can answer." 
 
 When the connection is very close, a comma may be used. 
 
 An example, introduced to illustrate, when thus added, is pre- 
 ceded by <M with a semicolon before it, and a comma after it. Ob- 
 serve the illustrative examples added to these rules. 
 
 Rule 4. — Particulars in Apposition. — A general term 
 is separated from the particulars under it by a semicolon. 
 
PUNOTUATION AND CAPITALS. Ill 
 
 and these from each other by commas ; as, " To Greece 
 we are indebted for the three principal orders of archi- 
 tecture; the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian/' 
 
 When the terms in apposition are formally introduced and de- 
 scribed, the general term is followed by a colon and the particulars 
 are separated by semicolons; as, " Gi'aramar consists of four parts: 
 first. Orthography ; second, Etymology; third, Syntax ; and fourth, 
 ■Prosody." 
 
 Rule 5. — Common Dependence. — Clauses and expres- 
 sions in a series, having a common dependence upon 
 another clause, are separated from the common clatise by 
 a comma and a dash, and from each other by a semicolon ; 
 as, "If we think of glory in the iield; of wisdom in the 
 cabinet ; of the purest patriotism ^ of the highest integ- 
 rity, public and private ; of morals without a stain ; of 
 religious feelings without intolerance and without extrav- 
 agance, — the august figure of Washington presents itself 
 as the personation of all these ideas." 
 
 When the dependent clauses are not long, or not very numerous, 
 the dash may be omitted. 
 
 3. Rules for the Colon. 
 
 The Colon [:] is used to mark the divisions of a sen- 
 tence next greater than those requiring a semicolon. The 
 rules for its use are as follows : 
 
 Rule 1. — Sabdivided Members. — Memhers of sentences 
 subdivided by semicolons, unless numerous and complex, 
 should be separated by colons ; as, "A man can scarce 
 
112 THE ELEMENTS OF BEETOBIG. 
 
 allege his own merits with modesty, much less extol them ; 
 a man cannot sometimes brook to supplicate or beg ; and 
 a number of the like : but all these things are graceful in 
 a friend's mouth, which are blushing in his own." 
 
 Rule 3. — Sapplementary Clauses.^ A supplementary 
 clause, introduced without a conjunction, should be pre- 
 ceded by a colon ; as, " The present life is not wholly pro- 
 saic, precise, tame, and finite : to the gifted eye it abounds 
 in the poetic." 
 
 This case differs from that under Rule 3 for the Semicolon, in 
 omitting the oonjunction. The example used under that rule might 
 have the conjunction either expressed, as there written, or omitted. 
 If omittedr the example would fall under this rule. The Semicolon 
 is preferred, however, if the added clause depends on a verb in the 
 preceding. 
 
 Whenever expectation is raised that an addition will follow, the 
 colon is used, even when the first part is not a clause, but merely a 
 word. The adverbs yes or no are thus followed by a colon when they 
 are equivalent to an answer that is afterward expressed in full in re- 
 ply to a question ; as, ' ' Can RoUa's words add vigor to the virtuous 
 energies which inspire your heart? No : you have judged, as I have, 
 the foulness of the crafty plea by which these bold invaders would 
 delude you." 
 
 Rule 3. — Formal ftuotations. — A direct quotation, for- 
 mally introduced, should be preceded by a colon; as, "A 
 great philosopher makes this curious remark : ' It is pos- 
 sible that some creatures may think half an hour as long 
 as we do a thousand years.'" 
 
 When the quotation is long, or begins a new paragraph, the colon 
 maybe followed by a dash; as, "The speaker made the following 
 remarks: — 
 
 " ' Ladies and Gentlemen, the present occasion is one of great public 
 interest.' " 
 
PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 113 
 
 EuLE 4. — Titles of Books. — When an explanatory title 
 follows a main title and is in apposition with it, not being 
 introduced by or, the two are separated by a colon ; as, 
 "Esthetics : the Science of Beauty." 
 
 If or is used, a, semicolon is placed after the main title and a 
 comma after or ; as, " Esthetics; or, the Science of Beauty." 
 
 A colon was formerly used after the place of publication at the 
 foot of a title-page; as, "New York: Sheldon & Co." 
 
 4. Rules for the Period. 
 
 The Period [.] indicates a full stop. The rules for its 
 use are as follows : 
 
 Rule 1. — Complete Sentences. — Complete sentences 
 which are not exclamatory or interrogative, and not con- 
 nected in a series, should be closed with a period; as, "In 
 books, be it remembered, we have the best products of the 
 best minds. We should any of us esteem it a great priv- 
 ilege to pass an evening with Shakespeare or Bacon." 
 
 Parts of very long and complex sentences are sometimes separated 
 by a period. In strictness, sentences beginning with for, but, etc., 
 belong to the preceding sentence; but in practice are often printed 
 and pointed as separate sentences. 
 
 EuLE 2.— Abbreviations. — A period should be used 
 after every abbreviated word; as, "The Eev. C. A. 
 Smith, D. D., LL. D." 
 
 When an abbreviated word comes at the end of a sentence, only 
 one period is needed. When a comma or semicolon is used after the 
 abbreviation, however, the period is retained. 
 
 Some proper names which seem to be abbreviations are not really 
 such; as, "0 rare Ben Jonson." So also such names as Tom, Bill, 
 Jim. Some other words are really abbreviations, but have obtained 
 
114 THE ELEMENTS OF BHETOBIO. 
 
 a standing in the language as complete words; as, consols, from con- 
 solidate; cab, from cabriolet. 
 
 When letters are doubled, as in MM. for Messrs., LL. for legum, 
 pp. for pages, no period is put between them. Thus LL. D. (Legum 
 Doctor) should not be written L. L. D. 
 
 When Roman numerals are used, a period is usually placed after 
 the completed expression; as. Psalms iii., iv., v., and vl 
 
 KuLE 3. — Title-pages and Headings. — The most ap- 
 proved modern method is to omit all punctuation marks 
 from the title-pages of books, except after abbreviations. 
 A period is sometimes used on a title-page (1) after the 
 name and description of the book ; (2) after the author's 
 name with his titles ; (3) after the publisher's imprint. 
 It is used also after every heading and subhead, and 
 after signatures. Thus : "An Outline of the Necessary 
 Laws of Thought: a Treatise on Pure and Applied Logic. 
 By William Thompson, D.D., Provost of the Queen's Col- 
 lege, Oxford. New York : Sheldon and Company." See 
 the headings and subheads in this work. 
 
 SECTION IL 
 
 The Ehetorical Points. 
 1. Rules for the Interrogation Point. 
 
 The Mark of Interrogation [?] is used to ask or suggest 
 a question. The following are the principal rules: 
 
 Rule 1. — Direct Questions Every question admitting 
 
 of an answer, even when it is not expected, should be fol- 
 lowed by a mark of interrogation ; as, " Who does not 
 
PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 115 
 
 know how feeble and hollow British poetry had become in 
 the eighteenth century ? " 
 
 When several questions have a common • dependence, they should 
 be followed by one mark of interrogation at the end of the series ; as, 
 "Whither now are fled those dreams of greatness; those busy, bus- 
 tling days ; those gay -spent, festive nights ; those veering thoughts, 
 lost between good and ill, that shared thy life?" But when the 
 questions are distinct and separate, each should be followed by an 
 interrogation mark; as, "What is civilization? Where is it? What 
 does it consist in? By what is it excluded? Where does it com- 
 mence? Where does it end? By what sign is it known? How is 
 it defined?" 
 
 EuLB 3.- — Donbt. — -The mark of interrogation is some- 
 times parenthetically inserted to suggest doubt ; as, " In 
 1794 (?) France became a republic." 
 
 2. Rules for the Exclamation Point. 
 
 The Exclamation Point [ !] is used to indicate some kind 
 of emotion. The following are the chief rules : 
 
 EuLE 1. — With Interjections. — The exclamation point 
 is used with interjections and words or clauses used like 
 interjections; as, "Alas ! my doom is sealed." "What 
 noble institutions ! what a comprehensive policy ! what 
 wise equalization of every political advantage ! " 
 
 The difference between the interjections and oh is often over- 
 looked. The former is used with a noun in direct address; as, 
 "This, men of Athens! my duty prompted me to represent to 
 you." The latter is not commonly thus used in direct address. 
 is not properly followed by the exclamation mark placed immediately 
 after it, but oh is so followed, unless the emotion rims through 
 what follows; as, "Oh! I could be bound in a nutshell, and count 
 myself a king of infinite space, were it not that I have had bad 
 
116 THE ELEMENTS OF BEETORlC. 
 
 dreams." But when the strong feeling runs through the sentence, 
 the mark is reserved for the end; as, "Oh, how seldom has a pang 
 shot through our hearts at the sight of our ruined fellow-creatures! " 
 
 EuLE 3. — Strong Emotion. — The exclamation point is 
 used after an expression of strong emotion ; as, "Charge, 
 Chester, charge ! on, Stanley, on ! " 
 
 The tendency of young writers is to use this point to excess. 
 Many fancy that a lavish use of the signs of emotion lends anima- 
 tion to the style. The result is far different, for the insipidity is the 
 more evident by contrast with what the marks suggest. 
 
 Very intense emotion is sometimes expressed by repeating the 
 mark ; as, " Believe him ! ! I would rather credit Satan ! ! " 
 
 The exclamation point is often used to imply doubt or indicate 
 dissent. Sarcastic expressions are often thus marked. 
 
 3. Rules for the Dash. 
 
 The Dash [ — J is iised to mark some kind of a break 
 or interruption. 
 
 No other mark is so misunderstood and misused as the dash. 
 Many writers use it as a substitute for almost every other point. 
 This careless habit implies ignorance of the proper mode of point- 
 ing ; though it may be, in some cases, the result of a nervous ten- 
 dency to use the pen aimlessly, when it is not employed in its normal 
 work of writing down the words of a composition. Great caution is 
 necessary to avoid the over-use of this important mark. 
 
 EuLE 1.— Abrupt Changes — -A dash is used to mark a 
 sudden change in the construction or the sentiment; as, 
 "The heroes of the Eevolution — how do we regard their 
 memory ?" " Her soul was noble — in her own opinion." 
 
 EuLE 2. — Rhetorical Pauses — A dash is used to mark 
 a rhetorical pause or a suspension of the voice for effect ; 
 
PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 117 
 
 as, " Men will wrangle for religion, write for it, fig'.it for 
 it, anything but — live for it." 
 
 EuLE 3. — Rhetorical Repetition. — When a word or ex- 
 pression is repeated for rhetorical effect, a dash is used to 
 introduce the repetition ; as, "Newton was a Christian; 
 — Newton ! whose mind burst forth from the fetters cast 
 by nature on our finite conceptions; — Newton! whose 
 science was truth, and the foundation of whose knowledge 
 of it was philosophy." 
 
 This form of expression is called by elocutionists the echo. 
 
 The dash is often used even when the thought is repeated instead 
 of the exact words ; as, " Our own nature is the first and nearest of 
 all realities, — the corner-stone of the entire fabric of truth." 
 
 Other marks are used with the dash, as in the examples above ; 
 but these are omitted when the connection is close. 
 
 EuLE 4. — The Parenthetical Dash. — Parenthetical ex- 
 pressions, when closely connected with the rest of the 
 sentence, and yet less closely than would be indicated by 
 commas, are inclosed in dashes ; as, "There are times — 
 they only can understand who have known them — when 
 passion is dumb, and purest love maintains her own 
 dominion." 
 
 It requires considerable judgment to decide when to use dashes, 
 commas, marks of parenthesis, or the other points mentioned under 
 Rule 1 for the Comma. No absolute rule can be laid down on the 
 subject. 
 
 When marks of parenthesis have been used to inclose an expres- 
 sion which itself contains a parenthesis, dashes should be used to 
 mark the included parenthesis ; thus, — 
 
118 TBE ELEMENTS OF BHETOBIO. 
 
 " Sir Smug," he cried (for lowest at the hoard — 
 Just made fifth chaplain of his patron lord ; 
 His shoulders witnessing, by many a shrug, 
 How much his feelings suffered — sat Sir Smug), 
 "Your office is to winnow false from true : 
 Come, prophet, drink, and tell us what thinlc you." 
 
 Rule 5. — Omissions. — A dash is used to note the omis- 
 sions of letters or figures ; as, — 
 
 J n B n for John Brown. 
 
 1877-8 " 1877, 1878. 
 
 lake 14: 3-6 " Luke 14 : 3, 4, 5, R 
 
 An ellipsis of the words namely, that is, etc., is generally marked 
 by a dash ; as, "The essence ot all poetry may be said to consist in 
 three things, — invention, expression, inspiration." 
 
 Rule 6. — Dependent Expressions. — A series of expres- 
 sions, depending upon a subsequent part of a sentence, 
 should be followed by a dash at the end of the series; as, 
 ' ' The collision of mind with mind ; the tug and strain 
 of intellectual wrestling ; the tension of every mental fibre, 
 as the student reaches forth to take hold of the topmost 
 pinnacle of thought, — these make men." 
 
 Rule 7. — Headings and Authorities. — A dash should 
 be inserted between a title run in the line and the subject- 
 matter, as in this rule ; and also between the citation and 
 the authority for it ; as, " No character is perfect among 
 nations, more than among men." — Edward Everett. 
 
 When the name of the author is not in the same para- 
 graph, but on a line by itself, no dash is needed; as, — 
 
PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 119 
 
 "No charaeter is perfect among nations, more than among men, 
 but it must be conceded, that, of all the states of Europe, England has 
 been, from an early period, the most favored abode of liberty ; the 
 only part of Europe where, for any length of time, constitutional 
 liberty can be said to have a stable existence." 
 
 Edward Evbkett. 
 
 When, to save space, questions and answers are put in the same 
 paragraph, they should be separated by dashes ; as, Are you attentive 
 to this matter ? — Yes, sir. — Do you en j oy your labor upon it ? — I do. 
 
 4. Rule for the Parenthesis. 
 
 Marks of Parenthesis [( )] are used to separate expres- 
 sions inserted in the body of a sentence, but having no 
 essential connection with it. 
 
 The word parenthesis (from the Greek wapevdeaig, parentlieds, 
 insertion) means properly the part inserted. The same word is used 
 to signify the marks which inclose the inserted expression. It is 
 thought more precise to call the curved lines ma/rks of parenthesis, 
 in order to avoid confusion. But, as the words Comma, Colon, etc., 
 signify both the part pointed ofi and the point itself, either way of 
 speaking is justified by analogy. 
 
 BuLE. — Expressions which bi^ak the unity of a sen- 
 tence should be inclosed by markiJ of parenthesis ; as, 
 "The doctrine of the immortality of the soul was taught 
 explicitly (at least as explicitly as could be expected of an 
 ancient philosopher) by Socrates." 
 
 When no other mark would be required if there were no paren- 
 thesis, none should be used with the mark of parenthesis. But if 
 other marks would be used, they should precede or follow the marks 
 of parenthesis, according to the character of the parenthetical ex- 
 pression. When the words in parenthesis have a point of their own 
 after them, the point which would be used if there were no paren- 
 thesis is placed 'before the parenthesis, and the point belonging to 
 
120 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 the parenthesis is placed before the last mark of parenthesis; as, 
 "While the Chiistiaii desires the approbation of his fellow-men, (and 
 why should he not desire it?) he disdains to receiTe their good- will 
 by dishonorable means." When any point is necessary at the place 
 where the parenthesis is thrown in, and no point is required in the 
 ():irenthesis, the point should come a/ter the parent hesis ; as, "Pride 
 ill some disguise or other (often a secret to the proud man himself), 
 is the most ordinary spring of action among men.'' 
 
 In the reports of speeches, marks of parenthesis are used (1) to in- 
 close remarks of approval or disapproval by the audience, and (2) to 
 inclose the name of the persons indicated by gestures or otherwise; 
 as, " I wish to ask the gentleman from Ohio (Jlr. Thurman) a ques- 
 tion which he may not wish to answer in this place (hear, hear)." 
 
 Marks of parenthesis are also used to inclose numerals introduced 
 for the sake of a clear enumeration, as in the above paragraph. 
 Queries and doubts are also interpolated in the midst of a sentence 
 in a similar manner ; as, "In 1814 (?) Napoleon called himself King 
 (sic?) of the French." Here the interrogation after 1814 suggests a 
 doubt of the correctness of the date, and " «ic " (the Latin for thv^, 
 followed by the question mark, suggests the query whether the title 
 was " King " or something else, as Emperor. 
 
 5. Rules for the Quotation. 
 
 The Marks of Quotation [" "] are used to show that 
 
 the words inclosed by them are borrowed. 
 
 Punctuation and morality come into contact here, and the laws of 
 both very nearly coincide at this point. To omit the marks of quo- 
 tation is plagiarism, and plagiarism is a crime. In a composition 
 which is prepared for public delivery mere marks on the manuscript 
 are not sufficient. Distinct acknowledgment should be made in 
 words. Long quotations are objectionable, because they imply a 
 want of originality. If brief and appropriate, quotations add to 
 the richness and interest of a composition. 
 
 EuLE 1. —Direct Quotations. — A direct quotation should 
 be inclosed by quotation marks ; as, When Plato heard 
 that his enemies called him a bad man, he said : " I 
 shall take care so to live that no one will believe them. " 
 
PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 131 
 
 A direct quotation is one in which the exact language is reported. 
 When the lonu of expression is slightly altered, only one inverted 
 comma and apostrophe are used ; as, ' I shall try to live so that no 
 one will believe my calumniators.' When we make no pretension to 
 use the exact language, but give merely the substance in our own 
 words, the marks of quotation are unnecessary; as, It was Plato's 
 desire to live down the misrepresentations of his enemies. 
 
 Rule 2. — Quoted Quotations, — When a quotation is 
 embraced within another, the contained quotation has 
 only single marks ; as. Trench says, " What a lesson the 
 word 'diligence' contains." 
 
 When the internal quotation comes at the end, three apostrophes 
 are added with a space between the first and the last two; as, 
 "Channing, the friend of humanity in every condition and under 
 every garb, says : ' When I consider the greater simplicity of their 
 lives, and their greater openness to the spirit of Christianity, I am 
 not sui-e but that the "golden age" of manners is to begin among 
 those who are now despaired of for their want of refinement.' " The 
 pointing of a quotation within a quoted quotation is also shown in 
 the above example. 
 
 When a number of consecutive paragraphs are quoted, each para- 
 graph is commenced with inverted commas; but only the last takes 
 the apostrophes. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 Peinteks' Marks. 
 
 The moat important marks which have not been already mentioned 
 are here gi'ouped together, for convenience, in alphabetical order. 
 This section may be learned, or used for reference, as the teacher 
 may prefer. 
 
 (1) Accents. — Three marks called Accents are used to mark the 
 stress of voice on vowels. The Acute ['] denotes a rising tone of 
 voice, or sometimes a simple stress; the Grave [^] a falling tone, or 
 
133 THE ELEMENTS OP BUETOBIG. 
 
 that the final vowel over which it is placed, as in French words and 
 words ending in ed, is sounded; the Circumflex [a] that the vowel 
 over which it is placed is sounded with both a rising and a falling 
 tone, as the prolonged oh uttered in sarcasm. 
 
 (3) The Apostrophe. — The apostrophe ['] is used (1) to mark the 
 possessive case, and (3) to denote an omission; as, "Night's sable 
 mantle fell." "I 've made a time o' it." Plurals and words con- 
 taining many sibilants take the apostrophe without any s, to form 
 the possessive; as, "The Ages' voice speaks everlasting truth." 
 "Moses' ceremonial law." " Conscience' sake." 
 
 (3) Braces. — These are used to show that a number of individuals 
 are taken together as referring to something common ; as, — 
 
 {Orthography, 
 Etymology, 
 Syntax, 
 Prosody. 
 
 (4) Brackets. — When a parenthetical insertion is too little con- 
 nected with the text for inclusion in marks of parenthesis, Brackets 
 [ ] are used. Such cases are : (1) when a figured pronunciation is 
 given, as in dictionaries; (2) when explanatory or omitted words 
 are interpolated. 
 
 (.5) The Caret [^] is used in , manuscripts to mark the accidental 
 omission of a word or letter which has afterward been placed over 
 the line ; as, — 
 
 ate J 
 '.^ catcd bledtngd In didguide, 
 A A 
 
 (6) The Cedilla is a mark somewhat like a comma placed under the 
 letter c, when it has the sound of s before a or o, in words borrowed 
 from the French; as, facade [fasade]. 
 
 (7) Dieresis. — A Dieresis [ •• ] is a mark, formed of two dots, placed 
 over the second of two successive vowels, to show that they are 
 pronounced separately; as, coSperation. A hyphen is sometimes 
 used for the same purpose; as, co-operation. 
 
 (8) Ellipsis.— Marks of Ellipsis [ * * * * , ] are 
 
 used to denote the omission of letters, words, sentences, and para- 
 graphs. 
 
 (9) Emphasis. — Marks of Emphasis call special attention to some 
 statement. They are (1) the Index [HJ^"], and (3) the Asterism [***]. 
 
 'J^tfe'j 
 
PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 123 
 
 (10) The Hyphen. — This mark [-] is used (1) to connect the parts of 
 a compound word; as, text-iook : (2) to separate the syllables of a 
 word when spelled ; as, rev-e-la-tion : (3) to connect the parts of 
 words which are broken at the end of a line and carried over to the 
 next. 
 
 (11) Italics are letters inclined to the right. They owe their name 
 to the fact that they were first used by the Italian printers. They 
 are used (1) to mark an emphatic word ; and (2) in the English Bible, 
 to show that the words printed with them are not in the original. 
 
 In writing. Italics are indicated by drawing one line under the 
 word to be italicized. 
 
 The excessive use of Italics disfigures the printed page, and indi- 
 cates bad taste on the part of the writer. Judiciously used, how- 
 ever, they are of great value. 
 
 (12) Leaders are dots, used in tables of contents, to lead the eye 
 along a line, for the completion of the sense; as, — 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Probability 55 
 
 Verisimilitude 56 
 
 Ideal Presence 58 
 
 (13) Leads are thin pieces of type-metal by which lines are spaced. 
 When these are used matter is called leaded; when not used, mlid. 
 
 (14) Paragraphs [T[] are inserted in a manuscript to indicate that 
 a new line should be taken for the matter following it. 
 
 (15) Quantity Marks. — There are three marks which serve to indi- 
 cate the quantity of a vowel : the Macron [-], as in tmy ; the Breve 
 \y\, as in Imp ; and the Double [-], as in shone. These indicate 
 respectively a long, short, or common quantity. 
 
 (16) Beference Marks are used to refer to notes, or specially desig- 
 nate words. They are (1) the Asterisk [*], (2) the Obelisk, or Dag- 
 ger [f], (3) the Double Dagger [fl, (4) the Section [§], (5) Parallel 
 Lines [||], and (6) the Paragraph [IT]. When a greater number are 
 required, these marks are either doubled, or letters and numbers are 
 employed. The neatest mode is to use numbers. 
 
 (17) The Section [§J is also used to indicate a subdivision of >i 
 chapter. It is supposed to be derived from the Latin words, lig- 
 num sectionis, sign of a section; the two old-fashioned longyy being 
 written side by side, but finally one below the other. 
 
 (18) The Tilde [S] is a character written above the letter n in 
 Spanish words, to show that the letter should be sounded as if 
 spelled with y; as, s«^or, sir. 
 
134 THE ELEMENTS OF BEBTORIC. 
 
 (19) Types have names to distinguish their shape anil size. As 
 regards shape, they are ordinary Roman, small capitals, ROMAN 
 CAPITALS, Italics, ITALIG CAPITALS. 
 
 «©ID CngUglj, or Math ^ztttu 
 
 Oerman Zt):t. 
 Full-Face. 
 
 Antique. 
 
 Scttpt, 
 
 Old Style and Gothic. 
 
 As regards size they are as follows: 
 
 Pica. — Composition is the method of arranging 
 Small Pica. — Composition is the method of arran 
 
 Long Primer. — Composition is the method of arrangin 
 Bourgeois.— Composition is the method of arranging types in t 
 Brevier. — Composition is the method of arranging types in the pro 
 JlftTOOM.— Composition is the method of arranging types in the proper fo 
 Nonpareil— Composition is the method of arranging types in the proper form fo 
 Agate. — Composition ia the method of arranging types in the proper form for use. 
 PfloW.— CoMposrrioN is the method of arranglug types in the proper form for use. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 Capital Letters. 
 
 Capital Letters are used for the sake of giving distinc- 
 tion to certain words, so that the sense may be more obvious. 
 The most important rules for their use are stated below. 
 
 In mauuscripts, capitals are indicated by drawing lines under the 
 written words; two lines for small capitals, and three lines for 
 CAPITALS. 
 
 The excessive use of capitals is similar to the abuse of Italics. 
 Some great writers, as Thomas Carlyle, have given the weight of 
 their usage to this practice, but even they cannot redeem it from the 
 suspicion of affectation. In the German language every noun be- 
 
PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 135 
 
 gins with a capital. Such writers as Carlyle probably boi-row 
 their practice from German literature. Capitals are of advantage 
 only when used so sparingly as to contrast with small letters. 
 
 Rule 1.— First Words.— A capital should be used to 
 begin the first word of (1) every sentence, (3) every 
 direct quotation, (3) every direct question, and (4) every 
 line of poetry ; as, — 
 
 (1) "The Anglo-Saxon, tlie subtraction of our modern English, is emphatically 
 monosyllabic. The Bnglish Bible abounds in grand, sublime, and tender passages 
 couched almost entirely in words of one syllable." 
 
 (2) Dr. Johnson once said : *' My children, clear your minds of cant." 
 
 (3) let me ask you this question : Why do you study 1 
 
 (4) " Adieu ! adieu ! my native shore 
 Fades o'er the water blue. 
 The night- winds sigh, the breakers roar. 
 And shrieks the wild sea-mew." 
 
 The word capital (from the Latin caput, head) seems to suggest 
 the use pointed out in the above rule, as capitals are the liead 
 letters of sentences. 
 
 Rule 3.— Headings. — Headings of essays and chap- 
 ters should be wholly in capitals ; as, CHAPTER III. — 
 PUNCTUATION" AND CAPITALS. 
 
 Rule 3. — Quoted Titles. — When titles of books or essays 
 are- quoted, every noun, adjective, pronoun, verb, and ad- 
 verb should begin with a capital ; as. White's " Words 
 and Their Uses." Locke's "Essay on the Human Under- 
 standing." 
 
 Rule 4. — Names of the Deity. — Names and titles of 
 God and Christ should begin with a capital ; as, Heavenly 
 Father, Creator, Jehovah, Lord, Saviour, Son of God, 
 Almighty. 
 
 When Providence is used to mean the One who provides for us, 
 it begins with a capital ; otherwise not. 
 
136 TEE ELEMENTS OF BSETOBIC. 
 
 When a name of the Deity is applied to a created being, it does 
 not begin with a capital ; as, "Lord of lords and King of kings." 
 " The Lord is a great God, above all gods." 
 
 There is much diversity of practice in regard to pronouns refeiTing 
 to God. Some insist on using Thou, Thine, Thee; He, His, Him ; 
 Who, Whose, Whom. In the best editions of the English Bible, 
 the pronouns are not printed thus, but with small letters. Wilson 
 says, "Pronouns referring to God and Christ should not begin with 
 capitals, unless they are used emphatically without a noun." 
 
 EiiLE 5. — The Bible.^ Expressions used to designate 
 the Bible, or any particular division of it, should begin 
 with a capital ; as, the Sacred Writings, the Holy Bible, 
 God's Word, the Old Testament, the Gospel of John, the 
 Psalms, etc. 
 
 The names of other sacred books also are capitalized; as, the 
 Vedas, the Koran, the Zend-Avesta, the Eddas. 
 
 KuLE 6. — Proper Names — Proper names begin with 
 a capital ; as, Ceesar, Apollo, Germany, the Atlantic, 
 Christmas. 
 
 The words river, sea, mountain, etc., when used generally, are 
 not proper nouns ; but when used with an adjective or adjunct to 
 specify a particular object, they are proper names; as, the Hudson 
 River, the Black Sea, the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 The words North, South, East, and West are proper names when 
 they denote certain regions of the country; as, " The Xorth and the 
 South are now at peace." But they are not proper names when 
 they denote mere geographical position or direction; as, " Chicago is 
 west of New York." 
 
 The word Devil, when applied to Satan, begins with a capital; as, 
 "The Devil is the father of lies." If used generally, it begins with 
 a small letter ; as, " The devils also believe and tremble." 
 
 When a proper name is compounded with another word, the part 
 which is not a proper name begins with a capital if it precedes, but 
 with a small letter if it follows, the hyphen : as, Post-Homeric, Ante- 
 Christian, Sunday-school. 
 
PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 127 
 
 Rule 7. — Derivatives from Proper Hames. — Words de- 
 rived from proper names generally begin with a capital ; 
 as, American, Eoman, Christian, Mohammedan, Ameri- 
 canize, Romanize, Christianize, Judaize. 
 
 Some words have so completely lost their connection with their 
 primitives, that they are printed without capitals; as, da/mash, from 
 Damascus; philippic, from Philip; simony, from Simon. 
 
 The names of political parties, religious sects, and schools of 
 thought generally begin with a capital, even when not derivatives 
 from proper names; as, Whigs, Tories, Republicans, Radicals, Jews, 
 Protestants, Catholics, Calvinists, Methodists, Baptists, Nominalists, 
 Realists, Idealists, Associationalists, Spiritualists. 
 
 Names of the days of the week, and names of the months, begin 
 with a capital; as, Thursday, from Thor; Ivly, from Julius; Au- 
 gust, from Augustus. 
 
 Rule 8.— Titles of Office and Honor.— Titles of office 
 and honor should begin with a capital; as, The President 
 of the United States, His Excellency the G-overnor of 
 Pennsylvania, the Emperor ISTapoleon, Alderman Smith, 
 Sir Francis Bacon. 
 
 "When titles like the above are used frequently, and not in con- 
 nection with a proper name, small letters are used ; as, " They spoke . 
 sadly of the king's illness." But when used with the proper name, 
 titles should always begin with a capital. 
 
 When used in a specific sense, the words Academy, OoUege, Consti- 
 tution, State, University, etc., should begin with a capital ; as, " Har- 
 vard University is an old institution.'' When used generally, these 
 words should begin with a small letter; as, "Our country owes 
 much to its colleges and universities." 
 
 Rule 9, — Personification. — In vivid personification, the 
 noun personified begins with a capital ; as, — 
 
 " With quickened step, 
 Brown Night retires ; young Day comes in apace^ 
 And opens all the lawny prospect wide.'' 
 
128 THK ELEMENTS OF RHETOBIO. 
 
 Kdle 10. — Terms Defined. — ^ Words defined, or intro- 
 duced for explanation, begin with a capital ; as, " The 
 Comma is used to mark the least divisions of a sentence." 
 
 Rule 11. — Niiinbered Items Items distinctly num- 
 bered should begin with a capital; as, "Beading serves, 
 1. To inform the mind ; 3. To delight the imagination ; 
 and 3. To perfect the character." 
 
 When the numbers are introduced parenthetically,- capitals are 
 not necessary, nor are periods necessary after the numbers. The 
 tendency is to drop both the periods and the capitals in the body of the 
 text, and to reserve the uninelosed numbers for the beginning of 
 paragraphs; or, at least, of sentences. The following is neater than 
 the example under the rule: "Reading serves (1) to inform the 
 mind, (3) to delight the imagination, and (3) to perfect the character." 
 
 Rule 12. — The Pronoun I and the Interjection 0. — 
 
 These should always be capitals. 
 
 Rule 13. — Important Words -Any words or expressions 
 
 of special importance, such as those denoting (1) historical 
 events, (2) nnusnal phenomena, and (3) epochs of time, 
 
 should begin with capitals ; as, (1) the French Revolu- 
 tion ; (2) the Aurora Borealis ; (3) the Augustan Age. 
 
 Rule 14. — Roman Numerals.— Capitals are sometimes 
 used to represent numbers ; as, I., II., III., IV., V., etc. 
 
 Dates on title-pages were formerly printed in this way. Refer- 
 ences to books are frequently made by using these numbei-s; as, 
 " Whately's Elements of Logic, Book II., Chap. III., Sec.V., p. 118." 
 Many prefer, however, when the references are numerous, to use 
 small letters ; as, " Whatelv's Elements of Logic, book ii, chap, iii, 
 sec. V, p. 118." 
 
CORRECTION OF PROOFS. 129 
 
 SECTION V. 
 The Cokeectiok of Proops. 
 
 This Chapter would be iiioomplete without a few directions for 
 the correction of proof-sheets. Almost every one, at some time in the 
 course of his life, will have occasion to contribute something to the 
 press, if it be nothing more than an advertisement or an article in 
 the local newspaper. However trifling the item may be, it is impor- 
 tant to know that it is correct. In order to insure accuracy, two 
 things must.be done: (1) the Copy must be correctly prepared; and 
 (2) the Proof must be carefully read. A few suggestions will be 
 given on these two points. 
 
 1. The Preparation of Copy. 
 
 In preparing the copy, the following rules must be observed : 
 
 (1) Write distinctly. It is unfair to the compositor who sets up 
 your copy, to require him to solve enigmas at every sentence. 
 
 (2) Write on only one side of the paper. The liability of mistake is 
 lessened by leaving oue side blank, and printers can more easily 
 divide the copy into "takes" — or portions assigned to different 
 compositors. 
 
 (3) Make your own paragraphs. It is unreasonable to impose on 
 the printer a task which you find too difficult for yourself, or which 
 you are too indolent to perform. 
 
 (4) See that all the words are correctly spelled. Tjis especially 
 applies to all technical or proper names, of which the compositor 
 may reasonably be ignorant. 
 
 (5) Do your own pointing. Unless you use the points as you want 
 them, the printer may not understand your meaning and so may 
 misrepresent you. 
 
 The trihttlations of a compositor who puzzles over bad copy are 
 
 amusingly illustrated in the following newspaper paragraph, quoted 
 
 by Wilson : 
 
 "The late Sharon Turner, author of the 'History of the Anglo-Saxons,' who 
 received three hundred a year from Government as a literary pension, wrote the 
 third volume of his ' Sacred History of the World ' upon paper which did not cost 
 him a farthing. The copy consisted of torn and angular fragments of letters and 
 notes; of covers of periodicals,— gray, drab, or green,— written in thick, round 
 band over a small print ; of shreds of curling paper, unctuous with pomatum or 
 
130 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 bear's-grease ; and of the white wrappers in which his proofs were sent from the 
 printers. The paper, sometimes as thin as a bank-note, was written on both sides; 
 and was so sodden with inlc, plastered on with a pen worn to a stump, that 
 hours were frequently wasted in discovering on which side of it certain sentences 
 were written. Men condemned to work on it saw their dinner vanishing in illim- 
 itable perspective, and first-rate hands groaned over it a whole day for ten pence. 
 One poor fellow assured the writer of this paper, that lie could not eani enongh 
 upon it to pay his rent, and that he had seven mouths to fill besides his own. 
 In the hope of mending matters in some degi-ee, slips of stout white paper were 
 sent frequently with the proofs ; but the good gentleman could not afford to use 
 them, and they never came back as copy." 
 
 2. The Beading of Proof. 
 
 Even when the writer has observed all the above rales, and the 
 printer has exercised skill and taste in putting the copy in type, 
 there wiU often be many inaccuracies and ineleganeies in the 
 printed impression. This impression is called a Fiooi Broad mar- 
 gins are left for corrections, which are to be distinctly noted by the 
 author. In reading the proofs, several rules should be observed. 
 
 (.V) Criticize the matter of the composition. This should be done as 
 carefully as possible before sending the copy to the printer, but 
 many things will be evident in print which are not easily detected 
 in manuscript. 
 
 (2) See that the printer has made no alterations. Sometimes mis- 
 takes are made through carelessness or ignorance in reading the 
 manuscript, and sometimes the compositor thinks he knows better 
 than the author what ought to be said. 
 
 (3) Observe any queries marked by the printer. It sometimes hap- 
 pens that the printer Aoea know better than the writer how to spell 
 a word or punctuate a sentence. He then ought to be thanked for 
 any query which suggests a change to the author. In all cases the 
 suggestion should either be accepted and the change made, or re- 
 jected by crossing out the query, so as not to leave the printer in 
 doubt. 
 
 (4) TTse the accepted signs employed by printers in making corrections. 
 These have become fixed, so that all intelligent printers under- 
 stand them, and their use saves much time and trouble. The prin- 
 cipal signs of this kind are used in the annexed example of a 
 corrected proof-sheet. 
 
 (5) Make your corrections in the margin and not in the body of the 
 page. Care is necessary to do this so accurately and neatly that the 
 corrector of the forms will have no difficult v in understanding the 
 changes to be made. 
 
COBREGTION OF PROOFS. 131 
 
 The Copy sent to the Printer. 
 
 '^ke (ooUdeum, 
 
 coLoadai tadte gave ziae to the (ooLiaeum, oSeze, indeed, 
 
 gigantic dimenaiona were necednax-y i foz, though, hundteda could 
 entet at once, ana fifty thouaani) find aeatd, the apace waa atill 
 inaufficient fox. cfbome, and the czowd fot the motning gamea 
 began at midnight, ireapaaian and tDitua, ad if pteaaging theii 
 own deatha, huztied the building, and left aevex.al mazka of theit 
 pzecipitancg oehlnd, on the uppez walla they have inaezted 
 atoned which had evidently been dzeaaed foz tt diffezent puzpoae, 
 <&ome of the azcadea ate gzoaaly unequal ; no moulding pzeaezvea 
 the aame level and fozm zound the whole ellipae, and evezy ozdet 
 ia full of liccndc, {5he oZ/ortc haa no tziglypka noz metopea, and 
 ita azch ia too low foz ita columna ; the cJonic zepeata the entab- 
 latuze of the <Jjozlc ; the thizd otdez ia but a zough caat of the 
 (oozinthian, and ita foliage the thickeat watez-planta j the fouzlh 
 aeema a meze zepetition of the thltd in pilaateza ; and the whole ia 
 czowded by a heavy G^ttic, " ohappily foz the 0oliaeum, the 
 ahape neceaaazy to an amphitheatze haa given it u atability oj 
 conatzuction aufficient to zeaiat fizea and eazthquahea and light' 
 ninga and aiegea. 
 
132 THE ELEMENTS OF BHETOBIC. 
 
 A Specimen of Proof with Marks. 
 
 1 TJie CoKteum. Gapa 
 
 <!f, capn 3 A colossal taste gave rise to the Colisejfam. Here, c^ 
 
 a 3 indeei, gigantic dimensions were necessary; for, 
 
 4 though hundreds could enter at once, andfifty Tff' 
 
 3 6 thousan d find seats, the space was still insuf- 
 
 6 ficient for Rome, and the crowd for the morning 
 
 , , 7 games .°^g^° at midnight. Vespasian and Titus, 
 
 8 as if presaging their own deaths' ^^irried the •"• 
 
 I 9 building, and! left several marks of their pre- 
 
 10 cipitanoy behind. In the uppei^walls they | 
 
 X 11 have inserted atones which had evidently been 
 
 12 dressed for a different purpose. -> 
 
 ^— Some of the no tzeak 
 
 ffiom., 13 arcades are grossly M?iequal; no moulding pre- 
 
 14 serves the same level and form round the whole vf, 
 
 I, c. 15 ellipse, ^nd every order is full of license. The 
 
 16 Doric has no triglyphs nor metopes, and its arch Stal. 
 
 f». 17 is 0ow\toq) f or its columns; the Ionic repeats 
 
 18 the entablature of the Doric. the third order is 
 
 .0ap 19 but a rough cast of the cprinthian, and its foli- 
 
 ■/ 
 
 jrplant;; the fourth seems •/ 
 
 20 age the thickest waterplant;; the fourth seems 
 
 a I 21^ere repetition of Ihe third in pilasters; and 
 
 22 the whole is crowned by a heavy Attic. Happily Q \') 
 hi 23 for the Coliseum, tji(e shape V 
 
 24 phitheatre has given it a stability - 
 dtet 25 tion ' ouffloiont to resist fires and 
 yv 26 and lightnings and siegesV 
 
 to an am- 
 of c^^truo- 
 earthquakes 
 
 neccMatu 
 
CORREOTION OF PROOFS. 133 
 
 Elxplanation of Proof-Marks. 
 
 1. Capitals are marked by drawing three lines under the word, as 
 in line 1. 
 
 2. Small Capitals are marked by drawing two lines under the 
 word, as in line 2. 
 
 A SaperflnoQS Letter has a line drawn through it, and d 
 (the Latin dele, destroy) is put in the margin. 
 
 3. An Inverted Letter is marked as in line 3. 
 
 4. A Space is inserted as in line 4. 
 
 5. A Space is removed as in line 5. 
 
 6. A Line is indented as in line 6. 
 
 7. A Word is depressed as in line 7. 
 
 8. A Word is elevated as in line 8. 
 
 9. A Word is moved, either to the right or left, as in line 9; only 
 the mark is turned so that the angle shows the direction in which 
 the word is to be moved. 
 
 10. A ftnadrat (a piece of type-metal used to space the letters) 
 sometimes appears. Its face is depressed as in line 10. 
 
 11. A Broken Letter is marked as in line 11. 
 
 12. No Break is marked as in line 12. 
 
 A Paragraph is marked by placing TT in the margin. 
 
 13. Koman Letters are marked as in line 13. 
 
 14. Wrong Font, or wrong style of type, is marked as in line 14. 
 
 15. Lower-case Errors are marked as in line 15. 
 
 16. Italic Letters are marked as in line 16. 
 
 17. Words to be Transposed are marked as in line 17. 
 
 18. A Point Left Out is inserted as in line 18. 
 
 19. A Capital Letter is inserted as in line 19. 
 
 20. A Hyphen Left Oat is inserted as in line 20. 
 
 21. A Letter Left Out is inserted as in line 21. 
 
 22. Same as 18. See also line 26. 
 
 23. A Word or Expression Left Out is inserted as in line 23. 
 
 24. Letters to be Transposed are marked as in line 24, 
 
 25. Stet is the Latin for "let it stand, or remain," and is used 
 when a supposed error has been corrected, but afterward is found 
 not to be an error. 
 
 26. Quotation Marks are inserted as in line 26. 
 Apostrophes are inserted in a similar manner. 
 
CHAPTER IV- 
 CEITICISM. 
 
 1. Definition of Criticism. 
 
 Criticism (from the Greek xpivetv, krinein, to judge) is 
 the art of judging of the merits and defects of any pro- 
 duction. Literary criticism is the art of judging of the 
 merits and defects of a written composition. The word 
 '■ criticism'' means also the act of criticizing ; as, " This 
 book invites severe criticism"; and even a critical writ- 
 ing; as, "Macaulay's criticism of Milton." The word 
 critique, however, is better suited to this last meaning. 
 
 It is a common error to suppose that criticism is the art of fault- 
 finding. Its true function, as the word criticism implies, is judicial. 
 The critic is a judge. Hence partiality of any kind ought not to influ- 
 ence his judgment. He is to point out excellences as well as defects, 
 and, balancing all, to decide upon the value of the production. In 
 this he will necessarily be guided by his own principles and taste ; 
 hence it is important that these should be correct and pure. As 
 criticism is thus dependent upon personal views and feelings, it can- 
 not claim scientific certainty for its results, except as these are 
 founded upon universally admitted principles. 
 
 2. The Value of Criticism. 
 
 The value of criticism is two-fold : (1) to the writer in 
 composing; and {%) to the reader in enjoying literary 
 works. 
 
(JMITIGiaM. 135 
 
 A trained writer criticizes his own work at eyery step of 
 its progress, and modifies his plan and method as he pro- 
 ceeds. Many excellences, no doubt, are introduced with- 
 out conscious intention, but many even of these are owing 
 to a critical habit of thought, which is the result of pre- 
 vious effort. In addition to this habitual criticism a more 
 deliberate and scrutinizing examination of a composition 
 is of great value. The act of composing is frequently 
 accompanied with a glow of satisfaction which magnifies 
 merits and conceals defects. Hence the eye of another, 
 or the writer's own after an interval of time, will often 
 detect faults which are not apparent to the composer at 
 the time of writing. 
 
 On the other hand, many elaborate compositions re- 
 quire close inspection to discover their latent beauties and 
 artistic finish. Hence the competent critic has a never- 
 failing source of enjoyment in the exercise of his art. 
 
 It is a good plan to subject our literary workmaasUp to the criticism 
 of another, even though he be no more competent than the writer to 
 judge of literary merit. One's own subsequent judgment also is 
 generally worth waiting for. It is an excellent rule never to regard 
 a composition finished until, after sufficient time has elapsed to 
 allow it to pass out of the writer's mind, it is deliberately criticized 
 and retouched. In this drier light of afterthought one's ideas, 
 plan, diction, and figures are judged according to their own meritc 
 and not with the partiality of authorship. 
 
 3. Kinds of Literary Criticism. 
 
 In criticizing a composition we may make any one of 
 several elements the prominent object of attention. (1) 
 We may consider only the truth of the matter. This is 
 called Real Criticism. (2) We may limit our examination 
 
136 THE ELICMENTS OF RSETORIO. 
 
 to the validity of the arguments. This is called Logical 
 Criticism. (3) We may regard only the language used. 
 This is called Verbal Criticism. (4) We may examine the 
 production as a work of art designed to gratify the taste. 
 This is called iEsthetic Criticism. 
 
 As truth must be discovered by special acquaintance with each 
 department of knowledge, it would be useless to attempt any state- 
 ment of the principles of real criticism. Real criticism assumes 
 two principal forms — historical oriticism, and acientiflc criticism. The 
 former aims to decide what documents of antiquity are worthy of 
 credence and what events actually occurred. This has recently be- 
 come an important branch of investigation. Scientific criticism 
 aims to separate the true from the false in the data and theories of 
 science. Logical criticism is based on certain principles called laws 
 of thought, and is properly considered in the study of Logic. Ver- 
 bal criticism derives its autliority from the principles of Style, as 
 laid down in the second chapter of this book. The learner may find 
 some excellent examples of verbal criticism in Blair's "Lectures on 
 Rhetoric and Belles Lettres,'' Lectures xx.-xxiv. iEsthetic oriti- 
 cism is founded upon the liiws of sesthetics, or the science of beauty 
 and kindreil emotions. As some knowledge of the principles of 
 taste is desirable in connection with criticism, ffisthetic criticism wUl 
 receive special attention in the following pages. 
 
 4. Method of Treatment. 
 
 There are two elements in criticism, (1) the absolute, 
 and (3) the relative. 
 
 (1) The absolute element comprises the fixed principles 
 of actual fact, the laws of thought, and the canons of 
 style. These cannot be violated with impunity even by 
 genius. 
 
 (2) The relative element comprises the conditions of 
 taste which relate to our enjoyment of "literary works. 
 These are not the same for all times, races, or persons. 
 
OBITIOIBM. 137 
 
 Having already considered at some length the more ele- 
 mentary of the absolute principles, we may now devote 
 some attention to the relative principles of criticism. 
 The critic should know something of the powers used in 
 aesthetic criticism and the various forms of enjoyment 
 produced by works of literature. In the following sec- 
 tions, therefore, we shall consider (1) the faculties of 
 criticism, or Taste; and (3) the kinds of literary enjoy- 
 ment, or the Pleasures of Taste. 
 
 SECTIOlSr I. 
 
 Taste. -^ 
 
 1. Definition of Taste. 
 
 Taste is that power of the mind which enables us to 
 feel and discern the merits and defects of any production 
 which is designed to please. The word is borrowed from 
 that sense of the tongue by which we distinguish and 
 enjoy the flavors of food and drink. It is applied meta- 
 phorically to an analogous faculty of the mind. Like the 
 bodily sense from which the name is derived. Taste affords 
 both pleasure and pain, but of a more refined and elevated 
 character than that of the physical organ. 
 
 Some of the most common deflnitions of taste may be appended. 
 
 (1) Blair defines taste: " The power of receiving pleasure from the 
 beauties of nature and art." This seems defective for two reasons: 
 (1) Taste is as much offended by defects as it is gratified by exoej- 
 lences; (2) taste is gratified by other than beautiful objects. 
 
 (3) Alison defines it: "That faculty of the human mind by which 
 we perceive and enjoy what is beautiful or sublime in the works of 
 
138 THE ELEMENTS OF BHETOBIO. 
 
 nature or art." To this definition there are, substantially, the same 
 objections: (1) The sensitiveness to defects is overlooked; and (3) 
 taste seems limited to the enjoyment of the sublime and the beautiful. 
 
 (3) Coleridge says : " Taste is the intermediate faculty which con- 
 nects the active with the passive powers of our nature, — intellei t 
 with the senses, — and its appropriate function is to elevate the 
 images of the latter, while it realizes the ideas of the former." The 
 objections to this definition are: (1) It is questionable whether thei-e 
 can be an intermediate faculty between the active and passive 
 powers; and (2) this faculty is made out to be ioth active and pas- 
 sive. Such a faculty would be needless, for it would be nothing 
 more than the active and passive powers in co-operation. 
 
 (4) Euskin says : " Perfect taste is the faculty of receiving the 
 greatest possible pleasure from those material sources which are at- 
 tractive to our moral nature in its purity and perfection." This is 
 not strictly a definition of taste, but a description of the noblest taste. 
 
 The definition given in the large print seems to avoid these diffi- 
 culties. As will be shown, it is a function of taste to fed, and also 
 to discern. As. a " power" may be active or passive, the definition 
 does not assert that it is either. We shall find that it is both. The 
 definition does not claim that taste is a distinct faculty of the mind. 
 
 2. Analysis of Taste. 
 
 Taste is not a distinct faculty of the mind, but depends 
 upon the co-operation of two powers : (1) sensibility, and 
 (2) judgment. In an exercise of taste, sensibility is first 
 and judgment second. For example, a beautiful poem is 
 read in our hearing. We first feel a pleasurable emotion ; 
 we then refer our pleasure to such a class and to such 
 causes as judgment may decide proper. Or, if parts of 
 the poem are of unequal merit, we distinguish by Judg- 
 ment between the various emotions and their supposed 
 causes as found in the several parts. 
 
 FhiloBopheTB are not agreed with regard to the nature of taste. 
 Some make it a distinct faculty. Hutohesou tliinks that it is in- 
 
GBITICISM. 139 
 
 dependent of every other faculty, performing for itself the functions 
 of sensibility and judgment. This is equivalent to assuming that 
 there is a mind within the mind. Hume, on the other hand, regards 
 taste as a mere sensibility. Buskin seems also to hold this last opinion. 
 
 Some subordinate taste to some one faculty. Tims Burke main- 
 tains that taste is a function of perception ; and Akenside, that it is 
 subsidiary to the imagination. 
 
 Others consider taste as consisting wholly in the oo-operation of 
 several powers. Such seems to be the meaning of the French philos- 
 opher. Cousin, when he says: " Three faculties enter into that com- 
 plex faculty that is called Taste, — imagination, sentiment, reason." 
 
 There is, doubtless, a basis of truth in all the different theories. 
 If any one will test himself in the presence of some beautiful object, 
 he will find that he first feels that the object is beautiful, and after- 
 ward tries to discern why it is. He may fail in his effort to ascertain 
 the cause of his pleasure, but he has a tendency, which grows with 
 the cultivation of taste, to analyze the object. 
 
 3. The Qualities of Taste. 
 
 As taste is made up of two powers, sensibility and judg- 
 ment, it has two qualities corresponding to these constitu- 
 ents. These are (1) Delicacy, and (2) Correctness. 
 
 (1) Delicacy of taste implies a more than ordinary sen- 
 sitiveness of mind, as delicacy of touch implies a power to 
 discriminate fine distinctions. 
 
 (2) Correctness of taste demands accuracy of judgment 
 according to the principles of taste, as correctness of 
 opinion requires the power of comparing facts. 
 
 •Each quality, to a certain extent, involves the other, 
 and a high degree of both is frequently united in the 
 same person. 
 
 4. Taste TJniversal. 
 
 Taste is possessed by all men. Children at a very early 
 age manifest an admiration for beautiful objects. The 
 
140 THB ELEMENTS OF BUETOBIU 
 
 rudest peasants delight in colored prints and painted 
 images, and enjoy ballads and tales which are level with 
 their comprehension. Even the lowest savages enjoy, to 
 some extent, the beauty and grandeur of natural scenery, 
 and are fond of decorating their persons with various or- 
 naments. They admire an emotional and highly dramatic 
 eloquence. 
 
 6. The Variation of Taste. 
 
 Although taste is universal, it varies greatly both in 
 delicacy and correctness. It is as various as the faces, 
 languages, and characters of men. 
 
 (1) It varies with age. Children are fond of bright 
 colors, quick motions, simple melodies, and wonderful 
 stories. As they advance in life they prefer more modest 
 colors, more dignified movements, more exquisite har- 
 monies, and more probable tales. The young are fond of 
 the glowing and impassioned in oratory and the romantic 
 in poetry. The aged prefer thoughtful and epigrammatic 
 speech and didactic poetry. 
 
 (3) It varies with races. The Oriental admires only 
 the rich and ornate ; the European, the chaste and refined. 
 In literature, the German prefers acuteness of thought 
 and exactness of expression ; the Frenchman, delicate 
 sentiment, brevity and beauty of phraseology. Similar 
 differences of taste are exhibited in the architecture, 
 painting, and sculpture of different nations. 
 
 (3) It varies with epochs. The most ancient poems, 
 as the Iliad, were full of mai'tial passion, expressing all 
 the features of the heroic age. With the progress of 
 (Mvilization, order, fitness, proportion, and unity became 
 
CRITICISM. 141 
 
 prominent, and were expressed in the dramas, lyrics, and 
 orations of the classic age. With the introduction of 
 chivalry, the blended sentiments of heroism, love, and 
 religion produced a romance age. In like manner we 
 may distinguish epochs of taste in every art. 
 
 6. The Standard of Taste/ 
 
 As tastes are various, some maintain that there is no 
 standard of taste, and adopt the ancient proverb, "De 
 gustibus non disputandum est," "There is no disputing 
 about tastes." If by a standard be meant a perfect mea- 
 sure, such as the standard weights used in commerce, there 
 is none in literature. If by a standard be meant some- 
 thing by which we may decide what is excellent and what 
 is defective, there is such a standard. Milton's " Paradise 
 Lost," for example, is certainly a noble epic. "What is 
 the standard by which it may be judged ? Is there any 
 absolute ideal in the mind of man by which it may be 
 exactly measured ? Apparently not, for it is not univer- 
 sally regarded as a great epic. Some find no satisfaction 
 in reading it ; many who derive pleasure from it, 
 would enjoy something else much more. Nevertheless, 
 the concurrent opinion of the majority of educated men 
 declares that it is a great poem. In the concurrent opin- 
 ion of the best judges we find the only standard of taste. 
 This standard is not easily or immediately applicable to a 
 work of literature, and. yet it is a real and the only uni- 
 versal measure of literary excellence. 
 
 Every age has its fashions in literature as well as in dress am\ 
 manners. The writers who are most pleasing to. their generation are 
 
142 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 forgotten by the next. The history of literature reveals the fact that 
 the works which are most permanent in their influence and are re- 
 garded as classics by all generations, are not generally the most pop- 
 ular at the time of their composition. On the other hand, the most 
 fashionable productions rarely outlive their authors. The novel 
 which half a nation discuss to-dayis scarcely read to-morrow. Time 
 is an important element in deciding the merits of literary work. It 
 is the verdict of all ages and all nations that the ancient classics are 
 noble works of art. Shakespeare is admired in every country and in 
 every age where his dramas are known. Yet the latest novel or the 
 sensational play of the hour attracts more attention for the moment 
 tlian the great masters of the past. Time alone can measure all 
 competitors for lasting fame by the standard of concurrent opinion. 
 This standard is like a great clock which does not faithfully indi- 
 cate the passing moments, but peals out the hours with infallible 
 precision. 
 
 7. The Claim of this Standard. 
 
 The claim of coucurrent opinion to the dignity of a 
 standard rests upon the fact that the fundamental element 
 of taste is sensibility, and this is personal. Whatever is 
 personal has authority only as it becomes universal, or, at 
 least, general. For example, if any one should assert that 
 salt and sugar have the same taste, we should deny his 
 competency to Judge in such matters, and would declare 
 that his sense was abnormal. As each person must say 
 for himself whether or not he is pleased, that must be 
 regarded as most pleasing which pleases most persons. To 
 reject this principle is to affirm that each one's feeling is 
 his only standard ; which is the same as to deny the exist- 
 ence of any universal standard. 
 
 This deference to others is altogether reasonable, and yet there is 
 no appeal from our own feelings which can be wholly satisfactory. 
 As Professor Torrey says: "We cannot reason or argue about what 
 is beautiful, or the reverse. We pronounce a work of art great and 
 admirable of its kind, without reference to the views or opinions of 
 
ORITICISM. 143 
 
 others ; I mean in a purely eesthetical judgment. Arguments to 
 prove that it is so, or that it is not so, cannot alter our judgment any 
 more than if it were purely subjective, as in the pleasures of sense. 
 We may assent to such opinions and reasoning through modesty 
 or diffidence, — but our judgment in fact remains unaltered. We 
 either find the things immediately beautiful, or not at all." 
 
 8. Tlie Cultivation <ft' Taste. 
 
 As taste is subject to modification, it may be improved 
 or degraded. Men differ widely by nature. Some possess 
 a refined sensibility and a sound judgment, others being 
 almost devoid of aesthetic powers. That taste is suscepti- 
 ble of improTcment is evident from the rapid development 
 of art among nations like the English, French, and Ger- 
 mans, who, a few centuries ago, were barbarians. That it 
 may be degraded is equally clear from the decline of Gre- 
 cian art after the Roman conquest of Greece. As a culti- 
 vated taste is of inestimable value, a few of the means of 
 , improvement may be mentioned here. 
 I' '^/|T(i) Taste is improved by a judicious exercise. As the 
 eye may be trained to keenness of sight, or the ear to the 
 enjoyment of the most exquisite harmonies of sound, so 
 taste may be refined and strengthened by attentive use. 
 |i^2) The exercise of taste should be analytic. It is not 
 ^ufBcient to feel the pleasure of beauty or sublimity ; it is 
 equally important to refer the pleasures of taste to their 
 causes. Hence analysis should be applied to such pas- 
 sages in literature as are found to be pleasing, in order 
 that the laws of art may be discovered. Often, like the 
 fragrance of a flower, this will baffle our analysis, but 
 sometimes it will reward us. 
 
144 TEE ELEMENTS OF RHETOBIO. 
 
 (3) Taste is most rapidly improved by the study of mas- 
 terpieces. In seeking gold we naturally work the richest 
 mines. The most celebrated poems, orations, and dramas 
 should be read with close criticism. 
 
 (4) It is useful to attempt an imitation of sucli produc- 
 tions as we may hope to equaL This will soon convince 
 us of the difficulty of the highest literary art, and will es- 
 pecially enhance our admiration of the masters whom we 
 would emulate. Servility of imitation should not be en- 
 couraged, nor is it best to confine ourselves to a single 
 style of writing. 
 
 9. Catholicity of Taste. 
 
 A person is said to have a " catholic taste " when he re- 
 spects the taste of others instead of regarding his own 
 preferences as an infallible standard. Catholicity of taste 
 is opposed to narrowness, bigotry, and dogmatism. As 
 others may possess finer sensibilities and a better judg- 
 ment than we, or as they may have better advantages for 
 improving their taste, we ought not to condemn as faulty 
 those productions of literary art which are generally ac- 
 cepted as excellent. 
 
 Although so much is said in praise of Homer and Virgil, Shake- 
 speare and Milton, it is doubtful if most immature minds have any 
 real appreciation of their merits. It is only after the taste has been 
 refined, and the obstacles of a language half understood have been 
 removed, that one is capable of enjoying the more delicate touclies 
 of literary genius. Such power of appreciation is worth striving for, 
 and a failure to attain it is not so much an indication that we have 
 outgrown these masterpieces of tlie past, as that we have personal 
 acquisitions to make in the future. 
 
CRITICISM. 145 
 
 In this section, on "Taste," we have considered: 
 
 {!) The Definition of Taste. V^ 
 {2) The Analysis of Taste. 
 {S) The Qualities of Taste, r^ 
 {Jf) Taste as Universal. 
 
 (5) The Variation of Taste. 
 
 (6) The Standard of Taste. ^ 
 
 (7) The Claim of this Standard. 
 
 (8) The Cultivation of Taste. L- - "' 
 (5) The Catholicity of Taste. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 The Pleasures oe Taste. 
 1. Kinds of .Esthetic Pleasure. 
 
 The Pleasures of Taste, or sesthetic pleasures, are va- 
 riously defined and classified. It will best suit our pur- 
 pose here to describe and illustrate the following five 
 sources of sesthetic pleasure in literature: (1) the Beauti- 
 ful, (3) the Sublime, (3) the Witty, (4) the Humorous, 
 and (5) the Pathetic. Their philosophy belongs to 
 Esthetics. 
 
 Much ingenuity has been displayed in speculations about the aes- 
 thetie emotions. A few of the principal theories may be mentioned 
 here, although no one of them has met with universal acceptance. 
 
 As the discussion has centered chiefly upon the nature of Beauty, 
 we may first classify the theories with regard to it. These are as 
 follows : 
 
 (1) The Subjeotive theory maintains that beauty is in the nature 
 or action of the soul itself. As Plotinus says, "Never could eye 
 
146 TBE ELBMENTa OE BHETOBIO. 
 
 that had not been made sunlike have seen the sun, neither can soul 
 that has not become beautiful see beauty." Or, as Hume says, 
 "Beauty is no quality in things themselves; it exists merely in the 
 mind which contemplates them, and each mind perceives a difEerent 
 beauty." The subiective theory, with numerous modifications, is 
 held by Plato, Shaftesbury, Schelling, Coleridge, Ruskin, and others. 
 
 (2) The Objective theory regards beauty as residing in the qualities 
 of external objects which produce pleasing emotions within the soul. 
 As Baumgarten expresses it, " Beauty cannot exist without a desire 
 for its possession, and the true aim of beauty consists in awaken- 
 ing desire; the highest beauty is where sense-known perfection Is 
 greatest, that is, in nature." Reid observes on this point, " To say 
 that there is in reality no beauty in those objects in which aU men 
 see beauty, is to attribute to man fallacious senses." Aristotle, 
 Hogarth, Addison, Burke, Voltaire, and Brown maintain that 
 beauty ' is objective. 
 
 (3) The Ottjecto-subjectiTe theory is a compound of the two already 
 stated. According to this view, there is in the mind an idea of the 
 beautiful which is awakened by the presentation of external objects. 
 Cousin says, "That which is internal in man can alone perceive the 
 internal in nature. It is my soul that feels the soul of the uni- 
 verse..;;»=i= God is the foundation of truth, beauty, and goodness; 
 the absolute, who is roflectcil wholly in all his manifestations, or, in 
 ordinary language, in all his creation." Reynolds, Cousin, JoufEroy, 
 Winckelmann, and others hold this theory. 
 
 (4) The Assooiational theory holds that beauty is neither native in 
 external objects nor in the mind, but consists entirely in the power 
 of certain objectfe to recall pleasing emotions. As Lord Jeffrey 
 says, "Objects are beautiful merely because they possess the power 
 of recalling or reflecting the emotions of which they have been the 
 accompaniments." This theory was advanced by Alison. 
 
 We may now state briefly two of the most ingenious theories with 
 regard to the relations of the eestbetic emotions to one another. 
 
 (1) According to Hamilton, a thing is beautiful, when it occupies 
 both the imagination and tlie understanding in a five, fuU, and 
 agreeable activity; sublime, when the imagination and the under- 
 standing fail to represent and measure it; picturesque, when the 
 understanding fails to measure it, but the imagination has free play 
 on account of the variety in the object. 
 
 (2) According to Day, the distinction between the beautiful, the 
 sublime, aiul the ludicrous is depeiuleiit upon the relation of the 
 
OBITICISM. W^ 
 
 iilea expressed to its form of expression, as follows : (1) If the re- 
 vealed idea and the revealing matter be in perfect equipoise and har- 
 mony, we have perfect beauty; (3) if the revealed idea overbear or 
 outspan the revealing matter, we have the sublime; (3) if the 
 revealing" matter preponderate over the revealed idea, we have the 
 ludicrous. 
 
 2. The Beautiful. 
 
 As the aesthetic emotions are states of feeling, they can- 
 not be defined; nor can they be described, except to those 
 who have experienced them. As light is incomprehensi- 
 ble to one bom blind, so is beauty to one devoid of taste. 
 Beauty may be rudely described, however, as an emotion 
 of pleasure awakened in the mind by external objects or 
 one's own thoughts. It affords to the mind an exquisite 
 satisfaction, independently of any use to which the object 
 that awakens it may be devoted. 
 
 A landscape on a clear May morning, when the birds 
 are singing, and the green fields stretch away till they 
 seem to blend with the blue sky, while the cattle roam 
 over them along the winding streams, — may be taken as 
 an example of beauty. 
 
 "^ "We may note some of the causes of beauty in a com- 
 position. 
 
 (1) Harmonious language, or such as conforms to the 
 rules for harmony, is highly conducive to beauty in works 
 of literature. Many writers mainly owe their success to 
 their felicity of phrase. As an example of the charm 
 that musical expression may lend to a simple thought, 
 take this description of a cascade : 
 
 "How does the water come down at Lodoref 
 Here it comes sparkling, 
 And there it lies darkling ; 
 
148 THE ELEMENTS OF RBETORIO. 
 
 Kising and leaping, 
 
 Sinking and creeping. 
 
 Swelling and flinging. 
 
 Showering and springing, 
 
 Eddying and whisliiiig. 
 
 Spouting and frisltiDg, 
 
 Twining and twisting. 
 
 Around and around. 
 
 With endless rebound. 
 And falling and crawling and sprawling. 
 And driving and riving and striving, 
 And sprinkling and twinkling and wrinkling, 
 And sounding and bounding and rounding, 
 And bubbling and troubling and doubling, 
 Dividing and gliding and sliding. 
 And grumbling and rumbling and tumbling. 
 And clattering and battering and shattering ; 
 And gleaming and steaming, and streaming and beaming. 
 And rushing and flushing, and brushing and gushing. 
 And flapping and rapping, and clapping and slapping, 
 And curling and whirling, and purling and twirling, 
 Ketreatidg and beating, and meeting and sheeting. 
 Delaying and straying, and playing and spraying. 
 Advancing and primcing, and glancing and dancing. 
 And 80 never ending, but always descending, 
 Sounds and motions for ever and ever are blending. 
 All at once and all o'er, with a mighty uproar. 
 And this way the water comes down at Lodore !" 
 
 SOHTHET. 
 
 (2) Concrete ideas render a composition beautiful by 
 filling the mind with pictures. The abstract is dry and 
 devoid of power over the imagination. Concrete ideas 
 have form and sometimes color, and so appeal to the 
 mind through material objects which are their symbols. 
 Such a use of language is sometimes called " word-paint- 
 ing." Mark the concrete form of expression in the follow- 
 ing description of Napoleon : 
 
 "Flung into life in the midst ot a revolution that quickened every energy of a 
 people who acknowledge no superior, he commenced his course, a stranger by 
 birth, and a scholar by charity ! With no friend but his sword, and no fortune 
 but his talents, he rushed into the lists where rank, and wealth, and genius had 
 arrayed themselves, and competition flod from him as from the glance of destiny. 
 He knew no motive but Interest— he acknowledged no criterion but success — he 
 
aRITIGISM, 149 
 
 worshiped no god but ambition, and, with an Eastern devotion, he knelt at the 
 shrine of his Idolatry. . . . 
 
 "A professed Catholic, he imprisoned the Pope; a pretended patrint, he im- 
 poverished the country ; and, in the name of Brutus, he grasped without remorse, 
 and wore without shame, the diadem of the Csesars ! Through this panti mime of 
 policy, fortune played the clown to his caprices. At his touch, crowns crumbleti, 
 beggars reigned, systems vanished, the wildest theories took the color of his 
 whim, and all that was venerable, and all that was novel, changed places with 
 the rapidity of a drama." CHAELES Phillips. 
 
 (3) Figures, when fresh, and appropriate, contribute to 
 the beauty of style. Observe how beautifully Shelley, ^^y 
 means of a few striking figures, describes the approach of 
 winter : 
 
 *' Winter came ; the wind was his whip ; 
 One choppy linger was on his lip : 
 He had torn the cataracts from the hills. 
 And they clanked at his girdle like manacles ; 
 His breath was a chain that without a sound 
 The earth, and the air, and the water bound ; 
 He came fiercely driven in his chariot-throne. 
 By the tenfold blasts of the arctic zone." 
 
 (4) Beautiful objects impart some of their natural at- 
 tractiveness to the composition in which they are well 
 described. The poet's soul transforms into rhythmical 
 language the beauty which he sees in nature. Shake- 
 speare thus describes a night scene : 
 
 "How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank I 
 Here we will sit and let the sounds of music 
 Creep in our ears : soft stillness and the night 
 Become the touches of sweet harmony. 
 Sit, Jessica. Look how the floor of heaven 
 Is thick inlaid with patines of bright gold : 
 There 's not the smallest orb which thou behold'st 
 But in his motion like an angel sings, 
 Still quiring to the young-eyed chembiras; 
 Such harmony is in immortal souls." 
 
 (5) Noble Sentiments, when suitably expressed, produce 
 
150 THE ELEMENTS OF REETORIO. 
 
 the emotion of beauty. The following passage is es- 
 pecially beautiful from this cause : 
 
 " No life 
 Can be pure in its purpose and strong in its strife 
 And all life not be purer and stronger thereby. 
 The spirits of just men made perfect on high, 
 Tlie army of martyrs who stand by the Throne 
 And gaze into the Face that makes glorious their own, 
 Know this, surely, at last. Honest love, honest sorrow. 
 Honest work for the day, honest hope for the morrow, — 
 Are these worth nothing more than the hand they make weary. 
 The heart they have sadden'd, the life they leave dreary ? 
 Hush ! the sevenfold heavens to the voice of the Spirit 
 Echo : He that o'ercometh shall all things inherit." 
 
 (6) Worthy characters add beauty to the compositions 
 in which they are described and their virtues commended. 
 Among the finest passages in literature are those in which 
 the great and good are held up for our admiration. The 
 following description of the village pastor is universally 
 admired : 
 
 "A man was he to all the country dear. 
 And passing rich with forty pounds a year ; 
 Remote from towns he ran his godly race. 
 Nor e'er had changed, nor wished to change, his place. 
 Unpractised he to fawn, or seek for power. 
 By doctrines fashioned to the varying hour ; 
 JFor other aims his heart had learned to prize. 
 More skilled to raise the wretched than to rise. 
 His house was known to all the vagrant train, 
 He chid their wanderings, but relieved their pain : 
 The long-remembered beggar was his guest, 
 Wliose beard descending swept his aged breast ; 
 The ruined spendthrift^ now no longer pi-oud, 
 Claimed kindi-ed there, and had his claims allowed. 
 
 Beside the bed where parting life was laid, 
 And sorrow, guilt, and pain by turns dismayed. 
 The reverend champion stood. At his control 
 Despair and anguish fled the struggling soul ; 
 Comfort came down the trembling wretch to raise, 
 And his lost faltering accents whispered praise. 
 
CRITICISM. 151 
 
 At church, with meek and unaffected grace, 
 
 Hi3 looks adorned the venerable place ; 
 
 Truth from his lips prevailed with double sway, 
 
 And fools, who came to scoff, remained to pray. 
 
 The service past, around the pious man. 
 
 With steady zeal, each honest rustic ran ; 
 
 Even children followed with endearing wile. 
 
 And plucked his gown to share the good man's smile. 
 
 His ready smile a parent's warmth expressed ; 
 
 Their welfare pleased him, and their cares distressed ; 
 
 To them, his heart, his love, his griefs were given, 
 
 But all his serious thoughts had rest in heaven." 
 
 3. The Sublime. 
 
 Like the emotion awakened by the beautiful, that 
 aroused by the sublime cannot be defined. It differs from 
 the beautiful in the greater excitement of mind and feel- 
 ing of awe which accompany it. Like the beautiful, the 
 sublime gives pleasure ; but it is of short duration, while 
 
 "A thing of beauty is a joy forever." 
 
 A raging storm, when darkness, thunder, and lightning 
 combine to awe the soul with the thought of its own 
 weakness, — may be taken as an example of sublimity. 
 
 Some of the causes of sublimity in literature are the 
 following : 
 
 (1) Simplicity of expression contributes to the awaken- 
 ing of this emotion. The words are few and the con- 
 struction plain in the sentences which men generally 
 regard as sublime. For example, the expression cited by 
 Longinus, "And God said. Let there be light : and there 
 was light," — is composed wholly of monosyllables. 
 
 Some one has pointed out the efieot of changing the sublime words 
 of Genesis into the following form : " The sovereign arbiter of nature, 
 by the potent energy of a single word, commanded light to exist, 
 and immediately it sprang into being.'' This is mere bombast. 
 
152 THE ELEMENTS OF BHETOMIO. 
 
 (3) Bepresentations of g^eat power are usually sublime. 
 Tempests^ rushing rivers, volcanic eruptions, conflagra- 
 tions, cataracts, battles, heroic feats of arms, all tend, when 
 vividly presented to the imagination, to awaken the emo- 
 tion of sublimity. The following passage from Coleridge's 
 "Hymn to Mont Blanc" illustrates this statement: 
 
 " Ye ice-falls ! ye that from the mountain's brow 
 Adown enormous ravines slope amain,— 
 Torrents, methinks, that heard a mighty voice, 
 And stopped at once amidst their maddest plunge I 
 Motionless torrents ! silent cataracts ! 
 Who ni^iile you glorious as the gates of heaven 
 Beneath the keen full moon? Who bade the sun 
 Clothe you with rainbows ? Who with living flowers 
 Of loveliest blue, spread garlands at your feet? — 
 God ! let the torrents, like a shout of nations. 
 Answer ! and let the ice-plains echo, God ! — 
 And they, too, have a voice, — yon piles of snow,— 
 And in their perilous fall shall thunder, God ! " 
 
 (3) Strong moral purpose produces the feeling of sub- 
 limity. Many of the finest utterances in human history 
 owe their power over the hearts of men to the sublimity 
 of lofty purpose. This is called the moral, and sometimes 
 the sentimental, sublime. Some examples are given below: 
 
 (1) Devotion to friends, under circumstances of difficulty and 
 danger, is sublime. The celebrated story of Damon and Pythias 
 illustrates this. Damon having incurred the enmity of Dionysius, 
 tyrant of Syracuse, was sentenced to death. Pythias remained as a 
 hostage while his friend visited his family, with the understanding 
 that he would be executed if Damon did not return. Damon, true to 
 his frienil, came back before the ajipointed time. 
 
 (2) Devotion to country is often sublime. The story of 'Jiarcus 
 Curtius, a Roman youth, who plunged into a chasm which had opened 
 in tlie forum, to render his country perpetual, as the prophets de- 
 clared he would, — is an example of sublime patriotism. 
 
 (3) Devotion to honor is often sublime. Regulus the Roman, 
 having given his oath to return to Cartilage, where he was a captive. 
 
CRITICISM. 153 
 
 if his visit to Rome slioiild not prove successful in securiug an 
 exoiiange of prisoners, dissuaded liis countrymen from inaliing an 
 exciiange, and returned to Cartilage to suffer the most cruel tortures. 
 The most sublime words ever uttered are those of Jesus Christ in 
 the hour of his agony on the cross : " Father, forgive them, for they 
 know not what they do." 
 
 (4) Dangerous Situations arouse this emotion in those 
 who are not personally in danger. Hence descriptions of 
 perilous scenes are generally sublime. The following 
 from a translation of Homer illustrates this form of 
 the sublime. Odysseus is shipwrecked, and this is the 
 description of his landing : 
 
 "But now within a voice- throw of the rocks 
 The sound of water did his ears appall, 
 Full on the coast the great waves' thunder-shocks 
 Roll, and afar the wet foam-vapors fall. 
 No roadstead there, no haven seemed at all, 
 Nor shelter where a ship might rest at ease ; 
 But from the main earth darted a wild wall 
 Of headlands. Then Odysseus' heart and knees 
 "Were loosened; and his soul thus spake in the deep seas." 
 
 (5) Indignation sometimes arouses the emotion of sub- 
 limity. The following, from Catiline's imagined address 
 to the senate of Eome, rises to the sublime : 
 
 " Here I devote your senate ! I 've had wrongs. 
 To stir a fever in the blood of age. 
 Or make the infant's sinews strong as steel. 
 This day 's the birth of sorrow ! This hour's work 
 Will breed proscriptions, — look to your hearths, my lords, 
 ■For there henceforth shall sit, for household gods. 
 Shapes hot from Tartarus! all shames and crimes,— 
 Wan Treachery with his thirsty dagger diawn ; 
 Suspicion poisoning his brother's cup ; 
 Naked Rebellion with the torch and axe. 
 Making his wild sport of your blazing thrones ; 
 Till Anarchy come down on you like Night, 
 And Massacre seal Rome's eternal grave ! " 
 
154 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 (6) Vastness of time or space is conducive to this emo- 
 tion. Thoughts of eternity or boundless space are espe- 
 cially sublime. Even mountains and oceans afford such 
 expansion to the imagination as to produce a feeling of 
 sublimity. The following passage from Bryant is sublime 
 from the comparative insignificance of man as well as the 
 vastness of creation, both of which are made prominent 
 throughout : 
 
 " The golden sun, 
 The planets, all the infinite host of heaven, 
 Are shining on the sad abodes of death, 
 Through the still lapse of ages. All that tread 
 The globe are but a handful to the tribes 
 That slamber in its bosom. — Take the wings 
 Of morning,— and the Barcan desert pierce. 
 Or lose thyself in the continuous woods 
 Where rolls the Oregon, and hears no sound 
 Save his own dashings,— yet the dead ai-e there ; 
 And millions, in those solitudes, since fli-st 
 The flight of years began, have laid them down 
 In their last sleep." 
 
 (7) Mystery is a potent cause of the sublime. Thoughts 
 about darkness, death, the world of spirits, supernatural 
 events, and the inscrutable providences of deity, are full 
 of sublimity. The following passage from Job is an 
 example : 
 
 "In thoughts from the visions of the night, when deep sleep falleth on men, 
 fear came upon me, and trembling, which made all my bones to shake. Then a 
 spirit passed before my face ; the hair of my flesh stood up. It stood still, bat I 
 could not discern the form thereof ; an image was before mine eyes, there was si- 
 lence, and I heard a voice saying: 'Shall mortal man be more just than Oud? 
 shall a man be more pure than his Maker?'" 
 
 4. The Witty. 
 
 The feeling produced by the witty is not so purely emo- 
 tional as that occasioned by the sublime and the beautiful. 
 
CRITICISM. 155 
 
 It is characterized by some perversion of thought, and 
 depends chiefly upon (1) the association of incongruities, 
 ("2) expressed in brief and pointed language. As its basis 
 is an odd fancy, wit is short-lived. 
 
 The nature of vs^it will be more clearly seen from its 
 causes. 
 
 (1) Incongruity is a principal source of wit. We find 
 in nature a reglilar succession of events and a proportion 
 between events and their causes. When this regularity 
 and proportion are violated, surprise is awakened, and, if 
 trivial, the detection of the incongruity awakens the emo- 
 tion of the ludicrous. The following example will illus- 
 trate this kind of wit : 
 
 " 'T was night ! the stars were shrouded in a veil of mist ; a cloudy canopy 
 o'erhung the world ; the vivid lightnings flashed and shook their fiery darts upon 
 the earth ; the deep-toned thunder rolled along the 'vaulted sky ; the elements 
 were in wild commotion ; the storm-spirit howled in the air ; the winds whistled ; 
 the hailstones fell like leaden balls ; the huge undulations of the ocean dashed 
 upon the rock-bound shore ; and torrents leaped from the mountain-tops, when 
 the murderer sprang from his sleepless couch with vengeance on his brow, — mur- 
 der in his heart,— and the fell instrument of destruction in his hand. 
 
 "The storm increased ; the lightning flashed with brighter glare ; the thunder 
 gi'owled with deeper energy ; the winds whistled with awilder fury ; the confusion 
 of the hour was congenial to his soul, anl the stormy passions which raged in his 
 bosom. He clenched his weapon with a sterner grasp. A demoniac smile 
 gathered on his lip ; he grated his teeth ; raised his arm ; sprang with a yell of 
 triumph upon his victim ; and relentlessly killed — a mosquito I " 
 
 /^ Any degradation^ of a dignified subject, or undue elevation of a 
 mean one, is called a Builesque. A combination of the great and the 
 little is called by the same name. 
 
 The Mock-heroic is the degraViation of that which is grand to that 
 /which is insignificant. It is a form of burlesque. 
 
 ^A Parody or Travesty is a burlesque imitation of something seri- 
 
 /owi, a ^tiiB f nllnwing : 
 
 Oh, ever thus, from childhood's hour, 
 I Ve seen my fondest hopes decay : 
 
 I never loved a tree or flower. 
 But 't was the flrst to fade away." 
 
156 THE ELEMENTS OP BHETORIO. 
 
 Pakody. "Oh, ever thus, from childhood's hour. 
 This cruel fate on me hath fell : 
 There always comes a soaking shower 
 When I 've forgot my umberell." 
 
 (3) Unexpected coincidence is a source of wit. The 
 detection of undiscovered resemblances, a play upon words 
 having the same sound but different senses^ and a quick 
 perversion of the intended meaning, are regarded as witty. 
 The following are illustrations : 
 
 " An epigram is, like a bee, 
 A lively little thing ; 
 Its body small, its honey sweet, 
 And in its tail a sting." 
 
 " Pope came off clean with Homer ; but they say 
 Broome went before and kindly swept the way." 
 
 The play upon the name of a previous translator of Homer in the 
 last example is called Faronomasia, or Pun. 
 
 A witty reply is called Eeparteo. This is an example: "Said a 
 would-be agreeable, taking his seat between the brilliant JIadarae 
 de StaSl and the reigning beauty of the day, ' How happy I am to 
 be thus seated between a wit and a beauty.' 'Yes,' replied Madame 
 de Stael, ' and without possessing either !'" 
 
 An apparent congruity which is in reality an incongruity is called 
 a Bull. A pool' Irish peasant was floundering through a bog on a 
 [)ony. In its efforts to gain solid ground, the animal entangled one 
 of its feet in a stirrup. "Arrah, me boy! " exclaimed the rider, "if 
 you are getting up, it 's time for me to get down." 
 
 5. The Humorous. 
 
 Humor is wit with an infusion of good-nature and sym- 
 pathy. Wit is a brilliant flash ; humor is a lingering sun- 
 beam, cheering while it brightens. It is nobler than wit, 
 for it mingles the emotions of the heart with the con- 
 ceptions of the intellect. Some of the sources of humor 
 are mentioned below. 
 
CRITICISM. 157 
 
 The following fine distinction between wit and humor is drawn by 
 E. P. Whipple: 
 
 "Wit laughs at things; humor laughs with them. Wit lashes 
 external appearances, or cunningly exaggerates single foibles into 
 character; humor glides into the heart of its object, looks lovingly 
 on the infirmities it detects, and represents the whole man. 
 
 " Wit is abrupt, darting, scornful, and tosses its analogies in your 
 face; humor is slow and shy, insinuating its fun into your heart. 
 Wit is negative, analytical, destructive; humor is creative. . . . 
 Old Cr. Fuller's remark tliat a negro is ' the image of Grod in ebony,' 
 is humorous; Horace Smith's, that 'the taskmaster is the image of 
 the devil cut in ivory,' is witty." 
 
 (1) Playful freedom of expression is a source of humor. 
 It is exemplified in the following passage of Hawthorne's 
 " Eill from the Town Pump." The Pump says : 
 
 " Welcome, most rubicund air ! You and I liave been great strangers hitherto , 
 nor, to confess the truth, will my nose be anxious for a closer intimacy till the 
 fumes of your breath be a little less potent. Mercy on you, man ! the water abso- 
 lutely hisses down ! Fill a^ain, and tell me, on the word of an honest toper, did 
 you ever, in cellar, tavern, or any kind of dram-shop, spend the price of your 
 children's food for a swig halt so delicious? Now, tor the tirst time these ten 
 years, you know the flavor of cold water. Good-by ; and whenever you are 
 thirsty, remember I keep a constant supply, at the old stand." 
 
 {%) Human failings, when spoken of without severity, 
 give rise to the feeling of the humorous. Thackeray and 
 Dickens are especially fine in their humorous treatment 
 of character. "The Pickwick Papers" is humorous 
 throughout. A sufSciently long example to illustrate this 
 source of humor cannot be introduced here. 
 
 (3) Joking one's self often has a humorous effect. How- 
 ever sharp the jest, it is universally understood that the 
 jester has a kindly regard for himself, which divests his 
 expressions of all asperity. 
 
158 THE ELEMENTS OF RUETOlilC. 
 
 Sidney Smith remarked to the- Chapter of St. Paul's, on the pro- 
 posal to lay a wooden pavement around the building: '• If we lay 
 our heads together, the thing is done." As he includes himself, this 
 is humorous. If he had said, " If you lay your heads together," it 
 would have been witty, but not humorous. 
 
 6. The Pathetic. 
 
 Pathos, or the tender emotion, is one of the most power- 
 ful elements of both literature and oratory. It is founded 
 on sympathy, and seldom fails to engage the interest and 
 touch the heart. It is the secret charm of love tales and 
 the poetry of the affections. 
 
 Some of its causes may be pointed out. 
 
 (1) Examples of compassion in others produce the 
 emotion of pathos. Burke's description of Howard 
 is a fine instance. 
 
 " He has, visited all Europe, to dive into the depths of dungeons ; to yluuge 
 into the infections of hospitals ; to survey the mansions of sorrow and pain ; to 
 take the gauge and d mensions of misery, depression, and contempt ; to remember 
 the forgotten, to attend to the neglected, to visit the forsaken, and compare and 
 collate the distresses of all men in all countries." 
 
 (3) Scenes of sorrow and suffering touch the heart with 
 sympathy, and awaken a feeling of pathos. Irving's 
 description of the burial of a widow's son will serve as 
 an example. 
 
 " The service being ended, preparations were made to deposit the coffin in the 
 earth. There was that bustling stir that breaks so harshly on the feelings of 
 grief and affection ; directions were given in tlie cold tones of Imsiness ; the 
 striking of spades into sand and gravel, which, at tlie grave of those we love, is 
 of all sounds the most withering. The bustle around seemed to waken the 
 mother from a wretched reverie. She raised her glazed eyes, and looked about 
 with a faint wildness As the men approached with cords to lower the coffin into 
 the grave, she wrung her hands and broke into an agony of grief. T le poor 
 woman who attended her, took her by the arm, endeavored to raise her from 
 
CRITICISM. 169 
 
 the earth, and whispered something like consolation. ... As they lowered 
 the body into the earth, the crackling of the cords seemed to agonize her ; but 
 when, on some acciilental obstruction, there was a jostling of the coffin, all the 
 tenderness of the mother burst forth ; as if any harm could come to him who was 
 fir beyond the reach of wurldly suflfering." (See also the story entitled "The 
 Broken Hearts" in Irving s " Sketch-Book.") 
 
 (3) Personal devotion, under circumstances of trial and 
 disappointment, is often pathetic. The story of Evange- 
 line^'s sorrow and search for her lost lover, so beautifully 
 told by Longfellow, enlists our sympathies for the unfor- 
 tunate maiden. The following is a passage from the poem : 
 
 "Thus did the long sad years glide on, and in seasons and places 
 Divers and distant far was seen the wandering maiden : 
 Now in the tents of grace of the meek Moravian Missions, 
 Now in the noisy camps and the battle-fields of the army, 
 Now in secluded hamlets, in towns'and populous cities ; 
 Like a phantom she came, and passed away unremembered. 
 Fair was she and young, when in hope began the long joarney ; 
 Faded was she and old, when in disappointment it ended. 
 Each succeeding year stole something away from her beauty, 
 Leaving behind it, broader and deeper, the gloom and the shadow; 
 Then there appeared and spread faint streaks of gray o'er her forehead. 
 Dawn of another life, that broke o'er her earthly horizon. 
 As in the eastern sky the first faint streaks of the morning.** 
 
 (4) Eeminiscencesorprospectsof loss are touching. The 
 
 thought of departed greatness, past magnificence, per- 
 ished beauty, or extinguished virtue ^wakens pathos in 
 the soul. In like manner the expectation of death, or 
 separation from loved objects, arouses pathetic feeling. 
 Wolsey's Soliloquy illustrates this sentiment : 
 
 ." So, farewell to the little good you bear me. 
 Farewell, a long farewell, to all my greatness ! 
 This is the state of man : to-day he puts forth 
 The tender leaves of hope ; to-morrow blossoms. 
 And bears his blushing honors thick upon him ; 
 The third day comes a frost, a killing frost ; 
 And,— when he thinks, good easy man, full surely 
 His greatness is a-ripening,— nips his root, 
 
160 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETOBIO, 
 
 And then he falls as I do. I have ventur'd 
 Like little wanton hoi's that swim on bladders. 
 This many summers in a sea of ^loiy ; 
 But far beyond ray depth : my liigh-blown pride 
 At ltin3;th broke under me ; and now has left me, 
 Weary and old with Sirvice, lo the mercy 
 Of a rude stream, that must forever hide me. 
 Vain pomp and glory of this world, I hate ye. 
 I feel my heart new-open'd. Oh, how wretched. 
 la that poor man that hangs on princes' favors 1 
 Ihere is, betwixt that smile wu would aspire to, 
 Tliat sweet aspect of princes, and their ruin, 
 More pangs and fears than wars or women have : 
 And when he falls, he fallslilce Lucifer, 
 Never to hope again." 
 
 In this section, on "The Pleasures of Taste," we 
 ^ have considered: 
 
 (1) The Kinds of ^Esthetic Pleasure, 
 
 (2) The Beautiful. 
 {3) The SuhUm-c. 
 {4) The Witty, 
 
 (5) The HinDoroxis. 
 {6) The Pathetic, 
 
 yh 
 
CHAPTER y. 
 SPECIAL FOEMS OF COMPOSITION. 
 
 1. Kinds of Composition. 
 
 Having considered the general principles of composi- 
 tion, we may now attend to some of its special forms. 
 The principal forms are as follows : 
 
 (1) Prose (from the Latin jorosa contracted tromprorsa, 
 and that from proversus, straight forward) is the general 
 name for all forms of discourse which ai'e not in verse. 
 It has, however, a narrower meaning. In its narrow sense, 
 it means representative discourse, or such as aims only to 
 represent the theme to the intellect with clearness and 
 force. Hence the adjective prosaic is applied to that which 
 does not awaken the emotions. 
 
 (2) Poetry (from the Greek xo'.ftv, poiein, to make) is 
 the common word for all that is expressed in verse. This 
 also has a narrower sense. That is called poetry which 
 arouses feeling or awakens the aesthetic emotions. Its 
 natural form is meter and rhyme, but the Book of Job is 
 a poem which, in its ordinary English form, has neither 
 meter nor rhyme. Prom this sense of the word arises 
 the adjective poetical, applied to that which arouses the 
 esthetic emotions. 
 
1G2 TUJ^ ELEMENTS OF UHETORIC. 
 
 (3) Eloquence (from the Latin eloqui, to speak out) is 
 popularly regarded as a form of prose, but differs from 
 common prose. It is an utterance of one's feelings with 
 the aim of producing similar feelings in others, and so 
 influencing the will. It differs from, poetry in being per- 
 suasive, while the end of poetry is not to persuade, but to 
 please. 
 
 Each of these forms of composition has a gi-eat number of varieties. 
 Much ingenuity li.is been expended in classifying them, but no really 
 philosophical classiticiition has yet been made. We may mention 
 some of the princip.il forms of prose, reserving the varieties of elo- 
 quence and poetry for iinothev place. 
 
 A History (from the Greek iaropeiv, Mstorein, to learn, to know by 
 inquiry) is a narrative of events. It is usually arranged in a method- 
 ical manner, so as to show the connection of causes and effects. 
 
 A Cliromcle (from the Greek xp°^'i^^s, kronicos, concerning time) 
 is a history in which the events are stated with special reference 
 to the order of time. 
 
 Annala (from the Latin annalis, from annus, a year) are a chron- 
 icle divided into distinct years. 
 
 Biography (from the Greek j3iof, Mos, life, and yp&^etv, grapJiein, 
 to write) is the narrative of an individual life. 
 
 An Autobiograpty (from the Greek a.vT6Q, autos, self, and English 
 biography) is a biography written by the person whose life is 
 narrated. 
 
 A Memoir (from the Latin memoria, memory) is a history com- 
 posed from personal experiences and memory. 
 
 A Novel (from the Latin nmellus, diminutive of novtis, new) is a 
 fictitious narrative, designed to represent the operation of human 
 passions, especially of love. 
 
 A Bomance (from the Latin romandum, a dialect, in which this 
 kind of composition was iirst written) is a kind of novel which treats 
 of wild or startling adventures, particularly in love or war. 
 
 A Tale (from the Anglo-Saxon teUan, to tell) is a short narra- 
 tive, and may be either true or false. 
 
 An Essay (from the Latin exngium, a weighing, but commonly 
 referred to the French essayer, to attempt) is a brief composition on 
 any theme, generally designed to set forth one's views on the sub- 
 
SPECIAL FORMS OF 00MP08ITI0W. 163 
 
 ject, but impersonal and dignifled in its style. Some books are called 
 essays; as, Locke's "Essay on the Human Understanding." The 
 word is more commonly applied to a shorter composition. 
 
 A Dissertation (from the Latin dissertatio, a discourse) is a formal 
 and elaborate essay. The name is less commonly applied to com- 
 positions than formerly. 
 
 A Treatise (from the English verb to treat) implies a more formal 
 and methodical treatment than an essay, but is not necessarily a full 
 and elaborate discussion of the subject. 
 
 A Tract (from the Latin tractus, from trahere, to draw) is a short 
 treatise, and e.-pecially a brief treatise on practical religion. 
 
 A Critique (from the Greek Kpinnd^ kritikoa, from Kpiveiv, krinein, 
 to judge) is a critical examination of a literary production in which 
 its merits and defects are estimated. 
 
 A Beview (from the Latin re, again, videre, to see) is a critique 
 published in some critical journal or magazine. The word is also 
 applied to certain periodical publications, originally designed for the 
 criticism of new books, but now often devoted to current topics of 
 interest; as, the "North American Review." 
 
 2. Method of Treatment. 
 
 As it is impossible within our limits to discuss all the 
 various kinds of composition, only snch as nearly all per- 
 sons need to know something about are considered in this 
 book. The most important are 
 
 (i) Descriptions. 
 {B) Jfarratives. 
 
 (3) Letters. 
 
 (4) Orations. And, 
 
 (5) Poems. 
 
 These will be treated of in the following sections : 
 
164 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 SECTION I, 
 
 Descbiptiou"s. 
 
 1. Qualities of a Good Description. 
 
 A description should have the following qualities : 
 
 (1) It should have a purpose. It is generally undesir- 
 able to enumerate all the qualities of what we are describ- 
 ing, for this would make the description tedious. B}' 
 having some purpose definitely fixed in the mind, we are 
 able to select only such circumstances as are relevant. A 
 description which would be suitable to a poem would not 
 be of much value to a man of science. 
 
 (2) It should have unity. The impression made upon 
 the mind should be that of one thing, all of whose parts 
 are properly connected. A natural order in considering 
 the parts conduces to unity. In describing a tree, for 
 example, it would be a violation of unity to speak first of 
 its trunk, then of its fruit, then of its leaves, and finally 
 of its size and shape. It would be better first of all to 
 mention its size and shape ; and then, beginning at the 
 trunk, to follow the branches to the leaves, and finally 
 describe the fruit. In this way the growth of our idea of 
 the tree would follow the order of nature in the growth 
 of the tree itself. 
 
 (3) It should be complete. It is not meant that a descrip- 
 tion must contain all that can be said of that which is de- 
 scribed. A description is complete when nothing essential 
 to the purpose has been omitted. Circumstances of time, 
 place, and habit are often important. In descriptions of 
 
SPECIAL FORMS OF COMPOSITION. 165 
 
 things which change, the time of observation ought to be 
 noted. Animals are not adequately described unless their 
 habits and dispositions are noticed. 
 
 (4) It should be brief. When we read or hear a descrip- 
 tion, we do not see all the parts at once, as we do in a 
 picture, but must form an idea in our own minds out of 
 the elements furnished in succession. For this reason 
 description becomes indistinct when it -is very long, as 
 the mind cannot recall and combine a very large number 
 of details. 
 
 The laws of description are much more fully treated in the 
 " Science of Rhetoric.'' Many abstract principles would be con- 
 fusing to the unpractised writer. Hence no rules are given here for 
 the description of mental states and forms of character. 
 
 There is scarcely any kind of composition that aifords more scope 
 for genius than description. To paint well with words requires as 
 much skill as to paint well with colors. 
 
 3. The Process of Describing. 
 
 The successive steps in the process of describing are as 
 follows : 
 
 (1) Select a point of view. Everything depends upon 
 this. A description cannot have unity unless the object 
 be viewed from some one point. It is confusing to change 
 the point of view at any time without giving notice. 
 
 (3) Select characteristic qualities. There are many 
 qualities that are common to the object described and all 
 similar objects. It may always be taken for granted that 
 a reader or hearer knows something, and needs to be in- 
 formed only of what is peculiar. An active mind enjoys 
 a free play of imagination in combining the elements of 
 whatever is described. 
 
lOd THE ELEM.E2iT8 OF BHETOBIC. 
 
 (3) Enumerate qualities in their natural order. Much 
 depends upou this. The more closely we follow the order 
 of actual conception the better. When an object is de- 
 scribed in this manner interest seldom flags, and we 
 almost see the reality. 
 
 (4) Use comparisons to make the description vivid and 
 life-like. Some resemblance may suggest a better known 
 or more striking object. Many beautiful descriptions 
 owe much of their attractiveness to a happy comparison. 
 Goldsmith, after describing the purity, charit}', and ten- 
 derness of a village pastor, concludes with the words : 
 
 "As some tall cliff that lifts its awtal form, 
 Swells from the vale, and midway leaves the stoi-m, 
 Tho' round its breast tlie rolling clouds are spread. 
 Eternal sunshine settles on its head." 
 
 Study closely the following masterly descriptdon of the Puritan 
 Balfour and his surroundings, by Sir Walter Scott: 
 
 " Upon entering the place ,of refuge, he found Bdl^mir seated on his humble 
 cowtiA, with a pocket LibU open in his hand, which he seemed to study with in- 
 tense meditatimi. His broadsword, which he had unsheathed in the first alarm 
 at the arrival of the dragoons, lay naked across his knees, and the little taper 
 that stood beside him on ths old ch£st, which served the purpose of a table, threw 
 a partial and imperfect H^jht upon those stern and harsh/eatwres, in which ferocity 
 was rendered more solemn and dignified by a wild cast of tn^ic enthusiasm. 
 His brow was that of one in whom some strong o*erm.astering principle has over- 
 whelmed all other passions and feelings, — Wee the swell 0/ a high spring-tide, when 
 the usual cliffs and breakers vanish from the eye, and their existence Is only indi 
 cated by the chafing foam of the waves that burst and wheel over them." 
 
 Notice how the writer has fulfilled the conditions of a good de- 
 scription. First, he takes his point of view at the entrance to the 
 place where Balfour is. He then notes the posture of the Puritan, 
 the couch on which he is seated, the open Bible in his hand, his 
 meditation in study, his broadsword, the taper by his side, the chest 
 on which it stands, the light on his features, his brow so expressive 
 of his character, and finally completes the picture with the impressive 
 comparison which closes the passage. 
 
SPEOlAh JfOBMB OF COMPOSITION. 1G7 
 
 In this section, on "Descriptions," we have con- 
 sidered : 
 
 (i) The Qualities of a Good Description, 
 {B) The Process of Describing. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 Naeeatives. 
 
 1. Qualities of a Good Narrative. 
 
 A narrative, whether true or fictitious, should possess 
 the following qualities : 
 
 (1) It should have a purpose. As a description gives an 
 account of some object, a narrative gives an account of 
 some event. But every event — such as a storm, a battle, 
 or a voyage — has a number of circumstances connected 
 with it, some of which are essential to one purpose, others 
 to another. By forming a distinct purpose, and keeping 
 it steadily in view, we secure interest in the narrative. 
 
 {%) It should have unity. This is quite as necessary in a 
 narrative as in a description, but more difficult to secure, 
 because the objects described stand out as distinct indi- 
 viduals, while events are closely connected with others. 
 
 (3) It should be co.Tiplete. A narrative should not be- 
 gin at such a point as to make the incidents seem improb- 
 able, nor end with abruptness. Completeness, therefore, 
 requires that a narrative commence at the beginning and 
 continue to the end of an action. In order to be interest- 
 ing it must not omit striking details. 
 
168 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETOIilO. 
 
 (4) It should be brief. The prorerb, " Brevity is the 
 soul of wit," applies with special aptness to a narra- 
 tive. A story spun out beyond reasonable limits be- 
 comes wearisome. 
 
 The power of suooeBsful story-telling is a rare but charming gift. 
 The dry chronicles of the early English historians contain most of 
 the facts of Sir Walter Scott's fascinating romances, but these dead 
 facts leaped into life at the touch of the great enchanter. No one 
 reads the old chronicles, but nearly every one is delighted with 
 the stories based upon them. The difference of interest is owing to 
 that power of genius which transforms lifeless facts in„o life-like 
 pictures. This transformation is, to a great extent, the result of a 
 vivid imagination, imparting color, order, and proportion to the facts. 
 ■ It may seem paradoxical, but it is true, that imagination is as neces- 
 sary to the historian as to the romancer. Imagination does not im- 
 ply falsehood. On the contrary, it is necessary to the realization 
 of all truth expressed in forms or material symbols. A true story, as 
 much as an invented one, requires imagination to render it vivid. 
 The secret of successful narrative is a vivid realization of details and 
 their relations. 
 
 2. The Plot of a Narrative. 
 
 Every narrative designed to be interesting ought to 
 have a plot. By this is meant such an arrangement of 
 incidents as to excite and retain the interest. In a short 
 anecdote, it is a mere withholding of the point of the 
 story, until the circumstances are all related. In a novel, 
 it is an intricate combination of the incidents in such a 
 manner as to arouse the expectation and sustain the in- 
 terest, often for a long time, till the denouement, or issue 
 of the story. 
 
 The peculiar fascination of works of fiction depends greatly upon 
 a skilfully constructed plot. Even when it is known that the whole 
 story is a fabrication, one can hardly repress the desire to know the 
 
SPECIAL FORMS OF COMPOSITION. 169 
 
 end ; the mind finding no satisfaction until the destiny of each char- 
 acter is determined. Some persons always spoil a story because they 
 cannot withhold the conclusion or enshroud it in mystery. The «nd 
 is known as soon as they begin, and, therefore, the reader cares little 
 for the narrative. Others form a plot in the simplest anecdote, and 
 are listened to with admiration when they tell it. The power to do 
 this is, no doubt, to a great extent, a secret of genius, but analysis 
 reveals some of the principles which must be observed. 
 
 3. The Qualities of a Plot. 
 
 A plot should have the following qualities : 
 
 (1) The narrative should seem important. The idea 
 of importance may be suggested by foreshadowing an in- 
 teresting conclusion. A strange scene, a peculiar charac- 
 ter, or a mysterious occurrence is, therefore, generally an 
 appropriate introduction to a narrative. 
 
 (2) Probability is necessary to a good plot. Improb- 
 ability, however, may contribute to the interest, if there 
 be a reasonable hope of a final explanation. 
 
 (3) Suspense conduces to the interest of a story, if it 
 be not too long continued. Patience must be rewarded, 
 however, at intervals by some development of the plot, or 
 the narrative seems dull and interest flags. 
 
 (4) Climax is important in a narrative. The interest 
 
 should grow as the story advances, until the denouement 
 
 is reached. This should be reserved till the last, and not 
 
 too distinctly anticipated. 
 
 The c[iialities of a plot meutioued above belong to the best histories 
 as well as to works of fiction. Gibbon, Macaulay, and especially 
 Preseott, are sometimes almost dramatic in their management of 
 plot. Fiction, however, affords the finest field for skilful narrative, 
 because the writer is free to combine Ms incidents in the most effec- 
 tive way. Some writers of fiction rely chiefly upon the plot for their 
 
170 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETOBIC. 
 
 success as story-tellers. Wilkie Collins is pre-eminent tor the in- 
 genuity of his plots. Others depend little upon the plot, but excel 
 ill portraiture of oharaeter. Dickens and Thackeray are distinguished 
 mainly for their delineation of different phases of life. Sir Walter 
 Scott unites an intricate plot with lifelike painting of characters. 
 
 In this section, on "Narratives," we have consid- 
 ered : 
 
 (i) The Qualities of a Good Jfarrative. 
 [2) The Plot of a Marrative. 
 {3) The Qualities of a Plot. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 /^ Letters. 
 
 1. The Purpose of LetterSii_, 
 
 A letter is a written communication from one person 
 to another. It is intended to take the place of a conversa- 
 tion, and this purpose determines the form, the length, the 
 style, and the general tone of a letter. It is a kind of 
 personal address, and, accordingly, is less formal and more 
 direct than other forms of written composition. 
 
 The adjective epistolary ffrom the Greek ef/, epi, to, and <nh')0\zii\ 
 tteUdn, to send) is applied to correspondence by letter. The primary 
 idea of a letter is a conversation at a distance. If this be kept in 
 mind, one can scarcely fail to write appropriately, if he can converse 
 properly; for a letter may be familiar or reserved, jocular or dig- 
 nihed, according to the relations between the writer and the one 
 addressed. 
 
SPECIAL FORMS OF COMPOSITION. 171 
 
 2. The Kinds of Letters. 
 
 Letters constitute the principal part of -vvntten compo- 
 sition. They are written on every conceivable topic, in 
 almost every temper of mind, by and to every class of 
 persons. Hence they are of as many kinds as are the 
 thoughts and purposes of those who 'write them. A few' 
 of the most important kinds of letters, with the style 
 appropriate to each, may be mentioned. 
 
 (1) Didactic letters, designed for instruction, and often 
 almost as formal as a treatise, were formerly a very popu- 
 lar form of literature. The famous book on Etiquette, by 
 Lord Chesterfield, is in the form of letters to his son. 
 Montesquieu's Persian Letters are designed to convey 
 political instruction. 
 
 This form of composition was much employed by the ancients. 
 Seneca and Pliny wrote treatises in this form. Seneca's Epistles 
 claim to be simply letters to a friend, but they are in reality disserta- 
 tions in the epistolary foi'm on moral subjects. Pliny discourses of 
 natural history jn the same way, and his Letters are as elegant in 
 style as If their substance had been expressed in formal dissertations. 
 
 (3) Hews letters are communications to newspapers, 
 containing accounts of events in various places, descrip- 
 tions of ceremonies and eminent persons, and reports 
 of opinions gathered from public men. Such letters 
 are often of great interest, and are sometimes written 
 with skill and taste. They should be brief, timely, and 
 sprightly, and written in an easy, flowing style. 
 
 Several of the finest living writers are engaged in correspondence 
 with the best metropolitan journals. They make letter-writing .i 
 
173 THE ELEMENTS OF LHETOBIC. 
 
 profession, and devote themselves to it with enthusiasm. Their let- 
 ters are usually brilliant rather tliaii profound, dealing chiefly with 
 current events in politics, religion, and literature. They are often full 
 of humor and fancy, and the predominant style is what is sometimes 
 called picturesque, from the graphic character of the diction. 
 
 (3) Official letters are communications between men in 
 their public capacity. They should always possess per- 
 fect clearness, the utmost possible brevity, and a firm dig- 
 nity of tone. They should also contain the usual terms 
 of courtesy. 
 
 (4) Letters of business are of great importance on ac- 
 count of the interests frequently involved in them. They 
 should be clear, brief, direct, and gentlemanly. Every- 
 thing irrelevant to the business in hand should be ex- 
 cluded. They should contain such reference to former 
 correspondence that the business may not be confused 
 through personal failure of memory. Business men usu- 
 ally file their letters, — sometimes copies of those sent as 
 well as those received, — so that, in a reply, the date of the 
 letter answered often aids the person addressed in recall- 
 ing what he has said. 
 
 Great losses in business have resulted from carelessness in correspon- 
 dence. Ambiguous language may be wrested from its purpose, and 
 made an excuse for delay or a different action from that desired. 
 Hence, the man of business should be painstaking in acquiring a 
 clear, concise style of writing. 
 
 Carelessness in spelling, blunders in construction, or want of taste 
 in the expression of thought, often interfere with success in the world 
 of business. The business character of a man or firm is judged of 
 by strangers from the appearance of their correspondence. 
 
SPECIAL FORMS OF COMPOSITION. 173 
 
 (5) Letters of introduction are designed to commend a 
 friend to another person of one's acquaintance. These- 
 should never be written without forethought, inasmuch as 
 the writei', to a certain extent, vouches for the character 
 of the person introduced. 
 
 Such letters are generally left unsealed, and the name of the per- 
 son introduced is written on the lower left-hand corner of the en- 
 velope, in order that the persons, on meeting, may greet each other 
 without embarrassment. The name of the person addressed is also 
 placed on the envelope in the manner usual for other letters. 
 
 (6) Letters of friendship commonly receive less atten- 
 tion in their composition than they deserve. They should 
 be free from pedantry and egotism . Their general tone 
 is determined by the relation of the correspondents. It 
 is safest to be rather more dignified and precise in a letter 
 than in ordinary conversation with our friends. Neat- 
 ness and correctness are indispensable to a good letter, 
 no matter how intimate one may be with his friend. A 
 plain handwriting is as much deserved by a father or a 
 brother as by an officer of state. 
 
 One caution is worth remembering in writing letters of friendship. 
 Words that are spoken in privacy reach no other ears than those for 
 which they were intended. Words that are once written upon paper 
 may be seen by many eyes for which they were not designed. It is 
 wise, therefore, never to write anything which the world might not 
 read without causing mortiiication and regret to the writer or the 
 person addressed. In addition to this, a letter once sent cannot be 
 recalled, and it may not be read in the spirit in which it was written; 
 
 (7) Notes are short letters, generally limited to a single 
 point of business. They are properly written on smaller 
 
174 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 paper than ordinary letters, and in quality it should be 
 plain, fine, and neat. 
 
 In addressing notes to ladies, the eldest daughter uf the family is 
 
 entitl 'il to tlie desigaation Miss , without any Christian name. 
 
 If Mr. Brown has three daughters, Mary, Annie, and Emily, the first 
 [Mary] is Miss Brown; the second, Miss Annie Brown; the third, 
 Miss Emily Brown. Taken together, they are the Misses Brown, 
 not the Miss Browns. 
 
 Modern etiquette tends toward informality in the composition of 
 notes. Such expressions as "presents her compliments," so frequent 
 in the formal notes of an earlier time, would probably not be used 
 at all now in the best society. In fact, card etiquette has so far su- 
 perseded the oereraonioiis correspondence of former days that only 
 informal notes are actually written. Invitations to dine consist fre- 
 quently of ail engraved card with only the name and date filled in 
 by hand. Reception cards also take I he placi." of notes. Regrets 
 are expressed formally by inclosing a visiting-c.ird upon which the 
 word " Regrets" is sometimes written. Informal invitations should 
 receive an informal reply. They should correspond in tone to the 
 degree of intimacy implied in the invitation. An invitation to dine 
 requires an immediate answer. If accepted, a note, formal or infor- 
 mal, according to the circumstances, should be sent. Sometime- 
 the letters "R. S. V. P." are placed at the bottom of the invittitiori 
 or note, — an abbreviation of the French repondez s^U wus plait. 
 meaning please reply; but this is usually unnecessary, for a well- 
 bred person knows that a reply is expected. 
 
 Remember the following hints : 
 
 (1) Do not refer to yourself or to your correspondent by both the 
 first and third or the second and third persons of the pronoun. 
 
 (2) Do not forget to date your note precisely. 
 
 (3) Do not write the word Addressed on the envelope of your 
 note. 
 
 (4) Do not seal a note delivered by a friend. 
 
 (5) Do not write a note on a; postal card. 
 
 (6) Do not s/Up a page and then return to it. 
 
 (7) Do not write both horizontoMy and vertically upon the same 
 page, or in the same letter. 
 
SPECIAL FORMS OF COMPOSITION. 175 
 
 The following ai'u specimens of the most common forms : 
 
 Formal Invitations. 
 
 (1) 
 
 / ^«.^ 
 
 (3) 
 
 Formal Replies. 
 
 (1) 
 
 
 
176 THE ELEMENTS OF BHETOBIG. 
 
 \-i. ^■tii'e^ -i-Oi^-eM ■i-'na-i tzM^'nce- ^o-f^ ■t^e 
 
 (3) 
 
 a- 
 
 omtd. 
 
 Note of Introduction. 
 
 
 iyO l-ii-a.'j^'C, «2 o^&i 
 
 't-e'titifi ^/S-nti'tcA; -aiM -ei ■tedi^e^'yi^ 
 
 i-ic&'yiyez. ■z.*ie- C/iQe-it-. ^pj. C/, C/J i-t^€i-i^-C, <i c-&e^t^^#*««*i 
 ttnu-Ui nci'/z -tzu'tii^-ei, <n-iti <l^-a^ -en. ti<m't oi'CtA ■uz-t^'C 
 
 d.'ia-'n.. C/l'i-tyii, ^■c-ptiZ'i-t 
 
 ie ^t^i^'teaei-ie-cc -ui^ ■n'l/e. 
 
 ■64^ iU^^iie.ie^t^ i^o-i^d.. 
 
 m. 
 
 
 «<r-«^<«. 
 
 Oieat oaation should be used in writing notes of introduction. A 
 simple visiting-card of the person introducing, with the words 
 
 "Introducing Mr. ," is an approved, convenient, and safe 
 
 note of introduction. 
 
8PE0IAL FORMS OF COMPOSITION. 177 
 
 3. Parts of a Letter. 
 
 The essential parts of a letter are : (1) the Heading, or 
 introduction ; (2) the Body, or substance of the letter ; (3) 
 the Subscription, or closing expi-ession and signature ; and 
 (4) the Address, or direction on the envelope. The head- 
 ing, subscription, and address will now be considered in 
 order. 
 
 (1) The Heading of a letter consists of (1) the name of 
 the place, (3) the date of writing, and (3) the designation 
 of the person addressed ; as, — 
 
 '.eta ^/!^.a4:K.. 
 
 (1) The name of the place.— This should never be omitted if the let- 
 ter is to go to another town. The State also should be added, unless 
 the letter is sent from one part of the same city to another. Small 
 towns and even cities, when there are several of the same name, 
 should always be specified by the addition of the State ; as, Madison, 
 Wis., Madison, Ind., Madison, N. J. In cities the name of the street 
 and number of the house should always be given ; as, 184 Broadway, 
 New York. Contractions should be distinct. N. Y. and N. J. are 
 made very much alike by careless writers. Even the name of the 
 county should be added, if the place is small or obscure ; as, Win- 
 field, Union Co., Pa. This enables a correspondent to direct his 
 reply correctly. 
 
 (2) The date. — Every letter should have a date. Business letters, 
 especially should never be written without the month, the day of the 
 month, and the year. The date should not be put at the bottom in 
 a business letter, but in the case of a friendly letter this may be done. 
 
178 THE ELEMENTS OF BHETOBIO. 
 
 (3) The designation of the person addressed differs according to 
 the relations of the correspondents. Letters of friendship usually 
 begin with such expressions as the following: 
 
 
 More formal letters begin as follows: 
 
 
 Never use "Dear Mr." without the proper name, nor "Gents.," 
 nor such abbreviations as "Dr. Sir. ' 
 
 Letters addressed to public officers should be quite formal. The 
 following is an example ; 
 
 y«c«-^-ite*^c-« 
 
 SaA.'i^ '^. ^-^nnt^ia.'n^j 
 
 Xcy-o 11^- 1 •yio-t o/ C/eii'i^di/'^irt 
 
 His Ejccelleney is used before the name of the President, a gover- 
 nor, or nil ambassador. The President of the United States is ad- 
 dressed as Mr. President. 
 
SPECIAL FORMS OF OOMPOSITIOHT. 179 
 
 Business letters often have the name of the firm addressed, ^nd 
 llieir place of business, as a part of the designation; as, — 
 
 
 H-aeiiZ'W-eiA 
 
 If they have not been included in the heading, the name of the 
 one addressed and the name of his post-office should be placed at 
 the close of the letter, to the left and a little below the writer's 
 signature. This should not be neglected. 
 
 The punctuation of the superscription is illustrated in the ex- 
 amples. 
 
 (3) The Subscription of a letter consists of (1) the term 
 of respect or affection, and (2) the signature ; as, — 
 
 ^U<ld ite4yi^ -M^-C^, 
 
 ■a^^-ed Ey. CxiC-e-^^^^^-^, 
 
 (1) The term used in closing a letter depends upon one's relation to 
 the person addressed. Letters of friendship close with expressions 
 such as the following: 
 
 
180 THE ELEMENTS OF EHETORIC. 
 
 More formal expressions are: 
 
 iu4d -led; 
 
 
 Do not use such abbreviations as, y'rs respHy, affe(^ yours. It is 
 better to be reserved rather than familiar in choosing the closing 
 terms of a letter. If you can avoid it, do not write the closing ex- 
 pression and your signature oil a separate page. It is well to leave 
 the last page blank. 
 
 (2) The signature deserves some attention. Married women should 
 preiix Mrs. to their name; as, — 
 
 
 The sex of the writer shoold always be evident from the signature. 
 
 This is of special importance in writing to a stranger. The sex may 
 generally be indicated by using the full Christian name instead of 
 the mere initials. It is generally best to write the first name in full 
 in any ease. Its omission often leads to a confusion of persons. 
 
 It is not customary with people of good taste to use any title in 
 signing letters or other documents. Rov., Hon., .ind Prof, are pre- 
 fixed to tlie names of gentlemen by others, but never by themselves, 
 unless they are ill informed of good usage. This rule applies to 
 titles of all kinds. 
 
SPECIAL FORMS OF COMPOSITION. i81 
 
 (3) The Address secures the safe delivery of the letter, 
 and hence should receive attention. It consists of tliree 
 parts : (1) the name, (2) the title, and (3) the residence ; 
 as, — 
 
 (1) The name should always be written plainly and with exactness, 
 without any trifling. Nicknames imd pet names should never be 
 used in writing an address. This part of a letter is always of a busi- 
 ness nature, whatever the purport of the letter may be. 
 
 (2) The title is not always easily determined. Every man is Mr. ; 
 every married lady, Mrs. ; every unmarried lady, Miss ; but some 
 claim more than these common titles. The plural of Mr. is Messrs. 
 — an abbreviation of the French Messieurs, plural of Monsieur. 
 
 It is courteous, in addressing persons, to use their titles. No one 
 is properly entitled to be called Esquire, except gentlemen of the 
 legal profession and justices of the peace. The greater title presup- 
 poses the less. It would be in bad taste to write. Rev. Charles E. 
 Brace, A. B., A. M., Ph. D., LL. D. The three titles, Ph. D., D. D., 
 and LL. D., are sometimes retained together, and the highest 
 written last. It is best to use the highest title alone. It is well to 
 indicate the leind of a doctor by using the proper abbreviation, in- 
 stead of writing simply Dr. It is absurd, however, to duplicate 
 titles; as, Dr. B. M. Jones, M. D., or Mr. Thomas Gray, Esq. 
 
 Judges, Members of Congress, and some other officers of Govern- 
 ment are entitled to the prefix Honorable. This extinguishes the 
 title Esquire after the name, but not literary titles; as, Hon. P. E. 
 Swift, LL. D. Some insist that the article " the " should be used be- 
 fore the words Honorable and Reverend, but this is not usual. 
 
 ■ (3) The residence of the person addressed should be plainly written 
 out in full. The name of the State should not be abbreviated unless 
 the abbreviation is perfectly intelligible. The street and number of 
 the house should be given, if letters are delivered by postmen. 
 
 The following examples illustrate how the address should be 
 written on an envelope : 
 
182 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF MHETOBIC. 
 
 
 C/Hisfd.H^. 
 
 
 STAMP. 
 
 
 STAMP. 
 
 .® 
 
 "^.n. fcy'k (^/'<^o./. MM. 
 
 J 
 
 /J.§' S'r.'iie •'jYiee/. 
 
 
SPECIAL FORMS OF COMPOSITION. 183 
 
 7f ^(a-O-7'? 
 
 O. S/' CnrTl?Ad, 
 
 W.r-a-3')'!./if!,€i^- 
 
 /. 
 
 '■'C'to.-c^-ucc'i't^ 'tAe 
 
 ^/2-zz W^r^. G^Jt-l 
 
184 • THE ELEMENTS OF BHETOBIC. 
 
 4. General Rules for Writing Letters. 
 
 The subject is of such great practical importance that a 
 few general directions may be given in this connection. 
 
 (1) Answer promptly. It is not meant that every letter 
 should be answered at once. This is often impossible, 
 and pven undesirable when reflection is necessary. The 
 principle should be to reply without needless delay. This 
 is due to every correspondent who deserves any attention. 
 If it be said that this direction has nothing to do with 
 composition, it should be remembered that the character 
 of the letter is greatly affected by the delay in writing. 
 
 (2) Write every letter carefully. It is natural to slight 
 such common and familiar things as letters, yet, on the 
 whole, there is scarcely any other one form of writing by 
 which men are so generally Judged by their acquaintances. 
 Even among educated men there are comparatively few 
 good writers of letters. Violations of grammar and bad 
 spelling often cost men positions of honor and profit. 
 
 (3) Express your thoughts with directness. Some 
 writers who are plain in conversation become sentimental, 
 others verbose, others flowery, in their letters. Every 
 foi'm of affectation should be avoided. A letter should be 
 ii natural expression of one's thoughts and feelings. 
 
 (4) Study neatness in folding and sealing. If the sheet 
 is note-paper, fold No. 1 (the bottom of the paper) over 
 No. 3, and then bring down No. 3 (the top of the paper), 
 as in the following diagram : 
 
SPECIAL FORMS OF COMPOSITION. 
 
 185 
 
 CO 
 
 si 
 
 6 
 
 1-! 
 
 If the sheet is letter-paper, fold No. 1 (the bottom of 
 the paper) over No. 3, and treat the folded sheet as in 
 the case of note-paper, as follows : 
 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 
186 THE ELEMENTS OF BHBTOBIG. 
 
 Ill this section, on "Letters," we have consid- 
 ered: 
 
 (1) The Purpose of Letters. 
 
 (J) The Kinds of Letters. 
 
 (.?) The Parts of a Letter. 
 
 {4) General Rules for Writing Letters. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 Orations. 
 
 1. The Nature of an Oi'ation. 
 
 An Oration (from the Latin ordre, to speak in a plead- 
 ing manner) differs from other forms of discourse in three 
 respects : (1) it is designed to be heard, not read : (2) it 
 aims at persuading tlie mind of some truth or to some 
 course of action ; (3) it presupposes an audience composed 
 of various grades of intelligence and culture. It is not 
 the end of an oration to convince the understanding 
 merely. Conviction may be used as a means of persua- 
 sion, but, generally, an awakening of the feelings is com- 
 bined with the use of facts and arguments. An oration 
 attempts to move the will through the intellect and the 
 emotions. 
 
 An oration aims to realize the highest eloqnenoe. It is the emotional 
 element in oratory which maltes it truly eloquent. This is the 
 opinion of the greatest American orator, and his words are worthy 
 of careful study by every student of the oratorical art. Says 
 Webster: 
 
SPECIAL FORMS OF COMPOSITION. 187 
 
 *' True- Eloquence, indeed, does not consist in speech. It cannot be brought 
 from afar. Labor and learning may toil for it, but they will toil in vain. Words 
 and phrases may be marshaled in every wny, but they ciinnot compass it. It 
 must exist in the man, iu the subject, and in the occasion. Affected passion, 
 intense expression, the pomp of declamation, all may aspire after it,— they can- 
 not reach it. It comes, if it come at all, like the outbreaking of a fountain from 
 he earth, or the bursting forth of volcanic fires, with spontaneous, original, native 
 force." 
 
 2. Kinds of Oratory. 
 
 Oratory has been variously divided by rhetoricians. 
 Aristotle's division is the oldest and, probably, the best. 
 He makes the following threefold division : (1) Delibera- 
 tive oratory ; (3) Judicial oratory ; (3) Demonstrative 
 oratory. These require a separate explanation. 
 
 (1) Deliberative oratory includes most political and 
 parliamentary discussion. Its themes are war, supplies, 
 finance, and improvement. Its aim is to dissuade from 
 certain measures and exhort to others. It looks toward 
 the expedient. 
 
 (3) Judicial oratory is engaged with accusation and de- 
 fense, and is the same as forensic. Its themes are facts 
 of law and the actions of men toward one another. Its 
 aim is to persuade that injury has or has not been done. 
 It looks toward the just. 
 
 (3) Demonstrative oratory is occupied with showing 
 what is right or wrong, true or false. Its themes are 
 drawn from any branch of human knowledge in which 
 men generally have an interest. Its aim is to persuade the 
 mind to adopt certain views. It looks toward the true. 
 
 Many kinds of public discourse would seem to belong to none of 
 these general divisions. A little reflection, hovfever, will show that 
 every address which deserves the name of oration may be referred 
 
188 TBE ELEMENTS OF RHETOBIC. 
 
 to some one of these divisions. Sermons are generally demon- 
 strative, in the sense in which the word is here used. They aim to 
 show forth what is right or wrong, true or false, in connection with 
 religion and duty, and to persuade the mind to accept certain views. 
 Lectures also belong to this class of orations, when they are really 
 forms of oratory. Sometimes they are simply essays or histories read 
 or recited to an audience. When prepared for this purpose, they often 
 possess many of the qualities of an oration, while making the sub- 
 ject-matter most prominent. 
 
 3. The Nature of Persuasiou', 
 
 As persuasion is the chief end of an oration, it is neces- 
 sary that its nature be distinctly understood. Without 
 entering upon a minute analysis, the two principal condi- 
 tions of persuasion may be pointed out. These are (1) 
 Belief, and (2) Feeling. 
 
 (1) Belief is the first essential in influencing action. 
 Facts must be presented, arguments must be adduced, 
 consequences must be shown, in order to lead the mind to 
 a resolution. Hence eloquence is founded on knowledge 
 and reason. 
 
 (3) The Feelings, however, are the mainspring of action. 
 Knowledge generally produces certain feelings, but it is 
 sometimes so coldly presented, and so abstract in its forms, 
 that the mind is not awakened to a realization of the 
 truth. Facts and arguments must be so pressed upon 
 the mind, and their connection and results so vividly 
 displayed, that the feelings will be aroused. Hence 
 eloquence, while founded on knowledge, culminates in 
 feeling. 
 
 The Philosophy of Persuasion is fully explained in the "Science of 
 Rhetoric." It is of great importance, for all that is peculiar in the 
 oratorical manner of treating a subject, grows out of the nature of 
 
8FBGIAL FORMS OF COMPOSITION. 189 
 
 persuasion. The outline given above is sufficient, liowever, for the 
 purposes of this section. The subjects of Argumentation and Expo- 
 sition are regarded as too difficult to be introduced here. 
 
 4. Tlie Qualities of an Oratioii. 
 
 It is evident from the nature of an oration and the 
 peculiar end which it has in view, that its style shou.ld be 
 neither that of didactic prose nor of poetry. It must at 
 once inform the understanding and touch the heart. It 
 must arouse as well as instruct, direct as well as gratify. 
 Some of the most important qualities of an oration may 
 be mentioned. 
 
 (1) Direct address is essential to an oration. An essay 
 is not addressed directly to any person, hut awaits its 
 chance reader, while an oration is for the hour and the 
 audience wrhich the speaker has chosen. Accordingly, 
 while an essay may regard chiefly the subject-matter, 
 an oration must ever hold in view the present persons 
 addressed. Directness of address arouses interest and 
 creates enthusiasm. 
 
 (2) Dignity is essential to most orations, and should never 
 be sacrificed. It is not inconsistent with perfect freedom, 
 but freedom should never descend into low familiarity. 
 Wit and humor may pervade a discourse, without the ora- 
 tor's becoming a buffoon. He who would enjoy the respect 
 of an audience, must himself show respect to his hearers. 
 
 (3) Popularity of presentation is necessary for a mixed 
 audience. Hence high-sounding and rare words, abstruse 
 arguments, illustrations derived from remote or technical 
 sources, obscure allusions, and enigmatical figures are out 
 of place in an oration. On the other hand, it is insult- 
 
190 TSE ELEMENTS OF BHETOBIC. 
 
 ing to an audience to underrate their intelligence, and 
 address them with an affected simplicity. The best 
 thoughts in the best language are not above the average 
 comprehension, if they are amply illustrated. 
 
 (4) Figurative language is highly conducive to effect 
 in oratory. The imagination is the most efficient faculty 
 in eloquence. Many who reason well are not effective 
 orators. It is the imagination which gives to thought 
 its garb of chaste and engaging imagery. Caution is re- 
 quired, however, that the ejcuberance of youthful fancy 
 may not obscure the branches of thought beneath the 
 luxuriant foliage of expression. 
 
 (5) Energy of style should be moi-e attended to in an 
 oration than in any other kind of discourse. The thought 
 should leap on exultingly, never showing signs of weari- 
 ness, but revealing new power at every step. 
 
 "An eloquent mind," says Shedd, "is a irind under motion." 
 It is a mind moving forward under the influence of clear knowledge 
 and deep feeling, with constantly accelerated motion, and constantly 
 increasing momentum, to a final end, which is always a practical 
 one. Eloquence itself, then, is thought with an impulse in it, 
 thought with a drift and rush in it. Eloquence is, as we instinc- 
 tively denominate it, a flood. 
 
 5. The Parts of an Oration. 
 
 Mention has been made of the ancient division of 
 an oration into six parts. This division is mechanical and 
 arbitrary, for the reasons there stated. Keeping in mind 
 the fact that the division is an arbitrary one, we may for 
 convenience distinguish three parts of an oration : (1) the 
 Exordium ; (2) the Discussion ; (3) the Peroration. 
 
uPBCIAL FORMS OF COMPOSITION. 191 
 
 (1) The Exordium (from the Latin exordlre, to begin a 
 web, to lay a warp) is the introduction. As an oi-ation 
 lias a practical end, it is the purpose of the exordium to 
 obtain for the theme such a hold upon the hearer's at- 
 tention as to enlist his interest in the discussion. 
 
 (2) The Discussion is the principal part of the oration. 
 It should proceed according to some plan previously 
 thought out, and conformed to the logical method of pre- 
 senting a subject. Facts and arguments should come 
 first, and the feelings of the orator should not anticipate 
 those of his audience. The arguments should be disposed 
 according to the nature of the theme, but so as to bring 
 the strongest last. Everything should contribute to the 
 end of the oration, and whatever does not is irrelevant, 
 and should be rejected. 
 
 (3) The Peroration (from the Latin perordre, to speak 
 through) is the final summing up of the oration. It 
 should be brief and earnest, full of feeling and conviction, 
 yet not out of harmony with what the discussion warrants. 
 It should be clear and definite, and not a mere vapor of 
 sentiment. Every impression made by the discussion 
 should be used to advantage in the peroration, so that 
 nothing shall be wasted at the final moment of decision. 
 
 6. The Management of the Feelings. 
 
 As oratory depends for its success upon a skilful man- 
 agement of the emotions, some attention mnst'be given to 
 this art. Several considerations are worthy of attention. 
 
 (1) The causes of feeling must he presented to the au- 
 dience. It will not do to sav. "We ought to feel grateful 
 
19;j THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 for such kindness " ; or, " W« ought to be enraged at such 
 treatment." Men are not moved to feeling by being told 
 that the occasion requires feeling. The objects must be 
 described to the imagination. Beauty, hideousness, sub- 
 limity, and other qualities of objects, when presented to 
 the mind, evoke corresponding feelings, and these cannot 
 be aroused in any other way. 
 
 (3) The orator himself must feel what he would have 
 others feeL It is not desirable that his feelings should 
 master him; for this unmans him, and leaves him ineffi- 
 cient for his work. "Webster was always in sympathy 
 with the sentiments of his speeches, vet he maintained 
 control of his emotions. " He kept his auditor con- 
 stantly in advance of him, by suggestion rather than by 
 strong asseveration, by a calm exposition of considera- 
 tions which ought to excite feeling in the heart of both 
 speaker and hearer, not by an undignified and theatrical 
 exhibition of passion in himself." 
 
 (3) The feelings may be changed by the same means that 
 arouse them. It would not suffice to assert that a state of 
 feeling is uncalled for or improper. The only way to 
 modify it is to present new considerations or exhibit old 
 ones in new lights. 
 
 7. The Qualifications of an Orator. 
 
 All the qualifications of a perfect orator are rarely 
 combined in one person. Some of these are gifts of 
 nature, such as a fine voice, a commanding presence, a 
 rich imagination, a keen power of logical analj'sis, a sen- 
 sitive sympathetic nature, responsive to every form of 
 
SPECIAL FORMS OP COMPOSITION. 193 
 
 human suffering or aspiration. Others are acquired by 
 study and attentive practice. Some of these acquired 
 qualifications we may notice more at length. 
 
 A fine presence is an important endowment for an orator, and yet 
 an ordinary physique need not discourage one who possesses other 
 qualifications. Some, like Chatham and Weljster, have been aided" 
 by a noble form, a powerful voice, and a personal magnetism that 
 made every look and tone significant. But, on the other hand, tlie 
 unprepossessing may console themselves with the ungainliness 
 of Demosthenes, the bad voice of Burke, the uncouthness of 
 Brougham, and the awkwardness of Grattan. 
 
 (1) Command of the subject is one of the most impor- 
 tant qualifications of an orator. The great orators have 
 generally been men of vast learning. 
 
 As examples of learning among ora'ois, Pitt may be mentioned as 
 conspicuous for his general iittaiiiinents, IJurke for his range of po- 
 litical and historical knowledge, Welister for his mastery of the prin- 
 ciples of law, and Sumner for his refined c.iUure. All of these were 
 owners of fine libraries, and constant readers of the best literature. 
 
 (3) A knowledge of men is as important to an orator as 
 a knowledge of books. A writer may succeed well if he 
 understands his subject, but an orator must adapt his 
 knowledge to the persons addressed. Hence he must 
 understand men. 
 
 (3) Fertility in expedients is necessary to an orator, 
 especially in parliamentary or forensic oratory. The 
 tactics of debate — the resources of defense and the 
 plans of attack — must be learned by studying the ora- 
 tions of great orators, and by actual experience in tlie 
 arena of controversy. 
 
194 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 (4) Self-possession is, perhaps, the most important qual- 
 ification of an orator. Confidence alone can inspire 
 confidence. Facts, instances, arguments, retorts, must be 
 ever ready for immediate use. Opinions must be urged 
 boldly and fearlessly, and yet in a liberal and conciliatory 
 spirit. 
 
 In tills section, on "Orations," we have consid- 
 ered: 
 
 (i) The Jfature of an Oration. 
 
 [2) The Kinds of Oratory. 
 
 (3) The Mature of Persuasion. 
 
 {^) The Qualities of an Oration. ^^^ 
 
 CXp) The Parts of an Oration. \^'^ 
 
 (6) The Management of the Feelings. 
 
 (7) The Qualifications of an Orator. 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 Poems. 
 1 . The Nature of a Poem. 
 
 A Poem (from the Greek Tzoisiv, poieiii, to make) differs 
 from other forms of composition in the following respects: 
 
 (1) Its main purpose is to please the taste ; (2) it is the 
 product of a creative imagination stimulated by emo- 
 tion ; (3) its form of expression is verse. 
 
 (1) It aims to please the taste. Common prose composition aims, 
 as we have seen, to set forth the truth, according to the requirement 
 of the subject with only so much regard to the pleasure afforded as 
 
SPECIAL FORMS OF COMPOSmOJif. 195 
 
 may be desirable to secure interest and satisfaction with the perfor- 
 mance. Oratorical composition is governed by the requirements of the 
 subject and the gratification of the hearer, but only in subordination 
 to the end of moving the mind for a, practical purpose. Poeticiil 
 composition is a line art, aiming chiefly to please, and observing the 
 conditions which govern prose and oratory only as these are necessary 
 to the gratification of good taste. 
 
 (2) It is a product of imagination. Other forms of composition 
 
 must depend for their material upon reality. A poem is a creation 
 
 of the mind in the realm of the ideal. Its plan, its characters, its 
 
 scenes, its events, its diction, and its figures are borrowed from the 
 
 conceptions of the artist, not taken directly from the actual world. 
 
 One of the greatest masters of poetic art, Shakespeare, thus describes 
 
 this creative process: 
 
 "The poet's eye, in a fine frenzy rolling, 
 Doth glance from heaven to earth, from earth to heaven ; 
 And, as liuaginatioa bodies fortl 
 The forms of things unknown, the poet's pen 
 Turns them to shape, and-gives to airy nothings 
 A local habitation and a name." 
 
 (3) Its natural form is verse. The reason lies in the connection 
 between emotion and rhythmical movement. The same principle 
 applies to poetry as to dancing. It is seen in the youngest children 
 who can follow a simple rhyme or an air in music. Rhythm is a 
 cause of emotion, and emotion is a cause of rhythm. 
 
 2. Kinds of Poems. 
 
 Poems have been variously classified, but most writers 
 distinguish four species : (1) the Lyric ; (3) the Epic ; (3) 
 the Dramatic ; and (4) the Didactic. These with their 
 varieties may be described as follows: 
 
 (1) Lyric poems are effusions of feeling adapted, as the 
 name implies (from the Greek Xupa, a lyre), to be set to 
 music. The emotion expressed by them is usually simple 
 and intense. They employ a great variety of meter, and 
 often change it, if the sentiment is modified. The prin- 
 cipal varieties are mentioned below. 
 
19ti THE ELEMENTS OF BIlETORIC. 
 
 (1) SongB are lyric poems intended to be snug. Tliey are of al- 
 most every chMmcter; as, love songs, sentimental songs, war songs, 
 political songs, domestic song-;, convivial songi, national songs, 
 hymns, psalms, and canticles. 
 
 (3) Odes are lyric poems not designed for singing, although the 
 word is derived troin llie Greeic wor.l for soag. Its elaborate versifi- 
 cation is a marked feature of the o le, as Dryden's ode on Alexa,n- 
 der's Feast. Almost every sentiment — amatory, political, martial, 
 patriotic, and religious — has been ex[ircssed in the form of odes. 
 
 (3) Elegies are lyrics of a mournful character. Sometimes they 
 are memorial verses of sorrow over a lost friend, as Milton's Lycidas. 
 Sometimes they are of a more general character, consisting mainly 
 of sad reflections concerning the dep.irtcd, as Gray's Elegy. 
 
 (4) Sonnets are lyric effusions in which each expresses a single 
 sentiment, generally of personal feeling. They are sometimes con- 
 nected together in thought, as Shakespeare's sonjiets. They consist 
 of fourteen lines of five or five and a half iambic feet. 
 
 (3) An Epic poem is a narrative of events, generally 
 represented as told by the hero or some participant in the 
 scenes, and having a plot of some interest. It is the 
 longest of poetical compositions, and introduces many 
 episodes, or subordinate stories, to sustain the interest. 
 Its varieties are mentioned below. 
 
 (1) The Great Epic is an account of some heroic action, admitting 
 supernatural agency, and representing Pace, Justice, Satan, or the 
 Deity as the hidden controllers of events. The plot derives its interest 
 from some important transaction of heroes or supernatural beings. 
 The " Iliad " of Homer, the " iEneid " of Virgil, and the " Paradise 
 Lost " of Milton are epics of this class. These have their carica- 
 ture in the Mock Epic, as " The Battle of the Frogs and Mice," 
 attributed to Homer, ami "The Rape of the Lock," by Pope. 
 
 (2) The Metrical Romance is a narrative of heroic adventure of a 
 less elevated character. The passion of love, which does not appear 
 in the epic of the higher type, is prominent in the romance. Ghosts, 
 witches, elves, and fairies take the place of gods and goddesses. The 
 romance poems of Scott, such as " The Lay of the Last Minstrel," and 
 " JIarmion," are good niodern examples of the metrical romance. 
 
 (3) The Metrical Tale is a_short story of love or adventure, tcld 
 
SPECIAL FORMS OF COMPOSITION. 197 
 
 in Terse. Some are elaborate and beautiful, as Keals's ■ Rve of St. 
 Agnes." Others are pathetic and earnest, as Lon|>fellow's " Evange- 
 line." Still others are full of intense humor, as Burns's "Tarn o' 
 Shanter." 
 
 (4) The Ballad is the simplest kind of narrative poem, a inei-e 
 metrical sketch, sometimes a mere versified anecdote. Some are 
 serious, others humorous, others sentimental. Macaulay's " Horatius 
 at the Bridge," and " The Buritd of Sir John Moore," are examples. 
 
 (5) The Pastoral and Idyl are narrative poems in which rustic 
 scenes and characters prevail; as, Burns's "Cotter's Saturday 
 Night," Keats's "Endymion," and Scott's "Minstrel." 
 
 (3) Dramatic poems are designed to be acted on the 
 stage. Scenery, costume, dialogue, and action combine to 
 reproduce the original events and represent the characters 
 as if really present. The drama is the most perfect pres- 
 entation of either the real or the ideal that literature can 
 make. Its varieties are mentioned below. 
 
 (1) Tragedy represents the calamitous events of human life, with 
 the design of arousing pity and fear in connection with admiration 
 of nobility and scorn of baseness in character. The subjects of 
 tragedy are various. Shakespeare has given us a great variety of 
 tragic situations in Hamlet, Macbeth, Julius Csesar, Romeo and 
 Juliet, and other tragedies, all of which deserve careful study. 
 
 (3) Comedy is an attempt to represent the ludicrous side of life. 
 It has many forms, embracing the lowest personal caricature and the 
 most refined humor. When the dialogue is low and the characters 
 are of inferior rank, it is called a Faroe. When giants, fairies, and 
 monsters are introduced, it is called a Mask, 
 
 (3) Opera is the name given to a dramatic composition when it is 
 set to music. When the scenes combine the tragic and the comic, and 
 songs are interspersed, it is called a Melodrama. 
 
 (4) Didactic poems aim to instruct as well as to 
 please. They are, therefore, less purely poetical than the 
 kinds already described. They are often dry and prosaic 
 as compared with other kinds of poetical composition, 
 but many of them are full of interest from their ingenious 
 
198 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETOUIG. 
 
 mode of treatment. Considered as versified essays, they are 
 among the finest compositions in our language. They 
 are ou every kind of subject. 
 
 The great variety of didactic poetry may be .seen from the instance 
 under tlie following headings:, 
 
 (1) Technical, or such as explain certain arts ; as, Virgil's 
 "Georgics," a treatise on agriculture, Horace's "Art of Poetry," 
 Pope's "Essay on Criticism," Armstrong's "Art of Preserving 
 Health." 
 
 (3) Philosophical, proposing theories of life or nature; as, PopeV 
 "Essay on Man," Young's "Night Thoughts," Tupper's "Prover- 
 bial Philosophy, " Wordsworth's "Excursion." 
 
 (3) Moral, exhorting to nobler life by presenting motives; as, Pol- 
 lock's "Course of Time," Bryant's " Thanatopsis," Crabbe's " Tales 
 of the Hall." 
 
 (4) Meditative, illustrating some precept by the beauties of nature 
 or the pleasures of mind; as Thomson's "Seasons," Cowper's 
 "Task," Akenside's "Pleasures of the Imagination," Campbell's 
 " Pleasures of Hope," Rogers's "Pleasures of Memory." 
 
 (5) Satirical, ridiculing the follies of men, or shaming them to do 
 better; as, Johnson's "Vanity of Human Wishes," Pope's " Dun- 
 ciad," Gifford's " Baviad" and "Maeviad," Butler's " Hudibras," 
 and Byron's " English Bards and Scotch Reviewers." 
 
 3. The Method of Poetry. 
 
 As a poem aims at different results from a prose compo- 
 sition, so it requires a different method. As its end is to 
 please, it employs the means of pleasing with less reserve 
 than any other kind of writing. Some of the special char- 
 acteristics of a poem may be mentioned. 
 
 (1) A poem should be sensuous in its style. By this is 
 meant that it should not deal in abstractions, but should 
 abound in imagery and words descriptive of external ob- 
 jects. Metaphor and personification are means of im- 
 parting this sensuous quality to style. Epithets, for this 
 reason, are more freely used in poetry than in prose. 
 
SPECIAL FORMS OF COMPOSITION. 199 
 
 (2) A poem should be constructed with a view to hu- 
 man interest. As man is always of interest to man, charac 
 ter, passion, fortitude, aspiration, devotion, and affection 
 are of interest, and are proper elements of a poem. Plot, 
 when properly constructed, also has an absorbing interest. 
 Whatever is merely local is not well adapted to poetry. 
 Like every other form of fine art, poetry is for all times 
 and all places. 
 
 (3) A poem should obserre harmony in all its parts. The 
 ideas, figures, characters, scenes, and language should 
 harmonize throughout. This requires that everything 
 in the poem be fitted to create and sustain a certain kind 
 of feeling, without any Jar or interruption. 
 
 (4) A poem should aim at the ideal. It is the province 
 of art to attain to the ideal — that is, the perfect of its kind. 
 The poet has the whole world of reality to select from, and 
 he may combine all graces in his scenes and characters. 
 It is not sufficient, therefore, to represent the real. As an 
 artist, the poet must surpass nature. 
 
 (5) A poem is allowed a certain freedom of language. 
 As the poet's aim is to produce emotion, it is not necessary 
 to construct his sentences with the same rigid directness 
 that is required in prose. He produces his effects as much 
 by the accumulation of stimulating im.-igcs as by direct 
 statement. Some of the liberties of poetical style are men- 
 tioned below. 
 
 The chief varieties of Poetic License are as follows: 
 (1) Inversions are common; as, 
 
 " While stands the Coliseum Home shaU stand." 
 " Few and sJiort were the prayers we said. " 
 
300 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 (2) Abbreviations, such as are improper in prose, are used in 
 poetry; as, em, morn, overlook, 'tis, 't was, etc. 
 
 (3) Superfluous Pronouns are freely used ; as, — 
 
 '*The wind, it waved the willow boughs." 
 " The boy — oh ! where was he?" 
 
 (4) Ellipsis, or omission of a word, is quite common; as, — 
 
 "Who steals my purse, steals trash." 
 " Who knows his heart, is truly wise." 
 
 (5) The Substitution of one part of speech for another often occurs 
 in poetry; as, — 
 
 "Abrupt and loud, a summons shook the gate." 
 
 "They fall successive and suceesgive rise." 
 
 4. Versification. 
 
 Versifiration is the art of making verses. As a poem is 
 properly a versified composition, the elements of this art 
 are explained in this connection. The subject will be 
 considered under three heads : (1) Meter ; (2) Rhyme ; 
 and (3) Stanzas. 
 
 (1) Meter (from the Greek (leipov, mefron, a measure) 
 is the arrangement into verse of definite measures of 
 sounds, definitely accented. In English, meter depends 
 almost wholly upon the accent, and not, as in Latin and 
 Greek, upon the quantity of the vowels. There are as 
 many varieties of meter as there are methods of arranging 
 feet into verses. 
 
 A Foot is a group of syllables taken together, and having an ac- 
 cent. The unaccented syllables are here marked ^, the accented 
 syllables, — . The following table exhibits the metrical feet most 
 common in English: 
 
SPECIAL FORMS OF COMPOSITION. 301 
 
 The spondee, amen. 
 The iambus, dUay. 
 The trochee, envj. 
 The dactyl, movMmSnt. 
 The anapasst, cWcaXcade. 
 The amphiambus, dSnidl. 
 
 A Verse (from the Latin vertere, to turn) is a single line of poetry. 
 It is" made up of feet, and takes its name from the kind and number 
 of feet in a line. The following is a table of the number of feet com- 
 monly used in English verses, the trochee foot being used as a measure : 
 
 Monoraeter, ( — ^) 1 foot. 
 
 Dimeter, (— _ | — ^) 3 feet. 
 
 Trimeter, ^ — ^^ | — .^ | — ^ 3 feet. 
 
 Tetrameter, (— _ | — _ | — _ | — _) 4 feef. 
 
 Pentameter, ( — ^ | -r-_, | — -^^ | — ,_, \ — ^) 5 feet. 
 
 Hexameter, (— ^ | — ^ | — ^ | — ^ J — ^ | — ^) 6 feet. 
 
 Combining the name of the foot and the name for the number of 
 feet in a line, the verse may be, for example, iambic pentameter, 
 containing five iambic feet; dactylic hexameter, containing six dac- 
 tylic feet, etc. 
 
 Ballad Verse consists of four iambic feet; as, — 
 
 " And sh6ok [ his v^r | y frAme j for Ire." 
 
 The Heroic Verse consists of five iambic feet; as, — 
 
 "They s^rve | as w611 1 who 6n | ly atdnd | and wAit." 
 
 The Alexandrine Verse, which was once used as a heroic meter, but 
 has gone out of use, consists of six iambic feet; as, — 
 
 " The bl4ck | and dirk- 1 some nights | the bright | and glid- | some dAys." 
 
 An Acatalectic Verse is one which contains all the syllables re- 
 quired according to the scheme to which it belongs. A verse is Ca.t- 
 aleetic when deficient ; Hypercataleetio, when redundant. 
 
 Blank Verse is verse without rhyme. It is usually the iambic pen- 
 tameter. Most of our heroic and dramatic poetry, including Milton's 
 epics and many of Shakespeare's plays, is written in blank verse. 
 
 The substitution of one kind of foot for another is frequent in most 
 forms of verse. 
 
 (3) Rhyme (from the Anglo-Saxon rime) is a corre- 
 spondence of sound at the end of verses, or sometimes at 
 
202 TEE ELEMENTS OF EHETOBIC. 
 
 intervals in tlie verse. It was not employed in ancient 
 poetry, but is used in almost all modern verse. It is (1) 
 alliterative, (2) assonantal, and (3) consonantal. Mascu- 
 line, feminine, triple, middle, and sectional rhymes also 
 are distinguished. 
 
 (1) Alliterative rhyme is the correspondence of the first letters of 
 certain words. It was the only kind of rhyme in the Anglo-Saxon 
 poetry. The following is an example: 
 
 '■ There jpreached a pardoner 
 As he a priest were, 
 brought forth a bull 
 With many Wshoim seals."— PIERS PLOWMAN. 
 
 Althongh no longer a.regular constituent of English verse, allit- 
 eration is of frequent occurrence in modern poetry; as, — 
 
 "Lying «ilent and sad in the afternoon shadow and sunshine." 
 
 " Like a ^-low-worm golden 
 In a dell of dew." 
 
 (2) Assonantal rhyme is the correspondence of the vowels at the 
 end of two lines; as, — 
 
 "If she seem not so to me, 
 What care I how good slie be .'" 
 
 (3) Consonantal rhyme is the correspondence of the vowel and 
 
 the final consonant or consonants in the rhyming syllables. This is 
 
 the most common rhyme in English poetry. The following is an 
 
 LWample: 
 
 'The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold,, 
 And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and go^d." 
 
 ■ Masculine rhymes are single rhymes, such as those in the last two 
 
 examples. 
 
 Feminine rhymes are double, the last two syllables of the line 
 rhyming with the last two of its mate; as,— 
 
 "Strnight mine eye hath caught new pleos-uret. 
 Whilst the landscape round it mc«s-wes." 
 
SPECIAL FORMS OF COMPOSITION. 303 
 
 Triple rhymes have three corresponding syllables; as, — 
 
 " Kings may be blest, but Tam was g\o-ri-ous, 
 O'er all the ills of life victo-n-owa." 
 
 Middle rhymes are correspondences of sound at the middle and 
 close of a verse ; as, — 
 
 "Brave martyr'd chief! no more our grief, 
 For thee or thine shall flow ; 
 Among the hlest in Heaven ye rest, 
 From all your toils below." 
 
 Sectional or line rhyme is a consonance occurring in the same 
 line; as, — 
 
 " WUl stood for skill, and law obeyfed lust ; 
 Might trod down right: of king there was no fear," 
 
 (3) A stanza (from the Italian stanza, a room, a com- 
 partment) is a division of a poem containing two or 
 more verses. The word is properly applied to what is 
 commonly, but incorrectly, called a verse. Each line is a 
 verse, but a stanza contains at least two lines. There are 
 a great many kinds of stanza in English poetry. Some of 
 the most common are explained below. 
 
 A Bistich or Couplet consists of two verses. 
 
 A Triplet consists of three verses. 
 
 A Quatrain is a stanza of four lines, rhyming alternately. 
 
 The Bhyme-Boyal is a seven-line stanza, invented by Chaucer. 
 It is composed of iambic pentameter lines, the first four being a 
 quatrain, the fifth repeating the rhyme of the fourth, and the last 
 two being a rhyming couplet. 
 
 The Spenserian Stanza derives its name from its inventor, Edmund 
 Spenser, who used it in his "Faerie Queene." It consists of nine 
 lines, the first eight being iambic pentameter, the last one an iambic 
 hexameter; as, — 
 
 " Lo I the man, whose Muse whilome did maske. 
 As time her taught, in lowly Shepheards weeds, 
 Am now enforst, a far unfitter taske, 
 For trumpets stern to change mine oaten reeds, 
 
204 THE ELEMENTS OF IIUETORIG. 
 
 And sing of knigha and ladies gentle deeds ; 
 
 Whose pi-..ises having slept in Silence long, 
 
 Me, all loo nuane, the sacred Muse areeds. 
 
 To bIa.io;i li.oade emongst her learned throng : 
 
 i'lerue warres and faithfull loves shall luoralize my song.' 
 
 The Ottava Rima consists of eight heroic, or iambic pentameter 
 vertices, the first six rhyming alternately, the last two in succession. 
 
 The Terza Rima consists of heroics, with three rhymes at 
 intervals. 
 
 The Sonnet Stanza is very elaborate in its structure. It consists 
 of two divisions, called the Mnjor and the Minor. The Major divi- 
 sion contains eight lines, and is called the Octane. The Minor division 
 contains six lines, and is called the Sestette, The Octave is compose 1 
 of two quatrains. The parts are joined together by a close gram- 
 matical structure, and the rhymes are various. The scheme miiy 
 be seen from the following diagram of Wordsworth's Sonnet on 
 Sonnets : 
 
 ' Scorn not the Sonnet, critic ! you have frowned 
 Mindless of its just honors ; with this key 
 Shakespeare unlocked his heart ; the melody 
 Of this small lute gave ense to Petrarch's wound ; 
 A thousand times this pipe did Tasso sound : 
 Camoens soothed with it an exile's grief: 
 The Sonnet glittered a gay myrtle-leaf 
 Amid the cypress with which Dante bound 
 His visionary brow ; a glow-worm lamp, 
 It cheered mild Spenser, called from Faery land 
 To struggle through dark ways ; and, when a damp 
 Fell round the path of Milton, in his hand 
 The thing became a trumpet, whence he blew 
 Soul-animating strains — alas ! too few," 
 
 1- s 
 
 2- i 
 
 5. ,^ 
 
 — a 
 
 — 1 •o 
 
 «• g 
 
 ^ 1 
 
 8. = 
 
 1». 
 
 ij 
 
 12 I 
 
 The princi[ial Hymn Stanzas are as follows ; 
 
SPECIAL FORMS OF COMPOSITION. 205 
 
 The Long- Meter Stanza. 
 
 I- 1 1- 1 3- 1 Z- 
 
 The Common-IIeter Stanza. 
 
 . - I ^- I ^- I ^- 
 I ^- I ^- I ^- 
 
 The Short-Meter Stanza. 
 
 U- I ^- I ^- 
 
 l^-U-l^-l^- 
 
 In all these hymn meters various kinds of rhyme are employed. 
 Sometimes the lines rhyme alternately, sometimes in succession, and 
 sometimes the first and third verses are unrhymed. 
 
 Cii this section, on "Poems," we have consid- 
 ered : 
 
 {1) The Mature of a Poem. 
 
 {2) The Kinds of Poems. 
 
 (3) TJue Method of Poetry. 
 
 {4) Versification. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE^ 
 
 1. Definition of Lang'uag'e. 
 
 The word language is derived from the Latin lingua, 
 meaning the tongue, one of the principal organs of 
 speech. Spoken language was, doubtless, oi'iginated as 
 an aid to primitive gesture, or communication by manual 
 and facial signs. It certainly existed long before writ- 
 ing was invented. Writing was first a series of pictures, 
 or rude drawings, intended to represent the objects de- 
 scribed in the earliest recorded accounts. These pictures 
 gradually became mere symbols, and finally some of these 
 were used as alphabetic marks, or letters. There are 
 other means of communication besides spoken or written 
 words, such as the visible movements of the lips used by 
 the deaf and called " visible speech." In general, there- 
 fore, language is any means of intelligible commnnication. 
 We shall understand by it, however, communication by 
 spoken or written signs. 
 
 The origin of language is a subiect of ingenious speculation, and 
 can be studied best in the works especially devoted to this diffi- 
 cult subject. Man, being endowed with vocal organs and a need of 
 communication, might learn to speak in a variety of ways. The 
 
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 207 
 
 most probable theory is, that sounds uttered in oonnection with his 
 actions came to have a meaning, or to suggest ideas, through the 
 association of these sounds with actions and things acted upon. 
 This is Max Muller's theory, explained and defended in his works. 
 The idea gains support from many physiological considerations, such 
 as the location of the power of speaking in close relation to the 
 power of gesticulation, in the motor centers of the brain. Professor 
 Whitney, of Yale University, prefers another theory, presented in his 
 well-known writings, which represents man as forming his first words 
 by imitating certain natural sounds. This is called the "onomato- 
 poetie," or " name-making," theory. It is a plausible conjecture, but 
 has very obvious linlitations, since few objects with which man would 
 have occasion to deal before knowing how to speak emit character- 
 istic sounds. 
 
 2. The Development of Language. 
 
 Whatever may have been its origin, language has 
 passed through several well-defined stages of develop- 
 ment. Existing languages preserve three distinct forms, 
 as follows : 
 
 (1) The monosyllabic, or isolating ; 
 
 (2) The agglutinative, or incorporating ; and 
 
 (3) The polysyllabic, or inflectional. 
 
 In the first form, we find mere roots of one syllable, 
 without change. In the second, we find two unaltered 
 roots joined together to make one word. In the third, 
 the roots are modified by prefixes or sufiixes, which were 
 once independent words. These three forms are succes- 
 sive stages in the growth of language. The following 
 are examples : 
 
 (1) He is like man = monosyllabic, 
 
 (2) He is manlike = agglutinative, 
 
 (3) He is manly = polysyllabic. 
 
308 THE ELEMENTS OF BEETOBIC. 
 
 In the third form, the word " like " has been reduced 
 to the suffix "ly." 
 
 The Chinese language is an example of a monosyllabic, or iso- 
 lating, language. Max Miiller says: "Every word in Chinese is 
 monosyllabic; ami the same word, without any change of foi-m, 
 may be used as a noun, a verb, an adjective, au adverb, or a particle. 
 Thus ta, according to its position in ii sentence, may mean great, 
 greatness, to grow, very much, very." The Finnish, Hungarian, 
 Turliish, and American languages are agglntinative. "In tlie Mexi- 
 can, coinpouiid terras are equivalent to pliniM's mid sentences, achi- 
 chUlacachocan signifying ' the-place-where-peopre-weep-because-the- 
 water-is-red ' ; from alt, ' water ' ; cMiehiUie, ' red ' ; tlacatl, ' man ' ; 
 and chorea, 'weep.'" Greek, Latin, German, and nearly all the 
 languages of Europe are polysyllabic. English also is inflectional, 
 but to a less extent than most of the continental languages. Us ten- 
 dency is to drop the inflections, — or ancient terminations of words 
 once elaborately declined and conjugated, as in Greek and Latin. 
 This justifies its being called analytic, which is a fourth form of 
 tlevelopment. 
 
 3. The Kelatioiisliip of Lang^ua^es. 
 
 The inquiries of such modern philologists as Bopp and 
 Grimm have proved that many languages have a common 
 descent, or are derived from the same parent language. 
 Several clearly defined families of language have already 
 been distinguished. Among these, the best understood 
 are: 
 
 (1) The Semitic, or Shemitic, Family, so called because 
 those who speak these languages are believed to be de- 
 scended from the Biblical Shem, a son of N"oah ; and 
 
 (2) The Indo-European, Aryan, or Japhetic, Family ; 
 called Indo-European because it includes the inhabitants 
 of India and of Europe, Aryan because the original home 
 of all these peoples was supposed to be the plateau of 
 
THE jSNGLISH LANGUAGE. 209 
 
 Iran, or Ayra, in Asia, and Japhetic because they were 
 regarded as descendants of Japhet, another son of Noah. 
 
 The Semitic Family has only a historic interest for those who speak 
 English, since our language does not belong to this relationship. 
 The family is, however, one of great importance in the history of the 
 world, standing in this respect next to the Indo-European. 
 
 It includes Hebrew, Arabic, Assyrian, Chaldean, and Phoenician. 
 All these languages have a peculiar mode of inflection of which we 
 have only faint traces in English. Most of our modifications of 
 roots are prepository or terminal. Taking the word sta/nd, we put a 
 prefix before it and say vMMand, and we place a suffix after it and 
 say standing. We also change the word internally, as when the 
 present stand is changed to stood in the past tense. But this last 
 kind of modification, which is rare in the Indo-European languages, 
 is the principal one in the Semitic Family. Thus, the Arabic root 
 g-f-Z represents the general idea of "killing." Professor Whitney 
 gives the following changes of this root and their equivalents: 
 
 qataltu = I killed 
 qutila = he was killed 
 qatil = killing 
 
 = causing to kill 
 
 qimtaZat = she killed 
 aqtcHa = he caused to kill 
 qatl = act of killing 
 qitl = enemy 
 
 4. The Indo-European lianguages. 
 
 It was the study of Sanscrit, the language of the sacred 
 books of India, which disclosed the relationship and de- 
 scent of the Indo-European tongues. It was found that 
 certain words were nearly the same in a great number of 
 languages previously supposed to be wholly independent 
 of one another. If we take several familiar words, we 
 find that their forms are but slightly modified in the 
 following languages : 
 
 SANSOEIT 
 
 GKEEE 
 
 LATIN 
 
 aOTHIO 
 
 QEEMAN 
 
 ENGLISH 
 
 bhrdtri 
 
 phrater 
 
 frater 
 
 brSthar 
 
 iruder 
 
 irotlier 
 
 nAman 
 
 onoma 
 
 nomen 
 
 namS 
 
 name 
 
 name, 
 
 rudlwra 
 
 eruthros 
 
 ruber 
 
 rauda 
 
 roth 
 
 red 
 
210 
 
 TEE ELEMENTS OF BHETOBIO. 
 
 The relationship established by this kind of evidence 
 is exhibited in the following chart of the Indo-European 
 Family : 
 
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 311 
 
 The mil lie Indo-European language is applied to the 
 original parent language of this family. It now exists 
 only in its descendants. 
 
 5. The Amiiations of English. 
 
 The position of English in relation to the other lan- 
 guages of the Indo-European Family is evident from the 
 accompanying chart. It belongs 
 
 (1) To the Teutonic Group, and is 
 
 (3) A low German Dialect, allied with Frisian, Dutch, 
 and Flemish. 
 
 Historical circumstances which we have yet to consider 
 have elevated this humble dialect to the position of the 
 most widely spoken language of the family to which it 
 belongs. Its older cousin, Greek, once the vehicle of all 
 that was noblest in human art and philosophy, has dwin- 
 dled to a local dialect in which no great literature now 
 appears ; its other relative, Latin, once the imperial lan- 
 guage of the world and long the instrument of European 
 thought, is now spoken by only a few scholars and ecclesi- 
 astics. It has been estimated that before the close of the 
 present century English will be spoken by 300,000,000 
 persons. 
 
 The grouping of the Indo-European languages is largely deter- 
 mined by a principle known as Grimm's law, named after the 
 German philologist who discovered it. This law explains the per- 
 mutation of consonants which runs through the languages of this 
 family. It is impossible to illustrate it very fully here, but it is a 
 fascinating study to follow out its application and to see how many 
 difficulties it solves. If we compare a few Classical (Greek and 
 Latin) words with their English equivalents, we And the following 
 results: 
 
■Z12 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETOBIC. 
 
 (1) The Classical P becomes English P; as, Greek pur, English 
 fire; 'Latin pater, English /a</i«ry Latin piscts, English _/isfi. 
 
 (3) The Classical P becomes English B; as, "LsXm fagun, English 
 beech; hatin f rater, English brother; Latin /ero, English bear. 
 
 (3) The Classical D becomes English T; as, Latin duo, English 
 two; Latin doma/re, English tame; Latin dico, English teach. 
 
 6. Division of this Chapter. 
 
 In order to understand the development and resources 
 of the English language, we need to know the historical 
 causes which have produced modern English, the nature 
 of the original Anglo-Saxon from which our present lan- 
 guage has grown, the character of the Latin additions 
 which have been incorporated into its vocabulary, the 
 forms borrowed from the Greek for its further enrich- 
 ment, and the other less conspicuous sources from which 
 words have been derived. We shall, therefore, discuss 
 the subject under the following sections : 
 
 (i) The Historicnl Dcrrlopment of English. 
 
 {2) The Anglo-Saxnii Element. 
 
 {3) TJie Latin Element. 
 
 {4) The Greek Element. 
 
 {5) Incidental Contributions. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 The Historical Development of English. 
 
 1. Tlie Original Home of English. 
 
 The native land of the English language is not the 
 England of to-day. The original " Angle-land," or coun- 
 
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. a 13 
 
 try of the " Angles," was on the shore of the North Sea, 
 in the tract between the Elbe and the Eider, in what is 
 now marked on our maps as Schleswig-Holstein. The 
 Angles were closely allied to the Saxons both b}' blood and 
 speech, if indeed these are not merely different names for 
 the same race of people. It has, therefore, been custom- 
 ary to unite the two names into one, and to speak of the 
 original English as "Anglo-Saxon." 
 
 The term Anglo-Saxon has been criticized by Mr. Crailf as "emi- 
 nently misleading." But it need not be misleading, if we under- 
 stand by it that language which was spoken by the Angles and the 
 Saxons, who were really one people, although called by different 
 names. Ba3da speaks of them as one race, and calls them ''Anglo- 
 rum, site Saxonum gens " — the tribe of Angles, or Saxons. It was the 
 Saxon Egbert, King of Wessex (West Saxony), who, in 830 a. d., 
 gave the name "England" to the whole country which still bears 
 this name — that is, the land of the Angles. Even the so-called 
 "Jutes," of Kent, were called "Angle-kin." All of these tribes, 
 whether named Angles, Saxons, or Jutes, were practically of the 
 same race, spoke the same language, — a Low German dialect, — 
 and lived in one region — the territory lying between the North 
 Sea and the Baltic. They cannot be collectively designated by a • 
 better term than "Anglo-Saxon." 
 
 2. The Migrations of the Anglo-Saxons. 
 
 The country where English was to become established as 
 a world-language, —the island of Great Britain, — was oc- 
 cupied at the beginning of the Christian era by Celtic* 
 tribes, speaking dialects distinctly related to Anglo-Saxon, 
 as may be seen by reference to the chart previously given 
 These dialects still persist in the Gaelic, Welsh, and Cor- 
 nish, still spoken by the natives of Scotland, Wales, and 
 
 * Or Keltic. 
 
314 THE ELEMENTS OP RHETORIC. 
 
 Cornwall. The Eomans, under Julius Caesar, had invaded 
 Great Britain about 55 B. c. The Celtic inhabitants were 
 barbarians, living in mere huts, with little knowledge of 
 agriculture, and no mechanical arts of importance. Al- 
 though the Komans regarded Britannia as a province of 
 Eome for nearly five centuries, they never really con- 
 quered the Britons. During the Roman occupation, excel- 
 lent roads were made, walled towns were established, and 
 some Roman customs were introduced ; but in 426 a. d. 
 the Romans withdrew from Great Britain for the protec- 
 tion of their capital. Soon afterward the Anglo-Saxons 
 swept across the North Sea and invaded and settled parts 
 of the island. 
 
 (1) Jutes, under Hengist and Horsa, settled in Kent 
 and the Isle of Wight, in 449 or 450. 
 
 (3) Saxons, under Ella, settled in Sussex in 477. 
 
 (3) Saxons, under Oedric, settled in Wessex in 493. 
 
 (4) Saxons, under other leaders, settled in Essex in 530. 
 
 (5) Angles, during the reign of Cedric, settled in Nor- 
 folk and SufEolk in 537. 
 
 (6) Angles, under Ida, settled between the Tweed and 
 the Forth in 547. 
 
 The successive Anglo-Saxon migrations to Great Brit- 
 ain, therefore, occupied about one hundred years. 
 
 We find in English many words derived from the Celtic, which 
 the Anglo-Saxon settlers incorpoi-ated in their vocabulary. The 
 names of many English rivers, as the Usk, the Ux, the Wisbeck, the 
 Wash, the Axe, etc., are corruptions of the Celtic uisg, water, which 
 is fonnd in usqu^agh, meaning " water of life," the original of our 
 modern word whisky, whose meaning is the same as the French eau 
 de me, brandy. Such words as basket, bran, breeches, clout, crag. 
 
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 315 
 
 crock, down, den, manor, paddock, want, luid wicket are probably 
 Celtic. So also are hard, glen, and flannel. The Latin influence was 
 felt to a slight extent only, at this early period. The Latin word 
 eastrum, afortiflod place, wliose Anglo-Saxon form isceaster, is found 
 in many names of places; as, Chester, Winchester, Lancaster, etc. 
 Street is from the Latin strata ; waU is from the Latin vallum, a 
 rampart ; and mUe is from mUia passuum, a thousand paces. So 
 also tigol, a tile; and pyrige, a pear, seem to be from the Latin 
 tegula and pyrus. 
 
 3, The Characteristics of Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 • The language which the Anglo-Saxons brought with 
 them from their home beyond the North Sea was the 
 speech of a rude sea-faring people, who gained their liveli- 
 hood by fishing and piracy, with a little agriculture. Its 
 vocabulary was, however, by no means poor. It was an 
 inflected language, having elaborate declensions and con- 
 jugations. In this respect it was like the Latin and the 
 Greek. These inflected forms were subsequently lost to 
 a great extent through the operation of causes which will 
 be described in another place. 
 
 Examples of Anglo-Saxon Inflection. 
 
 Of the noun — eag-e (an eye). 
 
 Sing. N. eag-e, an eye 
 
 O. and D. eag-an, of, or to, am eye 
 
 Plur. Q-. eag-ena, of eyes 
 
 Ab. eag-um, with eyes, etc. 
 
 Of the a^ectiye — god (good). 
 
 
 Mas. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 N. 
 
 g6d 
 
 god 
 
 g6d 
 
 G. 
 
 g6d-es 
 
 g6d-re 
 
 god-es 
 
 D. 
 
 g6d-um 
 
 g6d-re 
 
 god-um 
 
 A. 
 
 g6d-ne 
 
 g6d-e 
 
 g6d 
 
 Ab. 
 
 g6d-e 
 
 g6d-e 
 
 g6d 
 
ai6 
 
 THIu ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 
 The pronoun 
 
 lo (I) was thus declined : 
 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 
 Dual. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 N. 
 
 Ic, / 
 
 
 N. 
 
 wit, we two 
 
 N. we, we 
 
 G. 
 
 min, of me 
 
 
 G. 
 
 unoer, of us two 
 
 G. lire, of us 
 
 D. 
 
 me, to me 
 
 
 D. 
 
 une, to us two 
 
 D. lis, to us 
 
 A. 
 
 me, me 
 
 
 A. 
 
 une, lis two 
 
 A. <is, us 
 
 There were also various inflections of persons and tenses in verbs; 
 
 as, 
 
 Present. 
 
 le luf-ige, Hove 
 lo drif-e, / Arive 
 
 Past. 
 Icluf-ode, I loved 
 Ic dr&f, I drove 
 
 Participle. 
 (ge)-luf-od, loved 
 (ge)-dri-fen, dmioen 
 
 4. The Influence of the Church. 
 
 About the year 600 A. u. , Christianity began to be re- 
 ceived by the Anglo-Saxons in their new home through 
 Eoman missionaries. The Church was supreme in the 
 south of England, however, before the north began to be 
 converted. Baeda, called the " Venerable Bede, who 
 died in 735, wrote in Latin, then the universal language 
 of learning. The monks of Northumbria soon began to 
 form their native speech after the model of book-language, 
 and gave it the name of Englisc. Scripture translations, 
 or paraphrases, sacred hymns, and books of devotion were 
 the principal forms of this early literature. A monk of 
 Whitby, named Csedmon, who has been called the 
 "father of English song," was one of the earliest English 
 writers. He died about 680 a. d. A considerable body 
 of native literature is said to have been destroyed by the 
 Danish invaders, who ravaged the Northumbrian monas- 
 teries and for nearly a hundred years, from 787 to 878, 
 
THE ENGLISH LAW&UAOE. 21? 
 
 endeavored to drive out the Anglo-Saxons from the 
 country. 
 
 The histoiy of the Englisli alphabet deserves to be noted here. A 
 system of writing called Eunio existed from an unknown antiquity 
 jiinong the Gothic nations, and was known and used by the Anglo- 
 Saxons before they came to Great Britain. The name Bune sig- 
 nifies secret, or mystery, and came to be applied to these ancient 
 letters, the Bunes, to designate the mystery of alphabetic writing. 
 The Runic letters were sixteen iti number, and were shaped differ- 
 ently from the Roman characters, consisting of right lines at var- 
 ious inclinations and elevations to one another. Examples of these 
 letters may be seen in Earle's " Philology of the English Tongue,'' 
 where they are quite fully discussed. The Roman letters were 
 borrowed from the Greek, these from the Phoenician, and these in 
 part at least from Egyptian hieratic writings. When the Anglo- 
 Saxons adopted the Latin alphabet from the Roman mission- 
 aries, they retained two Runes, because there were no corre- 
 sponding Latin letters. These are, first, the letter called " Thorn,'' 
 [•, equivalent to the Roman JA-sound in the, which the Anglo- 
 Saxons wrote \e; and, second, the letter "Wen," 5, which was 
 afterward superseded by W. They also modified the Roman D, 
 writing it D, or 6, which had the value of the <A-sound in thing. 
 Since the letters TH have stood for the two sounds named above, as 
 in " this thing,'' we have to depend entirely on practice to distinguish 
 between the hard and the soft sound. In the course of time, the old 
 Itunic letters came to be regarded as tokens of heathenism, fit only 
 for sorcery and magic, and the Roman alphabet to be considered as 
 a symbol of Christianity. 
 
 5. The Influence of the Danes. 
 
 Toward the close of the ninth century. King Alfred 
 confined the Danish invaders to a portion of England, 
 and personally enriched Anglo-Saxon literature with his 
 own translations and compositions. Danish influence 
 upon our aucesti'al speech was exceedingly limited, partly 
 because the Danish language was not so different from 
 
318 THE ELEMENTS OF BHETOBIC. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon as to require much efEort for mutual com- 
 prehension, and partly because the Anglo-Saxons repre- 
 sented the more powerful and creative factor in the for- 
 mation and development of English institutions. The 
 original homes of the Danes and the Anglo-Saxons were 
 in the same peninsula. A glance at the chart of the 
 Indo-European languages shows that Danish is only a 
 Scandinavian dialect of that Teutonic group to which 
 English belongs. 
 
 We find, therefore, bat few traces of Danish speech in Tgngtiah. 
 
 Names of places ending in -by, as Whitfty, Derby, etc. , some names 
 of Norse deities, as in 7%Mr«day (Thor's day), and a few common 
 nouns, such as plow, booth, sky, sail, take, iU, and bask, are said to 
 be Danish. Thei-e was probably some Danish influence upon the 
 decay of inflections, as is always the case when unlettered people try 
 to learn a language different from their own. 
 
 The following examples of Anglo-Saxon may serve to show both 
 the early form and the gradual modification of the language : 
 
 (1) From a paraphrase by Caedmon (680) : 
 nu we sceolon herigean now we shall praise 
 
 heo/on-rices weard heaven-kingdom's guarc 
 
 metodes mihte the Creator's might 
 
 and his m6d-ge-|^anc and his mind-thought 
 
 weorc wuldor-foedor work's glory-father 
 
 swa he wundra gehwoes how he of wondere 
 
 eoe drihtun eternal Lord 
 
 ord onstealde the beginning formed 
 
 He cerest scop He first shaped 
 
 eorflan bearnum the earth for the children (of men) 
 
 heofon to hrofe heaven as a roof 
 
 hdlig scippend the holy Creator 
 
 6d middangeard then the mid-world 
 
 modcynnes weard mankind's guard 
 
 eoe drihten eternal Lord 
 
 sefter teode aftorward made 
 
 flrum foldan for men the earth 
 
 freA sslmihtig Lord Alnughty 
 
THE ENGLISH LANQ WAGE. 219 
 
 (2) The Lord's Prayer in two versions: 
 
 Anglo-Saxon. Old English. 
 
 Alfred, S80. WicUf, 1380. 
 
 Feeder ure, ]>Vi j/e eart on heofe- Oure fadir that art in hevenes 
 
 nuin, si {Jin nama gehalg6d. T6 Halowid be thi name, Thi kyng- 
 
 be-cume J^in rice. Geweor6e J-in doiiioometo. Be thy wille don in 
 
 willa on eoroan swa swa on heo- crthe, as in hevene. 
 
 I'enum. CTrne dEeghwamlican hlaf Gyve to us this dai oure breed 
 
 syle us to dseg. And forgyf us ure over othir substaunoe. And for- 
 
 gyltas, swa swa we forgyf ao urum gyve to ns oure dettis as we for- 
 
 gyltendum. And ne gelsed )>u lis gy ven to oure dettouris, and lede 
 
 on oostnunge, ae Slys us of yfle. us not into temptacioun. But de- 
 
 S661ice. lyvere us from yvel. Amen. 
 
 6. The Norman Conquest. 
 
 The most imiDortant historical event in its influence 
 upon the English language was the Norman Conquest. 
 The battle of Hastings, by which William the Conqueror 
 became the ruler of England, was fought in the year 1066. 
 This was the death-blow to Anglo-Saxon literature. The 
 native sjDeech continued to be used by the masses, but the 
 Norman-Freiich of the conquerors became the language 
 of the court, of the nobility, of the clergy, and of liter- 
 ature. Even the common people tried to imitate the 
 foreign speech, with important consequences to their na- 
 tive tongue. The children of "gentlemen" were taught 
 to speak French. Latin and French were used together 
 at the universities. The results of this mingling of the 
 two languages were : 
 
 (1) The infleotions of both languages were often 
 dropped. 
 
 (3) A marked differentiatiou occurred between the 
 
220 THE ELEMENTS OF BUETOBIC. 
 
 language of common life and that of the superior thought 
 and activity of the nation. 
 
 (3) A bilingual character was imparted to the language 
 
 by the mixture of the two. 
 
 The Norman-Frencli introduced by the conquerors was itself a com- 
 posite language. It consisted of four elements : (1) the Celtic 
 spoken by the native Gauls in what we now call Prance ; (3) the 
 Latin spoken by the Roman soldiers who conquered Gaul ; (3) some 
 words Introduced by the Pranks, the Teutonic conquerors who, in the 
 fifth century, had imposed their name upon the country and language 
 of ancient Gaul ; and (4) a few Scandinavian words brought into 
 the country by the Northmen, or Normans, who settled Xormandy in 
 the tenth century. The predominant element, however, was Latin, 
 or Romance : so called because the word Romanrium was used to 
 designate the provincial type of the Roman language used in Gaul, 
 afterward Prance, and other Celtic countries. 
 
 The effects of the union of Norman-French and Anglo-Saxoi. may 
 be illustrated as follows : 
 
 (1) There was a loss of inflections in both languages. It is easy to 
 understand how this occurred. The native and the foreign populations 
 who lived together in England after the Conquest, in communicating 
 with each other, adopted to some extent each other's words, but were 
 ignorant of each oVaer'-^ grammar, and not always concerned to learn 
 it. In consequence of this, the Anglo-Saxon portion of the popula- 
 tion generally used French words without their proper terminations, 
 which were too difficult for them ; and the Norman-Preneh portion, 
 in like manner, used Anglo-Saxon words, omitting their endings. 
 The inflections, therefore, gradually fell away. We find that endes 
 is used for both endas and endum ; daeies for daeges, daegaa, and 
 daegum. The French plaider and its numerous conjugated forms 
 become simply plead; p^'eeJier and its forms become preoc/t, etc. Pre- 
 positions take the place of the old oase-endings ; as, mid eagan for 
 eagwm. Grammatical gender, the chief difficulty to a foreigner, 
 since it is so arbitrary, was almost completely lost. There were, no 
 doubt, tendencies in this direction before the Conquest; but the 
 mingling of two modes of speech greatly increased them. 
 
 (2) The differentiation of English is well portrayed by Sir Walter 
 Scott in the fnllowinj;- [mssage of "Ivanhoe": 
 
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 25} 1 
 
 " Why, how call you thoBe grunting brutes running about on their four legs ? " 
 demanded Wamba. 
 
 "Swine, fool, swine,'" said the herd; "every fool knows that." 
 
 "And swine is good Saxon," said the jester; "but how call you the sow when 
 she is flayed, and drawn, and q laitjred, and hung by the heels like a traitor?" 
 
 "Pork," answered the swineherd. 
 
 "I am very glad every foul knows that too," said Wamba ; "and pork, I think, 
 is good Norman- /rench ; and so when the brute lives, and is in charge of a Saxon 
 slave, she goes by her Saxon name; but becomes a Norman, and is called pork, 
 when she is carried to the castle hall to feast among the nobles. What dost thou 
 think of this doctrine, friend Gurth, ha?" 
 
 "It is but too true doctrine, friend Wamba, however it got into thy fool's 
 pate." 
 
 "Nay, I can tell you more," said Wambi, in the same tone. "There is old 
 Alderman Ox continues to hold his Saxon epithet while he is under the charge of 
 serfs aud bondmen such as thju, but bjco ires bzaf, a flery French gallant, when 
 he arrives before the worshipful jaws w^hich are destined to consume him. 
 Mynheer Ca^f, too, becomes Monsieur de Veau in like manner. He is Saxon when 
 he requires tendance, and takes a Norman name when he becomes a matter of en- 
 joyment." 
 
 (3) The bilingnal character of modern English is evident from 
 the following lists of nearly equivalent words : 
 
 Anglo-Saxon. Norman- French. 
 
 blessing benediction 
 
 begin oommenoe 
 
 bough branch 
 
 meal flour 
 
 limb member 
 
 win gain 
 
 wish desire 
 
 buy purchase 
 
 mild gentle 
 
 dread terror 
 
 feeling sentiment 
 
 work labor 
 
 bloom flower 
 
 friendly amiable 
 
 hearty cordial 
 
 7. The Fusion of the Elements. 
 
 In about three centuries after the Norman Con- 
 quest, we find in England one esstablished language, in 
 which the several elements have been blended into unity. 
 
22-Z THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Writers like Chaucer arose to popularize the language of 
 the court, which had ceased to be French, in a literature 
 which appealed to the people. A literary English, com- 
 posed of the best qualities of the early Anglo-Saxon and 
 of the Norinan-Prench, had grown up around the per- 
 son of the king. In 1349, boys ceased to learn their 
 Latin through the medium of the French ; and, in 1362, 
 it was directed by Parliament that all pleadings in the 
 law courts should henceforth be conducted in English. 
 Local dialects contiuued to exist, and are still spoken in 
 the rural parts of England, but "the King's English" be- 
 came a recognized standard for the English nation. At 
 the present day, English, although composite, is substan- 
 tially one language, whether spoken or written, in Eng- 
 land, America, and Australia. 
 
 Mr, Barle has thus described the appearance of the King's Eng- 
 lish: "In the midst of a Babel of dialects there suddenly appeared a 
 standard English language. It appeared at once in fall vigor, and 
 was aclinowledged on all hands without dispute. The study of the 
 previous age does not make us acquainted wiih a general process of 
 convergence toward this result, but rather indicites t*" , each local- 
 ity was getting confirmed in its own peculiar habits of speech, and 
 that the divergence was growing wider. Now there appeared a 
 mature form of English which was generally received. The two 
 writers of the fourteenth century who most powerfnlly display this 
 language are Chaucer (1338-1400) and Gower (1337-1408). Piers 
 Plowman is in a dialect; Wiclif's Bible Version is in a dialect; but 
 Chaucer and Gower write in a speech which is thenceforth recog- 
 nized as the English Language, and which before their time is hardly 
 found. This seems to admit of but one explanation. It must have 
 been simply the language that had formed itself in the co"urt about 
 the person of the monarch. Chaucer and Gower differ from the 
 other chief writers of their time in this particular, which they have 
 in common between themselves, that they were both conversant with 
 
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 223 
 
 court life, and moved in the highest regions of English society. 
 They wrote, in fact, King's English^ 
 
 In this section, on " The Historical Development 
 of English," we have considered : 
 
 (i) The Original Home of English. 
 
 {2) The Migrations of the Anglo-Saxons. 
 
 {3) The Characteristics of the Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 {4) The Influence of the Church. 
 
 (3) The Influence of the Danes. 
 
 {6) The Norman Conquest. 
 
 (7) The Fusion of the Elements. 
 
 SECTION" II. 
 
 The A2S"glo-Saxon Element. 
 
 1. The Anglo-Saxon Vocabulary. 
 
 The Anglo-Saxon was a sufficiently complete language 
 to serve all the requirements of a comparatively civilized 
 people. It has continued to the present time as an ade- 
 quate means of expression for the ordinary needs of the 
 great masses of English-speaking people. We are pre- 
 pared, therefore, to find that its vocabulary is quite varied 
 and rich . Whatever is commonly felt and seen, or pertains 
 to simple modes of life, or is peculiar to the most elemen- 
 tary arts, or is essential to the construction of an Eng- 
 lish sentence, — will generally be found to bear an Anglo- 
 Saxon name. 
 
224 THE ELEMENTS OF BHETOBIG. 
 
 It is impossible to indicate preoisaly the words of Anglo-Saxon 
 origin except by an actual list of these words, which would Ije too 
 long to be useful. We ra;iy mention hero the following classes, 
 to which many jnore might be added: — 
 
 (I) Terms expressive of primary ideas and simple objocts; as, man, 
 woman, sun, moon, land, sea, >lar, ligiil. sliiide, etc. 
 
 (2) Words denoting degrees of near kindred; as, father, mother, 
 son, daughter, brother, sifter, hnsbaad, wife, ei.e. 
 
 {i) Names of primary colors; as, red, black, while, green, brown, 
 blue, yellow. 
 
 (4) Names of ordinary metals ; as, gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, 
 brass. 
 
 (5) Common and simple acts of life ; as, come, go, eat, run, swim, fly, 
 sing, climb, speak, etc. 
 
 (6) Words denoting parts of the body; as, head, hair, eye, nose, 
 mouth, arm, limb, back, breast, finger, nail, etc. 
 
 (7) Names of domestic animals, while living; as, cat, hound, horse, 
 sheep, cow, steer, ox, calf, go it. swine. 
 
 (8) Words denoting the cries of such animals; as, bark, neigh, bleat, 
 low, etc. 
 
 (9) Names pertaining to simple arts; as, read, write, work, spin, 
 saw, hammer, smith, etc. 
 
 (10) Terms used in agrioulture; as, till, harrow, field, acre, hedge, 
 gate, corn, barley, wheat, flail, sickle, spade, dig, etc. 
 
 (II) The primary passions ; as, love, hivte, fear, hope, etc. 
 
 (13) Words denoting simple religions ideas; as, God, heaven, hell, 
 fiend, wicked, faith, righteous, etc. 
 
 (13) All pronouns; the verb "to be" in all its parts; all prepo- 
 sitions and conjunctions ; the articles and numerals. 
 
 2. The Lost Words of Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 After the Nortnaa Conquest, as we have seen, two words 
 were often supplied for the same thing, — one Anglo-Saxon 
 and one Norman-French. In many cases the foreign 
 word was the better fitted to survive, and finally pushed 
 out the native form altogether. Thus, rnnsa'encc super- 
 seded the native in-wit, which was its Anglo-Saxon com- 
 
THE EN0LI8H LANGUAGE. 22b 
 
 [)etitor. Again-bite was a powerfully suggestive word, 
 but it has yielded to the Norman-French remorse. Thus, 
 also, deed-hettering has given place to penance. 
 
 It is very interesting to trace out the peculiar combinations re- 
 sulting from a partial loss of an Anglo-Saxon word and the substi- 
 tution of a bilinguEil compound. We have such a form as butt-end, 
 in which the first part is hout, the French for end. Besiege is com' 
 posed of an Anglo-Saxon preposition ie, which meant around, 
 and a French verb sieger, to sit. The old form was besittan, 
 from which we still retain the verb beset. The word gentleman 
 shows how part of a French word could be tnken and an Anglo- 
 Saxon part joined with it, the gsntil of gentilhomme being prefixed 
 to the native word man in pi ice of the French homme. It would 
 seem natural to suppose that the word business is composed of the 
 Anglo-Saxon busy .md the suffix -raess, nshusyness. Mr. Earle thinks, 
 on the contrary, that it is from the French besogne, to which the 
 suffix -ness was added, making the word besognsss. Of the 28,000 
 words in Bosworth's Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, 6,000 have ceased to 
 be used, and are wholly unknown in modern English. 
 
 3. The Lost Inflections of Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 We have seen how the mingling of the Norman-Fi'ench 
 with the Anglo-Saxon caused both languages to lose many 
 of their characteristic endings. This was a great simpli- 
 fication and, therefore, an important gain. The case- 
 terminations of nouns {-an,-um,-ena, and -f«, for example) 
 were all resolved into -en. Later this ending was almost 
 entirely dropped, — being retained in a few words only, as 
 oxen, — and the noun suffered no modification except in 
 forming the singular possessive and the plural in -s or 
 -es. A similar reduction extended to all the ancient in- 
 flections, and the language became practically analytic, 
 using auxiliary words instead of endings. 
 
•Z26 ■ THE ELEMRNTB OF RHETORIC. 
 
 " Wh.ik'\or lulviuitages a system of inflection may have possessed," 
 says Ml-. Graluiin, "its loss seems to be compensated in modern 
 English by an increased power of combination. 
 
 "Our compound words are formed in various ways : 
 
 "(1) By an ad jeotive and a participle ; as, 'grey-coated,' 'blue- 
 veined,' 'hoary-headed,' 'noble-hearted,' etc. 
 
 "(2) By two nouns, as 'hazel-nnt,' 'milk-maid,' 'school-fellow,' 
 'hail-storm,' 'thunder-bolt,' etc. 
 
 "(3) By an adverb and a participle; as, 'far-darting,' 'long- 
 expected,' 'ill-assorted,' 'well-arranged,' etc. 
 
 "(4) By a noun and a participle; as, 'joy-dispensing,' 'heart- 
 liroken,' 'sea-faring,' 'God-fearing,' 'ivory-wristed,' 'silver-footed,' 
 I'to. In some few cases throe words art combined; as in ' matter- 
 of-fact,' 'out-of-doors,' ' bye-and-bye,' etc. It may safely be as- 
 sorted that no continental language, except German, possesses this 
 principle in the same degree .i.-; English. In German it operates 
 more extensively, but in all the Romance languages there is little or 
 no power of combination, and their forms of expression are conse- 
 ciuently more diffusive. Tlie words ' cloud-capped,' 'heart-broken,' 
 etc., have no corresponding single terms in French, Italian, or 
 Spanish." 
 
 4. Anglo-Saxon Idioms. 
 
 An idiom is a distinctive peculiarity of a language. The 
 Anglo-Saxon had some idioms which help us to under- 
 stand certain otherwise unintelligible forms which appear 
 in modern English. Such dialectic expressions as hoiisen 
 for houses, agoing for going, afishing for fishing, hougliten 
 for bought, are merely survivals of old forms which 
 were once customary in the language. 
 
 Archbishop Trench has discussed these obsolete forms as follows: 
 " Now of those who retain such forms you should esteem not that 
 they violate the laws of the language, but that they have taken 
 their 'permanent stand at that which was only a point of transition 
 for it, and which it has now left behind . A countryman will nowada vs 
 say, ' He made me (rfeared,' or ' The price of corn ns last market-day,' 
 
THE ENGLISH LANeUAOE. 337 
 
 or ' I will axe liiin his nanio,' or ' I tell ye,' — iiiul you will be tempted 
 to set these phrases down as barbarous English. They are not such 
 at all. 'Afeared' is the regular participle of the old English verb 
 ' a-f aeran, ' as ' afraid ' of to ' affray' ; ' ris,' or 'risse,' is an old prete- 
 rite of to 'rise'; to ' axe' is not a mispronunciation of to 'ask,' but 
 the constant form which in earlier Englisli the verb assumed. Even 
 such a phrase as ' Put them things away ' is not bad, but only anti- 
 quated, English. 'Ourn,' which our rustics in the south of England 
 sj freely employ (cf. Gen. xxvi. 30, Wiclif, and often), has been dis- 
 allowed by those classes with which rests the final decision as to what 
 shall stand in a language, and what shall not ; but it is in itself as 
 correct, it would be hardly too much to say more correct, than ' ours.' 
 ' Hern,' too, for ' liers,' is frequent in Wiclif. You are not, indeed, 
 therefore, to conclude that these forms are open to you to employ, 
 or that they would be good English now." 
 
 5. The Transliteration of Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 When the English writers some time after the Norman 
 Conquest attempted to write Anglo-Saxon words, it was 
 perfectly natural for them to spell them after the manner 
 of the Norman-French. It is to this transliteration, or 
 changed spelling, that we owe the marked difference to 
 the eye between the ancient and the modern forms of 
 English. 
 
 Mr. Earle has fully discussed this subject in his "Philology of 
 the English Tongue." A few examples will suffice to show how 
 great a change this transliteration effected in the appearance of 
 words : 
 
 hus has become house 
 
 caeg 
 
 ( (( 
 
 key 
 
 cnawan 
 
 t a 
 
 know 
 
 cniht 
 
 ' " 
 
 knight 
 
 oirce 
 
 < t( 
 
 church 
 
 cild 
 
 c (( 
 
 child 
 
 oyle 
 
 i it 
 
 chill 
 
 wreccea 
 
 i a 
 
 wretch 
 
228 THE ELEMENTS OF BHETOIilG. 
 
 scadu has become shade 
 
 sceal " " shall 
 
 sceap " " sheep 
 
 sceo " '' shoe 
 
 weog " " wedge 
 
 hryeg " " ridge 
 
 liht " " light 
 
 hwyle " " which 
 
 6. Anglo-Saxon Prefixes and Suffixes. 
 
 A root is the primary constituent of a word before it is 
 modified. A stem is the modified form of a root before it 
 receives further modification by a prefix or a suffix. A pre ■ 
 fix is a word, once independent, which is placed before a 
 stem to determine more definitely its meaning. A suffix 
 is such a word placed after a stem. Tims, the root of 
 the English word love is lov j the stem is lovej before 
 which the prefix be may be placed, and to which the suf- 
 fix d may be added, forming the word beloved. The 
 word affix is used to designate both prefixes and suffixes. 
 
 Many English words show their Anglo-Saxon origin by the pre- 
 fixes and suffixes which enter into their composition. 
 The following are the principal Anglo-Saxon prefixes : 
 
 Prefix. Meaning. Examples. 
 
 a up, out of, of arise, arouse, akin, 
 
 strengthening the ) 
 
 simple word \ ''^'^^^ "^^^^ 
 on, in ashore, abed, 
 
 after after afternoon, afterthought, 
 
 al all almighty, always. 
 
 be making intransitive ) 
 
 verbs transitive [ bespeak, bewail. 
 
 forming verbs from \ 
 
 nouns and ad- >■ bedew, befriend, benumb, 
 jectives ) 
 
TEE EN0LI8H LANOUAOE. 
 
 229 
 
 Prefix. 
 
 Meaning. 
 
 Example. 
 
 for 
 
 pnvation 
 
 forlorn, forbid, forego. 
 
 fore 
 
 before in space 
 
 foreland, forehead. 
 
 
 before in time 
 
 foresee, foreshadow. 
 
 forth 
 
 out of, forward 
 
 forthcoming, forthwith. 
 
 gain 
 
 opposition 
 
 gainsay, gainstand. 
 
 in 
 
 in 
 
 income, inland, infold. 
 
 mis 
 
 error or failure 
 
 mistake, misbehave. 
 
 off 
 
 from, out of 
 
 oifspring, offset. 
 
 on 
 
 upon, forward 
 
 onset, onward. 
 
 out 
 
 beyond bounds 
 
 outwit, outbreak, outlaw 
 
 over 
 
 beyond, above 
 
 ovei'flow, overcome. 
 
 un 
 
 with nouns, adjec- 
 tives, and adverbs, • 
 
 
 
 unbelief, uneven, unhapj 
 
 
 a negative 
 
 
 
 with verbs, the re- i 
 verse operation ) 
 
 
 
 unwind, unbind. 
 
 
 
 under 
 
 under 
 
 undertake, underwood. 
 
 up 
 
 up 
 
 uplift, uproar. 
 
 with 
 
 against 
 
 withstand. 
 
 
 book 
 
 withdraw. 
 
 The following are the principal bug. 
 
 o-8axon suffixes : 
 
 Suffix. 
 
 Meaning. 
 
 Example. 
 
 ar 
 
 
 ' li-ar. 
 
 ard 
 
 
 slugg-ard, dull-ard 
 
 er 
 
 agent 
 instrument 
 
 farm-er. 
 
 yer 
 
 
 saw-yer. 
 
 ster 
 
 
 ^ pun-ster. 
 
 d 
 
 passive signification 
 
 dee-d, like-d. 
 
 dom 
 
 condition, quality 
 
 martyr-dom. 
 
 el 
 
 diminutive 
 
 satch-el. 
 
 en 
 
 causatvoe, diminutive 
 made of, feminine 
 
 striv-en, kitt-en, silk-en. 
 
 vix-en, chick-en. 
 
 fast 
 
 fi/TTn 
 
 stead-fast. 
 
 ess 
 
 feminine 
 
 seamstr-ess. 
 
 fold 
 
 numeral {I fold) 
 
 mani-fold. 
 
 ful 
 
 full 
 
 help-ful, cheer-ful. 
 
 head 
 
 state 
 
 balk-head. 
 
 hood 
 
 state of 
 
 child-hood, man-hood. 
 
330 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIG. 
 
 UFFIX. 
 
 Meaning. 
 
 Example. 
 
 
 \ Dcrbal ending 
 
 ( mak-ing, reek-ing. 
 1 farth-ing. 
 
 ing 
 
 i diminutive 
 
 isli 
 
 quality of 
 
 self-ish, rak-ish. 
 
 kin 
 
 diminutive 
 
 lamb-kin. 
 
 less 
 
 prwatioe 
 
 heart-less, ehild-less. 
 
 let 
 
 diminutive 
 
 brook-let. 
 
 ling 
 
 diminutive 
 
 duck-ling, strip-ling. 
 
 like 
 
 ■ like 
 
 God-like, home-like, 
 woman-ly. 
 
 ly 
 
 nesB 
 
 state of 
 
 wild-ness, sad-ness. 
 
 ock 
 
 diminutive 
 
 hill-ock. 
 
 ric 
 
 power 
 
 bishop-ric. 
 
 ship 
 
 j sJiape, form. 
 
 olerk-ship, wor-ship. 
 land-.soape. 
 
 sciijie 
 
 ( condition of 
 
 some 
 
 participating in 
 
 blithe-some, ful-some. 
 
 teen 
 
 ten 
 
 flf-teen. 
 
 ty 
 
 ten 
 
 fif-ty, twen-ty. 
 
 ward 
 
 direction 
 
 heaven-ward, back-ward. 
 
 wise 
 
 manner 
 
 side-wise, length-wise. 
 
 y 
 
 adjective ending 
 
 rain-y, cloud-y. 
 
 In this section, on " The Anglo-Saxon Element," we 
 have considered : 
 
 (1) The Anglo-Saxon Vocabulary. 
 
 {2) The Lost Words of Anglo- Saxon. 
 
 (3) The Lost Inflections of Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 {4) Anglo-Saxon Idioms. 
 
 (5) The Transliteration of Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 {6) Anglo-Saxon Prefixes and Suffixes. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 The Latin Element. 
 
 1. The Latin Vocabulary, 
 
 The Latin element in English has a character corre- 
 sponding to the circmnstances attending its admission 
 
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 331 
 
 into our language. Few Latin words are used for the 
 common things or the simplest actions, because these 
 were already known and named by our Anglo-Saxon an- 
 cestors before they were subjected to Latin influences. 
 The Latin element, therefore, consists largely of the fol- 
 lowing classes of words : 
 
 (1) Terms introduced witli Christianity and pertaining 
 to the Church ; as, saint (sauotus), chalice (calix), creed 
 (credo), nun (nonna), pope, (papa). 
 
 (3) Terms connected with scholastic life ; as, cloister 
 (claustrum), master (magister), disciple (discipulus). 
 
 (3) Terms belonging to philosophy ; as, absolute (abso- 
 lutus), attribute (attributus), /aoMZ^y (facultas). 
 
 (4) Terms denoting abstract ideas ; as, motion (motio), 
 rapidity (rapiditas), confession (ooufessio). 
 
 (5) Terms coaneeted with military life ; as, artillery 
 (artilleria), legion (legio), military (militaris). 
 
 (6) Many terms of law; as, judge (judex), attorney 
 (attornatus), ywrj/ (juratus), court (cohor.-)^ 
 
 The words most employed in abstract llunking and in all the 
 higher processes of the mind are derived from the Latin. It is, 
 therefore, impossible for one to understand the best products of our 
 literature without some knowledge of this important element in our 
 language, — its Latin derivatives. As Mr. Palgravc has said, "The 
 never-interrupted employinent of the French as the language of 
 education, and the nomenclature created by the scientific and lite- 
 rary cultivation of advancing and civilized society, have Homanized 
 our speech; the warp may be Anglo-Saxon, but the woof is Roman 
 as well as the embroidery, and these foreign" materials have so en- 
 tered into the texture, that, were they plucked out, the web would 
 be torn to rags, unraveled and destroyed." 
 
 We have in some oases two forms of tho same Latin word, oTie de- 
 
233 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 rived through the Latin and the other through the Norman-Prench. 
 The following are examples: 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Directly from the Latin. 
 
 Through Normar 
 
 balsamuni 
 
 balsam 
 
 balm 
 
 captivus 
 
 captive 
 
 caitiff 
 
 quietus 
 
 quiet 
 
 coy 
 
 factum 
 
 fact 
 
 feat 
 
 factio 
 
 faction 
 
 fashion 
 
 fragilis 
 
 fragile 
 
 frail 
 
 lectio 
 
 lection 
 
 lesson 
 
 pceuitentia 
 
 penitence 
 
 penance 
 
 securus 
 
 secure 
 
 sure 
 
 tractus 
 
 tract 
 
 ti-ait 
 
 prosecutum 
 
 prosecute 
 
 pui-sue 
 
 providere 
 
 provide 
 
 purvey 
 
 nepotem 
 
 nepotism 
 
 nephew 
 
 obedientia 
 
 obedience 
 
 obeisance 
 
 redemptio 
 
 redemption 
 
 ransom 
 
 2. The Modes of Latin Inlliieuce. 
 
 Ever since the Anglo-Saxons came to Great Britain, 
 Latin influences liave been continnousl}- felt to some ex- 
 tent; but the language has been moi'e than extraordinarily 
 affected by the Latin through the following events : 
 
 (1) The arrival of the Anglo-Saxons in Great Britain 
 (450). 
 
 (3) The conversion of the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity 
 (600). 
 
 (3) The conquest of England by the Norman-French 
 (1066). 
 
 (4) The rise of the universities (1300). 
 
 (5) The revival of letters (loOO). 
 
 (6) The restoration of the Stuarts (1660). 
 
 Since the Nornian Conquest, tlic Latin influence has been constant, 
 but not at all times equal. The fifloontli century was remarkable 
 for the pedantic and tawdi'v use of Latin words. The Scotch versi- 
 iirrs were cons[iicuous for their blending of Latinized expressions — 
 like aureate for golden, lascive for lusty, and the like — with their 
 
THE ENGLI8H LANGUAGE. 
 
 233 
 
 ho:nely dialect; and Campbell says of them: " Whenthey inc mt tobe 
 eloquent, they tore up the words from the Latin, which never took 
 ro;)t in the langua^^'e, like children making a mock garden with 
 flowers and branches stuck in the ground, which speedily wither." 
 With such signs of artificiality, we are not surprised that Mr. Green 
 has said: "Not a single book of any real value, save those of Sir 
 John Fortescue and Philippe de Commines, was j;)roduced north of 
 the Alps during the fifteenth century." The passion for Latin ex- 
 pressions continued strong until the end of the eighteenth century, 
 and has not yet wholly died out. The wars of Marlborough brought 
 in a great accession of French words, Addison, commenting upon 
 the fact, remarks: " The present war has so adulterated our tongue 
 with strange words, that it would be impossible for one of our great- 
 grandfathers to know what his posterity have been doing, were he to 
 read their exploits in a modern newspaper." 
 
 3. L-atin Stems, Prefixes, and Suffixes. 
 
 It is of great importance to a mastery of the English. 
 language that the principal Latin stems, prefixes, and 
 suffixes entering into the composition of English words 
 should be well known. The following lists are, therefore, 
 deserving of a careful study: 
 
 I. Latdn Stems. 
 
 Stem. 
 ag drive 
 anim mind 
 aper op^ 
 art art 
 aiir gold 
 cad fall 
 capt take 
 cam flesh 
 ■^eler swift 
 cing: girth 
 coiniuun together 
 coron crown 
 cur care 
 creel belief 
 diet tell 
 domiii rule 
 dorin sleep 
 
 Example. 
 
 ap'itate 
 
 ammate 
 
 aperture 
 
 ariifloial 
 
 awnferous 
 
 decadence 
 
 captivate 
 
 carnal 
 
 celeritY 
 
 surcingle 
 
 community 
 
 coronation 
 
 curacy 
 
 eredit 
 
 predict 
 
 dominate 
 
 dormitory 
 
 Stem. 
 alt high 
 ann year 
 apt fit 
 and hear 
 brev short 
 cant song 
 capit head 
 ced yield 
 cent hundred 
 comiuod fit 
 cor heart 
 corp body 
 cuiT run 
 dat give 
 digii worth 
 due lead 
 equ horse 
 
 Example. 
 
 Qxalt 
 
 annual 
 
 aptitude 
 
 aiiditorium 
 
 ab&rct;iate 
 
 can'icle 
 
 capital 
 
 recede 
 
 century 
 
 acco?n?nodate 
 
 cordial 
 
 incorporate 
 
 current 
 
 datQ 
 
 dignify 
 
 indiiction 
 
 equestrian 
 
234 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF UlIETOBIC. 
 
 Stem. 
 
 Example. 
 
 Stem. 
 
 Example. 
 
 fah speak 
 
 /a61e 
 
 fac do 
 
 /acuity 
 
 relic happy 
 
 fdicity 
 
 fer bear 
 
 pre/erable 
 
 fess speak 
 
 confess 
 
 fid faitli 
 
 fidality 
 
 fill end 
 
 finality 
 
 form shape 
 
 con/ormity 
 
 fort strong 
 
 /oriitudj 
 
 t^ang break 
 
 /rani7ibility 
 
 fiis melt 
 
 con/usion 
 
 geiier kind 
 
 generosity 
 
 g-cst bear 
 
 t/estsition 
 
 grrad rank 
 
 degradation 
 
 gran grain 
 
 granary 
 
 grrat joy 
 
 con^Tatulation 
 
 hospit guest 
 
 hospital 
 
 Integr whole 
 
 integral 
 
 ject throw 
 
 interject 
 
 judie judge 
 
 jwdicature 
 
 juiict join 
 
 disjUTiciive 
 
 jvir swear 
 
 jury 
 
 lat carry 
 
 predate 
 
 lat broad 
 
 latitude 
 
 leg- send 
 
 deZe^rate 
 
 leg write 
 
 legible 
 
 lect gather 
 
 collect 
 
 lect choose 
 
 election 
 
 libex- free 
 
 Ubera.te 
 
 libei- book 
 
 library 
 
 libr weight 
 
 equih'&rate 
 
 lin flax 
 
 linen 
 
 Uii line 
 
 linear 
 
 liter letter 
 
 literary 
 
 lingiL tongue 
 
 lingual 
 
 loc place 
 
 locality 
 
 loqii speak 
 
 eloquence 
 
 lud play 
 
 elude 
 
 magu great 
 
 magnitude 
 
 man hand 
 
 manual 
 
 majoi' greater 
 
 majority 
 
 mail stay 
 
 permanent 
 
 inar war 
 
 martial 
 
 uiater mother 
 
 maternal 
 
 inedi heal 
 
 medicinal 
 
 medit tliink 
 
 premeditate 
 
 mcdi mean 
 
 medial 
 
 mens measure 
 
 m€7isuration 
 
 inent mind 
 
 tnental 
 
 mere sell 
 
 mercenary 
 
 iner^ dip 
 
 emerge 
 
 «iig:r go 
 
 immif^rate 
 
 mil" wonder 
 
 admire 
 
 initt send 
 
 admittonce 
 
 moil advise 
 
 admonish 
 
 mort dead 
 
 mortality 
 
 mot move 
 
 promote 
 
 mult many 
 
 multitude 
 
 luiiii gift 
 
 mwmflcent 
 
 nat bom 
 
 nativ'yty 
 
 nav ship 
 
 naval 
 
 not mark 
 
 dcTMJte 
 
 uuiuer number 
 
 e?i«7neration 
 
 niiiici tell 
 
 annuTiciation 
 
 ocul eye 
 
 ocwZist 
 
 par equal 
 
 imparity 
 
 par ready 
 
 prepare 
 
 part share 
 
 participate 
 
 pass step 
 
 impassible 
 
 pass suffer 
 
 dispassionate 
 
 pater father 
 
 paternal 
 
 ped foot 
 
 perfestrian 
 
 pell drive 
 
 impeZZed 
 
 pend hang 
 
 depeTideut 
 
 pet ask 
 
 petition 
 
 pict paint 
 
 depicted 
 
 plac please 
 
 placated 
 
 plen full 
 
 repZenish 
 
 plet fill 
 
 conipZe(e 
 
 plic fold 
 
 implicated 
 
 pout bridge 
 
 pontift 
 
 port gate 
 
 portal 
 
 poi't carry 
 
 porter 
 
 pos place 
 
 prepositive 
 
 poi drink 
 
 potable 
 
 potent able 
 
 omnipoteJit 
 
 l»rcitcnd grasp 
 
 appreA^jirf 
 
 prim first 
 
 primary 
 
 punct pierce 
 
 comp?(nction 
 
 quadr four 
 
 gttadrangle 
 
 qnant how much 
 
 qumtWry 
 
 quer bewail 
 
 gi/erulous 
 
 ratli ray 
 
 radiate 
 
 rap seize 
 
 rnpine 
 
 rat reason 
 
 rational 
 
 rect right 
 
 rectangular 
 
 reg rule 
 
 regulate 
 
 ris laugh 
 
 risibility 
 
 riv draw 
 
 deWue 
 
 rog ask 
 
 interroj/ate 
 
 nipt break 
 
 interrupt 
 
 sacr holy 
 
 sdcriflce 
 
 sal S:llt 
 
 soiine 
 
 sal leap 
 
 wtZtatory 
 
 Banct holy 
 
 aarictify 
 
 sat enough 
 
 Sdtisfnction 
 
 soi know 
 
 acientiflc 
 
 sorib write 
 
 circr.m*cri'6t. 
 
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 :^36 
 
 Stem. 
 
 Example. 
 
 Stem. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 sent feel 
 
 sentient 
 
 sequ follow 
 
 subs^gwent 
 
 sect cut 
 
 dissection 
 
 serv serve 
 
 deserye 
 
 sist stand 
 
 subsisience 
 
 sul alone 
 
 soiitary 
 
 s^iii sound 
 
 consonance 
 
 sort lot 
 
 assortment 
 
 si>e'j look 
 
 spectacular 
 
 speci kind 
 
 sijecin cation 
 
 spi breath 
 
 respiration 
 
 stant standin*; 
 
 constant 
 
 stull star 
 
 consteWation 
 
 string; draw 
 
 string'dncY 
 
 stru build 
 
 coiisfrwctiou 
 
 sum take 
 
 consume 
 
 su.ide advise 
 
 persuade 
 
 surg; rise 
 
 insurr^ent , 
 
 tact touch 
 
 Loniaci 
 
 tang- touch 
 
 tjng ewiml 
 
 tey; cover 
 
 intef/uiiient 
 
 teiixpor time 
 
 contemporary 
 
 tend stretch 
 
 extfijitied 
 
 test witness 
 
 testify 
 
 tort twist 
 
 distortion 
 
 tract draw 
 
 retraction 
 
 trit rub 
 
 detritus 
 
 trud thrust 
 
 in /ruder 
 
 uii;l wave 
 
 undulation 
 
 util useful 
 
 ifti^iturian 
 
 \ad go 
 
 invade 
 
 val strong 
 
 invalidate 
 
 veil come 
 
 contra7;ene 
 
 vers turn 
 
 iiiwrsion 
 
 vi force 
 
 violence 
 
 Vic live 
 
 victuals 
 
 vid see 
 
 evident 
 
 vlv live 
 
 revivify 
 
 voc call 
 
 invocation 
 
 volve turn 
 
 TQvolve 
 
 vot vow 
 
 devotion 
 
 Tul|f make common divu^^ence 
 
 n. Latin Prefixes. 
 
 PREFIX. 
 
 SlSNiriOATION. 
 
 Example. 
 
 Definition. 
 
 a 
 
 'from 
 
 ' a-vert 
 
 to turn from 
 
 ab 
 
 abs (before c and 
 
 ab-duct 
 abS'tain 
 
 to lead/rom 
 to hj.d/rom. 
 
 ad 
 
 
 ad-apt 
 
 to fit to 
 
 a 
 
 
 argree 
 
 to be pleasing to 
 
 ac (before c) 
 
 
 ac-cept 
 
 to take to 
 
 af (before f) 
 
 
 a(-fluent 
 
 flowing to 
 
 ag (before g) 
 
 
 ag-gravate 
 
 to add to 
 
 al (before 1) 
 
 
 al-ly 
 
 to bind to 
 
 am (before m) 
 
 to 
 
 am-munition 
 
 defense to 
 
 au (before n) 
 
 
 an-nouuce 
 
 to report to 
 
 ap (before p) 
 
 
 ap-praise 
 
 to put a price «o 
 
 ar (before r) 
 
 
 ar-raign 
 
 to speak to 
 
 as (before s) 
 
 
 as-similate 
 
 to make similar to 
 
 at (before t) 
 
 
 at-test 
 
 to bear witness to 
 
 aiu 
 
 around, 
 about 
 
 am-putate 
 amb-igiioua 
 
 to cut around 
 
 amb 
 
 moving around 
 
 ante 
 
 '•Wore 
 
 ante-date 
 
 to date be/ore 
 
 anti 
 
 anti-cipate 
 
 to take before 
 
 bene 
 
 ■wdl 
 
 bene-volent 
 
 \\ ishing well 
 
 bi 
 
 *two, twice 
 
 bi-seet 
 
 to cut into two pieces 
 
 bis 
 
 bis-cuit (French) 
 
 t^mce cooked 
 
236 
 
 TUE ELEMENTS OF RHETOBIG. 
 
 Prefix. 
 
 Signification. 
 
 Example. 
 
 Definition. 
 
 circuiu 
 
 J arowndt 
 \ about 
 
 ( circUiJi-spect 
 I ciicu-it 
 
 looking about 
 
 circu 
 
 a journey aiound 
 
 cou 
 
 
 con-tract 
 
 to draw together 
 
 00 
 
 
 co-equal 
 
 equal with 
 
 cog 
 
 loith, or 
 
 cotj-nate 
 
 born together 
 
 col 
 
 toget/ter 
 
 col-league 
 
 one united with in 
 the same office 
 
 com 
 
 
 com-pound 
 
 to put together 
 
 cor 
 
 1 
 
 cor-rode 
 
 toruboff, ortot,e:hcr 
 
 contra 
 
 
 - contra-posltiuu 
 
 aplacingover against 
 
 contro 
 
 against 
 
 [ cou.ro-VLrt 
 
 to turn against 
 
 counter (French 
 
 
 . couater-weigh 
 
 to weigh against 
 
 canire) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 de-cline, de-cry 
 
 to bring down, to 
 
 de 
 
 1 doton./rom, 
 away 
 
 cry doutn 
 
 
 de-fend 
 de-sert 
 demi-groat 
 
 to drive away 
 
 
 
 to paitfrom 
 
 demi 
 
 half 
 
 Si half gro&t 
 
 dis 
 
 I 
 
 f dis-sipate 
 
 to cause to go apart 
 
 di 
 
 ■ apa/rt 
 
 ' di-vide 
 
 to keep apart 
 
 dif (before 1) 
 
 y 
 
 ; dif-fer 
 
 tobear apart, disagrt e 
 
 
 
 e-duce 
 
 to bring or draw out 
 
 
 
 e-Iicit 
 
 to draw out 
 
 e (before d, n, 1, 
 
 
 ef-face 
 
 to scratch out, r - 
 
 m) 
 
 y out of, Ota 
 
 
 move from 
 
 ef (before f) 
 
 
 e-merge 
 
 growing out 
 
 ex 
 
 
 e-nate 
 
 to rise out of 
 
 
 
 ex-pire 
 
 to breathe oiU 
 
 extra 
 
 beyond 
 
 extra- tropical 
 
 beyond the tropics 
 
 In 1 
 
 
 in-sert 
 
 to put in 
 
 il (before 1) 
 
 
 il-luminate 
 
 to throw light on 
 
 im (before p and 
 
 m) 
 ir (before r) 
 
 in, into, on, and 
 
 ini -merge 
 
 to plunge into 
 
 not 
 
 im-pious 
 ii--reparable 
 
 not pious 
 TWt reparable 
 
 en, em (French) . 
 
 
 en-due 
 
 to put on 
 
 
 
 em-pale 
 
 to shut in 
 
 inter ) 
 Intel (before 1) S 
 
 between and ( 
 
 inter-micate 
 
 to shine betu:€en or 
 
 among i 
 
 
 among 
 
 
 "^ i 
 
 intel-ligeut 
 
 choosing between 
 
 Intra 
 
 inside qf 
 
 intra- marginal 
 
 insideof the maigiii 
 
 Intro 
 
 within and into 
 
 intro-spect 
 
 to look intooTirithi" 
 
 jiixta 
 
 near 
 
 juxta-position 
 
 a placing near 
 
 male (Fr. maX) 
 
 m 
 
 male-vuleiit 
 
 tU-disposed 
 
 uon 
 
 not 
 
 n on- conforming 
 
 not conforming 
 
 Ob 
 
 
 ob-trude 
 
 to thrust in front qf 
 
 
 
 in front of, 
 
 o-mit 
 
 to leave out 
 
 oc 
 of 
 
 against, 
 
 oc-cur 
 
 to run against 
 
 OTOUt 
 
 of-fend 
 
 to strike again^ 
 
 op 
 
 
 op-posite 
 
 placed over against 
 
 \ 
 
 ( 
 
 per-meate 
 
 top;tss through the 
 
 per (Ft. "par) \ 
 
 though, \ 
 
 
 pores of 
 
 pel (before 1) J 
 
 thoroughly, J 
 
 pel-lucid 
 
 thoroughly clear 
 
 
 ( 
 
 post-date 
 
 to date after the 
 
 post 
 
 after 
 
 
 real time 
 
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 
 
 237 
 
 Prefix. 
 
 pre 
 
 preter 
 
 pro (Fr. por and ■ 
 
 pour) 
 pol (rarely) 
 re 
 
 red \ 
 
 reti'O 
 
 seini, 
 sub 
 
 sue (before c) 
 suf (before f) 
 sug (before g) 
 
 sum (before m 
 sup (before p) 
 sur (before r) 
 sus (before s) 
 sabter 
 super (Fr. sur) 
 
 trans (Fr. tres) 
 tra 
 
 SIGNIFIOATION. 
 
 hefore 
 
 for, forth, 
 
 I forward 
 
 I back, again, 
 \ anew 
 backward 
 
 ' aside, apart, 
 \ away 
 
 under, from 
 under. 
 
 itnd&r, beneath 
 above, over 
 ■ across, beyond, 
 
 beyond. 
 
 Example. 
 pre-Bcient 
 preter-vection 
 
 Spro-pulsion 
 pro-tend 
 ^ re-turn 
 ) red-ient 
 
 retro-vert 
 r se-clude 
 
 ' sed-ition 
 
 semi-liquid 
 f sub-vene 
 
 suc-cumb 
 
 suf-fer 
 
 sug-gest 
 
 sum-mo n 
 sup-port 
 sur-prise 
 sus-pect 
 subter-ranean 
 super- add 
 r trans-mit 
 
 ' tra-verse 
 
 J ultra-montane 
 
 Definition. 
 knowing before 
 the act of carrying 
 
 beyond 
 the act of driving 
 
 forward 
 to stretch forth 
 bring or send back 
 
 going back 
 to turn backward 
 to shut up apart 
 
 from others 
 a going aside 
 half liquid 
 to come under 
 to lie down under 
 to undergo 
 to bring to mind 
 
 from under 
 to hunt from under 
 to bear up under 
 to take under 
 to look under 
 lying underground 
 to add over and aboi'e 
 to cause to pass over 
 
 or through 
 to pass over 
 beyond the moun- 
 tains 
 
 m. Latin Suffixes. 
 
 Suffix. 
 
 able 
 
 ible 
 ble 
 ac 
 
 aceous 
 
 acious 
 
 an 
 
 ane 
 
 SIGNIFICATIOH. 
 
 ypossibility 
 relation 
 
 toft hamng 
 
 S the quality of 
 
 ( condition, 
 
 ■) 
 
 Example. 
 
 iendur-able 
 reprehens-ible 
 solu-ble 
 cardi-ac 
 foli-aceous 
 
 fall-acious 
 suprem-acy 
 
 ( condition, 
 1 collection of 
 t relating to, 
 < the act of, 
 I that which 
 
 relating to 
 
 cur-acy 
 t bond-age 
 
 !origin-al 
 reprov-al 
 coron-al 
 I hum-an 
 t mund-ane 
 
 Definition. 
 
 that may be endured 
 that may be blamed 
 that may be dissolved 
 relating to the heart 
 having the quality of a 
 
 leaf 
 having the quality of 
 
 error 
 condition of being su 
 
 . preme .,, . 
 office of a curate 
 
 eondition of slaves 
 
 relating to the origin 
 the act of reproving 
 that which crowns 
 relating to mankind 
 relating to the world 
 
238 
 
 THE ELEME. 
 
 NTS OF BRB. 
 
 ITOBia 
 
 SUFFIX. 
 
 SlBNIFIOATION. 
 
 Example. 
 
 Definition. 
 
 
 
 ( repent-ance 
 
 the state of being pen- 
 
 ance 
 
 1 State or guai- 
 1 ay of being 
 
 
 itent 
 
 ancy 
 
 1 exuber*ancy 
 
 the state of being exuber- 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 ant 
 
 and 
 
 \ 
 
 J vi-and 
 ( leg-end 
 
 
 end 
 
 
 
 ybein^, one 
 
 ) who 
 
 ( aspir-ant 
 
 one who aspires 
 
 an) 
 
 ent 
 
 X milit-ant 
 ( reaid-ent 
 
 being warlike 
 
 one who dwells in a place 
 
 ar 
 
 1 7 *,• „, 
 
 muscul-ar 
 
 relating to a muscle 
 
 er 
 
 yrelaUng to, 
 ) one who 
 
 " produc-er 
 
 one who produces 
 
 or 
 
 direct* or 
 
 one who directs 
 
 
 
 1" second-ary 
 
 relating to the second 
 
 
 I relating to, 
 
 legion-ary 
 
 one who belongs to a le- 
 
 ary 
 
 U one wTio, 
 
 
 gion 
 
 
 i place where 
 
 1 api-ary 
 
 a place where bees are 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 kept 
 
 
 J ageitt, qual- 
 1 ity, cause 
 
 I substanti-at6 
 
 to cause to exist 
 
 ate 
 
 \ leg-ate 
 
 one who is sent 
 
 
 ( carbon-ate 
 
 gruaZity of carbon 
 
 atlc 
 
 
 lun-atic 
 
 
 cle 
 
 ^ small 
 
 ( tuber-cle 
 1 reti-cule 
 
 small projection 
 
 cule 
 
 a small bag 
 
 66 
 
 > one to whom 
 
 ■ consign-ee 
 
 one to whom a thing is 
 
 
 consigned 
 
 
 
 chariot-eer 
 
 one who has charge of a 
 
 eer 
 ier 
 
 i one who 
 
 flnanc-ier 
 
 chariot 
 one who attends to fi- 
 nances 
 
 eiae) 
 
 
 mors-el 
 
 
 en 
 
 \ 
 
 f all-en 
 Uat-ln 
 
 
 in 
 
 
 ene 
 
 relating to 
 
 terr-ene 
 
 relating to the earth 
 
 
 
 perman-ence 
 
 the quality qf beiiig per- 
 
 
 e state of 
 
 
 manent 
 
 ence 
 
 ] hang. 
 
 pot-ency 
 
 the quality qf being 
 
 ency 
 
 t quality of 
 
 
 powerful 
 
 
 
 c preuid-ent 
 
 one who is nppoluted to 
 
 ent 
 
 agent, being 
 
 ] 
 
 preside 
 
 
 
 t evid-ent 
 
 being seen 
 
 escence 
 
 i state of 
 I becoming 
 becoming 
 
 \ adol-escence 
 
 state qf growing 
 
 cscent 
 
 putr-esceut 
 
 becoming putrid 
 
 ess 
 
 female 
 
 tigr-ess 
 
 a. female tiger 
 
 ferous 
 
 bearing 
 
 argenti-ferous 
 
 beai-ing silver 
 
 flc 
 
 c making, 
 \ causing 
 
 terri-flc 
 
 causing terror 
 
 
 
 floe 
 
 something made 
 
 edi-flce 
 
 something built 
 
 *y 
 
 to make 
 
 recti-fy 
 
 to make right 
 
 Ice 
 
 that which 
 
 not-ice 
 
 that which is made 
 known 
 
 tele 
 
 
 art-icle 
 
 
 Id 
 
 being 
 
 flor-id 
 
 bei-ng bright 
 
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 
 
 239 
 
 Suffix. 
 
 lie 
 ine 
 
 i(»u 
 
 ise 
 ize 
 
 isiu 
 
 ist 
 ite 
 
 ity 
 ty 
 
 le»t 
 iiieikt 
 
 luony 
 
 Signification. 
 i relating to, 
 I apt for 
 c rdating to, 
 I like 
 
 the act of, 
 tJie state of 
 
 I 
 
 to make 
 f to render, 
 \ perform 
 t act of 
 c peculiar to, o 
 \ state of 
 
 \ one skilled in 
 one who is, 
 
 he state or 
 quality of 
 
 Example. 
 1 iufant-ile 
 I serv-ile 
 c can-ine 
 \ adamant-ine 
 
 I content-ion 
 convuls-ion 
 act-ion 
 dimin-ish 
 
 to f 
 
 the\ 
 
 r one who is, 
 < having the 
 t power 
 feminine 
 
 fvUof 
 
 i state of being, 
 i that which 
 
 J fitote of, 
 
 ) that which 
 
 enfranch-ise 
 civil-ize 
 
 American-ism 
 
 fanatic-ism 
 
 machin-ist 
 
 theor-ist 
 
 favor-ite 
 
 vivac-ity 
 
 divisibil-ity 
 
 certain-ty 
 
 5relat-ive 
 invent-ive 
 
 executr-ix 
 ( viru-lent 
 \ somno-lent 
 f pref er-ment 
 } atone-ment 
 j patri-mony 
 
 \ parsi-moiiy 
 
 Definition. 
 
 relating to Infancy 
 
 aj3e /or service 
 
 relating to a dog 
 
 like adamant 
 
 the act of contending 
 
 the state of being con- 
 vulsed 
 
 acting 
 
 to make smaller 
 
 to render free 
 to render civil 
 
 American idiom 
 the state of a fanatic 
 one skilled in machinery 
 one devoted to theory 
 one who is favored 
 i?ie state of being lively 
 the quality of being di- 
 vided 
 the state of being certain 
 one who is related 
 having/ the power to in- 
 vent 
 a female executor 
 
 act of being preferred 
 
 that which atones 
 
 tfiat which is inherited 
 
 from an ancestor 
 state of illiberality 
 
 oiy 
 
 (lite 
 
 ous 
 
 tude 
 
 ty 
 
 ule 
 uleut 
 
 ure 
 
 y 
 
 j agency, 
 1 quality 
 
 * place where, 
 I that which 
 
 I condition or 
 ( quality of 
 ( state or 
 < quality of, 
 
 minute 
 
 J a^t or state 
 1 of, that which 
 act or state of 
 
 ( f act-or 
 -< govern- or 
 i ard-or 
 ( refect- ory 
 
 ' promo nt-ory 
 J verb-ose 
 I nerv-ous 
 ( recti-tude 
 ) simili-tude 
 
 < plen-ty 
 
 ov-ule 
 
 truc-ulent 
 I ten-ure 
 ( vest-ure 
 
 miser-y 
 
 one who makes 
 that which governs 
 quality of burning 
 aplace where provisions 
 
 are served 
 that which projects 
 abounding in words 
 abuunding in nerves 
 quality of being right 
 condition of likeness 
 
 quality of fullness 
 
 a little egg 
 
 abounding in cruelty 
 act of holding 
 that which clothes 
 state of being miserable 
 
240 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETOBIO. 
 
 4. The Latin Numerals. 
 
 The Latin numerals enter into composition with so 
 many English words that they should be committed to 
 memory and the examples in which they occur carefully 
 learned. For this purpose they are given below, up to 
 and including "ten," and such others as are most fre- 
 quently employed. 
 
 Number. 
 
 1, 
 
 Unas. 
 
 3, 
 
 duo 
 
 
 bis, bi {twice) 
 
 3, 
 
 tres 
 
 
 tri (thrice) 
 
 4, 
 
 quatuor 
 
 5, 
 
 quinqu© 
 
 6, 
 
 sex 
 
 7, 
 
 septem 
 
 8, 
 
 octo 
 
 9, 
 
 novem 
 
 10, 
 
 decern 
 
 13, 
 
 duodecimo 
 
 100, 
 
 centum 
 
 1000, 
 
 miUe 
 
 First, primus 
 
 Second, secnndas 
 
 Third, tertiuB 
 
 Examples op their Use. 
 
 unit, union, unite, uniform, universe, unicorn, 
 unique, university, Unitarian. 
 
 dual, duel, duplex, duplicate, duplicity. 
 
 billion, bisect, bivalve, biscuit, binomial, bien- 
 nial, bigamist, bi-dentate. 
 
 treble, trefoil. 
 
 triangle, trice, triple, trident, trinity, triplet, 
 trio, tripod, triennial, tripartite. 
 
 quarto, quart, quartette, quadruped, quadrila- 
 teral, quadruple, quarter. 
 
 quintette, quintillion, quintuple, quintessence. 
 
 sextant, sextillion, sextuple, sexennial. 
 
 septennial, septillion, September. 
 
 octave, octillion, octennial, October. 
 
 novennial, November. 
 
 decennial, decimal, detimate, December. 
 
 duodecimal, duodecimo (volume). 
 
 cent, centurion, centigram, centennial, centena- 
 rian, centigrade, centiped. 
 
 million, millennium, millimeter, 
 prime, primary, primal, primeval, primer, prim- 
 itive, 
 second, secondary, 
 tertiary. 
 
TEE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 341 
 
 5. The Extent of tlie Latin Element in Englisli. 
 
 With the growth of mind, the progress of education, 
 arid the greater familiarity with classical literature char- 
 acteristic of the leading writers of the seventeenth and 
 eighteenth centuries, the Latin element attained a prepon- 
 derance over the Anglo-Saxon. Anglo-Saxon furnishes 
 the "wheel- works" of the language, but the majority 
 of the words in most modern books and public orations 
 are of Latin origin. 
 
 The proportion of Latin words in actual use may be easily mis- 
 represented by an erroneous method of counting. If we estimate 
 the proportion by the frequency of their occurrence, we obtain re- 
 sults which practically misrepresent the truth. Take, for example, 
 the following estimates given by Sharon Turner in his " History of 
 the Anglo-Saxons " : 
 
 Books, or Wkitebs. Whole Number of Words. Not Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 Genesis 128 5 
 
 John, xi 74 3 
 
 Spenser 73 14 
 
 Shakespeare 83 13 
 
 Milton 89 16 
 
 Cowley 77 10 
 
 Thomson 78 14 
 
 Addison 79 15 
 
 Locke 94 80 
 
 Pope 83 37 
 
 Young 96 21 
 
 Swift 90 10 
 
 Robertson 113 34 
 
 Hume 101 37 
 
 Gibbon 79 32 
 
 Johnson 81 31 
 
 1417 391 
 
 11 
 
343 THE ELEMENTS OF BHETOBIG. 
 
 By this method, the mean proportion of Anglo-Saxon words to 
 all others is about 80 per cent, to 20. Mr. George P. Marsh has 
 published tables giving about the same results. The following are 
 examples of his percentages : 
 
 Writer and Work. Percentage op Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 Chaucer, Prologue 88 
 
 Spenser, Faery Queene 86 
 
 New Testament 93 
 
 Shakespeare, Othello 89 
 
 Milton, Paradise Lost 80 
 
 Addison, Spectator 83 
 
 Pope, Essay on Man 80 
 
 Johnson, Preface to Dictionary 72 
 
 Gibbon, Decline and Fall 70 
 
 Irving, Westminster Abbey 77 
 
 Macaulay, Essay on Bacon 75 
 
 Bryant, Thanatopsis 84 
 
 Tennyson, Lotus Eaters 87 
 
 Ruskin, Modern Painters 73 
 
 Longfellow, Miles Standish 87 
 
 But if we consider the different words used by representative 
 modern writers, irrespective of the frequency of their occurrence, 
 we shall reach another conclusion. Careful estimates show that, 
 counting each word in an extract only once without regard to the 
 number of times it is used, only about 33 to 33 per cent, are Anglo- 
 Saxon words, leaving from 56 to 73 per cent, of Latin words and » 
 small percentage of foreign words neither Latin nor Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 6. The Latin Element at Different Periods. 
 
 It should be noted that the proportion of Latin words 
 has varied greatly with different periods. Among the 
 really good writers, Milton was inclined to Latinity in his 
 prose. Pope employed the Latin largely even in poetry. 
 The historians Eobertson, Hume, and Gibbon used Latin 
 words very freely. Samuel Johnson wrote in a style 
 
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 343 
 
 marked by great verbosity, almost descending to " large 
 words for small thoughts," and has been accused of in- 
 venting the stilted manner called "Johnsonese." The 
 stilted style is overburdened with Latin derivatives dis- 
 tinctly chosen because they are Latin and piled upon one 
 another in an ostentatious manner. The effect is rendered 
 ponderous by the great length and complexity of the sen- 
 tences. It has been said of Johnson and Gibbon that, 
 " had either of them attempted the aesthetic theories so 
 eloquently discussed by Euskin, with the knowledge and 
 the stock of words possessed by that master writer, their 
 Saxon would have been confined to particles, pronouns, 
 and auxiliaries, — the mere wheel- work of syntactical 
 structure." The modern tendency is toward simplicity 
 in the structure of sentences, avoiding the verbose style, 
 yet using individual Latin words with freedom. 
 
 It is not wholly fair to Johnson to ascribe to Mm the invention ot 
 the pompous style. It was current in his time, and he gave it a more 
 than ordinary dignity. Even the sermons of his day are full of ab- 
 stract Latin words. The reaction against this artificial writing came 
 in strongly with the simple and direct English of Wordsworth and 
 Scott. Latin still preponderates in the most serious literature, but 
 modern writers usually study simplicity and directness. If the 
 words of Latin parentage are not fewer in number in modern writing, 
 they are at least less massed together in complex sentences than 
 they were in the eighteenth century. By skilful construction of sen- 
 tences it is possible to render style elevated and clear, dignified with- 
 out being tedious. But to do this, one must be a master of the 
 Latin element. The fault of the "Johnsonese" writers is not that 
 they had a great mastery of language, but that language had a 
 great mastery of them. 
 
344 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 In this section, on "The Latin Element," we have 
 considered. : 
 
 (i) The Latin Vocabulary. 
 
 {2) The Modes of Latin Influence. 
 
 {3) Latin Stems, Prefixes, and Suffixes. 
 
 {4-) The Latin Kwrnerals. 
 
 (<5) The Extent of the Latin Element in English. 
 
 (6) The Latin Element at Different Periods. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 The Gbeek Element. 
 
 1. The Greek Vocabulary. 
 
 As many Latin words came into English througli the 
 Norman-French, so many Greek words came into English 
 through the Latin. Thus we have the words iishop from 
 episcopus, monk from monaclius, synod from synodus. 
 Others have been taken directly from the Greek, most 
 frequently to form scientific terms or to give names to 
 new discoveries. In this way we have geology, science of 
 the earth ; zoology, science of animals ; biology, science 
 of lif e : and thermometer, heat-measure ; telegraph, far- 
 writing ; telephone, far-sound. The latest growths of our 
 language, those pertaining to the technical arts and 
 sciences, have drawn their substance from the Greek vo- 
 cabulary. It has become necessary, therefore, that every 
 educated person should know enough Greek to understand 
 
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 245 
 
 the elements entering into the nomenclature of general 
 science. We are indebted to the Greek for words belong- 
 ing to the following classes : 
 
 (1) Many grammatical and rhetorical terms, such as 
 orthography, etymology, euphony, metaphor, amilysis, 
 synthesis. 
 
 (2) Many ecclesiastical terms ; as, epiphany, anthem, 
 orthodox, heterodox, apostle, epistle, evangelical. 
 
 (3) Many names of religions sects; as. Catholics, Epis- 
 copalians, Presbyterians, Methodists, Baptists. 
 
 (4) The names of most of the sciences; as, logic, the- 
 ology, philology, emlryology , astronomy, ichthyology. 
 
 (5) Most technical scientific names ; as, isothermal, apo- 
 gee, graphite, encephalon. 
 
 (6) Many political names; as, politics, autocrat, democ- 
 racy, despot, demagogue, aristocracy, oligarchy. 
 
 An excellent help to the mastery of the Greek element in English 
 for those who haye had no regular training in the Greek language 
 may be found in Thomas D. Goodell's " The Greek in English,'' 
 which aims to give the student the most necessary knowledge in the 
 briefest time possible. The study of the Greek classics has gener- 
 ally kept pace with that of the Latin classics since the Revival of 
 Letters (1500). The New Testament was written in Greek. Hence 
 the language has, had a peculiar interest for English-speaking schol- 
 ars. The Greek vocabulary has furnished an almost inexhaustible 
 storehouse from which new words might at any time be drawn when 
 needed. Let any one try to imagine an entirely new word, one 
 whose like he has never heard or seen, and he will realize how natu- 
 ral and how convenient it is to borrow ready-made words which 
 have a definite meaning, and yet are not associated with other 
 things than those to which we wish to apply them. No word 
 has ever been absolutely created. Words, like other things, are 
 modifications of preexisting materials. 
 
346 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF BHETORIO. 
 
 2. Greek Steins, Prefixes, and Suffixes. 
 
 The following Greek stems, prefixes, and sufiixes are of 
 great importance on account of the great frequency with 
 which they occur in words now recognized as standard 
 English. They should receive as close attention as the 
 corresponding Latin elements preTiously given : 
 
 
 I. Gr( 
 
 3ek Steins. 
 
 
 Stem. 
 
 Example. 
 
 Stem. 
 
 Example. 
 
 alio other 
 
 aUopaihw 
 
 ( beginning arc^ology 
 * " ( rule monarchy 
 
 astr star 
 
 astrology 
 
 biU book 
 
 Miflography 
 
 baru heavy 
 
 barytone 
 
 oac bad 
 
 cacography 
 
 bio life 
 
 biogenesis 
 
 ceno empty 
 
 cenotaph 
 
 calll beautiful 
 
 ccUUsthemos 
 
 character mark 
 
 ; characterization 
 
 cephal head 
 
 cephatopoCi 
 
 chrom color 
 
 acAromatic 
 
 chir hand 
 
 cAirography 
 
 oosm order 
 
 cosmology 
 
 chron time 
 
 chronometev 
 
 crit judge 
 
 cWticism 
 
 crat rule 
 
 plutocrai 
 
 ' cycl circle 
 
 cyclone 
 
 crypt secret 
 
 c?'j[p<ogamic 
 
 derm skin 
 
 hypodermic 
 
 dem people 
 
 democmt 
 
 dox fame 
 
 orthodoa; 
 
 dogmat opinion 
 
 dogmatize 
 
 gen produce 
 
 g'craealogy 
 
 dynam power 
 
 dynamic 
 
 gram letter 
 
 grammatical 
 
 ge earth 
 
 g'fiography 
 
 gymn naked, 
 
 exercise 
 
 (. gymnasium 
 
 graph writing 
 
 biography 
 
 heter other 
 
 h^terodo's. 
 
 heli sun 
 
 Miotype 
 
 horn like 
 
 Aomogeneous 
 
 bier siiei-ed 
 
 MersLTohj 
 
 hydr water 
 
 hydrometer 
 
 hor hour 
 
 horology 
 
 Idi one's own 
 
 idiomatic 
 
 icou image 
 
 icoraoclast 
 
 lith stone 
 
 ?i<Aography 
 
 iso equal 
 
 isothermal 
 
 maor long 
 
 mocrometer 
 
 log word, science logiaaX 
 
 micT small 
 
 micrometer 
 
 meter measure 
 
 diameter 
 
 neo new 
 
 neologism 
 
 neor dead 
 
 Ticcropolis 
 
 ped child 
 
 pedagogue 
 
 orth right 
 
 orthodoxy 
 
 phil love 
 
 phU&nthropj 
 
 phan appear 
 
 phantasm 
 
 phot light 
 
 photograph 
 
THE ENGLISH LAN&UAGE. 
 
 247 
 
 Stem. 
 
 Example. 
 
 Stem. 
 
 Example. 
 
 phon sound 
 
 phonogiaph 
 
 pneum air 
 
 pneumatics 
 
 plut wealth 
 
 plutocraay 
 
 pseud false 
 
 pseudonym 
 
 poll city 
 
 political 
 
 Bcop see 
 
 telescope 
 
 pyr fire 
 
 pyrotechnic 
 
 tel far 
 
 telegvam 
 
 teohn art 
 
 *«cA?iical 
 
 therm heat 
 
 isothermal 
 
 the god 
 
 a^Aeist 
 
 trop turn 
 
 tropical 
 
 top place 
 
 topographical 
 
 — zoo animal 
 
 zoological 
 
 typ form struck typographical 
 
 
 n. 
 
 Greek Prefixes. 
 
 Prefix. 
 
 Meaning. 
 
 Examples. 
 
 amphi 
 
 around,onbothmdes amphitheater, amphibious 
 
 a, an 
 
 not 
 
 apathy, atrophy, anarchy 
 
 ana 
 
 separatioji 
 
 analysis, anatomy 
 
 anti, ant 
 
 against 
 
 antidote, antipathy 
 
 apo 
 
 away 
 
 apogee, apology 
 
 arch 
 
 chief 
 
 archbishop, architect 
 
 auto 
 
 self 
 
 autocrat, automaton 
 
 cata, cat 
 
 along, down. 
 
 catalogue, cataract, catarrh 
 
 dia 
 
 across, between 
 
 diameter, dialogue 
 
 dis 
 
 two 
 
 dissyllabic 
 
 dys 
 
 m 
 
 dyspeptic, dysentery 
 
 ec, ex 
 
 out 
 
 eclipse, exodus 
 
 en 
 
 on, in 
 
 enthrone, enthusiasm 
 
 epi 
 
 upon, after 
 
 epitaph, epilogue 
 
 eu, ev 
 
 well 
 
 euphony, eulogy, evangel 
 
 hemi 
 
 half 
 
 hemisphere, hemistich 
 
 hyper 
 
 leyond, above 
 
 hyperbolical, hypercritical 
 
 hypo 
 
 under 
 
 hypocrite, hypothesis [y^J 
 
 meta, met 
 
 change, with 
 
 metaphor, metamorphosis, meton- 
 
 mono 
 
 alone, one 
 
 monopoly, monarch 
 
 pan, panto 
 
 oM 
 
 panoply, pantomime 
 
 para, par 
 
 along 
 
 parallel, parasite, parhelion 
 
 peri 
 
 a/round 
 
 perimeter, periphrase 
 
 poly 
 
 many 
 
 polygon, polysyllabic 
 
 pro 
 
 before 
 
 prologue, prophecy 
 
 syn, sym, syl with 
 
 synod, sympathy, syllable 
 
248 THE ELEMElsTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 HI. Greek Suffixes. 
 English words derived from the Greek frequently have 
 Latin suffixes. The following, although sometimes used 
 with Latin and other words, are originally Greek : 
 
 Suffix. Meaning. Examples. 
 
 ic like a, pertaining to heroic, astronomic, hepatic, geometric, 
 
 ical pertaining to arithmetical, political, logical, 
 
 ist doer, or agent photographist, apologist, philologist. 
 
 ize, ise to do the work of criticize, barbarize, sympathize. 
 
 3. The Greek Numerals. 
 
 The Greek numerals enter largely into composition to 
 form English words. Those most frequently employed 
 are given below, and should be committed to memory: 
 
 Number. Examples. 
 
 1, mono {single) monosyllable, monologue, monotony, mon- 
 
 archy, monogram, monolith, monomial, 
 monopoly, raonopetalous. 
 
 2, deuteroB (s«c<TO(f) Deuteronomy. 
 
 dis, di (tvyice) dissyllable, diarchy, dilemma, diphthong, di- 
 ploma. 
 
 3, (thrice) tripod, triarchy, trigonometry, triglyph, tri- 
 
 syllable. 
 
 5, pente pentagon, pentateuch, pentameter. 
 
 6, hex hexagon, hexameter. 
 
 7, hepta heptagon, heptarchy. 
 
 8, octo octagon, octiihedron. 
 
 10, deka decagon, decagram, decalogue. 
 
 12, dodeka dodecagon. 
 
 100, hekaton hectometer, hektograph. 
 
 10,000, myria myriad, myriameter. 
 
 poly {many) polygon, polysyllabic, polygamy, polyglot, 
 Polynesia, polyp, polynomial. 
 
IHE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 249 
 
 4. The Transliteration of Greek. 
 
 There are in English some words which are so dis- 
 guised by spelling that their source is not at first sight 
 evident. This is especially true of Greek derivatives 
 beginning with the letter F, which often takes the place 
 of PH (Greek y). Thus, fancy i& a Greek word, jo/«aw^«- 
 sia. It was formerly spelled with the PH, as phantasm 
 still is. 
 
 In this section, on " The Greek Element," we have 
 considered. : 
 
 (i) The Greek Vocabulary. 
 
 (B) Greeh Stems, Prefixes, and Suffixes. 
 
 (3) The Greeh Jfumerals. 
 
 i^Jf) The Transliteration of Greeh. 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 IwoiDBNTAL Contributions. 
 
 1. The Incidental Sources of English. 
 
 The contact of the English race with all the peoples of 
 the world, through discovery, war, and commerce, has en- 
 riched the language with exotic words from every quarter 
 of the globe. Many words were obtained through inter- 
 course with the Dutch, such as dech, toy, tuh, spool, hucTc- 
 ster, loor, fop, and frolic. The Spanish wars brought in 
 
250 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF BHETOBIC. 
 
 capstan, cork, armada, paragon, and renegade. From the 
 Portuguese came cash, negro, and apricot. The Italians 
 gave us pilgrim, alarm, musket, sonnet, stanza, duel, 
 monkey, and motto. 
 
 The following is a partial list of such imported words: 
 African gorilla, gnu, guinea, kraal, oasis, zebra. 
 
 Arabic alchemy, alkali, alcohol, alembic, almanac, 
 
 arrack, artichoke, assassin, caliph, cotton, 
 
 cipher, elixir, 
 caddy, china, junk, mandarin, nankeen, satin, 
 
 tea. 
 block, boom, cruise, loiter, ogle, scamper, sloop, 
 
 reef, yacht, yawl, 
 belle, biTouac, belles-lettres, billet-doux, bou- 
 quet, elite, foible, facade, menu, prestige, 
 
 regime, 
 cobalt, felspar, landgrave, loafer, nickel, waltz, 
 
 zinc. 
 
 amen, cherub, jubilee, manna, sabbath, seraph, 
 calico, chintz, jungle, nabob, pundit, rice, sugar, 
 balustrade, bandit, brave, bust, canto, carnival, 
 
 folio, gazette, grotto, portico, stiletto, stucco, 
 bamboo, bantam, gong, gutta-percha, rattan, 
 
 Chinese 
 
 Butch 
 
 French 
 
 German 
 
 Hebrew 
 
 Hindu 
 
 Italian 
 
 Malay 
 
 North American 
 
 Persian 
 
 Polynesian 
 
 Portugaese 
 
 Russian 
 
 South American 
 
 Spanish 
 
 Turkish 
 West Indian 
 
 mush, squaw, wampum, wigwam. 
 
 bazaar, caravan, dervish, horde, paradise, shawl. 
 
 boomerang, kangaroo, taboo, tatto. 
 
 caste, commodore, fetish, palaver, molasses, lasso. 
 
 czar, drosky, rouble, steppe. 
 
 caoutchouc, guano, mahogany, pampas, tapioca. 
 
 alligator, cargo, cigar, desperado, embargo, 
 
 tornado, 
 divan, dragoman, kiosk, sash, scimetar, tulip. 
 
 buccaneer, cannibal, canoe, Imrricane, potato, 
 tobacco. 
 
TEE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 261 
 
 2. Words Derived from Places. 
 
 Many words are borrowed from the names of places, 
 although they have lost all connection with locality and 
 serve as ordinary common nouns. Such are cherry, from 
 Cerasus ; sherry, from Xeres ; port, from Oporto ; pheas- 
 ant, from Phasis ; peach, from Persia ; quince, from 
 Oydon ; ermine, from Armenia ; and muslin, from Mous- 
 sul. 
 
 3. Words of Mythic and Personal Origin. 
 
 In a similar way, the mythology of antiquity has fur- 
 nished many words which have more or less thrown off 
 their mythical associations. Such are tantalize, from 
 Tantalus ; hermetic, from Hermes ; volcano and volcanic, 
 from Vulcan ; erotic, from Eros ; protean, from Proteus. 
 Still others are derived from historical names ; as, epicure, 
 from Epicurus ; phillipic, from Philip of Macedon, de- 
 nounced by Demosthenes ; cicerone, from Cicero ; laza- 
 retto, from Lazarus ; dunce, from Duns Scotus ; and 
 many others. 
 
 Archbishop Trench, in addition to those cited above, gives the 
 following examples : ' ' Lord Orrery was the first for whom an orrery 
 was constructed; and Lord Spencer first wore, or first brought into 
 fashion, a, spencer. Dahl, a Swede, introduced the cultivation of 
 the dahlia ; the fuchsia is named after Fnchs, a German botanist of 
 the sixteenth century; the magnolia after Magnol, a distinguished 
 French botanist of the beginning of the eighteenth century ; the ca- 
 mellia was introduced into Europe from Japan in 1731 by Camel, a 
 member of the Society of Jesus. Quassia derives its name from a 
 negro sorcerer of Surinam, who in 1730 discovered its properties.'' 
 In like manner, tram,, tontine, ffahanigm, nicotine, voltaic, dolomite, 
 macJetntosh, doyly, hroibglmm, derby, mesmerise, macada/nme, " are all 
 
352 TBE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 names of persons or formed from persons, and then transferred to 
 things, on the ground of some sort of connection between the 
 one and the other." 
 
 4. The Destiny of English. 
 
 The wonderful development of the Anglo-American 
 race, carrying its commerce and institutions over the- 
 entire world, rooting itself in the soil of so many widely 
 separated lands, and producing a rich and varied litei'a- 
 ture,— promises the general extension of the English 
 tongue. The world already feels its need of a universal 
 medium of communication, and among the competitors 
 for this distinction the English language certainly oc- 
 cupies the first place and possesses many adaptations 
 which are wanting in every rival. 
 
 The German philologist, Jacob Grimm, has expressed the follow- 
 ing estimate of the language: "English possesses a, veritable power 
 of expression, such as perhaps never stood at the command of any 
 other language of men. Its highly spiritual genius, and wonder- 
 fully happy development and condition have resulted from a surpris- 
 ingly intimate union of the two noblest languages in modern Europe 
 — the Teutonic and the Romance. It is well known in what rela- 
 tion these two stand to one another in the English tongue; the for- 
 mer supplying in far larger proportion the material groundwork, the 
 latter the spiritual conceptions. In truth, the English language, 
 which by no mere accident has produced and upborne the greatest 
 and most predominant poet of modern times, as distinguished from 
 the ancient classical poetry (I can, of course, only mean Shake- 
 speare), may with all right be called «. world-language; and, like the 
 English people, appears destined hereafter to prevail with a sway 
 more extensive even than its present over all the portions of the 
 globe. For in wealth, good sense, H,nd closeness of structure, no 
 other of the languages at this day spoken deserves to be compared 
 with it, — not even our German, which is torn, even as We are torn, 
 
TEE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 353 
 
 and must rid itself of many detects before it can enter boldly into 
 tke lists as a competitor with the English." 
 
 Ill this section, on " Incidental Contributions," we 
 have considered. : 
 
 (i) The Incidental Sources of English. 
 
 {2) Words Derived from Places. 
 
 {3) Words of Mythic and Personal Origin. 
 
 (4) The Destiny of English. 
 
EXEECISES. 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 To tlie Teacher. 
 
 The following exercises are classified to correspond to the chapters 
 iiii J sections of the text in the preceding pages. They are possibly more 
 numerous than will be found needful for some classes. The teacher 
 should use his own judgment in the selection of parts for class-room 
 drill. It is advised that some exercises of each kind be studied 
 under the personal direction of the teacher. The student should be 
 required to depend upon his memory for the principles stated in the 
 text. It is desirable to present some exercises taken from other 
 text-books, which are inaccessible to the student. He is thus more 
 fully thrown upon his own resources as a critic. 
 
 The bold-faced numbers refer to the pages of the text to which the 
 exercises correspond. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 INVENTION. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 The Choice op a Subject. 
 
 (1) Select from the following list such subjects as are 
 suitable in themselves for a composition, applying the 
 rules on page 7. 
 
 1. The Earth. 
 
 7. Habits. 
 
 3. War and Fame. 
 
 8. The Revolutionary War 
 
 3. Tendencies. 
 
 9. Kindness. 
 
 4. Prospects. 
 
 10. Studies. 
 
 5. Idleness. 
 
 11. Economy. 
 
 6. Domestic Animals. 
 
 13. Early Rising. 
 
258 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 13. Curiosity. 
 
 
 37. Elections. 
 
 14. Waste. 
 
 
 38. Woman Suffrage. 
 
 l.?. Respect. 
 16. Birds. 
 
 
 29. Military Life. 
 
 30. Old Times. 
 
 17. Milton. 
 
 
 31. Glory. 
 
 18. Happiness. 
 
 19. Energy. 
 
 20. Beauty. 
 
 31. The Civil War. 
 
 32. Respectability. 
 
 33. Co-education. 
 
 34. Ambition. 
 
 35. Religion. 
 
 33. Patriotism 
 
 
 36. The Golden Rule. 
 
 33. Protection 
 
 and Free Trade, 
 
 37. Social Conflicts. 
 
 34. The Development of Man. 
 2.5. The Virtues of Animals. 
 
 38. Pride. 
 
 39. Abraham Lincoln 
 
 20. The Silver 
 
 Question. 
 
 40. Comparisons. 
 
 (2) Select from the following list such subjects as 
 are suited to yourself as a writer, applying the rules 
 on page 8. 
 
 1. Temperance. 
 
 3. The Origin of Language. 
 
 3. Art is Superior to Kature. 
 
 4. Philosophy of Education. 
 
 5. Cats and their Habits. 
 
 6. The Results of the Crusades. 
 
 7. The Elements of Shake- 
 
 speare's Art. 
 
 8. Ancient Oratory. 
 
 9. The Age is Degenerate. 
 
 10. American Poetry. 
 
 11. Modern Legislation. 
 
 13. The Philosophy of Locke. 
 
 13. The Value of Herbert Spen- 
 
 cer's Writings. 
 
 14. Indolence. 
 
 15. The Wonders of Electricity. 
 
 16. Conversation as a Fine Art. 
 
 17. Man is a Progressive Being. 
 
 18. Roman Law. 
 
 19. Music in Germany. 
 
 20. Labor not Essential to Suc- 
 
 cess. 
 
 31. Summer Showers. 
 
 23. The Phenomena of Nature. 
 33. The French Drama. 
 
 24. Animal Life. 
 
 35. The Protestant Reformation. 
 
 26. The Theory of Evolution. 
 
 27. The Practice of Law. 
 
 28. The Elements of Greatness. 
 
 29. Home Industries. 
 
 30. The Useful Arts. 
 
 31. Forces that Win. 
 
 33. The Dream Life of Girls. 
 
 33. Character-building. 
 
 34. The Servitude of Childhood. 
 
 35. Etiquette as a Passport. 
 
 36. Athletics as a Discipline. 
 
 37. Practical Politics. 
 
 38. The Slavery of Fashion. 
 
 39. The Purity of the Press. 
 
 40. A Boy's Thoughts about 
 
 Lif^ 
 
EXEB,CI8E8 IN INVENTION. 
 
 359 
 
 (3) Select from the following list such subjects as are 
 suitable to any occasion that you can think of, and men- 
 tion the occasion to which they would be suitable, apply- 
 ing the rules on page 9. 
 
 1. 
 
 The Benefits of the Bible to 
 
 16. 
 
 The Effect of Work on Char- 
 
 
 Man. 
 
 
 acter. 
 
 3. 
 
 The Necessity of Reform in 
 
 17. 
 
 The Influence of the Pulpit 
 
 
 Public Life. 
 
 
 upon Politics. 
 
 3. 
 
 The Scientific Discourses of 
 
 18. 
 
 Business as an Education. 
 
 
 Huxley. 
 
 19. 
 
 The Training Demanded by 
 
 4. 
 
 The Adventures of a Lost 
 
 
 Modern Life. 
 
 
 Dog. 
 
 20. 
 
 The Lost Art of Conversa- 
 
 5. 
 
 The Pall of the Roman Em- 
 
 
 tion. 
 
 
 pire. 
 
 31. 
 
 The Price of Liberty. 
 
 6. 
 
 The Wit and Humor of Amer- 
 
 33. 
 
 The Duties of "The Sov- 
 
 
 ica. ' 
 
 
 ereign People." 
 
 7. 
 
 The Sin of Profanity. 
 
 33. 
 
 The Cost of Civilization. 
 
 8. 
 
 The Character of Hamlet. 
 
 34. 
 
 The Lessons of Slavery. 
 
 9. 
 
 Who will be the next Presi- 
 
 35. 
 
 Standing Armies and Popu- 
 
 
 dent ? 
 
 
 lar Rights. 
 
 10. 
 
 The Prospects of Foreign 
 
 36. 
 
 How can a School-boy be a 
 
 
 War. 
 
 
 Patriot ? 
 
 11. 
 
 Tnie Greatness in Man. 
 
 37. 
 
 What can a Girl do for her 
 
 13. 
 
 The Aim of Life. 
 
 
 Country ? 
 
 13. 
 
 The Grandeur of Self-Sacri- 
 
 38. 
 
 The Origin of Property. 
 
 
 fice. 
 
 39. 
 
 The Place of Religion in 
 
 14. 
 
 Ambition in Woman. 
 
 
 Education. 
 
 15. 
 
 Macaulay as an Orator. 
 
 30. 
 
 Arctic Exploration. 
 
 (4) Try to adapt such subjects in the foregoing lists as 
 have been found inappropriate in themselves, or for the 
 writer, or for the occasion, following the directions on 
 9, 10. 
 
260 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OP lillETOUIC. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 The Accumulation of Materials. 
 
 (1) Note down such thoughts on the following subjects 
 as occur to you from observation. See page 12. 
 
 1. A Morning Landscape. 
 
 2. A Thunder-storm. 
 
 3. A Locomotive. 
 
 4. The Elements of Beauty in a 
 
 Rose. 
 
 5. The Evidences of Design in a 
 
 Tree. 
 
 6. The Decoration of a Room. 
 
 7. Household Government. 
 
 8. The Public Buildings of the 
 
 Place. 
 
 9. Life Among the Lowly. 
 
 10. The Enjoyments of School 
 
 Life. 
 
 11. The Manufacture of Car- 
 
 riages. 
 13. The Life of a Teacher. 
 13. The Chief Local Industry. 
 
 14. The Four Seasons. 
 
 15. The Pleasui-es of Country 
 
 Life. 
 
 16. The Sky at Night. 
 
 17. The Pleasures of Domestic 
 
 Animals. 
 
 18. The Processes of Trade. 
 
 19. Business Success and Fail- 
 
 ure. 
 
 30. The Effects of intemper- 
 
 ance. 
 
 31. The Evidences of Mind iu 
 
 Animals. 
 33. The Satisfaction of Doing 
 Good. 
 
 23. The Consequences of Law- 
 
 lessness. 
 
 24. The Results of Idleness. 
 
 (2) Note down such thoughts on the following subjects 
 as occur to you by reflection. See page 13., 
 
 1. The Duties of Children to 
 
 Parents. 
 
 2. The Proper Treatment of Do- 
 
 mestic Animals. 
 
 3. The Uses of Beauty. 
 
 4. What We Owe to Govern- 
 
 ment. 
 
 5. The Duties of an American 
 
 Citizen. 
 
 10. 
 
 The -Vdvantiiges of Univer- 
 sal Peace. 
 
 The Difficulties of Acquir- 
 ing a-n Education. 
 
 The Incentives to Study. 
 
 The Value of Business 
 Knowledge. 
 
 The Uses of Adversity. 
 
 11. Benefits of the Telegraph. 
 
EXEBGIdES IN IN VEST! ON. 
 
 261 
 
 13. The Proper Uses of Money. 
 
 13. International Arbitration. 
 
 14. Popular Elections. 
 
 15. Educational Progress. 
 
 16. The Relations of Religion 
 
 and Morality. 
 
 17. The Value of Good Early 
 
 Training. 
 
 18. Is Universal Education De- 
 
 sirable? 
 
 19. The Value of Manual 
 Training. 
 
 30. Manners and Morals. 
 
 31. Self-government the Basis 
 
 of Freedom. 
 33. Liberty and License. 
 
 33. The Best Kind of a College 
 
 for a Country Youth. 
 
 34. The Purification of Prac- 
 
 tical Politics. 
 
 (3) Note down such thoughts on the following subjects 
 as may be gathered by reading. See page 14. 
 
 1. The Life of Lafayette. 
 3. The Battle of Waterloo. 
 
 3. The Trial of Aaron Burr for 
 
 Treason. 
 
 4. The Battle of Saratoga. 
 
 5. The Character of Alexander 
 
 Hamilton. 
 
 6. The Telephone. 
 
 7. The Invention of Printing. 
 
 8. The Career of Joan of Arc. 
 
 9. The Childhood of George 
 
 Washington. 
 
 10. The Causes of the American 
 
 Revolution. 
 
 1 1. The Poetical Works of Wal- 
 
 ter Scott. 
 13. The Invention of the Tele- 
 scope. 
 
 13. The Old Age of Milton. 
 
 14. The History of Slavery. 
 
 15. The Political Life of Daniel 
 
 Webster. 
 
 16. Astrology. 
 
 17. Alchemy. 
 
 18. The Battle of Hastings. 
 
 19. The Corn Laws of England. 
 
 30. 
 31. 
 33. 
 33. 
 34. 
 35. 
 
 26. 
 
 37. 
 
 38. 
 39. 
 
 30. 
 
 31. 
 33. 
 
 34. 
 
 35. 
 36. 
 87. 
 
 Trial by Ordeal. 
 
 The Battle of Gettysburg. 
 
 Admiral Farragut. 
 
 The Causes of the Crusades. 
 
 The Character of Napoleon. 
 
 The Uses of the Phono- 
 graph. 
 
 The Revival of Letters. 
 
 The Genius of Michel- 
 angelo. 
 
 The Influence of Dante. 
 
 The Faust of Goethe and 
 the Faust of Legend. 
 
 The Defeat of the Spanish 
 Armada. 
 
 King Henry of Navarre. 
 
 The Legend of Roland and 
 Oliver. 
 
 The Legend of the Holy 
 Grail. 
 
 Thomas Edison and his 
 Work. 
 
 The Spanish Inquisition. 
 
 The Edict of Nantes. 
 
 The Knights of the Round 
 Table. 
 
262 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF BHETOBIO. 
 
 38. The Reign of Elizabeth. 
 89. Shalisspeare's Julius Csesar. 
 
 40. The Battle of Trafalgar. 
 
 41. Gustavus Adolphus, the 
 
 "Snow King." 
 43. Henry IV. and the Journey 
 to Canossa. 
 
 43. William of Orange. 
 
 44. Walleustein. 
 
 45. King Arthur and his Court. 
 
 46. The Crime of Macbeth. 
 
 47. Thomas k Kempls. 
 
 48. Charlotte Corday. 
 
 49. Miss Alcott's "Little Wo- 
 
 men." 
 
 50. Concord as a Cradle of Lit- 
 
 erature. 
 
 The method of using references is well illustrated in the 
 following outline prepared in the class-room of Professor 
 J. Scott Clark, on "The Character of Mrs. Browning." 
 "The books to which reference is made, in brief are: 
 'The Encyclopedia Britannica'; 'American Cyclopedia'; 
 the ' Diamond ' and ' Eed Line ' editions of Mrs. Brown- 
 ing's poems ; her correspondence with Home ; Miss Mit- 
 ford's 'Eecollections of a Literary Life'; Bayard Taylor's 
 ' Views Afoot ' ; an essay by Theodore Tilton published in 
 a collection called ' Sanctum Sanctorum/ and found also 
 as an introduction to the four-volume edition of her 
 poems, 1862; Hillard's 'Six Months in Italy'; and 
 an article by E. C. Stedman in 'Scribner's Magazine,' 
 Vol. VII. 
 
 " I. Influences surrounding her earlier years. 
 
 a. That of her father. — ' My Public and my Critic,' Britan- 
 nica 391 ; dedication in edition of 1844. 
 
 6. That of her tutor.— Tilton 37, Poems 89 and 97. 
 
 e. That of her general reading. — .Slsohylus, Plato, Shake- 
 speare, Mitford 172. 
 "II. Phases of her character as indicated in her early works. 
 
 a. Her industry. — The Tolume of Plato, Mitford 171 ; the 
 Hebrew Scriptures, Scribner 106, and Poems 331. 
 
 6. Effects of her brother's death. — Seclusion, Tilton SO. 
 
 e. Her independence. — Tilton 38. 
 
EXERCISES IN INVENTION. 
 
 2G3 
 
 ' III. Influence of marriage upon her character. — Scribner 108. 
 
 a. Love and courtship. — The compliment in ' Lady Geral- 
 
 dine's Courtship,' Poems 498 ; the chance meeting, 
 
 Am. Cyol. 766, Tilton 32. 
 6. Her life in Italy.— Tilton 36 and 7, Hillard. 
 c. Maternity.— Tilton 63, ' Stand out into the Sun ! ' Poems 
 
 'IV. Her religious views.— 'The Touch of Christ's Hand,' Bri- 
 tannica 391; Earnestness, Scribner, 113; Swedenbor- 
 gianism, Scribner 114, Tilton 56-7 and 59. 
 as. As manifested in her poems. — pp. 52, 88, 134, and 386. 
 6. As manifested in her own testimony. — Letters to Home. 
 " V. Views of contemporary problems. 
 
 u,. Slavery. — Tilton 41 and 54, Poems 134. 
 6. Juvenile labor.— Poems 299. 
 
 c. The social evil. — Poems 505. 
 
 d. Woman's rights. — Poems 341. 
 ' VI. Conclusion. 
 
 a. Her comparative standing as a poet.— Britannica 391; 
 compared with Lajidor, Scribner 104 
 Scribner 109; compared with Thackeray, 
 
 6. Her work for humanity. 
 
 1. Italy. — The monument, Hillard; Devotion to Italy, 
 
 Tilton 33 and 34. 
 
 2. England.— Tilton 35. 
 
 3. World at large.— Tilton 24." 
 
 Sonnets, 
 111. 
 
 (4) Note down such thoughts as you may collect by 
 conversation on the following subjects : 
 
 1. The Pi-esent Kings of Europe. 
 
 2. The Prospects of War in Eu- 
 
 rope. 
 
 3. TheNextGovernorof theState. 
 
 4. The Next President of the 
 
 United States. 
 
 5. Condition of the Laboring 
 
 Classes as compared with 
 that of Laborers Ten Years 
 Ago. 
 
 6. The Mode of Electing a 
 
 President of the Uniteil 
 States. 
 
 7. The Best Mode of Electing 
 
 a President. 
 
 8. The Dress of Ladies Twenty 
 
 Years Ago. 
 
 9. The Mode of Obtaining a 
 
 Patent. 
 10. What is a Strike ? 
 
264 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF BHETOBTG. 
 
 1 1 . Who are the ' ' Pinkertons " ? 
 Vl. What is a " Trade-Union"? 
 13. What are the Advantages 
 
 of a College Course? 
 U. What is a "Trust"? 
 
 15. The Motions ol the Moon. 
 
 16. What is a "Clearing- 
 
 house"? 
 
 17. Why and How do we Pay 
 
 Taxes? 
 
 18. Who Edit the Leading Mag- 
 
 azines? 
 
 19. Who are the Officers of the 
 
 National Government? 
 
 30. The Kinds of Money in Use. 
 
 '31. How is an Electric Car Pro- 
 pelled? 
 
 33. What is the Government of 
 
 Australia? 
 2:!. Aerial Navigation. 
 
 34. Multiplex Telegraphy. 
 3.5. How to Send a Telegram. 
 26. How Many Transatlantic 
 
 Cables are there? 
 
 37. How to Send a Message to 
 
 India. 
 
 38. The National Banking Sys- 
 
 tem. 
 
 29. What is a State Bank? 
 
 30. The History of " Wild-cat 
 
 Banking. " 
 
 31. What is the Business of a 
 
 "Broker"? 
 
 32. What are "Bears" and 
 
 "Bulls"? 
 
 33. Who Constitute the "Staff" 
 
 of a Newspaper? 
 
 34. How is Congress Consti- 
 
 tuted? 
 
 35. How Many Kinds of United 
 
 States Courts are there? 
 
 36. What Cases Go Before the 
 
 Supreme Court of the 
 United .States? 
 
 37. What is Composite Pho- 
 
 tography? 
 
 38. What is Hypnotism ? 
 
 39. Can Rain be Produced Ar- 
 
 tificially? 
 
 40. Torpedo Warfare. 
 
 41. Semaphores and Switch-sig- 
 
 nals. 
 43. The Difference Between the 
 "Storage-battery" and 
 " TroUey" Systems of 
 Electric Propulsion. 
 
 The following illustrates the method of choosing a 
 subject by an example from Professor J. H. Gilmore"s 
 class-room: 
 
 " Spring.' 
 
 Theme. Its merits or defects. 
 
 ( Real, a unit, too broad, not well adapted 
 
 ( to the class, too stale. 
 ' That Spring is i An improvement on the fli'st in that it is 
 Pleasanter than -j not too broad; but still poorly adapted 
 Summer." ' and stale. 
 
EXEBCIBEa IN INVENTION. 265 
 
 Theme. Its merits or defects. 
 
 " The Authorship of ( „ , ., ^r •.,.,, ^ ^ 
 
 Shalfp^nparp's 3 Keal, a unit, sumuiently fresh; but too 
 p, „ I broad and not well adapted fo the class. 
 
 " Lihertv " \ Real; but defective in every other particu- 
 
 ^' I lar. 
 
 " John Brown." Stale and devoid of present interest. 
 
 ■' The Present Condi- ( Real and fresh; but too broad, deficient in 
 
 tion of Europe." ( unity [f], and too difficult. 
 
 j Real, a unit ; not too broad, well adapted to 
 " Treasurer Spmner. ' \ ^^^ ^^^^^ . ^^^ ^^^^j^ ^j .^^^^^^^^_ 
 
 " The Canal Rino- " ' R^al, a unit; but too broad, not well adapt- 
 ( ed to the class ; stale and uninteresting. 
 
 " HB7in " 5 Met all the requirements of a theme; but 
 
 ( the class did not care to take it. 
 
 " College Athletics." "All right." 
 
 SECTION III. 
 The Arrangement of Materials. 
 
 (1) Criticize and improve, if possible, the arrangement 
 of materials in the following plans, applying the principles 
 stated on pages 16-31. 
 
 I. On Manners. 
 
 Introduction. First impressions are lasting ; most people judge 
 by external appearance. 
 
 (1) Various forms of manner; stiflE, formal, cold, polite, reserved, 
 timid, gentle, self-possessed, etc. 
 
 (2) True politeness founded on a benevolent feeling. 
 
 (3) The manners should be a true index to the character, otherwise 
 they are hypocritical. 
 
 (4) Without a proper foundation, polished manners are worthless. 
 
 (5) Grrace in action and words, as well as in feeling. 
 
 12 
 
266 THE ELEMENTS OF BHETORIO. 
 
 (6) A mistaken notion that rough manners pi-ove honesty of 
 character. 
 
 (7) Learning, or knowledge, does not, of necessity, give us good 
 manners. 
 
 Conclusion. Good manners command esteem and affection, and 
 bring many other advantages. 
 
 II. On Agriculture. 
 
 Introdaction. Difference between natural and artificial occupa- 
 tions. 
 
 (1) Agriculture the primitive occupation of our first parents. 
 
 (3) Cultivation of various crops a source of mental exercise and 
 pleasure. 
 
 (3) Variety of soils, drainage, rotation of crops. 
 
 (4) The application of chemistry to agriculture. 
 
 (5) Agriculture a mark of civilization. 
 
 (6) Systems of farming, improvement of the land, etc. 
 
 (7) Precariousness of the occupation. 
 
 Conclusion. The profits of farming, and the condition of the 
 farmer in life. 
 
 III. Ou Costume. 
 
 Introduction. The infinite variety of culture. Art an imitator. 
 (1) Much taste and good sense may be displayed in dress. 
 (3) Grecian and Roman costumes. 
 
 (3) Oriental modes of dress. 
 
 (4) Dress of our ancestors in England, Germany, and adjacent 
 parts of Europe. 
 
 (5) The modern costumes. 
 
 (6) Costume regulated partly by climate, partly by fashion. 
 
 (7) Colors should be assorted and not glaring. 
 
 Conclusion. A certain attention to dress is proper, but it should 
 not engross too much of our time. 
 
 IV. On Commerce. 
 
 Introduction. The many and various ways by which a nation's 
 welfare is promoted : a strong religious feeling, a high tone of moral- 
 ity, a generally diffused education, and commercial intercourse. 
 
EXERCISES IN INVENTION. 267 
 
 (1) Commerce a blessing. 
 
 (3) The antiquity of. Name the leading commercial nations of 
 ancient times. 
 
 (3) In modern times: Venetians, Genoese, Portuguese, Dutch, 
 English, and Americans. 
 
 (4) Mention some of the commodities exchanged. 
 
 (5) The advantages from this mutual intercourse. 
 
 (6) How does commerce civilize mankind? Diffusing intelligence, 
 distributing comforts and luxuries, creating friendships between 
 nations, rendering wars unprofitable. 
 
 (7) The discoveries owing to commerce; of America, and other 
 geographical discoveries. 
 
 (8) Condition of those countries which neglect commerce ; China, 
 Japan, etc. 
 
 Conclosion. Commerce is a great civilizing power, and ought to 
 be encouraged. 
 
 v. On Good Humor. 
 
 Introduction. The variety of dispositions : the grave, the gay, the 
 serious, the witty, the humorous, etc. 
 
 (1) The ancient notion of humor, as shown by the origin of the 
 word. 
 
 (2) Modern definition of humor, and of good humor. [See Dic- 
 tionary.] 
 
 (3) Is this state of mind natural or acquired? and, if acquired, 
 how? 
 
 (4) Arguments in favor of good humor ; its effects upon others and 
 ourselves. 
 
 (5) G-ood humor not silliness, but compatible with good sense. 
 
 (6) Is it possible for the morose and gloomy to become good- 
 humored? 
 
 (7) How is the change to be effected? 
 
 (8) The example shown by the good-humored. 
 
 Conclusion. The quality frequently required, attainable by all, 
 and of great advantage. 
 
 VI. On Exercise. 
 
 Introduction. Certain principles observable through the whole 
 range of nature; these worthy of imitation; nature always moving; 
 wind, water, planets, etc. 
 
368 THE MLEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 (1) Exercise one of these principles; applicable to both mind and 
 body. 
 
 (3) Ejfplain this analogy. 
 
 (3) Excess defeats the purpose, and hence injurious. 
 
 (4) Things not used become rusty and unfit for use. So with 
 human powers. Living things grow by exercise. 
 
 (5) All the faculties and powers should be exercised. 
 Conclusion. Exercise should be regular, moderate, general, and 
 
 thus both body and mind are kept in health. 
 
 VII. On Newspapers. 
 
 Introduction, The natural desire of man to know and be known. 
 Assumes many ways of showing itself. Nev^spapers one way. 
 
 (1) Newspapers are current records of events. 
 
 (3) At first mere statements of facts, as the old Roman bulle- 
 tins. Afterward remarks and comments on men and measures 
 were added. 
 
 (3) The first newspapers in the English language. 
 
 (4) The first newspapers in America. 
 
 (5) The' number of newspapers now published.^ 
 
 (6) General character of modern newspapers. 
 
 (7) Influence of the press upon society. 
 
 (8) Freedom of the press; what it is, and how jt should he 
 limited. 
 
 Conclnsion. The advantage of living in an age of newspapers. 
 
 VIII. On Printing. 
 
 Introduction. Various forms of language: spoken, written, 
 printed. The order of their use corresponds to man's social 
 development. 
 
 (1) When printing was invented. 
 
 (3) Various claimants for the honor: Fust, Guttenburg, Schcsffer, 
 etc. 
 
 (3) By whom introduced into England? An account of Caxton"s 
 press. 
 
 (4) Improvement upon writing. 
 
 (5) The impulse it gives to human thought. 
 
 (6) Difficulties of the early printers. 
 
EXERCISES IN INVENTION. 269 
 
 (7) The results of the printing-press; religious, political, literary. 
 
 Conclusion. Great perfection of the art now. Stereotyping. 
 
 Ebctrotyping. Type-setting machines. The future of the art. 
 
 IX. On Attention, 
 
 Introduction. Enumerate the most important powers of the mind : 
 reason, imagination, memory, will, attention. 
 (1) Define and illustrate attention. 
 (3) Indispensable to thejjerfortnance of any great work. 
 
 (3) The consequences of inattention. 
 
 (4) Memory is dependent upon attention. 
 
 (5) Attention is a habit that may be acquired. Examples: the 
 watch-maker, the philosopher, the student. 
 
 (6) Attention a gradual growth. 
 
 (7) All great men are remarkable for their power of attention. 
 Conclusion. Attention will increase when we are interested in 
 
 anything ; hence attention may be cultivated by awakening an in- 
 terest in what we do. 
 
 X. On Falsehood. 
 
 Introduction. A natural opposition between the true and the 
 false. 
 
 (i) Various forms of falsehood: lying, cheating, fraud, equivoca- 
 tion, etc. 
 
 (3) Falsehood is detested by every one. 
 
 (3) The consequences of falsehood. 
 
 (4) The untrustworthiness of one who sometimes makes false 
 statements. 
 
 (5) The motives of falsehood : to gratify selfishness, to hide faults, 
 to cover other false statements. 
 
 (6) The habit begins in little departures from the truth: fibs, 
 white lies. 
 
 (7) Falsehoods in the end the source of harm only. 
 Conclusion. Truthfulness is always noble and safe; falsehood, 
 
 always base and dangerous. 
 
 XI. On Traveling. 
 
 Introduction. The clearness of knowledge gained by sight. 
 (1) The consequent utility of traveling. 
 
270 THE ELEMENTS OF BHETOBIG. 
 
 (2) A quick and eager mind necessary to a traveler. 
 
 (3) Various purposes of travel : business, health, pleasure, etc. 
 All may be combined with intelligent observation. 
 
 (4) The world greatly indebted to great travelers: for their enter- 
 prise in visiting strange lands, their faithfulness of observation, 
 iheir clearness and accuracy of description. 
 
 (5) Some of the great travelers and their works: Marco Polo, 
 Captain Cook, Sir John Franklin, Mr. Livingstone, Bayard Taylor, 
 H. M. Stanley. 
 
 (6) Descriptions and pictures a source of enjoyment to those who 
 cannot travel. 
 
 (7) The wonders of our own land. 
 
 (8) Advantages of a good education to a traveler. 
 
 Conolnsion. While all should travel who can, they should pre- 
 pare themselves by reading to see to advantage, and should aim to 
 know something of their own country before going abroad. 
 
 XII. A Journey. 
 
 Introduction. The purpose of the journey and the party. 
 
 (1) Description of the persons belonging to the party. 
 
 (2) The start: the incidents at the station, all aboard. 
 
 (3) The people in the train : their peculiarities and conduct. 
 
 (4) The towns passed through. 
 
 (5) The general appearance of the country. 
 
 (6) The place visited : its location, size, people, public places, his- 
 toric associations, etc. 
 
 (7) The return. 
 
 Conclusion. The general impression left by the journey . 
 
 XIII. On Anger. 
 
 Introduction. Human passions — enumerate — benevolent and 
 malevolent. To which class does anger belong? 
 (1) Origin of anger — temperament — habits, etc. 
 (3) Describe degrees of anger. 
 
 (3) General opinion — passions to be controlled. 
 
 (4) EfEects on ourselves, weakness of intellect — madness; on 
 others, injustice — bodily injury, etc. 
 
 (5) All excess must be wrong (explain). 
 
 (6) Mortification — liumiliation — scandal — bad example. 
 
EXEBGISES IN INVENTION. 371 
 
 (7) Virtue consists in control, not in extinction of, feeling. 
 Conolusion. Anger a destructive passion. 
 
 XIV. On Pride, 
 
 Introduction. Vices frequently the excess of proper feelings. 
 Prodigality springs from liberality; avarice from economy. In 
 what pri'ie consists and whence its origin. 
 
 Arguments against it. (1) Its injustice — it refuses to recognize 
 the merit of others. 
 
 (2) It destroys sympathy; removes us from intercourse. 
 The proud solitary. 
 
 (3) Universally disliked ; when absent, the jest of society. 
 
 (4) The proud cannot be happy — pride engenders a thousand 
 miseries in the heart. 
 
 (5) The source of many vices (enumerate). 
 
 (6) Pride incompatible with improvement. 
 
 Conclusion. Self-confidence desirable — but carry it not to ex- 
 cess — do justice both to yourselves and others. 
 
 XV. On liuxury. 
 
 Introduction. Analogy between nations and individuals — similar 
 causes produce similar effects (explain). 
 
 (1) What is luxury? — and what may be its causes? 
 (3) State its effects on the mind. 
 
 (3) The bad example it sets to others. 
 
 (4) Incompatible with health either of mind or body. 
 
 (5) Leads to extravagance, ruin of fortune. 
 
 (6) Historical examples — Lucullus, Cleopatra, etc. 
 
 (7) Fall of Rome — French Revolution — how connected with 
 these events. 
 
 Conclusion. Motives for its avoidance. 
 
 XVI. On Pleasure. 
 
 Introduction. All naturally seek pleasure ; but few understand in 
 what it consists. 
 
 (1) Pleasure not business, but recreation from business. 
 
 (3) False sources of pleasure; excitement, change of scene, accu- 
 mulation of wealth, eating and drinking, etc. 
 
373 THE ELEMENTS OP BHETOBIO. 
 
 (3) The effects of such — injurious to the body, wearisome to 
 the mind. 
 
 (4) Loss of time involved in such practices. 
 
 (5) Eeal source of pleasure : practice of virtue, improvement of 
 intellect, occupation, etc. 
 
 (6) Kindness to others: assistance to the needy, etc. 
 
 (7) Moderation in all our actions. 
 
 Conclusion. Temperance — a clear conscience — attention to busi- 
 ness — mens sana in corpore aano. 
 
 XVII. On Charity. 
 
 Ihtrodnction. Various kinds and classes of virtue: personal, 
 social, etc. 
 
 (1) Many words used in too confined a sense ; the extensive appli- 
 cation of the word " charity." 
 
 (3) Alms-giving — assistance to the needy — consolation to the 
 afflicted. 
 
 (3) Difference between an active and a passive charity — make 
 allowance for human imperfections. 
 
 (4) Be not inclined to think ill. 
 
 (5) The effects of the exercise of charity on ourselves and others. 
 
 (6) To what faults or qualities is charity opposed? 
 
 (7) Many charitable in one sense ; not in another. What is the 
 test? 
 
 Conclusion. Cultivate the feeling in every sense — the wider our 
 charity, the greater our sympathy. 
 
 XVIII. On Revenge. 
 
 Introduction. What feelings elevate and what degrade the moral 
 character? 
 
 (1) How indignation differs from revenge. 
 
 (3) Upon what grounds we may argue against revenge — produces 
 dissatisfaction — barbarous — unchristian. 
 
 (8) A proof of a little and weak mind. 
 
 (4) The noblest revenge — to return good for evil. 
 
 (5) The effects of this passion — historically. 
 
 (6) The discord and enmity it perpetuates — Italian — Corsican. 
 
 (7) Cause of misery and unhappiness in private life. 
 Conolnsion. Motives for forgiveness — all imperfect. 
 
EXEBCI8E8 IN INVENTION. 373 
 
 XIX. On Knowledge. 
 
 Introductioii. Man intellectual (explain); information gained from 
 iiaiiy sources (enumerate). 
 (1) No sort of knowledge to be despised. 
 
 (3) Some of the higher order — labor of intellect required. 
 i3) Knowledge should be communicated and made practical. 
 
 (4) The influence it gives to its possessor. (" Knowledge is power.") 
 
 (5) " Those that think must govern those that toil." 
 
 (6) What knowledge has done for mankind. 
 
 (7) A natural desire to discover inherent in man. 
 Conclusion. Incentives to the acquisition of knowledge. 
 
 XX. On Liearnlng. 
 
 Introduction. The many forms and sources of knowledge. 
 
 (1) J n what does " learning " consist, and where are we to look for 
 it? 
 
 (2) What is meant by the "classics"? 
 
 (3) Show that there are modern as well as ancient classics. 
 
 (4) Why is this study so strongly recommended ? 
 
 (5) Why should book-knowledge be superior to many other forms? 
 
 (6) Who are the most learned people in Europe ? and for what are 
 we indebted to them? 
 
 (7) To what institutions of this country do we look for learning? 
 Conclnsion. The relation of learning to civilization. 
 
 XXI. On Science. 
 
 IntTodnction. Nature full of wonders ; these gradually unfolded as 
 they are discovered by philosophers. 
 
 (1) Principles and laws of nature immutable and universal. 
 (3) All art is built upon these principles. 
 
 (3) Difference between the abstract and practical sciences. 
 
 (4) Arithmetic, algebra, geometry, etc. (abstract); agriculture, 
 chemistry, surveying, etc. (practical). 
 
 (5) The application of science to the wants of social life. 
 
 (6) Various divisions of physical science — natural philosophy. 
 
374 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 (7) The natural and proper effect of the study of science: "Look 
 thi'oiigli Nature up to Nature's God." 
 
 Conclusion. The study inexhaustible. The spirit in which it 
 should be followed. 
 
 XXII. On Taste. 
 
 Introduction. The various views which may be taken of a human 
 being (enumerate). 
 
 (1) One of these — a capacity of being pleasurably, or otherwise, 
 affected by external things. 
 
 (2) This power, — taste, — is it inherent or acquired? 
 
 (3) Difference between a delicate and a correct taste. 
 
 (4) Applied in all matters of art : poetry, music, painting, com- 
 position. 
 
 (5) Cultivation of taste modifies the matter-of-fact. 
 
 (6) A great embellishment of lite. Refers to beauty, proportion, 
 form, grace, color, tone, etc. 
 
 (7) Importance of cultivating taste in the young. 
 Conclusion. The means of educating taste in the young. 
 
 XXm. On Curiosity. 
 
 Introduction. A desire for knowledge is a strong principle in the 
 human mind (explain). 
 
 (1) The term "curiosity " used in two senses — a well- and an ill- 
 directed curiosity. 
 
 (2) The one is an abuse of the other (explain). 
 
 (3) Some things not proper, other things not expedient, for us to 
 know. 
 
 (4) State and contrast the effects of both these feelings. 
 
 (5) Science and literature both much indebted to this desire. 
 
 (6) In what cases is an idle curiosity shown? 
 
 (7) On what subjects should we encourage this feeling. 
 Conclusion. Take care not to abuse the principle. Let us wish to 
 
 know what is worth knowing. 
 
 XXIV. On Fables. 
 
 Introduction. Many forms of teaching: by questions, by precept, 
 by example, etc. 
 
 (1) Many advantages in teaching by fables — a fable, what? 
 
EXERCISES m invention: 275 
 
 (3) Who was the most celebrated fabulist among the ancients, 
 imd what imitators has he had in modern times? 
 
 (3) A fable originally spoken : how was the lesson imparted ? 
 
 (4) Show how fables contain both example and preOept. 
 
 (5) The difference between a fable and a parable. 
 
 (6) The efficacy of fables as a means of moral instruction. 
 
 (7) Pleasing lo every age. 
 
 Conclusion. Other forms of instruction are now adopted; but 
 none to be despised. The importance of this subject proved by the 
 many great writers who have treated of it. 
 
 XXV. On History. 
 
 Introdnction. Many forms of study, some more popular than 
 others. History included in every system of education. 
 (1) Why the study of history should be so interesting. 
 (3) In what does its utility consist? 
 
 (3) Something more than a mere list of facts. Causes, effects, 
 motives, etc. 
 
 (4) Show what moral lessons may be drawn from history. 
 
 (5) Mention other studies which are involved in the study of 
 history. 
 
 (6) Divisions of history: for what purpose? Sacred and profane, 
 ancient and modern, etc. 
 
 (7) With what history should we be best acquainted? 
 Conclusion. The philosophy of history — advantages of this study. 
 
 XXVI. On Money. 
 
 Introduction. Ancient methods of carrying on trade — the great 
 inconvenience of barter. 
 
 (1) The word "pecuniary," whence derived — the object of the 
 invention of money. 
 
 (3) Early coins of the Greeks, Lydians, Persians, etc. 
 
 (3) Why the precious metals were chosen for coined money. 
 
 (4) Bank-notes — Bills of Exchange — Exchequer Bills, etc. 
 
 (5) How do these forms of money facilitate business ? 
 
 (6) What is meant by " investing " money? 
 
 (7) The proper uses and abuses of money. 
 
276 THE ELEMENTS OF BUETOBIC. 
 
 Conclusion. Reflections — an immoderate desire for wealth — 
 squandering of riches — a proper medium — good to be done with 
 money, etc. 
 
 XXVII. On Reading for Improvement. 
 
 Introductian. System and method required in all our pursuits. 
 
 (1) One very fertile source of knowledge — reading. 
 
 (2) Conversation desultory, imperfect; a book arranged, sys- 
 tematic. 
 
 (3) We can reflect on passages read in a book. 
 
 (4) The mind should be concentrated on what we are reading. 
 
 (5) Read regularly, but not too long at a time; vary your studies. 
 
 (6) In studying a subject, begin with a simple treatise, never 
 with a voluminous work. 
 
 (7) Keep a note-book; make references to striking passages, but 
 do not make long extracts. 
 
 Conclnsion. Consult others as to what books are to be read ; avoid 
 everything coarse, sentimental, or controversial. 
 
 XXVIII. On Government. 
 
 Introduction. The wide acceptation of many words, and the neces- 
 sity to understand all their meanings. 
 
 (1) Government of self — family — patriarchal — political, etc. 
 
 (2) The necessity for this principle; consequences if suddenly 
 changed or abolished. 
 
 (3) How to govern ourselves : vigilance, meditation, self-examina- 
 tion; as sense of our weakness, and dependence on a Supreme 
 Being. 
 
 (4) Justice required in governing others ; no undue preference or 
 dislike. 
 
 (3) Various forms of political government ; the welfare of a people 
 mainly depends on the government; responsibility of the rulers. 
 
 (6) The monarchical and republican forms. 
 
 (7) What arguments may be adduced i n favor of, or against, each ? 
 
 (8) The English form of government — its advantages; would it 
 equally well suit other nations? 
 
 Conclusion. The Government of the United States. The best 
 government is self-government. 
 
EXEBOISES IN INVENTION: 277 
 
 XXIX. On Language. 
 
 Introduction. Many significations of this word; always implies 
 blie power of conveying idsas to one another. 
 
 (1) Two great divisions of language — spoken and written. 
 (3) The uses and advantages of each division. 
 
 (3) How writing is an improvement on speech. 
 
 (4) Every civilized nation lias a literary language (barbarous dia- 
 lects not to be considered as languages). 
 
 (5) How a language improves. 
 
 (6) At one time no written language in Europe but Latin. Why? 
 
 (7) Advantages derived from the study of various languages; 
 their beauties and defects. 
 
 Conclusion. Oui' oivn language of most importance to us; but 
 others must be studied, if only to understand our own. 
 
 XXX. On the Revival of Learning. 
 
 Introduction. The condition of Europe from the 5th to the 1.5th 
 century. 
 
 (1) Compare this period with that of the condition of Europe from 
 the 15th to the 19th century. 
 
 (2) The taking of Constantinople by the Turks — when ? — its con- 
 sequences. 
 
 (3j What Italian prince first encouraged learning? 
 
 (4) Mention the names of some of the scholars of the 15th and 
 16tli centuries. 
 
 (5) What efEeot had this encouragement on the literature of 
 Europe? 
 
 (6) Which was the first celebrated age of English literature? 
 
 (7) Which country was now first celebrated for her learning? 
 Conclusion. Enthusiasm for learning — examples — universities, 
 
 colleges, academies, schools, etc. 
 
 (3) After some practice in criticizing the plans giyen 
 above, apply the principles of arrangement to the thoughts 
 gathered by observation, reflection, reading, and conversa- 
 
278 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 tion. See pages 19-21. The following plan, developed 
 in the class-room of Professor J. H. Gilmore, may serve 
 as an example : 
 
 The Benefits of the Electric Telegfraph. 
 
 IntTodnction. Rude systems of telegraphy perfected by American 
 entei'prise and ingenuity. Benefits of the invention taken for 
 granted through a vague notion that there is some magic virtue 
 in " annihilating time and space." 
 
 Olgections. There are obvious objections to the electric telegraph. 
 1. It keeps the world in a state of feverish excitement. 2. It is an 
 instrument of linguistic and moral corruption. 3. It lends itself 
 as readily to ignoble as to noble ends. 
 
 These objections are incidental — not essential. They hold rathei 
 against the almse of the telegraph than the telegraph itself. They 
 are of little weight in comparison with the following 
 
 ConsideTatlons in Favor of the Telegraph. 
 
 !a. Wants of communities made 
 known, 
 b. State of markets made known. 
 0. Demand for material and labor 
 created. 
 ( a. Preventing accidents. 
 
 (3) It alleviates distress. \ b. Allaying anxiety. 
 
 ' e. Arresting crime. 
 
 ( a. Promoting national unity. 
 
 (4) It fosters peace. -j b. Increasing international comity 
 
 I c. Averting, or intensifying war. 
 Conclusion. An invention in the interests of peace, humanity, 
 commerce, and inteUigenee is an invention in the interests of 
 civilization. 
 
CHAPTER n. 
 
 STYLE. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 Diction. 
 
 (I) Criticize the following sentences with regard to 
 Purity, looking in the dictionary for all doubtful words, 
 and applying the principles given on pages 38-33. 
 
 (1) The assistance was welcome, and tvmelUy aiforded. 
 (3) He bought his coat on tick. 
 
 (3) Out folks are away from home. , , , 
 
 (4) I '11 be back to rights. 
 
 (5) He is shaky on that doctrine. 
 
 (6) He was an extra genius, and attracted much attention. 
 
 (7) For want of employment, he stroamed idly about the streets. 
 
 (8) I wot not who has done this. 
 
 (9) Methinks I am not mistaken. 
 
 (10) Smith and those of that Uk will rejoice. 
 
 (II) I disrememher having met you. 
 
 (13) A new candidate for public honors is now on the tapis. 
 
 (13) He was led to the abattoir of political life. 
 
 (14) There was a difBculty betwixt them, I guess. 
 
 (15) He was yclept Samuel amongst the youngsters. 
 
 (16) You are beholden to him as a party who has been commoded. 
 
 (17) All the people at the dance belong to the beau monde, as may 
 be seen at a coup d'ceU, 
 
 (18) He made a big steal from the Government. , 
 
 (19) That house was recently burglarized. ■^_^i- !t-i' i ' l.^^- 
 (30) His divisions were : Firstly, the Causes ; secondly, the 
 
 Results, etc. 
 
2ii0 THE ELEMENTS OP UHEVOBIG. 
 
 (31) A eahlegrwphic despatch was recently received. 
 
 (22) The issuance of educationmlisiic theories will be contrary to 
 the expectations of tlieir authors. ' ^ ,_l 
 
 (23) His heighth was six feet. i ' y^- 
 
 (34) His co-tempora/ries were anxious for his repute, j-^ 
 
 (35) The authenticity of the book is now established. "^ 
 
 (26) I was chez moi, inhaling the udeur musguee of my scented 
 boudoir, when the Pi'ince de Z. entered. He found me in my demi- 
 toilette, Waa.ee sur tout, and pensively engaged in solitary conjugation 
 of the verb s'ennuyer ; and though he had never been one of my 
 haJntuea, or by any means des notrcs. I was not disinclined, at this 
 moment of delassement, to glide with him into the croechio ristretto 
 of familiar chat. 
 
 (27) He tried to bulldoze his colleagues. <jaA^~^ 
 
 (28) She was an excellent saleslady. '^ ■ J 
 
 (29) I am afraid the train will leave before I can make the depot. 
 
 (30) He is engaged to his typewritist. 
 
 (31) Don't get rattled when you see the enemy. 
 
 (32) That genfs pants are too long for his buUd. 
 
 (33) She was at the hop arrayed en grande toilette. 
 
 (34) We should carefully avoid the reportorial style. 
 
 (35) The drummer wired his lady that he had heen-jugged. 
 
 (36) The Governor will orate at the Opera House this evening. 
 (87) Under the influence of \,he jim-jam^ he siiiHded. 
 
 (38) He donated his pile to a, female college. 
 
 (39) He said he was beholden to him, although he belonged to 
 another persuasion. ^. 
 
 (40) He thought the proposition was too thin.^ '""C "^ — ' 
 
 The late William Cullen Bryant, editor of the Xew 
 York "Evening Post," proscribed the use of the follow- 
 ing expressions in that newspaper: 
 
 Above and over (for "more Uian "). Banquet (for " dinner "or " sup- 
 Artiste (for " artist "). per "). iL.y^ 
 ilAspirant. ' n Bogus. Jf- ■' --^ 
 Authoress. ' Casket (for " coffin "). . 
 Beat (for " defeat "). Claimed (for " asserted "). k 
 Bagging (for " capturing "). \Collided. jAAJ \M ^ '^^'^ 
 Balance (for " remainder "). Commence (for " begin "). 
 
EXERCISES IN STYLE. 
 
 381 
 
 C'ortejte (for "procession''). 
 
 Cotemporary (for "contempo- 
 rary "). 
 
 Couple (for "two"). 
 
 Darky (for " negro "). 
 
 Day before yesterday (for "the 
 day before yesterday "). 
 
 Majority (relating to places or 
 
 circumstances, for "most"). 
 Mrs. President, Mrs. Governor, 
 Mrs. General and all similar 
 titles. 
 Mutual (for ' ' common "). ' 
 Official (for ' ' officer ''). *- 
 / On yesterday. i^—— 
 
 /.---^ooease (as a verb), -v^'-'^ ''''' " t)vation. ■ /.,\ / «.,t^ ^fc-^--^ ' 
 Domocraoy (applied to a political Over his signWure. ^ 
 
 party). " ~ Pants (for "pantaloons"). 
 
 ^i_ Develop (for " exgose "). Parties (for " persons "). 
 
 Devouring element (for " fire "). Partially (for " partly "). )^^ 
 V-Donate. 'y\n^'{}^ LAJ''tnM, Piist two weeks (for "last two 
 
 : Employe. 
 
 lA)ebut I 
 
 %^ I 
 
 
 Endorse (for " approve "). 
 l^n route. Lt^^^^^^ ^ — ■ 
 
 ■• Graduate (for " is graduated "). 
 Gents (for "gentlemen "). 
 House (for " House of Represen 
 tatives "). / 
 
 :,— Humbug, d^t-^^-^'-^f^.^ , 
 inaugurate ffor," begin "). 'r y ' 
 J>tn our midst. ,ylji^ ^aj-o-uJL^ 
 Item (for "particle, extract, or 
 
 paragraph "). 
 Is being done, and all passives ;af 
 
 ^ Jeop ardize. f 
 
 Jubilant (for "rejoicing"). _j ; 
 i^J-avenile (f or " boy "). W-< 
 
 'Wjady (for "wife"). U 
 Last (for "latest"). 
 Lengthy (for " long "). ' 
 
 t-^enienoy (for f lenity "). 
 
 i..^i-ioaler. .-. *'^- t--— - 
 
 ^^_JJoan or loa,ned (for "lend "or 
 "lent"). \ 
 
 Located. 
 
 weeks," and all similar ex- ^ 
 pressions relating to a definite 
 
 Poetess. / '^i-t-^kkt 
 
 Portion (for " part "). M--" 
 Posted (for " informed "). iV 
 Progress (for " advance "). i\' 
 ."T^uite (prefixed to "mo(L"l. 
 ■, "large," etc.). />VM-/^tX 
 ' Raid (for "attack"). 
 
 Realized (for "obtained"), 
 r Reliable (for " trustworthy "). 
 
 '^^LA/\< 
 
 'Uiit- 
 
 V 
 
 Repudiate (for "reject" or "dis- 
 
 Retire (as an active verb). /v'^''^' 
 
 Rev. (for "the Rev."), j-^- 
 
 R61e(for "part"). 
 
 Roughs. ^_,— - — 
 
 Rowdies. 
 
 Secesh. ^ 
 
 Sensation 
 
 event "). 
 Standpoint 
 
 view "). 
 State (for " 
 Taboo, 
 
 I- 
 
 ,^\/rryK^ 
 
 (for " noteworthy 
 (for " point of 
 
 ^ 
 
 say"). ^ 
 
282 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 j>,^alent. (for "talents" or "abil- Wall-street slang generally 
 ity"). ("bulls, bears, long, short. 
 
 Talented. flat, corner, tight, moribund, 
 
 'I'apis. comatose," etc.). 
 
 The deceased. Which (with a noun, as " w^h 
 V Transpire (for ' ' occur "). man "). y^ 
 
 ' \'ia (for "by the way of "). Wharves (for " wharfs "y^ 
 
 -Vicinity (for "neighborhood "). Would seem (for " seems ")y^ 
 
 (2) Criticize the following sentences with regard to 
 Propriety, using the dictionary in all doubtful cases, 
 ;ind keeping in mind the principles stated on pages 
 33-37. 
 
 (1) He stands upon seeurity^ and will not liberate him until it 
 be obtained. 
 
 (3) He is worthy of praise for his observation of filial duty. 
 
 (3) He disperses favors on every side. < " ' 
 
 (4) He would not go, without his brother could be his comrade. 
 
 (5) I guess you mean to speak respectably to your seniors. 
 
 (6) Those scandals have robbed him of his cluwaeter. 
 
 (7) Four friends bemde John was p^-esent. 
 
 (8) "My friend," said the excited driver, "you have a rigM to 
 I urn and give me half the road." 
 
 (9) He made a resolution to correspond to his brother twice a 
 week. 
 
 (10) I am averse of that occupation. 
 
 (11) He lost his avocation by idleness. 
 
 (12) He took notice to the fact. 
 
 (13) I differ from most persons on some points of doctrine. 
 
 (14) He is free of many common faults. 
 
 » (15) He bestowed a beautiful gift to his brother. 
 (T6) He demeaned himself by scandalizing his friends. 
 
 (17) You sing like John does, but look o« Charles, when he was 
 your age. 
 
 (18) He inserts his authority without thinking. 
 
 (19) He will acquire rewards, if he does not arrive at celebrity. 
 
 (20) I know what course I shall follow and what side I shall pu/r- 
 sue. .1 , 
 
EXEBCISM8 IM STYLE. 283 
 
 (31) Joseph will gain the degree of A. B. in June. ' ^r' 
 
 (32) It is aggravating to have a couple of colds in suecession.Vr 
 
 (33) GonScientiousn^ reproves us when we are wrong. , -f 
 
 (34) Inebriation is a ruinous vice. /7..i ^ , \,.--'h'^ ' « 1 '" " 
 
 (35) He tried hard to reduce him from the ways of vice. '^^ i j., 
 
 (36) He was remarkable for his vivacity, for he lived 140 years. rT^ 
 
 (37) The United States seems/-to be suffering from emigration^ ' 
 which increases the populatiq^\)t6o rapidly. %t^ 
 
 (38) Mr. Simpson, who got his wife in Boston, has just got home ,W^ 
 from his wedding journey, and says he has got on in years more than ^' 
 
 he thought he had before he got married. ^^tXA- >'''" --' — ^ \ 
 
 (39) The judge is stopping at the hotel to see the parade that 
 transpires to-morrow. (L/aImA _ ^^'" 
 
 (30) There were less than ten children at the picnic. 
 
 (81) It will require quite a sum to pay the debt. 
 
 (33) He has extended fifty invitations to his reception. 
 
 (33) He had plenty money and good credit. 
 
 (34) He was scrupulous to a degree. 
 
 (35) What description of a lawyer is your friend Smith? 
 
 (36) The balance of the company rode home by moonlight. 
 
 (37) At length the gentleman from Wisconsin rose in his place. 
 
 (38) I regard this man as a contemptuous upstart. 
 
 (39) You have never witnessed such scenery as these mountains 
 afford. 
 
 (40) The party consisted of iouv females and one male. 
 
 (41) John Said, " I expect you took the wrong train this morning." 
 (43) All the stipulations of the treaty were implemented by the 
 
 Austrians with true German faith. 
 
 (43) He is expecting to marry a. party from Baltimore. 
 
 (44) It is curious how certain foolish fashions of speech obtain. 
 
 (45) Let us now proceed to ventilate this question. 
 ^^6) I paid over five dollars for admission to the concert. 
 
 (47) He wanted fifty cents each for them, and would take nothing 
 under. 
 
 (48) I have not wilfully committed the least mistake. 
 
 (49) The two men are very different to each other. 
 
 (50) What flower are you smeUing of? 
 
 (3) Criticize the following sentences with regard to Pre- 
 cisioa, using a dictionary or a work on synonyms when 
 
 .V-ri>-\>- 
 
284 THE ELEMENTS OF BHETOBIO. 
 
 necessary, and keeping in mind the principles stated on 
 pages 37-42. 
 
 (1) A student is sometimes encouraged by a little praise. 
 
 (2) I have suffered remorse ever since I sold my violin. , 
 ^^(8) He has formed a resolution to try to do better. 
 
 (4) Henry regards his want of memory a great i«;'«ry to his mind. 
 
 (5) Excessive use of wine is a bad custom. 
 
 (6) On being reprimanded, the truant avowed his guilt. 
 / (7) His arguments have great heamness with his friends. 
 
 (8) Whitney discovered the cotton-gin. 
 
 (9) He occupies a whole house. 
 
 (10) This obstacle cannot be a real difficulty. 
 
 (11) The speeches of these men are inciting unpleasant feelings. 
 
 (12) He supplicated his friend to aid him. 
 
 (13) The Iliad or Odyssey is a noble epic. 
 
 (14) Rectify bad habits, and amend mistakes. 
 
 , (15) He asserted his readiness to comply with my request. 
 ^ (16) Eo^e evil thoughts from the heart. 
 
 (17) The treasurer abdicated his office. 
 
 (18) The father kindly absolved his son, when he asserted his 
 fault. 
 
 (19) Self-degradation is the first essential of a religious spirit. 
 (80) Our lesson to-day is not so arduous as some previous ones 
 
 have been. 
 
 (21) Law is natural, but miracles are unnatural. 
 
 (22) The Governor should not approve any bill that is passed by 
 the Legislature. 
 
 (23) We need no better example than is afforded in our own time 
 by England's queen, that one may take the highest rank among her 
 fellows and still be a high-souled, pure-minded woman. 
 
 (24) Her sweet attendance to her children reveals her character. 
 
 (25) The scene is laid in a small hamlet in the lowlands, and the 
 story is described in a very simple way. 
 
 (26) There are two churches beside the Presbyterian in that 
 street. 
 
 (27) This was near the beginning of that bloody period known 
 as the "Wai-s of the Roses." 
 
 (28) Hero are the most wealthy residences in the suburbs of the 
 jjity. 
 
 (29) If you follow this rule, you will produce a great amount of 
 work. 
 
EXERCISES IN STYLE. 385 
 
 (30) The Constitution permits the right of suffrage to men only, i 
 
 (31) He thought sojne of entering the ministry. 
 
 (32) If the facts be true, the case is a eomplex one. 
 (38) The chief difficulties are now accompUahed. 
 
 (34) Our friends across the way are now entertaining msitaMs. y*' 
 
 (35) The State has its laws against sin, but only the Righteous 
 J iidge punishes crime. 
 
 (36) Ever since I entered business, Mr. Jones has been a continu- 
 ous buyer. (},y(ry.AJ^X^X::^'Z:Z^ 
 
 (37) It is the heaWjjjj diet that renders her so wholesome. 
 
 (38) He fetched his watch out and looking at it said he must go 
 and bring his wife. 
 
 (39) When I saw that the child was dunA to all my questipns, I 
 concluded that he must be mute.^ «H/'VV'''-<-'*-^vTvl>«<'».«Wp,4tt £j^ 
 
 (40) The house was covered with a luxurious growth of vines. ( c- 
 
 (41) A student writes to the president of a college that, if the 
 latter will grant him free tuition and find him a place where board- 
 ing can be obtained for household service, the student will "remw- 
 nerate" him "amplj^" upon his arrival \ y1_yf~-Y'\-'gL^ 
 
 (43) As the family has not returned from the seashofce, the jiouse 
 is empty. yTtx'C^-^'V^ , 
 
 (43) He alluded pathetically to his recent bereavement. ^ a^ t. 
 
 (44) The witness had given no evidence worth considering. T3iZ<- 
 
 (45) He was noted for holding very deciske opinions. 
 
 (46) She loved nothing better than mince-pies and sausage. 
 
 (47) He is wantingin a proper reoerence for his obligations. ~^^l 
 
 (48) He seemed not to be conscious that it was already past the 
 hour. ft/t/ZA-t^"- , , 
 
 (49) He said that he had no idea of going into the city. /6-ai *-<- ■ 
 
 (50) Toward the end of his career he became poor and Anally died 
 
 SU' 
 
 r 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 SENTElirCES. 
 
 (1) Criticize the following sentences with regard to 
 Concord, keeping in mind the principles stated on pages 
 
 45-53. 
 
286 THE ELEMENTS OF BHETOBIO. 
 
 (1) The mechanism of clocks and watches were totally unknown 
 a few centuries ago. ]■% f < ,^, | S' 
 
 --;_ (2) In the conduct of Parmenio a mixture of wisdom and folly 
 
 were very conspicuous. lA/'Jt^ 
 
 (3) The inquisitive and curious is generally talkative. (C'l-^'-'^ 
 
 (4) The United States* are a great nation, vj^ 
 
 (5) The number of inhabitants in the United States have greatly 
 increased in the last century. . • '_-^*— -S i-, 
 
 (6) Nothing but vain and foolish pursuits delight some persons. 
 
 (7) The aquaria is filled with beautiful fishes. ^ 
 
 (8) There is phenomena that have not been observed. 
 
 (9) He or you is sure to be present, ct^v--— "" /\ t^ 
 
 (10) They have fit long and bravely. " /t^' ' '} V<i "1 
 
 ^M (11) He laid down in the shade, where we formerly had set. ^ 
 { (13) " The Lives of the Poets " were written by Dr. Johnson. laJC' 
 
 (13) One of the most trying things that is known to life, is to suf- - 
 fer alone and unjustly. (:a_.„<_- -^ .-"'^ /! / ^' '~ 
 
 (14) You think you shall go to the city, then? H/Tyt_,-^^__ . 
 
 (15) If you wish, I shall visit you. i^xj-t, i- ^ 
 
 (16) They hoped that this Vould happen to you and I. "YKA-K 
 
 _;;_— i. (17) Let he and you consider the question before complying. 
 
 (18) Pour horses, who were splendidly caparisoned, passed the 
 door. i ' .^.-e--V^ — 
 
 (19) The gentlemen and carriages which we.saw, have disappeared.^ 
 
 (20) John was more lovely in disposition than any disciple of 
 whom we know ^m^db-ing. ^/vt. v- -g^//-^ -, 
 
 ^^:^(21) Charles is the tj^est of his three brothers. ^ '■^'^■.-^^j: — i" 
 (23) There is noiHwble/ career than ftn honest lawyer. Lc fOL^ ' a, 
 
 (33) She looked beautiful'^ in her pure white dress, and with the 
 single red rose in her hair. 
 
 (34) He who knowingly does wrong, must feel contempti'^VT 
 
 (25)' I have hitherto regarded thee as my friend, but now! am 
 
 doubtful of your friendship. f""''^^' ^ 
 
 (26) It was deserving to rnstve ^l e gii-B aM that there w^ still hope. 
 
 (27) My father loveth flowers, but he loves his children best. -. ' ■ 
 
 (28) It has been declared that the earth did hot move about the 
 sun. '~'^- di ' "' 
 
 (29) They naturally prefer to stand where they would have long 
 ago, if it were not for their mistake.'. 
 
 i * Plural in form, but singular in ineaninsf. 
 
EXERCISES IN STYLE. 287 
 
 (30) The season has passed more rapidly than we expected it 
 to. ^ 
 
 (31) Lord Byron's "Hours of Idleness" shovi'ver^ little of the 
 genius he developed. _iA*X-_ 
 
 (83) Are you pleased with the men and houses w^JiyM' have 
 seen? 
 
 It may now be regarded as a maxim that nobody will deny 
 Wation is the best guarantee of success in every conceivable 
 direction Qfhuman enterprise. ^UoiyVC^lXc-^ 
 
 (34)«^Cewrote to that distinguished philosopher, in terma'^uig' 
 most polite and flattering, begging of him to undertake his eduoa- 
 tioriif-Alj^to bestow on him those useful lessons which his numerous 
 vocations would not allow him to bestow. [Three persons — Philip, 
 Aristotle, and Alexander — are here' referred to by the pronouns.] 
 
 (35) To the group of Dinosaurs belongs the Iguanadon of the 
 Wealdon beds, first made known by Dr. Mantell, w hose body was 28 
 tgJQ Jeet long .^ K4ca,— , / 
 
 (36) John lived at a period later than anypf the apostlesi^j^ 
 
 (37) Visitors to the Ward Cabinet are requested "to not handle 
 any specimens. 
 
 (38) The principal and distinguishing excellence of Virgil,^^^ 
 which, in my opfnion, he possesses beyond all poets, is tenderness. 
 
 (39) The glory thalt fills immensity ^nd.inhabiteth eternity. 
 
 (40) Of this admirable work a subsequent edition has been pub- 
 lished in 1833. t ^"^"Xty^. 
 
 (41) This dedication may serve for almost any book tha t has,, is, 
 or shall be published. -; — 
 
 (43) I expected to have gone to Burope this summer. 
 
 (43) I cannot say, however, as I am sorry. tpoCIOO-. 
 
 (44) The legislature have adjourned without doing much good to 
 the country. 
 
 (45) The books which you loaned me laid on my table all day 
 
 unopened. _£t-vbt "W ,, ,jP» 
 
 (46) If the child is not quiet, sit him down by himself. < .' ; ' ''/•'^^ 
 
 (47) What is best in thee cultivate with all youy might, j ^ .-tn*^ 
 
 (48) Who should I meet but my old friend. (^/L/L 0\ ( 
 
 (49) A pedantic display of technical skill is more detrimental in 
 Rhetoric than in any other pursuit; since, by exciting distrust, it 
 counteracts the very purpose of it. /-T/U--r"~iA^ ^3 
 
 (50) It is a kind of a basin inclosed 'by a wall which comes from 
 a distance of several miles and is of a brackish, disagreeable taste. 
 
288 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 (51) Arbitrary power T look upon as a greatereyjLt^aji anarchy 
 itself, as much as a savage is a happier life thaii^*slave at the oar. 
 
 (53) A large number of seats have long been occupied by the 
 scholars that have no backs. 
 
 (53) As when the excellence of the Church, of the House of Lords 
 and Commons, of the procedure of law courts, etc., are inferred 
 from the mere fact that the country has prospered under them. 
 
 (54) Every one of the natives telfcfhe same^jjcg;^ 
 
 (55) No man, no woman, no child were disposed to pity his mis- 
 fortune. 
 
 (56) Mathematics are important to a scientific education. 
 
 (57) He_ came wjth all his aide-de-camps qX_Uis^opportune 
 moment. ,a ' — 
 
 (58) Here was a young man whom I, previous to my fatal dis- 
 covery, believed would have perished rather than, etc. Ci 
 
 (59) Every one in the party caught more fish than me.-^- 
 
 (60) Let every one do their duty. J/^/^^ 
 
 (61) I was not certain whether it was the rain or the disconsolate 
 ladies who depressed the company so much. "~CTa~C\ZIIII^^ -, 
 
 (62) To calmly meejt_death on the battle-field is no easy duty^, 
 
 (63) I did Htit understand what the gentleman's name was. \.A^ 
 
 (64) He said that the price of wheat must have" went down since 
 the last market-day. ^pr'-vv>(_--^ 
 
 (65) Of all others, h^nos| deserjves to te punished. 
 
 (66) Canton is more pofinlous than any city in the world. , 
 
 (67) Will I come for you when the concert is over? ^y^" 
 
 (68) We would be pleased to have you call again. \y^^./^A^^' 
 
 (69) Shall you come again this week? ( 1^^^ 
 
 (70) I hope you have enjoyed the ride as much as us girls. ;, 
 
 (71) The " Odyssey " of Homer is one of the most interesting 
 stories that ever wa^ written. 
 
 (72) ChildrenJiBoyfe, and Men's clothing at less than cost. 
 
 (73) Scott's works were the daily food, not only of his country- 
 men, but of all educated Europc^^Pil^j^; 
 
 (74) It should be added that a speaker's being well heard does not 
 depend near^^ much on the loudness of the sounds as on their 
 distinctness. 
 
 (75) Mr. Stanley was the only one of his 
 slaughtered the natives of the regions Ihe passed^Jtlfirough, 
 
 (76) A young men's institute for self-improvement is reported as 
 having discussed the question, " Shall the material universe be 
 destroyed?" L/ t ,/ (' 
 
EXERGISES IN STYLE. 289 
 
 (77) We never speak of a beautiful taste or a beautiful smell; ,. 
 but would do so, it the beautiful and the agreeable were synonymous. ^ 
 
 (78) Inexpoi-ienoed writers would do, well after completing any 
 piece of composition, to^^through itppenin hand, and strike out d 
 three-fourths of the epithets, every superlative, and every ' ' very " 
 which the sense does not imperatively demand. 
 
 (79) He ridicules the notion that truth will prevail; it never has, 
 and it never will prevail. 
 
 (80) He denied that electricity and magnetism were the same 
 
 (81) I felt as if I could have thrashed him. Ly-s-nl.*/.^ 
 
 (82) Can I assist you in making these preparations, or do you 
 desire no assistance? '^t-X.^+W 
 
 (83) Last winter I haA«e completed my preliminary examination. 
 
 (84) They accidentally left the door open, thinking little of what 
 they did by habit. 
 
 (85) Arrayed in her Parisian costume, she appeared regal^that 
 evening. 
 
 (86) Dean Alford speaks of & ve/gre neat method of expression. '^LC 
 
 (87) When all the preparations were made, the guests sat them- 
 selves around the table. V-<-Al ■ 
 
 (88) The colleges of the United States differ more widely in re- 
 sources than in their curriculums of study. --■' 
 
 (^ (89) The efSuvia of a marshy district is often dgleterious to the 
 health of the 'inhabitants. 1 .-^ \ J ' I -i.A.^^'^'^^X—^ 
 
 (90) The cavalry number nearly ten thousand men. 
 
 (91) Optics a!fs capable of better class-room illustration than most 
 divisions of natural philosophy. 
 
 (93) Ju^ed by^is criteria, scholars are easily condemned for a 
 want of human interest. 
 
 (93) The display, military, civic, and pyrotechnic, on account of 
 the large expenditure of public funds and the numbers who gathered 
 to behold the pageants and listen to the orations, were worthy of 
 an Athenian ambition or a Roman munificence. \.y[y'ffi_^<^^ 
 
 (94) Character, or the inner sense of personal virtues, as well as 
 fame and rertown, which every one may insist upon possessing, hav£i 
 ever been held at a high valuation by good men. -r yrt/_^ 
 
 (95) The dogs and horses, as well as the other animals whcrwere 
 in the encampment, set up a furious stampede. 
 
 (96) By no people has beauty been so highly esteemed as by the 
 Greeks, ; 
 
 18 
 
290 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 (97) There area variety of things to be said in discussing this 
 subject. ^^ 
 
 (98) The court of Augustus had not wore Off the manners of the 
 republic. Urtii 
 
 (99) I sh^l endeavor to live suitable to a man in my station. 
 (100) Art is as old or even older tharr tradition^^ 
 
 (3) Criticize the following sentences with regard to 
 Clearness, applying the principles stated on pages 54-57. 
 
 a& well as \^ 
 
 I , ; (1) Thus I have fairly given you, sir, my own opinion as well as 
 tljJrt 'of agreat majority of both houses here, relating to this i 
 affair; upon which I am confident you may surely reckon. 
 
 (3) It may be proper to give some aecQUnt of thosepraotic^, an- 
 ciently used on such occasions, and^'onjyQiscontinuea through the , 
 neglect and degeneracy of later time^. ^-^ /^^v/vvvj-vVlyi-^ V'v 
 
 (3) These forms of conversation by degrees multiplied and grew 
 strong. CLxVt/LA, _ "7^ I ' - ' 
 
 (4) The Emperor refused to convert at once the truce into a de- 
 finitive treaty. ■-] ,. ■ - '^ ^ik-hTT^^ , ^ 
 
 (5) Fields of corn form a pleasant prospect : and if the walks were 
 a little taken care of that lie between them, they would display neat- 
 ness, regularity, and elegance. £^ T^A''^''^^ 'W^*"^"' > 
 
 (6)- He labored to involve his raiifister in ruin, who had been the 
 
 auth orjaf it. ^iJt—^ - " 7 .■ ■ ii^ "^ 
 
 3 (7) It is the custom of the Mahometans, if they see any written 
 or printed paper upon the ground, to take it up, and lay it aside 
 carefully; as not knowing but it may contain some piece of their 
 Alcoran. 0^-\^-^ ^ i ,. c <^^ \k/\ji^'>- ^(^C^^ ' 
 
 / » (8) It is true whatjie says, but it is not applicable to the point. Tt^/- 
 (9) However, the nnserable remains ' were, in the night, taken 
 down. Ct-^M.^ ) 
 
 ^(10) Mr. Black called a surgeon, wlio had a leg to be amputated. 
 (H) Entering, with the key in his hand, he shut the door and put 
 it in his pocket. ^,/Jr^ jy] \ 
 ^ (12) James told his brother that he would have to black his boots. 
 
 (13) The captain sternly denied that he had used the offensive 
 
 ^ , ^ords in the newspaper, which the editor had put into his mouth. ^/ 
 
 (14) He returned the book when he drove up in the carriage that 
 he borrowed. 1 
 
 (yj^ : 
 
 J 
 
EXERCISES IN STYLE. 391 
 
 (15) The captain of the steamer was drowned, and so was his 
 daughter. She wasJaden with tropical fruit, and her loss is esti- 
 mated at eighty thousand. X\y^y^, CL^\^v^ / 
 
 (16) Alice told her mother (that she was going to get something 
 nice for her at the store, and she ought to go along. , . . ' , 
 
 (17) " The Ironsides at Port Fisher "^s a graphic account of the 
 capture of the fort by an 'eye-witness. ^^ , p-^n-'^ fl-ri-t- i'-'^ 
 
 (18) Mr. Brown informed his nearest n^hbor' that his wheat was 
 much more promising than his. rt^/yj\\ Irv/^^ 
 
 (19) T he impunity with which th '' hflR "'"''" '^"■3- '"« narriprl nn .baa 
 
 degraded ratipnal conversation which ought to be taught every 
 child, held in reverenceOiy every young man, and regarded the 
 greatest charm of social intercourse int o a f arce. 
 
 (20) As Glaucus found the object of his aifirration that tore him 
 from his frivolous companions in lone [a voung lady], so Buhren— 
 found his in the exercise of his genius. (i^J^fA^ >A,^(rfV-'^-^''^*-w«-<' 
 
 (31)/He r^ieA when ^e was asked the reason for his sudden un- 
 popularity! (that he owed it to his refusal to annul the commercial 
 treatyv^wiiicli gave ^at ples^we to the poorer classes?^.^ r YH- " 
 ^ ^) The summit of their ambition reached no fiirtherHhan to 
 have a gun which would carry a ball of an ounce weight amt-about 
 30 or 30 dogs. ^ , [^.^T^ 6^^^ ^.^^S^C^ 
 
 (33) Having been ipoored across the river and made fast to the 
 dock, Mr. Parsons made a few remarks. ^/K 
 
 (34) Baa±aii-iisfe«©^£|0rt-y first-class g-ra mm ar^cho ols. eiclugiye 
 of Doi ohester. , (Qh- Tj/n-^ ^^'^^ \^^^^t-_ ' 
 
 (35) ferected to the raemory of Johilf PhillipSlJ^iccidentallyshot as 
 a mark of respect by his bj-other. ""Vi/lVz?. 1^ ' 
 
 (36) A young woman died in my neighborliood yeaerday while I 
 fas preaching in a state of beastly intoxication, q^ -ji-L ..-^ 
 
 (37) It contained a warrant for conducting me and my retinue to^ 
 Thraldragdij-bb, or Thrildrogdrib, for it is pronouMed both ways, as 
 near as Tcan rpitiHinhflr'- hy a, party nf ten hnrss Cg^ [_,£) ^_ / 
 
 (38) Diocletian passed the nine4ast years of his li© in a private 
 •condition. U-aivJ^ . ' -^ ~ 
 
 (29) He promised his friend to send him his book by return mail. • 
 
 (30) They were persons of moderate intellects, even before they - 
 were impaired by passion. 2^ ^Ji^y^f^U^L-Ly^ 
 
 (31) How any one who calml'J^oonsiders what^new birth of the 
 soul implies — a new birth solemnly announced, by the Lord of 
 Heaven and Earth, to man as a thing in which all men are con- 
 
a93 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIG. 
 
 cerned, whiuh a teacher in the chosen nation ought already to have ^ 
 known, which translates the subject of it into the kingdom of , 
 heaven — can proceed to explain it, according to the ordinary High ^ 
 Church doctrine, into something so impotent and shadowy, that if it L- 
 were to vanish from the precincts of religious belief, no serious prao- i 
 tical Christian, as I fully believe, would feel that he had sustained V 
 any loss, or that anything had gone from him, is to me inconceivable. ^ 
 
 (33) The great ends of the Revolution were, indeed, secured even 
 amidst the confusion and intriguewhich we shall have to^describe, 
 by the common consent of all. ^. «', ^ U.vc,'-^ 
 
 (33) He was born in 1608 and died in 1674, 'during which poeurred 
 the overthrow of Charles IV. u'i)_- -t--vv%.^. £-uA., - 
 
 (34) A mystical arm, holding a sword, atose frq/m the "lake, and 
 he rowed across and took it. QiA" - J. •, - , ' ' 
 
 (35) People tell us thsit itip.a wastej^of ^ime tp read any but the 
 best books; they say that^pch ciirrupts tlVernind. ^fjlL. ^ " 
 
 (36) The beaux of that day used tlje abominable habit pipamting 
 their faces as well as the w6men. Cy^G '.«---V>W'*^-'^ 
 
 (37) Lost, strayed, or stolen, a red cow, belonging to an old lady/ 
 in Denham, with white fore feet and cri^jripled horns. 2,.'' /"''-- 
 
 (38) The captain of the ship was lost as well as the cook. She - 
 was not insured and was heavily laden.' ^, 
 
 ^ (39) He told the judge that unless he paid the debt for which he 
 was sueing, he would prosecute him in 0ie highest court. jJt/Vyt \ ■ 'Vt 
 
 (40) He left his two friends his wife and three children a thoU- 
 ,gand dollars each and the remainder to the latter. uJJ^^ ft>u»— 
 V (41) Last night I lay on a gondola on the Gravid Canal, drinking 
 it all in, and life never seemed so full before. '^'^ 
 
 (43) The clergyman announced that there woiild be no prayer- 
 meeting that week as usual. ■ i ^., ,-■ ■_ 
 
 (43) The house was crowded to its ut^sost capacity: every availa- 
 ble seat was occupied and many remained standing till the close. . ■ 1^ 
 
 (44) The "{jeaches were presented in small wicker baskets, which we 
 ate with much gusto. \_U 
 
 (45) All helped themselves to lyhal! the keg contained, including 
 Rip Van Winkle. c, , ' - ' -v(^ 
 
 (46) He spoke of having '^en a horse plowing with one eye. *? 
 
 (47) There were three meii -killed while digging a ditch near tbe 
 track in a horrible manner.^^ -v i/K' 
 
 (48) The Athenians wroXe me name of the person whom they 
 wished to banish on a shell. \ ,^fX^ Ca ^/^-^ — /^ i — 
 
EXERCISES m STYLE. 293 
 
 (49) For these latter will either not scruple to take a false oath, 
 or if they (lo/valFsatisfy their conscience by various evasions or 
 equivocations. ,», [i^--4J-^ 
 
 (50) The hotel' will be kej/t by the widow of the landlord, Mr. 
 Brown, who died last summer on a new and improved plan. <5-^ "^ ' 
 
 (51) The Earl of Falmouth and Mr. Coventry were rivals who 
 should have most interest with the duke, who loved the earl best, it 
 but thought the other the wiser man, who supported Pen (who dis-n 
 obliged all the courtiers), even against the earl, who contemned Pen. 
 
 (52) A Howard may look upon scenes with a stoical composure, y 
 nay with a seeming hard-heartedness, which at first dissolved '^ 
 him in tears. ^. , / 
 
 ^^1 ■:.;'. /( 
 
 (3) Criticize the following sentences with regard to 
 Unity, applying the principles stated on pages 59-61, and 
 dividing them into as many sentences as may be necessary 
 to attain the best form of expression. 
 
 (1) The Britons, daily harassed by cruel inroads from the Picts, 
 were foroe.d 'to call in the Sa^cops for their defense; who conse- 
 quently reduced' thfe greater part of the island to their own power; 
 drove the Britons into the most remote and mountainous parts; and 
 the rest of the country, in cusipms, religion, and languagg, became 
 wholly Saxon. ^k>i>^J^ id\)i^'~ 
 
 (3) We must not imagine thawthete is, in true r^igion, any thing 
 which clouds the mind with sullen gloom and melancholy austerity 
 Ifor false ideas may be entertained of religion, as false and irnpei-fect 
 (jpnceptions of virtue harve- often prevailed in the world! or which 
 derogates from that esteem which men are generally disposed to 
 yield to exemplary virtues. vIaJL~- 
 
 (3) Hume's "Natural Religion" called forth^r. Seattle's (author 
 of the Minstrel) a ^ble wor k. ^ //t>*^A_^v ^ 
 
 (4) After Napoleon's escape from Elba, and landing on the coast 
 of France, he advanced as rapidly as possible toward Paris,|ana on 
 the wajvwSs met by the troops under the command of Marshal Ney, 
 whOjAad sworn to bring iiWDacl? in an iron cage, but now saluted 
 him as Emperor. ' 
 
 (5) The various combinations of grouping of situation with regard 
 to each other, placing them in a permanent relation of friendship or 
 hostility, of sympathy or antipathy, of peace or war, of interchange 
 
294 THE ELEMENTS OF MHETOBIC. 
 
 of religions, of manners, of civilization, complete the work, and give 
 that impulse, that progressive movement, which is the trait whereby 
 the histori cal nat ions are recognized. 
 
 (6) The su.n a[jp>oaching melts the snow, and breaks the icy fetters 
 of the raainj -where vast sea-monsters pierce through floating islands, 
 with arms that can withstand the crystal rock ) whilfl; others, that 
 of themselves seem great as islands, are, by their bulk alone, armed 
 against all but manl ^Bsesuperiority over creatures of a size and 
 force so stupendous, should make him mindful of his privEege of 
 reason ; and force him humbly to adore the great Composer of those 
 wondrous frames, and the Author of his own superior wisdom. 
 
 (7) To this succeeded the licentiousness which entered with the 
 Restoration, and from infecting: our religion and morals, fell to cor- 
 rupt our languagejj w hiohri i t c i - wasm&C\me. to be much improved 
 by those who at tnat time made up the court of King Charles II. ; 
 ^S^<^jj6h who had followed him in his banishment, or who had 
 been altogether conversant in the dialect of those fanatical times; 
 or young men who had been educated in t^e same company J -se-ttrat^ 
 
 "^- the coni't which used to be the standard of propriety and correctness 
 of speech was then, and I think has ever since continued, the worst 
 school in England for that accomplishment, and-9e"will remain till 
 better care be taken in the education of our young nobilitj* that- 
 they may set out into the world with some foundation of literatare, 
 in order to qualify them for patterns of politeness.!' 
 
 (8) Under the stately nave 6f the cathedral of that city /where the 
 aspiring Lombard, or, rather, Italian architecture had lifted thecoof 
 to a pnajestic height yet unequaled in Italy even by Gothic assis- 
 tanoeJand supported on tall harmonious pillars, even now the noblest 
 model of the Italian Basilica expanded inlo the Latin cross ; phere 
 over the altar hoverSd the vast and solemn picture of our Lord, with 
 the Virgin on one side, St. John on the other.^in which Cimabue 
 made the last and most splendid effort of the old rigid Byzantine art 
 
 y to retain its imperiled supremacy; land ^thus^ Latin Christianity 
 ' ^emed to assert its rights against Teutonic independence before 
 J tlieir final severance ;|-beneath these auspices (net the most august 
 T assembly, as to the nimbers and rank of the prelates, and.the ambas- 
 \ sadors of Christian kings, which for centuries had assumed the 
 ^ functions of a representative senate of Christendom.! 
 
 (9) Though Fame, who is always the herald of the gVeat, has seldom 
 ,,4eigned to transmit the exploits of the lower ranks to posterity (fS*- 
 ^11 is CDiBniaBU-^»g~ftt1^ "f thnjB ivhOljH fuituuB 
 
JiXEBOISEa IN STYLE. 295 
 
 Y ftlo of obiriiritr t n hare - t heti— iroble-aets-biined in oblivion), yet, 
 in their verses, the minstrels have preserved many instances of 
 domestic woe and felicity. 
 
 (10) Next to thinking clearly, it is useful to speak clearly/ and 
 whatever your position in life may hereafter be, it cannot be such 
 
 - as not to be improved by thi^ so that it is worth while making almost 
 -any effort to acquire it, if it is not a natural gift^ it being an un- 
 doubted fact that the effort to acquire it must be successful, to some 
 extent at least, if 'it be moderately persevered in. 
 
 (11) He was the universal favorite of all who knew him, and 
 cemented many friendships at this period (moving in the highest 
 circle of society, and, as he had certain property, being independent 
 of the profits of literature), and soon completely extinguished the 
 breath of slander which at the outset of his career had threatened 
 to sap the foundations of his reputaJ;ion. 
 
 (13) He is supposed to have fallen, by his father's death, into the 
 hands of his uncle, a vintner, near Charing Cross, who sent him for 
 some time to Dr. Busby, at Westminster; jbut, not intending to give 
 ' him any education beyond that of the school, took him, when he was 
 well advanced in literature, to his own house,! where the Earl of 
 Dorset, celebrated for patronage of genius, found him by chance, as 
 Burnet relates, reading Horace, and was so well pleased with his 
 proficiency that he undertook the care and cost of his education. 
 
 (13) In this uneasy state, both of private and public life, Cicero 
 was oppressed by a new and cruel afliction, the death of his beloved 
 TutliM which happened soon after her divorce from Dolabella, whose 
 manners and humors were entirely disagreeable to her. 
 
 (14) In this aspect, as having been used at a great critical moment, 
 and as part of the moral influence brought to bear on that oc- 
 casion for effecting a great resultifno proverb of man's can be com- 
 pared with that one which the Lord used, when he met his future 
 apostle, bnt at this time, his persecutor, in the wayj and warned 
 him of the fruitlessness and folly of a longer resistance to a might 
 which must overcome hira^and with still greater harm to himself 
 at the last. J-. < / 
 
 (15) It was an ancient traditioiJthat|when the capital was founded 
 by one of the Roman kings,lthe god Terminus (who presided over 
 boundaries, arid wa£ represented according to the fashion of that 
 age, by a large ston^|?whe among all the inferior deities, refused 
 to yield his place to Jupiter himself. 
 
296 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETOBIO. 
 
 (4) Criticize the following sentences with regard to 
 Energy, applying the principles stated on pages 63-66. 
 
 (1) Thought and language act and react upon each other asx=^ 
 -4uaUy-.- ,■ , n . L 
 
 (3) By a multiplicity and variety of words, the thoughts and senti- 
 ments are not set ofE and accommodated(Jbut, like David, dressed 
 out and equipped in Saul's armor, they are-encumbered and oppressed^ 
 
 (3) These points have been illustrated in so plain and evident a 
 manner, that the perusal of the book has given me pleasure and 
 satisfaction. 
 
 (4) I hope this is the last time I shall ever act so4iapradeHt]j. 
 
 (5) The combatants both fell dead upon the field together'5ith_ 
 one another^ 
 
 (6) Though ^^rtue borrows_mj_assistance from, yet stilly it may 
 often be Slecompanied by, the advantages ,of-fort-une. c '' 
 
 ^(Tplrrdul^iflg ourselves in imagmary enjoyments, often deprives 
 us of real ones. ^, ^__^ 
 
 (8) The old inform the young, and Uie yciuu g may animate those 
 who- are advanced i-n life. , (^ ^^J^ ^ - 
 
 (9) By what I have( already expressed, the reader will perceive 
 the business which I am aboux to proceed upee. 
 
 (10) Charity breathes long suffering to enemies, courtesy to stran- 
 gers, habitual kindness toward friends. 
 
 (11) These arguments were, without hesitation, and with great 
 eagerness, laid h oM of. ^ 
 
 (12) The complication of the old laws of France had given rise to 
 a chaos of confusion. 
 
 (13) It unfortunately happens that our reporter was engaged 
 / elsewhere^ when the first performance tcjek place; and we are there- 
 fore unable to give any recpi't of ±h« .performance ; but, forall-th«t, 
 we have heard that tti«-perfoiMiiariree gave the greatest satisfaction. 
 
 (14) The writings of Buchanan, and especially his " Scottish His- 
 tory," are written with strength, perspicuity, and neatness. 
 
 ■ {15) -4- was forced to go home partly by force and partly by stealth. 
 
 (16) It was founded mainly on the entire monopoly of the wij^ 
 trade with the colonics. 
 
 (17) The history, of necessity, became, in a great degree/ for the 
 most part,i a parliamentary one. 
 
 (18) I went homefull-of a great many reflections, l '" 
 
 (19) There need? no more than to make such a registry eaJy vol- 
 
EXERCISES IN STYLE. 297 
 
 imtary, to avoid all the diffioultieSjthat can be raised, and which 
 are not too captioiis-Q ^too t rivial to take notice of. ' '^ 
 
 (20) This reproach might lusU^rMTon inahy of the learned of 
 that age,^as, with less excuse, .it his often di^e upon 'their an- 
 cestors. . * 
 
 (31) Blsgance prohibits an arrangement that throws the emphasis 
 on. and thus causes a suspension of the sense's*, a parti cle or jather 
 UMn2o rtant wor d. j . 
 
 (83) A preposition is a poor wordJo end a sentence with, '^'■'- 
 
 (23) How many are there by whdijA these, tidings .of good news 
 _j^e never heard? " ""*" 
 
 (24) Some writers have confined their attention to trifling minu- 
 tiffi of style. 
 
 (25) The emperor was so intent on the establishment of his ab- 
 solute power in Hungary that he exposed the empire doubly to 
 desolation and ruin for the, sake- of it. 
 
 (26) If he happens to have any leisure upfln-his-4rantls. 
 
 (37) Now if the fabric of the mind or temper appeared to us such 
 as it really is ; if we saw it impossible to remove hence any one good 
 or orderly aifEeotion, or to introduce any ill or disorderly one, with- 
 OHt drawing on,/in some degreel that dissolute state which, rat its, 
 %ight,\is confessed: to be so miserablftj it would/then undoubtedly)' 
 be cotiiessed, that/since no ill, immOTaly'pr unjust action can be 
 committed without either a new inroad ot breach on the temper and 
 passions, or as a further advancing of that execution already done; 
 whoever did ill,) or acted in prejudice to his integrity) good nature, 
 or worth, woutt. of necessity act with greater cruelty toward him- 
 self than he who has scrupled not to swallow what was poisonous, 
 or who with his own hands should voluntarily mangle or wound his 
 outward form or constitution, natural limbs or bpdy. 
 
 (28)_Saul and his companions were journeyingialong their way;to 
 Damascus. 
 
 (39) I (thereforej thought it necessary to fix and determine the 
 notion of these two words, as I intend to make use of them in the 
 thread of my following speculations, that the reader may conceive 
 rightly what is the subject tvhich I proceed upon. 
 
 (30) The wayinto is often easier than the -v^ay out of temptation. 
 
 (31) They were sooli at home and 'surf&unded by the family and 
 plied with questions as to what they had seen and what they had 
 heard and soon the neighbors came in and then the whole story had 
 to be told agatin. 
 
398 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 (33) Universally, a writer or a speaker should endeavor to main- 
 tain the appearance of expressing himself, not as if he wanted to say 
 something, but as if he had something to say, i. e., not as it he had 
 a subject set him, and was anxious to compose the best essay or 
 declamation on it that he could, but as if he had some idea to which 
 he was anxious to give utterance ; not as if he wanted to compose 
 (for instance) a sermon, and was desirous of performing that task 
 satisfactorily, but as if there was something in his mind which he 
 was desirous of communicating to his hearers. 
 
 (33) But as mankind iii-the^aggregate is always wiser than any 
 single man, because its experience is derived from a larger range of 
 observatiion and experience, Kind because the spnngs that feed it 
 drain a wider region both of time and space, etn 
 
 (34) Before or since his time, Aristotle has never had an equal as 
 a philosopher. j^,, 
 
 (35) Why should the city take from ip- taxes what it is not willing 
 to return to its jn protection ? '"' 
 
 (36) It is the general wish of thelmajority of the whole i^opulation 
 that peace should prevail/and that no war should' occur. " ^ 
 
 (37) The-ftdae misrepresentations of-poiitTGal demagogues blin^ 
 deceive even intelligent people. 
 
 (38) There is notMjjg equivocal or capable of a double interpreta- 
 tion in the position nere taken. 
 
 (39) There is no predicting what the future will be when inex-- 
 perieneedjnovices undertake the responsible duties of law-making. 
 
 (40) It IS the peculiarity of great men to l^e characterized by strong 
 will. , ' ~ " 
 
 (5) Criticize the following sentences with regard to 
 
 Harmony, applying the principles stated on pages 67-70. 
 
 (1) 'T was thou that soothe^itihe roi^, rugged bed of pain. 
 --#' (2) He then became king ; but no one who had known him be-' 
 lieved that he would make a good king. VA/vv, (i^ ; ' > ~j / l\ 
 
 (3) The river, again gaining strength, flows more swiftly^' 
 
 (4) It was as glorious a scene as T havj r-rr 9eeii.(/'"2'^~'"^ 
 
 (5) The effect of the concluding verb, placed where it is, is most 
 striking. 
 
 ^ (6) After the most straight^*- sect of our religion, I lived a 
 Pharisee. 
 
 (7) Thou form'dst me poor at first and keep'st me so. 
 
EXMRCI8E8 IN STYLE. 399 
 
 (8) But the power of Greek radiance Goethe oould give to his 
 handling of nature, and nobly too, as any one who will read his 
 " Wanderer " — ; the poem in which a wanderer falls in with a peasant 
 woman and her child, by their hut, built out of the ruins of a 
 temple near Cuma — may see. 
 
 (9) Every nature, you perceive, is either too excellent to want it, 
 or too baseTcTbe capable of it. - 
 
 (10) On this occasion the question gave rise to much agitation, and 
 soon after absorbed every other consideration. 
 
 (11) That man made me miss my destiny. 
 
 (12) It is safe to say that Rome'in hey palmiest days never had 
 such a combat as that. 
 
 /. i--j(13) The general idea of good^r bad fortune, therefore, creates 
 ■ some concern for the person who nas met with it ; but the ge«CTai-0 
 idea of provocation excites no sympathy with the anger of the man 
 who has received it. Nature, it seems, teaches us to be more averse 
 to enter into this passion, and, till informed of its cause, to be dis- 
 posed gather to take part against it. 
 1^ (14) 'T were to be wished, that those amongaf us who either write 
 
 /T or read with a vie w to employ their liberal leisure (for as to such as do 
 1 either from views more sordid, we leave them, like slaves, to their des-^x 
 tined drudgery) — 't were to be wtshedti say, that the liberal (if they 
 have a relish for letters) would inspect the finished models of 
 Grecian literature ; that they would not waste those hours which they 
 cannot recall upon the meaner productions of the French and Eng- 
 lish press^ — upon that fungous growth of novels and pamphlets, 
 where, 't is to be feared, they rarely find any raWengijileasure, and, C 
 more rarely still, any solid enjoyment. 
 
 (15) Some chroniclers, by an injudicious use of familiar phrases, 
 express themselves sillily, %^«m'^\J'^^0'*^ 
 
 (16) The Hindoos, when they see theiblack^disc^^f our satellite ad- 
 vancing overthe sun, believe tliaEnie jaws of a dra^n are gradually 
 eating it up. _ Q, / 
 
 ^ (17) In the farming districts, where the people are fully as well 
 educated as those of any rural district in the United States, the ser- 
 vants form part of the family circle at the table, around the hearth- 
 stone, or in the pew at church ; they share the best sleeping-apart- 
 ments of the family, wear just as good clothing as the master and . 
 the mistress, and the nattids; if they are pretty, get as much attention 
 from the mHScurine visitors as the daughters of the house, teoi 
 ><— ■ (18) He arbitrarily singled out an inexplicably scrubby shrub and 
 
300 THE ELEMENTB OF BHETOBIO. 
 
 peremptorily reprimanded the giggling, but shamefaced, Driggs 
 for having haggled^l the shrubbery instead;£fOTOge^' pruning it. ^ 
 (19) Even'issirae, andJrom tl^^g^rk^iiark! ^. L -X^ 
 
 The signal of the Ssftvl^^iinTone'gun ; '-^' _^ .<^.-: ■ -L 
 And six is setting from the ctiu^,' prime time ' 
 To go and see the Drurj^^MreDane slain. \^\ . ^/\ 
 (30) Silently out of the room then glided the §HR^M^avage, 
 Bearing the serpent's "gkrur-^nd seeming himself like a 
 
 serpent, -' ' />AAwV^ 
 
 Winding his sinuous way in the darM to the depths of the 
 forest. 
 (21) I love the old melodious lays (^-Ir^/^-''^'^ 
 
 Which softly melt the ages through, 
 The songs of Spenser's golden days, .\-^ ^, . -^ ■- ^ 
 Arcadian Sidney's silver phrase, ^ (■■ ' v^-^ 
 
 Sprinkling our noon of time with freshest morning 
 dew. / j: ' 'X 4**-^^ 
 
 SECTION III. 
 Paragraphs. 
 
 The teacher may easily improvise exercises on the cou- 
 struction of paragraphs by reading from some book, and 
 having the student arrange the sentences into paragraphs. 
 The student's paragraphing may then be compared with 
 that in the book. The principles stated on pages 71-75 
 should be kept in mind. 
 
EXEBCI8E8 IN BTTLE. 301 . 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 FiGTJEES. 
 
 (1) Name the figures given below, and point out their 
 source of value, keeping in mind the definitions and exam- 
 ples on pages 81-90. 
 
 (1) He deserves the palm. >Co/r _5<,^f ?'l ' (n^ '■ ' -i-y^-^-vt-'- 
 (3) Like the Aurora Borealis of their nativ^ sky, the poets and 
 historians of Iceland not only illuminated their own country, but 
 flashed the light of th"e^r genius through the night which hung over 
 the rest of Europe. J-t.--L.-v^_/ \A.X,_--- 
 
 (3) For Painting, mute and motionless, 
 Steals but one partial glance from time ; 
 
 But by the mighty actors brought ,y'^ , , ,, 
 
 Illusion's wedded triumphs come; ij -O''---' '"' 
 Verse ceases to be airy naught. 
 And Sculpture to be dumb. 
 
 (4) He is fond of his ^otX\%:.'yUj(/ 
 
 (o) And it came to pass at noon that Elijah mocked them, and said, 
 "Cry aloud; for he is a god : either he is talking, or he is pursuing, 
 or he is on a journey, or peradventuj-e he sleepeth, and must be 
 awaked." ^^.t^rx^---' 
 
 (6) I see before me the gladiator lie;^ -. 
 
 He leans uponhis hand — his manly brow l/^-t J i^yT--'^ 
 Consents to death, but conquers agony. 
 And his drooped head sinks gradually low. 
 
 (7) In my affection to my country you find me ever firm and in- 
 variable. Not the solemn demand of my person, not the vengeance c^ i 
 of the Amphyotionio council, not the terror of their threatenings, 'S'''''' 
 not the flattery of their promises, no, nor the fury of those accursed 
 wretches, whom they roused like wild beasts against me, could tear 
 
 this afflection from my breast. (^jL-c-'V-v-i-^i-'vL- , A i'-'- '<-''-' t'S 
 
 (8) Ye toppling crags of ice ! _ i r. v 
 Ye avalanches, whom a breath draws down t y^; ,. / 
 
 In mountains overwhelming, come and crush me! A — J- •-^'-^-•-'■■l^ 
 
 (9) Chivalry delighted in outward show, favored pleasure, multi- 
 plied amusement, and. degraded the human race by an exclusive 
 
303 THE ELEMENTS OF BHBTOBIC. 
 
 respect for the privileged classes; Puritanism bridled the passions, 
 commended the virtues of self-denial, and rescued the name of man 
 from dishonor. The former valued courtesy; the latter justice. 
 The former adorned society by graceful refinements ; the latter 
 founded national grandeur on universal education. The institutions 
 of Chivalry were subverted by the gradually increasing weight and 
 knowledge and opulence of the industrial classes ; the Puritans, 
 rallying upon those classes, planted in their hearts the undying 
 principles of democratic liberty. 
 
 (10) Like the ocean, whose shores when deserted by the tide mark 
 out the extent to which it sometimes flows, so Homer's genius, when 
 ebbing into the fables of the "Odyssey," plainly discovers how vast 
 it once must have been. '^ 
 
 (11) Life is a sea, how fair its face! 
 How smooth its dimpling water's pafi 
 
 (12) I was a lovely tree in thy presence, Oscar, with all my 
 branches round rae; but thy death came like a blast from the 
 desert, and laid my green head low; the spring returned with its 
 showers, bat no leaf of mine arose. Y-^. 
 
 (13) The final and permanent fruits of liberty are wisdom, mod- 
 eration, and mercy. Its immediate effects are often atrocious crimes, 
 conflicting errors, skepticism on points the most clear, dogmatism on 
 points the most mysterious. "VM 
 
 It is just at this crisis that its enemies love to exhibit it. They 
 pull down the scaffolding from the half-flnished edifice; they 
 point to the flying dust, the falling bricks, the comfortless 
 rooms, the frightful irregularity of the whole appearance, and 
 then ask in scorn, where the promised splendor and comfort are to 
 be found. (^ , p, ^. 
 
 (14) Life bears us on like the stream of a mighty river. Our boat 
 at first glides down the narrow channel, through the playful mur- 
 muring of the little brook and the winding of its grassy border. 
 The trees shed their blossoms over our young heads, the flowers on 
 the brink seem to offer themselves to our young hands ; we are happy 
 in hope, and we grasp eagerly at the beauties around us — but the 
 stream hurries on, and still our hands are empty. Q^ 
 
 ' 15) But, Mr. Speaker, the gentleman says we have a right to tax 
 merica! Oh! inestimable right! Oh! wonderful, transcendent 
 right, the assertion of which has cost this country thirteen provinces, 
 six islands, one hundred thousand lives, and seventy millions of 
 money. C^l/^^^— 
 
 Stlt 
 
EXERCISES m STYLE. 303 
 
 (16) The Comet! He is on his way ^ 
 
 And singing as he flies; J^ 
 
 The whizzing planets shrink before 
 
 The specter of the skies ; 
 Ah! well may regal orbs burn blue. 
 
 And satellites turn pale ; 
 Ten million cubic miles of headl 
 
 Ten billion leagues of tail ! 
 
 (17) Yes, noble Galileo, thou art right, " It does move ' Bigots 
 may make thee recant it, but it moves, nevertheless. . . , The 
 Inquisition may seal thy lips, but they can no more stop the pro- 
 gress of the great truths propounded by Copernicus, and demon- 
 strated by thee, than they can stop the revolving earth. 
 
 (18) Here once the embattled farmers stood, CI 
 And fired the shot heard round the world. 
 
 (19) gentle sleep, ' D . flV) W , 
 Nature's soft nurse ! ^^ \j^ 
 
 (20) The legendary age was a past that>never was present. }4/L- 
 
 (31) She was a girl of sixteen summers. '/■ y?'t.A> C- 'v->'L.^-«=- "~ 
 
 (32) He writes a beautiful and legible hand, /'l^jj^ .. 
 (23) Our commerce should be carried in American bottoms, /y L" 
 (a4) Oh, what a tangled web we weave Olyi 
 
 "When first we practise to deceive ! / _j 
 
 (35) To arms! they come! the Greek! the Greek! lA v 
 
 (36) He is a vampire feasting on the spoils of office. 
 (27) Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the 
 
 price of chains and slavery? 
 (38) And, ye Fountains, Meadows, Hills, and Groves, 
 
 Forebode not any severing of our loves. 
 Yet in my heart of hearts I feel your might; 
 I only have relinquished one delight 
 To live beneath your more habitual sway. I 
 
 I love the Brooks, which down their channels fret, 1 
 Even more than when I tripped lightly as they; 
 The innocent brightness of a new-born Day 
 Is lovely yet. 
 
 (29) Every man has in himself a continent of undiscovered oharac-^-«^ , \J^ 
 ter. Happy is he who acts the Columbus to his own soul! vN ^ ^ 
 
 (30) The harbor was filled with the sails of every nation. ScrfOiJ^ ' 
 
 (31) Let the bullet be superseded by the ballot in the enforcement 
 
 (xU^ 
 
304 THE ELEMENTS OF BHETOBIC. 
 
 (33) His brain was consecrated to his country's service as well as 
 his hand. ~yyi^ (^ t vv - 
 
 (33) A-brook came stealing from the gi-ound; 
 
 You scarcely saw its silvery gleam 
 Among the herbs that hung around 
 The borders of that winding stream, — 
 A pretty stream, a placid stream, 
 A softly gliding, bashful stream. 
 
 A breeze came wandering from the sky, 
 Light as the whispers of a dream ; 
 
 He put the o'erhanging grasses by, 
 And gaily stooped to kiss the stream, — 
 The pretty stream, the flattered stream, 
 The shy, yet unreluctant stream. i^ 
 
 (34) Legislation exists for the hovel as well as the palace. YV^.iA^ 
 
 (35) Much that is best in the literature of the world was produced 
 
 by Greece. ^tj^^-l/' •^•■'~-- 
 
 (36) No on« can stand upon the banks of time and watch its flow , 
 without moving, for we are all borne forward upon its current, y., ■ J j 
 
 (37) 'T is listening fear, and dumb amazement all, 
 When to the startled eye, the sudden glance 
 Appears far south, eruptive through the cloud ; 
 And, following slower, in explosion vast. 
 
 The thunder raises his tremendous voice. 
 At first, heard solemn o'er the verge of heaven, 
 ^ 'The tempest growls; but, as it nearer comes, 
 \ And rolls its awful burden on the wind. 
 
 The lightnings flash a larger curve, and more 
 
 The noise astounds; till, overhead, a sheet 
 
 Of livid flame discloses wide; then shuts 
 
 And opens wider; shuts and opens still 
 
 Expansive, wrapping ether in a blaze: 
 
 Follows the loosened, aggravated roar. 
 
 Enlarging, deepening, mingling; peal on peal v 
 
 Crushed horrible, convulsing heaven and earth. 
 
 (38) The tree of knowledge does not drop its fruit into our laps. 
 We must climb its gnarled trunk if we would obtain it; and its 
 choicest fruitage is ever to be found upon the highest branches. 
 
 (39) Her smile was the dawn of a radiant day. 1" ~i 
 
 (40) Everything came to him marked by Nature, Right side up 
 
EXBBaiSES IN STYLE. 305 
 
 with care, and he kept it so. The world to him, as to all of us, was 
 " like a medal, on the obverse of which is stamped the image of Joy, 
 and on the reverse that of Care. j) UAyO, -v* i^-^^ 
 (41) Read f com some humbler: poet j 
 
 Whose songs gushed from his heart. 
 As showers from the clouds of summer 
 Or tears from the eyelids start ; — 
 
 And the night shall be filled with music, 
 And the cares that infest the day 
 Shall fold their tents, like the Arabs, 
 
 And as silently steal away. 
 
 (43) The cup of. life sparkles most at the brim ; deeper down lie 
 the dregs and the sediment. /Oi^^v^C-A^ 
 
 (43) Hope is the child of Innocence, Guilt is the mother of De- 
 spair. ^,j ju 
 
 (44) The chariot of day was descending the western slopes of the 
 mountains. P <— ^__^ ^- /'".^v^ 
 
 (45) He fell, but his fall was like the deathward plunge of some 
 giant of the forest, the hero of a hundred storms overmastered only 
 by the superior powers of nature. V^^'^'l^- 
 
 <(4B) A man of polite imagination is let into a great many pleasures 
 /that the vulgar are not capable of receiving. He can converse with 
 a picture, and find an agreeable companion in a statue. He meets - 
 with a secret refreshment in a description, and often feels a greater 
 satisfaction in the prospect of fields and meadows than another does 
 in the possession. It gives him, indeed, a kind of property in every- 
 thing he sees, and makes the most rude, uncultivated parts of nature 
 administer to his pleasures; so that he looks upon the whole world, as 
 it were, in another light, and discovers in it a multitude of charms 
 that conceal themselves from the generality of mankind. 
 
 (47) And asjhe morning steals upon the night, j 
 Melting the darkness, so the rising senses 1 
 Begin to chase the ignorant fumes that mantle 
 Their clearer reason. 
 
 (48) It is pleasant to be virtuous and good, because that is to excel 
 many others; it is pleasant to grow better, because that is to excel 
 ourselves ; it is pleasant to mortify and subdue our lusts, because that 
 is victory; it is pleasant to command our appetites and passions, and 
 to keep them in due order within the bounds of reason and religion, 
 because that is empire I ,j , , 
 
306 THE ELEMBNTS, OF BBETORIC. 
 
 (49) Prayer is like a carrier-pigeon, bearing our aspirations up- 
 ward to the source of all blessings. ''- . 
 
 (50) Real sympathy can flow only from fountains where the bitter- 
 ness of sore experience has been mixed with the pure waters of un- 
 selfishness. "n/O^-^-^ ~l"!;/'^i' 
 
 (51) Thou sure and firm-set earth, 
 
 Hear not ray steps, which way they walk, for fear ,' . ^_- --'' 
 Thy very stones prate of my whereabouts. 
 
 (52) The inventions of paper and the press have put an end to all_ 
 these restraints ; they have made every one a writer, and enabled every 
 mind to pour itself into print, and diffuse itself over the whole 
 
 tf^^ntelleotual world. The consequences are alarming. The stream 
 of literature has swollen into a torrent, augmented into a river, 
 expanded into a sea._ 
 
 (53) Me miserable! which way shall I-fly 
 Infinite wrath, and infinite despair! 
 Which way I fiy is Hell, — myself am Hell, — 
 And in the lowest deep, a lower deep, 
 Still threatening to devour me. opens wide, 
 To which the Hell I sufEer seems a Heaven. 
 
 (54) I see the pyramids building; I hear the shoutings of the 
 army of Alexander; I feel the ground shake beneath the march of 
 Cambyses. I sit as in a theater, — the stage is time, the play is the 
 world. ' J ^ 'j _ ' , , 
 
 (55) Now dark in the shadow,' she scatters the Spray, , 
 , As the chaff in the stroke of the flail ; ■ ^ 
 
 Now white as the sea-gull, she flies on her way,' 
 The sun gleaming bright on her sail. 
 
 (56) I talk half the time, to find out my own thoughts, as a school- 
 boy turns his pockets inside out to see what is in them. 
 
 (57) Soft as the fleeces of descending snows, ^jr^"^ 
 V/^ The copious accents fall, with easy art ; 
 
 Melting they fall, and sink into the hearts .(.v'^"' 
 
 (58) They have Moses and the prophets, —y^ '\j^/- ' 
 
 (59) Life is a leaf of paper white, , ' l.. ' 
 Whereon each one of us may write \\ 
 His word or two, and then conies night. 
 
 (60) Glory is like a circle in the water. 
 Which never ceaseth to enlarge itself 
 Till by broad spreading, it disperse to naught. 
 
 (61) Earth felt the wound. 
 
 i 3 , 
 
EXER0I8ES IN STYLE. 307 
 
 (62)' To weep for fear is childish ; to weep for auger is womanish ; ^ 
 to weep for grief is human ; to weep for compassion is divine. CJ/. 
 
 (63) The favorite has no friend. Ct/^ , 
 
 (64) Who fought your naval battles in the last war? Who led 
 you on to victory after victory, on the ocean and on the lakes? 
 Whose was the triumphant prowess before which the Red Cross of^ 
 England paled with unwonted shame? i, '{_/^-^_<<^ '•- ~yj/JL^ , 
 
 (65) The atrocious crime of being a young man, which the hon- 
 orable gentleman has with such spirit and decency charged upon 
 me, I shall attempt neither to palliate nor to deny. JyL^-irvM / /^ 
 
 (66) But these precepts of his were, after all, only matches to 
 Bvadne, which fired whole trains of reflections, and lighted her to ^ 
 
 X conclusions quite other than those at which he had arrived himself. 
 ^-{^Tj A company of hors^ arrived too late for the action. ^ L^ iT 
 (68) Swinburne calls the sea " our green-girdled mother.". ,[\,fl j ; ■ 
 
 Pegasus needs oats rather than the spur. 'W ' J \ 
 
 (70) Arm, a'rm, you heavens, against these perjured kings! -^- '^^^,^ 
 
 (71) Why did I not pass away in secret, like the flower of th«S 
 
 To the upright there ariseth light in darkness. '^/L^^.^f^^ 
 
 on the blast? 
 
 (^^) - - . - ,x - , ■ 
 
 i^^3) The acuteness .of his judgment was equalled by the fire of J 
 
 his passions. f i_ "-^f-^ I ^-\_^ -- ' " ' 
 
 (74) As wax would not be adequate to the purpose of signature, if 
 it had not the power to retain as well as to receive the impression, . 
 the same holds with the soul in respect to sense and imagination. 
 Sense is its receptive power; imagination, its retentive. Had it 
 sense without imagination, it would not be as wax, but as water, 
 where, though all impressions be' instantly made, yet, as soon as ^ 
 they are made, they are instantly lost. 
 
 (75) In every company of the faithful there is likely to be some 
 Juda.s. 
 
 (76) Brutus admired and even loved the man, but detested the 
 tyrant. T ■. --^n/l ^ ,> '^ \^ - (XS^ "'- — 
 
 (77) I have seen a lark rising from his bed of grass, and soaring 
 upward, singing as he rises, and hoping to get to heaven, and climb 
 above the clouds ; but the poor bird was beaten back by the loud ''^ 
 siglung of an eastern wind, and his motion made irregular and incon- \ 
 stant, descending more at every breath of the tempest than it could re- 
 cover by the libration and frequent weighing of his wings, till the 
 little creature was forced to sit down and pant, and stay till the 
 
308 TEE ELEMENTS OF BHETOBIG. 
 
 storm was over ; and then it made a prosperous flight, and did rise and 
 sing as if it had learned music and motion from an angel as he 
 passed sometimes through the air about his ministries here below. 
 So is the prayer of a good man. ^fZ/iAy^"^ 
 
 (78) Language, says Riehter, fi "a dictionary of faded meta- 
 phors." ■ ]r'-<:-''_^';.n. G>'0>..-_^.^^ cr 
 
 (79) No doubt ye are the people, and wisdom will die with you. ^"^ 
 
 (80) " ' But we must pause ! ' says the honorable gentleman. If a 
 man were present now at the field of slaughter, and were to inquire for 
 what they were fighting, ' Fighting !' would be the answer ; ' they are 
 not fighting, they are pausing.' Why is that man expiring? Wliy 
 is that other writhing with agony? What means this inexplicable 
 fury? The answer must be, 'You are quite wrong, sir. You de- 
 ceive yourself ; they are not fighting. Do not disturb them, they are 
 met:<i\y pausing.'" j^^.,L.-^^ ' <l-' ' "^k!^. Q)*^^ ' \-^ 
 
 (81) His rudeness is a sauce to his wit. \ > - | ,\j 
 (83) There were bitter quarrels between town and gown. ^ 
 
 (83) Your flashes of merriment that were wont to set the table in a 
 Toar. ^;, 'J 
 
 (84) The very stones of Rome will rise in mutiny. \ .-• _y " 
 
 (85) Before his honesty of purpose calumny was dumb. "*?>' 
 
 (86) that the Alps were my pulpit and that I had lungs of 
 brass; to herald this good news to all mankind.- ■ vN • ?V •■ ^^.j^ 
 
 (87) There were an Antony would i-nffle up ydur spirits and put 
 a tongue in every wound of Caesar, j 'Jl ^'"^ Ji/>^-'"^' i 
 
 (88) Destruction and Death say, we have heard thereof with our J- 
 ears. j)!^ <(2N'tlt^ uAr-A^ ' ' -*-^'Virvs^ ,.>i ^''\ 
 
 (89) Srience is often the most effective eloquence, -i'^ '^ jV*-^ i ■ ' 
 
 (90) There is another unhappy victim of the bottle. ~^^ . ' i '- '" 
 
 (91) As immediately after looking at the sun we cannot perceive 
 the light of a fire, while by looking at the fire first and the sun after- 
 ward we can perceive both, so, after receiving a brilliant or weighty 
 3r terrible thought, we cannot appreciate a less brilliant, less weighty, 
 )r less terrible one. 'S/v/l/v*-^ C> • '- '^/^^^' 
 
 (92) He was coiled up like a spiral spring in his great arm-chair, 
 leading Milton. . , ,. , ' yy^^ *■ rv^— • 
 
 (93) Adversity is the grind-stone of life. "~^ - 
 
 (94) As in a range of equidistant columns the farthest ofE look 
 ',he closest, so the conspicuous objects of the past seem more thickly 
 clustered, the more remote they are. . v'-J -s-v^-^ 
 
EXEBCiaJESi m STYLE. 309 
 
 (96) Bring with thee Sport that wrinkled Care derides, and 
 Laughter holding both his sides. f'2i,^\_^ 'y%/uc^t^-fyX.^ ■ 
 
 (97) Criticism is the tax which the public levies upon the great, fori 
 the privilege of leadership. \ ^^f^ 
 
 (98) Ah! gentle ClifEord, kill me with thy sword, and not with such 
 
 a cruel, threatening look. /^)A-'^-<<^_,,_j,y^ . y — 
 
 (99) He fell asleep under the mantle of drowsy night. )^uy!yh^ 
 (100) The laws of nature do not reveal themselves to the casual / 
 
 observer, as the time of day is not apparent to a man who keeps his 
 watch in his pocket. .J^ j-j -- 
 
 (3) Criticize the following faulty figures, applying the 
 rules stated on pages 91, 93. 
 
 (1) There is not a view of human nature that is not sufficient to 
 extinguish the seeds of pride. 
 
 (2) The colonies were not yet ripe to bid adieu to British connec- 
 tion. 
 
 (3) I am glad to hear there are no weightier objections against 
 that reverend body planted in this city. 
 
 (4) Boyle was the father of chemistry, and the brother of the 
 Barl of Cork. 
 
 (5) Now from my fond embrace, by tempests torn. 
 Our other column of the state is borne; 
 
 Nor took a kind adieu, nor sought consent. ■ 
 
 (6) A volcano is called by Cheeper, " That wonderful old furnace 
 where the hand of God works the bellows." 
 
 (7) Hope, the balm of life, darts a ray of light through the 
 thickest gloom. 
 
 (8) Since the time that reason began to bud, and put forth her 
 shoots, thought, during our waking hours, has been active in every 
 breast, without a moment's suspen,sion or pause. The current of 
 ideas has been always moving. The wheels of the spiritual engine 
 have exerted themselves with perpetual motion. 
 
 (9) Baton, Davenport, and five others were the seven pillars for 
 the next House of Wisdom in the wilderness. In August, 1639, the 
 seven pillars assembled, possessing for the time full power. 
 
 (10) If no authority, not in its nature temporary, were allowed to 
 one human being over another, society would not be employed in 
 building up propensities with one hand, which it has to curb with 
 the other. 
 
310 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 (11) We are constantly called upon to observe how the noxious 
 passions, which spring up in the heart like weeds in a neglected 
 garden, are dissipated by the light of truth. 
 
 (12) We must keep the ball rolling until it becomes a thorn in 
 the side of Congress. 
 
 (13) The death of Cato has rendered the Senate an orphan. 
 
 (14) The following are the words of Tamerlane the Great to Baja- 
 zet, Emperor of the Ottomans: "Where is the monarch who dares 
 resist us? Where is the potentate who does not glory in being 
 numbered among our attendants? As for thee, descended from a 
 Turcoman sailor, since the vessel of thy unbounded ambition has 
 been wrecked in the gulf of thy self-love, it would be proper that 
 thou shouldst take in the sails of thy temerity, and cast the anchor 
 of repentance in the pool of sincerity and justice, which is the pool of 
 safety; lest the tempest of tliy vengeance make thee perish in the 
 sea of the punishment thou deservest." 
 
 (15) Sweet are the uses of adversity. 
 Which, like the toad, ugly and venomous. 
 Wears yet a precious jewel in his head. 
 
 (16) Shakespeare did not mean his great tragedies for scarecrows, 
 as if the nailing of one hawk to the barn door would prevent the 
 next coming down souse into the hen-yard. Xo, it is not the poor 
 bleaching victim hung up to moult its draggled feathers in the rain 
 that he wishes to show us. He loves the hawk-nature as well as the 
 hen-nature; and, if he is unequaled in anything, it is that sunny 
 breadth of view, that impregnability of reason, that looks down 
 upon all ranks and conditions of men, all fortune and misfortune, 
 with the equal eye of the pnre artist. 
 
 (17) The man who has no rule over his spirits, possesses no anti- 
 dote against poisons of any sort. He lies open to every insurrection 
 of ill-humor and every fjale of distress. Whereas he who is employed 
 in regulating his mind, is making provision against all the accidents 
 of life. He is erecting a fortress into which, in the day of sorrow, 
 he can retreat with satisfaction. 
 
 (18) To thee the world its present homage pays, 
 The harvest early, but mature the praise. 
 
 (19) A torrent of superstition consumed the land. 
 
 (20) The Alps, 
 The palaces of nature, whose vast walls 
 Have pinnacled in clouds their snowy scalps. 
 
 (21) The fates that spin and cut the threads of national life, have 
 
EXERCISES IN STYLE. 311 
 
 severed the uiin.iUiral tie which bound her to a ruined and tyrannous 
 kingdom; and forth from the iiery loom of battle there floats a 
 golden thread which points northward toward the magnetism of 
 freedom, and waits but the shuttle of time and the orders of the 
 master-workman to be woven into our own broad vestments of liberty. 
 (23) An ax is laid at the root of our fisheries. 
 
 (23) This ship is the seed of a fleet which will, by and by, leave to 
 New Bedford nothing of the magnificent vexation of distant seas in 
 pursuit of the whale, save its idealized wealth and its traditions. 
 
 (24) As the orator warmed with his theme, his voice resounded 
 like the roar of Niagara. 
 
 (25) The next rock on which men split is the whirlpool of intem- 
 perance. 
 
 (26) All went merrily until suddenly the hand of Death stepped in. 
 
 (27) The day is done, and the darkness 
 Falls from the wing of night, 
 
 As a feather is wafted downward 
 From an eagle in his flight. 
 
 (28) Jonas, my son, you are entering upon your life; before you 
 the doors of the future open wide, and, like a young squirrel 
 escaping from his cage, you go forth to navigate the sea of life upon 
 your own wings. 
 
 (29) Matters are drifting that way rapidly enough when all the 
 moral brakes possible are applied. 
 
 (30) I am thankful for the iconoclastic spades which are rooting 
 up old saws that have become stripped of all significance, like Cleo- 
 patra's Needle, by being removed from their natural surroundings. 
 
 ■ (31) To many life is a inist of confusion. 
 
 (32) Like warp and woof all destinies 
 
 Are woven fast, 
 Linked in sympathy like the keys 
 
 Of an organ vast. 
 Pluck one thread, and the web ye mar; 
 
 Break but one 
 Of a thousand keys, and a paining jar 
 
 Through all will run. 
 
 (33) Fancy sports on airy wing, like a meteor on the bosom of a 
 summer cloud. 
 
 (34) The grand and sympathetic words of Queen Victoria, which 
 flashed on the wings of electricity over the Atlantic cable, and 
 hovered like a guardian angel over the bed of the dying President 
 
312 THE ELEMENTS OF BHETORIG. 
 
 Q-arfieH, were words of pearls and diamonds set in the necklace of 
 international unity and harmony, hung around the neck of the God- 
 dess of Liberty. 
 
 (35) Opposite in the blue vault stood the moon like a silver shield, 
 raining her bright arrows on the sea. 
 
 (36) These institutions attract to themselves the mental strength 
 of the land, forming a focus from which radiates, whether in Theol- 
 ogy, Science, Literature, or Art, the new world of thought, which 
 finds its way to the remotest regions, often filtered and unacknowl- 
 edged. 
 
 (37) Pilot us through the wilderness of life, lest we make ship- 
 wreck of our lives. 
 
 (38) Even these ancient pillars of the church were pursued with a 
 charge of heresy. 
 
 (39) Are the fruits of our present labors to be but the stepping- 
 stone into the future? 
 
 (40) Our prayers and God's mercy are like two buckets in a well. 
 While one ascends, the other descends. 
 
 (41) Those whose minds are dull and heavy do not easily penetrate 
 into the folds and Intricacies of an affair, and therefore can only 
 skim off what they find at the top. 
 
 (42) The last spark of life is ebbing. 
 
 (43) This world with all its trials is the furnace through which the 
 soul must pass and be devoloped before it is ripe for the next world. 
 
 (44) Yet some unselfish hearts are ready to step forward and 
 pluck the thoughtless and erring, like brands, from the abyss of Ufe. 
 
 (45) There was still, Cssar apprehended, a germ of sentiment exist- 
 ing, on which a scion of his own house, or even a stranger, might 
 throw himself and raise the standard of patrician independence. 
 
 (46) Walk thoughtful on the silent, solemn shore 
 Of that vast ocean it must sail so soon; 
 
 And put good works on board ; and wait the wind 
 That shortly blows us into worlds unknown. 
 
 (47) We thank thee, Lord, for this spark of grace; and we ask 
 thee to water it. 
 
 (48) In the ferment of political revolutions, the dregs of society 
 are sure to rise to the surface, and once there assume the reins of 
 power with bold and unscrupulous hand. 
 
 (49) Since the vessel of thy unbounded ambition hath been 
 wrecked in the gulf of thy self-love, it would be proper that thou 
 shouldst take in the sails of thy temerity, and cast the anchor of re- 
 
EXEBCISB8 IN STYLE. 313 
 
 pentance in the port of sincerity and justice, which is the port of 
 safety; lest the tempest of our vengeance malie thee perish in the 
 sea of the punishment thou deservest. 
 
 (50) Hope, the balm of life, darts a ray of light through the 
 thickest gloom. 
 
 (51) Mr. Speaker, I smell a rat, I see him floating in the air; but 
 mark me, sir, I will nip him inthe bud. 
 
 (53) ! somewhere, meek, unconscious dove. 
 
 That sittest, 'ranging golden hair. 
 
 (53) May the word which has been preached be like a nail driven 
 in a sure place, sending its roots downward and its branches up- 
 ward, spreading itself like a green bay-tree, fair as the moon, clear 
 as the sun, and terrible as an army with banners ! 
 
 (54) He alone can manage the storm-tossed ship of state on its 
 march. 
 
 (55) Candor is a delicate flower; so delicate that it may be withl 
 ered merely by a laugh and its beauty can never be renewed. 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 Variation" oe Expebssioh'. 
 
 (1) Insert the proper words in the following sentences, 
 selecting from the synonyms given, and keeping in mind 
 the remarks on pages 94, 95. 
 
 I. 
 
 Allure, tempt, seduce, entice, decoy. 
 
 ( rtAV 
 
 (1) In our time the poor are strongly to assume the appear- ^*^ 
 
 ance of wealth. 
 
 (3) I have heard of barbarians, who, when tempests drive ships 
 
 to their coasts, them to the rocks, that they may plunderi-^ 
 
 thejr lading. 
 
 (3) There is no kind of idleness by which we are so easily 
 
 as that which dignifies itself by the appearance of business. JLXj 
 
314 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF BHETOBIC. 
 
 (4) The rats and mice by which Hamelin was infested were , 
 
 it is said, by a piper to a contiguous river in which they were all 
 drowned. 
 
 (5) There was a particular grove which was called " the labyrinth 
 of coquettes," where many were to the chase, but few vf 
 
 tumed with purchase. 
 
 II. 
 
 jiy^-^^ 
 
 t^'- 
 
 Heap, pile, accumulate, amass. 
 
 (1) This would I celebrate with annual games, 
 "With gifts on altars ^ — , and holy flames, 
 
 (2) Within the circles, arms and tripods lie. 
 Ingots of gold and silver on high. 
 
 (3) Sir Francis Bacon, by an extraordinary force of nature, compass 
 
 of thought, and indefatigable study, had to himself such- 
 
 stores of knowledge as we cannot look upon without amazement. ' 
 
 (4) In these odes glittering but graceful ornaments have been 
 
 in. 
 
 Excessive, immoderate, intemperate. 
 
 (1) Let no wantonness of youthful spirits, no compliance with the 
 ;^«^mi'tli of others, ever betray you into profane sallies. 
 
 (2)^Wto knows not the languor that^ttends every indul- 
 
 Ljence in pleasure? 
 (3) "With them it 
 
 tiupposed talents and imagined merits. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Poverty, Indigence, want, need, penury. 
 
 (1) That the • 
 
 • of the Highlanders is gradually diminished 
 
 cannot be mentioned among the unpleasing consequences of subjec- 
 tion. 
 
 (2) 
 
 / 
 
 is a bitter and a hateful good, 
 Because its virtues are not understood; 
 Yet many things, impossible to thought, 
 Have been by 3_> to full perfection brought. 
 
EXERCISES IN STYLE. 315 
 
 (3) Sometimes am I king, 
 
 Then treason makes me witli myself a beggar; 
 
 And so I am ; then crushing / — 
 
 Persuades me, I was better than a king. 
 
 (4) If we can but raise him above t£J- — , a moderate share of for- 
 tune and merit will be sufficient to open his way to whatever else 
 we can wish him to obtain. 
 
 V. 
 
 Peace, quiet, calm, tranquillity. 
 
 (1) A paltry tale-bearer will discompose the — / — of a whole 
 family. 
 
 (2) Cheerfulness banishes all anxious care and discontent, soothes 
 and composes the passions, and keeps the soul in a perpetual — S=— . 
 
 (3) By a patient acquiescence under painful events for the present, 
 we shall be sure to contract a — -i — of temper. 
 
 (4) A false person ought to be looked upon as a public enemy, and 
 a disturber of the 4^ of mankind. 
 
 im \ 
 
 (3) Substitute other words for the italicized words ia 
 the following sentences : 
 
 (1) All the Mule powers, enmous and unfriendli/, would have to 
 keep standing armies, great in proportion to the resources for sus- 
 taining them, and the consequent taxes would impoverish the peo- 
 ple to the point of hopeless and everlasting ruin. 
 
 (3) His love of outward nature had the power and pervasiveness of 
 a passion; his observation of its most trifling beauties was exceed- 
 
 ingl^/fme; and his delinedtions, both of landscapes and figures, were 
 
 \ so clearly sketched as toimpress them on the mind almost as indelibly 
 
 and deeply as the perception of them could have done. 
 
 (3) This, then, is the stage on which the mind of America is to 
 appear, and such the impulses to its exertion; such the body to be 
 moved by its forces, such the multitude to behold its attempts, such 
 the honor to crown its success. 
 
 (4) They beseech us, by the protracted struggles of striving human- 
 . . ity; by the blessed recollections of the departed; by the holy pledges, 
 
 which have been given by spotless hands, to the sacred cause of truth 
 and man; by the dreadful mysteries of the prison houses, where the 
 
316 THE ELEMENTS OE BHETOBIO. 
 
 sons of liberty have been inca/rcerated; by the noble heads which 
 have been brought to the ax, by the ruins of time, by the eloquent 
 remains of nations they i/m/plore us not to extinguish the light which 
 is rising in the world. 
 
 (5) Cooper possesses the power of imparting to his sketches a sur- 
 prising reality. They are not mere eopies of nature, though as such 
 they would have unusual excellence, but actual creations, incorporat- 
 ing the very soul of intelligent and pleasant experience and percep- 
 tion. His samages, notwithstanding all that has been said to the 
 contrary, are no more inferior in triUhfuZness, than they are in 
 poetic attractiveness to those of his most fortunate copyists or 
 
 (3) Construct sentences containing the following 
 words : 
 
 (1) Kill, murder, assassinate. 
 (3) Pale, pallid, wan. 
 
 (3) Sufficient, enough. 
 
 (4) Consist in, consist of. 
 
 (5) Abandon, desert, forsake. 
 
 (6) Aged, ancient, old, obsolete, venerable. 
 
 (7) Discover, invent, design. 
 
 (8) Account, narrative, narration, recital. 
 
 (9) Avow, admit, confess, assert. 
 (10) Do, exercise, practise, perform. 
 
 ' (4) Vary the following sentences by denying the con- 
 trary, imitating the example on page 95. 
 
 (1) Lafayette made a' great sacrifice for this Republic. 
 
 (2) Charles is indolent and slow to learn. 
 
 (3) The meal was excellent for the occasion. 
 
 (4) The devotion of one's life to his country is as noble as afEection 
 for his friends. 
 
 (5) They found him where they had left him, and still liring. 
 
 (6) His voice was musical ami his manner .attractive. 
 
 (7) Among tlie friends of Csesar, Marc Antony held a promi- 
 nent place. 
 
EXERCISES IN STYLE. 317 
 
 (8) There is great difficulty in showing truth in suoh a light as 
 to make it more engaging than error to those who think little and 
 without system. 
 
 (9) Experience is the best guide in matters that require much skill. 
 (10) Truth is friendly to all worthy designs. 
 
 (5) Vary the following sentences by circumlocution, 
 following the examples on page 95. 
 
 (1) It is raining. 
 
 (2) Lincoln is dead. 
 
 (3) Rome has been modernized. 
 
 (4) Geography is useful. 
 
 (5) The sky at night is beautiful. 
 
 (6) Geology is a pleasant study. 
 
 (7) The birds of the air have nests. 
 
 (8) The sun has set. 
 
 (9) The ocean sleeps. 
 (10) Knowledge is power. 
 
 (6) Vary the following sentences by recasting them, 
 throwing them into as many forms as possible, and select- 
 ing the best, following the examples on page 96. 
 
 (1) The earth is a spheroid. ^ 
 
 (3) The sun is the center of our system. 
 
 (3) George Washington has been called the " Father of his Coun- 
 try." 
 
 (4) Great Britain is an island. 
 
 (5) Gold is the most beautiful metal. '' 
 
 (6) Government is necessary to society. ' 
 
 (7) Milton wrote the greatest epic in our language. 
 
 (8) The Bible is a very ancient book. 
 
 (9) Light is opposed to darkness. 
 (10) The age of chivalry has gone. 
 
 (7) Change the following declarative sentences into the 
 form of a question, and decide which form is the better, 
 keeping in mind the statements on page 91. 
 
318 THE ELEMENTS OF BHETOBIC. 
 
 (1) He is a freeman whom the truth makes free. 
 (3) -Honor is dearer than life. 
 
 (3) We are all doomed to suffer. 
 
 (4) Thou canst not draw out leviathan with a hook. 
 
 (5) A false witness should not be trusted. 
 
 (6) Heaven does not smile on vice. 
 
 (7) Crime i^ its own punishment. 
 
 (8) Virtue is its own incentive, and its own reward. 
 
 (9) No one can scale the Alps. 
 (10) We should ijot fear to do right. 
 
 (8) Change the following declarative sentences into the 
 form of exclamations, and decide which form is the better, 
 following the examples on page 97. 
 
 (1) This is a glorious day. 
 
 (3) Conscience whips the guilty. ■ ' 
 
 (3) Pride is humbled. 
 
 (4) Our free institutions are noble. 
 
 (5) Midnight on the ocean is grand. 
 
 (6) The trees are fruitless this year. 
 
 (7) That was a heroic deed. 
 
 (8) The night is dark. 
 
 (9) It was a pitiful sight. ^ . , - 
 ' (10) The trials of life are many, ^,y~. •,/,.'••■■ 
 
 (9) Change the following sentences by using a difEerent 
 voice, following the example on page 98. 
 
 (1) Peace was declared by the two countries after ten years of 
 war. 
 
 (3) A grateful nation has called George Washington the " Father 
 of his Country." 
 
 (3) Africa, so long a terra incognita, has recently been explored by 
 many enterprising men of science. 
 
 (4) Newton discovered the law of univereal gravitation. 
 
 (5) Socrates was put to death by a tribunal of Athenian^:. 
 
MXEBOISES JJV STYLE. 319 
 
 (10) Vary the following sentences by using there and it, 
 following the examples on page 98. 
 
 (1) Four white elephants werq attached to the royal chariot. 
 
 (2) The distance from New York to San Francisco is about three 
 thousand miles. U-'_^ .0. t' y'v. 
 
 (3) That every American citizen should both read and write, is 
 |)lain to every thoughtful mind. ' 
 
 (4) An eclipse of the moon will occur soon. • '■ 
 
 (5) Julius Csesar is the Roman consul who was killed in the 
 Capitol. 
 
 (11) Vary the following sentences by changing from the 
 direct to the indirect form of statement, or vice versa, fol- 
 lowing the example on page 98. 
 
 (1) Macaulay said that Lord Byron was the most celebrated man 
 of the nineteenth century. 
 
 (3) As Charles I. of England was led to the scafEold, he said, "I 
 go from a corruptible to an incorruptible crown; where no disturb- 
 ance can have place.'' 
 
 (3) Webster says in one of his speeches : " The public opinion of 
 the civilized world is rapidly gaining an ascendency over mere brute 
 force." 
 
 (4) Whipple says that Daniel Webster was great by original con- 
 stitution. 
 
 (5) On hearing the announcement of victory, General Wolfe, who 
 was mortally wounded, said to his attendants that he died happy. 
 
 (13) Vary the following sentences by transposition, 
 keeping in mind the illustrations on page 99. 
 
 (1) Parents I have who love me well. 
 
 (2) The rainbow comes and goes and lovely is the rose. 
 
 (3) Slow rises worth by poverty oppressed. 
 
 (4) Such joy ambition fii^ds. 
 
 (5) Large was his bounty and his soul sincere. 
 
320 THE ELEMENTS OP BHETOBIG. 
 
 (13) Vary the following expressions by abridging clauses 
 into phrases or words, following the examples on page 99. 
 
 (1) He heard thrSTwe hadTeHrtown. fh :\ c* . 
 ./) (3) His tru^t was one that could notTB^-sliakeii. /^ i __ 
 
 ' lA^i(8^-Af ter he arrived, we had- a convoPDoti on. (^f-v-^ y-t v - a-^--' - 
 
 (4) 4^house which is desirable can be sold at almost any time. 
 
 (5) That his views have changed makes a difference in his conduct. 
 
 (6) If this is the plan that they have adopted, they will not succeed. 
 
 (7) His intention was that his hope might encourage his friends. 
 
 (8) He stated the cause why he was absent. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 
 SECTION" I. 
 
 The Grammatical Points. 
 
 (1) Use the Comma in the following sentences wherevei 
 it is required by the rules on pages 104-109. 
 
 Rule I. 
 
 (1) Truth from whatever source it is derived is worthy of our 
 acceptance. 
 
 (2) All men therefore should reverence truth. 
 
 (3) The faithful soldier no doubt will be honored by his country. 
 
 (4) Well times change as men change. 
 
 (5) Yes that is true. 
 
 (6) Wealth although it is a great convenience is not the chief 
 blessing of life. 
 
 (7) However truthfully we speak we shall sometimes misrepresent 
 reality. 
 
 (8) Again property has a claim upon legal protection from the 
 burdens placed upon the owner of property. 
 
 (9) This life in short is not the only one for which provision must 
 be made. 
 
 (10) Confidence moreover is influential upon trade. 
 
 Rule II. 
 
 (1) Milton the writer of " Paradise Lost " was also a great politi- 
 cian. 
 (3) Priestly the discoverer of oxygen was a voluminous writer. 
 (3) Napoleon has been called the "man of destiny." 
 
323 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 (4) Paul the apostle was a bitter persecutor of the faith he after- 
 ward preached to the Greeks and Romans. 
 
 (5) Howard the prisoner's friend devoted his life to philanthropy. 
 
 Rule III. 
 
 (1) The Zend-Avesta which is the sacred book of the followers of 
 Zoroaster is very ancient. 
 
 (2) He is a noble citizen and a good father who remembers in the 
 education of his sons that the state has need of men who love it and 
 who understand its laws. 
 
 (3) It is not strange that life has trials, temptations, and toils 
 which test, endanger, and weary men. 
 
 (4) The author who in any department of literature would win 
 success has increasing difficulties with the progress of time. 
 
 (5) The sorrows which wring our hearts often leave them better 
 fitted for life's realities. 
 
 Rule IV. 
 
 (1) The discourse was beautifully elegantly forcibly delivered. 
 (3) Industry honesty and temperance are essential to happiness. 
 
 (3) The man professed neither to eat nor drink nor sleep. 
 
 (4) All have some conception of truth kindness honesty self- 
 denial and disinterestedness. 
 
 (5) His uncle had a beautiful white horse. 
 
 Rule V. 
 
 (1) Night was approaching the birds were seeking their resting- 
 places the plowmen were turning homeward and the cattle were 
 gathering from the fields. 
 
 (3) Queen Mary was dead Elizabeth was the choice of the nation 
 and her friends were ready to proclaim her monarch of the realm. 
 
 (3) In times of peace industry is paramount in times of war the 
 arts of destruction in times of transition the nation holds one hand 
 on the plow the other on the sword, 
 
 (4) Crafty men contemn studies simple men admire them and wise 
 men use them. 
 
EXEBCISEa IN PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 323 
 
 Rule VI. 
 
 (1) If men were all virtuous and intelligent there would never be 
 another war. 
 
 (2) He spent years in the most irksome pursuits in order that he 
 might train his mind to any form of application. 
 
 (3) He felt that it was a gfeat injustice to have no opportunity of 
 defense. 
 
 (4) It was the purpose of his whole life that he might end it in 
 honor. 
 
 (5) Unless there is a change among men society must still suffer 
 many inconveniences. 
 
 Rule VII. 
 
 (1) In perusing the works of enlightened men we ought to think 
 much. 
 (3) Of all our senses sight is the most perfect. 
 
 (3) In order to improve the mind we ought less to learn than to 
 contemplate. 
 
 (4) To every character its fitting position and appropriate function 
 have been assigned. 
 
 (5) Prom the right exercise of our intellectual powers arises one of 
 the chief sources of our happiness. 
 
 Rule VIII. 
 
 (1) He that places himself neither higher nor lower than he ought 
 to do exercises the truest humility. 
 
 (2) To become conversant with a certain department of literature 
 only has a tendency to make our views narrow and our impressions 
 incorrect. 
 
 (3) The evil that men do lives after them. 
 
 (4) The boldness of these predictions the apparent proximity of 
 their fulfilment and the imposing oratory of the preacher struck 
 awe into the hearts of his audience. 
 
 Rule IX. 
 
 (1) Having the inward life men cannot conceal it ; having divine 
 treasures they will not hoard them. 
 
a34 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETOBIO. 
 
 (2) Surpassing the boast of the too confident Roman Napoleon but 
 stamped on the earth and a creation of enchantment arose. 
 
 (3) Sitting by the fountain he sang for the passers-by. 
 
 (4) Awaiting the blow he stood calm but expectant. 
 
 (5) Having abandoned our vices let us try to acquire virtues. 
 
 Kule X.' 
 
 (1) Earth and sky plant and animal leaf and blossom aUke are 
 full of wonders. 
 
 (2) Caesar and Napoleon Virgil and Milton Cicero and Burke 
 prove clearly that man is animated by the same aspirations and 
 possesses about the same powers in every age of the world. 
 
 (3) The dying man cares not for houses or lands gold or bonds 
 offices or honors. 
 
 (4) Virtue without industry and idleness without vice are impossi- 
 bilities. 
 
 Rule XI. 
 
 (1) Semirami.s built Babylon; Dido Carthage; and Romulus 
 Rome. 
 
 (2) Truth belongs to the man ; error to his age. 
 
 (3) Industry brings wealth and honor; indolence poverty and dis- 
 grace. 
 
 (4) The Greeks were great artists ; the Romans great exeeuti\;es. 
 
 (5) Old men are slaves to others; young men to themselves. 
 
 Rule Xn. 
 
 (1) Father you deserve my deepest gratitude. 
 
 (2) You and I John were happy in our old home. 
 
 (3) It was then good friends that your assistance was most.needed. 
 
 (4) I rise Mr. President to state a point of order. 
 
 (5) This King is my only plea for mercy. 
 
 Rule XIII. 
 
 (1) The old proverb is All is not gold that glitters. 
 
 (2) Patrick Henry began a famous oration by saying " It is natural 
 to man to indulge in the illusions of hope." 
 
EXEBGISES IN PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 335 
 
 (3) The question now arises shall the voter be required to read his 
 own ballot. 
 
 (4) It has long been a matter of interest whether all men can use 
 one language. 
 
 (5) It has been divinely declared " Man shall not live by bread 
 alone." 
 
 Rule XIV. 
 
 (1) The distance from the earth to the moon is said to be about 
 340000 miles. 
 
 (3) The highest mountain in the moon is said to be 1V138 feet 
 high. 
 
 (3) The surface of the earth contains 148513000 miles. 
 
 (4) In the year 1876 the first national centennial was celebrated. 
 
 (5) The sun is eight hundred and eighty-three thousand two hun- 
 dred and ten miles in diameter. 
 
 (3) Use the Semicolon wherever it is required in the 
 
 following sentences, according to the rules stated on pages 
 
 109-111. 
 
 Rule I. 
 
 (1) The storm has passed the clouds are departing the sunshine 
 will soon brighten the scene the laborers resume their toils. 
 
 (3) The true orator has perfect command of himself he is a master 
 of his theme he rules his audience he holds them by the power of 
 his thought he warns them by the emotions of his heart. 
 
 (3) We pay no homage at the tomb of kings to sublime our feel- 
 ings we trace no line of illustrious ancestors to support our dignity 
 we recur to no usages, sanctioned by the authority of the great, to 
 protract our rejoicing. 
 
 Rule II. 
 
 (1) That darkness of character, where we can see no heart those 
 foldings of art, through which no native affection is allowed to 
 penetrate present an object, unamiable in every season of life, but 
 particularly odious in youth. 
 
 (3) The creation of a thousand forests is in one acorn and Egypt, 
 Greece, Rome, Gaul, Britain, America lie folded already in the first 
 
326 THE ELEMENTS OP RHETORIC. 
 
 (3) The path of truth is a plain and safe path that of falsehood, a, 
 perplexing maze. 
 
 (4) The golden rule is a protest against selfishness, and selfishness, 
 cleaving as it does to the inmost core of our being, is the besetting 
 sin of the world. 
 
 (5) Every thing that happens is both a cause and an effect being 
 the effect of what goes before, and the cause of what follows. 
 
 Rule III. 
 
 (1) Modesty is one of the chief ornaments of youth and has ever 
 been esteemed a presage of rising merit. 
 
 (2) Men must have recreation and literature and art furnish that 
 which is most pure, innocent, and I'efining. 
 
 (3) The violent spirit, like troubled waters, renders back the 
 images of things distorted and broken and communicates to them 
 all that disordered motion which arises solely from its own agitation. 
 
 (4) Endless existence is a great truth but an immortality of pure 
 affection and holy employments is far greater 
 
 Rule IV. 
 
 (1) The parts of Grammar are four Orthography, Etymology, Syn- 
 tax, and Prosody. 
 
 (2) Poetry is usually divided into four kinds Epic, Lyric, Dramatic, 
 and Didactic. 
 
 (8) There were three Fates Clotho, Laohesis, and Atropos. 
 
 (4) Whately mentions three operations of the mind in logical 
 processes Simple apprehension, Judgment, and Reasoning. 
 
 (5) There are three noble virtues faith, hope, and charity. 
 
 Rule V. 
 
 (1) If thou hast never tasted the holy peace which descends into 
 the simplest heart, when it fervently realizes the presence of God 
 if no gleam from the future life ever brightens the earthly way if 
 the sores and irritations of thy contact with the world are never 
 soothed and softened by the healing consciousness of a divine love 
 thou hast studied to little purpose, and the fountains of a true hap- 
 piness are yet sealed up to thee. 
 
 (2) That benevolence which prompted Jesus to incessant exertion 
 
BXEUCISES IN PUNOTUATIOJSr AND 0APITAL8. 327 
 
 which supported him through unparalleled suffering which was alike 
 the soul of his discourses, his actions, and his miracles which shone 
 through his life and his death whose splendors were around his brow 
 when he expired on the cross, and when he sat down on the right 
 hand of the Majesty on high, what is it but a glorious revelation of 
 the glorious truth that God is love? 
 
 (3) No matter in what language his doom may have been pro- 
 nouiioed, no matter what complexion incompatible with freedom an 
 Indian or an African sun may have burned upon him, no matter 
 with what solemnities he may have been devoted on the altar of 
 slavery the moment he touches the sacred soil of Britain, the altar 
 and the god sink together in the dust, his soul walks abroad in her 
 own majesty, his body swells beyond the chains that burst from 
 around him, and he stands redeemed, regenerated, and disenthralled 
 by the irresistible genius of Universal Bmaucipation. 
 
 (3) Use the Colon wherever it is required in the follow- 
 ing sentences, according to the rules on pages 111, 113. 
 
 Kule I. 
 
 (1) The three great enemies to tranquillity are vice, superstition 
 and idleness vice, which poisons and disturbs the mind with bad 
 passions; superstition, which fills it with imaginary terrors; idle- 
 ness, which loads it with tediousness and disgust. 
 
 (2) Every one must, of course, think his own opinions right ; for, 
 if he thought them wrong, they would no longer be his opinions but 
 there is a wide difference between regarding ourselves as infallible, 
 and being firmly convinced of the tnith of our creed. 
 
 Rule II. 
 
 (1) Birth and death have an indissoluble correlation they presup- 
 pose each other. 
 
 (2) There is true eloquence, which you cannot too much honor it 
 calls into vigorous exercise both the understanding and the heart of 
 the hearer. 
 
 (3) The silence of nature is more impressive, would we understand 
 it, than any speech could be it expresses what no speech can utter. 
 
 (4) Satire should not be Uke a saw, but a sword it should out, and 
 not mangle. 
 
328 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Kule III. 
 
 (1) The Samnites said to the Romans " There shall be no peace in 
 Italy, till the forest be rooted up in which the Roman wolves have 
 made themselves a covert." 
 
 (3) When his architect offered to build him a house in which he 
 could screen all his acts from his neighbors, Drusus said "Build me 
 rather a dwelling wherein all my countrymen may witness all I do." 
 
 (3) Merivale says " M. Aurelius was among the most virtuous of 
 men, but there was an inherent weakness in his character, of which 
 some traces appear in his writings, but which were manifested more 
 plainly to his countrymen in the indulgence with which he over- 
 looked the vices of his empress, and allowed himself to nominate a 
 worthless son as his successor." 
 
 Rule IV. 
 
 See Rule III. for the period. 
 
 (4) Use the Period in the following sentences, whereyer 
 required, according to the rules on pages 113, 114. 
 
 Rule I. 
 
 (1) At the time when Johnson commenced his literary career, a 
 writer had little to hope from the patronage of powerful individuals 
 The patronage of the public did not yet furnish the means of com- 
 fortable subsistence The prices paid by booksellers were so low that 
 a man of considerable talents and unremitting industry could do 
 little more than provide for the day which was passing over him 
 The lean Idne had eaten up the fat kine 
 
 (2) In the age of our great rhetoricians, it is remarkable that the 
 English language had never been made an object of conscious atten- 
 tion No man seems to have reflected that there was a wrong and a 
 right in the choice of words, in the mechanism of sentences, or even 
 in the grammar 
 
 Rule II. 
 
 (1) C L Banks, M D, Albany N Y 
 
 (2) Rev J L Mason, D D, LL D, Boston, Mass 
 
EXERCISES IN PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 339 
 
 (3) Wm P Thompson, Esq, Richmond, Va 
 
 (4) Hon John S Dow, LL D, St Louis, Mo 
 
 (5) Messrs Sheldon & Co, No. 734 Broadway 
 
 (6) Jas Low, 14 Essex St 
 
 Rule III. 
 
 (1) 
 
 THE 
 
 UFB AND GROWTH 
 
 OF 
 
 LANGUAGE 
 
 An Outline of Linguistic Science 
 
 BY 
 
 Wm Dwight Whitney PhD 
 
 Professor of Sanscrit in 
 
 Tale College. 
 
 New York 
 
 D Appleton & Company 
 
 1875 
 
 (S) 
 
 THE SCIENCE OP 
 
 AESTHETICS 
 
 OK 
 
 THE NATURE KINDS LAWS 
 AND USES OF 
 
 BEAUTY 
 
 BY 
 
 Henry N Day 
 
 Author of Logic Art of Dis- 
 course etc 
 
 New Haven Conn 
 
 Charles C Chatfield & Co 
 
 1872 
 
 SECTION II. 
 The Rhbtokical Points. 
 
 (1) Use the Mark of Interrogation wherever it is re- 
 quired in the following sentences, according to the rules 
 on pages 114, 115. 
 
 (1) Taking up the subject upon general grounds, I ask what is 
 meant by the word Poet What is a, Poet To whom does he ad- 
 dress himself And what language is to be expected from him. 
 
330 THE ELEMENTS OF BHETOBIC. 
 
 (3) Do you think nothing of the ruin and the miseries in which so 
 many other individuals, still remaining in Africa, are involved, in 
 consequence of carrying off so many myriads of people Do you 
 think nothing of their families which are left behind of the connec- 
 tions which are broken of the friendships, attachments, and relation- 
 ships tliat are burst asunder. 
 
 (3) Which is to be obeyed, appetite or reflection Cannot this 
 question be answered from the economy and constitution of human 
 nature merely, without saying which is strongest Or need this at 
 all come into consideration. 
 
 (2) Use the Exclamation Point wherever it is required 
 in the following sentences, according to the rules on pages 
 115, 116. 
 
 (1) Think of eighty thousand persons carried away out of their 
 country by what we know not what means for crimes imputed for 
 light or inconsiderable faults for debt, perhaps for the crime of 
 witchcraft or a thousand other weak and scandalous pretexts. 
 
 (2) What an object of wonder and awe is an old castle to a boy- 
 ish imagination Its height, how dreadful up to whose moldering 
 edges his fear carries him, and hangs over the battlements What 
 beauty in those unapproachable wall-flowers, that cast a brightness 
 on the old brown stones of the edifice, and make the horror pleasing. 
 
 (3) Alas poor creature 1 will soon revenge this cruelty upon the 
 author of it. 
 
 (4) Oh bloodiest picture in the book of time Sarmatia fell, un- 
 wept, without a crime. 
 
 (5) Oh you are wounded my lord. 
 
 (6) Providence how many poor insects of thine are exposed to be 
 trodden to death in each path. 
 
 (3) Use the Dash wherever it is required in the follow- 
 ing sentences, according to the rules on pages 116-118. 
 
 (1) My lords, I did not intend to encroach so much upon your 
 attention: but I cannot repress my indignation I feel myself com 
 pelled to speak. 
 
EXERCmES IN PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 331 
 
 (3) He saw in her the picture of all who talked about religion I 
 knew better. 
 
 (3) If thou art he, so much respected once but, oh, how fallen! 
 
 (4) Approaching the head of the bed, where my poor young com- 
 panion, with throat uncovered, was lying, with one hand the mon- 
 ster grasped his knife, and with the other ah, cousin ! with the other 
 he seized a ham ! 
 
 (5) Shakespeare is above all other writers, at least above all mod- 
 ern writers, the poet of nature the poet that holds up to his readers 
 a faithful mirror of manners and life. 
 
 (6) Of genius that which constitutes a poet ; that quality without 
 which judgment is cold, and knowledge is inert; that energy which 
 collects, combines, amplifies, and animates the superiority must, 
 with some hesitation, be allowed to Dryden. 
 
 (7) Jesus, who knew it well, assures you that a single grain, and a 
 grain as small as a mustard-seed, would remove a mountain remove 
 a mountain-load of guilt from the conscience a mountain-load of 
 trouble from the mind, a mountain-load from the heart. 
 
 (8) If you choose to represent the various parts in life by holes 
 upon a table, of difEerent shapes some circular, some triangular, 
 some square, some oblong and the persons acting these parts by bits 
 of wood of similar shapes, we shall generally find that the triangular 
 person has got into the square hole, the oblong into the triangular, 
 and a square person has squeezed himself into a round hole. 
 
 (9) Indeed, all the poets of the age and none can dispute that they 
 must likewise be the best critics have given up to him [Wordsworth] 
 the palm in that poetry which commences with the forms, and hues, 
 and odors, and sounds of the material world. 
 
 (10) In such a state of things it is evident that a pardon which did 
 not bring back the wanderer, and restore his lost gravitation, would 
 be of no use to him, until his gravitation is recovered, he is a blot on 
 the creation. 
 
 (4) Use Marks of Parenthesis in the following sentences 
 wherever they are required by the rule on page 119. 
 
 (1) Now we know the language that the very learned part of this 
 nation must trust to live by, unless it be to make a bond or prescribe 
 a purge which possibly may not oblige or work so well in any other 
 language as Latin is the English. 
 
332 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 (2) Blount and Fitz-Eustace rested still 
 With Lady Clare upon the hill; 
 
 On which for far the day was spent 
 The western sunbeams now were bent. 
 
 (3) There never lived a man, he said, to whom the lines of Marcus 
 Antonius Plaminius the sweetest of all Latin poets in modern times, 
 or perhaps of any age could more truly be applied. 
 
 (4) Felthara's "Resolves " " resolve," in the sense of solution of a 
 preblem, published in 1637, is a work of the same kind. 
 
 (5) The beauty of the language, the easy and artless graces of the 
 style, the lucidity of the reasoning, the fairness shown to the other 
 side for Berkeley always treats his opponents like a gentleman and 
 gives them credit for sincerity, not with supercilious and censorious 
 arrogance, like such writers as Bishop Warburton, are among its 
 many excellences. 
 
 (5) Use Marks of Quotation in the following examples 
 wherever they are required, according to the rules on 
 pages 130, 131. 
 
 (1) Retiring to her mausoleum, where lay the body of Antonius. 
 she [CleopatraJ crowned his tomb with flowers, and was found the 
 next morning dead on her couch, her two women expiring at her 
 side. Is this well? exclaimed the affrighted emissary of Octavins. 
 It is well, replied the dying Charmion, and worthy of the daughter 
 of kings. 
 
 (2) When he was approaching his death, so nins the story, Tibe- 
 rius exclaimed : After my death perish the world in fire ! 
 
 (3) In describing the vast influence of a perfect orator over the 
 feelings and passions of his audience, Sheridan forcibly says: Not- 
 withstanding the diversity of minds in such a multitude, by the 
 lightning of eloquence they are melted into one mass; the whole 
 assembly, actuated in one and the same way, become, as it were, but 
 one man, and have but one voice. The universal cry is, Let us 
 march against Philip: let us fight for our liberties: let us conquer 
 or die 1 
 
 (4) Now is the time to watch her closely, Mr. Griflith, he cried; 
 here we get the true tide and the real danger. Place the best quar- 
 termaster of your ship in those chains, and let an officer stand by 
 him, and see that he gives us the right water. 
 
EXERCISES IN PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 333 
 
 I will take that office on myself, said the captain ; pass a light into 
 the weather main-chains. 
 
 Stand by your braces ! exclaimed the pilot with startling quickness. 
 Heave away that lead ! 
 
 (5) Channing writes as follows on the freedom of the mind: 
 
 I call that mind free, which resists the bondage of habit, which 
 does not mechanically repeat itself and copy the past, which does not 
 live on its old virtues, which does not enslave itself to precise rules, 
 but which forgets what is behind, listens for new and higher moni- 
 tions of conscience, and rejoices to pour itself forth in fresh and 
 higher exertions. 
 
 I call that mind free, which is jealous of its own freedom, which 
 guards itself from being merged in others, which guards its empire 
 over itself as nobler than the empire of the world. 
 
 SECTIOJSr III. 
 Capital Letters. 
 
 (1) Use capital letters in the following exercises wher- 
 ever they are required, according to the rules on pages 
 134-138. 
 
 (1) my reverence and affection for him were in full glow, i said 
 to him, "my dear sir, we must meet every year, if you don't quarrel 
 with me." 
 
 (3) he asked me plainly, will you stay where you are or go with 
 us? 
 
 (3) the morning broke, light stole upon the clouds with a 
 strange beauty, earth received again its garment of a thousand 
 dyes ; and leaves, and delicate blossoms, and the painted flowers, and 
 every thing that bendeth to the dew, and stirreth to the daylight, 
 lifted up its beauty to the breath of that sweet morn. 
 
 (4) Among the writings of John stuart mill, there is none that 
 deserves more attention than his "system of logic.'' 
 
 (5) The scriptures should be held in reverence for what they are 
 and for what they have done. 
 
334 THE ELEMENTS OF RUETORIG. 
 
 (6) The fatal result was prevented through providence. 
 
 (7) It is cheering to toiling disconsolate humanity to know amid 
 the labors and sorrows ol life that he who rules in all parts of the 
 universe, and who foreknows the issues of all time, has called him- 
 self our heavenly father. 
 
 (8) The hindoo regards his shaster with a peculiar reverence. 
 
 (9) The greeks were accustomed to call themselves Tiettenes and 
 tlieir country hellas, from hellen, son of deucalion. 
 
 (10) The north and the south, the east and the west, have their 
 separate interests. 
 
 (11) The detroit river connects lake huron with lake erie. 
 
 (12) The christian religion has made slow progress in mohamme- 
 dan countries. 
 
 (13) The congregation alists differ from the episcopalians in their 
 views of government. 
 
 (14) He visited my house on Saturday, the 13th of may. 
 
 (15) All his family that remained in england, were allowed access 
 to him. It consisted only of the princess elizabeth and the duke of 
 gloucester; for the duke of york had made liis escape, gloueester 
 was little more than an infant; the princess, notwitlistiinding her 
 tender years, showed an advanced judgment; and the calamities of 
 her family had made a deep impression upon her. After many pious 
 consolations and advices, the king gave her in charge to tell ihe 
 queen, that, during the whole course of his life he had never once, 
 even in thought, failed in his fidelity toward her. 
 
 (16) The constitution of the united states is worthy of careful 
 study by every american youth. 
 
 (17) The elizabethan age produced Shakespeare, spenser, Sidney, 
 bacon, and raleigh. 
 
 (18) The american revolution was an important event in the his- 
 tory of the world. 
 
 (19) The inability of mere learning to make men wise, is well illus- 
 trated in the long and bitter controversy of the nominalists and 
 realists. 
 
 (20) Among the prominent literary men of the century, the nobil- 
 ity can claim lord byron, lord derby, lord disraeli, lord russell, and 
 many others. 
 
 (2) Capitalize and punctuate the following in two 
 ways : one to represent a verj- bad man, and the other 
 
EXEECISE8 Zy PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 335 
 
 a very good man, applying all the rules previously 
 given. 
 
 He is an old man and experienced in vice and wickedness he is 
 never found in opposing the works of iniquity he takes delight in 
 the downfall of his neighbors he never rejoices in the prosperity of 
 liis fellow-creatures he is always ready to assist in destroying the 
 peace of society he takes no pleasure in serving the lord he is un- 
 commonly diligent in sowing discord among his friends and 
 acquaintances he takes no pride in laboring to promote the cause. of 
 Christianity he has not been negligent in endeavoring to stigmatize 
 all public teachers he makes no effort to subdue his evil passions he 
 strives hard to build up satans kingdom he lends no aid to the sup- 
 port of the gospel among the heathen he contributes largely to the 
 devil he will never go to heaven he must go where he will receive the 
 just recompense of reward. 
 
 (3) Capitalize and punctuate the following passages, 
 applying all the rules previously given. 
 
 (1) Thus lived and died william iii king of great britain and prince 
 of orange he had a thin and weak body was brown-haired and of a 
 clear and delicate constitution he had a roman eagle nose bright and 
 sparkling eyes a large front and a countenance composed to gravity 
 and authority all his senses were critical and exquisite he was always 
 asthmatical and the dregs of the small-pox falling on his lungs he 
 had a constant deep cough his behavior was solemn and serious 
 seldom cheerful siiid but with a few he spoke little and very slowly 
 and most commonly with a disgusting dryness which was his char- 
 acter at all times except in a day of battle for then he was all fire 
 though without passion he was then everywhere and looked to every- 
 thing he had no great advantage from his education de witts dis- 
 courses were of great use to him and he being apprehensive of the 
 observation of those who were looking narrowly into everything he 
 said or did had brought himself under an habitual caution that he 
 could never shake off though in another scene it proved as hurtful 
 as it was then necessary to his affairs he spoke dutch french english 
 and german equally well and understood latin Spanish and Italian 
 so that he was well fitted to command armies composed of several 
 nations. }ywmet. 
 
336 THB ELEMENTS OF REETOBIG. 
 
 (3) Hudibras has defined nonsense as oowley does wit by negatives 
 nonsense says he is that which is neither true nor false these two great 
 properties of nonsense which are always essential to it give it such a 
 peculiar advantage over all other writing that it is incapable of being 
 either answered or contradicted it stands on its own basis like a rock 
 of adamant secured by its natural situation against all conquests or 
 attacks there is no one place about it weaker than another to favor 
 an enemy in his approaches the major and the minor are of equal 
 strength its questions admit of no reply and its assertions are not to 
 be invalidated a man may as well .hope to distinguish colors in the 
 midst of darkness as to find out what to approve and disapprove in 
 nonsense you may as well assault an army that is buried in intrench- 
 ments if it affirms anything you cannot lay hold of it or if it denies 
 you cannot confute it in a word there are greater depths and ob- 
 scurities greater intricacies and perplexities in an elaborate and 
 well-written piece of nonsense than in the most abstruse and pro- 
 found tract of school-divinity, adduon. 
 
 (3) This single stick which you now behold ingloriously lying in 
 that neglected corner i once knew in a- flourishing state in a forest 
 it was full of sap full of leaves and full of boughs it is now at 
 best but the reverse of what it was a tree turned upside down the 
 branches on the earth and the root in the air it is now handled by 
 every dirty wench condemned to do her drudgery and by a cap- 
 ricious kind of fate destined toTnake her things clean and be nastv 
 in itself at length worn out to the stumps in the service of the maids 
 it is either thrown out of doors or condemned to the last use oi 
 kindling a fire when i beheld this I sighed and said within myself 
 surely mortal man is a bj-oomstick nature sent him into the 
 world strong and lusty in a thriving condition wearing his own 
 hair on his head the proper branches of this reasonable vege- 
 table until the axe of intemperance has lopped off his green 
 boughs and left him a withered trunk he then flies to art and 
 puts on a periwig valuing himself upon an unnatural bundle 
 of hairs all covered with powder that never grew on his head 
 but now should this our broomstick pretend to enter the scene proud 
 of those birchen spoils it never bore and all covered with dust 
 though the sweepings of the finest ladys chamber we should be apt 
 to ridicule and despise its vanity partial judges that we are of our 
 own excellences and other mens defaults, swift. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 SPECIAL FORMS OF COMPOSITION. 
 SECTION I. 
 Desceiptioi^s. 
 
 (1) Using the materials furnished, write a short de- 
 scription on the following subjects, observing the rules 
 on pages 164-166. 
 
 I. 
 A Ship. 
 
 Materials : (1) The name. (3) The dimensions. (3) The ton- 
 nage. (4) Por what service. (5) Power of sailing. (6) Propelled 
 by sails or steam. (7) Constructed of what material, number of 
 masts, etc. (8) Accommodation for passengers. (9) Character of 
 the captain. (10) The crew, their disposition and efficiency. 
 
 n. 
 
 A Journey. 
 
 Materi(ds : (1) In England, or on the continent. (2) Eailway, 
 steamboat, carriage. (3) The towns. (4) Characteristics of the 
 people. (5) The language or dialect. (6) The scenery or general 
 appearance of the country. (7) The incidents of the journey. (8) 
 The number of the party traveling together. (9) The hotel accom- 
 modation. (10) The object ojE the journey. (11) The time it occu- 
 pied. (13) The return home. 
 
338 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. 
 
 ni. 
 
 A Country Walk. 
 
 (1) The weather and time of the year. (3) Number 
 of companions. (3) Meadows, green lanes, high roads, etc. (4) 
 Prospects. (5) Gentlemen's seats, farm-houses, woods, rivers, etc. 
 (6) Incidents: storm, rain, people met. 
 
 (3) Write, in a similar maimer, a description of the 
 following : 
 
 1. 
 
 A Sea-port Town. 
 
 18. A Fleet. 
 
 3. 
 
 A Telescope. 
 
 19. A Costume. 
 
 3. 
 
 A Pianoforte. 
 
 30. A Conflagration. 
 
 4. 
 
 A School-rooffl. 
 
 31. A Tempest. 
 
 5. 
 
 A Writing-desk. 
 
 32. A Lighthouse. 
 
 6. 
 
 A River. 
 
 33. A Carriage. 
 
 7. 
 
 A Cathedral. 
 
 24. A Calendar. 
 
 8. 
 
 A Manufactory. 
 
 25. New York. 
 
 9. 
 
 A Bridge. 
 
 36. A University. 
 
 10. 
 
 A Palace. 
 
 27. A Railway. 
 
 11. 
 
 A Mine. 
 
 38. A Custom-house 
 
 13. 
 
 A Mountain. 
 
 29. A Cemetery. 
 
 13. 
 
 A Man-of-war. 
 
 30. A Library. 
 
 14. 
 
 A Monastery. 
 
 31. An Army. 
 
 15. 
 
 A Prison. 
 
 33. A Pestilence. 
 
 16. 
 
 A Portress. 
 
 33. An Estate. 
 
 17. 
 
 A Hospital. 
 
 34. A Tournament. 
 
 
 SECTIC 
 
 m II. 
 
 
 Narra 
 
 TIVES. 
 
 (1) Using the materials furnished, write a short nar- 
 rative on the following subjects, observing the rules on 
 pages 167-170. 
 
EXEBOiaES IN SPECIAL FORMS OF OOMPOSITION. 339 
 
 I. 
 
 A Fire. 
 
 Materials: Midnight — silent — sudden outburst of iiro — wak- 
 ing ot the inmates — increase of the flames — smolce — suffocation 
 
 — rescue of the sufferers — injuries received — loss of property — 
 consequent distress — destruction of valuable papers — insurance. 
 
 n. 
 
 A Voyage. 
 
 Materials : The date of sailing — name of the ship — port from 
 which she sailed — place of destination — passengers, how many 
 
 — describe incidents of the voyage — way of passing the day — the 
 weather — the cargo — date of arrival. 
 
 III. 
 A Trial. 
 
 Materials: The court — judges — counsel — appearance of the 
 prisoner — charge brought against him — evidence given by wit- 
 nesses — positive or circumstantial — cross-examination — the de- 
 fense — the summing up and charge to the jury — time of the jury's 
 deliberation — their verdict. 
 
 (2) Write, in a similar manner, a narrative on the fol- 
 lowing subjects : 
 
 1. A Coronation. 
 
 2. The Battle of Lexington. 
 
 3. An Accident. 
 
 4. The Norman Conquest. 
 
 5. A Marriage Ceremony. 
 
 6. A Siege. 
 
 7. A Death-bed. 
 
 8. A Tiger-hunt. 
 
 9. A Shipwreck. 
 
 10. A Regatta. 
 
 11. The Surrender at Yorktown. 
 13. A Trip to the Great Lakes. 
 
 13. The Ascent of Mont Blanc. 
 
 14. A Boat-race. 
 
 15. An Inundation. 
 
 16. A Visit in the Country. 
 
 17. A Retreat. 
 
 18. An Invasion. 
 
340 THE ELEMENTS OP RHETOBIO. 
 
 19. A Rebellion. 
 
 20. A Storm at Sea. 
 
 31. A Visit to a Library. 
 
 22. A Concert. 
 
 23. A Sea-fight. 
 
 24. A Campaign. 
 
 25. A Visit to some Friends. 
 
 26. The Voyage of a "Whaler. 
 
 27. A Visit to a Salt-mine. 
 
 28. The Execution of Mary 
 
 Queen of Scots. 
 
 29. Imprisonment in an Enemy's 
 
 Country. 
 
 30. A Conflagration. 
 
 SECTION IIL 
 
 Letters. 
 
 Compose and prepare for use the following despatches, 
 notes, and letters. 
 
 (1) A telegram of ten words asking after the arrival of a friend in 
 I distant city. 
 
 (2) A note of congratulation to a friend upon the announcement 
 if his engagement to be married. 
 
 (3) A letter to a bookseller, ordering several books. 
 
 (4) A note to a newspaper ordering your address changed from 
 )ne place to another. 
 
 (5) A letter to a lawyer asking him to receive you as a student 
 \i law. 
 
 (6) A letter from home to an absent brother. 
 
 (7) A formal invitation to dinner. 
 
 (8) A formal note of regret in answer to an invitation to dinner. 
 
 (9) A letter ordering a bill of goods. 
 
 (10) A letter requesting the payment of a debt. 
 
 (11) A tclograra of ten words reporting an accident to a train. 
 
 (12) A letter to a school-friend, describing your last vacation. 
 (18) A note of apology to your teacher, explaining your absence 
 
 <^rom school. 
 
 (14) A note of introduction. 
 
 (15) A note to accompany a gift of flowers to a lady. 
 
 (16) A note inviting a friend to spend a week at your home. 
 
EXERCISES IN SPECIAL FOBMS OF COMPOSITION. 341 
 
 (17) A letter to a publisher of a magazine, to accompany an 
 article offered for publication. 
 
 (18) A note asking a prominent man to give you a card of intro- 
 duction to a stranger. 
 
 (19) A note of congratulation to a friend upon his birthday. 
 
 (20) A letter to a superintendent of schools in a city, asking for a 
 position as a teacher. 
 
 (31) A news-letter to your county, or city, newspaper, giving 
 such news as you think would be of interest. 
 
 (22) A note acknowledging the receipt of a birthday gift. 
 
 (23) An informal note inviting a friend to tea. 
 
 (24) A note subscribing for a periodical. 
 
 (25) A letter to a friend, explaining the methods of instruction 
 in some branch of knowledge in your school. 
 
 (26) A letter to a young child relating to the coming of Christmas. 
 
 (27) A letter to a teachers' agency, oflfering yourself as a candidate 
 for a position as teacher. 
 
 (28) A letter to your family, at home, written while on a journey. 
 
 (29) A letter to your mother, giving an account of your first im- 
 pressions of a boarding-school. 
 
 (30) A note to the postmaster, asking him to forward your letters 
 to a new address. 
 
 (31) A telegram of ten words announcing your arrival in a distant 
 city. 
 
 (32) A letter of condolence upon the death of a child. 
 
 (33) A letter to the president of a college asking for information 
 about your entrance. 
 
 (34) A telegraphic report of a serious accident, sent to a New York 
 daily. 
 
 (35) A letter to your principal, asking for a note of recommenda- 
 tion to a business firm. 
 
 (86) A letter to a gentleman of position, asking him to use his in- 
 fluence for a friend's promotion. 
 
 (37) A letter to a prominent man, asking for advice as to how to 
 proceed in a difficult undertaking. 
 
 (38) A note of thanks, to be printed in a newspaper, thanking the 
 public for a benefit received. 
 
 (39) A letter to the mayor of a city, complaining of a public 
 nuisance. 
 
 (40) A letter to the president of an electric railway, claiming dam- 
 . ages for personal injury. 
 
343 THE ELEM-ENTB OF RHETORIC. 
 
 (41) A letter to a congressman, asking him to send you certain 
 public documents. 
 
 (43) A letter to the President of the United States, concerning the 
 fitness of a friend for public office. 
 
 ly Do not write to prominent men for their autographs, unless 
 you take pains to destroy your letters before they are sent! 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 Poems. 
 
 The process of determining the meter of a passage 
 of poetry is called scanning. Scan the following selec- 
 tions, naming (1) the meter, (3) the. rhyme, and (3) the 
 kind of stanza in each case. 
 
 (1) Yet she, most faithful lady, all this while 
 
 Forsaken, woeful, solitary maid, 
 Par from all people's praise, as in exile, 
 
 In wilderness and wasteful deserts strayed, 
 
 To seek her knight; who, subtily betrayed 
 Through that late vision which the enchanter wrought. 
 
 Had her abandoned : she, of nought afraid. 
 Through woods and wasteness wide, him daily sought. 
 Yet wished tidings none of him unto her brought. 
 
 (2) He may live without books, — what is knowledge but grieving? 
 He may live without hope, — what is hope but deceiving? 
 
 He may live without love, — what is passion but pining? 
 But where is the man who can live without dining? 
 
 (3) He was a man of middle age; 
 
 In aspect manly, grave, and sage, 
 
 As on king's errand come ; 
 But in the glances of his eye, 
 A penetrating, keen, and sly 
 
 Expression found its home. 
 
BXEHGI8E8 IN SPEOTAL FOMMS OF COMPOSITION. 343 
 
 (4) And the widows of Ashur are loud in their wail, 
 And the idols are broke in the temple of Baal ; 
 
 And the might of the Gentile, iinsmote by the sword, 
 Hath melted like snow in the glance of the Lord. 
 
 (5) When can their glory fade? 
 Oh, the wild charge they madel 
 All the world wondered. 
 Honor the charge they made! 
 Honor the Light Brigade,— 
 Noble six hundred I 
 
 (6) How dear to this heart are the scenes of my childhood, 
 
 When fond recollection presents them to view ! 
 The orchard, the meadow, the deep-tangled wild-wood, 
 And every loved spot which my infancy knew. 
 
 (7) True ease in writing comes from art, not chance, 
 As those move easiest who have learn'd to dance. 
 'T is not enough no harshness gives oflEense ; 
 The sound must seem an echo to the sense. 
 
 Soft is the strain when Zephyr gently blows ; 
 And the smooth strain in smoother numbers flows : 
 But when loud surges lash the sounding shore, 
 The hoarse, rough voice should like the tori-ent roar. 
 
 (8) Love may come, and love may go. 
 
 And fly like a bird from tree to tree. 
 But I will love no more, no more, 
 Till BUen Adair come back to me. 
 
 (9) Many a weary year had passed since the burning of Grand-Pre, 
 When on the falling tide the freighted vessels departed, 
 Bearing a nation, with all its household gods, into exile. 
 Exile without an end, and without an example in story. 
 
 (10) High on a throne of royal state, which far 
 Outshone the wealth of Ormus and of Ind, 
 Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand 
 Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold, 
 Satan exalted sat, by merit relax'd 
 
 To that bad eminence. 
 
 (11) Shadows are but privations of the light ; 
 
 Yet, when we walk, they shoot before the sight; ■ 
 With us approach, retire, arise, and fall. 
 Nothing themselves, and yet expressing aD 
 
344 THE ELEMENTS OF BHETOBIG. 
 
 (13) nightingale, that on yon bloomy spray 
 
 Warblest at eve, when all the woods are still ; 
 Thou with fresh hope the lover's heart dost fill 
 While the jolly hours lead on propitious May. 
 Thy liquid notes that close the eve of day, 
 First heard before the shallow cuckoo's bill, 
 Portend success in love. Oh, if Jove's will 
 Have linked that amorous power to thy soft lay. 
 Now timely sing, ere the rude bird of hate 
 Foretell my hopeless doom in some grove nigh: 
 As thou from year to year hast sung too late 
 For my relief; yet had'st no reason why 
 Whether the Muse or Love call thee his mate. 
 Both them I serve, and of their train am I. 
 
 (13) Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again; 
 The eternal years of God are hers: 
 
 But Error, wounded, writhes with pain, 
 And dies among her worshipers. 
 
 (14) The curfew tolls the knell of parting day ; 
 
 The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea; 
 The ploughman homeward plods his weary way. 
 And leaves the world to darkness and to me. 
 
 (15) The breezy call of incense-breathing morn, 
 
 The swallow twittering from the straw-built shed 
 The cook's shrill clarion, or the echoing horn. 
 No more shall rouse them from their lowly bed. 
 
 (16) Up from the south at break of day. 
 Bringing to Winchester fresh dismay, 
 The affrighted air with a shudder bore, 
 Like a herald in haste, to the chieftain's door. 
 The terrible grumble and rumble and roar, 
 Telling the battle was on once more. 
 
 And Sheridan twenty miles away. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 THE EN&LISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 GENEEAL EXERCISES. 
 
 (1) In the following passages (1) indicate all the 
 words of Anglo-Saxon, Latin, and Greek origin, applying 
 the principles given on pages 333-34:9; (3) substi- 
 tute Anglo-Saxon for Latin and Greek words wherever 
 possible ; (3) indicate the efEect of all the prefixes and 
 suffixes. 
 
 (1) To spend too much time in studies is sloth ; to use them too 
 much for ornament is afEeotation; to make judgment wholly by 
 their rules is the humor of a scholar ; they perfect nature and ai-e 
 perfected by experience; for natural abilities are like natural plants, 
 they need pruning by study ; and studies themselves do give forth 
 directions too much at large, except they be bounded in by experi- 
 ence. Crafty men contemn studies, simple men admire them, and 
 wise men use them ; for they teach not their own use ; but that is a 
 wisdom without them and above them, won by observation. Read 
 not to contradict and confute, nor to believe and take for granted, 
 nor to find talk and discourse, but to weigh and consider. Some 
 books are to be tasted, 'others to be swallowed, and some few to be 
 chewed and digested, — that is, some books are to be read only in 
 parts; others to be read, but not curiously; and some few to be read 
 wholly and with diligence and attention. Reading maketh a full 
 man, conference a ready man, and writing an exact man; and, 
 therefore, if a man write little, he had need have a great memory ; 
 ij?}}§ qpiifer little, he had need have a present wit; and if. he- read 
 little, he had need have much cunning to seem to know that he doth 
 
346 THE ELEMENTS OF BHETORIO. 
 
 not. Histories make men wise; poets, witty; the mathematics, sub- 
 tile ; natural philosophy, deep ; moral, grave ; logic and rhetoric, able 
 to contend. — Francis Bacon (1561-1636). 
 
 (2) The fame of Julius the Second, Leo the Tenth, and Sextus the 
 Fifth, is accompanied by the superior merit of Bramante and 
 Fontana, of Raphael and Michelangelo; and the same munificence 
 which had been displayed in palaces and temples was directed with 
 equal zeal to revive and emulate the labors of antiquity. Prostrate 
 obelisks were raised from the ground and erected in the most conspicu- 
 ous places; of the eleven aqueducts of the Cajsars and consuls, three 
 were restored ; the artificial rivers were conducted over a long series 
 of old or of new arches, to discharge into marble basins a flood of salu- 
 brious and refreshing waters; and the spectator, impatient to ascend 
 the steps of St. Peter's, is detained by a column of Egyptian granite, 
 which rises between two lofty and perpetual fountains to the height 
 of one hundred and twenty feet. The map, the description, the 
 monuments of ancient Rome have been elucidated by the diligence 
 of the antiquarian and the student; and the footsteps of heroes, the 
 relics, not of superstition, but of empire, are devoutly visited by a 
 new race of pilgrims from the remote and once savage countries of 
 the '^oxth.—Edwa/rd Oibion (1737-1794). 
 
 (3) When at length Hyder Ali found that he had to do with men who 
 would either sign no convention, or whom no treaty and no signature 
 could bind, and who were the determined enemies of human inter- 
 course itself, he decreed to make the country possessed by these 
 incorrigible and predestinated criminals a memorable example to 
 mankind. He resolved, in the gloomy recess of a mind capacious 
 to such things, to leave the whole Carnatic an everlasting monument 
 of vengeance, and to put perpetual desolation as a barrier be- 
 tween him and those against whom the faith which holds the moral 
 element of the world together was no protection. He became at 
 length so confident of his force, so collected in his might, that he 
 made no secret whatever of his dreadful resolution. Having termi- 
 nated his disputes with every enemy, and every rival, who buried 
 their mutual animosities in their common detestation against the 
 creditors of the Nabob of Aroot, he drew from every quarter what- 
 ever a savage ferocity could add to his new rudiments in the arts of 
 destruction; and compounding all the ma*;erials of fury, havoc, and 
 desolation into one black clnnd, he hung for n while on the declivities 
 of the mountains. — Edmund Hurke (1730-1797). 
 
EXEROISEti m THE ENGLISH LANGUAOE. 347 
 
 (4) A great elm-tree spread its broad branches over it, at the foot 
 of which bubbled up a spring of the softest and sweetest water, in a 
 little well formed of a barrel, and then stole sparkling away through 
 tile grass, to a neighboring brook, that babbled along among alders 
 .■uid dwarf willows. ^SsH^ by the farm-house was a vast barn, that 
 might have served for a church, every window and crevice of which 
 SL'cmed bursting forth with the treasures of the farm^fthe flail was 
 busily resounding within it from morning to night ;( swallows and 
 martins skimmed twittering about the eaves; the rows of pigeons, 
 some with one eye turned up, as if watching the weather, some with 
 I heir heads under their wings or buried in their bosoms, and others 
 swelling and cooing and Ijowing about their dames, were enjoy- 
 ing the sunshine on the roof.] Sleek, unwieldy porkers were grunt- 
 ing in the repose and abundance of their pens, whence sallied forth, 
 now and then, troops of sucking pigs, as if to snufE the air. A 
 stately squadron of snowy geese were riding in an adjoining pond, 
 convoying whole fleets of ducks; regiments of turkeys were gob- 
 bling through the farm-yard, and guinea-fowls fretting about it, like 
 ill-tempered housewives, with their peevish, discontented cry. Be- 
 fore the barn-door strutted the gallant cock, that pattern of a hus- 
 band, a warrior,-and a fine gentleman, clapping his burnished wings 
 and crowing in the pride and gladness of his heart, — sometimes 
 tearing up the earth with his feet, and then generously calling his 
 ever-hungry family of wives and children to enjoy the rich morsel 
 which he had discovered. — Washington Iriiing (1783-1859). 
 
 (5) Since the essence of wealth consists in power over men, will it 
 not follow that the nobler and the more in number the persons are 
 over whom it has power, the greater the wealth ? Perhaps it may 
 even appear, after some consideration, that the persons themselves 
 are the wealth; that the pieces of gold with which we are in the habit 
 of guiding them are, in fact, nothing more than a kind of Byzan- 
 tine harness, or trappings, very glittering and beautiful in barbaric 
 sight, wherewith we bridle the creatures; but that if these same 
 living creatures could be guided without the fretting and jingling 
 nf the Byzants in their mouths and ears, they might themselves be 
 more valuable than their bridles. In fact, it may be discovered that 
 tlie true veins of wealth are purple, and not in rock, but in flesh; 
 perhaps even that the final outcome and consummation of ail 
 wealth is in the producing as many as possible full-breathed, bright- 
 eyed, and happy-hearted human creatures. Our modern wealth, I 
 think, has rather a tendency the other way — most political econo- 
 
348 THE ELEMENTS OP RHETORIC. 
 
 mists appearing to consider multitudes of human creatures not 
 conducive to wealth, or at best conducive to it by remaining in a 
 dim-eyed and narrow-chested state of being. Nevertheless, it is 
 open, I expect, to serious question, which I leave to the reader's pon- 
 dering, whether, among national manufactures, that of souls of a 
 good quality may not at last turn out a quite leadingly lucrative 
 one ? — John Ruskin (1819 ). 
 
 (3) Give your reason for regarding the Anglo-Saxon 
 words in the following passage as belonging to that ele- 
 ment in the language. 
 
 Think not that strength lies in the big round word. 
 
 Or that the brief and plain must needs be weak. 
 
 To whom can this be true who once has heard 
 
 The cry for help, the tongue that all men speak, 
 
 When want, or fear, or woe, is in the throat, 
 
 So that each word gasped out is like a shriek 
 
 Pressed from the sore heart, or a strange, wild note 
 
 Sung by some fay or fiend! There is a strength 
 
 Which dies if stretched too far, or spun too fine ; 
 
 Which has more height than breadth, more depth than length. 
 
 Let but this force of thought and speech be mine. 
 
 And he that will may take the sleek, fat phrase. 
 
 Which glows, but burns not, though it beam and shine; 
 
 Light, but no heat, — a flash, but not a blaze. — Alextnder. 
 
INDEX AND GLOSSAEY. 
 
 Note. —The Index and the Glossary are given under one alphabet, 
 for facility of reference. All difficult words have the pronunciation 
 marked. The signs employed are those generally used in pronoun- 
 cing dictionaries. The numbers refer to pages. 
 
 Abbott, E. A., quoted, 52, 53, 55. 
 Abbrevla'tions, how pointed, 113; in 
 
 poetry, 199. 
 Abrl'dgment, a means of variation, 9D. 
 Abrupt changes, how pointed, lie. 
 Absolute construction, 108. 
 Abundance, the word explained, 40. 
 Accents, kinds of, 121. 
 Acknowledge, the word explained, 39. 
 Acts are the principal divisions of a 
 
 drama, in which a certain definite part 
 
 of the action is completed. 
 Added clauses, how pointed, no. 
 Addison, style of, 24 ; his rhythm, 69 ; 
 
 quoted, 76, 233 ; referred to, 242. 
 Adjectives, use of, 60; superlative in 
 
 sense, 50. 
 Adjunct, use of, 66 ; defined, 66. 
 Adverbs, distinguished from adjectives, 
 
 51 ; position of, 55 ; when emphatic, 56. 
 Adverbial clauses, position of, 56 ; 
 
 defined, 66. 
 Affix, definition of, 228. 
 .Ssth^tic emotions,apeculations abou^, 
 
 146. 
 African words in English, 250. 
 Agglutinative languages, 207, 208. 
 Aggravate, the word explained, 35. 
 Akenslde, referred to, 139, 198. 
 Aldtls IVIanutlus [ma-nil-she-tis], an in- 
 ventor of points, 104. 
 Alfred, King, referred to, 217, 219. 
 Alison, quoted, 137 ; referred to, 146. 
 
 Allegory, explained, 84. 
 
 Allow, the word explained, 35. 
 
 Allusion [allu'-zhun] is a passing refer- 
 ence to something supposed to be 
 known, and referred to for the sake of 
 illustration. 
 
 Alphabet, phonetic scheme of, 68 ; his- 
 tory of, 217. 
 
 Amatory, pertaining to loye ; as, ama- 
 tory poetry. 
 
 Americanisms are forms of expression 
 peculiar to the .United States. 
 
 American languages, 208. 
 
 Amphia'mbiis, 201. 
 
 Amplifica'tion is the process of enlarg- 
 ing, or giving the details in a composi- 
 tion. 
 
 Amphl'macer. A foot of three sylla^ 
 hies ; the first and last long, the middle 
 short ; as, — ^ — . 
 
 Anacoend'sis is a form of speech in 
 which a speaker confidently appeals to 
 his opponents for their opinion. 
 
 AnacolU'tbon is a sudden change in the 
 construction of a sentence. 
 
 Anadiplo'sis consists of the repetition 
 of the last word of a sentence or clause 
 at the beginning of the next ; as, " He 
 loved the state, the state for which he 
 had sacrificed all." 
 
 An'a-lep'sis is a grammatical redun- 
 dancy designed to give emphasis. 
 
 Analytic languages, 208. 
 
 Analytic method, 19. 
 
350 
 
 INDEX AND QL088ART. 
 
 A'napsest, 201. 
 
 Andt'Stroplie is an inversion of the nat- 
 ural order of words; as, "Boiled the 
 deep thunder," for, "The deep thunder 
 rolled." 
 
 And, misuse of, 75. 
 
 Anglo-American race, 252, 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, compared with Latin, 39 ; 
 character of derivatives, 94 ; the term, 
 213 ; characteristics of, 215 ; examples 
 of inflection, 215 ; examples of language, 
 218 ; vocabulary of, 223 ; words of, 224 ; 
 lost words of, 224 ; number of words in 
 the language, 225 ; idioms, 226 ; trans- 
 literation of, 227 ; prefixes and suffixes, 
 228, 229; the "warp" of English, 231; 
 proportion of in English, 241, 242. 
 
 Anglo-Saxons, home of, 213 ; migra- 
 tions of, 213, 214. 
 
 Angus, list of prepositions from, 36. 
 
 An'nals, definition of, 162. 
 
 Anndmlna-tion is the same as parono- 
 masia. 
 
 Antanacl^'sis is used in two senses : (1) 
 the same as pun ; (2) to denote a repe- 
 tition after aparenthetical expression. 
 
 AntibaccIlI'US. A foot of three sylla^ 
 bles ; the first two long, the third short; 
 as, ^-'. 
 
 Antl-oU-m'ax, 90. 
 
 AntlmetS.'liole is a form of antithesis in 
 which the order of words is reversed. 
 
 Antrstroplxe is used in three senses: 
 (1) the repetition of words in an inverse 
 order; (2) the turning of an opponent's 
 plea against him ; (3) the response to 
 the strophe in the ancient chorus. 
 
 Anti'tliesis, use of, 66 ; example of in 
 a paragraph, 73 ; explanation of, 89. 
 
 Antonomisla [ma'zia] is the use of 
 some name, as of an office, honor, or 
 profession, for the proper name of a 
 person; as, "The phUosoph&r" mean- 
 ing Socrates; or, conversely, the name 
 of a distinguished person is used for 
 auother ; as, " He is a Solon," meaning 
 a wise lawgiver. 
 
 Aplldr'esis talces a letter or syllable 
 from the beginning ofa word; as, 'twas, 
 for it was. 
 
 ApO'COpe takes away a letter or syllable 
 from the end of a word ; as, yond, for 
 yonder. 
 
 Apologue [a'p-o-log]. An apologue is a 
 kind of fable designed to convey a 
 moral It is generally founded on the 
 pretended actions of dumb beings ; as, 
 animals and trees. 
 
 Apopliasis [^p6f-arsis] is the omission 
 of what one would insinuate as impor- 
 tant^ and yet refuses to state in full. 
 
 Apo'ria is a form of speech in which one 
 professes to be at a loss. See Luke, 
 xvL 3. 
 
 Aposiope'sis is a form of speech in 
 which the speaker comes to a sudden 
 halt,— as if unwilling or unable to ex- 
 press himself, — and changes the con- 
 struction of his sentence ; as, " Whom 
 I— but it is best first," etc. 
 
 Apd'strophe, the figure, S8 ; the mark 
 in punctuation, 122. 
 
 Apposition, defined, 106 ; particulars 
 in. 111. 
 
 Arabic language, 209; words in English, 
 260. 
 
 Arcbalsms are ancient or obsolete forms 
 of expression. An archaic form is an 
 archaism. 
 
 Argumentation, referred to, 189. 
 
 Aristd'plianes, an inventor of points, 
 104. 
 
 AriStO'tle, referred to, 146, 187. 
 
 Armstrong, Thomas, referred to, 198. 
 
 Arnold, Thomas, quoted, 15. 
 
 Arrangement, importance of, 16 ; meth- 
 ods of, 19. 
 
 Article, use of, 47. 
 
 Aryan family of languages, 208, 209. 
 
 Assyrian language, 209. 
 
 Asyndeton, 64. 
 
 As, use of the word, 36. 
 
 Auditd'rium, 31. 
 
 Authorities, names of, how pointed, 118. 
 
 Autobid'graphy, definition of, 162. 
 
 Avow, use of the word, 39. 
 
 B. 
 
 BSiCchanil'lian applies to whatever is 
 I riotous or under the influence of the 
 
INDEX AND QL088ABT. 
 
 351 
 
 wine god, Bacchus. Applied in litera- 
 ture to convivial Bongs. 
 BacoM'us. A foot of three syllables; 
 
 the first sliort, and the second and 
 
 third long ; as, ^ . 
 
 Badinage tbid-ln-azhl is discourse in a 
 
 1 ght, playful vein. 
 B.eia, the Venerable, referred to, 213, 
 
 2ia. 
 Bain, list of expressions from, 37 ', 
 
 quoted, 64. 
 Balanced sentence, 6i, n. 
 Balfour, the Puritan, described, 166. 
 BiUadS, 197. 
 
 Banter is pleasant, humorous jesting. 
 Birbarism, 28. 
 Bartlett, referred to, 30. 
 Bascom, quoted, 24. 
 Ba'tlios is a ludicrous des;:ent from the 
 
 sublime to the low and mean. 
 Baumgarten, quoted, 146. 
 Beaut/, theories of, 145 ; forms of in 
 
 literature, 147. 
 Balief, how produced, 188. 
 BjUes-lettrea (bel-lStevj is a term 
 
 vaguely applied to elegant literature in 
 
 general, and Rhetoric in particular. 
 Berkeley, George, style of, 23. 
 Betwixt, use of the word, 29. 
 Besides, use of the word, 36. 
 Bible, proportion of Anglo-Saxon in, 
 
 241, 242. 
 Bilingual character of English, 220, 221; 
 
 compounds, 225. 
 BiS'graphy, definition of, 162. 
 Blair, Dr. Hugh, quoted, 59, 66, 94, 137 ; 
 
 referred to, 136. 
 Blioky, use of the word, 30. 
 Bonanza, use of the word, 29. 
 Bjamot [bdngmo']. A witty reply. 
 
 Literally, a "good word." 
 Bopp, the German philologist, referred 
 
 to, 208. 
 Brace, use of, 122. 
 Brackets, use of, 122. 
 Breve, use of, 123. 
 
 Briti9lsms are forms of expression pe- 
 culiar to Great Britain. 
 Brougliam [broom], referred to, 193. 
 Brown, Dr. Thomas, referred to, 146. 
 
 Bryant, William Cullen, quoted, 163; 
 
 referred to, 198, 242. 
 BufTon, quoted, 24. 
 Bull, 156. 
 Buncombe [biinl£-um] is tallcing for 
 
 show, or spealcing to a constituency 
 
 rather than to tiie purpose. 
 Burke, quoted, 90, 1.58 ; referred to, 69, 
 
 76, 139, 146, 193. 
 Bur'lesque [lesk], 156. 
 Burlet'ta. An operatic farce. 
 Burns, referred to. 197. 
 Burton, story by, 57. 
 Business, origin of the word, 225. 
 Butler, Samuel, referred to, 198. 
 Byron, referred to, 198. 
 
 C. 
 
 Cablegram, use of the word, 32. 
 
 Cadence, 69. 
 
 Ceedmon, quoted, 218 ; referred to, 216. 
 
 Caesar, Julius, conquest of Great Brit- 
 ain under, 214. 
 
 Csesilral pause, or Caesilra. A pause 
 in the middle, or near the middle, of a 
 verse. 
 
 Calculate, use of the word, 35. 
 
 Campbell, Dr. fieorge, quoted, 28, 54, 
 233. 
 
 Campbell, Thomas, quoted, 80; re- 
 ferred to, 198. 
 
 Can, use of the word, 36. 
 
 Cant is the pi-culiar language of a class, 
 solemn and empty, and implying more 
 than is felt. 
 
 Cantos are the chief divisions of long 
 poems. 
 
 Capability, use of the word, 29. 
 
 Capitals, value of, 102 ; use of, 124. 
 
 Caption. A caption is a heading, as to 
 a chapter. Tliis use of the word is an 
 Amei'ican'sm. 
 
 Caret, use of the, 122. 
 
 Carlyle, quoted, 13. 
 
 Castlereagh, Lord, quoted, 92. 
 Casualty, use of the word, 33. 
 Catachre'sis. A misused or far-fetched 
 
 metaphor. 
 Catiline, his imagined address to the 
 Senate, 153. 
 
352 
 
 INDEX AND GL08SAET. 
 
 Catchwords are the first words of a 
 page, printed below the last line of 
 the preceding page in the right hand 
 comer of the page. They were form- 
 erly used in almost all books, but are 
 now very seldom used. 
 
 Cedilla, use of the, 122. 
 
 Gedric, migrations mider, 214. 
 
 Celtic language, 213; people, 214 J 
 words derived from, 214. 
 
 Chaldean language, 209. 
 
 Chaimlng, W. E., quoted, 121. 
 
 Character, use of the word, 35. 
 
 Chart of Indo-European languages, 
 210. 
 
 Chatham, IJord, quoted, 88 ; referred to, 
 09, 193. 
 
 Chaucer, Geoffrey, referred to, 222, 242. 
 
 Chesterfield, Lord, referred to, 171. 
 
 Chinese language, 208 ; words in Eng- 
 lish, 250. 
 
 Chorl3,'nihus. A loot of lour syllables ; 
 the first and last being long, the others 
 short ; as, — ^ ^ — . 
 
 Chronicle, definition ol, 162. 
 
 Church, Influence of the, on English, 
 216. 
 
 Cicero, his introductions, 18. 
 
 Circuinloctl'tion,63 ; a means of varia- 
 tion, 95. 
 
 Clause, defined, 44 ; adverbial, 56 ; use 
 of relative, 60 ; use of supplemen- 
 tary, 60 ; kinds of, 99 ; dependent, 108 ; 
 added, 110; supplementary, 112. 
 
 Clearness, importance of, 63 ; rules for, 
 54. 
 
 Clerk, use ol the word, 83. 
 
 Cli-max, 89. 
 
 Coincidence, unexpected, a source ol 
 wit, 156. 
 
 Coleridge [kol-rij], quoted, 26,' 138, 1.52; 
 referred to, 146. 
 
 CoUS'quialisms, 30. 
 
 Colon, rules for, HI. 
 
 Comedy, 197. 
 
 Comma, rules for, 104. 
 
 Commendation, use ol the word, 38. 
 
 Common dependence, clauses having, 
 
 HI. 
 
 Comparative degree, so. 
 
 Composition (from the Latin com^wn^re, 
 to put together) meausprimarilyaput- 
 ting together. Hence, (1) the act of 
 putting together or writing down the 
 ideas belonging together ; (2) the 
 result of this act, or a writing on a 
 given subject; (3) the art of literary 
 consti-uction. Parts of a, 16 ; kinds of, 
 161. 
 
 Complete sentences, how pointed, 
 113. 
 
 Compound sentences.rules for, 5L 
 
 Compound words, bilingual, 225 ; 
 power of combining, 226 ; with Latin 
 numerals, 240 ; with Greek numerals, 
 248. 
 
 Con9ise, expressing much in lew words; 
 applied to style. 
 
 Concord. 45. 
 
 Concrete ideas, value of, 148. 
 
 Conclusion, rules for, 19. 
 
 Confess, use of the word, 39. 
 
 Conjunctives, table of, 74. 
 
 Connective words, 64. 
 
 Conscience, use of the word, 34. 
 
 Consciousness, use of the word, 34. 
 
 Construe, use ol the word, 34. 
 
 Construct, use of the word, 34. 
 
 Contemptihle, use of the word, 34. 
 
 Contemptuous, use of the word, 34. 
 
 Contingent, use ol the verb, 49. 
 
 Continued sentences, how pointed, 
 
 107. 
 Conversation, in invention, 12. 
 Cd'pula, 43. 
 
 Copy, preparation ol, 129. 
 Cornish dialect, 213. 
 Country, devotion to, 152. 
 Couple, use ol the word, 35. 
 Cousin [koo-za'ngl, quoted, 139, 14a 
 Cowley, referred to, 241. 
 Cowper, quoted, 96 ; relerred to, 198. 
 Crabhe, relerred to, 38, las. 
 Craik on the term Anglo-Saxon, 213. 
 Cre'tic A loot consisting of one short 
 
 syllable between two long ones; as, 
 
 Criticism, definition ol, 134; lunction 
 ol, 1S4 ; value ol, 1S4 ; kinds ol lit- 
 erary, 135 ; real, 136 ; logical, 136 ; ver- 
 
INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 
 
 353 
 
 bal, IJO , aesthetic, 136 ; historic, 136 ; 
 scientiflo, 186; elements of, 136; atan- 
 dai'd of, 141. 
 
 Critique [krI-teek'J, 134, 163. 
 
 Crowding together tUngs uncon- 
 nected, caution against, 69. 
 
 Curtlus, Marcus, story of, 162. 
 
 Da'Ctyl, 201. 
 
 Damon and P/tliias, story of, 153. 
 
 Danes, influence of the, on English, 
 217, 218. 
 
 Deingerous situations, a source of the 
 sublime, 153. 
 
 Danish language, 217, 218. 
 
 Dash, rules for the, 116 ; parenthetical, 
 117. 
 
 Day, H. N., his theory of ajsthetic emo- 
 tions, 146. 
 
 Declarative use of the ve b, 40. 
 
 Deity, names of, how written, 125. 
 
 Demean, use of the word, 36. 
 
 Dem5'sthenis, referred to, 6, 193. 
 
 Denouement [de-no6-m6ng]. The solu- 
 tion of a plot, or the final catastrophe. 
 Literally, the "untying." 
 
 Dependent clauses, 108. 
 
 Dependent expressions, 118. 
 
 Derision, use of the word, 91. 
 
 Derivatives, Latin, 231; Greek, 244. 
 
 Description, qualities of a good, 164 ; 
 the process of, 165. 
 
 Design, use of the word, 40. 
 
 Desperate, use of the word, 41. 
 
 Destiny of English, 252. 
 
 De Vere, S., referred to, 30. 
 
 Devotion, personal, a source of pathos, 
 169. 
 
 Dialects of English, 222. 
 
 Dlotens, referred to, 169, 170. 
 
 Diction, 25 ; variation of, 94. 
 
 Didactic poetry, 197. 
 
 Die'reslS, the mark in punctuation, 122. 
 
 Differentiation of English, 220. 
 
 Dignity, in oratory, 189. 
 
 Dif-ftlse', expressing little iu many 
 
 words ; applied to style. 
 Diligent, use of the word, 40. 
 Direct address in oratory, 189. 
 
 Direct questions, 114. 
 
 Direct statement, ts. 
 
 Disadvantage, use of the word, 41. 
 
 Disc6urse (from tlie Latin discurrere, 
 to run about) means primarily the 
 power of the mind to run about from 
 one pai't of a subject to another. 
 Hence, (1) oral treatment of some 
 topic ; (2) a formal discussion, whether 
 oral or written ; (3) the use of lan- 
 guage generally in the communication 
 of thought. 
 
 Discussion, management of, 18 ; in an 
 oration, 191. 
 
 Dissertation, 163. 
 
 Distich [di's-tik], 203. 
 
 Distrust, use of the word, 41. 
 
 Donate, use of the word, 32. 
 
 Double-entendre [doobl-ong-tongdr]. 
 An expression admitting of more than 
 one interpretation. 
 
 Doubt, expressions of, how pointed, 115. 
 
 Dramatic Poetry, 197. 
 
 Dryden, quoted, 93 ; referred to, 196. 
 
 Duode'^imo. The name applied to a 
 book formeil by folding the sheet of 
 printer's paper into twelve leaves. It 
 is usually indicated thus : 12°, or 12mo. 
 
 Dutch language, 211 ; words in English, 
 249, 250. 
 
 E. 
 
 Earle, J. S., quoted, 222 ; referred to, 
 
 217, 225, 227. 
 Echo, in elocution, 117. 
 Eclogue [6'k-log]. A pastoral poem in 
 
 which shepherds meet and carry on a 
 
 dialogue. 
 Edify, use nf the word, 34. 
 Elegies, 196. 
 
 Ellesmere, Lord, quoted, 93. 
 Elirpsis (an omission) of verb, 109; how 
 
 marked, 123; in poetry, 201. 
 Elocution, relation of to Hhetoric, 1. 
 Eloquence, defined, 163 ; Webster's de- 
 scription of, 187 ; Shedd's definition of, 
 
 190. 
 Em. A portion of space in a line of 
 
 printed matter the width of an old m. 
 
 Now used as a unit of measure in esti- 
 
354 
 
 INDEX AND QL08BABT. 
 
 mating the amouat of matter on a 
 pilnted page. 
 
 Emblem, use of ttie word, 3€. 
 
 Emerson, Fv. W., quoted, 26. 
 
 Emotion, expressed by figures, 80 ; ex- 
 pressions of, how pointed, 116. 
 
 Emphasis, 55. 64 ; marks of, 122. 
 
 Ejiallage [e-n3,'l-la-je]. A substitution 
 of one word, gender, number, person, 
 case, voice, mood, or tense for another. 
 
 Energy, meaning of, 62 ; rules for, 63 ; 
 of style in oratory, 190. 
 
 English language, composite character 
 uf, 31 ; Engliali and Latin sentences 
 compared, 55 ; harmony of the lan- 
 guage, 67 ; afliliations of, 211 ; number 
 of persons speaking, i^ll ; original 
 home of, 212 ; historical development 
 of, 212 ; earliest name for, 216 ; lost in- 
 flections of, 219 ; differentiation of, 
 220; destiny of, 252. 
 
 Enough, use of the word, 37. 
 
 Enbhused, use of the word, 29. 
 
 EpanalS'psis. A form of speech in 
 which the same word or expression is 
 repeated after iatervening matter. 
 
 Ep3.'nodos. This has two senses : (1) a 
 form of speech in which words are 
 repeated in inverse order ; (2) a return 
 to the main heads or leading theme 
 of a discourse, after a digression. 
 
 E.oanortho'sis is a form of speech in 
 which something is recalled and stated 
 more strongly; as, " Very u«.Mn,d. Un- 
 kind, did Isay? — most iitfamous!" 
 
 Epic poetry, 196. 
 
 Epigram, as a figure, 90 ; as a form of 
 wit, 156. 
 
 Epilogue [6'p-i-lOg]. This has two 
 senses : (1) a short speech or poem ad- 
 dressed to the audience at the conclu- 
 sion of a play ; (2) the closing part of 
 a discourse, containing a recapitulation 
 of the principal points. 
 
 Episdd.es are separate narratives or 
 digressions introduced into a story 
 of greater length for the sake of va- 
 riety. 
 
 Epithets are adjectives describing some 
 quality or relation specially belonging 
 
 to a person or thing ; as, a bright color, 
 
 a green tree, a kind man. 
 Epitome. A brief compendium, con- 
 taining the substance of a larger book 
 
 or a number of books. 
 Epizetl,X'iB is a form of speech in which 
 
 a word is repeated with emphasis. 
 Epopoeia [ep-o-pe'-ya]. The histoiy or 
 
 fable on which an epic poem is built. 
 Essay, definition of, lt>2. 
 Etymology, value of, 27. 
 Eulogy [yii-lo-jej. A speech or writing 
 
 commendatory of some character. Spe- 
 
 ciflually, a laudatory funeral oration. 
 
 A panegyric. 
 Euphemism [yu'-fe-mizm], definition 
 
 of, 95. 
 Euphony [jii'-fo-ne] is agreeableness of 
 
 sound. 
 Everett, Edward, quoted, 119. 
 Except, nse of the word, 36. 
 Exclama'tion, as a figure of speech, 87 ; 
 
 the point, origin of, 103 ; rules for, 114. 
 Exordiiim, in an oration, 190. 
 Experimentalize, use of the word, 32. 
 Exposition, referred to, 189. 
 Expression, an, defined, 44 ; simplicity 
 
 of in the sublime, 15L 
 
 F. 
 
 Fable and parable differ chiefiy in this : 
 the fable recoimts what is impossible, 
 if literally interpreted ; the parable is 
 generally literally possible. 
 
 Fallings, human, a source of humor, 157. 
 
 Falsehood, use of the word, 34. 
 
 Falseness, use of the word, 34. 
 
 Falsity, use of the word, 34. 
 
 Families of language, 208. 
 
 Farce, defined, 197. 
 
 Fashions in literatiu^ 142. 
 
 Feelings, tlie management o^ 190 • 
 change of the, 192 ; in an orator, 192. 
 
 Fertility in expedients necessary to an 
 orator, 19S. 
 
 Fiat, use of the word, 31. 
 
 Figurative language value of to en- 
 ergy, 66 ; in oratory, 190. 
 
 Fl'gflres, defined, 87 ; classified, 77 ; ex- 
 plained, 77, 78; origin of, 78; advan- 
 
INDEX AND GLOaSABT. 
 
 355 
 
 tages of, 79, 80 ; kinda of, 81 ; rules for, 
 91, 92 ; contribute to beauty of style, 
 149. 
 
 Fiiinisll language, 208. 
 
 Flezalsll language, 211. 
 
 Folding letters, diagrams of, 185. 
 
 Full3. Applied to books formed of 
 sheets so folded as to make two leaves. 
 The largest size of volume. 
 
 Fao J, a, in poetry, 200. 
 
 Force, use of the word, 40. 
 
 Foreign words, in English, 250. 
 
 Forgetfulness, use of the word, 40. 
 
 Foster, John, his mode of writing, 38. 
 
 Fox, quoted, 38. 
 
 Freedom of expression, a source of 
 humor, 157. 
 
 French, plurals, 46 ; language, 219, 226 ; 
 words in English, 233. 
 
 Friends, devotion to, often sublime, 152. 
 
 Frigidity [fn-ji'd-i-te). As applied to 
 style, a cold and affected manner, 
 wanting in proper feeling and interest. 
 
 Frisian language, 211. 
 
 Frontispiece. An ornamental engrav- 
 ing in the beginning of a book. 
 
 Froward, disuse of the word, 29. 
 
 Fusion of elements in English, 221. 
 
 Fustian [ftt'st-yan]. A bombastic, in- 
 flated style of writing or speaking. So 
 called from a cheap kind of cloth, to 
 which it is analogous. 
 
 Gaelic dialect, 213. 
 
 GSl'lliflsm. A French idiom. Applied 
 
 to words and constructions borrowed 
 
 from or imitating those of the French 
 
 language. 
 Gender, in personification, 84. 
 Generic words, 39. 
 Genesis, first words of, an example of 
 
 the sublime, 151. 
 German language, 226, 252; words in 
 
 English, 250. 
 Gibbon, quoted, 14; referred to, 169, 
 
 241, 242. 
 Gifford, referred to, 198. 
 Goldsmitb, style of, 23 ; rhythm of, 69 ; 
 
 quoted, 150, 166. 
 
 Gower, referred to, 222. 
 
 Graham, G. 1'., referred to, E8; remarks 
 on harmony, 67 ; on hyperbole, 87 ; on 
 English compounds, 226. 
 
 Grammar, relation of to Ehetoric, 1. 
 
 Grandiloquence. A lofty style of 
 speaking or writing. 
 
 Grattan, his personal disadvantages, 
 193. 
 
 Gray, Thomas, his style, 23 ; referred to, 
 196. 
 
 Greek, plurals, 46; language, 208, 211; 
 words in English, 244, 245 ; stems, pre- 
 fixes, and suifixes, 246, 247 ; numerals, 
 248 ; transliteration of, 249. 
 
 Green, J. S., quoted, 233. 
 
 Grimm, Jacob, referred to, 208 ; his 
 law of consonantal permutation, 211; 
 quoted, 262. 
 
 H. 
 
 Hall, Robert, his choice of words, 38. 
 
 Hamilton, Sir Wm., his theory of es- 
 thetic emotions, 146. 
 
 Harmonious language, value of, 148. 
 
 Harmony, value of to style, 66 ; in the 
 English language, 67 ; rules for, 67. 
 
 Hand. See "Index." 
 
 Harris, paragraph from, 76. 
 
 Hasten, use of the word, 40. 
 
 Hastings, battle of, 219. 
 
 Hawthorne, quoted, 167. 
 
 Headings, of essays, 125 ; how printed, 
 114, 118. 
 
 Head-lines, The lines at the top of the 
 page, as the words " Index and Glos- 
 sary " on this page. 
 
 Hearken, disuse of the word, 28. 
 
 Hebrew language, 209 ; words in Eng- 
 lish, 250. 
 
 HS'miStlch [stick]. Half a poetic verse, 
 or an incomplete verse. 
 
 Hengist, migrations under, 214. 
 
 Hia'tus. The concurrence of successive 
 sounds requiring a momentary pause 
 in passing from one to the other. 
 
 Hih§'mi9ism. An Irish idiom. A word 
 or construction borrowed from or imi- 
 tating the speech of an Irishman. 
 
 "HifaHl'tln." A word used to signify 
 a stilted and unnatural style of writing 
 
356 
 
 INDEX AND GLOaSABY. 
 
 ;. Big words for small 
 thoughts. 
 
 Hindu words in English, 250. 
 
 History, definition oJ, 162. 
 
 Hdgaxtll, referred to, 146. 
 
 Hdmer, compared with Virgil, 73 ; re- 
 ferred to, 144, 196 ; quoted, 153. 
 
 Honor, devotion to, often sublime, 153. 
 
 Hopeless, use of the word, 41. 
 
 Horace, his law of use, 28 ; referred to, 
 198. 
 
 Horsa, migrations under, 214. 
 
 Howard, John, referred to. 159. 
 
 Hume, referred to, 139, 241, 242 ; quoted, 
 146. 
 
 Humorous, the, explained, 166. 
 
 Hungarian language, 208. 
 
 Hurry, use of the word, 40. 
 
 Hutcbeson, referred to, 139. 
 
 Hymn meters, 204. 
 
 Hyper, use of the word, 29. 
 
 Hyp6r'baton. A figure of syntax, in 
 which the natural order of words or 
 sentences is changed. 
 
 HypSr'bole, 87. 
 
 Eypercrl'ti9ism is an excessive severity 
 of criticism. Literally, over-criticism. 
 
 Hyphen [hi'-f6n], use of, 123. 
 
 Ilys'teron-proteron has two senses ; 
 (1) the placing of a word first that 
 should occur later; (2) putting the con- 
 clusion before the premises. 
 
 I. 
 
 I, the pronoun, how written, 128. 
 
 Iambus, 201. 
 
 Ida, migrations under, 214. 
 
 Idiom, defined, 226. 
 
 Ideal presence, value of, 88. 
 
 Ideas, abstract and concrete, 6L 
 
 Idyl, 197. 
 
 'aiagery nCm-ij-re]. Representations 
 
 of ideas by means of sensible objects. 
 
 The images suggested to the mind by 
 
 words. 
 Imitation, value of in acquiring taste, 
 
 144. 
 Imported words, 29, 30, 31, 260. 
 Impropriety. A violation of propriety. 
 In and into, use of the words, 36. 
 
 Incidental sources of English, 249. 
 Incongruity, a source of wii^ 155. 
 Incorporating languages, 207, 208, 
 Indignation, a source of sublimity, 153. 
 Indian words in English, 250. 
 Indo-European family of languagesi 
 208, 209, 210, 211. 
 
 Indirect statement, C8. 
 Industrious, use of the word, 40. 
 Inflectional languages, 207, 208. 
 Inflections, loss of in English, 219, 220, 
 
 225. 
 Injury, use of the word, 41. 
 Intellect, etymology of, 79. 
 Intention, use of the word, 40. 
 Interjections, how pointed, 115. 
 interroga'tlon, the figure of rhetoric, 
 
 90 ; when forcible, 97 ; point of, 103, 
 
 114. 
 Introduction, rules for, 17; notes of 
 
 176. 
 Invention, definition of, 5 ; not strictly 
 
 a part of Rhetoric, 6 ; processes of, 6. 
 Inversions, in poetry, 199. 
 Invitations, specimens of, 174. 
 Irony [i'ron-ej, 90. 
 Irving, quoted, 38. 159 ; his rhythm, 69 ; 
 
 referred to, 242. 
 Isoco'lon, a continued antithesis. For 
 
 example, see the comparison of Homer 
 
 and Virgil, 73. 
 Isolating languages, 207, 208. 
 It, expletive use of, 68. 
 Italian plurals, 46 ; language, 226 ; words 
 
 in English, 260. 
 Italics, use of, 123. 
 
 J. 
 Jeffrey, Lord, quoted, 89, 146. 
 Jejune. Applied to style. Empty, dry, 
 
 void of interest 
 Job, quotation from, 154. 
 Jobnson, Dr. Samuel, his rhythm, 69; 
 
 referred to, 198, 241, 242, 243. 
 Johnsonese style, 243. 
 Joking one's self, a source of humor, 
 
 167. 
 Joufltoy, referred to, 146. 
 Jutes, relation of the, to Anglo-Saxons, 
 
 213 ; settlement of the, in Englaud, 214. 
 
INDEX AND OLOSSABT. 
 
 357 
 
 E. 
 
 Eames, Lord, on ideal presence, 8:). 
 
 Eeats, referred to, 197. 
 
 Eing's Englisb, 222. 
 
 Euowledge of men necessary to an orar 
 tor, 193. 
 
 L. 
 
 Labotious, use of the word, 40. 
 
 LacO'nic. Applied to style, from the 
 Lacones, or Spartans, who were cele- 
 brated for their short and pithy an- 
 swers. Hence, brief, terse, concise. 
 
 Lampdo'n. Abitter personal satire. 
 
 Language, capricious character of, 33 ; 
 definition of, 206 ; origin of, 206 ; the 
 development of, 207 ; families of, 208. 
 See English. 
 
 Latin, compared with Saxon, 39 ; charac- 
 ter of deiivatives from, 94. 
 
 Lay, use of the word, 48. 
 
 Leads, explained, 123. 
 
 Leaders, use of, 123. 
 
 Lectures, a ki id of oration, 188. 
 
 Leniency, use of the word, 33. , 
 
 Latin, plurals, 45, 46, 47 ; language, 208, 
 211; influence of the, upon English, 
 215 ; as a military dialect, 220 ; modes 
 of influence of, 231; the "woof" of 
 English, 231 ; double derivatives from, 
 231 ; words in English, 232 ; stems, pre- 
 fixes, and suffixes, 233, 239 ; numerals, 
 240 ; proportion of in English, 241, 243. 
 
 Letters, purpose of, 170 ; Idnds of, 171 ; 
 news, 172 ; didactic, 171 ; official, 172 ; 
 business, 172; of introduction, 173; of 
 friendship, 172 ; parts of a, 177 ; general 
 rules for, 184 ; Runic, 217. 
 
 Licenses, poetic, 199. 
 
 Lie, use of the word, 48. 
 
 IJUss, use of the word, 36. 
 
 Literary property, 15. 
 
 U'totes, 88. 
 
 Liturgy, style of, 95. 
 
 Local origin of words, 251. 
 
 Locke, style of, 23, 241. 
 
 Locomote, use of the word, 29. 
 
 Logic, relation of to Rhetoric, 1. 
 
 Long sentences, 70, 73. 
 
 Longfellow, allegory from, 84 ; quoted, 
 169 ; referred to, 197, 242. 
 
 Longlnus, referred to, 1,1. 
 Loose sentences, 1 1. 
 Lord's Prayer, in two versions, 219. 
 Ly'ric poetry, 105. 
 
 M. 
 Macaulay, style of, 24 ; referred to, 169, 
 
 197, 242. 
 Macron, 123. 
 
 Hddrigal. A little amatory poem, ex- 
 pressing a tender and simple thought. 
 Malay words in English, 260. 
 Mannerisms, 23. 
 Manuscripts, preparation of, 101. 
 Marsh, Q. P., quoted, 242. • 
 Mask, 197. 
 
 Materials, importance of collecting, 11. 
 Matthews, William, referred to, 26. 
 May, use of the word, 36. 
 Melodious words, 67. 
 Melodrama, 197. 
 Memoir [m6'ni-wor], 162. 
 Meta'bole is the repetition of similar 
 
 ideas. 
 Mfitalfi'psis is the continuation of a 
 
 trope in several senses, or the union of 
 
 tropes of a different kind in one word 
 Mg'taphor, 83, 92. 
 M6'taplirase, 99. 
 Meta'thesis is a figure of orthography 
 
 by which letters are transposed. 
 Me'ter, 200. 
 
 Methods of arrangement, 19, 21. 
 Meto'nymy, 86. 
 Metrical Romance, 196. 
 Metrical Tale, 196. 
 Mexican language, 208. 
 Milton, simile from, 82 ; referred to, 141, 
 
 144, 196, 241, 242. 
 Mime'sis is an imitation. As a figure of 
 
 orthography, it is an imitation of a 
 
 mispronunciation. 
 Mlrabeau, quoted, 26. 
 Mock Epic, 196. 
 Mockery, use of the word, 91. 
 Mock-heroic, l"l.^ 
 Monarchial, use of the word, 33. 
 Monosyllabic languages, 207, 208. 
 Monotony, cause of in paragraphs, 72 ; 
 
 in sentences, 94. 
 
358 
 
 INDBX AND azOSSABT. 
 
 Montesquieu, referred to, 171. 
 
 Moore, Thomas, his use of words, 38. 
 
 Morality in the use of quotation marks, 
 120. 
 
 Moral purpose, a source of sublimity, 
 152. 
 
 Moral sublime, the, 162. 
 
 Motif, in literature, is the intention of 
 the literary artist. 
 
 Mutual, use of the word, 36. 
 
 Mystery, a source of the sublime, 164. 
 
 M5rtlllc orii-in of words, 26L 
 
 Miiller, F. Max, referred to, 207 ; quoted, 
 208. 
 
 N. 
 
 Naivete [nah-ev-tA] is an unaffected sim- 
 plicity in style. The opposite of artifi- 
 ciality. 
 
 Napoleon, description of, 148. 
 
 Narrative, qualities of a, 167. 
 
 Naturalization of words, 31. 
 
 Neglect, use of the word, 35. 
 
 Negligence, use of the word, 35. 
 
 Nicknames, 181. 
 
 Nominative case, use of, 49. 
 
 Norman conquest, 219. 
 
 Norman-French language, 219, 220, 224. 
 
 North American words in English, 250. 
 
 Notes, described, 173; to ladies, 174; 
 specimens of. 175. 
 
 Noun, collective, defined, 46. 
 
 Novel, definition of, 162. 
 
 Numerals, Roman, how written, 128; 
 the Latin, 240 ; the Greek, 248. 
 
 Numerical figures, how pointed, 109. 
 
 O. 
 
 and oh, difference between, 115 ; how 
 written, 128. 
 
 OWtuary. A biographical sketch of a 
 deceased person, designed to give in- 
 formation about his life and character. 
 
 Objective case, use of, 40. 
 
 Oblivion, use of the word, 40. 
 
 Observation, in invention, 12; use of 
 the word, 84. 
 
 Observance, use of the word, 34. 
 
 Obsolete forms, 29, 226. 
 
 Octave, in a stanza, 204. 
 
 Octa'Vd. Applied to books composed of 
 
 sheets so folded as to form eight leaves 
 of printing paper. Usnally written 8 
 or 8vo. 
 
 Odes, 196. 
 
 Odysseus, his shipwreck described, 153. 
 
 Omissions, how marked, 118. 
 
 Onmlbus, use of the word, 31. 
 
 Onomatopoetic theory of the origin of 
 language, 207. 
 
 Onomatopoeia [p^-ySJi], 70. 
 
 Onus probdndl Latin lor, " The bur- 
 den of proving." 
 
 Opera. A musical di-ama, 197. 
 
 Oration, ancient division of, 17; the 
 nature of an, 186 ; the qualities of an, 
 186 ; parts of an, 190. 
 
 Orator, the qualifications of an, 192. 
 
 Oratory, kinds of, 187. 
 
 Order in a sentence, 54. 
 
 Origin of language, 207. 
 
 Osslan, his cadences, 69. 
 
 Ottava rima, 204. 
 
 OxymS'ron. A form of speech which 
 unites words of a contrary meaning, 
 and seems to be a contradiction; as, 
 "A pious fraud." 
 
 P. 
 
 Painful, use of the word, 34. 
 
 Palgrave, Sir Francis, quoted, 231. 
 
 Panegyric [jir-ik]. See Eulogy. 
 
 Parable. See Fable. 
 
 Faragoge [g6'jee] adds a letter or syl- 
 lable to the end of a word; as vasty 
 for vast ; without^?* for without. 
 
 Paragraph [pa'r-a-graf], importance of, 
 71 ; rules for, 72 ; first sentence of, 72 ; 
 how made, 72 ; last sentence in, 73 ; 
 examples of, 75 ; printer's markfor, 12;?. 
 
 Faralel'psis is a form of speech in which 
 the speaker pretends to pass by with- 
 out mentioning that which he in reality 
 is making conspicuous, 
 
 FS,'raphr§,se, 99. 
 
 Parenthetical expressions, 105. 
 
 Par6'nth6sis, 61, 62, 119. 
 
 Pa'rody, 158. 
 
 Paronomasia [ma'-zlii-a], 156. 
 
 Particles are words which are not in- 
 flected, and which play a subordinate 
 
INDJi;X AND GLOSS AMY. 
 
 359 
 
 part in a sentence, as prepositions and 
 conjunctions. Splitting of, 64. 
 
 Farts transposed, io8. 
 
 Pascal, quoted, 16. 
 
 Pastoral, 197. 
 
 Pasqulna'de. A lampoon. 
 
 Pathetic, Ulustrated, 158. 
 
 Penitence, use of the word, 39. 
 
 Periodic sentences, ei. 
 
 Period, rules for, 113. 
 
 Periphrasis [pe-rl'f-ra-sis]. A circum- 
 locution. 
 
 Peroration, 190. 
 
 Persian words in Englisli, 250. 
 
 Personal origin of words, 251. 
 
 Personlflca'tion, 83, 127. 
 
 Perspicuity. Clearness. 
 
 Persuasion, 188. 
 
 Phenomenon, use of the word, 31. 
 
 Phillips, Charles, quoted, 148. 
 
 Phoenician language, 209. 
 
 Phrase [fraze], 44. 
 
 Piers Plowman, referred to, 222. 
 
 Pitt, William, his use of words, 38 ; his 
 learning, 193. 
 
 Pla'giarism [ji-ar-izm] is an act of lit- 
 erary theft. See Literary property, 15. 
 
 Plato, referred to, 146. 
 
 Plead, use of the word, 33. 
 
 Ple'onasm [azm]. A redundancy. 
 
 Plenty, use of the word, 40. 
 
 Plo'ce is a form of speech in which a 
 word is made to signify not so much 
 the thing of which it is a proper desig- 
 nation, but some predominant quality 
 of it ; as, " In all this contest he has 
 been a man, indeed." 
 
 Pliny, referred to, 171. 
 
 Plot, explained, 168 ; the qualities of, 
 169. 
 
 Plotlnus, quoted, 145. 
 
 Plurals, foreign, list of, 45. 
 
 Plurals, words having two, list of, 46. 
 
 Poem, the nature of a, 194. 
 
 Poems, kinds of, 195. 
 
 Poetic licenses, 199. 
 
 Poetry, defined, 161; the method of, 
 198. 
 
 Points, classified, 105. See Punctuation. 
 
 Pollock, Robert, referred to, 198. 
 16 
 
 Polynesian words in English, 250. 
 Poly'ptoton. A form of speech in 
 
 which a word is repeated in different 
 
 forms, genders, numbers, cases, etc. 
 Polysyllabic languages, 207, 208. 
 Polys^'ndeton, 64. 
 Pompous style, 243. 
 Pope, quoted, 29 ; referred to, 198, 198, 
 
 241, 242. 
 Popularity of presentation in oratory, 
 
 189. 
 Portuguese words in Englisli, 250. 
 Power, representations of, sublime, 152. 
 Praise, use of the word, 38. 
 Prefix, definition of, 228. 
 Prefixes, Anglo-Saxon, 228 ; Latin, 235 ; 
 
 Greels, 247. 
 Proportion of elements in English, 241. 
 ProTl'n9ialisms are terms belonging to 
 
 some province or locality, 30. 
 PQn, 156. 
 Punctuation, value of, 101 ; purpose of, 
 
 102 ; not elocutionary, 102 ; history of, 
 
 104. 
 Purity, 28. 
 
 Purpose, use of the word, 40. 
 Py'rrhic. A foot consisting of two short 
 
 syllables ; as, ^^ w. 
 Py'thias and Damon, story of, 162. 
 
 Quadrat, 133. 
 
 Quantity marks, 123. 
 
 Quarto, Applied to a book formed of 
 
 sheets so folded as to make four leaves 
 
 of each sheet. Usually written 4° or 
 
 4to. 
 Quatrain, 203. 
 Queries, how pointed when inserted in 
 
 the text, 120. 
 Questions, value of in invention, 7, 14 ; 
 
 direct, 114. 
 Quintilian'S remark on clearness, 54. 
 Quotations, brief, how pointed, 109, 
 
 112 ; marks of, how used, 120. 
 
 Raise, use of the word, 48. 
 Randolph, John, quoted, 80. 
 
360 
 
 INDEX AND QL08SABY. 
 
 Rant. Boisteruiis and high-sounding 
 but empty dduluination. 
 
 Reading in invention, 12 ; should fol- 
 low reflection, 14 ; rules tor, 14. 
 
 Recapitulation, value of, 19. 
 
 Recasting, a means of variation, 96. 
 
 Redundancy, 63. 
 
 Reference marks, 123. 
 
 Reflection, in invention, 12. 
 
 Regulus, story of, 153. 
 
 Reld, Dr. Thomas, quoted, 146. 
 
 Relative clauses, 60, 106. 
 
 Reparte^, lee. 
 
 Repentance, use of the word, 89. 
 
 Respectfully, use of the word, 34. 
 
 Respectively, use of the word, 36. 
 
 Restrictive expressions, 106. 
 
 Resurrect, use of the word, 32. 
 
 Ret6rt is a quick and witty reply, in 
 which charges or insinuations are re- 
 turned. It generally laclcs the good 
 humor that is consistent with repartee. 
 
 Review, deflnition of n, 163. 
 
 Reynolds, Sir Joshua, ref eired to, 146. 
 
 Rbapsody [rSp-so-de]. This word is 
 used in two senses : (1) a small part of 
 an epic poem, suitable for recitation ; 
 (2) a rambling, disconnected composi- 
 tion. 
 
 Rhetoric, defined, 1; utility of, 2; 
 scientific division of, 4. 
 
 Rhetorical pauses, how pointed, no. 
 
 Rho'dian style. Applied to a style of 
 oratory midway between the florid and 
 diffuse Asiatic, and the chaste and con- 
 cise Attic. 
 
 Rhyme [rime], alliterative, 202; asso- 
 nantal, 202 ; consonantal, 202 ; mascu- 
 line, 202; feminine, 202; triple, 203; 
 sectional, 203 ; royal, 203. 
 
 Rhythm [rlthm], importance of, 68; 
 Russell's remarks on, 69 ; a cause of 
 emotion, 195. 
 
 Richter, Jean Paul, quoted, 14. 
 
 Ridicule, use of the word, ri. 
 
 Rise, use of the word, 48. 
 
 Robertson, the historian, referred to, 
 241, 242. 
 
 Rogers, Samuel, referred to, 198. 
 
 Boget [ro-zha'J, referred to, 38. 
 
 Rddomonta'de, Vain boa&ting. Rant. 
 
 Romance, definition of, 162. 
 
 Romance languages, 220, 226, 262. 
 
 Root, defined, 227. 
 
 Roots, original form of, 207. 
 
 Runes, 217. 
 
 Ruskin, John, titles of his books, 11 ; 
 
 quoted, 138 ; referred to, 139, 146, 242, 
 
 243. 
 RusselI,Willlam, his remarks on rhythm, 
 
 69. 
 Russian words in English, 250. 
 
 S. 
 
 Sanscrit language, 209. 
 
 Sarcasm, use of the word, 91. 
 
 Satire, use of the word, 91. 
 
 Satirical poetry, 198. 
 
 Saxon. See Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 Scanning is the process of resolving 
 verse into its metrical elements. 
 
 Schelling, referred to, 146. 
 
 Scott, Sir Walter, quoted, 166; referred 
 to, 168, 169, 196, 243. 
 
 Section, printer's mark for, 123. 
 
 Sects, names of, how written, 127. 
 
 Self-possession in an orator, 194. 
 
 Semicolon, rules for, 109. 
 
 Semitic family of languages, 208, 209. 
 
 Seneca, referred to, 171. 
 
 Sentence, defined, 42 ; simple, 43 ; com- 
 pound, 43 ; complex, 43 ; importance 
 of connecting, 52; natural order of 
 words in, 64; balanced, 61; loose, 61; 
 periodic, 61 ; long, 70, 73 ; short, 70, 73 ; 
 connection of, 74. 
 
 Sentimental sublime, 162. 
 
 Sermoginatio [ser-mfis'i-ni-she-o]. A 
 species of dialogue with one's self, in 
 whicli the question is at once followed 
 by the answer ; as, " Shall we retreat? 
 The enemy are in the rear. Shall we 
 halt? If we do, starvation awaits us. 
 Shall we advance? It is the only re- 
 sort that remains," 
 
 Sermons, a kind of oration, 188. 
 
 Sestette, 204. 
 
 Set, use of the word, 4& 
 
 Shaftesbury, Lord, referred to, 146. 
 
 Shakespeare, his diction, 26 ; quoted, 
 
INDEX AND QL08SABY. 
 
 361 
 
 91, 149, 160, 194 ; referred to, 142, 146, 
 196, 197, 241, 242, 262. 
 
 Shall and Will, use of, 48. 
 
 Shedd, W. a. T., quoted, 190. 
 
 Shelley, quoted, 149. 
 
 Short sentences, 70, 73. 
 
 Side-heads are headings run in the line. 
 
 Simile, definition of, 82. 
 
 Singlst, use of the word, 33. 
 
 Sit, use of the word, 48. 
 
 Smith, George, his work on synonyms 
 referred to, 38 ; Horace, referred to, 
 157 ; Sydney, quoted, 158. 
 
 Smollett, quoted, 92. 
 
 Snits, use of the word, 30. 
 
 So and such, use of the words, 36. 
 
 Society, value of to diction, 27. 
 
 Solecism [sO'l-e-stzm]. A violation of 
 the rules of syntax. It is a violation 
 of good usage in the structure of sen- 
 tences, as a barbarism Is a violation of 
 good usage in the use of words. So 
 named from the Soli, a people of At- 
 tica, who colonized In Clllcia, and lost 
 the purity of their language. 
 
 Songs, 196. 
 
 Sonnets, 196 ; stanza of, 204. 
 
 Sound and sense, 70. 
 
 South American words in English, 260. 
 
 Southey, quoted, 147. 
 
 Spec, words from the root, 79. 
 
 Spanish language, 226; words in Eng- 
 lish, 249, 250. 
 
 Speciality, use of the word, 33. 
 
 Specific words, 38, 39. 
 
 Spenser, Edmund, quoted, 203; his 
 stanza, 203 ; referred to, 241, 242. 
 
 Splitting of Fartieles, 64. 
 
 Spondee, 200. 
 
 Squinting construction, 66. 
 
 Standpoint, use of the word, 32. 
 
 Stanza, 203. 
 
 Stem, defined, 228. 
 
 Stems, Latin, 233 ; Greek, 246. 
 
 Sterne, Lawrence, his rhythm, 69. 
 
 Stilted style, 243. 
 
 Strength, 40. 
 
 Strong verbs, 47. 
 
 Stro'phe. A system of verses in lyrical 
 poetry. These were sung in the an- 
 
 cient chorus while marching In one 
 direction, and the antistrophe was sung 
 on the return. 
 
 Style, definition of, 23 ; kinds of, 23 ; 
 Importance of, 24 ; general law of, 25 ; 
 vividness of, 39 ; style coup6, 73 ; style 
 periodlque, 73; pompous style, 243". 
 stilted, 243. 
 
 Subdivided members, how pointed, 
 110, 111. 
 
 Subject (of a composition), importance 
 of choosing, 6 ; how to obtain, 7 ; quali- 
 ties of, 7 ; adapting, 9 ; statement of, 
 10 ; (of a sentence) compound, defined, 
 47. 
 
 Sublime, the, explained, 151. 
 
 Substitution in poetry, 200. 
 
 Sufficient, use of the word, 37. 
 
 Suffix, definition of, 228. 
 
 Suffixes, Anglo-Saxon, 229 ; Latin, 237 ; 
 Greek, 248. 
 
 Sumner, Charles, his culture, 198. 
 
 Superlative degree, 50, 63. 
 
 Superscription of a letter, how written, 
 177. 
 
 Supplementary clauses, 60, 112. 
 
 Suspense, means of, 61. 
 
 Suspicion, use of the word, 41. 
 
 Swift, his rhythm, 69 ; referred to, 241. 
 
 Syllfi'psis, The construing of words 
 according to their meaning rather than 
 according to their strictly grammatical 
 relations." 
 
 Sym'ploce. A repetition of a word at 
 the beginning and another at the end 
 of successive clauses or sentences. 
 
 Sy'nchysis, A derangement of words 
 in a sentence. 
 
 Sj^'ncope drops a letter from the middle 
 of a word ; as, o'er for over. 
 
 Synecdoche [sIn-S'k-do-ke], 86. 
 
 S3Ti6'resis contracts two syllables into 
 one ; as, hallow-fed into halltno'd. 
 
 Synize'sis Is the same as syneresis. 
 
 Synonyms [si'n-o-nlmz], 37 ; a means of 
 variation, 94. 
 
 Synthetic method, 20. 
 
 T. 
 Tale, definition, 162. 
 
362 
 
 INDEX AND GLOBS ART. 
 
 Taste, barbarous, 18 ; definitions of, 137 ; 
 analysis of, 138; nature of, 139; quali- 
 ties of, 139 ; universality of, 139 ; varia- 
 tion, 140; standard of, 141; cultivation 
 of, 143 ; oatholicity of, 144. 
 
 Tautology [taw-to'1-o-je], 63. 
 
 Taylor, Jeremy, paragraph from, 76. 
 
 ieclmlcal words, 30. 
 
 Temperance, use of tbe word, 39. 
 
 Tennyson, Alfred, referred to, 242. 
 
 Tense, importance of distinguishing, 47; 
 ::equence of tenses, 52. 
 
 Terminus, origin of the word, 31. 
 
 Terza rima (tert-sa-re-mah], 204. 
 
 Teutoni^ism. A n idiom of the German 
 language. A word or construction bor- 
 rowed from or imitating the German 
 mode of speaking. 
 
 Teutonic languages, 211, 262. 
 
 Tliaclseray, referred to, 167, 170. 
 
 That, Use of the word, 49. 
 
 There, expletive use of, 98. 
 
 T tie' sis. This word is used in two 
 senses ; (1) a proposition which a wri- 
 ter proposes to establish ; (2) the com- 
 position in which the proposition Is 
 proved. 
 
 Thompson, James, referred to, 198, 241. 
 
 Thorn, the letter, 217. 
 
 Thought, nature of a, 42. 
 
 Tilde [tn-da], foiTu and use, 123. 
 
 Title-pages, how pointed, 113, 114. 
 
 Titles, of books, quoted, 126-; of office and 
 honor, how written, 127, 181. 
 
 Tmesis [me'sis]. A form of speech by 
 which a compound word is separated 
 into parts by the intervention of some- 
 thing else. 
 
 Torrey, Joseph, quoted, 142. 
 
 Tract, definition of, 163. 
 
 Tragedy, 197. 
 
 Transliteration, of Anglo-Saxon, 227; 
 of Greek, 249. 
 
 Transpire, use of the word, 35. 
 
 Transposed parts, how pointed, 108. 
 
 Transposition, ameans of vaiiation, 98. 
 
 Travesty, definition of, 155. 
 
 Treatise [tre-t-.s], definition of, 168. 
 
 Trench, R. 0., referred to, 26 ; quoted, 
 226, 25L 
 
 Trl'brach. A poetic foot composed of 
 three short syllables ; as, w n^ -.-•. 
 
 Triplet, 203. 
 
 Trochee [tro'-keel 200. 
 
 Trope, 82. 
 
 Truth, use of the word, 41. 
 
 Tupper, M. F., referred to, 198. 
 
 Turkish language, 208 ; words in Eng- 
 lish, 250. 
 
 Turner, Sharon, story of, 129 ; quoted, 
 241. 
 
 Types, varieties of, 124. 
 
 U. 
 
 Unity, meaning of, 58 ; importance of, 
 68 ; rules for, 59 ; in paragraphs, 72. 
 
 Unities. The dramatic -unities are three: 
 (1) Of Time. The time supposed should 
 not exceed twenty-four hours. (2) Of 
 Place. The place should be one and 
 the same throughout the play. (3) Of 
 Action. The action should consist of 
 one main plot. 
 
 Vandenhoff, quoted, 102. 
 
 Vanity, use of the word, 40. 
 
 Variation of expression, 93; kinds ot, 
 94. 
 
 Variety in paragraphs, 7a 
 
 Vastness, a source of sublimity, 154. 
 
 Veracity, use of the word, 41. 
 
 Verb, agreement of with subject, 45. 
 
 Verhal formation, law of, 32. 
 
 Verbatim, origin of the word, SL 
 
 VerbOSity. Wordiness. Example of , 96. 
 
 Verbs, transitive and intransitive, 47; 
 strong, 47. 
 
 Verse, the natural form of poetry, 195 ; 
 definition of, 20L 
 
 Versification, defined, 200. 
 
 Vignette [vin-yS't]. (l) A capital letter 
 in ancient manuscripts, ornamented 
 with vines. (2) Any small printer's- 
 ornament, especially little cats without 
 borders. 
 
 Virgil, compared with Homer, 73; re- 
 ferred to, 144, 196, 198. 
 
 Vision, defined, 8S. 
 
 Vividness of style, sa 
 
INDEX AND GLOBSAMT. 
 
 363 
 
 Vocabulary, means of acquiring, 25. 
 Vocative. The case of address. Words 
 
 in, liow pointed, 109. 
 Voltaire, referred to, U6. 
 Vulgarisms, 30. 
 
 W. 
 
 \7el)Ster, Daniel, story of, 3 ; Us des- 
 cription of oratory, 186 ; Ms oratorical 
 manner, 192 ; his legal learning, 193. 
 
 Welai dialect, 213. 
 
 Wen, the letter, 217. 
 
 West Indian words in English, 250. 
 
 Whately, style of, 23 ; referred to, 38. 
 
 WMcll, use of, 49. 
 
 Whilst, disuse of the word, 29. 
 
 WMpple, E. P., quoted, 157. 
 
 Whisky, origin of the word, 214. 
 
 WMte, K. G., referred to, 28 ; quoted, 98. 
 
 Whitney, W. D., referred to, 207, 209. 
 
 WbO, use of, 49. 
 
 Wiclif, John, referred to, 219, 222, 227. 
 
 WilUam the Conqueror, referred to, 219. 
 
 Williams, Billy, story of, 57. 
 
 Wilson, JohB, quoted, 102, 129. 
 
 Winckelmajm, referred to, 146. 
 
 Wit, distinguished from humor, 157. 
 
 Without, use of the word, 36. 
 
 Witty, tlie, explained, 164. 
 
 Words, importance of, 25 ; newly coined, 
 29 ; foreign, 29 ; naturalization of, 31 ; 
 technical, 30; the formation of, 31; 
 generic and specific, 38 ; equivocal, 41 ; 
 negative and privative, 41; unneces- 
 sary, 63; connective, use of, 64; em- 
 phatic, position of, 64; insignificant, 
 65; melodious, 67; In a series, how 
 pointed, 107; in pairs, how pointed, 
 108 ; in tlie vocative, how pointed, 109 ; 
 of Anglo-Saxon origin, 224; of Latin 
 origin, 231; of Greek origin, 245; of 
 foreign origin, 249, 250 ; derived from 
 places, 251 ; derived from persons, 251. 
 
 Wordswortll, referred to, 198, 243; 
 quoted, 204. 
 
 Writing m a circle, 74. 
 
 Young, Dr. Edward, referred to, 198, 241. 
 
 Zeft'gma. A form of speech in which, 
 ■by the omission of a word, another is 
 connected with a word with which it 
 cannot properly be joined; as, "They 
 wear a garment like that of the Scythi- 
 ans, but a language peculiar to them- 
 Helves."