n I AUCTION TO THE MM ■HUB - IAN LANGUAGES. POWELL. ■ . ■ m ■ , m& ■ • ■ EL II |: iitii M llliE iii" WffiM$&$''i : ' '■ t 1 "■'■'"' '■''' ' '' '■ ' ■■"""'■' '■' -, ■■ ' ' ' " ■ ' ^^» ; . ' '' _ CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Cornell University Library PM 107.P88 3 1924 027 106 941 ^™i mi v: Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924027106941 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY J. W. POWELL DIRECTOR INTRODUCTION STUDY OF INDIAN LANGUAGES WORDS PHRASES AND SENTENCES TO BE COLLECTED J. Wf By J. Wf POWELL SECOND EDITION— WITH CHARTS WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1 8 S Y V CORNELL^ UNIVERSITY PREFACE. During the past ten years students of Indian languages have rapidly multiplied. When the author of this volume began the exploration of the Colorado River of the West under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution, Professor Henry, as its secretary, urgently recommended a study of the Indians of that country, although the work was organized primarily as a geographic and geological survey. The region was practi- cally unknown to white men, and the Indians found therein were less modified by the influences of civilization than any others of the United States. The only inhabitants of the country being Indians, the members of the survey were thrown the more directly into contact with them, as their services were needed in finding trails, fords, passes, and watering places. Under these circumstances favorable opportunities were utilized, and from time to time since then this work has gradually expanded until a Bureau of Ethnology, under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, has been organized by law. In the mean time, through the efforts of this organization in ij forms many persons have been enlisted in the study of North-" anthropology and the philologic branch has received special! To intelligently prosecute linguistic research it was found neceSary to make a summary of what had previously been done in this field, and a classification of the linguistic stocks of North America was undertaken. In the progress of this work vocabularies and grammars from various sources have been studied and compared with the large amount of matter pouring in from the assistants and collaborators with the Bureau. Those engaged in the work needed constant direction and were frequently calling vi PEBFACE. for explanations. Thus there came to be an urgent demand for an "Introduction to the Study of Indian Languages." In the year 1877 the first edition was issued. The progress made by various students, and the studies made by the author, alike require that a new edition be prepared to meet the more advanced wants and to embody the results of wider studies. Under these circumstances the present edition is published. It does not purport to be a philosophic treatment of the subject of language; it is not a comparative grammar of Indian tongues ; it is sirnply a series of explanations of certain characteristics almost universally found by students of Indian languages — the explanations being of such a character as expe- rience has shown would best meet the wants of persons practically at work in the field on languages with which they are unfamiliar. The book is a body of directions for collectors. _ It is believed that the system of schedules, followed seriatim, will lead the student in a proper way to the collection of linguistic materials; that the explanations given will assist him in overcoming the difficulties which he is sure to encounter ; and that the materials when collected will consti- tute valuable contributions to philology. It has been the effort of the author to connect the study of language with the study of other branches of anthropology, for a language is best understood when the habits, customs, institutions, philosophy, — the subject-matter of thought embodied in the language are best known. The student of language should be a student of the people who speak the language ; and to this end the book has been prepared, with many hints and suggestions relating to other branches of anthropology. In preparing the first edition the author appealed to the eminent scholar, Prof. J. D. Whitney, for assistance in devising an alphabet ; since then further experience has demonstrated the propriety of some changes and a considerable enlargement of the scheme. For the alphabet as it is now presented, Professor "Whitney is not responsible, but the writer is greatly indebted to him for laying the foundation of the chapter as it appeared in the previous edition. In the second chapter, entitled "Hints and Suggestions," the fourth section embodies a series of questions prepared by the Hon. Lewis H.Morgan, PREFACE. vii and by him presented to the Archaeological Institute of America, March 1880, in a "Statement concerning the Objects of an Expedition to New- Mexico and Arizona, and of one subsequently to Yucatan and Central America." In many other ways the author is indebted to Mr. Morgan as the pioneer investigator into the sociology of the North American Indians. The section on Kinship especially is a summary and condensation of a portion of his great work on "Consanguinity and Affinity," published by the Smithsonian Institute; but the schedule has been considerably enlarged, and diagrams have been devised with the hope of leading to more exhaustive research and more nearly accurate records. The writer had prepared a section on the study of materials which was thought, might be useful in a more advanced stage of linguistic study than that represented in the collection of the schedules. In this he had discussed, to some extent, methods of analyzing Indian languages ; but his own work had been rather that of the pioneer, and in such advanced studies he had taken but little part ; and the section as written was unsatisfactory. After it had gone into the printer's hands it occurred to the writer to consult again a paper written some years ago and read by Mr. J. Hammond Trum- bull before the American Philological Association.* On reading the paper again it was thought best to cut out what had been written on this subject and to insert in lieu thereof a large portion of Mr. Trumbull's paper. The method of treatment here employed has one characteristic requir- ing mention. In its preparation, from time to time, illustrations from Indian languages have been more and more eliminated. To the general scholar perhaps this is a fault, but experience has fully demonstrated to the author that illustrations from unknown languages, presented to the working stu- dent in the field, serve rather to obscure than elucidate the subject in hand. Illustrations to be of value in such cases must come from materials familiar to the student. In incorporating Mr. Trumbull's paper, which was written for scholars rather than for students in the field, the writer did not consider himself authorized to modify in any manner what Mr. Trumbull had said. His matter appears, therefore, with all its wealth of example. * On the Best Method of Studying the North American Languages. By J. Hammond Trumbull. Trans. Am. Phil. Asso., 1069-70. Hartford: 1871, 8°. pp. 55-7'J. Vlil PBEFACE. This method of treatment has another important reason for its justifi- cation. It seemed desirable to make the hints and suggestions as brief as possible, so that the whole volume would form a convenient handbook for the collector in the field. In preparing this chapter, in its earliest stage, illustrations were accumulated from many sources. Had they been used the work would have been more than doubled in size, and as its practical purpose would not be subserved thereby they were chiefly eliminated. As the work of the Bureau has extended from time to time, it has been found necessary to prepare a series of volumes like the present, each to be an introduction to some branch of anthropologic research. The previous edition of the present "Introduction" was the first of the series; since that time the following have been published: Second, "Introduction to the Study of Sign Language among the North American Indians," by Lt. Col. Garrick Mallery, U. S. A.; and Third, "Introduction to the Study of the Mortuary Customs of the North American Indians," by Dr. H. C. Yarrow, U. S. A. Several others are in course of preparation and will soon be issued. This field of research is vast; the materials are abundant and easily col- lected; reward for scientific labor is prompt and generous. Under these circumstances American students are rapidly entering the field. But the area to be covered is so great that many more persons can advantageously work therein. Hundreds of languages are to be studied; hundreds of gov- ernments exist, the characteristics of which are to be investigated and recorded. All these peoples have, to a great extent, diverse arts, diverse mythologies, as well as diverse languages and governments; and while the people are not becoming extinct but absorbed, languages are changing, governments are being overthrown, institutions are replaced, and arts are becoming obsolete. The time for pursuing these investigations will soon end. The assistance of American scholars is most earnestly invoked. J. W. Powell. Washington, March, 1880. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter I. — On the Alphabet. Page. Vowels 4 Dipthongs 5 Consonants 6 Mutes 6 Nasals 7 Spirants 8 Sibilants 9 W, T, E, L, and H 9 Interrupted sounds 11 Synthetic sounds 12 Complex combinations 13 Alphabet 14 Chapter II. — Hints and Explanations. § 1. — Persons 18 § 2.— Parts of the body 18 § 3. — Dress and ornaments 18 § 4.— Dwellings 20 § 5. — Implements and utensils : 23 $ 6.— Food 24 § 7.— Colors. 25 § 8. — Numerals , 25 $ 9. — Measures 26 § 10.— Division of time 27 § 11.— Standards of value 27 § 12. — Animals 28 $ 13.— Plants, &c 29 § 14. — Geographic terms : 29 § 15. — Geographic names 30 § 16. — The firmament, meteorologic and other physical phenomena and objects 30 § 17.— Kinship 30 § 18. — Social organization 38 § 19. — Government 40 § 20.— Religion 41 § 21. — Mortuary customs 42 § 22.— Medicine 43 § 23. — Amusements 44 5 24. — New words 45 Remarks on nouns 46 IX X TABLE OF CONTENTS. Pago. § 25. — Accidents of nouns — demonstrative and adjective pronouns 46 § 26. — Personal and article pronouns — transitive verbs 47 § 27. — Possession _ 49 § 28. — Intransitive verbs — adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, and nouns used as verbs 49 § 29. — Voice, mode, and tense 51 § 30. — Additional investigations suggested 55 § 31. — On the best method of studying materials collected 59 § 32. — The rank of Indian languages 69 Chapter III. — Schedules. Schedule 1. — Persons % 77 2.— Parts of the body .' 76 3. — Dress and ornaments 82 4. — Dwellings 84 5. — Implements and utensils 88 Wooden ware 90 Stone implements 91 Shell, horn, bone, &c 92 Basket ware 93 Pottery 94 6.— Food 95 7.— Colors 96 8. — Numerals — Cardinal numbers 97 Ordinal numbers 99 Numeral adverbs, &c 100 Multiplicatives 101 Distributives 102 9. — Measures 103 10. — Division of time 105 11. — Standards of value 107 12. — Animals — Mammals 109 Parts of body, &c, of mammals 113 Birds 115 Parts of body, &c , of birds 121 Pish 122 Parts of the body, &e., of fish 123 Reptiles 124 Insects 125 13. — Plants 127 14. — Geographic terms 129 15. — Geographic names 131 16. — The firmament, meteorologic and other physical phenomena and objects 132 17.— Kinship. — Relatives. — Liueal descendants of self, male speaking 134 Lineal ascendants of self, male speaking 135 First collateral line, male speaking 136 Second collateral line, male speaking 137 Third collateral line, male speaking 139 Fourth collateral line (male branch), male speaking 146 Fourth collateral line (female branch), male speaking 147 Lineal descendants of self, female speaking 148 Lineal ascendants of self, female speaking 149 First collateral line, female speaking 150 Second collateral lino, female speaking 151 Third collateral line, female speaking 153 TABLE OF CONTENTS. xi Pago. Schedule 17. — Kinship. — Relatives. — Fourth collateral line (male branch), female speaking 100 Fourth collateral line (female branch), female speaking 161 Affinities through relatives — Descendants of self, male speaking 162 First collateral line, male speaking 163 Second collateral lino, male speaking 164 Third collateral line, male speaking 166 Affinities through the marriage of self, male speaking 171 Affinities through relatives — Descendants of self, female speaking 172 First collateral line, female speaking 173 Second collateral line, female speaking 174 Third collateral line, female speaking 176 Affinities through the marriage of self, female speaking 181 Ordinal names of children 182 18. — Social organization 183 19. — Government 185 20.— Religion 186 21. — Mortuary customs 187 22.— Medicine 189 23. — Amusements 191 24.— New words 192 25. — Number and gender of nouns — Demonstrative and adjective pronouns 196 26. — Personal and article pronouns — Transitive verbs 200 27. — Possession 206 28. — Intransitive verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions and nouns used as verbs 210 29. — Voice, mode and tense 221 30. — Additional investigations suggested 228 USTTRODUOTIOlSr TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN LANGUAGES. By J. W. Powell. CHAPTER I. ON THE ALPHABET. The study of an unwritten language should begin with committing it to writing. In this manner only can the student become so acquainted with its elements and characteristics as to be able to discover its grammatic structure and its philologic relations; and the language must be written to place such discoveries on record. A language cannot be written until its sounds are mastered, and this is no easy task. The number of distinct qualitative sounds that can be uttered by the human voice is very great, and without long training the ear cannot properly discern and discriminate them all. In the English language there are more than forty simple or elemen- tary sounds, and each one is made by a more or less complex adjustment and movement of the vocal organs, so that in fact no one of these so-called elementary sounds is strictly simple. In the study of the sounds of a savage or barbaric language the sim- plest elements into which each can be resolved are oftentimes even more complex than the elementary sounds of the English language. The com- l s I L 2 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN LANGUAGES. plexity of the sounds of an unwritten language on the one hand, and the want of training to distinguish such sounds on the other, makes the study of its phonology difficult. The magnitude of this difficulty in the study of the Indian languages of North America will be better understood when it is known that there are several hundred languages, and that there are proba- bly sounds in each which do not appear in the English or any other civil- ized tongue; and perhaps sounds in each which do not appear in any of the others ; and further, that there are perhaps sounds in each of such a charac- ter, or made with so much uncertainty that the ear primarily trained to distinguish English speech is unable to clearly determine what these sounds are, even after many years of effort. But the student of one Indian tongue has but a small part of these difficulties to master. Usually the most ele- mentary sounds into which any Indian language can be resolved will be of a smaller number than the English, and very many of the sounds will be the same or nearly the same as those with which he is familiar. A few only will be strange to him By frequently and carefully comparing the sounds of an Indian tongue with the known sounds of his own language the student will be able to very nearly reproduce and describe them. In his first attempt the obstacles will seem great, but as the work progresses they will largely disappear and he will soon be able to write the language with all the accuracy that linguistic science requires. In practice the student of the Indian tongue will commence by comparing its sounds with those of his own lan- guage, and thus the alphabet of his language will become the basis of the one to be used in writing the Indian language. To the English student, then, it becomes necessary to determine how his own alphabet, i. e., the Roman letters, can be used for the new language with which he has to deal. There are other reasons than that of mere con- venience why the Roman alphabet should be used. First, it is the alphabet with which the greater part of the civilized people of the world are acquaint- ed, and if consistently used all such people can more easily study a tongue recorded with it than if unfamiliar characters are employed Again, the Roman alphabet is used in all printing rooms where the English tongue is -spoken, and in very many others; and if a new tongue is written in these characters it can be reproduced without difficulty in almost any printing ON THE ALPHABET. 3 office of the civilized world. If new characters are used or the Roman characters modified so that types for their printing cannot be found in ordi- nary printing offices, the literature relating to such a language will, to a large extent, be excluded from the scientific and popular publications of the world. For these and similar considerations it is best to use the Roman alphabet; unmodified by additions thereto or by such diacritical marks as are not usually found in printing offices. Unfortunately in the use of the Roman alphabet for the English lan- guage many inconsistencies and absurdities have been introduced. The same sound is often represented by different letters or combinations of let- ters, and often the same letter has different values in different words; that is, in one word it represents some particular sound and in another word some other particular sound. How these inconsistencies have grown up cannot here be set forth. It is unfortunate that the English language, in many respects the most highly developed of all the tongues spoken by civilized people, is so absurdly burdened with a barbaric orthography. This difficult} 1 " of the inconsistent use of the alphabet in the English lan- guage is overcome only by an accurate knowledge of the spelling and pro- nunciation of each individual word of the language, as there are practically no rules for spelling and no rules for pronunciation. But he who first writes an Indian language prepares it for the study of those who are not familiar with it, and he will entirely fail unless he uses his alphabet with rigid con- sistency. In first writing a new language it should be an invariable rule to adopt a specific and distinct character for each sound; that is, let every sound have a character of its own and be invariably written with that character. These then are the fundamental rules to be observed in writing an Indian tongue: 1. The Roman alphabet must be used without additions, and with only such diacritical marks as are found in ordinary fonts of type. 2. Each sound must have a letter of its own. 3. Each character must be used to represent but one sound. 4. The Roman alphabet must be used for sounds in the Indian tongue 4 INTEODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN LANGUAGES. the same or analogous to the sounds for which they are used in English and other civilized languages. It is necessary then to set forth the best method of using the Roman alphabet. VOWELS. The vowel sounds found most widely among human languages are the five occurring in these English words: far, they, pique, note, rule. Each of these sounds is represented in English by two or more letters or combinations of letters. Often in English, still more often in French, and usually in German and Italian, these sounds are represented by the vowel letters by which they are written in the words above given, namely: a e i o u far, they, pique, note, rule. They are generally called the continental signs, as being so used in all Europe except the British Isles. Any given vowel sound is apt to be found in the same language hav- ing two different quantities, one long and one short. Often there is also a slight difference of quality or tone added to that of quantity. This differ- ence of tone between the long and short values of what is nearly the same sound is greater in English than in almost any other language. The shorter sound corresponding to the long e of they is the sound in then or head; the short sound to pique is that in pick ; the short sound to rule is that in pull. But the English has no real short o, except in the "Yankee" pronunciation of a few words like home, whole, none. Nor has it a real short sound corre- sponding to the a of far and father ; the so-called "short o" of not and what and their like is our nearest approach to it, and near enough to bear being called a short a. The usual way to distinguish the short value of the vowel is to write a curved mark (the breve) over it. These five signs, then, should be written in this manner : & i i 6 it what, then, pick, [whole,] pull. It should be distinctly remembered that the sounds represented by these letters marked with the breve are not exactly the short sounds correspond- ing to the long vowels represented by the unmodified letters. There is in ON THE ALPHABET. 5 each case a slight difference of tone in addition to the difference in quan- tity. In English we have a vowel sound heard in awe, aught, all, lord, and many other words. It should be written by d. Then there is the sound of a in cat, man, and other words. This should be represented by a. Finally there is the vowel sound heard in but, son, blood. It is often called a neutral vowel, because in its utterance the organs of the mouth are nearly in the indefinite position of simple breathing. It is the obscure sound heard in many unaccented syllables It is nearly like the German 6 and the French eu, but not exactly the same as either. As it is called by us "short u," and to one accustomed to English seems most naturally represented by a u, the sign u has been here adopted for it. The peculiar sound of the French u in tu, pure, mur, etc., or of the German u in kuhl, kussen, etc., will, whenever found, be written with the German sign u. It is made by a combination of the tongue-position by which i in pique is uttered with the lip-position by which u in rule is uttered. These four additional vowels are thus provided for: 6, a 4 u il all, cat, but, MM and mur. Sometimes a vowel is excessively prolonged, and this characteristic plays an important part in some languages. In such cases the sign for plus -f should be written after the vowel thus prolonged; thus — a+, a+, d-\-, o+, u+. DIPHTHONGS. What is called the "long V of aisle, isle, etc., is really a compound sound, a diphthong, beginning with a (far) and running down and ending with i (pique or pick). It is, therefore, to be written with ai. The sound in how, out, etc., is in a precisely similar manner a com- pound, beginning with a (far) and running down to u (rule or full). It is accordingly to be represented by au. If such a diphthong as ours in boil or boy is met with, it must of course be represented by di, the signs for its two parts What we call "long u," as in use, pure, mew, feud, etc., is clearly a 6 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN LANGUAGES. double sound, precisely that of yon, and can never be written with one character in any phonetic alphabet; its proper representative is yu. We have then, finally, the diphthongs — ai au di mine, down, boil. A little careful practice will give ready command of this scheme of vowel signs. It is proposed as a basis, a model which is to be adhered to as closely as circumstances shall allow, in representing the strange sounds that may be met with in practice. Its use will not take away the necessity for careful description, nor will it answer all purposes. A language may, for example (like French and German), distinguish two e-sounds, a closer (French e) and an opener (French e or e), akin respectively with our e (they) and 8 (then), but, unlike the latter, not differing in quantity, as long and short. In such a case it will be best to use e for the opener sound, and we may also need an 6 for an opener o, and even an i for an opener % (akin to our short i of pick). And there may be varieties of the "neutral vowel" for which the German 6 will be a convenient sign. CONSONANTS. There can be no question as to the proper method of representing some of the consonant sounds, because widespread usage has fixed certain sounds to certain characters; but in others there has been great variety of usage, and still other of the sounds with which the' student will have to deal in Indian languages are unknown to the languages of civilization. MTJTES. The three letters p, t, and A; represent the sounds heard in the following words : prop, trot, creak. The last example shows that we use c as well as k with this value ; that must be avoided in a systematic alphabet ; k only should be used. The t and k of other languages often do not precisely agree in charac- ter with ours ; one should be on the lookout here (as, indeed, everywhere else) for differences, and should note and describe them, if possible. Of these three, thejp is called a "labial" mute, because made with the lips; the t a "lingual" (or "dental"), because made with the tongue-tip ON THE ALPHABET. 7 (and near the teeth); the k a "palatal" or "guttural," because made against the palate, or near the throat, with the back part of the tongue. Then there are three other mutes, closely related to these, b, d, and g; their examples are these : blab, dread, grog. They differ from the three preceding in that there is tone, audible sound, made in the throat during the continuance of the contact by which they are produced. They are, therefore, properly called the " sonant " mutes, while the others are called the "surd" or "non-sonant," or "tone- less" mutes — or some term equivalent to this; (the names "hard" and " soft," and their like, are altogether to be rejected.) Usually a language has both the surd and sonant corresponding mutes — t and d, p and b, k and g — if it has either. All these sounds are called mutes because the mouth-organs are so closed in making them that no breath escapes until the closure is broken or exploded. The mutes, then, are — p t h b a 9 prop, trot, creak, blab, dread, grog. NASAX.S. If, now, with just the same positions of the mouth-organs, the breath is suffered to pass into or through the nose, the result is the. so-called "nasal mutes," or "nasal consonants," or simply "nasals." Generally, a language has a nasal corresponding to each pair of non-nasal mutes (surd and sonant). So, in English we hear the labial nasal m, the lingual nasal n, and the palatal nasal in sing, bring, etc. This last is just as simple a sound as either of the others, but we have no simple sign for it, and write it with ng. If this double sign, or "digraph," were adopted as its representative, we should have difficulty in distinguishing the simple nasal, as in singer, from the nasal followed by a ^-sound, as in finger. The best single substitute is n, because it is always to be found in the printing offices. The nasals, then, are — to n n mum, nun, singing. The nasal mutes are made, as above defined, with complete closure of the mouth-organs, and get their peculiar nasal quality from the ringing of 8 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN LANGUAGES. the expelled air in the nose. But if the same nasal ringing is made while the mouth-organs are in a position which produces a vowel (part of the breath being driven through the mouth, as in ordinary vowel utterance, but a part also into or through the nose), the result is a vowel with a nasal twang or tone added to it or a "nasal vowel." The French, for example, has four nasal vowels, as in en, vin, on, un. Whenever such are found in an Indian language, they may be written with the proper sign for just that vowel-sound which is given, and with the addition of a "superior" n to indicate the nasality. Thus, the four French sounds would be represented thus: d" o» d n & n en, vin, on, un. SPIRANTS. But there are other pairs of surd and sonant sounds (without nasal cor- respondents). Thus, for example, the / of fife and the v of valve stand related in this way, the / being made by an expulsion of pure breath, and the v of intoned or sonant breath, through the same position of the mouth-organs. In English, this position is a pressing of the upper teeth upon the lower lip ; but some languages leave out the teeth altogether, and produce very nearly the same sounds between the edges of the two lips alone. In any lan- guage it would be well to look sharply to see whether its /or v, or both, are of the one kind or the other. The ^-sound in our words thin and truth, and that in then and with, are related in the same way, one being surd and the other sonant. Although they are simple sounds in English, they are represented by a "digraph," but this method cannot be used in Indian languages, for the component parts of the "digraph" are needed for their own proper purposes, as these sounds frequently come together in the same order, and in English the same " digraph " is used for both sounds, which will not do. It is proposed to use for the surd (the th as in thin) the c, and for the sonant (the th in then) the character ^. The sounds last described may be called " spirants." The /and v are labial, and the g and are lingual, although each pair brings in an addi- ON THE ALPHABET. 9 tional organ, the teeth. In English we have no palatal spirants, but they are found in many languages. The German, for example, has two : one in words like ich and milch, formed farther forward on the tongue ; the other, in ach, doch, etc , farther back — more gutturally. They are both surd, and the corresponding sonant is nearly the Arabic " ghain.'" As we have no other use for q and x, these characters may be used in representing them. If a surd palatal spirant is found, let it be represented by q, and if a sonant is found, by x. The spirants, then, are — / » p t 9 3 fife, valve, thin, then, ich and ach, x — Arab, ghain SIBILANTS. We come now to the class of " sibilants," or hissing sounds. Our common English s and z need no explanation ; they, too, are corresponding surd and sonant. But our s^-sound is just as much a simple sound as s, although we use two letters to write it ; and it, as a surd, has its corre- sponding sonant in azure and pleasure, in fusion and adhesion, and their like. As we have no other use for c and j let the first, the surd, be represented by c, and its corresponding sonant by j. The ch and j sounds in church and judge are compound, having for their last part the sh and zh sounds, with a t prefixed to the one and a d to the other; the t and d, however, formed in a somewhat different way from our usual ones — namely, farther back in the mouth, and with the flat of the tongue. These compound sounds should be written by tc and dj. Thus, the sibilants are — s ■-■ c j to dj sauce. zones. shrewish. azure. church. judge. W, Y, B, L, AND H. The sounds of our y and w, as in you and we, should be written with these letters. The same with an A-sound prefixed to them — as in when (■=Jiweri) and hue (—hyu) — should be written as pronounced: that is, hw and hy. Some hold, to be sure, that these sounds are not w and y with an h prefixed, but rather are the corresponding surds to w and y; in either case, however, the hw and hy signs are the best, and unobjectionable. 10 INTKODUCTTON TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN LANGUAGES. In the way in which the w and y are made by the mouth-organs, the sound of w differs but slightly from that of u (rule), and the sound of y biit slightly from that of * (pique). The r is a difficult sound for an English speaker to deal with, because the English r is spoken so slightly, or even, in a host of cases (when not immediately followed by a vowel), by some people silenced altogether. Other languages are apt to give it a decidedly stronger, even a trilling or vibrated utterance. How, in any given language, the r (if present) is pro- nounced will be a proper subject for special description. In some languages a sort of imitation of r is made by vibrating the uvula instead of the tip of the tongue. If met with, this may be repre- sented by an inverted r (marked in manuscript thus, £•), as described below. An r that has an A-sound pronounced before it should, of course, be writ- ten hr. i The r-sound is uttered between the tip of the tongue and the roof of the mouth. In an Z-sound the tongue touches the roof of the mouth some- where in the middle, and the breath comes out at the sides of the tongue. The ordinary I has the tongue in the ^-position. The peculiar I expressed in Italian by gl (as in moglie) is made with the flat of the tongue, instead of its tip, against the roof the mouth, and will be conveniently represented by ly ; it is also nearly the French I (mouille). The n similarly made (rather palatal than lingual), which is the n of the Spanish and gn of the French (as in canon, regner), may be written in like manner with ny. The &-sound, though by no means found in all languages, is a common one. It is an expulsion of air through the position of the adjoining sonant sound. Thus, for example, the h of ha is a momentary rush of surd breath through the organs put in position for a, before the tone begins which makes the a itself; and it is just so with the h of he and with that of who; they are made respectively with the mouth-organs in the position of i (pique) and of u (rule). To be a real h, a pure aspiration, the sound must have this character. If there is a narrowing of the throat anywhere, so as to give a rasping noise, the sound is of another character, a guttural spirant, and must be specially described and differently represented. In English we use the aspiration only before a vowel and before the ON THE ALPHABET. 1 1 semivowels w and y (as instanced above by when and hue). In some other languages it may be found also before r and I and the nasal mutes n and m. Again, it may be found following instead of preceding the vowel which gives it its character. There are languages, too, in which strengthened or modified breathings appear which yet are not precisely spirants, and it may be necessary, in order to represent them, to double the h, or use other methods of distinction. Uses have thus been assigned to all our letters. In some languages the mutes, especially the surd ones, are sometimes uttered in such a way that there is a perceptible puff of breath — a kind of ft-sound, between them and the following sounds. Sometimes there is an initial breathing of the same character; in such cases they are said to be aspirated ; these aspirates or rough breathings should be represented by an inverted comma, thus, b\ d'. Much like these are the — INTERRUPTED SOUNDS. A peculiar modification of a consonant sound is sometimes found in a short explosion as its pronunciation is terminated. Perhaps it would be better described as a hiatus or interruption between two sounds with a slight explosion of the first, though other students describe it as an initial explosion to the following sound. The following illustration, taken from C. Hermann Berendt's "Analytical Alphabet for the Mexican and Central American Languages," page 3, will assist in the appreciation of this pecul- iarity. " Omitting from the sentence ' break in 1 the letters brea and pro- nouncing the remainder kin, gives exactly the sound of Mn. The same experiment made with the sentences 'leap on,' 'cut off,' 'reach in,' and 'kratzen' (Grerman) gives the sound of fon, tof, ixin, fsan. The distinction between the simple and the cut consonant is important. For instance, 'kan' means snake, and 'tan' yellow in Maya." These exploded sounds are very frequent; perhaps they occur in all the Indian languages. The student should mark the letters representing such sounds by placing immediately after them an apostrophe, thus, V, oV. 12 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN LANGUAGES. The aspirations described in a previous paragraph seem to be inter- mediate between true H's and the exploded sounds as last described. In most Indian languages these peculiarities require careful study. SYNTHETIC SOUNDS. Much difficulty is sometimes occasioned by the indefinite character of some of the sounds of a language. In the Hidatsa there is a sound of such a character that the English student cannot decide to which of the sounds represented by b, w, or m, it is most nearly allied; and there is another which the student cannot dis- tinguish from I, n, r, or d; such sounds are not differentiated as they are in English. They are synthetic; that is, they are made by the organs of speech in positions and with movements comprehending in part at least the positions and movements used in making the several sounds to which they seem to be allied. Such a synthetic sound will be heard by the student now as one, now as another sound, even from the same speaker. Such sounds are very common in Indian tongues and occasion no little difficulty to collectors, but much trouble can be avoided by a proper understanding of their nature. The student will at first note that the same speaker repeating the word in which such a sound occurs over and over again will be heard in such a manner that he, as hearer, will suppose him to be con- stantly changing the sound from that represented by one, two or more letters to another of the same group, and when he himself attempts to pro- nounce the word the Indian is equally satisfied whichever of the sounds is employed. It is found in studying a group of Indian languages of the same stock that these sounds which are synthetic in one branch are some- times differentiated in another, so that if we have in the first branch a synthetic sound, in the second some words will employ one of the differen- tiated elements, some another, and the same will be true of a third branch where the sounds are found to be differentiated. On comparing the second and third branches of the language it will be found sometimes that in cor- responding words the same differentiated sound will appear; in other corresponding words different sounds will appear; and if the language in which the synthetic sounds are used were lost, the use of differentiated ON THE ALPHABET. 13 sounds in the two languages would illustrate beautifully that change of consonants which has been described as being in conformity with Grimm's laws. When the phonology of our Indian tongues is thoroughly understood, much light will be thrown upon the whole science of phonology, and some of the most important facts to be collected in relation to this matter are connected with these synthetic sounds and their differentiation in aberrant languages. The student should carefully determine the group of element- ary letters in any synthetic sound, and constantly employ some one of the corresponding characters to represent it, and in his description of his alphabet the whole matter should be fully explained. COMPLEX COMBINATIONS. The student is apt to find combinations of sound with which he is unfamiliar, and which will cause no little difficulty. The consonant sounds will be found to come in an order with which he is unacquainted, and which it will be difficult for him to pronounce. Some of these combinations may be very long — three, four, or five consonants being used in one syllable, i. e., without an intervening vowel. All such complex sounds should be carefully analyzed and their constituents represented by appro- priate letters. SOUNDS FOR WHICH NO LETTERS HAVE BEEN PROVIDED. The student will in all probability discover sounds and peculiarities of sound for which no provision is made in the above alphabet, and yet the Roman characters will serve him for their representation by adopting the simple device of inverting them. In so doing he should be guided by the analogies of the system here laid down. All of the letters cannot with safety be inverted. The following only can be used in this manner: a, a, &, a, d, c, e, e, 8, g, Ji, l, ?, h, Z, m, 0, 6, o, r, t, v, w, y. Still the student has another resource. Letters may be doubled, but this should be a last resort. The preceding characters are tabulated below, and examples given to indicate then* use as recommended. 14 INTEODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN LANGUAGES. ALPHABET. a as m far, father ; German, haben; Sp , ramo. H nearly as in what, not ; German, man, as oi in Fr. loi a as in hat, man. d as in law, all, lord ; Fr., or. ai as in aisle, as i in pine, find; German, Eain, and as ei in mein, Bein; almost like Sp. sayal, ayunar. di as oi in boil, soil ; Sp. oyendo, coyote. au as ou in ow£, as ow in ftow ; German, Eaus ; Sp., awfo, awfor. b as in Wa& ; German, beben ; Fr , belle ; Sp., &a?'fi»", fcwem c as sA in sAaK, shrew ; German, schellen ; Fr., charmer, c as £A in £JW», /or^. ^ as th in iAe», though. d as in ^reac? ; German, das ; Fr., <#e ; Sp., de, dedo, dar. e as ey in ^e# ; German, Behnung, Beet ; Fr,dS; Sp., que, porque, haM. e as in then; German, denn; Fr., sienne; Sp., comen, mueren. fas in fife; German, Feuer; Fr., feu; Sp., firmar. g as in ^igr ; German, geben ; Fr., gout ; Sp., #osa»\ & as in ha, he, hoot; German, haben. i as in pique ; German, ihn ; Fr., He ; Sp., hijo, hilo. 1 as in pick, thin ; German, will. j as z in azure ; j in French Jacques, juste ; Portuguese, Joao k as in kick ; German, Kind ; Fr., quart ; Sp., querir. I as in lull ; German, lallen ; Fr., lourd ; Sp , lento, labio. m as in mum ; German, Mutter ; Fr., me ; Sp., menos. n as in nun ; German, Nonne ; Fr., ne ; Sp , nada, mrnca. n as ng in sm<7, singer, long ; Spanish, luengo, lengua. o as in note, most ; German, Bogen, Floh ; Fr., nos. 8 nearly as in New England home, whole ; German, soil ; Fr., sotte ; It., sotto; Sp., sol. p as in pipe ; German, Puppe ; Fr., poupe ; Sp., popa, pero. q as ch in German icA, or ch in ac& if the former is not found. r as in roaring; German, ruhren; Fr, rare; Sp , razgar. ON THE ALPHABET. 1 5 s as in sauce; German, Sack, wissen; Fr., sauce; Sp., sordo. t as in touch; German, Tag; Fr, tdter; Sp., tomar. 'u as in ntfe, fool ; German, du ; Fr., doux ; Sp., ««o, ninguno. H, as in pull, full; German, und. u as in German kilM, Mssen ; Fr., £m, mur. d as in £w£, run, son, blood; Fr., pleuvoir, pleurisie. v as in vafoe ; French, veux ; Sp., volver ; and as w in German wenn. w as in wish, will; nearly as on in French oui. x nearly as the Arabic gliain (the sonant of q.) y as in you, year ; Spanish, ya, yacer ; j in German ja. as z and s in zones ; German, Sase ; Fr., zele, rose ; Sp., rosa. dj as j in judge. hw as wA in wAew, why ; Sp., huerta. hy as in 7me. fy as Hi in million ; as K in Fr. brillant ; Sp., Wawo, cavallo ; and as #Z in Italian ng as in finger, linger. ny as »« in o»to» and fli in canon , Fr., agneau ; Spanish, marana, patrana. tc as ch in church, and c in Italian cielo ; Sp., achaque, choza, chupar. Excessive prolongation of a vowel should be marked thus: a-\-, d+,u+. Nasalized vowels should be written with a superior n, thus : e n , 5™, u n , a n , ai n . An aspirated sound should be marked by an inverted comma, thus: V, d l . An exploded sound or hiatus should be marked by an apostrophe, thus: V, d\ Synthetic sounds should be written with the letter which represents the sound which seems to be most commonly emitted. The following letters, inverted, can be used for sounds not provided for in the above alphabet : a, a, ft, a, d, c, e, e, $, g, h, l, *, k, 1, m, o, 6, 6, r, t, v, w, y. v, v, #, v, p, o, 9, 9, g, 6, t[, %, \, i(, i, m, o, q, o, j, i, a, en, R. The letters to be inverted in print should be written upright in the manuscript, and marked thus : d, h, I. 16 INTRODUCTION TO TH3 STUDY OF INDIAN LANGUAGES. Syllables should be separated by hyphens. In connected texts hyphens should be omitted. The accented syllable of every word should be marked by an acute accent, thus: Tcu-a/r' '-u-4m-pu-run-Mnt. Note. — The student should become familiar with the preceding alpha- bet, but its proper use will only be acquired by practice in writing Indian words. At first it will be necessary to refer to the alphabet frequently, and to facilitate this reference the alphabet has been reprinted on a card, which the student should keep before him in the earlier part of his work. CHAPTER II HINTS AND EXPLANATIONS. This chapter is arranged in sections, and the sections numbered ; and the following chapter is composed of a series of numbered schedules. The sections in this chapter refer serially to the schedules in the following chapter, and are prepared for the purpose of explaining severally the materials called for in the schedules, and to explain the difficulties which the student may encounter. Care should be taken to obtain words from the Indians themselves. Indians speaking English can be found in almost everytribe within the United States. Words cannot be obtained accurately from white men who are supposed to speak the Indian tongue, unless such persons have been long with the Indians and are intelligent and scholarly, and have had some reason for studying Indian languages on account of their being mission- aries, teachers, or linguists. The general method of communication between white men and Indians is by a conventional jargon, composed of corrupted Indian and English words, with many words from other European tongues. In this fact is found one of the reasons why words should not be collected from white men unless they have a scholarly knowledge, as indicated above. To collect words from an Indian requires great patience, as it is diffi- cult to hold his attention for any great length of time, and it requires a constant exercise of ingenuity to devise methods by which he may fully understand what is asked by the collector, and that the collector himself may feel that he is working with certainty. 2 S I L 17 18 INTEODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN LANGUAGES. Sometimes an Indian in jest will deceive by giving foolish or vulgar words ; for this and other reasons everything collected should be carefully verified. § 1.— PEESONS. Most of the words in this list can easily be obtained, but care shoujd be taken to obtain the word for man ; not Indian or white man ; and in most of the set to get the words called for, and not terms of relationship. §2.— PAETS OF THE BODY. In many Indian languages there is no separate word for eye, hand, arm, or other parts and organs of the body, but the word is found with an incorporated or attached pronoun signifying my hand, my eye ; your hand, your eye ; Ms hand, Ms eye, &c , as the case may be. If the Indian, in naming these parts, refers to his own body, he says my ; if he refers to the body of the person to whom he is speaking, he says your, &c. If an Indian should find a detached foot thrown from the amputating-table of an army field hospital, he would say something like this : "I have found somebody Ms foot." The pronominal particle should be written with the part imply- ing the name, the whole forming but one word. It is usually very easy, by inspection, to determine what pronoun is used. This linguistic charac- teristic is widely spread though not universal. It is a general custom among the Indians to pierce the ears for orna- ments; many tribes also pierce the septum of the nose. The names of internal organs or parts can better be determined after having learned the names of parts of animals as subsequently called for in Schedule 12. There may be a general term for blood-vessel, and specific terms for the more noticeable ones. § 3.— DEESS AND OENAMENTS. Primitively the Indians used the skins of animals, and, to a limited extent, crude textile fabrics for their clothing. The dress of the man con- sisted — First, of a head-covering or cap. This was often the skin taken from the head of some animal, as the wolf, bear, deer, fox, &c, and stretched HINTS AND EXPLANATIONS. 19 with the ears left on; sometimes the horns of some animals were left on. Sometimes a cap was made of the skin of a bird. A great variety was used Second, a tunic, usually made of the dressed skin of some animal, especially the elk, deer, antelope, and mountain sheep. In warm weather the tunic was rarely worn. Third, a breech-cloth and belt. Fourth, a pair of leggins. Fifth, a pair of moccasins. In excessively cold weather the Indian often wore a toga — the skin of a wild animal. Among some tribes this robe was made of a number of skins of small animals cut into strips, rolled or twisted, and woven into a loose fabric with the warp made of threads spun from some vegetable fiber. The dress of a woman consisted of a — Small conical basket-work cap, which she used at will as a covering for the head or a basket in which to gather berries or carry small articles. A short petticoat, extending from the waist to the knees, fastened with a girdle. High moccasins, fastened with garters. Where the civilized dress has not been adopted, the short petticoat has usually been superseded by a gown made to extend from the neck to the feet, but without sleeves. This is fastened with a girdle about the waist. In the vocabulary the names of these primitive articles of dress are called for. The names of the articles of civilized dress should be recorded in Schedule 24. For personal adornment a great variety of ornaments were used, made of stone, bone, shell, wood, feathers, bills and claws of birds, claws of ani- mals, skins of snakes, &c, and were used as chaplets, necklaces, bracelets, waist-bands, and attached to the clothing in various ways. Many peculiar costumes were used in their religious dances and other ceremonies; the most common and important article in those costumes were masks. Finger- rings, ear-rings, nose-rings, and labrets were used ; sometimes the septum of the nose was pierced, in which was worn a nose-stick from three to four inches in length and sharpened at either end. In this schedule only the names of primitive articles are called for. 20 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OP INDIAN LANGUAGES. § 4.— DWELLINGS. The priscan, i. e., primitive dwellings of the Indians were of two classes, permanent and temporary, which for convenience we will call wigwams and lodges respectively. Prior to the introduction of the horse upon this con- tinent the Indians were far less nomadic than they have subsequently been known. Their sedentary life led most of the tribes to the construction of somewhat permanent dwellings; yet to a slight extent many of the tribes had habits of roaming ; especially they made journeys to favorite hunting grounds or fishing waters. "When on these journeys they exhibited consid- erable skill in the erection of temporary dwellings; and they even provided for their wants in advance by preparing lodges made of the skins of animals. Their wigwams were constructed of various materials — poles interlaced with bark, reeds, tules, grass, &c; slabs rived from young saplings, and these sometimes covered as the poles; poles and slabs covered with earth; and, finally, some tribes exhibited considerable skill in the erection of stone dwellings. It may be that wigwams or permanent dwellings were sometimes made of the skins of animals, but it seems more probable that in their priscan condition skin lodges were used chiefly as temporary dwellings. Their wigwams were of multiform construction — conical, square, and oblong; they were made to accommodate two or more households — often an entire gens. The lodges or temporary dwellings were usually made of the dressed skins of animals supported by lodge-poles, or of brush, bark, grass, &c, supported in like manner. A description of both classes of dwellings should be given. The method of dividing the wigwams into compartments should be noted, and the names of the compartments given; also the names of the other parts of the house, as doorways, smoke escapes, &c. In their dwellings the Indians are punctilious in assigning places to the regular occupants and visitors. Their rules for such occupancy are important. In the slab houses of the northwest coast, Indian architecture with materials of wood was most highly developed. Here the houses are orna- HINTS AND EXPLANATIONS. 21 mented on the exterior with carved posts, some of which are composed of successive blocks, one upon another. The carvings were the totems or gentile emblems of the ancestry of the householder. In the pueblos of the southwest, architecture in materials of stone found its highest development among the Indians of the United States. So far as we know at present, these houses are communal or gentile dwell- ings. Usually a group of dwellings, slightly detached or otherwise sepa- rated in architecture, constituted the tribal village. In studying these pueblos the gentile divisions and the household divisions into compartments should be carefully described and their names given. At the same time the architectural parts should be described and their names given. In schedule No. 4 many of these items are called for. The Indians also construct council houses and sudatories, i. e., sweat- houses ; sometimes, perhaps, the same structure was used for both pur- poses ; but this is not very probable. In the pueblos the council houses are underground chambers. The women construct menstrual lodges ; these are rude shelters apart from the others. They should be described and their names recorded. The Hon. Lewis H. Morgan, of Rochester, in a statement to the Archaeological Institute of America, enumerates the following items as sub- jects of investigation among the pueblos of the United States : 1. To make a careful exploration of the structures in ruins, taking ground plans of them, with elevations and details of the more important structures, and with exact measurements. 2. To procure and bring away specimens of the stones used in these structures ; to determine the extent and character oi the dressing — i. e., to find whether the stones were dressed, or prepared by fracture simply; whether the angle formed upon the stones is a right angle, and whether the upper and lower sides are parallel. 3. To take apart the masonry to find how it was laid up, and the degree of skill displayed in it. 4. To find how far below the ground surface the walls are laid, and how truly they are vertical. 5. To bring away specimens of the mortar for analysis. 22 INTEODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN LANGUAGES. 6. To ascertain how the joists in ceilings and the lintels over doorways were cut ; how the wooden trap-doorway was framed and held together ; and what varieties of wood were used for these purposes. 7. To determine whether fireplaces and chimneys existed in the struct- ures now in ruins. 8. To ascertain the lithological character of the stone used; and whether it was quarried, or picked up from broken masses of rock and carried long distances ; also to ascertain by measurements the size of the stone used in the walls — the largest, the smallest, and the average. 9. To determine the plan and uses of the round towers of stone found on the Mancos River, and in some cases incorporated in pueblo houses — as in the case of a stone pueblo at the eastern base of Ute Mountain in Colorado. 10. To examine the so-called cemeteries in Montezuma valley, where single graves are marked by a border of flat stones, set level with the ground in a rectangle. 11. To examine the garden beds and irrigating canals, and ascertain the methods of cultivation now or formerly in use. 12. To make ground plans and elevations with measurements of the present occupied pueblo houses in New Mexico and Arizona, in order to determine whether or not the houses in ruins and the occupied houses are constructed upon a common plan. 1 3. To ascertain the mode of life in these houses, past and present ; whether the people are organized in gentes, and what is their social system ; how the sections of these joint-tenement houses were owned, and how inherited ; and what limitations, if any, were put upon the power of sale. The same as to gardens and personal property. 14. To find the number of persons who live and eat together, united in a family, and how the members are related ; or, in other words, to ascer- tain whether any trace now exists of large groups of related persons prac- ticing communism in living in the household. Also to find, if possible, the size of the group in former times. HINTS AND EXPLANATIONS. 23 § 5.— IMPLEMENTS AND UTENSILS. All of our Indian tribes had developed rude arts before the advent of the white man, and manufactured various implements and utensils. For war they had bows, arrows, spears, clubs, and slings. Their bows were usually made of wood : the back of the bow being sometimes cov- ered with sinew fastened on with glue ; some few tribes, however, made them of the horns of the mountain sheep. For this purpose the horns were soaked in water and split into shavings, and the shavings glued together to form the bow. Their bow-strings were made of sinew or twisted vegetable fibers. To prevent the wrist from being cut by the bow-string, they used a wrist- guard made of a piece of untanned skin of some animal, hardened by drying. In the arrow three elements are recognized — the arrow-head, shaft, and shaft feathers. Arrow-heads were made of stone, bone, horn, or very hard wood. Their shafts were made of wood or reeds, and were often feathered. The arrow-head was fastened to the shaft sometimes with vegetable or mineral resins, sometimes by tying with sinew ; or both methods were used. The shreds of feather were attached to the shaft with sinew. The implements used in making their arrows were as follows : For rudely breaking up the flint or other stone material necessary for their arrow-heads stone hammers were used. For finally fashioning the heads little rod-like instruments of bone or horn were used, and the chipping was done by sudden pressure. Stone and copper knives were used in fashioning the shafts, and a piece of perforated horn or bone was used as a shaft straightener. The shafts were polished with a grooved stone. The arrows were carried in a quiver slung on the back and open at the shoulder. Their clubs were variously carved and ornamented ; sometimes they were weighted at the end farthest from the hand by a knot. Sometimes a larger stick was used, and the handle cut down so that the extreme end was reinforced. Sometimes the war-clnb was composed of a handle fast- 24 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN LANGUAGES. ened with thongs to a stone. When the stone was fashioned into a battle- axe it composed what we now call the tomahawk. The blade of the tom- ahawk was rarely made of copper. Spears were also used — sharpened sticks of hardened wood, arid wooden shafts tipped with horn, bone, stone, or copper. Various devices were used as barbs for fishing spears. The Indians were sometimes armed for close conflict with long-bladed knives of stone, and, rarely, of copper. Sometimes the handle was of one piece with the blade; sometimes the handle was made of wood fastened with cement. For defensive purposes they used shields made of the untanned skin of some animal, hardened by drying. For further protection they dug pits, in which they concealed themselves for ambuscade and found protec- tion for their bodies. They also built palisades about their villages. Those who navigated the rivers and shore waters of lakes and seas made canoes by hollowing trees with fire and stone adzes. Small canoes were the property of individuals; large ones usually of gentes. Some tribes caught fish with hook and line and with nets. Many tribes made large nets of twisted vegetable fibers, as hurdles for catching rabbits and some other animals. Into these nets the animals were driven by methods commonly known in this country as circle hunting. Pipes were made of reeds, hollow stems of wood, baked clay, and stone. In the more primitive methods the axis of the bowl was a prolonga- tion of the axis of the stem ; many Indians still prefer pipes of this fashion for ceremonial use. In domestic utensils they had wooden ware, stone ware, horn ware, basketry, and pottery. § 6.— POOD. The objects used for food by the priscan Indians were multifarious; depending largely upon the habitat of the several tribes — fruits, nuts, seeds of trees, and fruits of many shrubs and grasses, roots, reeds, fruits, tubers, fleshy leaves and stalks, the inner bark of trees, various fungi, and in one case, certainly, subterranean fungi— the Tuckahoe and diatomaceous earths. They also raised corn, squashes, and beans. HINTS AND EXPLANATIONS. 25 Hunting and fishing gave the Indians a great variety of animal foods. Turtles, lizards, snakes, and many insects were eaten; in the arid regions of America grasshoppers furnished a staple article of diet. Vegetable and animal foods were prepared in various ways. Seeds were roasted and ground into meal; insects were usually treated in like manner, and various stews, mushes, and breads were made The student will find this an interesting theme for investigation, and he will find names for a variety of food materials and dishes. § 7.— COLOES. Many other distinctions of color than those given in the list may be observed, and many arrangements of color noticed, as in spots, stripes, checks, &c, all of which should be recorded. Intermediate tints should be asked for, and frequently it will be found that words used for designating such are compounds of names understood by the Indians to indicate distinct colors. Thus, in the Ute language, un-kaf is red, to-Jcar is black, and brown is un-to-kar. § 8.— NUMEEALS. Any intelligent Indian can easily count a hundred, and repeat this for as many hundreds as may be desired. When counting abstractly a common termination for the numeral will sometimes be used, signifying in count, in number, or something equivalent. If set to count a series of objects, he may repeat the name of the object each time. No difficulty will be experienced in obtaining the cardinal numbers, but much patience is required to obtain the ordinals and other categories of numbers. In some Indian languages there is more than one set of cardinal num- bers. Animate objects may be counted with one set, inanimate with another. They may have a particular set for counting fish, or for counting skins; perhaps a set for counting standing objects, and another set for count- ing sitting objects, &c. When these different sets are used the words may simply have different terminations, or other incorporated particles, or the different sets may be composed of very distinct words. Occasionally an extra set of numerals may be found, the name "of each number being a long phrase or sentence descriptive of the method of counting by fingers and toes. 26 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN LANGUAGES. The method of using the fingers and toes in counting should be care- fully studied and minutely explained; also the method of indicating num- bers to others in like manner. The most common method for counting in this manner is to turn down the little finger of the left hand for one, the next finger in order for two, the next finger for three, the next for four, and the thumb for five; then the thumb of the right hand for six, &c, until the little finger of the right hand is turned down for ten. This may be varied by turning down the little finger of the right hand for six and the thumb of the right hand for ten. In indicating numbers to others by the use of the fingers the little finger of the left hand may be extended and the other fingers turned down for one; the other numbers will be expressed by extending the fingers in the same order in which they were turned down for counting. In counting by tens, the Indian may close the fingers of both hands to indicate each ten, or he may extend the fingers of each hand, holding them with the palms turned toward the person spoken to. In counting, some Indians resort to the fingers only, others to the fingers and toes. The first may result in a decimal system ; the second in a vigesimal. All the facts relating to counting should be discovered and recorded § 9.— MEASURES. It is very desirable to discover primitive methods of measuring — that is, the methods used prior to the advent of the white man. Sometimes a finger's length is used. In this case describe which finger is used, and how the measure is applied. A frequent method for measurement of lengths is from the extremity of the long finger to the first wrinkle of the wrist, i. e., a hand. Another hand unit has been discovered. Having the fingers and thumb extended, the beginning is at the extremity of the thumb, and the string is passed along its outer margin to the first wrinkle of the wrist, then crossing the wrist along this wrinkle to the outer margin of the palm of the hand, along this margin to the extremity of the little finger and along the tips of the fingers to the extremity of the first finger, then along the outer margin of the first finger and inner margin of the thumb to the point of beginning; HINTS AND EXPLANATIONS. 27 that is, the measure is the length of the outline of the hand. Let this be called "around the hand unit." There is a unit of measurement used which may be represented by the distance from the long finger to the elbow, measured on the inside or outside of the arm ; or it may be from the tips of the joined thumb and fore-finger to the elbow, measured on the inside, i. e., a half arm's length. Another unit used is the distance from the meeting of the tips of the thumb and fore-finger to the armpit — i. e., an arm's length ; still another from the meeting of the tips of the thumb and fore-finger of one hand to the meeting of the tips of the thumb and fore-finger of the other hand, along the outstretched arms and across the breast — i. e , a double arm's length. Distances along the ground are often measured in paces. All the tribes probably have measures for circumferences, and also for quantities. Distances between places were measured in days' journeys and fractions of days' journeys; the latter were often indicated by pointing out some part of the sun's daily path along the firmament. § 10.— DIVISION OF TIME. Indians have many ways of dividing the year into parts ; they may have two, three, four, or even five seasons ; they may divide the year into thirteen moons, and, in addition to one or both of the above methods, they may have many ways of designating particular times — as the strawberry time, the hazel-nut time, the kamas root time, &c. Their methods should be discovered and carefully described, recording the terms. § 11.— STANDAEDS OF VALUE. One or more of the most important skins used by the Indians were often employed as standards of value, especially the beaver skin and the buckskin. Shells and other articles worked into beads and made into strings were also used. In some tribes eagle feathers were the standard of value. The collector should discover, if possible, what standards of value were used, whether one or more, and give a clear account of them, at the same time recording the terms used. 28 INTRODUCTION TO THE STODY OF INDIAN LANGUAGES. § 12.— ANIMALS. Zootheism largely prevails among North American Indians — that is, many of their gods are animals ; not the present race of animals, but the progenitors or prototypes of the present species. In the study of North American mythology it is very desirable that we know the names used by the Indians for the animals with which they are acquainted. It is manifest that from any one tribe but few of the names in the list can be collected, for the reason that it includes many species restricted to limited geographic areas. The list should be considered simply as suggestive and should be increased — the collector adding the names of all the animals known to the tribe studied. Sometimes the name for the ancient animal (or animal god) has a different termination or is denoted by some other slight change in the word ; where this is the case the animal name used for the name of a per- son is the same as the name of the animal god, rather the name of the existing species. The method of distinguishing sex should also be noted, which is gen- erally by the use of words signifying male and female; also note the name of the young of each species. It is a mistake to suppose that the Indians have no class-names or generic terms ; such terms are very common among them, but their methods of classification do not agree with those used by civilized people — that is, their generic terms embrace categories easily recognized by a savage people, but different from those recognized by a civilized people. Thus a class-name may be found to embrace those ani- mals which live in trees, as raccoons, porcupines, squirrels, &c. ; another, those which burrow, as badgers, prairie-dogs, &c. ; and still another, those which roam over the plains, as buffaloes, deer, antelope, &c. All animate and inanimate objects are thrown into classes, among the several tribes, in diverse and curious ways. Not only do the Indians have many class-names, but class distinctions are curiously woven into the gram- matic structure of their languages. An Indian system of classifying natural objects is a very interesting subject for study. HINTS AND EXPLANATIONS. 29 PARTS OP THE BODY, ETC., OF MAMMALS. Having obtained the names of mammals, the student should proceed to obtain parts and organs of the body, and the following suggestion is made in the hope it may prove useful. Make a present of a beef or mut- ton to the Indians. This will secure their good will and obtain much assistance in the work, and at the same time make a special occasion for collecting that very interesting class of words relating to the parts and organs of the body. Care should be taken that the animal is dissected slowly, and, as the parts are given out, obtain the words called for and such others as may be convenient. The words can afterward be verified by killing a rabbit, squirrel, or other animal. § 13.— PLANTS, &c. The Indians have names for all the species and important varieties of trees and other plants with which they are acquainted. It does not seem best to give a specific list here, but the collector should obtain the names of as many plants as possible, and insert them in the schedule. The names of different fruits, such as berries, nuts, seeds, &c, should also be obtained. There will usually be terms signifying pine forest, oak forest, cotton- wood forest, &c, which should be noted. The method of classifying plants also should be obtained, and the name of each class recorded. The Indians will have mythic stories of each plant with which they are familiar, explaining how and why certain ones were given for food, why certain plants were given for smoking, others as medicine, &c, and explaining the peculiarities in the habits of many plants, curious forms, curiously formed leaves, why some plants grow in water, &c. § 14.— GEOGRAPHIC TERMS. Notes should be made of such geographic terms as are found in the country inhabited by the tribe studied. Wherever a tribe of Indians yet inhabit their priscan home mythic stories will be found connected with and explaining every geographic 30 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN LANGUAGES. feature with which the people are familiar, especially the mountains, rocks, trees, rivers, falls, springs, lakes, &c. § 15.— GEOGRAPHIC NAMES. A very interesting field of investigation is found in learning the proper names given by the Indians to the several springs, rivers, lakes, mountains, indentations of the coast, &c, known to them. § 16.— THE FIRMAMENT, METEOROLOGIC AND OTHER PHYSICAL PHE- NOMENA AND OBJECTS. Indians usually have many names for clouds, as they are distinguished by color, form, &c. As full a list as possible, with description, should be obtained. In Indian mythology the stars are personages translated from the earth to the firmament, The personages were usually ancient animals, sometimes ancient men. Many interesting myths can be found concerning these ancient people, and why they were taken from earth to heaven. The names of the stars and constellations recognized by the Indians should be given. Like the stars, the sun and moon are translated personages. In every tribe an interesting myth may be found explaining the phases of the moon and the dim figures seen therein. The return of the sun and moon from west to east always has a mythic explanation. § 17.— KINSHIP. Indian society is based on kinship. For this reason the terms used to designate kinship are of much greater importance in tribal society than in national society. The group of words used to designate persons by their degrees of relationship will constitute a valuable contribution to linguistic science and at the same time will be of great interest to the student of Indian society. If we take the relationships which may arise from nine generations in lineal descent we find their number to be very great — several thousand in all. A language which would attempt to give a distinct name for each par- HINTS AND EXPLANATIONS. 31 ticular relationship would thus be impracticable. In overcoming this diffi- culty two methods of designating relationships have come into use in the evolution of languages. The older method is that of classification, by which relationships are thrown into groups in various ways in different languages. The later method is the descriptive, in which some of the most fundamental relationships are named, and by the use of these names other relationships are described. This latter method is never the popular one in any language, and is only used when an attempt is made to desig- nate the degree of relationship with exactness. For example, in English there is a group of persons in a large body of kindred who are called cousins. If one of these cousins should wish to be more exact in defining the relationships which existed between himself and the others, he would say "my father's brother's son," "my father's brother's daughter," "my father's sister's son," "my father's sister's daughter"; and so on with the cousins in his mother's line. The system of designating these persons as cousins would be classificatory ; the system of describing these persons by designating their genetic relations through the use of the fundamental terms "father," "mother," "son," and "daughter," constitutes the descriptive system. In all languages the classificatory system is the primary one, i. e., that in common use. But the methods of classification differ widely, and these differences are found to rest, to some extent, -upon the social institu- tions of the people in such a manner that if the system of relationships or method of classifying kindred used by any tribe be known, we have a rev- elation of some of their most important social institutions. The characteristics upon which kinships are classified are as follows; 1. Lineal generation, giving rise to father and son, grandfather and and grandson, great grandfather and great grandson, &c, father and daughter, &c, mother and son, &c, mother and daughter, &c. 2. Collateral generation, giving rise to brothers and sisters, uncles and aunts, cousins, &c. 3. Sex, by which we distinguish between father and mother, brother and sister, aunt and uncle, &c In some languages sex enters into the sys- tem of classification in a double way — that is, the sex of both parties of a 32 INTKODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN LANGUAGES. relationship is designated by the kinship word. For example, in a case of two brothers and two sisters, the brothers would call each other by one term, the sisters each other by a second term, the brothers would call the sisters by a third term, and the sisters would call the brothers by a fourth term, so that the relationships between the four persons would require the use of four terms instead of two as in the English. 4. Relative age is introduced in many languages as a distinguishing characteristic. For example, there will be a term for elder brother, another for younger brother, one for elder sister, and another for younger sister, and sometimes through all the cousins, of whatever remote degree they may be, the terms will distinguish between the elder and the younger. 5. Assimilation in many languages is an important element in classifi- cation. If all the possible kinships arising from nine generations were thrown into classes upon the four characteristics mentioned above, the number of groups would still be very great, while, in fact, the number of groups recognized in any language is comparatively small. In the more civilized languages spoken by people who are organized as nations, the more remote relationships are ignored in the classification, and are left to be designated by the descriptive method; and there is a reason for this. In national society the remote relationships are of little importance ; value may rarely attach to them, as in the case of inheritance, and the antiqua- rian may use them to trace ancestral lineage, but the people have no prac- tical use for them in current society and every day life. But tribal society is organized on kinship, and government is established to maintain the rights and the reciprocal duties of kinship. It thus becomes necessary in every tribal society that all kinships should be not only determinate but well known. For this reason the fifth principle of classification is intro- duced — that is, a few primary groups are established on the first four char- acteristics, and into these groups all other relationships are assimilated. In discovering these systems of relationship as a linguistic phenome- non, we infer that there is something in the social constitution of the people demanding such an elaborate system, with relationship fixed so as to include all of the remotest degree within the group of people constituting the so- ciety. On the other hand, in studying tribal society and discovering that HINTS AND EXPLANATIONS. 33 kinship is its integrating principle, we infer that the languages must con- tain complete methods of designating these relationships Among many of the tribes of North America the subject has been investigated in both lines, and the inferences from one line of investigation are the observed phe- nomena in the other line ; thus the demonstration is perfected. In tribal society the units are bodies of consanguineal kindred, immediate or remote, real or artificial ; no person can become a member of a tribe until he has become a member of one of its gentes by being adopted into some family as a son, brother, or some other relation The language of tribal society provides a kinship term by which every one of its members may be desig- nated. There are various methods of assimilation, and in the phenomena which they present many important sociologic facts are discovered. In a lower status of culture than that discovered among the North American Indians we find that society has for its integrating principle not the ties of kinship but the bond of marriage; and thus we have connubial society as distinguished from kinship society. Though connubial society has not been discovered in North America, it has elsewhere on the globe, and in the study of the North American Indians some of the customs of that stage are discovered as survivals. These surviving customs are represented in kinship terms to varying degrees in different languages ; so that in customs and language alike we are able to trace the steps in evolution from connu- bial to kinship society. To set forth the steps here would require greater space than the pur- poses of this volume will allow, and, in fact, one of the more important reasons for its publication is to accumulate a greater number of facts for the final presentation of the subject. But an illustration will be given : There is a system of marriage in the lower status of society where a group of brothers marry a group of sisters in common. In such a system children have a group of men — the brothers — as their fathers, and a group of women — the sisters — as their mothers, and the children of the group of men and women call each other brothers and sisters. Now in some Indian communities, we find that the sisters of a married 3SIL 34 INTEODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN LANGUAGES. woman are considered the potential wives of her husband, and the brothers of a married man are considered the potential husbands of his wife. This potential affinity has various meanings among the different tribes where it is found. In some, the right of the man to his potential wives is the right to decide to whom they shall be given in marriage, but from them he may first select whom he will for his own. If these women, having married other persons, become widows, he again has the prior claim. A more common form of potential affinity is this : A man having married a woman can there- after acquire a second or third wife in the practice of polygamy only from the group of potential affinities. Other customs of a similar nature appear, leading to the inference that these people have emerged from connubial society. Again, in Indian languages we sometimes discover that wives and wives' sisters are designated by the same kinship term ; and that brothers and male cousins are designated by the same term ; and sisters and female cousins are designated by the same term ; and many similar facts appear as linguistic phenomena. Such are the reasons that make this subject so attractive to the stu- dents of Indian society and language and call for its elaborate treatment here. In the seventeeth schedule of the next chapter there is presented a series of questions the answers to which will give the kinship terms used in any language for which the record is made. The answers will also afford all of the facts necessary to determine the system of kinship classification belonging to the language. To assist the student in filling out the schedule four charts have been prepared, and accompany this volume. In charts numbered I, II, and III, the kindred are grouped about a central person, designated as " Self," on Chart No. I. Chart No. II belongs properly on the left of Chart No. I and is a con- tinuation of it. In like manner Chart No. Ill is a continuation of Chart No. I to the right. With " Self" the following classes of kinships may exist: 1. Relatives.— Consanguineal kindred, those which arise from genetic kinship. HINTS AND EXPLANATIONS. 35 2. Affinities. — Kindred by marriage. These are of two classes : a. Those which arise from the marriage of the relatives of " Self." b. Those which arise from the marriage of " Self." Those classes of kinships will be treated of severally in the order above mentioned. The personal figures used on the charts are as follows : represents a male relative, represents a female relative, represents a male affinity, represents a female affinity. represents a female relative of affinity. " Self" is in the center of Chart No. i, and must be used, as will here- after be seen, in one set of questions as a male person, in another set of questions as a female person. Each relative is paired with an affinity, except in certain cases here- after explained. The relatives only are numbered, but the same numbers are to be used for the corresponding affinities. The relatives on the charts are numbered to correspond with the relatives in the schedule. RELATIVES. From the study of many tribes in North America, it has been found necessary to extend the investigation of kinship terms to the group of people that may possibly arise from nine lineal generations, four below "Self" and four above. All the groups are established within five genera- tions, two above "Self" and two below, but the third and fourth below and 36 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN LANGUAGES. the third and fourth above, with their collateral lines, are necessary for the purpose of discovering the method of assimilation. The kinships are grouped in the schedules and on the charts in the following manner : 1. Lineal descendants of "Self." 2. Lineal ascendants of "Self." 3. The first collateral line in two branches — the brother's branch, and the sister's branch. 4. The second collateral line in two branches — the father's branch, including father's brothers and sisters, with their descendants, and mother's branch, including mother's brothers and sisters, with their descendants. 5. Third collateral line in two branches — father's parents' branch, which include the brothers and sisters of father's parents with their de- scendants ; and mother's parents' branch, which includes the brothers and sisters of mother's parents with their descendants. 6. Fourth collateral line in two branches. In these fourth collateral lines, from the vast number of relationships that might be placed on the chart, only a very few have been given — just sufficient to exhibit the method of assimilation In some languages a part of the lexical elements are duplicated — that is, some terms that are used by males cannot by Indian customs be used by females, and some terms used by females cannot be used by males, thus giving rise to a duplicate series of words — man words and woman words. In some of these languages a brother and sister designate their father by dif- ferent names, their mother by different names, and many or all other kinships in like manner. A similar duplication of terms is found in many other parts of the language, and should everywhere be carefully noted by the collector. This state of facts appearing in some languages, it becomes necessary to duplicate the set of questions, the first list being "Self," a male, the second list being "Self," a female. The student will soon discover whether two sets of words are used. If this characteristic is found, it will be neces- sary to go through with both sets carefully. When but one set of words is discovered the answers to the second set of questions will be exact dupli- cates of the first, and the student may proceed with the second only far enough to fully demonstrate the fact. HINTS AND EXPLANATIONS. 37 AFFINITIES OF RELATIVES. The affinities of relatives are the wives and husbands of the relatives of " self." In the schedule the questions for this class of affinities are arranged under two sets of numbers, the first with " self," a male, and the second with " self," a female, as in the case of relatives. On the chart the affinities with them are placed beside the relatives, wife by husband, husband by wife. The numbers given to the relatives serve also for the affinities. It is not necessary to call for affinities to the extent to which the schedule calls for Relatives. For this reason some numbers are omitted from the schedules and certain personal figures from the charts. AFFINITIES OF "SELF," OE THE RELATIVES OF THE HUSBAND OR WIFE OF "SELF." In the schedule a fifth series of questions appear under this head, and the corresponding persons appear on Chart No. IV. These are divided again by numbers into two sets, one with " self," a male, the other with " self," a female. A very little examination on the part of the student will lead to a thorough understanding of this subject, and the use of the charts, and he will find the charts of great assistance to him in studying and following the questions. But when he comes to interrogate Indians on the subject he will find them of the greatest value. Any intelligent Indian will quickly understand them, for the plan is in harmony with his own method of expressing ideas by picture-writings. In some Indian languages there are certain words used for the names of children, given them in the order of their birth, so that the child's name indicates the order of its birth. There are two sets of these words, one set being given to males, the other to females : thus, if the first born is a boy, he takes his name from the male set ; if a girl, her name from the female set ; these words will therefore have the signification of first born, second born, third born, etc., though the numerals may not enter into their composition. There may be variations of this plan. If such a system is not found, erase " is named" from the schedule and obtain the equivalent of the phrase thus changed. 38 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN LANGUAGES. § 18.— SOCIAL ORGANIZATION. In this paper the term family will be used as synonymous with house- hold; that is, it will designate the group of persons occupying one lodge, or one set of compartments in a pueblo. Among some of the tribes of North America the head of the family is a woman ; among other tribes the head of a family is a man, and these distinctions enter largely into tribal society and government. "Is fatherhood or motherhood the source of authority?" is the first question to be asked in the study of the sociology of an Indian tribe. A group of relatives tracing a common lineage to some remote ances- tor constitutes a gens or clan. In the tribes where mother-right prevails this lineage is traced through the female; where father-right prevails, through the male. In the first case the children belong to the gens of the mother ; in the second to the gens of the father. The gens is the grand unit of social organization, and, for many purposes, is the basis of govern- mental organization. The gentile organization is widely spread and may be universal. It has often been overlooked even by those well acquainted with the Indians among tribes where we now know that it prevails. Manv rights and duties inhere in the gens. The following lines of inquiry will generally lead to the discovery of the gens and the words called for. It is the duty of the gens to avenge the murder of or personal injuries to any of its members. Again, a man may not marry in his own gens. With Indians skilled in picture-writing, the emblem of the gentile name, that is, the totem, is usually painted or carved on their lodges and on valu- able articles of property, and it is often inscribed on documents, such as messages, treaties, &c. The larger tribes of the United States usually camp in gentile groups arranged in some definite order. So far as our knowledge now extends, every gens takes the name of its tutelar god — some ancestor deified, ancient mythical animal, or nature-god. As the prin- cipal gods of most of the Indian tribes are animals, that is, mythical animals, the progenitors or prototypes of the present animals, the gentes are usually given animal names; thus bear-gens, wolf-gens, rabbit-gens, eagle-gens, hawk-gens, &c, are common. The flesh of the animal for which the gens was HINTS AND EXPLANATIONS. 39 named, or some portion of it, was held sacred by its members and could not be eaten by them. In some tribes it is customary to say that a man is a wolf, a bear, a rabbit, or a hawk, as the case may be, meaning that he belongs to that gens ; and the gens as a body of people are spoken of as the descend- ants of the bear, the wolf, the rabbit, or sometimes as relatives of the bear, the wolf, or the hawk. Sometimes gentes are subdivided, a part of the rights and duties remain- ing with the gens and a part being transferred to the sub-gens. Where the gentes are divided, the sub-gentes should also be given. Sometimes two or more gentes constitute a higher group — the phratry. The phratries as organized societies usually control the great "medicines," the dances, festi- vals, &c. It seems probable that these phratries were originally gentes, and that the gentes of which they are now composed were first divided as sub-gentes, but the differentiation has extended so far that the bond of union between the ancient gentes has been lost except in its mythologic and religious elements. If gentes are grouped as phratries, the system of grouping should be given in detail. The tribal organization is universal. It is usually composed of a number of gentes. Primitively, each tribe claimed a district of country as its home, and usually took the name of that country as its tribal name, so that its name was its title deed to its land. But many sobriquets or nicknames were used; as we call an Ulinoisan a Sucker, an Ohioan a Buckeye. So- briquets were given to indicate customs or peculiarities of the people, as dog-eaters, acorn-eaters, fish-eaters, &c, white-knives, reed-knives, long- knives, &c. Usually tribes were known by different sobriquets among dif- ferent people. In many instances the names by which tribes are known to white men are corrupted sobriquets. Much difficulty will usually be found in obtaining the true or land name of a tribe, from the fear that it may be used to the disadvantage of the people through methods of sorcery. And asrain, where Indians have been removed from their ancient homes, these names rapidly become obsolete, but they should be obtained when possible. The sobriquets which they recognize should also be obtained, and the names by which they designate surrounding tribes should be recorded. Tribes, especially those speaking the same language, or kindred dia- 40 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN LANGUAGES. lects, are sometimes united into confederacies, and tribes or confederacies are sometimes united into leagues for temporary purposes. The boundary line between confederacy and league cannot be definitely drawn. The common noun for tribe and confederacy, or league, is not always discovered with ease. On the other hand, the proper noun for the tribe, confederacy, or league, is not always easily discovered. Perhaps the proper noun and common noun for confederacy and league are always the same. Indian people usually have a word signifying "one of us," or "a per- son of our tribe, or confederacy ;" one signifying "Indian," another signify- ing " white man." Among southwestern tribes two such terms are used, one denoting those who came from the south — chiefly Spaniards — and another denoting those who came from the east. The institution of fellowhood is widely spread. This custom may be briefly described as follows : Two young men agree to be life friends, "more than brothers" to each other, like David and Jonathan, and Damon and Pythias. They reveal to each other all their secrets, perform religious rites together, and each is sworn to defend the other from all harm. § 19.— GOVERNMENT. In Indian government civil and military affairs are differentiated. The organization for civil government will first be explained. Among those tribes whose numbers are large, the gentile organization is at the basis of civil government. A council is the legislature and court of the gens, of the tribe, and the confederacy, respectively. It might be better to say that the council is the court whose decisions are law. The council of the gens is composed of the heads of its families, and selects the gentile chief. If mother-right prevails the gentile council may be composed of women, and the elected chief, who is a man. This chief will not be the husband of any of the heads of households, but must be a brother or son. If father-right prevails the council will be composed exclusively of men. The council of the tribe seems to be constituted in various ways, sometimes of the gentile counselors united, sometimes of the gentile chiefs united, or in other ways. There may also be a grand council of the tribe composed of all of the heads of households. The presiding officer of the HINTS AND EXPLANATIONS. 41 tribal council is also chief of the tribe. The organization of the tribal council should be carefully studied and recorded. Among the very small tribes the gentile organization seems to be of minor importance. In fact, the social organization and government of these tribes is but poorly understood. For military affairs there is an especial military council, composed of the warriors of the tribe. The war chief may be elected, but usually this chieftaincy is hereditary in some one of the gentes. Rarely the civil chief is war chief, but never by virtue of his civil rank. The principal crimes recognized among the Indians are murder, maim- ing of various kinds, assault, theft, adultery, witchcraft, and treason, both against gens and the tribe. The names of crimes, together with methods of procedure and proof in prosecution, should be discovered and recorded § 20.— EELIGION. Some of the Indians have nature-gods, i. e., a god of the east, a god of the west, a god of the north, and a god of the south; a god of rain, a god of thunder, the sun, moon, stars, &c. As stated elsewhere, the greater number of their gods are animals — the progenitors or prototypes of the present species. They also have daimon gods, i. e., the gods or presiding spirits of rivers, lakes, springs, mountains, corn, beans, &c. Many hero gods are worshiped — wonderful people of the long ago. The names of all such gods should be discovered and recorded when possible. On inquiring of the Indians about their gods, the term "god" should not be used, for by this they understand the Grod of the white man. Their generic or class-name for god is often a term signifying "the ancients" — those who lived long ago — or some equivalent expression. Inquire, then, for won- derful ancient people, wonderful ancient animals ; the first people, the first animals. The student of Indian languages can do royal service to eth- nology by stopping now and then in his linguistic work to record the inter- esting stories which the more intelligent Indians may be induced to relate concerning the wonderful personages of their mythology. Nor should these stories be neglected because of their simplicity, inconsistency, or vulgarity. 42 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN LANGUAGES. Indian dances are generally of a religious character, and, with their names, a brief description should be given. A blank is left in the schedule for the names of gods, dances, songs, &c. § 21.— MOETUAEY CUSTOMS, &0. The mortuary customs of the Indians are of great significance to the ethnologist. The student who is pursuing his researches in this field should carefully note all of the customs, superstitions, and opinions of the Indians relating to — 1. The care of the lifeless body prior to burial, much of which he will find elaborated into ceremonies. 2. He should observe the method of burial, including the site, the attitude in which the body is placed, and the manner in which it is invest- ured. Here, also, he will find interesting and curious ceremonial observ- ances. The superstitions and opinions of the people relating to these sub- jects are of importance. 3. He should carefully observe the gifts offered to the dead ; not only those placed with the body at the time of burial, but those offered at a subsequent time for the benefaction of the departed on his way to the other world, and for his use on arrival. Here, too, it is as important for us to know the ceremonies with which the gifts are made as to know the char- acter of the gifts themselves. 4. An interesting branch of this research relates to the customs of mourning, embracing the time of mourning, the habiliments, the self- mutilations, and other penances, and the ceremonies with which these are accompanied. In all of these cases the reason assigned by the Indians for their doings and their superstitions are of prime importance. 5. It is desirable to obtain from the Indians their explanation of human life, their theory of spirits, and of the life to come. The following methods of burying the dead have been discovered : 1. By inhumation in pits, graves, holes in the ground, mounds, cists, and caves. 2 By cremation, generally on the surface of the earth, occasionally HINTS AND EXPLANATIONS. 43 beneath, the resulting bones or ashes being placed in pits in the ground, in boxes placed on scaffolds or trees, in urns, sometimes scattered. 3. By embalmment or a process of murnmh'ying, the remains being afterwards placed in the earth, caves, mounds, or charnel-houses. 4. By serial sepulture, the bodies being deposited on scaffolds or trees, in boxes or canoes, the two latter receptacles supported on scaffolds or posts, or on the ground Occasionally baskets have been used to contain the remains of children, these being hung to trees. 5. By aquatic burial, beneath the water or in canoes which were turned adrift. Some tribes periodically collect the bones of the dead and bury them in common ossuaries. § 22.— MEDICINE. Among Indians the practice of medicine is usually the practice of sor- cery. Diseases are not understood to be the result of the improper work- ing of the bodily functions, but are believed to be entities — the evil spirits that take possession of the body. Often these evil spirits have definite forms assigned them, as spiders, crickets, frogs, grasshoppers, &c. The practice of medicine is largely the practice of the driving away of evil spirits. There may, to a limited extent, be an objective understanding of diseases, and, perhaps, objective remedies employed. Diseases are also attributed to malign influences due to the failure to perform religious duties, or to the non-observance of curious prohibitions. To a very large extent diseases are attributed to the practice of witchcraft. The study of this subject, therefore, involves the study of the theory of life, both that of man and that of animals ; of the theory of diseases as spiritism and as arising from malign influences due to the neglect of ceremo- nies, the failure to comply with prohibitions, &c, and to the study of witchcraft. The medicine-man is both priest and physician. To some extent there may be special medicines for special diseases, but to a very large extent each medicine man has some great medicine, which cures all diseases and other evils, and has the further virtue of bringing "luck." 44 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN LANGUAGES. Often the virtue of medicine lies in the ceremonies with which it is made, and, still further, the ceremonies with which it is administered. Some of the great medicines are compounded of many ingredients. The composition and preparation of medicines are often held as profound secrets. Medicines are prepared not only to drive away diseases, but to bring success in enterprise, as in war, hunting, &c. With many tribes the phratries are secret medical societies, each one of which is charged with the preparation and custody of some important medi- cine, the preparation of which is concluded with a great festival, to which the entire tribe is invited. § 23.— AMUSEMENTS. Indian children play with stilts, bows and arrows, and slings ; they make dolls, play-houses, and in clay, baked or unbaked, make imitations of various domestic utensils, and forms of prepared food They have many sports in mimicry of the habits of animals. Among the adults gambling is largely practiced. The simple game of " kill-the-bone " is the most widely spread. It consists essentially in guess- ing in which hand one of two little bones is held, the one being marked, but it is attended with much ceremony, singing, mimicry, and gesticulation. But many other gambling games are practiced. There are a variety of games of skill and athletic sports that are practiced, especially at their festivals, and often gens contend with gens, or phratry with phratry. Many periodically recurring festivals are observed. These consist of feasts, with dancing accompanied by music, vocal and instrumental. All of these festivals are of a religious character, and the ceremonies performed are very elaborate and curious. The ceremony at a festival is often a crude theatrical performance, where individuals act as characters, especially as the mythic animals of their religion. The personification is assisted by the use of masks and various devices of costume. The names of games, the implements used, and the plan of the play should all be recorded. One of the most important points to be observed is the relation of these games to medicine and religious festivals. HINTS AND EXPLANATIONS. 45 The names and import of festivals should be recorded. Plays, with their plans and characters, should be given. The chief musical instruments of the Indians are rattles, bells, drums, and whistles. The most common form of a rattle is a gourd shell, which is often highly ornamented. Bells are made of strings of deer claws, strings of bones, strings of shells, &c. A drum is sometimes a log beaten with a stick. Sometimes a section of a log is somewhat hollowed so as to form a ponderous bowl. Basket bowls covered within and without with pitch are also used. Sometimes this basket bowl is inverted over a hole dug in the ground. There is sometimes an addition to this last musical instrument. The player uses a stick two or three feet long, deeply notched, and places one end upon the inverted bowl and the other against his stomach, and with his hands plays another stick up and down over the notches. A variety of crude tambourines and drums are used. Whistles are made of reeds and hollow stems of wood. Every tribe has a great number of simple songs. Very little of value is known of the vocal music of the Indians, as their musical scale or scales are not yet determined. Every tribe has a number of dances. The time and movement of these dances should be studied. Dancing with music, instrumental and vocal, is the principal amuse- ment at the frequent festivals or feasts held by every tribe. As each phratry is charged with the maintenance of certain great medicine festivals, so each phratrj^ is the custodian of certain songs and dances, which are usu- ally held sacred. Musical instruments should be described and their names recorded. Songs should be collected in the native tongue. Dances should be described, and the names of dances given. § 24.— NEW WOEDS. The schedules corresponding with the preceding sections call for words which the Indian possessed prior to his association with the white man. But since the first settlement of this continent from Europe the mental life of the Indian has rapidly changed. His original home on shores, in valleys, 46 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN LANGUAGES. on mountains, has been changed, and he has been placed under new phys- ical environments. The force of acculturation under the overwhelming presence of millions of civilized people has wrought great changes. Primi- tive Indian society has either been modified or supplanted, primitive relig- ions have been changed, primitive arts lost, and, in like manner, primitive languages have not remained unmodified. The period of European asso- ciation has been one of rapid growth and development, especially in the accumulation of new words. The Indian method of coining new words and adapting old words to new uses is an interesting branch of philologic study. Hence, a long list of such names are called for in Schedule 24. EEMARKS ON NOUNS. Twenty-four schedules are given to the collection of nouns. There are some characteristics of Indian nouns that may well receive some explanation here. " Little " is a surname often found among English-speaking people. By its use the persons to whom it is applied are named, but not described. Should we meet with a similar appellation in an Indian tongue, the person named would also be described. Personal names and all other names are, to a large extent, descriptive in Indian tongues. In denoting the person or thing, they connote characteristics, qualities, &c. That is, in the Indian tongues, as compared with the civilized tongues, names are excessively con- notive, and this appears in their morphology, as many names are found to be phrases, clauses, or even sentences. The name of the bear may be " he who seizes " or " the one with the brown nose "; the name of the wolf may be " the prowler," " the roamer," " or the " howler." Like illustrations are found on every hand. Again, names are often compounded of other names, with adjectives, verbs, and prepositions. § 25.— NUMBEE AND GENDEE OF NOUNS— DEMONSTEATIVE AND AD- JECTIVE PEONOUNS. In Indian languages gender is usually something more than a distinc- tion of sex. The primary classification of objects is usually into animate HINTS AND EXPLANATIONS. 47 and inanimate. In some few languages the animate gender is again divided into male and female, but sometimes the genders of Indian tongues are very elaborate and curious. As these distinctions belong chiefly to the personal and article pronouns, they will be hereafter more fully explained in treating of those subjects. There are usually three numbers — singular, dual, and plural — though often the dual number pertains only to the pronoun. In nouns sometimes the names of animate objects only are changed to express number. Nouns are rarely varied to denote case. This subject belongs to the pronouns. Schedule 25 will draw out the principal facts necessary to a proper under- standing of these matters. At the same time the student will have discov- ered some of the demonstrative and adjective pronouns. § 26.— PEESONAL AND AETICLE PRONOUNS— TRANSITIVE VERBS. In the pronouns we often have the most difficult part of an Indian language. Pronouns are only to a limited extent independent words. Among the free pronouns the student must early learn to distinguish between the personal and the demonstrative. The demonstrative pronouns are more commonly used. The Indian is more accustomed to say this per- son or thing, that person or thing, than he, she, or it. In the preceding schedule the student has obtained the demonstrative pronouns. Among the free personal pronouns the student may find an equivalent of the pronoun "I," another signifying "I and you;" perhaps another signifying " I and he," and one signifying "we," more than two, including the speaker and those present; and another including the speaker and persons absent. He will also find personal pronouns in the second and third person, perhaps with singular, dual, and plural forms. To a large extent the pronouns are incorporated in the verbs as pre- fixes, infixes, or suffixes. In such cases we will call them article pronouns. These article pronouns point out with great particularity the person, num- ber, and gender both of subject and object, and sometimes of the indirect object. When the article pronouns are used the personal pronouns may or may not be used; but it is believed that the personal pronouns will always be found. Article pronouns may not always be found. In those languages which are characterized by them they will be used alike when 48 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN LANGUAGES. the subject and object nouns are expressed and when they are not. The student may at first find some difficulty with these article pronouns. Sin- gular, dual, and plural forms will be found. Sometimes distinct incorporated particles will be used for subject and object, but often this will not be the case. If the subject only is expressed, one particle may be used ; if the object only is expressed, another particle; but if subject and object are expressed, an entirely different particle may stand for both. But it is in the genders of these article pronouns that the greatest diffi- culty may be found. The student must entirely free his mind of the idea that gender is simply a distinction of sex. In Indian tongues, genders usually are methods of classification primarily into animate and inanimate. The animate may be again divided into male and female, but this is rarely tlits»casfk Often by these genders all objects are classified on characteristics found in their atti- tudes or supposed constitution. Thus we may have the animate and inani- f mate, one or both, divided into the standing, the sitting, and the lying; or they/ may be divided into the watery, the mushy, the earthy, the stony, the woody, an$ the fleshy. The gender of these article pronouns has rarely been worked out in any language. The extent to which these classifications jenicx into the article pronouns is not well known. The subject requires more thor- ough study. These incorporated particles are here called article pronouns. In the conjugation of the verb they take an important part, and have by some writers been called transitions. Besides pointing out with particu- larity the person, number, and gender of the subject and object, they per- form the same offices that are usually performed by those inflections of the verb that occur to make them agree in gender, number, and person with the subject. In those Indian languages where the article pronouns are not found, and the personal pronouns only are used, the verb is usually in- flected to agree with the subject or object, or both, in the same particulars. The article pronouns, as they point out person, number, gender, and case of the subject and object, are not simple particles, but to a greater or lesser extent compound ; their component elements may be broken apart and placed in different parts of the verb. Again, the article pronoun in some languages may have its elements combined into a distinct word in such a manner that it will not be incorporated in the verb, but will be HINTS AND EXPLANATIONS. 49 placed immediately before it. For this reason the term "article pronoun" has been chosen rather than " attached pronoun." The older term, transi- tion, was given to them because of their analogy in function to verbal inflections. The personal and article pronouns can best be studied in connection with the transitive verbs with which they are used. § 27.— POSSESSION. Possession is usually indicated by the use of possessive pronouns, personal or article. Usually the possessive pronouns differ but little from the personal pronouns. Nouns rarely or never have possessive forms, the method being to say "John his horse," rather than "John's horse." Two characters of possession are recognized in Indian tongues, natural and arti- ficial. Natural possession is inherent possession; that which is possessed cannot be transferred, as "my hand," "my eye," "my father," "my mother" Artificial possession is accidental; the thing possessed may be transferred, as. "my hat," "my horse." These classes of possession will appear in the use of two distinct forms of possessive pronouns. Possession is usually affirmed by the use of a verb signifying to have or to possess, and natural possession may be predicated with one verb, and artificial possession with another. There is still another way of affirming possession The noun which is the name of the article possessed will have attached to it a particle pred- icating possession, and this particle may be changed or modified to denote mode, tense, &c: and, finally, we may have the noun, which is the name of the thing possessed, varied to denote person, number, and gender of the possessor, the noun itself varied to denote person, number, and gender of the thing possessed, and the attached predicating particle varied to denote mode and tense, all constituting one word. § 28.-INTEANSITIVE VEEBS— ADJECTIVES, ADVEEBS, PEEPOSITIONS, AND NOUNS USED AS VEEBS. The verb is relatively of much greater importance in an Indian tongue than in a civilized language. To a large extent the pronoun is incorpo- 4SIL 50 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN LANGUAGES. rated in the verb as explained above, and thus constitutes a part of its conjugation. Again, adjectives are used as intransitive verbs, as in most Indian languages there is no verb "to be" used as a predicant or copula. "Where in English we would say " the man is good," the Indian would say "that man good," using the adjective as an intransitive verb, i. e , as a predicant. If he desired to affirm it in the past tense, the intransitive verb " good " would be inflected, or otherwise modified, to indicate the tense; and so, in like manner, all adjectives when used to predicate can be modified to indicate mode, tense, number, person, &c, as other intransitive verbs. Comparison of adjectives may be effected by inflections, by the use of incorporated particles, by the use of independent words, or by para- phrastic expressions. Adverbs are used as intransitive verbs. In English we may say "he is there"; the Indian would say "that person there," usually preferring the demonstrative to the personal pronoun. The adverb " there " would, there- fore, be used as a predicant or intransitive verb, and might be conjugated to denote different modes, tenses, numbers, persons, &c. Verbs will often receive adverbial qualifications by the use of incorporated particles, and, still further, verbs may contain within themselves adverbial limitations without our being able to trace such meanings to any definite particles or parts of the verb. The comparison of adverbs may be effected by inflections, by incor- porated particles, by the use of distinct words, or by paraphrastic expres- sions. Prepositions are transitive verbs. In English we may say " the hat is on the table"; the Indian would say "that hat on table"; or he might change the order and say "that hat table on"; but the preposition "on" would be used as an intransitive verb to predicate and may be conjugated. Prepositions may often be found as particles incorporated in verbs, and, still further, verbs may contain within themselves prepositional meanings without our being able to trace such meanings to any definite particles within the verb. But the verb connotes such ideas that something is needed to complete its meaning, that something being a limiting or qualifying HINTS AND EXPLANATIONS. 51 word, phrase, or clause. Prepositions may be prefixed, infixed, or suffixed to nouns ; i. e., they may be particles incorporated in nouns. Nouns may be used as intransitive verbs under the circumstances when in English we would use a noun as the complement of a sentence after the verb "to be." The verb, therefore, often includes within itself subject, direct object, indirect object, qualifier, and relation-idea. Thus it is that the study of an Indian language is, to a large extent, the study of its verbs. From the remarks above, it will be seen that Indian verbs often include within themselves meanings which in English are expressed by adverbs and adverbial phrases and clauses. Thus the verb may express within itself direction, manner, instrument, and purpose, one or all, as the verb " to go " may be represented by a word signifying "go home"; another, "go away from home "; another, " go to a place other than home "; another, " go from a place other than home; one, "go from this place," without reference to home; one, "to go up"; another, "to go down"; one, "go around"; and, perhaps, there will be a verb "go up hill"; another, "go up a valley"; another, "go up a river," &c. Then we may have "to go on foot," "to go on horseback," "to go in a canoe"; still another, "to go for water"; another, "for wood," &c. Distinct words may be used for all these, or a fewer number used, and these varied by incorporated particles. In like manner, the English verb "to break" may be represented by several words, each of which will indicate the manner of performing the act or the instrument with which it is done. Distinct words may be used, or a common word varied with incorporated particles. The verb " to strike," which appears so often in the schedule, may be represented by several words, as signifying severally " to strike with the fist," "to strike with a club," "to strike with the open hand," "to strike with a whip," "to strike with a switch", to strike with a flat instrument, " &c. A common word may be used with incorporated particles or entirely different words used. § 29.— VOICE, MODE, AND TENSE. The student will find the passive voice an interesting subject of study, as in most languages there is no verb "to be" with which it can be formed; 52 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN LANGUAGES. and in those languages where a verb "to be" has been partially developed it is probably never used to form the passive voice. The most common method of forming the passive voice is to use an indefinite subject signify- ing " some one" or "something," and to place what in English would be the subject of the verb immediately before the verb in the objective case. Other indirect methods are used. The student will probably find a middle or reflexive voice, i. e., a form of the verb which is used when the subject is represented as acting upon itself; as, I strike myself; he cuts himself. A reciprocal voice may also be found, * e., a form of the verb which is used to denote that the persons or things of a plural subject act upon each other; as, they kick each other; they cut each other. This form of the verb will often be used in speaking of games and sports, for the purpose of showing that parties strive with each other. Mode in an Indian tongue is a rather difficult subject. Modes anala- gous to those of civilized tongues are found, and many conditions and qualifications appear in the verb which in English and other civilized lan- guages appear as adverbs, and adverbial phrases and clauses. No plane of separation can be drawn between such adverbial qualifications and true modes. Thus there may be a form of the verb which shows that the speaker makes a declaration as certain, i. e., an indicative mode; another which shows that the speaker makes a declaration with doubt; i. e., a dubi- tative mode; another that he makes a declaration on hearsay, i. e., a quotative mode ; another form will be used in making a command, giving an imperative mode; another in imploration, i. e., an implorative mode; another form to denote permission, i. e., a permissive mode ; another in negation, i. e, a nega- tive mode; another form will be used to indicate that the action is simulta- neous with some other action, i. e., a simultative mode; another to denote desire or wish that something be done, i. e., a desiderative mode ; another that the action ought to be done, *. e., an obligative mode ; another that action is repeated from time to time, i. e., a frequentative mode; another that action is caused, i. e., a causative mode; etc. These forms of the verb, which we are compelled to call modes, are of great number. Usually with each of them a particular modal particle or HINTS AND EXPLANATIONS. 53 incorporated adverb will be used; but the particular particle which gives the qualified meaning may not always be discovered ; and in one language a different word will be introduced where in another the same word will be used with an incorporated particle. It is stated in section 28 that incorporated particles may be used to indicate direction, manner, instrument, and purpose ; in fact, any adverbial qualification whatever may be made by an incorporated particle instead of an adverb as a distinct word. No line of demarkation can be drawn between these adverbial particles and those mentioned above as modal particles. Indeed, it seems best to treat all these forms of the verb arising from incorporated particles as distinct modes. In this sense, then, an Indian language has a multiplicity of modes. It should be further remarked that in many cases these modal or adverbial particles are excessively worn, so that they may appear as additions or changes of simple vowel or consonant sounds. When incorporated particles are thus used, distinct adverbial words, phrases, or clauses may also be employed, and the idea expressed twice. It will usually be found difficult to elaborate a system of tenses in paradigmatic form. The student will find a great many tenses or time par- ticles incorporated in verbs Some of these time particles will be excess- ively worn, and may appear rather as inflections than as incorporated particles. Usually rather distinct present, past, and future tenses will be discovered ; often a remote or ancient past, and less often an immediate future. But great specification of time in relation to the present and in relation to other times will usually be found. All these time particles should be worked out and their meaning and use recorded. It was seen above that adverbial particles cannot be separated from modal particles. In like manner tense particles cannot be separated from adverbial and modal particles. In an Indian language adverbs are differentiated only to a limited extent. Adverbial qualifications are found in the verb, and thus there are a multiplicity of modes and tenses, and no plane of demarkation can be drawn between mode and tense. From preceding statements it will appeal- 54 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN LANGUAGES. that a verb in an Indian tongue may have incorporated with it a great variety of particles, which can be arranged in three general classes, i e., pronominal, adverbial, and prepositional. The pronominal particles we have called article pronouns; they serve to point out a variety of characteristics in the subject, object, and indirect object of the verb. They thus subserve purposes which in English are subserved by differentiated adjectives as distinct parts of speech. They might, therefore, with some propriety have been called adjective particles; but these elements perform another function; they serve the purpose which is usually called "agreement in language"; that is, they make the verb agree with the subject and object, and thus indicate the syntactic relation between subject, object, and verb. In this sense they might with propriety have been called relation particles, and doubtless this function was in mind when some of the older grammarians called them transitions. The adverbial particles perform the functions of voice, mode, and tense, together with many other functions that are performed in languages spoken by more highly civilized people by differentiated adverbs, adverbial phrases and clauses. The prepositional particles perform the function of indicating a great variety of subordinate relations, like the prepositions used as distinct parts of speech in English. By the demonstrative function of some of the pronominal particles they are closely related to adverbial particles, and adverbial particles are closely related to prepositional particles, so that it will be sometimes difficult to say of a particular particle whether it be pronominal or adverbial, and of another particular particle whether it be adverbial or prepositional. Thus the three classes of particles are not separated by absolute planes of demarkation. The use of these particles as parts of the verb; the use of nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions as intransitive verbs; and the direct use of verbs as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs, make the study of an Indian tongue to a large extent the study of its verbs. HINTS AND EXPLANATIONS. 55 § 30.— ADDITIONAL INVESTIGATIONS SUGGESTED. Should the student pursue his investigation beyond the limits indi- cated by the schedules, it is very desirable that he should be on the lookout for certain linguistic phenomena that have received no mention in the fore- going sections. To set forth what is meant in a manner that may be understood some explanation seems necessary. Possible ideas and thoughts are vast in number. A distinct word for every distinct idea and thought would require a vast vocabulary. The problem in language is to express many ideas and thoughts with compara- tively few words. Again, in the evolution of any language progress is from a condition where few ideas are expressed by a few words to a higher, where many ideas are expressed by the use of many words ; but the number of all pos- sible ideas or thoughts expressed is increased greatly out of proportion with the increase of the number of words. And still again, in all of those languages which have been most thoroughly studied, and by inference in all languages, it appears that the few original words used in any language remain as the elements for the greater number finally used. In the evolution of a language the introduc- tion of absolutely new material is a comparatively rare phenomenon. The old material is combined and modified in many ways to form the new. How has the small stock of words found as the basis of a language been thus combined and modified? The way in which the old materials have been used gives rise to what will here be denominated the grammatic peocesses. They are as follows: I. The process by combination. Two or more words may be united to form a new one, or to perform the office of a new one, and four methods or stages of combination may be noted. a. By juxtaposition, where the two words are placed together and yet remain as distinct words. This method is illustrated in Chinese where the words in the combination when taken alone seldom give a clew to their meaning when placed together. 56 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OP INDIAN LANGUAGES. b. By compounding, where two words are made into one, in which case the original elements of the new word remain in an unmodified condition, as in "house-top," "rain-bow," "tell-tale." c. By agglutination, in which case one or more of the elements entering into combination to form the new word is somewhat changed — the ele- ments are fused together. Yet this modification is not so great as to essen- tially obscure the primitive words, as in "truthful," where we easily recog- nize the original words "truth" and "full"; and "holiday," in which "holy" and "day" are recognized d. By inflection. Here one or more of the elements entering into the compound has been so changed that it can scarcely be recognized. There is a constant tendency to economy in speech by which words are gradually shortened as they are spoken by generation after generation. In those words which are combinations of others there are certain elements that wear out more rapidly than others Where some particular word is combined with many other different words the tendency to modify by wear this oft- used element is great. This is more especially the case where the combined word is used in certain categories of combinations, as where particular words are used to denote tense in the verb; thus "did" may be used in com- bination with a verb to denote past time until it is worn down to the sound of "d." The same wear occurs where particular words are used to form cases in nouns and a variety of illustrations might be given. These cate- gories constitute conjugations and declensions, and for convenience such combinations may be called paradigmatic. Then the oft-repeated elements of paradigmatic combinations are apt to become excessively worn and modified, so that the primitive words or themes to which they are attached seem to be but sligntly changed by the addition. Under these circum- stances combination is called inflection. As a morphologic process, no well-defined plane of demarkation between these four methods of combination can be drawn, as one runs into another; but, in general, words may be said to be juxtaposed, when two words being placed together the combination performs the function of a new word, while in form the two words remain separate Words may be said to be compound when two or more words are com- HINTS AND EXPLANATIONS. 57 bined to form one, no change being made in either. Words ma)' be said to be agglutinated when the elementary words are changed but slightly, i. e., only to the extent that their original forms are not greatly obscured; and words may be said to be inflected when in thee ombination the oft- repeated element or formative part has been so changed that its 'origin is obscured. These inflections are used chiefly in the paradigmatic combina- tions. In the preceding statement it has been assumed that there can be recognized, in these combinations of inflection, a theme or root, as it is sometimes called, and a formative element. ' The formative element is used with a great many different words to define or qualify them, that is to indicate mode, tense, number, person, gender, etc., of verbs, nouns, and other parts of speech. When in a language juxtaposition is the chief method of combination, there may also be distinguished two kinds of elements, in some sense cor- responding to themes and formative parts. The theme is a word the mean- ing of which is determined by the formative word placed by it ; that is, the theme is a word having many radically different meanings ; with which meaning it is to be understood is determined only by the formative word, which thus serves as its label. The ways in which the theme words are thus labeled by the formative word are very curious, but the subject can- not be entered into here. When words are combined by compounding, the formative elements cannot so readily be distinguished from the theme ; nor for the purposes under immediate consideration can compounding be well separated from agglutination. When words are combined by agglutination, theme and formative part usually appear. The formative parts are affixes ; and affixes may be divided into three classes, prefixes, suffixes, and infixes. These affixes are often called incorporated particles. In those Indian languages where combination is chiefly by agglutina- tion, that is, by the use of affixes, i. e., incorporated particles, certain parts of the conjugation of the verb, especially those which denote gender, num- ber, and person, are affected by the use of article pronouns ; but in those 58 INTEODUOTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN LANGUAGES. languages where article pronouns are not found the verbs are inflected to accomplish the same part of their conjugation. Perhaps, when we come more fully to study the formative elements in these more highly inflected languages, we may discover in such elements greatly modified, i. e., worn out, incorporated pronouns. The above explanation is given that the student who may desire to make a somewhat exhaustive study of a language may be on the lookout for different ways of combination, especially to discover if the Chinese method by juxtaposition is used even to a limited extent. II. The process by vocalic mutation. Here, in order to form a new word, one or more of the vowels of the old word are changed, as in "man" — "men," where an "e" is substituted for "a"; "ran" — "run," where "u" is substituted for "a"; "lead" — "led," where "e," with its proper sound, is substituted for "ea" with its proper sound. This method is used to a very limited extent in English. When the history of the words in which it occurs is studied it is discovered to be but an instance of the wearing out of the different elements of combined words; but in the Hebrew this method pre- vails to a very large extent, and scholars have not yet been able to discover its origin in combination as they have in English. It may or may not have been an original grammatic process, but because of its importance in cer- tain languages it has been found necessary to deal with it as a distinct and original process III. The process by intonation. In English new words are not formed by this method, yet words are intoned for certain purposes, chiefly rhetor- ical. We use the rising intonation (or inflection, as it is usually called) to indicate that a question is asked, and various effects are given to speech by the various intonations of rhetoric. But this process is used in other lan- guages to form new words with which to express new ideas. In Chinese eight distinct intonations are found, by the use of which one word may be made to express eight different ideas, or perhaps it is better to say that eight words may be made of one. IV. The process by placement. The place or position of a word may affect its significant use. Thus in English we say "John struck James.'' By the position of those words to each other we know that John is the actor, and that James receives the action. HINTS AND EXPLANATIONS. 59 It lias thus been explained what is meant by the four grammatic pro- cesses, and this has been necessary in order to call the attention of the student to three methods with which he may not be so familiar, viz: the second, third, and fourth. In the study of an Indian language the student should take pains to discover for what purposes and to what extent either or all of these methods are used; and, especially, is attention directed to the use of intonation, from the fact that several Indian tribes are known to greatly intone their words. This characteristic has been frequently mentioned by those familiar with certain tribes, and the writer has himself noticed it, especially with the people of Oraibi and Zuni, who inhabit pueblos but speak different lan- guages. Placement is known to be used for important purposes in some of the Indian tongues which have been studied; that is, the order of words in a sentence is of great significance. This subject should receive careful study. In the thirtieth schedule a list of verbs is given which it would be well for the student to write out in all of their forms, and especially should he look for irregular and defective verbs, and for different methods of conju- gation. A particular form of irregularity exists in the Ute language which may bo discovered elsewhere. In that language there are many verbs where the singular and dual are formed on one theme and the plural on another. § M. ON THE BEST METHOD OF STUDYING MATERIALS COLLECTED. The schedules and the preceding sections have been given for the pur- pose of directing students into the best methods of collecting Indian ma- terial for stud)-. The study of the materials collected is the second stage in linguistic research. On this branch of the subject Mr. J. Hammond Trumbull has written somewhat at length, in the Transactions of the American Philolog- ical Association, 18G9-70, from which the following extract is taken: In the English language the analytical tendency lias attained its highest results. By employing independent words to express grammatical relations, it has reduced a great part of its vocabulary to monosyllables. The very essence of the Indian lan- guages on the contrary is synthesis, and their capacity for synthetical development is GO INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN LANGUAGES. apparently unlimited. Their highest aim is to express in a single word " not only all that modifies or relates to the same object, or action, but both the action and the object : thus concentrating in a single expression a complex idea, or several ideas among which there is a natural connection."* There is hardly any modification of which the action of a verb is susceptible which may not be effected by means of inseparable particles having the character of adverbs : " thus the action may be intended, or be about to be done; it may be done well, better, ill, in a different manner, quickly, attentively, jointly, probably, rarely, repeatedly, habitually": t it may be affirmed, doubted, ques- tioned, denied, prohibited. A single example will illustrate this, and I select one which Mr. Bancroft (History of the United States, vol. iii, p. 259) has used for a simi- lar purpose, in his observations on " the synthetic character of the American languages." " The Indian never kneels ; so, when Eliot translated kneeling [Mark, i, 40] the word which he was compelled to form fills a line, and numbers eleven syllables." As an instance of extreme synthesis this word — wut-ap-pe'sit-tuh-qus'-sun-nco-weht- nrik'-quoli% — is well taken, but its significance is by no means limited, as Mr. Bancroft supposed it to be, by that of the English participle " kneeling." In the verse cited it stands as the translation of the words " kneeling down to him" of the English text, or, more exactly, for " he kneeled down to him " — Eliot having substituted the indicative mood for the participle, as Indian syntax requires. We have thus five English words represented by the Indian synthesis. But the denotation of the latter is not yet ex- hausted. Eliot might have found, in the Massachusetts or any other Algonliin dialect, an equivalent for the verb "to kneel ", in its literal and primary signification — " to rest on the bended knees" or (active-intransitive) "to assume the position of kneeling." In 2 Chron., vi, 13 : Daniel, vi, 10 : Acts, xx, 36, he translated " he kneeled down " by ap-pe'-sit- tulc qus'-sin; but in the verse first cited, something more than the mere act of bending the knees or resting on them is implied. The verb here connotes supplication, submission, and worship, and all this is expressed in the eighth and ninth syllables (-noo-weht-) of the Indian synthesis, the whole of which may be translated, literally : " He, falling down upon his knees, worshiped [or made supplication to] him." Thus the one Indian word of eleven syllables requires for its accurate interpretation eight or ten English words and at least eleven syllables. This tendency to synthesis is not manifested only in the grammatical structure. It may be traced far back to the roots of the language, and characterizes the primary verbs as truly as it does the many-syllabled cluster- words of later growth. Father Le Jeune, a Jesuit missionary in Canada in 1634, mentions as a peculiarity of the lan- guage of the Montagnars "the infinite number of words which signify many things together," and which yet had no etymological affinity with any of the words which signify those things severally; and he gave as an example the Mont agnais verb piouan, meaning " the wind drives the snow," but in which no trace appears of the words for * Gallatin, in Trans. Am. Antiquarian Society, vol. ii, p. 105. t Gallatin, in Trans. Am. Ethnological Society, vol. ii, p. cxlii. t Duponceau pointed out this word as the longest he had met with in any Indian language except the Chippoway (of Schoolcraft), in which " there were some verbal forms of thirteen and fourteen syllables. (Memoire sur le Systemc Grammatical etc., p. 143.) A more remarkable illustration of "the Indian way of compounding words " was given by tho Rev. Experience Mavhew, preacher to the Indians on Martha's Vineyard, in a synthesis of twenty-two syllables, signifying "our well-skilled looking-glass makers"— ^«i)-i)ff/i/c-«M7i-«-i)e-j)c-)iai(-!(i»«-t7 l !/«-c/i«7i->>>>> \ ) > J I CHAPTER III. SCHEDULES (75) SCHEDULE 1. -PERSONS. (Carefully read § 1, Chapter II.) 77 ENGLISH. REMARKS. 1 Man _ 2 "Woman _ 3 Old man .._ 8 Boy _ 9 Girl __ _ _ 13 Twins- _ _ _ 24 Thief - - ■78 SCHEDULE 2.— PARTS OP THE BODY. (Carefully read I 2, Chapter II.) ENGLISH. REMARKS. - 14 Ear — 19 Nostril 29 Saliva 33 Neck SCHEDULE 2— PARTS OF THE BODY— Continued. 79 ENGLISH. REMARKS. 34 Adam's apple 85 Body 36 Shoulder 37 Shoulder-blade 38 Back 39 Breast of a man 40 Breast of a woman, (mamma). 41 Nipples — 42 Hip 43 Belly 44 Navel 45 Arm 46 Right arm 47 Left arm 48 Arm-pits 49 Right arm above elbow - 50 Left arm above elbow — 51 Elbow 52 Right elbow 53 Left elbow 54 Right arm below elbow - 55 Left arm below elbow _~ 56 "Wrist 57 Right wrist 58 Left wrist 59 Hand 60 Right hand 61 Left hand 62 Palm of hand 63 Back of hand 64 Fingers 65 Thumb 66 First finger. 80 SCHEDULE 2.— PARTS OF THE BODY— Continued. ENGLISH. REMARKS. 67 Second finger 68 Third finger ^ — 69 Small finger 70 Finger-nail _ 71 Knuckle 72 Space between knuckles _ 73 Rump 74 Leg 75 Leg above knee 76 Knee 77 Knee-pan 78 Leg below knee 79 Calf of the leg 80 Ankle 81 Ankle-bone 82 Instep 83 Foot 84 Sole of foot 85 Heel 86 Toe 87 Large toe 88 Second toe 89 Third toe 90 Fourth toe 91 Toe-nail 92 Blood 93 Vein or artery 94 Brain 95 Bladder.. 96 Caul 97 Gall 98 Heart 99 Kidney SCHEDULE 2.— PARTS OF THE BODY— Continued. 81 ENGLISH. • REMARKS. 100 Lung . . 101 Liver .. ., __ 102 Stomach .. 103 Spleen _. • 104 Rib 106 Vertebrae - -- 107 Spine 109 Skin 4 i i • 82 SCHEDULE 3.— DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. (Carefully read j) 3, Chapter II.) ENGLISH. 1 Cap 2 Tunie B Breech cloth i Breech-cloth belt 5 Pair of leggins 6 Pair of moccasins 7 Toga 8 "Woman's basket-work cap_ 9 Short petticoat 10 Long petticoat 11 Girdle 12 "Woman's moccasins 13 Garters 14 Blanket 15 Robe of bear skin 16 Robe of buffalo skin 17 Robe of deer skin 18 Robe of rabbit skins 19 Robe of wild-cat skins 20 Buckskin 21 Antelope skin 22 Sheep skin 23 Elk skin 24 Rabbit skin 25 Beaver skin 26 Otter skin 27 Fringe of skin 28 Sinew 29 Thread (of sinew) 30 Thread (of skin) 31 Head-dress of feathers 32 Necklace of bone— 33 Necklace of bird-bills REMARKS. SCHEDULE 3.-DRESS AND ORNAMENTS-Continued. 83 ENGLISH. REMARKS. 34 Necklace of bird-claws- 35 Necklace of bears' claws - 37 Paint (black) _ 38 Paint (red) 39 Paint (yellow)- . - 44 Barefoot 45 Naked - — - - - 1 84 SCHEDULE 4.— DWELLINGS. (Carefully read ? 4, Chapter II.) ENGLISH. 1 Village 2 "Wigwam (permanent dwelling). 3 Doorway •1 Smoke-hole 5 Fire-place 6 Fire 7 Fire-wood 8 Blaze 9 A light 10 Living coals 11 Dead coals 12 Ashes 13 Smoke 14 Soot 15 Poker 16 A seat 17 The place where seats are 18 A post 19 My home REMARKS. 20 Describe wigwams and give names for architec- tural parts and divisions into compartments. SCHEDULE 4— DWELLINGS— Continued. 85 ENGLISH. 34 Lodge (temporary dwelling) . 35 Doorway 36 Smoke-hole 37 Lodge-pole 38 Lodge-pin 39 Mat 40 Bed REMARKS. •16 Pueblo. 47 A division of a pueblo (one set of compartments constituting a communal house.) 48 Family compartments (set of rooms for family). 49 Give name of each room 55 Floor 56 Ceiling 57 Wall 58 Post 59 Joist 60 Lintel 61 Doorway 62 Wooden trap-doorway 63 Opening for window 64 Fire-place 65 Chimney 66 Permanent seat (masonry) . 86 SCHEDULE 4.— DWELLINGS— Continued. ENGLISH. REMARKS. ' • SCHEDULE 4.— DWELLINGS-Continued. 87 Describe dwellings : State how they are arranged, &c. 88 SCHEDULE 5.— IMPLEMENTS AND UTENSILS. (Carefully read J 5, Chapter II.) ENGLISH. REMARKS. 1 Bow of wood 3 Bow-string 4 Sinew on back of bow_ _ 6 Notch in end of arrow for bow-string 7 Notch in end of arrow for arrow-head 8 Arrow-head of stone . _ . 10 Point of arrow-head - 11 Arrow-shaft of reed _ 12 Arrow-shaft of wood _ 13 Groove in arrow-shaft - 14 Arrow-shaft straightener (made of horn) 15 Arrow-shaft polisher (made of stone) 16 Cement used in fastening arrow-heads 17 Arrow feathers 18 Quiver „ 19 Quiver-strap _ 20 Wrist-guard _ 21 War-club __ 22 War-spear 23 Fish-spear 26 Shield 27 Sling- 28 Canoe „ . 29 Canteen made of a bladder - ; 30 Fish-line _ 31 Fish-net 32 Fish-hook . 33 Net for catching rabbits 1 SCHEDULE 5.— IMPLEMENTS AND UTENSILS- Continued. 89 ENGLISH. 34 Net for catching fish- P>5 Pipe, of stone 30 Pipe-stem, of reed 37 Pipe-stem, of wood „ REMARKS. 90 SCHEDULE 5.— IMPLEMENTS, ETC.— "Wooden-ware. ENGLISH. REMARKS. SCHEDULE 5.— IMPLEMENTS, ETC.— Stone implements. 91 ENGLISH. REMARKS. 1 Axe 2 Adze __ __ 3 Hoe 9 Borer 13 Pestle _- - - 92 SCHEDULE 5.— IMPLEMENTS, ETC.— Utensils of shell, horn, bone, &c. ENGLISH. REMARKS. ' 3 ! 1 ! SCHEDULE 5.— IMPLEMENTS, ETC.— Basket-ware. 93 ENGLISH. REMARKS. 1 Large conical seed-basket (carried on back) _„ 1 2 Hand seed-basket _ _ - | 8 Trinket-basket ___ 11 Large water-jug (for holding water in lodge) 12' Large water-jug (of basket-ware covered with pitch). 1£ Large water-bottle (for holding water in lodge)__ 14 Large water-bottle (of basket-ware covered with pitch). 15 Small pilgrim bottle (of basket-ware covered with pitch). . 94 SCHEDULE 5— IMPLEMENTS, ETC.— Pottery. ENGLISH. REMARKS. 3 Pilgrim bottle _ • 9 Tray 10 Cup 11 Ladle - SCHEDULE 6.— FOOD. (Carefully read \ 6, Chapter II.) 95 ENGLISH. REMARKS. 1 Food _ 8 Stew 9 Soup 10 Bread 13 Milk - • 96 SCHEDULE 7.— COLORS. (Carefully read § 7, Chapter II.) ENGLISH. REMARKS. 9 Scarlet- _ _ _. _ 10 Sorrel- 11 Vermilion „ 12 White .... 13 Yellow - SCHEDULE 8.— NUMERALS.— Cardinal Numbers. (Carefully read ? 8, Chapter II.) 97 ENGLISH. REMARKS. 1 One 2 Two 3 Three 5 Five _ .. 6 Six _ _ __ _ 8 Eight 9 Nine . 10 Ten _ -_ 11 Eleven 12 Twelve ' 13 Thirteen . : __ • 15 Fifteen 16 Sixteen 17 Seventeen 18 Eighteen 19 Nineteen 20 Twenty 21 Twenty-one — 22 Twenty-two — 23 Twenty-three _ 24 Twenty-four___ 25 Twenty-five — 26 Twenty-six 27 Twenty-seven . 28 Twenty-eight _ 29 Twenty-nine — 30 Thirty 31 Forty 32 Fifty 33 Sixty 98 SCHEDULE 8— NUMERALS— Cardinal Numbers— Continued. ENGLISH. REMARKS. 43 One hundred six 48 One hundred eleven 49 One hundred twelve. _ 50 Two hundred 51 Three hundred 52 Four hundred 53 Five hundred 54 Six hundred _ 55 Seven hundred 56 Eight hundred - 60 One-half (in length) 61 One-half (in quantity) _ ._ 62 A part (in length) _ 63 A part (in quantity) 65 Some SCHEDULE 8.— NUMERALS.— Ordinal Numbers. 99 ENGLISH. REMARKS. 1 First 3 Third 5 Fifth 6 Sixth 8 Eighth 9 Ninth * 10 Tenth 11 Eleventh __ . 12 Twelfth 13 Thirteenth 15 Fifteenth - 100 SCHEDULE 8— NUMERALS.— Numeral adverbs denoting repetition of action. ENGLISH. REMARKS. * 18 Eighteen times — _ 21 Thirty times _ _ _ „ 22 Forty times _ 23 Fifty times _ . _ _ " • SCHEDULE 8.-NDMER ALS.— Multiplicatives. 101 ENGLISH. REMARKS. 1 Two-fold 2 Three-fold 3 Four-fold.. „ i Five-fold 5 Six-fold 6 Seven-fold 7 Eight-fold _ 8 Nine-fold 9 Ten-fold f»- 10 Eleven-fold . . 11 Twelve-fold . 12 Thirteen-fold __ __ ' 13 Fourteen-fold 14 Fifteen-fold 15 Sixteen-fold_... 16 Seventeen-fold . 17 Eighteen-fold _. IS Nineteen-fold .. 19 Twenty-fold 20 Thirty-fold 21 Forty-fold 22 Fifty-fold 102 SCHEDULE 8-NTJMERALS.— Distributives. ENGLISH. REMARKS 7 Seven to each 11 Eleven to each _ 13 Thirteen to each 14 Fourteen to each 15 Fifteen to each- lfi Sixteen to each 17 Seventeen to each _ 18 Eighteen to each_- 19 Nineteen to each 20 Twenty to each 21 Thirty to each ■ . 22 Forty to each _ _ SCHEDULE 9.— MEASURES. (Carefully read § 9, Chapter II.) 103 ENGLISH. REMARKS. 104 SCHEDULE 9.— MEASURES— Continued. SCHEDULE 10.— DIVISION OF TIME. (Carefully read j) 10, Chapter II.) 105 ENGLISH. 1 A year 2 A moon 3 First half of moon. 4 Second half of moon 5 First quarter of moon — 6 Second quarter of moon . 7 Third quarter of moon __. 8 Fourth quarter of moon . 9 Day 10 Night REMARKS. 11 A day (24 hours) 12 Dawn 13 Sunrise 14 Morning 15 Mid-forenoon 16 Noon 17 Afternoon 18 Sunset 19 Dusk 20 Evening 21 Midnight 22 Day before yesterday - 23 Yesterday 24 To-day 25 To-morrow 26 Day after to-morrow— 27 Now (adverb) 28 Past time (adverb) 29 Future time (adverb) _ 106 SCHEDULE 10.— DIVISION OF TIME— Continued. SCHEDULE 11.— STANDARDS OF VALUE. 107 (CarefUUy read j) 11, Chapter II.) 108 SCHEDULE 11.— STANDARDS OF VALUE— Continued. SCHEDULE 12— ANIMALS— Mammals. (Carefully read j» 12, Chapter II.) 109 ENGLISH. REMARKS. 1 Armadillo. 2 Antelope _. 3 Bat- 4 Buffalo 5 Bison 6 Bison, wood 7 Beaver 8 Badger 9 Bear, grizzly 10 Bear, cinnamon 11 Bear, black 12 Caribou (woodland) 13 Caribou (barren ground) 14 Chipmunk . 15 Cat, wild 16 Cat, civet 17 Cat, black 18 Dog 19 Deer 20 Deer, mule, (Rocky Mountains and west) . 21 Deer, white-tailed 22 Deer, black-tailed (Sierra Nevada) 23 Elk 24 Ermine 25 Fox 26 Fox (yellow) 27 Fox (small, dark) 28 Fox (red) 29 Fox (gray) 30 Fox (cross) 31 Fox (silver) 32 Fox (black) 33 Fox (kit) 110 SCHEDULE 12 . —ANIMALS. —Mammals— Continued. ENGLISH. REMARKS. 34 Fisher T 36 Gopher, pocket 37 Goat, mountain- • 33 Ground-hog 39 Jaguar _ 42 Lion, mountain, or Panther— - 43 Manatee, or sea-cow, (Florida) 44 Mouse (stone) 45 Mouse (tufHailed) 46 Mouse (jumping) __ 47 Mouse (house) — 48 Mouse (wood) 49 Mouse (white-footed) — __ 50 Mouse (field) .. - 51 Mouse (meadow) 52 Mouse (prairie) _ 53 Mole . - 54 Martin 55 Marmot . _ 56 Moose .. 57 Muskrat- 58 Otter .. _ _ __ 59 Otter, sea 60 Opossum . 61 Ox, musk_ - _ . -62 Prairie-dog — . . 63 Porcupine 64 Porpoise... __ 65 Peccary ... 66 Rat, common house _ SCHEDULE 12.— ANIMALS.— Mammals— Continued. Ill ENGLISH. 67 Eat (black) 68 Rat (bush) 69 Rat (Kangaroo) 70 Rat (mountain) 71 Rabbit 72 Rabbit (wbite) 73 Rabbit (gray) 74 Rabbit (jackass) 75 Rabbit (small, cotton-tail) 76 Rabbit (little chief or cony) . 77 Raccoon 78 Sable , 79 Seal £0 Skunk or Polecat 81 Sheep, mountain 82 Squirrel 83 Squirrel (gray) 84 Squirrel (black) — 85 Squirrel (ground) 80 Squirrel (red) 87 Squirrel (striped) 88 Squirrel (flying) 89 Woli 90 Wolf (white) 91 Wolf (gray) 92 Wolf (dusky) 93 Wolf (prairie, coyote) 94 Weasel 95 Whale 96 Wolverine 97 Woodchuck REMARKS. 112 SCHEDULE 12.— ANIMALS.— Mammals— Continued. ENGLISH. REMARKS. * ^ ' • - . . .. , SCHEDULE 12.— ANIMALS.— Parts of the body, &c, of mammals. 113 ENGLISH. REMARKS. 1 Antlers 2 Anus . 3 Bone i Brain _ 5 Claw - 6 Dung 8 Fat 9 Fur 10 Gullet 11 Hoof • 12 Hide _ _ __ __ 13 Horn 14 Hair 15 Heart . 19 Liver . 20 Muscle. - ... 21 Meat — 22 Midriff . 23 Milk 26 Bib » • 28 Skull 29 Stomach 30 Spleen . _ 82 Skin T3 Tail 114 SCHEDULE 12.— ANIMALS.— Parts of the body, &c, of mammals— Continued. ENGLISH. * REMARKS. 39 "Womb • SCHEDULE 12.— ANIMALS.— Birds. 115 ENGLISH. 1 Bird 2 Albatross 3 Avocet, or Blue Stockings . 4 Auk '5 Bittern 6 Blackbird 7 Blackbird (red-winged) 8 Blackbird (white-winged prairie) . 9 Blackbird (yellow-head) — 10 Blackbird (crow) ._. 11 Bluebird REMARKS. 12 Bobolink, (of the North; Reedbird of the South.) 13 Bobwhite, (Quail of New England, Partridge of the South.) 14 Bunting 15 Bunting (towhee) 16 Bunting (snow) 17 Bullbat, or Night Hawk 18 Butcher bird, or Shrike 19 Catbird 20 Cedar-bird, or Cherry-bird 21 Chaparral cock, or Ground Cuckoo 22 Chicadee, or Titmouse 23 Cock of the plains 24 Cqot ,. 25 Cormorant, or Shag 26 Cowbird Z! Crane (white or whooping) 28 Crane (brown or roundbill) 29 Creeper (brown) 30 Creeper (black and white) ■■■ 81 Crow 32 Crossbill 83 Curlew (long billed) ue SCHEDULE 12.— ANIMALS.— Birds— Continued. ENGLISH. REMARKS. 51 Duck (ruddy) - - _— 52 Eagle - — 53 Eagle (golden) _ . 54 Eagle (white-headed) ___ * 56 Finch (grass) _ ___ . 59 Goldfinch, or Thistle-bird _„ 61 Goose (blue) 62 Goose (white) _ _ _ _ , 63 Goose, Canada 64 Grackle _ _ . 66 Grosbeak _ _ SCHEDULE 12.— ANIMALS.— Birds— Continued. 117 ENGLISH. 67 Grouse 68 Grouse (pinnated) or Prairie Hen . 69 Grouse (sharp-tailed) 70 Grouse (white), Tarmigan REMARKS. 71 Grouse (ruffed), Partridge of New England- Pheasant of the South. 72 Gull 73 Gull (heron)- 74 Gull (ring-billed) 75 Gull (black-headed) . 76 Hawk 77 Hawk (marsh) 78 Hawk (chicken) 79 Hawk (hen) 80 Hawk (pigeon) 81 Hawk (sparrow) 82 Hawk (duck) 83 Hawk (red-tailed) — 84 Hawk (swallow-tailed) 85 Hawk (fish or osprey) 86 Heron (great blue) 87 Heron (little blue) 88 Heron (great white) 89 Heron (little white) 90 Heron (green) 91 Heron (night) 92 Humming-bird 93 Ibis (glossy) 94 Ibis (white) 95 Indian-hen or Courlan— Crying-bird _ 96 Jay (gray mountain) 97 Jay (blue-crested) 98 Jay (chapparral) 99 Kingbird, or Bee Martin 118 SCHEDULE 12.— ANIMALS.— Birds— Continued. ENGLISH. REMARKS. - 109 Mutch-hoteh - - 110 Oriole, Bullock's (western)- _ 111 Oriole (Baltimore) _ _ 112 Owl (great-horned) 114 Owl (eared) 119 Paroquet (Florida) _ _ 120 Peewee . _ 121 Pelican (white) ... .. __ _. 122 Pelican (brown), Pacific and Atlantic coasts 123 Pigeon (wild), Eastern XT. S 124 Pigeon (band-tailed), Western U. S. ... .. 127 Plover (golden) . 128 Plover (killdee) _ __ __ 129 Plover (ring-necked) ... __ _. . SCHEDULE 12. -ANIMALS.— Birds— Continued. 119 ENGLISH. 133 Raven (white-necked). 134 Redbird 135 Redbird (crested) REMARKS. 136 Redbird (binek-winged), or Scarlet Tanager, (Eastern U. S.) 137 Robin 138 Road-runner, or Chaparral Cock (Western U. S.) 139 Sage-cock 140 Sandpiper 141 Sandpiper (spotted, or tipup) 142 Scissor-bird 143 Shearwater, or Black Skimmer (southern coast) 144 Snipe 145 Snow-bird 146 Song-sparrow 147 Sparrow 14S Stilt (black-necked) 149 Swan 150 Swallow 151 Swallow (oliimney) 152 Swallow (barn) 153 Swallow (white-bellied) 154 Swallow (green-backed) 155 Swallow (cliff) 156 Swallow (bank or sand) 157 Teal 158 Teal (green-winged) 159 Teal (blue-winged) 160 Teal (cinnamon) 161 Tern 162 Tern (blaekl 163 Thrush 164 Thrush (water), or Wagtail . 165 Titlark 120 SCHEDULE 12.- ANIMALS.— Birds— Continued. ENGLISH. 166 Turkey 167 Turnstone - 168 Vulture (great Californian) 169 Vulture (black) 170 Vulture (red-headed 171 Warbler 172 Warbler (yellow), or Yellow-bird . 173 Whip-poor-will 174 Woodpecker REMARKS. 175 Woodpecker (yellow-shafted, or Yellow-ham- mer). 176 Woodpecker (spotted) 177 Woodpecker (yellow-bellied) 178 Woodpecker Oarge black) '_ 179 Woodpecker (ivory-billed), Southern States __. 180 Woodpecker (red-head) 181 Woodpecker (white-headed) 182 Woodpecker (Lewis) 183 Woodpecker (black-breasted) 184 Woodpecker (red-shafted), of the Western U. S 185 Widgeon 186 Woodcock 187 Wren (house) 188 Wren (marsh) 189 Yellow-shanks SCHEDULE 12.— ANIMALS.— Parte of the body, &c, of birds. 121 ENGLISH. ♦ REMARKS. 1 Beak, or bill __ 2 Mouth 7 Neck— . • 10 Wings 11 Wing-feathers 12 Tail 15 Toes 17 Spur 21 Lights .. - _ 22 Gizzard ._ . _ _ 23 Entrail 24 Vent . _ - __ ._ _ 25 Egg - _ 26 Shell (of egg) 27 Yolk (of egg) 28 White (of egg) 31 To fly - — - 122 SCHEDULE 12.— ANIMALS.— Fish. ENGLISH. REMARKS. 10 Mullet 14 Shark _ _ „ 15 Smelt * ! 17 Sucker — 18 Trout — _ _ 19 White fish ' | 1 1 1 1 SCHEDULE 12.— ANIMALS.— Parts of the body, &c, of flsh. 123 ENGLISH. REMARKS. 1 Mouth 3 Gills . - ■ 5 Belly-fln 6 Back-fln 7 Tall-fln _ 8 Roe-fin 9 Bladder 10 Gall „ 11 Liver 12 Scales 18 To swim .- ; . 124 SCHEDULE 12— ANIMAiS.— Reptiles. ENGLISH. REMARKS. 3 Frog (bull) _ 4 Frog (small) 5 Horned Lizard or Toad _ 7 Moooasin 8 Rattlesnake ._ 9 Rattlesnake (horned) 10 Rattle of snake 11 Snake 12 Snake (water) 13 Snake (garter) 14 Terrapin 15 Toad 16 Tortoise SCHEDULE 12.— ANIMALS.— Insects. 125 ENGLISH. REMARKS. 1 Ant 6 Butterfly __ 8 Cricket 10 Plea _ __ _ 11 Fly 12 Gnat- - 126 SCHEDULE 12.— ANIMALS— Continued. (State how animals are classified.) SCHEDULE 13.— PLANTS. (Carefully read j! 13, Chapter II.) 127 ENGLISH. • REMARKS. 1 Bud of tree 2 Leaf _ - • 10 Tree 11 Wood ~ 12 _ _ 13 - ._ • 128 SCHEDULE 13.— PLANTS— Continued. ENGLISH. • REMARKS. • . - * ■ * • SCHEDULE 14.— GEOGRAPHIC TERMS. (Carefully read J 14, Chapter II.) 129 ENGLISH. REMARKS. 1 North __ 2 Northeast - 3 East . i Southeast _ G West. • _ 7 Southwest 130 SCHEDULE 14.— GEOGRAPHIC TERMS— Continued. ENGLISH. REMAEKS. . SCHEDULE 15.-G-EOGRAPHIC NAMES. (Carefully read \ 15, Chapter II.) 131 ENGLISH. REMARKS. \ < 1 132 SCHEDULE 16.— THE FIRMAMENT— Meteorologic and other physical phenomena and objects. (Carefully read \ 16, Chapter II.) ENGLISH. REMARKS. 6 12 13 14 Sky _ 16 Sun — 18 Full-moon - 19 Half-moon - 20 Creseentrmoon ._ 24 Eainbow 25 Fog 26 Frost ; 28 Hail 29 Ice _ _ . 80 Icicle - _ __ 31 "Water 32 Image reflected by water 33 Foam SCHEDULE 16.— THE FIRMAMENT, Etc.— Continued. 133 ENGLISH. 34 "Wave 35 Current 36 Eddy 37 Overflow 38 Tide 39 Rain 40 Thunder 41 Lightning- 42 Wind REMARKS. 43 North wind . 44 Northeast wind— 45 East wind 46 Southeast wind— 47 "West wind 48 Northwest wind _ 49 "Whirlwind 50 The ground 51 Dust 52 Mud 53 Sand 54 Salt 55 Rock 56 Stone 57 Eclipse of the Sun_ 58 Earthquake 59 Shower 60 Storm 61 Tornado . 62 . 63 64 Ursa major. 65 Pleiades ; Morning Star - 134 SCHEDULE 17.— KINSHIP.— RELATIVES-LINEAL DESCENDANTS OP SELF— Male speaking. (Carefully read j> 17, Chapter II.) ENGLISH. 1 My son 2 (Omitted) 3 My son's son 4 My son's daughter 5 My son's son's son 1 6 My son's son's daughter 7 My son's daughter's son 8 My son's daughter's daughter 9 My son's son's son's son 10 My son's son's son's daughter 11 My son's son's daughter's son 12 My son'sson'sdaughter's daughter . 13 (Omitted) 14 My daughter 15 My daughter's son REMARKS. 16 My daughter's daughter, 17 My daughter's son's son - 18 My daughter's son's daughter 19 My daughter's daughter's son— 20 My daughter's daughter's daughter 21 My daughter's daughter's son's son 22 My daughter's daughter's son's daughter 23 My daughter's daughter's daughter's son 24 My daughter's daughter's daughter's daughter. SCHEDULE 17.— KINSHIP.— LINEAL ASCENDANTS OF SELF— Male speaking. 135 ENGLISH. REMARKS. 25 My father 26 (Omitted) 27 My father's father — 28 My father's mother— 29 My father's father's father 30 My father's father's mother 31 My father's mother's father 32 My father's mother's mother 33 My father's father's father's father 34 My father's father's father's mother . 35 (Omitted) 36 My mother 37 My mother's father 38 My mother's mother 39 My mother's father's father 40 My mother's father's mother 41 My mother's mother's father 42 My mother's mother's mother 43 My mother's mother's mother's father — 44 My mother's mother's mother's mother. 136 SCHEDULE 17.— KINSHIP.— FIRST COLLATERAL LINE— Male speaking. ENGLISH. 4j My elder brother 43 (Omitted) 47 My elder brother's son 48 My elder brother's daughter _ 49 My elder brother's son's son . REMARKS. 60 My elder brother's daughter's daughter. 51 My elder brother's son's son's son 52 My elder brother's daughter's daughter's daugh- ter. 53 (Omitted) 54 My elder sister 55 My elder sister's son 56 My elder sister's daughter 57 My elder sister's son's son 58 My elder sister's daughter's daughter. 59 My elder sister's son's son's son My elder sister's daughter's daughter's daugh- ter. 61 My younger brother 62 (Omitted.) 63 My younger brother's son 64 My younger brother's daughter 65 My younger brother's son's son 66 My younger brother's daughter's daughter _ 67 (Omitted) 68 My younger sister 69 My younger sister's son 70 My younger sister's daughter 71 My younger sister's son's son 72 My younger sister's daughter's daughter __. SCHEDULE 17.— KINSHIP.— SECOND COLLATERAL LINE-Male speaking. 137 ENGLISH. REMARKS. 73 My father's elder brother __ 74 (Omitted) 75 My father's elder brother's son, older than self- 76 My father's elder brother's daughter, older than self. 77 My father's elder brother's son, younger than self. 78 My father's elder brother's daughter, younger than self. 80 My father's elder brother's son's daughter ._ 81 My father's elder brother's daughter's son 82 My father's elder brother's daughter's daugh- ter. 83 My father's elder brother's son's sou's son 84 My father's elder brother's daughter's daugh- ter's daughter. 85 My father's elder brother's son's son's son's son. 86 My father's elder brother's daughter's daugh- ter's daughter's daughter. 90 My father's elder sister's daughter, older than self. 91 My father's elder sister's son, younger than self. 92 My father's elder sister's daughter, younger than self. 96 My father's elder sister's daughter's daughter. 98 My father's elder sister's daughter's daughter's " daughter. 99 My father's elder sister's son's son's son's son- 100 My father's elder sister's daughter's daughter's daughter's daughter. 138 SCHEDULE 17.-KINSHIP.-SE0OND COLLATERAL LINE-Male speaking-Continued. ENGLISH. 106 (Omitted). 107 My mother's older brother's son, older than self. 108 My mother's elder brother's daughter, older than self. 109 My mother's elder brother's son, younger than self. 110 My mother's elder brother's daughter, younger than self. 111 My mother's elder brother's son's son 112 My mother's older brother's son's daughter. 113 My mother's elder brother's daughter's son_ 114 My mother's elder brother's daughter's daugh- ter. 115 My mother's elder brother's son's son's son _ 116 My mother's elder brother's daughter's daugh- ter's daughter. 117 My mother's elder brother's son's son's son's- son. 118 My mother's elder brother's daughter's daugh- ter's daughter's daughter. 119 (Omitted) 120 My mother's younger sister 121 (Omitted) 122 My mother's elder sister 123 My mother's elder sister's son, older than self. 124 My mother's elder sister's daughter, older than self. 125 My mother's elder sister's son. younger than self. 126 My mother's elder sister's daughter, younger than self. 127 My mother's elder sister's son's son 128 My mother's elder sister's son's daughter 129 My mother's elder sister's daughter's son 130 My mother's elder sister's daughter's daughter. 131 My mother's elder sister's son's son's son 132 My mother's elder sister's daughter's daugh- ter's daughter. 133 My mother's elder sister's son's son's son's son. 134 My mother's elder sister's daughter's daugh- ter's daughter's daughter. REMARKS. SCHEDULE 17.— KINSHIP.— THIRD COLLATERAL LINE -Male speaking. 139 ENGLISH. REMARKS. 135 My father's father's brother 136 (Omitted) '_ 137 My father's father's brother's son __ 138 My father's father's brother's daughter 139 My father's father's brother's son's son 140 My father's father's brother's son's daughter. 141 My father's father's brother's daughter's son_ 142 My father's father's brother's daughter's daughter. 143 My father's father's brother's son's son's son_. 114 My fatner's father's brother's son's son's daughter. 145 My father's father's brother's son's daughter's son. 146 My father's father's brother's son's daugh- ter's daughter. 147 My father's father's brother's daughter's son's I son. 148 My father's father's brother's daughter's son's daughter. 149 My father's father's brother's daughter's daughter's son. 150 My father's father's brother's daughter's daughter's daughter. 151 My father's father's brother's son's son's son's \ son. i 152 My father's father's brother's son's son's | daughter's daughter. 153 My father's father's brother's son's daughter's son's son. 154 My father's father's brother's son's daughter's daughter's daughter. 155 My father's father's brother's daughter's son's son's son. 156 My father's father's brother's daughter's son's daughter's daughter. 157 My father's father's brother's daughter's j. daughter's son's son. 158 My father's father's brother's daughter's I . daughter's daughter's daughter. 159 My father's father's brother's son's son's son's son's son. 160 My father's father's brother's son's daughter's daughter's daughter's daughter. 161 My father's father's brother's daughter's son's , son's son's s'Ui. 162 My father's father's brother's daughter's I ' daughter's daughter's daughter's daughter. | 163 (Omitted) 164 My father's father's sister 165 My father's father's sister's son 166 My father's father's sister's daughter 167 My father's father's sister's son's son.. 1 ■ • ■ SCHEDULE 17.— KINSHIP.— AFFINITIES THROUGH THE MARRIAGE OF SELF. 181 ENGLISH. REMARKS. (h.) f. s. My husband I f. s. My husband's father S f. s. My husband's father's father 4 f. s. My husband's father's mother- 5 f. s. My husband's father's brother , 5 (w.) f. s. My husband's father's brother's wife _.. 6 f. s. My husband's father's sister 6 (h.) f.s. My husband's father's sister's husband. 8 f.s. My husband's mother 9 f.s. My husband's mother's father 10 f. s. My husband's mother's mother II f. s. My husband's mother's brother 11 (w.)f.s. My husband's mother's brother's wife.. 12 f.s. My husband's mother's sister 12 (h.) f.s. Myhusband's mother's sister's husband 13 f.s. My husband's elder brother 13 (w.) f.s. My husband's elder brother's wife 15 f. s. My husband's younger brother 15 (w.) f. s. My husband's younger brother's wife.. 17 f. s. My husband's elder brother's son IS f.s. My husband's elder brother's daugh- ter. 20 f. s. My husband's elder sister 20 (h.) f. s. My husband's elder sister's husband — 22 f.s. My husband's younger sister 22 (h.) f.s. Myhusband's younger sister's husband- 23 f. s. My husband's elder sister's son 1:4 f.s. My husband's elder sister's daughter 182 SCHEDULE 17.— KINSHIP.— ORDINAL NAMES OP CHILDREN. ENGLISH. 1 The first born child (if male) is named 2 The first born child (if female) is named 3 The second born child (if male) is named, 4 The second born child (if female) is named-. 5 The third born child (if male) is named 6 The third born child (if female) is named 7 The fourth born child (if male) is named 8 The fourth born child (if female) is named— 9 The fifth born child (if male) is named 10 The fifth born child (if female) is named 11 The sixth born child (if male) is named 12 The sixth born child (if female) is named 13 The seventh born child (if male) is named 14 The seventh born child (if female) is named. REMARKS. 18 Male orphan, father dead 19 Male orphan, mother dead 20 Male orphan, father and mother dead 21 Female orphan, father dead 22 Female orphan, mother dead- 23 Female orphan, father and mother dead „ 24 Father whose children have all died 25 Mother whose children have all died 26 Son born after the death of father 27 Daughter born after the death of father.. 28 Still-born male child 29 Still-born female child SCHEDULE 18.— SOCIAL ORGANIZATION. (Carefully read g 18, Chapter II.) 183 ENGLISH. REMARKS. 1 Family 2 Head of family 3 Gens . i Insert proper names of gentes State how the gentes are grouped in phratries. » 184 SCHEDULE 18.— SOCIAL ORGANIZATION— Continued. ENGLISH. EEMABKS. 39 Give the names by which other tribes are desig- nated with which they are acquainted. - i __ _. __ _ „ SCHEDULE 19.— GOVERNMENT. (Carefully read § 19, Chapter II.) 185 ENGLISH. REMARKS. 1 Council of gens _ 2 Council man _._ 3 Council woman 4 Chief of gens 5 Gentile council-house 6 Tribal council 7 Tribal council man 8 Tribal council woman 9 Sachem, or chief of tribe 10 Tribal council-house 12 War chief - _ 13 Warrior _ _ . 14 The warriors 15 Friend (one of the tribe) _ 16 Friend (one of another tribe) 18 Enemy (one of another tribe) _ 19 Slave 20 Confederacy — 21 War - 23 Battle 1 186 SCHEDULE 20— RELIGION. (Carefully read § 20, Chapter II.) ENGLISH. REMARKS. 1 God., (The Supreme Ruler— the white man's God.) 2 The gods (com. noun) 3 The ancients— wonderful beings of the past — 4 The future world SCHEDULE 21.— MORTUARY CUSTOMS. (Carefully read j) 21, Chapter II.) 187 ENGLISH. i REMARKS. 1 Dead body__ 2 Corpse of man 3 Corpse of woman • 4 Corpse of boy __. 5 Corpse of girl __ 6 Spirit or soul . _ 7 Grave in the ground 8 Scaffold for the dead .. ■ «. - 188 188 8 SCHEDULE 21.— MORTUARY CUSTOMS— Continued. Give account of Mortuary Customs. SCHEDULE 22. -MEDICINE. (Carefully read § 22, Chapter II.) 189 t ENGLISH. REMARKS. 1 Health 2 Sickness _ __ ._ 3 Pain- 5 Headache 6 Toothache — _. 7 A cold A 9 Fever . 10 Diarrhoea - 11 Rheumatism 12 Syphilis _ _ -_ 14 A boil 16 A cut - - • x • 190 SCHEDULE 22.— MEDICINE— Continued. ENGLISH. REMARKS. 49 Sweat _ _ ' 50 Blood — - _ -. _ - 52 Dung _ 55 A medicine woman _ , _ 56 Medicine dance _ __ 57 Medicine song _ 58 Medicine lodge . 1 1 60 An amulet _____ 1 __ 1 SCHEDULE 23.— AMUSEMENTS. (Carefully read § 28, Chapter II.) 191 ENGLISH. REMARKS. 1 Doll 2 Gourd-rattle— 3 Stilts 6 Dance 7 Mask ■ • 1 - • 192 SCHEDULE 24.— NEW WORDS. (Carefully read § 24, Chapter II.) ENGLISH. REMARKS. 5 Bull 10 Hog _ . 11 Cat 12 Kitten __ __ . 13 Cock — 14 Hen . - - . 16 Saddle _ — t 17 Bridle 18 Girth 20 Whip v 24 Axe _ - -_ - 31 Comb SCHEDULE 24— NEW WORDS— Continued. 193 ENGLISH. REMARKS. 34 Fork 35 Gimlet .. _ 36 Hoe 37 Hammer _ 38 Brass kettle __ 39 Iron kettle . . _ 40 Tin plate 41 Plow — _ - - 43 Scissors ... 44 Table 45 Watch . 46 Pistol- . . - 47 Gun - _-_ ... 48 Rifle 1 51 Bullet .... . -- 52 Cap, percussion 53 Powder i 56 Gold .... _ 194 SCHEDULE 24.— NEW "WORDS— Continued. ENGLISH. REMARKS. - 73 Shawl '_ 76 Bread _ ._ - 77 Flour 78 Match, friction. 79 Candle. _ „_ 80 Sugar „ 81 Soap . 82 Tobacco „ _ 83 Whisky . " 84 Wine 85 Finger-ring _ __ 86 Mirror . /■ 87 Fan . 88 Picture 89 House 90 Roof _ 91 Window 92 Door _ ._ .. .. _, 93 Gate _ _ __ 94 School-house . .__ _ _ 95 Church _ 96 Barn _. __ 97 Pencil 98 Pen 99 Ink SCHEDULE 24.— NEW WORDS— Continued. 195 ENGLISH. REMARKS. 100 Paper .. 101 Book. 102 Newspaper 103 Road— 104 "Wagon 105 Bridge 106 Well 107 Railroad _ 108 Railroad ear __ _ 109 Railroad engine 110 Steamboat - 111 Telegraph _ . _ . 112 Interpreter _ 113 Blacksmith ____ __ I 114 Trader _ _ 115 Christian, a professor of religion __ - 116 Law — -_. _ 117 Lawyer __ . _ | 1 196 SCHEDULE 25.-NUMBER AND GENDER OP NOUNS— DEMONSTRATIVE AND ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. (Carefully read § 25, Chapter II.) ENGLISH. REMARKS. 1 ! 24 All the boys 25 Some boys „_ - 28 One dog. _ __ 30 Three dogs. 31 Few dogs _ _ 32 Many dogs - 33 All the dogs - SCHEDULE 25. -NUMBER AND GENDER OP NOUNS, Etc.-Continued. 197 ENGLISH. 34 Some dogs _ 35 No dog 36 Another dog 87 One arrow -- 38 Two arrows 89 Three arrows 40 Few arrows 41 Many arrows 42 All the arrows .. 48 Some arrows ii No arrow 45 Another arrow- 46 One hat 47 Two hats 48 Three hats 49 Few hats 50 Many hats 51 All the hats 52 Some hats 53 No hat 54 Another hat 55 One leaf 56 Two leaves 57 Three leaves 58 Few leaves 59 Many leaves 60 All the leaves — 61 One stone 62 Two stones 63 Three stones — 64 Few stones 65 Many stones ... 66 All the stones .. REMARKS. 198 SCHEDULE 25.— NUMBER AND GENDER OF NOUNS, Etc.— Continued. ENGLISH. REMARKS. 76 Female eagle - - 78 That man _ _ 86 Those two women 96 That dog 97 These two dogs_ -. _ _ , SCHEDULE 25. -NUMBER AND GENDER OF NOUNS, Etc.— Continued. 199 ENGLISH. REMARKS. 100 Those dogs 101 This horse 102 That horse 103 These two horses 104 Those two horses 105 These horses 106 Those horses 107 This knife 108 That knife 109 These two knives — _ ... 110 Those two knives ... Ill These knives 112 Those knives ... . ... , 113 This axe 114 That axe .. 115 These two axes 116 Those two axes 117 These axes 119 Right eye . __ _ _ 120 Left eye 121 Both eyes . _ _ 122 Right ear 123 Left ear 125 Right hand 128 Right foot . 129 Left foot 130 Both feet — - 200 SCHEDULE 26.— PERSONAL AND ARTICLE PRONOUNS— TRANSITIVE VERBS. (Carefully read ji 26, Chapter II. "Where proper names are used substitute Indian proper names.) ENGLISH. REMARKS. 1 I am striking him now with closed hand .. _ 2 I struck him yesterday with closed hand 3 I will strike him to-morrow with closed hand 4 You and I are striking him now with closed hand. 5 You and I struck him yesterday with closed hand. 6 You and I will strike him to-morrow with closed hand. 7 He and I struck him yesterday with closed hand. 8 He and I will strike him to-morrow with closed hand. 9 We (ye and I) are striking him with closed hand 10 We (ye and I) struck him with closed hand 11 We (ye and I) will strike him with closed hand 12 We (they and I) struck him with closed hand 13 We (they and I) will strike him with closed hand. 14 You are striking him with closed hand - 15 You struck him with closed hand 16 You will strike him with closed hand 17 Ye (dual) are striking him with closed hand 18 Ye (dual) struck him with closed hand- 19 Ye (dual) will strike him with closed hand 20 Ye (plural) are striking him with closed hand— 21 Ye (plural) struck him with closed hand 22 Ye (plural) will strike him with closed hand 23 He is striking him with closed hand 24 He struck him with closed hand .. 25 He will strike him with closed hand _ 26 They (mas. dual) are striking him with closed 27 They (mas. dual) struck him with closed hand 28 They (mas. dual) will strike him with closed 29 They (mas. plural) are striking him with closed 30 They (mas. plural) struck him with closed hand. 31 They (mas. plural) will strike him with closed / 32 She is striking him with closed hand 33 She struck him with closed hand . - SCHEDULE 26.-PERSONAL AND ARTICLE PRONOUNS— TRANSITIVE VERBS-Continued. 201 ENGLISH. Si She will strike him with closed hand. Co They (fem. dual) are striking him with closed hand. m They (fem. dual) struck him with closed hand.. 37 They (fem. dual) will strike him with closed hand. 38 They (fem. plural) are striking him with closed hand. 89 They (fem. plural) struck him with closed hand, 40 They (fem. plural) will strike him with closed hand. 41 He is striking me with closed hand 42 He struck me with closed hand 43 He will strike me with closed hand 41 He is striking you and me with closed hand_ 45 He struck you and me with closed hand 46 He will strike you and me with closed hand 47 He is striking him and me with closed hand _.. 48 He struck him and me with closed hand 49 He will strike him and me with closed hand— 59 He is striking us (ye and me) with closed hand. 51 He struck us (ye and me) with closed hand 52 He will strike us (ye and me) with closed hand. 53 He struck us (them and me) with closed hand— 51 He will strike us (them and me) with closed hand. 55 He is striking you with closed hand \. 56 He struck you with closed hand 57 He will strike you with closed hand ^ 58 He is striking ye (dual) with closed hand 59 He struck ye (dual) with closed hand 60 He will strike ye (dual) with closed hand 61 He is striking ye (plural) with closed hand... 62 He struck ye (plural) with closed hand 63 He will strike ye (plural) with closed hand — 64 He is striking him with closed hand 65 He struck him with closed hand 66 He will strike him with closed hand REMARKS. 202 SCHEDULE 26— PERSONAL AND ARTICLE PRONOUNS— TRANSITIVE VERBS— Continued. ENGLISH. - REMARKS. 67 He is striking them (mas. dual) with closed • hand. 68 He struck them (mas. dual) with closed hand- _ 69 He will strike them (mas. dual) with closed hand. hand. 72 He will strike them (mas. plural) with closed hand. 76 He is striking them (fem. dual) with closed hand. 78 He will strike them (fem. dual) with closed hand. 79 He is striking them (fem. plural) with closed hand. 80 He struck them (fem. plural) with closed hand_ 81 He will strike them (fem. plural) with closed hand. 82 He is striking it (inanimate) with closed hand 83 He struck it (inan.) with closed hand 84 He will strike it (inan.) with closed hand 85 He is striking them (inan. dual) with closed hand. 86 He struck them (inan. dual) with closed hand__ 87 He will strike them (inan. dual) with closed hand. 88 He is striking them (inan. plural) with closed hand. 89 He struck them (inan. plural) with closed hand. 90 He will strike them (inan. plural) with closed hand. 91 I am kicking him # • 92 I kicked him ___. .. 93 I will kick him . 94 You and I are kicking him _____ 95 You and I kicked him__ _ 96 You and I will kick him 1 97 He and I kicked him 98 He and I will kick him _ _ _ 99 "We (ye and I) are kicking him SCHEDULE 26.— PERSONAL AND ARTICLE PRONOUNS— TRANSITIVE VERBS-Continued. 203 ENGLISH. 100 We (yeanii I) kicked him 101 We (ye and I) will kick him. .. 102 We (they and I) kicked him 103 We (they and I) will kick him 104 You are kicking him 105 You kicked him 106 You will kick him 107 Ye (dual) are kicking him 108 Ye (dual) kicked him 109 Ye (dual) will kick him 110 Ye (plural) are kicking him 111 Ye (plural) kicked him 112 Ye (plural) will kick him 113 He is kicking him 114 He kicked him 115 He will kick him 116 They (mas. dual) are kicking him ... 117 They (mas. dual) kicked him 118 They (mas. dual) will kick him 119 They (mas. plural) are kicking him . 120 They (mas. plural) kicked him 121 They (mas. plural) will kick him — 122 She is kicking him 123 She kicked him 124 She will kick him 125 They (fern, dual) are kicking him.— 126 They (fern, dual) kicked him 127 They (fem. dual) will kick him 128 They (fem. plural) are kicking him _. 129 They (fem. plural) kicked him 130 They (fem. plural) will kick him 131 He is kicking me 132 He kicked me REMARKS. 204 SCHEDULE 26.— PERSONAL AND ARTICLE PRONOUNS— TRANSITIVE VERBS— Continued. ENGLISH. REMARKS. 133 He will kick me . — / 136 He will kick you and me 143 He kicked us (them and me) _ _______ 144 He will kick us (them and me) 145 He is kicking you 147 Pie will kick you __ 149 He kicked ye (dual) 150 He will kick ye (dual) _ 152 He kicked ye (plural) . 153 He will kick ye (plural) _ 154 He is kicking him _ 156 He will kick him _ _ 157 He is kicking them (mas. dual) _ 158 He kicked them (mas. dual) __ 159 He will kick them (mas. dual) _ 160 He is kicking them (mas. plural) __ 161 He kicked them (mas. plural) 162 He will kick them (mas. plural) 103 He is kicking her 164 He kicked her 165 He will kick her SCHEDULE 26.-PERSONAL AND ARTICLE PRONOUNS-TRANSITIVE VERBS-Continued. 205 ENGLISH. REMARKS. 166 He is kicking them (fern, dual) 167 He kicked them (fern, dual) 168 He will kick them (fern, dual) 169 He is kicking them (fern, plural) 170 He kicked them (fem. plural). . * 171 He will kick them (fem. plural) 172 He is kicking it (inanimate) 173 He kicked it (inan.) 174 He will kick it (inan.) 175 He is kicking them (inan. dual) 176 He kicked them (inan. dual) 177 He will kick them (inan. dual) - 178 He is kicking them (inan. plural) „ 179 He kicked them (inan. plural) _ 180 He will kick them (inan. plural) ■ ' • B 206 SCHEDULE 27.— POSSESSION. (Carefully read \ 27, Chapter II.) ENGLISH. 1 My hands 2 Our (your and my) hands 3 Our (his and my) hands 4 Our (your, plural, and my) hands. 5 Our (their and my) hands 6 Your (sing.) hands 7 Your (dual) hands 8 Your (plural) hands 9 His hands 10 Their (mas. dual) hands REMARKS. 11 Their (mas. plural) hands 12 Her hands 13 Their (fern, dual) hands _ 14 Their (fern, plural) hands _— 15 My feet 16 Our (your and my) feet 17 Our (his and my) feet 18 Our (your, plural, and my) feet 19 Our (their and my) feet -^ 20 Your (sing.) feet._: 21 Your (dual) feet 22 Your (plural) feet 23 His feet 24 Their (mas. dual) feet 25 Their (mas. plural) feet 26 Her feet 27 Their (fem. dual) feet 28 Their-(fem. plural) feet 29 My horse 30 Our (your and my) horses 31 Our (his and my) horses 32 Our (your, plural, and my) horses. 33 Our (their and my) horses SCHEDULE 27. -POSSESSION-Continued. 207 ENGLISH. 34 Your (sing.) horse 35 Your (dual) horses 36 Your (plural) horses 37 His horse 38 Their (mas. dual) horses 39 Their (mas. plural) horses 40 Her horse 41 Their (fem. dual) horses 12 Their (fern, plural) horses 43 My dog 44 Our (your and my) dogs 45 Our (his and my) dogs 46 Our (your, plural, and my) dogs.. 47 Our (their and my) dogs 48 Your (sing.) dog 49 Your (dual) dogs 50 Your (plural) dogs 51 His dog 52 Their (mas. dual) dogs 53 Their (mas. plural) dogs 54 Her dog 55 Their (fem. dual) dogs 56 Their (fem. plural) dogs 57 My ox 58 Our (your and my) oxen 59 Our (his and my) oxen 60 Our (your, plural, and my) oxen 61 Our (their and my) oxen 62 Your (sing.) ox 63 Your (dual) oxen 64 Your (plural) oxen 65 His ox . 66 Their (mas. dual) oxen REMARKS. 208 SCHEDULE 27.— POSSESSION- Continued. ENGLISH. REMARKS. • 87 You and I have horses l 88 "We have horses . i 89 They have horses 90 I have a gun _„ __ _ _ 91 You have a hat _ - _ i 94 Thisismyhat _ 1 1 95 That is his hat _ _ __ 96 These are my horses 97 These are your horses 98 "Whose cow is this? 99 This is my cow SCHEDULE 27.— POSSESSION— Continued. 209 ENGLISH. REMARKS. 100 "Whose horse is this? 101 This is his horse _ 102 Whose dog is this? 103 This is John's dog _ __ __ _ _ _ 104 Whose bow is this _ . 106 Whose arrow is this? _ 107 This is my arrow _„ 108 Whoso knife is this? _ 109 This is my knife... ___ ___ 110 Whose hat is this? _ __ 111 This is your hat _ '_ • • 210 SCHEDULE 28.— INTRANSITIVE VERBS, ADJECTIVES, ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, AND NOUNS USED AS VERBS. (Carefully read § 28, Chapter II.) ENGLISH. 1 I am hungry 2 I was hungry 3 I will be hungry 4 You and I are hungry 5 You and I were hungry 6 You and I will be hungry 7 He and I are hungry 8 He and I were hungry 9 He and I will be hungry 10 "We (ye and I) are hungry 11 "We (ye and I) were hungry 12 We (ye and I) will be hungry 13 We (they and I) are hungry 14 We (they and I) were hungry 15 We (they and I) will be hungry 16 You are hungry 17 You were hungry _. 18 You will be hungry 19 Ye (dual) are hungry 20 Ye (dual) were hungry 21 Ye (dual) will be hungry 22 Ye (plural) are hungry 23 Ye (plural) were hungry 24 Ye (plural) will be hungry 25 He is hungry 26 He was hungry 27 He will be hungry 28 They (mas. dual) are hungry 29 They (mas. dual) were hungry 30 They (mas. dual) will be hungry ___ 31 They (mas. plural) are hungry 32 They (mas. plural) were hungry 33 They (mns. plural) will be hungry. REMARKS. SCHEDULE 28.— INTRANSITIVE VERBS, Etc.-Continued. 211 ENGLISH. 34 She is hungry 35 She was hungry 36 She will he hungry 37 They (fern, dual) are hungry 38 They (fern, dual) were hungry 39 They (fern, dual) will be hungry ... 40 They (fern, plural) are hungry 41 They (fern, plural) were hungry 42 They (fern, plural) will be hungry . 43 I am thirsty 44 I was thirsty 45 I will be thirsty J 46 You and I are thirsty 47 You and I were thirsty 48 You and I will be thirsty 49 He and I are thirsty 50 He and I were thirsty 51 He and I will be thirsty 52 We (ye and I) are thirsty 53 "We (ye and I) were thirsty 54 We (ye and I) will be thirsty 55 We (they and I) are thirsty 56 We (they and I) were thirsty 57 We (they and I) will be thirsty _— 58 You are thirsty 59 You were thirsty 60 You will be thirsty 61 Ye (dual) are thirsty 62 Ye (dual) were thirsty 63 Ye (dual) will be thirsty 61 Ye (plural) are thirsty 65 Ye (plural) were thirsty 66 Ye (plural) will be thirsty REMARKS. 212 SCHEDULE 28.— INTRANSITIVE VERBS, Etc.— Continued. ENGLISH. 67 He is thirsty 68 He was thirsty 69 He will be thirsty 70 They (mas. dual) are thirsty 71 They (mas. dual) were thirsty 72 They (mas. dual) will be thirsty.-. 73 They (mas. plural) are thirsty 74 They (mas. plural) were thirsty — 75 They (mas. plural) will be thirsty. 76 She is thirsty 77 She was thirsty 78 She will be thirsty 79 They (fern, dual) are thirsty 80 They (fern, dual) were thirsty 81 They (fem. dual) will be thirsty __. 82 They (fem. plural) are thirsty 83 They (fem. plural) were thirsty 84 They (fem. plural) will be thirsty . 85 John is hungry 86 I am eating bread 87 You and I are eating bread 88 We are eating bread 89 You are eating bread 90 They are eating bread 91 I was eating bread 92 You and I were eating bread 93 "We were eating bread-. 94 You were eating bread 95 They were eating bread :_. 96 John is eating bread 97 John is eating meat 98 John is eating mush 99 John is eating fish REMARKS. SCHEDULE 28.— INTRANSITIVE VERBS, Etc.— Continued. 213 ENGLISH. 100 John is eating soup 101 The horse is eating corn 102 The cow is eating grass 103 The bird is eating corn 104 The bird is eating wheat 105 John is thirsty 106 The horse is thirsty 107 I am drinking water 108 I was drinking water 109 I will drink water __ 110 John is drinking water 111 The horse is drinking water _ 112 The cat is drinking water 113 The dog is drinking water „ 114 The bird is drinking water .. 115 I am talking 116 I was talking 117 I will talk 118 You were talking 119 He is talking 120 John is talking 121 I am crying 122 I was crying 123 I will cry 124 You were crying 125 He is crying 126 John is crying 127 I am singing 128 I was singing 129 I will sing 130 You were singing 131 He is singing 132 John is singing REMARKS. 214 SCHEDULE 28— INTRANSITIVE VERBS, Etc.— Continued. ENGLISH. 133 I am shouting 134 I was shouting 135 I will shout 136 You were shouting 137 He is shouting 138 John is shouting 139 I am whispering 140 I was whispering 141 I will whisper 142 You were whispering 143 He is whispering 144 John is whispering 145 I am laughing 146 I was laughing 147 I will laugh 148 You were laughing 149 He is laughing 150 John is laughing 151 I am smiling 152 I was smiling 153 I will smile 154 You were smiling 155 He is smiling 156 John is smiling 157 I am walking 158 I was walking 159 I will walk 160 You were walking 161 He is walking 162 John is walking 163 The cloud is drifting (slowly) . 164 The cloud is flying (fast) 165 John is whistling REMARKS. SCHEDULE 28.— INTRANSITIVE VERBS, Etc.— Continued. 215 ENGLISH. 166 John is running 167 John isjumping 168 The horse is walking 169 The horse is running 170 The meadow-lark is flying. 171 The snake is crawling 172 The flsh is swimming 173 The dog is barking 174 The horse is neighing 175 The eagle is screaming 176 The frog is croaking 177 The bee is humming 178 My horse is black 179 Your horse is white 180 My knife is large 181 Your knife is small 182 His knife is sharp 183 John's knife is dull 184 Our tent is old 185 Your tent is new 186 Their tents are small 187 Their tents are large 188 I am cold 189 You were cold 190 He will be cold 191 I am warm 192 You were warm 193 He will be warm 194 I am tall 195 You were tall 196 The boy will be tall 197 The tree is tall 198 The horse is high REMARKS. 216 SCHEDULE 28.— INTRANSITIVE VERBS, Etc.— Continued. ENGLISH. 199 The house is high 200 The rock is high 201 The house is large 202 The house is small 203 The hat is large 204 The hill is high 205 The hill is low 206 The mountain is high 207 The mountain is low 208 It rains now 209 It rained yesterday 210 It will rain to morrow 211 If it rains to-night. I shall not go 212 It snows now 213 It snowed yesterday 214 It will snow to-morrow 215 If it snows to-night, I shall not go 216 It hails now 217 It hailed yesterday 218 It will hail to-morrow 219 If it hails to-night, I shall not go 220 It is cold now 221 It was cold yesterday 222 It will be cold to-morrow 223 If it is cold to-morrow, I shall not go . 224 It is warm now 225 It was warm yesterday 226 It will be warm to-morrow 227 If it is warm to-morrow, I shall not go - 228 The north wind blows 229 The north wind is blowing now 230 The west wind was blowing yesterday „ 231 The south wind will blow to-morrow ._. REMARKS. SCHEDULE 28.— INTRANSITIVE VERBS, Etc.— Continued. 217 ENGLISH. 232 I am here_ REMARKS. 233 You and I are here 234 He and I are here 235 We (ye and I) are here 236 We (they and I) are here. 237 You are here 238 Ye (dual) are here 239 Ye (plural) are here 240 He is here . 241 They (mas. dual) are here 242 They (mas. plural) are here _ 243 She is here . 244 They (fern, dual) are here ._. 245 They (fern, plural) are here . 246 He was here.. 247 He will be here ~ 248 They were here yesterday 249 They will he here to-morrow 250 I was there . 251 You and I were there 252 He and I were there 253 We (ye and I) were there 254 We (they and I) were there . 255 You were there- 256 Ye (dual) were there — 257 Ye (plural) were there. 258 He is there 259 They (mas. dual) are there — 260 They (mas. plural) are there. 261 She is there 262 They (fern, dual) are there — 263 They (fern. plural) are there - 264 He was there 218 SCHEDULE 28.— INTRANSITIVE VERBS, Etc.— Continued. ENGLISH. P ' 265 He will be there 266 They were there yesterday _. 267 They will be there to-morrow 268 I am in the lodge - — 269 You and I are in the lodge 270 He and I are in the lodge 271 "We (ye and I) are in the lodge 272 "We (they and I) are in the lodge 273 You are in the lodge 274 Ye (dual) are in the lodge 275 Ye (plural) are in the lodge 27C He is in the lodge 277 They (nias. dual) are in the lodge 278 They (mas. plural) are in the lodge 279 She is in the lodge 280 They (fern, dual) are in the lodge 281 They (fern, plural) are in ttie lodge 282 He-was in the lodge 283 He will be in the lodge 281 They were in the lodge yesterday 285 They will be in the lodge to-morrovv- 286 He is on the horse 287 He was on the horse 288 He will be on the horse • 289 The hat is on the table 290 The hat was on the table 291 The hat will be on the table 292 The bow is on the ground 293 The arrow was on the ground 294 The quiver will be on the ground 295 The knife is in my pocket 296 The knife was in his pocket 297 The horse is on the hill REMARKS. SCHEDULE 28.— INTRANSITIVE VERBS, Etc.— Continued. 219 ENGLISH. 298 The horse was on the hill 299 The man is standing on a log 300 The deer is standing in the bushes 301 I will put my knife in my pocket 302 You will put your knife in your pocket - 303 I will put my hat on the table 304 He is putting his hat under the table 305 I live at Washington 306 I lived at "Washington 307 The squirrel lives in a tree 308 The bear lives in the woods 309 In winter the bear lives in a cave 310 On the water _,__. 311 In the water 312 Under the water 313 By the stone 314 Near the stone 315 Under the stone 316 On the stone 317 Beyond the stone 318 The awl is under the buckskin 319 The awl was under the buckskin 320 The awl will be under the buckskin 321 The lodge is by the river 322 The lodge was by the river 323 The lodge will be by the river 324 Wood floats in the water 325 A. stone sinks in the water 326 An arrow floats in the water 327 A gun sinks in the water 328 I will go to Washington with John REMARKS. 329 I will go to Washington with my father. 330 I will go home with John f 220 SCHEDULE 28.— INTRANSITIVE VERBS, Etc.— Continued. ENGLISH. REMARKS. * • ! i * SCHEDULE 29.— VOICE, MODE, AND TENSE. (Carefully read ji 29, Chapter II. Where proper names are used substitute Indian proper names.) 22X ENGLISH. 1 I am struck with closed hand 2 I was struck yesterday 3 I will be struck to-morrow i You are struck „__. 5 You were struck yesterday 6 You will be struck to-morrow 7 He is struck 8 He was struck yesterday • 9 He will be struck to-morrow 10 They (plural) are struck 11 They (plural) were struck yesterday 12 They (plural) will be struck to-morrow. 13 I was kicked yesterday 11 I will be kicked to-morrow 15 You were kicked yesterday 16 You will be kicked to-morrow 17 He was kicked yesterday 18 He will be kicked to-morrow 19 They were kicked yesterday 20 They will be kicked to-morrow 21 The ax is broken 22 The ax was broken 23 The ax will be broken 24 I strike myself 25 I struck myself 26 I will strike myself 27 You struck yourself 28 You will strike yourself 29 He struck himself 30 He will strike himself- 31 They (plural) struck themselves 32 They (plural) will strike themselves 33 I kick myself REMARKS. <£: 222 SCHEDULE 29.— VOICE, MODE, AND TENSE -Continued. ENGLISH. 31 I kicked myself 35 I will kick myself 36 You kicked yourself '. — 37 You will kick yourself 38 He kicked himself 39 He will kick himself 40 They kicked themselves 41 They will kick themselves 42 You and I strike each other with closed hand _ 43 You and I struck each other with closed hand. 44 You and I will strike each other with closed hand. 45 He and I strike each other with closed hand 46 He and I struck each other with closed hand- 47 Heandlwillstrikeeachotherwithclosed hand. 48 "We (ye and I) strike each other with closed hand. 49 "We (ye and I) struck each other with closed hand. 50 We (ye and I) will strike each other with closed hand, 51 We (they and I) strike each other with closed ■ hand. 5Vi We (they and I) struck each other with closed hand. 53 "We (they and I) will strike each other with closed hand. 5-1 Ye (dual) strike each other with closed hand 55 Ye (dual) struck each other with closed hand— t 56 Ye (dual) will strike each other with closed hand. 57 Ye (plural) strike each other with closed hand- 58 Ye (plural) struck each other with closed hand. 59 Ye (plural) will strike each other with closed hand. 60 They (mas. dual) strike each other with closed hand. 61 They (mas. dual) struck each other with closed hand. 02 They (mas. dual) will strike each other with closed hand. 03 They (mas. plural) strike each other with closed hand. 61 They (mas. plural) struck each other with closed hand. 65 They (mas. plural) will strike each other with closed hand. 60 They (fem. dual) strike each other with closed hand. IICJIARKS. SCHEDULE 29.— VOICE, MODE, AND TENSE— Continued. 223 ENGLISH. 67 They (fem. dual) struck each other with closed hand. 68 They (fern, dual) will strike each other with closed hand. 69 They (fern, plural) strike each other with closed hand. 70 They (fern, plural) struck each otherwith closed hand. 71 They (fem. plural) will strike each otherwith closed hand. 72 You and I kick each other 73 You and I kicked each other 74 You and I will kick each other 75 He and I kick each other 76 He and I kicked each other 77 He and I will kick each other 78 We (ye and I) kick each other 79 "We (ye and I) kicked each other 80 We (ye and I) will kick each other 81 We (they and I) kick each other 82 We (they and I) kicked each other 83 We (they and I) will kick each other 81 Ye (dual) kick each other 85 Ye (dual) kicked each other 86 Ye (dual) will kick each other 87 Ye (plural) kick each other 88 Ye (plural) kicked each other 89 Ye (plural) will kick each other 90 They (mas. cfual) kick each other 91 They (mas. dual) kicked each other 92 They (mas', dual) will kick each other— 93 They (mas. plural) kick each other 94 They (mas. plural) kicked each other — 95 They (mas. plural) will kick each other_ 96 They (fem. dual) kick each other 97 They (fem. dual) kicked each other 98 They (fem. dual) will kick each other— 99 They (fem. plural) kick each other REMARKS. 224 SCHEDULE 29.-VOICE, MODE, AND TENSE— Continued. ENGLISH. 100 They (fem. plural) kicked each other 101 They (fem. plural) will kick each other — 102 John is striking James (said positively)— 103 John struck James (said positively) 104 John will strike James (said positively)— 105 John is striking James (said doubtfully) _ 106 John struck James (said doubtfully) 107'John will strike James (said doubtfully)- 108 John is striking James (statement made on hearsay.) 109 John struck James (statement made on hear- say.) 110 John will strike James (statement made on hearsay.) 111 John, strike James ! (commanding) 112 John, strike James (beseeching) 113 John may strike James (giving permission) _.. 114 John did not strike James 115 John is striking James (while he is running) — 116 John struck James (while he was running) 117 John will strike James (while he is running).. 118 John desires to strike James 119 John desired to strike James 120 John will desire to strike James . .__ 121 John ought to be striking James 122 John ought to have struck Jiimes yesterday —- 123 John ought to strike James to-morrow 124 John is frequently striking James 125 John frequently struck James 126 John will frequently strike James 127 John is causing James to strike -_ __ 128 John caused James to strike 12!) John will cause James to strike! 130 James is kicking John (said positively) — 131 James kicked John (said positively) _ 132 James will kick John (said positively) REMARKS. SCHEDULE 29.— VOICE, MODE, AND TENSE— Continued. 225 ENGLISH. REMARKS. 133 James is kicking John (said doubtfullv) 134 James kicked John (said doubtfully) 135 James will kick John (said doubtfully) 136 James is kicking John (statement made on hearsay.) 137 James kicked John (statement made on hear- say.) 138 James will kick John (statement made on hearsay.) 139 James, kick John ! (commanding) _ 140 James, kick John (beseeching) 141 James may kick John 142 James did not kick John 143 James is kicking John (while he is running)- 144 James kicked John (while he was running) — 145 James will kick John (while he is running) 162 I caused him to put his hat on the table yester- day. 163 I will cause him to put his hat on the table to- morrow. / 226 SCHEDULE 29— VOICE, MODE, AND TENSE— Continued. ENGLISH. 166 I will cause him to throw a club to-morrow— 167 I cause him to eat now 168 I caused him to eat yesterday 169 I will cause him to eat to-morrow 170 I cause him to drink now 171 I caused him to drink yesterday 172 I will cause him to drink to-morrow 173 I will shoot a deer if I see one 174 The dog will bite you if you kick him 175 I will sleep if you will be still 176 I am angry because you struck me 177 I will go home when my horse is caught 178 I will kill the man who stole my horse 179 The horse threw the boy 180 That horse will throw you 181 I will ride the horse that threw the man 182 You ought to sit down because, you are lired. 183 I do not believe what he says 184 I am going a hunting because I am hungry— 185 I will go a hunting deer 186 I will go a hunting bear 187 I will go a hunting rabbits 188 I will go a hunting squirrels J89 I will go a hunting quails 190 I will go a hunting eagles 191 Why did you not eat? 192 Why did you not drink ? 193 Why did you not go home? 194 Why did you not buy a horse when you were at Washington ? 195 Why did you not go home yesterday ?_ 196 When did you go home? 197 He is coming home 198 He came home REMARKS. SCHEDULE 29. -VOICE, MODE, AND TENSE-Continued. 227 ENGLISH. REMARKS. 199 He will come home - 200 Let him go home 201 He asked me to eat - 202 I will ask him to eat 203 I asked you to eat 204 I will ask you to eat 205 I am standing and looking 206 He was. standing and looking 207 I am sitting and eating 208 He was sitting and eating 209 He was standing and holding a gun 210 He held a gun_ . 211 He pointed a gun 212 He was standing and pointing a gun ( • - 228 SCHEDULE 30.-ADDITIONAL INVESTIGATIONS SUGGESTED. (Carefully read § 30, Chapter II.) Tbe student should take the different verbs signifying "to eat" and "to drink" and elaborate them in all possible forms of voice, mode and tense T1 Th1 U same\t? u ;d ^ "to hunt;" the different verbs signifying "to fish;" the different verbs signifying "to talk, &c., &c. Many other verbs will occur to mm, sucn as "to stand," "to sit," "to lie," &c, &c. 41 wc:- u>> S*.S'.'», . •■; ■'■•,',*-i.>..-; ■ iS: