rHEsDEGORATION AND FUlil'mjRE OF eMgbish MAMSi0N&^E>U:RING;::mHE XVTI.& X¥TTT:^nEM"FTJRXES BT'^TTR AMC:: ^ ,fciN * GON WIUiAMHELBURN Importer & Publisher I0E.16thST.,N.Y. '■ .^' i f-' CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY GIFT OF Mr. H. E. Mattin ARCHITECTURE ■^'"1 •;*) JK 2043.L57 The decoration and furniture o English 3 1924 020 581 793 ARCHlflCl 2 W. 45th ST.. N£W YORK 1 Date Due ^ im ■ ;, \^\ji OFCl 91964 [^^'"■'""rTrwV"- 2J«2 : ITFr^-r- '78 DEC 1-4^.... 1 1 THE DECORATION AND FURNITURE OF ENGLISH MANSIONS DURING THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES. BY FRANCIS LENYGON PiRST STATE ROOM AT 31 OLD BURLINGTON STREET THE DECORATION AND FURNITURE OF ENGLISH MANSIONS DURING THE SEVENTEENTH & EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES BY FRANCIS LENYGON LONDON:TWERNER LAURIE CLIFFORD'S INN MCMIX LSI V INTRODUCTORY UCH progress has been made of late years not only in the study of the arts of the Renaissance in England but in their application to modern conditions of life, and the improvement in architedlure, furniture and decora- tion during the last ten years is, to a great extent, owing to the better knowledge of the styles which prevailed during the best periods. Different branches of the sub- jed have been dealt with by various writers, yet certain aspeds seem to have been overlooked, and the accompanying treatise may prove of service since it aims at embracing the treatment of walls, of ceilings, of floors and of fur- niture—in short, the development of the whole scheme of interior decoration in England during the seventeenth and especially during the earlier part of the eighteenth century. Few English houses built during those times retain interiors which— owing to alterations to suit requirements or fancies of successive generations —have not lost many of the charadleristics of their period. An author is there- fore face to face with the problem of obtaining an unbroken series of exam- ples representative of the wide range which the subjed embraces. The difficulty has been overcome in the present instance by the kind- ness of the firm with whom the author is associated, who granted permission to photograph any articles in their collection at N° 31 Old Burlington Street; and with few exceptions this source has proved sufficient to provide all the illustrations which this book contains. As the house where this colledion is exhibited is itself of considerable interest, some particulars of its past associations and surroundings are given before commencing to deal with the main subjed: to which this work is devoted. The site was originally part of a ten-acre field at the back of the gardens of Burling- ton House. In the earliest records it is referred to as Nowell Street, but no doubt " Noel" was intended, the family name of the wife of the second Earl of Burlington ; but in 1736, when the street was nearly rebuilt, the name was changed as a compliment to Richard, the third Earl (born 1694, died 1753), the distinguished archited and patron of artists, then living at Burlington House. Cork Street was also named after his second title, and Savile Row after the Lady Dorothy Savile whom he had married. Most of its houses have at different periods been altered or rebuilt, but some of the faded grandeur of the Georgian days still seems to linger in the immediate locality. V During Introductory During the whole ot the eighteenth century Old Burlington Street was the home ot famous statesmen, soldiers and public chara6lers, men and women who helped to make the history of their day. On the site now occupied by the branch Bank of England formerly stood the mansion which Leoni de- signed for the third Duke of Queensberry, in which the poet Gay occupied an apartment. Colonel Wolfe, father of the famous General, lived at N° lo. N° 2 9 was designed in i 7 2 3 by Lord Burhngton for Field-Marshal George Wade, to whose memory a tablet exists in Westminster Abbey, and later in the century the same house was the home of the Marquis of Cornwallis, Governor-General of India. There were few more prominent men in the reign of the first two Georges than Henry Pelham, the first occupant of N° 32. A constant supporter of the Whig party under Walpole, he successively occupied the positions of Secretary for War, Paymaster of the Forces, First Lord of the Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer. He was also celebrated as a patron of the arts; both he and his brother (who became the first Duke of Newcastle) shared with Lord Burlington in the patronage of William Kent, whom he employed extensively at Esher, as well as at the new town house, to which he after- wards moved, in Arlington Street. The widow of Edward Rich, sixth Earl of Warwick and third Earl of Holland, married the poet Addison. Her son came of age in i 7 2 i ,and soon after she, again a widow, left Holland House, Kensington, and came to reside at N° 33 Old Burlington Street, then just ereded. Perhaps no house in London, dating from the eighteenth century, remains to-day so unaltered as N° 30. This Mansion was built by Sir Michael New- ton, K.B., in the year of his marriage (1730) with Margaret, Countess of Coningsby in her own right. A Lincolnshire squire of great wealth and related to the Cokes of Holkham, he represented Beverley and Grantham in three Parliaments. As was so often the case during the period in which he lived, Sir Michael devoted a great part of his time to the study of classic art; he also was one of the numerous patrons of William Kent, who worked for him both here and at Culverthorpe, one of his country seats: this mansion is now part of the premises occupied by the Burlington Hotel. It is the adjoining house (N° 3 i ) which contains the examples of English art which are illustrated in this book; certainly no building in the street possesses a more interesting record. It was erected in i 720 by that Statesman, wit and leader of fashion and taste, John, Lord Hervey, known in literary circles as vj " The Boswell " The Boswell of George II and Qiieen Caroline." He was originally intended Introductory for the army, but natural inclination caused him to devote himself to literature. In his early days he was a frequenter of the opposition Court of George II and Queen Caroline, then PrinceandPrincessof Wales, where he fell in love with one of the Maids of Honour, the beautiful Molly Lepell, whom he married. Entering Parliament as Member for Bath in 1725, he at once made a figure in the House of Commons and was bid for by both Walpole and Pulteney ; the former won, and Hervey was rewarded by the appointment of Vice-Chamberlain to the King and, in 1730, by elevation to the Peerage (his father being still alive) as Lord Hervey, and by the bestowal of the Privy Seal in i 740. His services to Walpole were considerable, and he fell when that great minister received his dismissal. \ Read's //^^^i/y^oz/^r/W of Odober i, i 7 30, relates," Stephen Fox^Esq., son of the late Sir Stephen Fox, has purchased the Lord Hervey's fine house in Burlington Street; his lordship intending in a few days to remove from thence to his apartment in St James's." Lord Hervey and Stephen Fox had long been friends; together they had studied art and travelled in Italy, and in later life always remained most closely associated in politics. But before mentioning the events in the life of the new purchaser of N° 3 i , the still more brilliant career of his father may be of interest. Although of comparatively humble origin, in early life he became the friend of Charles I. He was Chief of the Ordnance Board during the campaign which ended with the Battle of Worcester, and aided the Prince to escape to France; he man- aged his household whilst in Holland, and on the Restoration received many honours, including knighthood in 1 665. It was to him, and not (as is popu- larly supposed) to Nell Gwy nne, that the foundation of Chelsea Hospital is due. Throughout the reigns of Charles II, James II, William and Mary, and Anne, Sir Stephen enjoyed the highest positions at Court, and won universal respecl and admiration as a wise and prudent statesman. Pepys always refers to him with much resped and sums up his estabUshment as "a family governed so nobly and neatly as did me good to see it." His places at Court must have brought him large profits, as, in 1680, his friend Evelyn (the diarist) computed him to be worth at least ^200,000, " honestly o-ot and unenvied, which is next to a miracle." As his only son was still a childless husband, in 1703 Sir Stephen, then in his 77th year, "un- willincr that so plentiful an estate should go out of the name, and being of a hale constitution," married again, and it was the elder son of this second marriage vij who purchased Introductory who purchased as a town residence the house which now contains the exam- ples of EngHsh Art here illustrated. In i 7 3 6 he was created a Baronet, and on his marriage with the heiress of the Strangways added that name to his own and was created Baron Strangways, Lord Stavordale and eventually Earl of Ilchester. Sir Stephen's younger son, Henry, who had purchased Holland House, Kensington, was created Baron Holland, which title eventually became ex- tind, so that Holland House reverted to the senior branch. With the exception of the top story (to which slight additions have been made during the last twenty-five years) N° 3 i Old BurHngton Street remains unaltered: a most interesting and typical example of a great nobleman's town house of the early Georgian, or what may be termed the EngHsh Palladian, period. vnj CONTENTS INTRODUCTORY Page v LIST OF PLATES x CHAPTER I. THE EARLY ENGLISH RENAISSANCE i II. THE PERIOD OF INIGO JONES 1 1 III. THE PERIOD OF WREN 1 8 IV. THE PERIOD OF WILLIAM KENT 3 3 V. THE LATTER HALF OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 55 VI. TAPESTRIES 83 VII. WOOD PANELLING 94 VIII. PLASTER ORNAMENTATION 1 09 IX. THE SCHOOL OF GRINLING GIBBONS 1 2 2 X. DECORATIVE PAINTINGS 131 XI. VELVETS &> DAMASKS 147 XII. LACQUERED FURNITURE 1 5 5 XIII. ENGLISH GESSO WORK 162 XIV. EARLY GEORGIAN CHIMNEY-PIECES 1 6 8 XV. THE LIGHTING OF ROOMS 1 8 o XVI. CARPETS 195 XVII. BOOKS OF REFERENCE 205 INDEX 208 IX LIST OF PLATES FIRST State Room at 3 i Old Bur- lington Street Frontispiece Cedar Room at 3 i Old Burling- ton Street facing p. i Fireplace in Early Renaissance Room 3 Chimney-piece (carved in chalk) c. 1 600 5 Chimney-piece (carved in oak) c. i 600 5 Examples of needlework hangings 6 Chairs, first half of seventeenth century 7 Oak table with draw-out top 7 The Early English Renaissance Room 8 Staircase from design by Inigo Jones 13 Chimney-piece, circa 1620 14 Chimney-piece, circa 1640 11^ Chimney-piece, middle of 1 7* century i 6 The Wren Room at 3 1 Old Burlington Street 19 Table inlaid with ebony and boxwood, showing Dutch influence 21 Fire-dog, bronze, enamelled with Stuart coat-of-arms, etc. 2 i Large mirror with ^'^auxhall glass, latter part of seventeenth century 21 Mirror, walnut frame, ornamented with marqueterie in stained woods 21 Types of chairs during the earlier part of the period of Wren 22 Types of chairs used in great houses during the latter period of Wren 2 :; Table of classic design, the inlay on top edged with strips of silver 24 Child's chair, circa 1660 24 Inlaid cabinet, the carving on legs partly gilt 24 Table with marble top, the carving show- ing the return of Italian influence 24 Settee upholstered in velvet, end of seven- teenth century 27 China cabinet, cross-banded with walnut veneer 27 Chair with enclosed arms and squab seat 27 Staircase in the style of Wren 28 Second State Room at 31 Old Burlington Street 32 X Settee, designed by William Kent, uphol- stered in scarlet velvet 37 Pedestal in carved wood, gilt 37 Side table with marble top, carved orna- ment only gilt 37 Pedestal carved in mahogany ^^ Large mirror of classic design, in carved wood, gilt 38 Side table (with marble top) in carved wood, gilt, designed bv William Kent 3 8 Types of chairs used in important apart- ments, period of William Kent 39 Table in carved wood, gilt, marble top enclosed in chased brass frame 40 Side table, in carved wood, the eagle gilt, platform and rock work painted 40 Table designed by William Kent for Lord Burlington 40 Bookcase, period of William Kent 41 Stool, in carved wood, gilt 47 Stool, walnut, carved ornament gilt 47 Side table (with marble top) in carved wood, gilt, designed by William Kent 47 Pediments of mirrors, in carved wood, gilt 48 Mantelpiece in marbles of various colours 48 Mirror (7ft gin high) designed by William Kent 49 State bedstead, circa 1750, cornice and pil- lars in carved mahogany, upholstered in damask 54 Mirror (loft high) in carved wood, gilt 59 Hanging cupboard, mahogany, carvings silt 61 Hanging china cabinet, "Chinese taste," in carved wood, gilt 6 i Commode table, circa 1760, carved in ma- hogany 61 Cornice for window, circa 1760, in carved wood, gilt 62 Pier glass (8ft high), in carved wood, gilt, circa 1760 62 Girandole, in carved wood, gilt, c. 1 760 62 Pier glass, in carved wood, gilt, c. i 765 63 Side table (with marble top) in carved wood, gilt, circa 1765 63 Hanging Hanging cabinet with pagoda top, circa Brussels tapestry, early 17"^ century 87 List of Plates "^11^ 64 Mortlake tapestry, "Story of Vulcan and "Simple" mantelpiece, in carved wood, Venus," in the Viftoria and Albert Mu- circa 1760 64 seum 88 Writing table, carved in mahogany, circa Mortlake tapestry," Indian Scenes," in the 1760 64 Victoria and Albert Museum 89 Mantelpiece, classic design, circa 1770 66 Wood panelling with classic pilaster, circa Settee and mirror, in carved wood, gilt, 1620 95 showing earlier style of Robert Adam 69 Oak panelling, end of 16* century 97 Pediments of bookcases 70 Oak panelling, early part of the \f^ Bureau bookcase, in carved mahogany, century 98 circa 1770 70 Detail of cornice and panelling in Cedar Side table,withcarvedapron, mahogany 71 Room, circa 1670 99 China table with fretwork gallery, circa Oak panelling, circa 1680 loi 1770 71 Walnut panelling, cross-banded and inlaid. Pier-glass, in carved wood and gilt, circa circa 1690 10 1 1780 72 Wood panelling and carved cornice and Settee in "Chinese taste," circa 1760 72 overdoor, circa 1730 102 Dressing-mirror, circa 1780 73 Plaster decoration, upper part of Hall at China cabinet with pagoda on pedi- 30 Old Burlington Street, designed by ment 73 William Kent 108 Stand for displaying china, in "Chinese Plaster ceiling and frieze, early English taste" 73 Renaissance 11 i Mantelpiece in "Chinese taste, "c. 1770 76 Plaster ceiling and frieze, early English Arm-chair in "Chinese taste" 'j'j Renaissance 112 Arm-chair in "Gothic taste" jj Plaster ceiling, period of Wren i 13 Arm-chair by the Brothers Adam, showing Plaster cornice and columns, period of French influence 'jj Wren i 1 3 Chair by Chippendale j'j Detail of ceiling in Hall, by William Breakfast table by Chippendale 78 Kent 114 Window settee, circa 1780 78 Plaster overdoor, English Palladian period Arm-chair, earlier work of the Brothers 114 Adam 78 Plaster ornamentation on door, by William Arm-chair, later work of the Brothers Kent 1 1 5 Adam 78 Plaster ornamentation in Hall, by William Painted and gilt cornice and figured da- Kent 116 mask wall hanging 79 Plaster enrichment on ceiling, English Gilt borders for damask hangings 79 Palladian period 118 Wall decoration in carved wood, gilt, circa Mantelpiece with carvings by Grinling 1780 79 Gibbons 123 Carved wood ornament for application on Upper part of mantelpiece, carvings in damask hangings 79 oak 127 Pierced pidure frame in carved wood. Centre panel of mantelpiece with inlaid gilt 80 geometrical pattern 127 Wall bracket, style of Brothers Adam 80 Oak cornice, with cipher of William and Wall bracket, style of Chippendale 80 Mary 127 I 6th century Flemish tapestry EarlyRenais- Upper part of mantelpiece with carvings sance Room at 3 i Old Burlington Street 85 in the style of Gibbons 128 xj Upper List of Plates Upper part of mantelpiece with cipher of Charles II 129 Carvings of naval trophies 129 Picture frame, with military trophies, circa 1700 129 Table, small carving and pendant, school of Grinling Gibbons 130 The Painted Room at 31 Old Burlington Street 133 Staircase painting 139 Painted ceilings in the two State Rooms at 31 Old Burlington Street 140 Painted panel in Salon at 31 Old Burling- ton Street 141 Wall paintings in "Chinese taste" 142 Chimney-piece in the " Painted Room" 1 45 Specimens of seventeenth and earlv eigh- teenth century fringes 149 Specimens of old Genoese velvet i 5 i Specimens of old Genoese velvet 152 Incised Chinese lacquer screen 154 Cabinet of English lacquer, on gilt stand, circa 1680 157 Lacquered chest of drawers, English, circa 1710 158 Red lacquer cabinet, English, c. 1 760 i 59 Dressing-mirror, red lacquer 160 Cabinet, oriental lacquer 160 Top of girandole, with arms of George I worked in gesso 1 6 ^ Girandole, carved in wood, with gesso en- richment 163 Mirror, carved wood, with gesso enrich- ment 163 Pediments of mirrors, with gesso enrich- ment 164 Chair in carved wood, with gesso enrich- ment I 64 Table, with gesso enrichment 165 Work-table ornamented with gesso 165 Top of table showing gesso ornament i 66 Small cabinet, with gesso enrichment 166 Mantelpiece in carved wood, temp. George II 169 Mantelpiece in carved wood, designed by William Kent 170 Mantelpiece in carved wood, temp. Geoi'ge I 171 Mantelpiece in Second State Room at 3 i Old Burlington Street 173 Upper part of mantelpiece in carved wood, temp. George II 174 Mantelpiece in Whitehall Gardens, by William Kent 175 Glass chandelier in First State Room 185 Three types of silver sconces 187 Sconces, with Vauxhall plates 187 Sconce, circa 1720 187 Brass chandelier, circa 1660 188 Glass chandelier, circa 1680 188 Chandelier in carved wood, gilt, c. i 7 1 o 188 Chandelier in carved wood, gilt,c. 1730 189 Chandelier in carved wood, gilt, style of Chippendale 189 Hall lantern, period of William Kent i 89 Bracket supporting torchere, by William Kent 189 Sconce in carved wood, gilt, c. 1740 190 Sconce in carved wood, gilt, designed by William Kent i 90 Sconce in carved wood, gilt, designed by William Kent 19 i English needlework carpet, c. 1700 194 Portion of English needlework carpet, temp. Qiieen Anne 199 Portion of 17""' cent. Turkish carpet 199 Portion of Savonnerie carpet 200 Turkey carpet, eighteenth century 201 English carpet, pine pattern 202 Portion of Spanish carpet, i S**" cent. 202 xn THE DECORATION AND FURNITURE OF ENGLISH MANSIONS DURING THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES. BY FRANCIS LENYGON CHAPTER I THE EARLY ENGLISH RENAISSANCE HE effed of the Italian Renaissance was beginning to be felt in this country when the disowning of Papal authority by Henry VIII (known as the Reformation) caused Eng- land, except during the brief reign of Qiieen Mary, to be pra6lically cut off from all intercourse with Italy for the greater part of a century. The eredion of ecclesiastical edi- fices, which in previous centuries had found occupation for a large proportion of the population, also suddenly ceased, and, by the latter part of the reign of Queen Elizabeth ,craftsmen versed in the old Gothic arts hardly existed and even the traditions of the building industry of that period were almost forgotten. During Elizabeth's long reign the country gradually became more settled and prosperous; the dissolution of the monasteries caused wealth to circulate in many new channels; with the downfall of the Hanseatic League the wool and cloth trades suddenly developed, and the discovery of new Continents stimulated maritime enterprise and brought riches to the merchant adven- turers, so that England seemed ripe for a new style of architedure to fulfil the altered requirements. The Netherlands was then the recognized centre of art in Northern Europe; her traders travelled everywhere and were well acquainted with the developments of the Renaissance movement in Elorence, Rome, Genoa and Venice. The Flemings, however, possessed the tradition of past glories in Gothic art under their Burgundian rulers, and they could not, or would not (like their French neighbours), accept forthwith the new classic forms to the entire exclusion of their former taste. The result was the intermingling of the two styles, as may be seen to-day in the Town Halls of the old cities of Belgium. With the persecutions of Philip II, many thousands of their best citizens sought refuge in this country and, in addition to estab- lishing numerous trades, taught us their architedlure. Records show how much our great nobles were indebted to these Flem- ings for assistance in the erection of such palaces as Burleigh, Hatfield and Longleat; but the merchants and traders, then becoming rich and important, whilst accepting the semi-classic art of the Netherlands as their authority, had to rely more upon local conditions and talent. Prosperity had given an impetus to building and, by the accession of James I, pradiically a new archi- tecture was established, a style which has been aptly termed the " Early English Renaissance." From Early English From whatever sources or influences this new style was derived, and Renaissance whether the carvinor and ornament were due to Flemish or to English crafts- men, it is certain that nothing we possess is more charaderistic of this country than the houses (and especially the small manor-houses) ereded during this period. The accompanying views illustrate a room typical of the principal apart- ment or living room of an English house built during the latter part of the reign of Elizabeth or under the early Stuart Kings. Of the various coats-of- . arms which ornament the chimney-piece in the room, the centre one was borne by King James I, and those on either side by the Chartered Com- panies of Merchant Adventurers and Spanish Traders respedively , illustrating the loyalty and occupation of the owner. These charaderistic carvings and the elaborate surrounding ornamentation show the importance always attached to the decoration of the English fireside. Examples of chimney- pieces so ornate as the one referred to are naturally somewhat rare; another specimen also carved in oak is therefore given on page 5 , as typical of less important work at about the same date. Chimney-pieces at this period were as frequently made in stone as in wood, the carving in both cases being equally elaborate. Probably the ori- ginal intention was always to paint and gild such stonework, although no doubt in many cases, owing to troublous times or lack of means, this work was omitted; but so many traces of old gilding and painting are found that, considering the early Renaissance love of bright colours, it would seem pro- bable such was the case; this applies not only to the chimney-pieces but also to plaster ceilings and friezes, as well as oak panelling, chests and other fur- niture of the period. The fad of such colouring being usually executed in distemper would account in a great measure for its subsequent disappearance. Occasionally in distrids where chalk is found, early Jacobean chimney- pieces are met with carved out of this most suitable material. The one here illustrated still exists in an old manor-house in Wiltshire; another well-known example is at Stockton, the detail of ornament on both being so similar that possibly they were carved by the same craftsman. The variety of the patterns of oak panelling, with which the principal rooms were wainscoted, is remarkable. The designs display considerable originality and illustrate the various influences which then affected English art. The subject of wood paneUing, however, is dealt with in a separate chapter. The sixteenth century Flemish tapestry which occupies the whole of one 2 wall CHIMNEY-PJECE (CARXl'D IX CHAI.K) CIRCA 1600 CHIMXEY-I'IKCE (CAR^■ED IX (XAK) CIRCA 1600 EXAMPLES OF NEEDLEWORK PiAXGLXGS Ler,rw,iiCfL'^ Ccp„.sl,t CHAIRS, FIRST HALF OF SKVKNTFKNTH CKNTURY OAK TABLE WITH DRAW^OUT TOP 7 8 THE EARLV ENGLISH RENAISSANCE ROOM wall of the room referred to represents the sacrifice of Iphigenia, daughter of Early English Agamemnon. The possession of such a tapestry would be a sign of the wealth Renaissance and position of the lord of the manor, and it would be specifically bequeathed by him in his will. A separate illustration of this is given in another chapter dealing with the whole subject of tapestries. The wall opposite the window in this apartment is hung with bright- coloured hand-made needlework (see page 6). The importance of this particular form of material during the early Stuart period is seldom realized; it was often employed for wall hangings, and served equally for bed curtains and coverings of chairs and couches. Pi6lorial tapestries were never a success- ful English industry (even at the Mortlake fadory Flemish weavers were always employed), but this eminently effedlive needlework had the merit of being produced in this country. It is believed to have originated in the Netherlands, certainly it somewhat resembles the painting (said to imitate hangings) with which buildings in northern Europe were often ornamented. Another variety of the same material was manufactured in Italy, principally at Perugia. The windows on the other side of the room are fitted with " sash frames," which were introduced towards the end of the reign of James I. As in all earlier examples, the panes are small and the oak bars heavy, probably be- cause the cost of glass was then an important item. The floor is covered with rush-matting, made by hand in the old method. The corner screen, an interesting survival of the house planning of the Tudor period, whenever employed, formed an important decorative feature, and the example in this apartment, like the chimney-piece, is richly carved and decorated with various coats-of-arms. No feature is more peculiarly English than the Early Renaissance plaster ceilings; they show the survival of native traditions, which, though affedled to some extent by Italian influences, always retain their own individuality; indeed, in no other country can the same development of design of ceiHngs be traced; but these, together with the elaborate friezes characteristic of this period, are dealt with separately under the heading of "Plaster Ornamen- tation." The Italian influence during the reign of Henry VII, and the earlier part of that of his successor, was more widespread in this country than is generally supposed ; witness the numerous wood carvings which still exist bearing traces of classic influence. This resulted from two separate sources: firstly, the desire of those rulers to imitate the fashions which contemporary monarchs were Q bringing Early English bringing from Italy to their own courts, but far more owing to the increasing Renaissance intercourse between the representatives of the Church in England and their superiors in Rome. Gothic art had, however, become deeply rooted in this country, and the intermingling of the two clearly marks the work ot the period, and in nothing more distinctly than in the carvings with which the choir stalls, coffers, chests and other woodwork were ornamented. During the troublous times which followed the quarrels with Rome, the style of the previous generation would seem to have almost disappeared and the arrival of the Flemings marks a distinct change, not only in architecture, but in the carved ornamentation of chests, chairs, beds, and such other articles of furniture as then existed. In addition they introduced, or at all events extended the use of, other pieces such as buffets, draw tables and cupboards in imitation of those which for a previous century had existed in their own country. Naturally, owing to altered requirements, features distinctive to this country soon began to appear, and by the accession of Charles I, not- withstanding the continued arrival oi the e'm/gres, English furniture possessed considerable individuality. On page 7 are illustrated a few examples such as were in use during his reign; in each case these are of oak, in fact this wood was almost universally employed. Previous to the Restoration, extremely little furniture was considered necessary even for the greatest houses, chairs were limited in number, stools, benches, and chests providing the necessary further seating accommodation. The comparatively few specimens we possess (such as some chairs at Knole and the bed at Berkeley Castle) of upholstered or what may be termed luxurious furniture known to have existed in this country at the beginning of the seventeenth century are, although often described as English, un- doubtedly of foreign origin. If English craftsmen had been capable of doing such work, more traces would have remained of their handicraft, whereas the actual specimens are few and vary considerably from each other. However, England at that period equalled any other country in needlework and embroideries; such work seems to have formed the principal occupation of ladies of position, and numerous specimens which remain of hangings and coverlets of beds, coverings of furniture, panels and book-covers are amongst the most characteristic examples of art during the reigns of the first two Stuarts. lo Chapter II CHAPTER II. THE PERIOD OF INIGO JONES SINCE the days ot the ItaHan Renaissance, the history of the art of the rest of Europe shows a parallel development in different countries, the gradual intermingling of the Renaissance and Gothic styles, followed by the exclusion of tJie Gothic, and the final triumph of classic principles. In England, however, such development was com- plicated early in the seventeenth century by the genius of Inigo Jones, who stands apart from all his contemporaries as an exponent of classic knowledge. The ban of Excommunication against Qiieen Elizabeth had during her reign so severed this country from dired intercourse with Italy that know- ledge of the new classic art liad to be obtained through other channels. Its eflfeds, however, were now becoming less acute, although even at a later date it was somewhat unsafe for Protestant "heretics" to travel in Italy, at all events in the parts still under Spanish sway. The fa 61 of Inigo Jones being a Catholic obviated such difficulties in his case and helped him in acquiring his knowledge of the art of Ancient Rome earlier than his fellow countrymen. Like the English nobles and architects who studied in Italy a century later, he absorbed the principles of classic architedure to the entire exclusion of other styles; especially he would seem to have profited by the treatises ot Serlio, Perruzzi, Vignola, and Palladio, as well as by the actual buildings in Rome and Venice designed by these and the other great architects of the Renaissance. So thorough was the knowledge that he thus acquired, and so masterful the supervision of the work which, on his return to this country, he undertook, that examples of his skill, such as the Banqueting Hall in Whitehall, are as pure specimens of classic architecture as any buildings since erected; the more remarkable does this appear when it is realized that during his time houses were still being creeled all over England stridly faith- ful to the Elizabethan traditions. To anyone familiar with the examples of Dutch and Flemish architecture at the beginning of the seventeenth century, it is difficult to believe that Inigo Jones had not also travelled these countries ; possibly they were included in " the politer parts of Europe," which he admits having visited as well as Italy; indeed, it would seem that his decorative work, and certainly that of his son-in-law, Webb, were afie6fed by Dutch as well as by Italian influence. Possibly few architects have had so many designs attributed to them as Inigo Jones on no evidence but tradition. Records, however, prove his work at Whitehall, Greenwich, Cobham, Castle Ashby, York Gate, Kirby, Ford 1 I Abbey Period of Abbey and Wilton; nor is there any reason to question sueh examples as Inigo Jones Coleshill and Rainham. These specimens alone are sufficient to justify his great reputation. Walpole's statement that he saved "England from the disgrace of not having her representative among the arts," was made at a time when the names of Palladio and Inigo Jones were almost wor- shipped, but no one even to-day disputes his position as England's greatest archited. Authentic examples of his work only exist in such buildings as have al- ready been referred to, these have been so often illustrated that it is unneces- sary to do so here. The chimney-piece on page i 5 possesses several character- istics from which one could imagine that rumour, which has attributed its design to him, may in this case be correct. The design of the one on the previous page, although it shows a distinct departure from the usual Flemish work of the period, by no means adheres strictly to classic principles, and can only claim to represent the beginning of his influence. The illustration of the third chimney-piece, which dates from the middle of the seven- teenth century, is given not as an example of the work of Inigo Jones but to show the quiet dignity and the knowledge of true proportion which he im- parted to Webb and his other immediate pupils and successors. The staircase which is also shown (page 13) was erefted in 1729, but was admittedly copied from his design; in many respedls it resembles the one at Coleshill. In addition to some drawings by Inigo Jones of scenes for masques (still preserved at Chatsworth), Lord Burlington obtained early in the eighteenth century the copy oiVitrnvius containing his sketches and notes. Dr Clarke, another celebrated amateur architect, had also acquired several of his original drawings, as well as the copy of T^alladio (bequeathed in i 7 3 6 to Worcester College, Oxford) which Inigo Jones on his journeys through Italy had copi- ously noted and interleaved with sketches. These, with the examples in the buildings referred to, served Kent, Ware, Gibbs, Swann and others as models for ceilings, chimney-pieces, doors, staircases and other features of internal decoration. Through such sources the influence of Inigo Jones was strongly felt in England down to the end of the eighteenth century. There is little to relate in decorative or any other arts in England after the outbreak of the Civil War, but by then the last survivals of Gothic art had disappeared from this country. Not unnaturally, Inigo Jones was a stanch loyalist; he sufl?ered considerably in the cause of his master. In 1 643 he was deprived of his offices and had to leave London; a few years later he was 12 flned STAIRCASE FROM DESIGN BV IMGO JONES 14 CHIMNEY-PIECE, CIRCA 1620 CHIMNF.Y-PIKCE, CIRCA 1640, 15 CHIMXKA'-PIF.CK, MIDDLK OF THK SE\ KX lEIiXTH CFATl RY i6 fined about jTijOOO. He died in 1 65 2,and certain works which he had com- Period of menced were completed by his son-in-law, John Webb. Inigo Jones At the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, Webb applied for the office of Surveyor-General, which Inigo Jones had held : for political reasons it was given to Sir John Denham, and he was promised the reversion. However, when it fell vacant in 1666, Wren, whose fime by then was firmly estab- lished, was appointed, and Webb, again disappointed, gave up his pradice and retired to the country. X r Chapter III CHAPTER III. THE PERIOD OF WREN WITH the return of King Charles II and the courtiers who had accompanied him into exile, the building of many great houses commenced, but it is curious how few ot these remain to-day. Arlington House, Berkeley House, Suffolk House, Cleveland House, Goring House and Clarendon House are some out of many which have disappeared from London alone. We read of the wonderful treasures which they contained . For instance, according to Evelyn, in 1663, the new dressing-room at Goring House contained " a bed, two glasses, silver jars and vases, cabinets and other so rich furniture as I had seldom seen; to this excess of superfluity were we now arrived and that not only at Court but almost universal, even to wantonness and profusion." None approached the magnificence of the apartments at Whitehall Palace; there, the various mis- tresses of the King seem to have competed with each other in endeavouring to impoverish him by their extravagance in furniture and decoration. In 1664 Pepys finds "such variety of pictures and other things of value and rarity that I was properly confounded and enjoyed no pleasure in the sight, although it is the only time in my life that ever I was at a loss for pleasure in the greatest plenty of objects to give it to me." But the treasures which had accumulated in this Palace (many of which were gifts or bribes from Louis XIV and foreign ambassadors) were, in 1691, "destroyed by a terrible fire, beginning at the apartment of the late Duchess of Portsmouth, which had been pulled down and rebuilt no less than three times to please her," and after another fire in 1698 Evelyn relates, "Whitehall burned, nothing but walls and ruins left." However, if the Palaces of Whitehall and Theobalds and so many great houses have disappeared, the age was proHfic in domestic architedure, and until recently London contained numerous examples; to-day they are be- coming scarce. The old parts of Kensington Palace (formerly Nottingham House), some of the Inns of Court and Chelsea Hospital are perhaps the best known. The particular style of interior decoration, which commenced with the Restoration and continued till the early part of the eighteenth century, is considered by many to be the most attractive of any period, and it is with this that the names of Sir Christopher Wren and Grinling Gibbons are so much associated. The most charaderistic decorative feature is the panelling either in oak, in cedar or in fir. At N° 3 i Old Burlino-ton Street are 1 8 apartments h H . h 1 hmmvi^efVi* PM Cepyriff^t. TABLE OF CLASSIC DESIGN, THE INLAY ON TOP EDGED WITH STRIPS OF SIL\ER CHILD'S CHAIR, CIRCA 1 660 INLAID CABINET, THE CAR\ING ON LEGS PARTLY GIL r 24 TABLE (WITH MARBLE TOP), THE CARMNG SHOWING THE RETURN OF ITALIAN INFLUENCE apartments illustrative of each. Both the one of fir (now painted the original Period "drab" colour) and the other of oak were removed from N° i Brick Court, of Wren Temple, a building eredled during the reign of Charles I, and recently de- molished. The Cedar Room (facing page i) in the same colledion repre- sents the more ornate work of the period, the cornices, architraves and other mouldings being all elaborately carved, and pendants of Hme-wood, in the manner of Grinling Gibbons, ornamenting each side of the chimney-breast. The various sedions of the heavy boledion mouldings of the old marble jambs which surround the openings of each of the fireplaces are also typical of the times. Celia Fiennes on her visits to many country houses in various parts of England particularly noted the inlaid floors which she found in some of the most important mansions. The description in her diary [temp. William and Mary) of one "inlayd with cyphers and the coronet" would apply equally to the floor in this Cedar Room; indeed, so fine is this inlaid work that the use in former times of leather covers for its protediion during the owner's absence is easily understood. In several great English houses there still exist inlaid floors of this descrip- tion, one of the best examples being in the small room leading off^the long gallery at Drayton. Many instances are also met with in which, instead of crests and ciphers, merely a geometrical pattern has been adopted, usually radiating from a star in the centre of the room. In such cases, in order to give prominence to the pattern, different kinds of wood are employed, vary- ing in colour. It was probably such a design that Evelyn refers to in the Duke of Nor- folk's "new palace at Weybridge," where he finds that "the roomes were wainscotted and some of them parquetted with cedar, yew, cypresse, etc." In another house he notices that " one of the closets is parquetted with plain deal set in diamond exceeding staunch and pretty," In many of the mansions in Holland, built about the middle of the seven- teenth century, the floors were similarly treated, sometimes with quite elabo- rate scroll-work designs in which the colours of the wood are very cleverly blended; instances also occur in French palaces built during the reign of Louis XIV. Special reference has been made to this form of ornamenting floors with decorative designs, since the fashion is one which seems hardly understood to-day; although now, as during the seventeenth century, loose rugs are 2 r often Period often employed (instead of carpets covering the entire surface), and in such of Wren cases this method of ornamenting floors with various shades of Hghter woods on a darker background is pecuHarly successful as a means of completing the decorative treatment of a fine apartment. The Cedar Room at N° 3 i Old Burlington Street serves as an example of the refinement of the wealth and luxury of the age; but the same col- lection contains another room more closely identified with the genius of Wren, for its chimney-piece and parts of the panelling were removed from a house at Bow, in which the great archited lived at some period after the Great Fire (probably whilst engaged on the City churches). This apartment, known as the " Wren Room," shown on page 19, is plainer than the Cedar Room, and is typical of the principal chamber in an ordinary house at the latter part of the seventeenth century. It is panelled throughout with fir wood, now generally called deal, or pine, just then beginning to take the place of oak, not altogether as being less expensive, but because it was more suitable for painting or graining, then regarded by many as better decorative treatment than the plain oak which for so long had been in vogue. To-day, it would be difficult to convince anyone of its superior merit, but it will be admitted that no more satisfadory background could possibly be found for fine furniture such as this room contains. In the scheme of interior decoration which Wren adopted, there is no more characferistic feature than the ceihng; the geometrical patternsof EHza- bethan and early Tudor times had been superseded by the formal classic style of Inigo Jones, which Wren to some extent adopted, while at the same time introducing that peculiar free elaboration of ornament so charaderistic of all his work. The ceihngs, both in this and in the Cedar Room, are of consider- able interest and are described in the chapter on Plaster Ornamentation, Wood carvings of the school of Grinling Gibbons and decorative paint- ings, both for walls and ceilings, are integral parts of the scheme of embelHsh- ment of fine apartments during the Wren period, but each of these subjeds is also separately dealt with. It cannot be claimed that contemporary furniture was influenced by Wren to the same degree as architedure and decoration; but, during his period, which may be taken as commencing at the Restoration, when he was twenty-eight years of age, and lasting until the accession of George I, when he was still Surveyor-General, a complete evolution, development and pradical aban- donment of one particular style occurred. The style referred to is sometimes •^ ° classified SKTTEF. UPHOLSTERED IN \'EL\'ET, END OF THE SE\'ENTEENTH CENl'URY , i e fiy^ar, A. /?'■ I' Cupynj^l CHINA CABINET, CROSSTSANDED WITH WALNUT \T\NEER CHAIR WITH ENCLOSED ARMS AND SQUAB SEAT 2 " 28 STAIRCASE IN THE STYLE OV WREN classified under the " Age of Walnut," and it is true that such wood was then Period more largely employed than at any other period, but by no means exclusively, of Wren even for the finest examples. English mansions contained but little luxurious furniture previous to the reign of Charles II; indeed, in this respea,we ranked far behind Continental countries. The earlier examples of the improved furniture introduced after the Restoration were to some extent developments of preceding cruder models, but the refinements were almost entirely due to influences from Holland, which country, having learned fi-om Portugal, Spain and Italy, had developed her own styles and had become the recognized authority on mat- ters of luxury. The "Farthingale" chairs (shown on page 7) dates from somewhat earlier than the Restoration, but the chairs shown on page 2 2 , and the child's chair, page 24, are fine examples illustrating the luxury of the early part of the new reign. Other specimens, also shown on page 2 3 , dating from a few years later are equally interesting. It was at about this time that marqueterie was perfedled and the table on page 21 is an excellent example of this class of work. It is, however, more difficult than at any other period to locate accurately exaft dates of manufacture; Dutch influence was paramount, and whether the articles were made in Holland some ten or twenty years earlier than when reprodudions, sometimes by the same workmen, were made in England cannot be authori- tatively stated. Another example of marqueterie is the fine cabinet shown on page 24, and on this piece the vase-shaped bases and the feet are partly gilt, a method of decorating both furniture and mouldings which came into fashion at this period and which became so much in vogue during the early eighteenth century. In order to display Oriental china and Delf pottery, the colledion of which both in Holland and England had become an absolute mania, cabinets, corner cupboards, chimney shelves, tops of cabinets, and in fact every avail- able space was utilized. No doubt it was for such purpose that the specimen illustrated on page 2 7 was designed. A feature of this class of furniture was the peculiar cross-banding and the careful seledion of the wood with which such work was executed. An entire chapter might be devoted to the successive styles of fire-dogs employed in England previous to the introdudion of enclosed grates early in the eighteenth century. During the Wren period they were usually of brass or iron, the stems somewhat resembHng the form of contemporary ^^ chandeliers Period chandeliers. The frequency with which such lire-dogs are illustrated in earlier of Wren Dutch pictures proclaims their origin; several instances exist in which they are of silver, highly ornamented. Another variety was of bronze, enamelled in various colours, as in the example illustrated on page 2 i , the design of which is Atlantes supporting the arms borne by the Stuart Kings. It is to the Stuarts that we owe the earliest manufadories of glass mirrors in England. Evelyn refers to his visit in 1 67 3 " to the Italian glass house at Greenwich where glasse was blown of liner mettal than that of Murano at CD Venice," and again in 1 676 to the new works at Lambeth, where he " saw the Duke of Buckingham's Glasse Worke where they made huge vases of mettal as clear and ponderous and thick as chrystal, also looking-glasses far larger and better than any that came from Venice." From this time forward, no room was considered complete without one or more examples, and the very fine mirror (shown on page 2 i) possesses particular interest as being similar to the celebrated pair in the State Room at Hampton Court, and like those examples, has the quaint double bevelling and incised line on the glass borders so peculiar to this period. Compared to the price at which it can now be obtained, glass for mirrors was then very costly, and naturally elaborate frames were often used, some- times decorated with the finest marqueterie, as the specimen also shown on page 2 I . Silver furniture was peculiar to and one of the greatest extravagances of this age, and mirror frames, as well as chairs, tables, and fire-irons were so manufactured. The chair shown at the bottom of page 2 3, which is one of a set of twelve, is curious as an example of the tortoise-shell lacquer with which some of the finest furniture was then decorated: the top of the frame is carved with scroll ornament, this carving being gilded. The arm-chair with cane seat and back shown at the top of the same page may be considered typical of the reign of William and Mary, but it is most unusual to find a specimen where the carving is so elaborate or the design so graceful. The two tables illustrated on page 24, although dating from the seven- teenth century, bear little trace of Dutch influence, in fad are amongst the first examples of English furniture in which Italian feeling again pre- dominates. 30 Chapter IV SECOND STATE ROOM AT 31 OLD BURLINGTON STREET 32 CHAPTER IV THE PERIOD OF WILLIAM KENT PREVIOUSLY to the Hanoverian Dynasty, each of the occupants of the throne was closely identified with the developments of art during his respedive reign. The negative influence of the first two Georges is due partly to their own charaders and partly to the development of history; yet, although the corred principles of classic art were first introduced to England by Inigo Jones and pradised by his successors Webb, Marsh, Gerbier, Talman, and less stridly by Wren and others, it was not until after the accession of George I that the Palladian rules were univer- sally accepted as dominating architedure. If, however, architedure then began to sufler from lack of Royal encour- agement, it gained more than compensating advantages by the lavish expen- diture in building by the great nobles and statesmen at this period, who vied with one another in fostering native genius. Without the encouragement of men like Lord Burlington, Lord Leicester, Lord Pembroke, Lord Hervey and Sir Robert Walpole, many of the artists and craftsmen of the early Georgian period might never have been heard of. Among the various architeds whose names became famous from such encouragement are Campbell and Ripley, both of whom claim a share in the glories of Houghton; Leoni, designer of Moor Park and Carshalton; Gibbs, responsible for the Radchffe Library, Oxford, St Martin's Church and num- erous London houses; but perhaps William Kent, whose principal claim as an archited rests on whatever share he may have had in the designs of Hough- ton and Holkham (both in Norfolk), the Horse Guards and Treasury Build- ings, Devonshire House in Piccadilly and Lord Burhngton's Villa at Chis- wick, refleds more than any the spirit of the early Georgian times. Apprenticed to a coach-painter in his native county of Yorkshire, ambi- tion drove him to London, where he appears at first to have mainly devoted himself to portrait painting. Influential friends sent him to Italy; in Rome he obtained a prize for painting and was still more fortunate in attrading the attention of Lord Burlington, with whom he returned to England and in whose service he remained as art adviser for the rest of his life. He made subsequent journeys to Italy. In 1727, with the financial assistance of Lord Burlington, he published The "Designs of Inigo Jo?tes, with which a few draw- ings by Lord Burlington and himself are included. In 1726 he was made Master Carpenter of all His Majesty's Works and Buildings, to which office ., ^ was added Period of was added that of "Keeper of Pictures" in 1736. He died in 1748, and, William Kent according to Horace Walpole, " his fortune, which with pidures and books amounted to about ^ i o ,0 o o , he divided between his relations and an adress with whom he had long lived in particular friendship." He attained a great reputation as archited, sculptor, painter, decorator, furniture designer and landscape gardener, indeed became the versatile man of taste of the day, whose advice it was the fashion to seek. As Walpole re- lates,"He was not only consulted for furniture, frames of pidures, glass, tables, chairs, etc., but for plate, for a barge and for a cradle, and so impetuous was fashion that two great ladies prevailed on him to make designs for their birth- day gowns." A man who from such humble origin could secure the lasting friendship of the cultured and gentle Earl of Burlington, could rise to such high office, and who could become didator on all matters of taste at a period when so many noblemen and men of wealth were themselves critics of no mean order, must have possessed great talent and an extraordinary charafter. Before, however, commencing to judge of the capabilities of William Kent it is necessary to realize his period and his opportunities. England was be- coming immensely wealthy; a large proportion of the trade of Holland (Eng- land's commercial rival during the previous century) had gradually been absorbed by this country. The wars associated with the name of the Duke of Marlborough in the Netherlands, and the extravagance of Louis XIV had impoverished France. Venice and Genoa, as well as Spain, had long lost their commercial importance; indeed, England seemed to have been without rivals for the trade of the world, and the persistent peace policy of Sir Robert Walpole was enabling this trade to develop by leaps and bounds. The court of the first two Georges offered few attractions to the o-reat nobles and men of wealth, nor was there much scope for competition in politics during the long and all-powerful sway of Walpole. Further, the en- tire absence of hostilities left no opportunities for obtaining distinction in military or naval careers, and it would seem that numbers of these great nobles and men of leisure embraced the study of art as the principal occupation of their lives. The particular branch of art which interested them most keenly was the pure classic architecture of Ancient Rome. Notwithstanding the splendid earlier efforts of Inigo Jones and others, England was far behind France in examples of such Renaissance architecture. Except for these earlier efforts, building in this country was dominated in the early part of the pre- 34 ceding ceding century by Flemish, and during the whole of the latter part by Dutch Period of influences; the faft that England now asserted entire supremacy over its old William Kent rival, the Dutch Republic, no doubt caused public taste unfairly to depre- ciate the charming examples ereded during the previous reigns partly under such guidance. The votaries of the new school were also unreasonably pre- judiced against the work of the Wren period by the discovery that, although classic in principle, the rules laid down by the great architeds of the Italian Renaissance had by no means been stridly adhered to. This feeling alone accounts for much of the prejudice which existed against Sir Christopher at the close of his brilliant career and for the exaltation of the earlier work of Inigo Jones; indeed, this new school accepted so fervently the principles of Italian classic art as the only form of true culture, that all buildings which exhibited variations were regarded by them as beneath notice or consideration. The nobles obtained their knowledge of classic art in Italy, where they studied the ancient models and also the best as well as the decadent exam- ples of the Renaissance. They found numerous treatises by the great archi- tects of the fifteenth and sixteenth century, whose teachings many of them grasped sufficiently to themselves become capable critics. From among these various authors they accepted Palladio as their standard, and, by glorifying his work and his precepts, raised him in their time almost to the position of a demigod. William Kent undoubtedly was of immense service to his patrons in help- ing them to adapt this Palladian architedure to the requirements of the mansions they were ereding and transforming in England, and it was this advisory position that causes his name to be conneded with so many build- ings, the adual design of which others claim. But a difficulty presented itself Although his patrons could find precedents for what may be termed exter- nal architedure, internally their mansions had to vary from any original ex- amples they could discover in Italy, in order to meet the English standard of luxury and refinement and the altered conditions necessitated by differ- ence in climate. At the same time, such internal decoration and furniture had to harmonize with their classic edifices. William Kent and Lord Burlington had first met in Rome, but spent most of their time while together in Italy at Vicenza and the neighbouring towns of Verona and Venice, the distrid most closely identified with the work of Palladio. The decorative work employed by this great archited was far too r, r austere Period of austere and cheerless to serve as a model for an English home, and furniture, William Kent regarded as articles of comfort, had not existed in his time. But of what was then modern work they found no lack of examples. During the latter part of the seventeenth century the taste for elaborate interior decorations and gorgeous furniture had been a craze in Italy, and all had been designed for classic buildings by men who knew no other style. Although much of such work had great merit, yet it all suiTered more or less from the evil influence of the /^arocco which had been rampant in Italy during that period. It would appear greatly to the credit of William Kent that, al- though his subsequent work was influenced by such examples, he succeeded in avoiding the coarseness which was then, as now, a charaderistic of Italian furniture. Furniture designed by Kent is sometimes referred to as clumsy, but the cri- ticism is hardly just. Compared to Italian models, his work represents the acme of refinement, and it must be remembered that the lighter furniture of Chip- pendale, Adam, Sheraton and others, to which we are now accustomed, was after the time of Kent; and it must also be always remembered that Kent did not design or work for people of small means; his furniture and decorations were invariably intended for stately classic mansions. For instance, such ex- amples as the settee and the pedestal (page 37) are intended as units of sets of similar pieces in a classic hall of large proportions, and given such an apart- ment no articles of Rirniture could more aptly fill their decorative Rmctions. Again, for an important reception-room nothing could be more suitable than the " Kent" table shown at the top of page 40; it is as refined and as dignified as any that the corresponding schools of Louis XIV or early Louis XV have to offer. Another example, equally effe(3:ive,is the side-table also illustrated on the same page, which is one of a pair in the same colle6lion. This piece possesses particular interest, as the original drawing is in Vardy's book of Kent's designs, and is stated by him to have been for his patron, Lord Burlington. Before disparaging the designs of William Kent, the book-case illustrated on page 41 should be studied: it is somewhat similar to one which, fi-om Vardy's book, appears to have been in the Hermitage Room; like all Kent's furniture it is designed with the definite aim, not only of fulfilling its require- ments as an article of utility, but also of forming a decorative objed har- monizing with the style and character of the room. For such a purpose it causes Chippendale's most elaborate efforts to look commonplace. 36 The use --l'n¥'roii,C9LK'i SF.TTF.F. DKSIGNED KY WILLIAM KENT, UPHOLSTERED IN SCARLET \'EL\'ET 'EDESTAL CARX'ED IN MAHOGANY PEDESTAL IN CAR\ED Ccpyr.W WOOD, GILT SIDE TABLE WITH MARBLE TOP, THE CAR\T.D ORNAMENT ONLY GILT 37 LARGE MIRROR OF CLASSIC 1)K,S1(;N LN CAR\E1)\V001). (ilL'r lerj/qo/j^C~[^^ Cff/>yrte/J;} SIDE TABLE (WITH MARBLE TOP) IN CAR\ED WOOD, GILT, DESIGNED BY WILLIAM KENT 38 &"^mfj'4i<^. 39 TYPES OK CHAIRS USED IN IMPORTANT APARTMENTS. PERIOD OF WILLIAM KENT ^ TABLK IN CAR\KI) WOOD, GILT, THE MARBLE TOP ENCLOSED IN CHASED BRASS FRAME Capyrlshh SIDE TABLE IN CARVED WOOD, THE EAGLE GILT, PLATFORM AND ROCK WORK PAINTED 40 TABLE, DESIGNED BY WILLIAM KENT FOR LORD BURLINGTON The use of large mirrors as decorative objeds had been introduced into Period of England in the preceding reigns, as witness the magnificent examples at William Kent Hampton Court, but it is to William Kent and his school that we owe the development of this means of obtaining fine decorative effeds. The design of the mirror illustrated on page 38 shows one of his most successful efforts. With such models as these and others undoubtedly by him, such as exist at Houghton, at Holkham, Wilton, Coleshill and Ditchley, and other great English mansions, it is difficult to realize why the name of Kent has previ- ously been so disregarded as a designer of decorative English furniture. Had Kent worked in France, instead of in England, his name would have been world-wide and examples of his craft would have been almost priceless. Now, to consider William Kent as what may be termed an archited of interiors; and some such term is necessary to distinguish his style from that of the mere decorator. It is rare to be able to point to rooms in English houses as being typical of any particular period, as subsequent alterations have gen- erally ruined the original effed, but the whole suite of reception-rooms at Houghton Hall in Norfolk (excluding two apartments redecorated for the visit of the Prince Regent, and for the absence of the pidures purchased by the Empress Catherine of Russia) remain the same to-day as when William Kent finished them for the occupation of his patron, the great Sir Robert Walpole. The original effed of the exterior architedure of this magnificent build- ing has been spoilt by the removal of the great steps leading up to the first, originally the entrance, floor; there is some doubt as to the respedive parts due to the various architeds who were employed, but as to the complete interior decoration there is no question: William Kent was entirely respon- sible, and Laguerre, Rysbrack, Artari and others worked for him there. Neither England nor France have ever produced anything finer than the stone Hall at Houghton; it completely fulfils its purpose, a purpose which aimed at displaying majesty, harmony and grace, as should befit the palace of the first statesman of the day; it remains a monument to the genius of the man who designed and executed the work, and the greatness of the colossal gambler for whom the work was done. All is noble, fi-om the dignified pro- portions to the perfed distribution of the parts; the frieze of boys and festoons is a masterpiece of composition and modelHng. The magnificent coUedion of gilt and partly gilt frirniture, undoubtedly due to Kent, is essentially part of the building; tables, settees and chairs are admirably designed with shells, .^ festoons Period of festoons and acanthus foliage, whilst the faces of women, so often carved in William Kent his most charaderistic pieces, are of no little beauty, and are executed with great feeling and perfed finish. Probably it was from the neighbouring mansion at Rainham, that mas- terpiece of domestic architedure ereded by Inigo Jones some hundred years earHer, that William Kent first learned to appreciate the work of his prede- cessor, an admiration which strongly influenced his whole career. So tho- roughly does he seem to have absorbed the feeling of that great master that, although it is known he carried out important improvements to the interior of Rainham, it cannot to-day be authoritatively stated which are the parts representing his work. Holkham,the other great house in the same county, remains a monument to the skill and ability of Kent, both as adviser on its archited:ure,as respon- sible for its decorations, and as designer of much of the furniture it contains. The work here occupied the latter part of his career; Brettingham, in his work on Holkham (published in i 76 1), claims the greater share as the de- signer of this, one of England's grandest mansions, an assertion which Wal- pole, who had seen a hundred times Kent's original drawings, indignantly refutes. Another nobleman for whom Kent worked extensively was William, 3rd Duke of Devonshire, the stables at Chatsworth and the town house in Pic- cadilly being designed by him; the latter he appears to have completely fur- nished and decorated. No doubt, when carriages took the place of sedan-chairs, the substitution of the double flight of steps (which originally led up to the first floor of this mansion) for the present portico was necessary; the alteration, however, is to be regretted since it changed the character of the principal elevation and transformed the basement into the entrance floor, thus rendering Kent's ori- ginal scheme of planning unsuitable, and entailing a new staircase and various other alterations. The pillars surmounted with sphinxes on the Piccadilly side of the court- yard (which support Tijou's beautiful iron gates) are also by Kent, and were brought from the villa at Chiswick, which he built for Lord Burlington on the lines of Palladio's villa Capra, near Vicenza. The possession of these by the Devonshire family is accounted for through the marriage of the 4th Duke with the only surviving daughter and heiress of Kent's principal patron. Traces of the art of Kent are to be seen in nearly every room in Devon- 44 shire shire House, the ball-room and the salon remaining almost exactly as com- Period of pleted by him. These two magnificent state apartments are certainly the William Kent finest in London, even if they can be surpassed in any palace in Europe. Both here, at Chatsworth, and at the other seats of the Cavendishes, as would be expected considering the patronage by their Georgian ancestors, are also to be found some of the finest examples of the furniture which Kent designed. One of the great houses, if not the greatest, built in England during the reign of George I was for Sir Richard Child at Wanstead. Campbell was the archited:, but William Kent occupied the same advisory position as at Hough- ton and Holkham. Illustrative of the respeft in which his abilities were held, Mrs Lybbe Powys, writing in i 7 7 i (more than thirty years after his death), relates how she found his portrait over the chimney-piece in the Great Hall of what was " reckoned the finest house in the kingdom." This mansion was destroyed in 1822, when the sale of its treasures occupied thirty-two days. Henry Pelham, first Lord of the Treasury, employed Kent both at Esher and for his new house in Arlington Street (now N° i 7), the interior of which is still most interesting, not only as an almost untouched example of his work, but also as a model of perfed decoration for a town house. The Museum at South Kensington is curiously deficient in examples of English arts and crafts of the early eighteenth century, and all it possesses to illustrate the skill of Kent is the State barge which he designed for Fred- erick, Prince of Wales, the drawings for which are contained in the rarer editions of Vardy's book. Unfortunately it is by his work, actual and reputed, at Kensington Palace that the ability of Kent is popularly judged, although, when inquired into, this would seem hardly fair. George I was not notorious for extravagance in building, and most certainly he was no authority on matters of taste, and Kent, to the prejudice of his reputation, provided a show of grandeur which gave the greatest satisfadion to his Royal client and at a price which cannot be termed excessive, ^340 2s. 7d. being all that was paid for the whole of the decoration of the Cube Room. Again, it must be always remembered that for sixty years the Palace was in a deplorable state of disrepair, and "with leaking roofs and floors crumbling away," little can remain of the original decorative painting; in justice to William Kent the effed of pre- vious as well as recent restorations must be considered. At the present day Kent is ignored by the many and harshly criticized 45 by the Period of by the few; one or two modern writers have embellished their pages with William Kent illustrations of his work, while at the same time they timidly abuse him for no apparent reason beyond lack of authority for praising him. Volumes have been written in praise of Chippendale and Robert Adam, yet the former, brilliant workman as he was, had the charaderistics of an enterprising trades- man, changing his style with every passing fashion of the day. Robert Adam, in the second half of the century, was to some extent a parallel to Kent in the first; both were architefts and decorators, conceiving the furniture of the house to be an essential part of the whole. Chippendale and Adam both appealed to the public; Kent, on the other hand, worked only for a few distinguished clients, and had little or no sympathy with the tastes of the middle-classes, and examples of his skill are only to be found in the great- est houses. As a painter of pidures distind from decorative paintings it must be admitted his talents were mediocre. As an archited it is only recently that his work has begun to be again appreciated; certainly it appeals prin- cipally to those who, having studied classic art in Italy, can trace his in- spirations and appreciate his ideals. Horace Walpole, who was by no means blind to his failings, regarded him as " the restorer of the science of archi- tedure." In another part of this book, when dealing with the subjed of Plaster Ornamentation, a number of further illustrations are given of other decorative work designed by William Kent; the examples in question are at N° 30 Old Burlington Street, a mansion built for Sir Michael Newton in 1730. They are particularly interesting as, although numerous specimens exist in country- houses, in London they are extremely rare, at all events in such an untouched condition as may be seen in this house. Whether the decoration of the two Staterooms in the adjoining house (N° 3 I Old Burlington Street) , one of which is illustrated in the frontispiece and the other on page 3 2 , are adually his work is immaterial. To quote Walpole, " Kent's style predominated authoritatively during his life '' ; moreover, he was closely associated with the immediate locality; if not his work they are essen- tially typical of that early Georgian school of which he was so notable a member. Every detail in them exhibits the care, the thought, the knowledge and the skill which was then bestowed both by patron, designer and crafts- men on decorative work; these two rooms are entitled to rank with any even at Houghton or Holkham; indeed, they are often considered the most per- fed interiors we possess of the greatest period of English decorative art. 46 The amount lenr^on^O-.L*J. Cnjij-rishi- Lenyjon ^C?L^-^. Cop/n'gl'l. STOOL IN CAR\K1) WOOD GIL- STOOL, WALNL"J", THK CAR\F,1) ORXAMKNT GILT !OT(^^BK'''*s*M^ip*' sBBpf**^" SIDK-TABLF, (WITH MARBLK TOP) IN CAR\-ED WOOD GILT, DHSIGNED BV WILLLAM KEN 47 I'KDIMKN'I'S OK MIRRORS IN CAR\ KD WOOD (ij],!' MANTKUMKCK IN MARIILKS OK \ARIOL'S COLOURS 48 49 MIRROR (7 ft. 9 ins. high) DESIGNED BY WILLIAM KENT L^qy^efjicC'^V- The amount of money spent on marble mantelpieces made to his designs Period of was very large; these were manufadured in London by Pickford and other William Kent makers from marble obtained from Italy; the one shown on page 48 is a particularly fine example and shows no trace of the unnecessary heaviness of the preceding generation, or of the feebleness produced by the "elegant" classic refinements of the succeeding age. Although specimens of the furniture and decoration of the early Georgian period are more scarce than those of other dates, the colledtion from which most of the examples illustrated in this book are taken is remarkable in the number and variety it contains. Typical illustrations are the day-bed and sofa seen on page 32; the finely modelled and pierced scroll legs and other en- richments with which these are ornamented, show the magnificence then aimed at. As side-tables with elaborate stands (into which beautifully-carved figures were often introduced) are essentially a feature of the second quarter of the eighteenth century, three illustrations (see pages 37, 38 and 40) are given. The quality of the marble for the tops of these tables was also a subjed: which vastly interested the rich virtuosi ^and no trouble or expense seems to have been too great to secure rare specimens from Italy: that country was then poor, and the rich travellers were not too scrupulous as to how the palaces and churches suffered to enable them to obtain objeds with which to beautify their English homes. Stools instead of chairs were now more frequent than at any successive period, partly as their use denoted some sign of class distindion or resped; partly as with the ample skirts worn by our ancestors they must have been more convenient, and partly as stools arranged round a state apartment impart a more dignified or classic appearance than a succession of chairs. These stools, however, only formed part of the complete suite; single arm-chairs, settees, and day-beds to match were necessary for the complete furnishing. The elaborate gilt stool with X-shaped legs shown on page 47 is very similar to those designed by William Kent, which still exist at Kensington Palace. The other example on the same page is particularly interesting, as both at Chats- worth and Houghton exist arm-chairs of exadly the same design, and evi- dently by the same maker. Pedestals to support the marble busts and bronzes, which the cultured travellers were bringing from Italy, were required; the designing of these afforded further scope for the skill of Kent and the other decorative artists of his day. Two illustrations (page 37) are given of particularly fine examples. c I Considering Period of Considering the importance attached to such articles, further illustrations William Kent of the fine mirrors of this period are also given [see pages 38, 48 and 49). These, varying in composition, serve to show the classic feeling and yet the originality which imbued all decorative work in the early part of the eighteenth century. No description of the furniture in use during this period would be complete without reference to the state beds, always considered necessary for the dig- nity of the owner and his important guests. A line example can be seen in the room shown on page 3 2 ; in another apartment {see page 1 9) a per- haps finer model is exhibited, the charader of which, however, is somewhat lost by the omission of the front curtains, in deference to modern hygiene. The fine Genoese velvet and the beautifiil embroideries with which it is up- holstered illustrate the wealth and extravagance of our Georgian ancestors. 52 Chapter V STATE BEDSTEAD, CIRCA 1750, CORNICE AND PILLARS IN CARVED MAHOGANY, UPHOLSTERED IN DAMASK 54 CHAPTER V. THE LATTER HALF OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY AN implicit acceptation of ancient classic art as being alone worthy of consideration had for upwards of i 50 years been the unswerving creed of every EngUsh architect, designer or . craftsman, but at the middle of the eighteenth century the k^feeling was being replaced by a craving for something more modern or novel. This resulted in various styles and fashions being adopted, which rapidly superseded each other to suit the passing fancy of the day; a few architects, notably Chambers, Gandon, and Dance the younger, endeavoured to continue the classic traditions as practised by their predecessors, but their efforts seem to have been outshadowed by those whose work appealed to the popular demand for modern peculiarities. The brothers Robert and James Adam most prominently represent the new school; indeed, the spirit of the age seems refleded in their claim "to have brought about a kind of revolution in this useful and elegant art." The particular individuality which their work expressed may be summed up as an attempt to refine classic ornament. In 1754 the elder brother, Robert, visited Italy and the eastern coast of the Adriatic. On his travels he met Piranesi,whohad already pubHshed drawings of ancient buildings, and, until his death in 1779, this Italian architect continued to supply illustrations of antique Roman and Grecian ornament, the detail of which Robert Adam adapted as embellishment both for exteriors and interiors of buildings as well as for furniture and every kind of decorative object. There is much to admire in some of the earlier work, but their " improved " style soon degenerated into insincere, but inexpensive, reproduction of the antique, and its adoption and continuance in the hands of less capable successors clearly marks the decay of English art. However, the brothers Adam in one respedl varied from their contemporaries: like their predecessor William Kent (whose later work inspired some of their most successful efforts), they accepted the theory that furniture and decoration should form parts of the complete design of the house, and several mansions were built and furnished ready for occupation under their superintendence; indeed, they seem to have combined in them- selves the position of building speculators, architects, designers of furniture and of nearly every decorative article, including even counterpanes; but, apart from their versatile capabilities, the gradual disappearance of the in- fluence of the architect from the interior decoration of the house is one of ^ ^ the most Latter Half the most notable features of the period. Other architeds, trained by the of the XVIII fixed rules and principles which must necessarily govern construction, and Century to some extent even the external ornament of buildings, found themselves unable to cope with the vagaries which popular fancy, influenced largely by the exuberance of the school of Louis XV, was demanding. In 1756 Isaac Ware published his Complete Book of ArchiteSiiire^ in which are detailed rules and precepts for designing ceilings, chimney- pieces, doors, and other interior decoration; but Ware belonged to the classic school which had flourished under the two first Georges, and had no sympathy with modern vagaries; he had seriously studied in Italy, had published, in 1738, his translation of the four books of Palladio, and had designed several noble mansions, including Chesterfield House. The pro- tests in his book against the new innovations illustrate the changes then taking place. "Let us banish French, Chinese and Gothic decoration, equally mean and frivolous, equally unworthy of place where the sciences are ob- served and equally a disgrace to the taste of the' proprietor," he writes; but still he feels it his duty to advise the student to study the" petty wildnesses" as well as " true and noble ornament," for, " unless he can conform himself to fancy as well work with judgment, he will do little in an age like this." At the middle of the eighteenth century the trade of the furniture maker had largely increased, partly as it was the fashion to fill apartments with many more articles than were formerly considered necessary, and partly owing to the requirements of the rich traders, now becoming far more im- portant than in the preceding generations; the wealth of this new class of customer was sufficient to provide him with any luxury or comfort which the age afforded, but naturally his views as to the size of house necessary to his position were more moderate. For such less important buildings lighter furniture was more suitable. The age is remarkable for the skill of the designers and craftsmen who coped with this demand. In the previous generation the aim had been for the furniture to be suitable to the style of house for which it was required, but the eiTorts of the new school (of which the name of Chippendale is to- day the most prominent) whether in French, in Chinese, or in Gothic taste, were directed indiscriminately to adorning the somewhat uninteresting houses then being built in classic style by Paine, Vardy, Wood, Taylor and other architects of the period. Literary experts have hitherto had little to say respecting the furniture 56 and decoration and decoration produced during the reigns of George I and George II, but Latter Half it cannot be said that the fame of the brothers Adam, or of Chippendale, or of the XVIII his successors Locke and Copeland, Ince and Mayhew, Johnson, Manwar- Century ing. Shearer, Hepplewhite or Sheraton have suffered from such causes ; indeed, so much has been written lately on the subject that it would seem unnecessary to repeat any details respeding their personality or their methods of working. Apart from the excellent book by Miss Constance Simon (to whose researches we are indebted for so many of the important known fads respecting these furniture designers of the latter half of the eighteenth cen- tury) much of recent literature on the subjed consists of conjecture based on the prefaces, descriptions and designs which they each issued ; indeed, without these published designs and fashion plates it is probable that we should have heard little of these craftsmen, as their names can only include a fraction of the furniture makers who worked in London alone during this half century. That Chippendale himself had a fashionable clientele is obvious from the list of subscribers to his book, although they cannot compare in importance with those who subscribed for the designs published by William Kent a genera- tion earlier. This fad: hardly warrants his name being often adopted to describe nearly the whole of the furniture produced in England for upwards of a quarter of a century. When his workshop was consumed by fire in 1755, it contained but twenty workmen's chests, which would seem insufficient to have manufadured even a very small proportion of the " Chippendale" furniture which has recently appeared on the market. A writer in Punch has summed up the position. He claims to have ascertained the number of genu- ine Chippendale chairs owned by his relatives, and also found out that other people's relations were equally fortunate in the possession of such articles. From these data he calculates that Chippendale produced at least a chair every minute, day and night, during his whole life. As a matter of fact, with one exception, Chippendale does not even claim to have produced furniture in accordance with any of his published designs; they were merely intended for fashion plates, and as such were, no doubt, copied by other furniture makers, many of whom were subscribers, in other parts of the country. His designs were to a great extent inspired by (in many cases pradically copied from) the published drawings of Meissonier, Pineau, Oppenord and others of the school of Louis XV, in order to meet a craze for all things French which, about the middle of the eighteenth century, existed for a short time in this country. 5 7 To obtain Latter Half To obtain additional grandeur the mantelpieces were now frequently of the XVIII made in marble, and enormous sums were spent to secure the finest quali- Century ties of that material, especially, as Isaac Ware points out, "by those to whom expense is a recommendation (and there are too many of that class)." Ex- quisite as are many of the examples of these later Georgian marble mantels, it is doubtful whether their adoption produced as satisfactory decorative results as the carved wooden ones of the preceding age; the latter matched the other woodwork of the room, whereas the marble, and especially the statuary white variety, tended to attract attention to the detriment of every other ornament in the same apartment. Although less ornate than many, the mantelpiece (dating from the middle of the century) shown on page 64 is a fine specimen of the carved wood type; the room in which it is erected is hung with an eighteenth century wall-paper, and the result is entirely satisfactory. Figured silks, often designed expressly for the client (frequently obtained from France), began to take the place of velvets and damask for wall coverings in important apartments ; and such hangings were usually surrounded by borders of carved wood gilt. In 1756, Mrs Delany, referring to Lady Hillsborough's town house, writes: " She has a very good house furnished all with yellow damask with an open border of burnished silver that edges all the hangings, and many other pretty decorations of Japan and China, but no pictures." A charming chimney-piece of the " continued " type is given on page 66; its strictly classic lines show the work of the architect, but, in order to suit the new mode, the details are finer and the construction lighter than customary during the early part of the century. An interesting comparison to this is the one (page 7 6) in the " Chinese " taste, also in the same collection; it illustrates the " petty wildnesses" of the ingenious frirniture designer, and was evidently intended to be used in a room completely decorated in the same style. These quaint "Chinese," sometimes termed " Indian," rooms still exist in several great country-houses ; the walls being hung with paper on which English interpretations of celestial art are most curiously depicted. Mirrors are other articles which the furniture designers of the period adopted as their own, and, as they formed such important decorative objeds in grand apartments, several are here illustrated. Such a fine specimen as that shown on page 59 (which is ten feet high) is extremely rare; it was evidently designed especially for the house from which it was removed. On page 62 5 8 another HANCJING CLIPBOARD; MAHOGANY, THE CAR\'IN(iS GILT HANGING CHINA CABINET; "CHINESE TASTE," IN CAR\T,D WOOD GILT ■<^i^i^ COMMODE TABLE, CIRCA 1760, CARVED IN MAHOGANY 61 CORNICE FOR WINDOU', CIRCA i-6o, IN CARAKD WOOD GILT efy^Sf7.'cL?l Capyng}il imys^i-esi^— — g ^AwM ft PIKR-GLASS(S ft high), IN CAR\T.D WOOD GILT, CIRCA 1760 62 GIRANDOLE. IN CAR\T.D WOOD GILT, CIRCA 1-60 PIER-GLASS IN CAR\ED WOOD GILT, CIRCA 1765 ltiiysi"rtC?VJ. Uepyrijflt SIDE-TABLE WITH MARBLE TOP IX CAR\T:D WOOD (7ILT, CIRCA 1-60 63 L ^fri^'"-! %_ c ^L'-'____ tK^mmH SIMPLE" MANTKLPIKCE IN CAR\KD WOOD, CIRCA 1-60 HANGING CHINA CABINET, WITH PA(;ODA TOI CIRCA 1--0 t^'/xffffgZC-Z-'' Cofyri,),!: 64 WRITING TABLE, CAR\ED IN MAHOGANY, CIRCA 1-60 ■m ':,ix:: (Ml I M t f M ) M ( J •/ » ; ' / ( I t ^^^'^irnm^f^^i^-f^Qd^lm^ i>:i.^t;i5f^,^r&x:Jx:£^tf3^?^' il:.^^^ :^^\^Ci^:^^' '^^ >^^- ^^ ^^ ^% i'^iit 66 MANTELPIECE, CLASSIC DESIGN, CIRCA 1770 another is shown which is equally charming and which is nearly eight feet Latter Half in height. Very large mirrors such as these occupied central positions in large of the XVIII rooms and underneath them stood either elaborate side-tables, frequently Century with marble tops, such as on page 63, or finely carved commode tables as illustrated on page 61. Another mirror, equally important, is shown on page 69; it represents the best style of Robert Adam and shows how his earlier work was influenced by the styles of his immediate predecessors. On page 72 is seen another interesting design, but of later date, probably about 1780. The example on page 63 is of about the same size; it is one of a pair intended to complete the decoration of the side of a room in which either a door, a chimney-piece, a large book-case or other important piece of fur- niture occupied the central position. The amount of detail of carving on these mirrors is extraordinary, and the price originally paid for them, partly on account of the then large cost of glass, would shock even those who are conversant with the figures recently obtained for "Chippendale" furniture. The methods by which the designers of this period transformed the vari- ous articles of stately furniture to suit the modern taste are extremely inter- esting; in none are the successive developments more clearly marked than in the state bedsteads. Curtains at the four corners were considered a neces- sity till the end of the eighteenth century, if not for use at all events for appearance. On the example shown on page 54, the escalloped and nulled pattern is still used in the cornice, as had existed in Stuart times, but, instead of being upholstered, the carved mahogany is now left bare and the plumes at the corners are replaced by fanciful scrolls. The hangings are also simpler and the fringes and braiding less elaborate. In other words, the furniture maker was gradually supplanting the upholsterer. In another state bedstead in the same colle6lion the cornice is still more fanciful and shows no trace of any earlier influence, and the back of the bed is of polished wood instead of upholstery; instead of velvet or damask thin Indian silk is used for the hangings. Other interesting varieties are the small " Tent" and " Field" beds made during this period; examples of these are scarce, yet, considering how often references are made to them, considerable numbers must have existed. With increasing correspondence, writing-tables received more attention, and, as in France, large sums of money were spent by the wealthy in obtain- ing such articles of furniture sufliciently important to occupy the central 67 position Latter Half position in line apartments. It would be difficult to conceive how luxury could ot the XVIII be carried farther than the elaborate writing-table illustrated on page 64. Century Other types of tables in use at this time are so numerous that it is impos- sible even to refer to each, but the specimen illustrated on page 63 will serve as an example of the finest work of the early part of the reign of George III. On page 7 i is an illustration of one of a beautiful pair of side-tables; the peculiar form of "apron" with which these are ornamented is often referred to as denoting what is termed " Irish Chippendale," and such description also generally implies coarser work than was usual in England. Certainly in this case such a description would be misleading, as there is no finer carving in the collection than on these original examples. It is often assumed that all so-called Chippendale furniture must be of mahogany left in its natural colour; however, many pieces intended for use in apartments such as drawing-rooms and boudoirs were gilt all over, as in France during the same period. The elaborate hanging china cabinet in the " Chinese taste " shown on page 61 is an instance. The exquisite China table, page 7 I , is also so ornamented, and, certainly among examples of the French school, it would be difficult to find more charming or more decorative arti- cles of furniture. Such tables were used for displaying articles of china, the fashion for collecting which was again the vogue. The diaries of the period make constant references to the collections of china and the interest of the owners in such possessions. To some extent the fashion for Oriental speci- mens had now changed in favour of Dresden ware, and, in addition, examples from the pottery works at Chelsea, Bow, Rockingham, Worcester, Derby and Leeds (all of which commenced about the middle of the century) were much prized. On pages 6 1 and 64 are shown hanging cabinets intended for containing such collections. On page 73 is an illustration of another type of china cabi- net, which in various styles was now frequently made. The stand, also for displaying china, reproduced on the same page, is one of the decorative eccentricities in the so-called Chinese taste on which the fashionable furni- ture designer of the period displayed so much originaHty ; the peculiar winged dragon with which it is surmounted was a great favourite with these artists, its prototype being frequently found on mirrors, beds and other elaborate objects. The small table (page 78) is interesting as the design is included in the work published by Chippendale, and is designated by him as a " Break- fast Table," although the exact reason for such definition is not apparent. 68 The bureau SE'l'TKE AND MIRROR, IN CAk\KD WOOD GILT, SHOW- ING KARl.IKR STYLK OK ROHKRT ADAM Lerj/JD/^IC^L*^. 69 PKDIMKNTS OK BOOKCASES HURI'AL' BOOKCASI'., [N CAR\'KD MAHOGANY', CI R C A I 7 - O Lci vaoni, C'L 'A SIDE-TABLE, WITH CAR\TI) APROX, MAHOGANV Leqyijiiirl-C^L^J- CapyriQl}l CHIXA TABLE, WITH FRETWORK GALLER\', CIRCA 1-70 Uqy^aq t Clll CapyrJgliL 71 imkk-(;l.\ss in C.\R\ I'D wool) '-S (iii;r. CIRCA 1 -So SEIIKK IN "CHI NESF, TASTK," CIRCA 1-60 *♦ DRESSING-MIRROR, CIRCA 17X0 CHINA CABINET WITH PAGODA ON PEDIMENT STAND FOR DISPLAYING CHINA IN "CHINESE TASTE' Lei!)9inlC;tM tenYtoi]kC-L^-^ Copyri^Tri LenyganLC^L-'-^ \RM-CHAIK, IN -CHINKSK 'lASTK " Ltnv,«„i.C--l ARM-CHAIR, BY 'I'HI-; HROTHKRS ADAM. SHOWINC FRKNCH iNFLLKNCI-: ARM-C}iAIR. IN "CiOTHlC TASTE" CHAIR, BY CHIPPKNDALl-; .t.^(«^»M«^r*w««tr Le 1 vai7n&. C^P--^ Zf7/,- Ar?!" Copyrljht WINDOW SK'I'TKH, CIRCA 17S0 likl-AlvKAST -i-AISLl', l!^■ CH I I'I'KNDALE SSEffJI LeriyaiijUaL'-- ■ 1 i 1 ^':;%i 1 L______ i^^B^ il w ^^SSttmSMas^^^^^^b^^^ -A K 1 w ^!*;tti.Yc«i>>>vt«->vA!*>>v^'*»i>j-:t"a*>tc^^ ARM CHAIR EARLIER WORK OE THV. l;R(n■llER^ ADAM 7B ARM-CHAIR, LATER WORK OE THE BROTHERS ADAM WttmBBBBBBB Dll^liUIIIJIUUIIUUULUUDDilUUIIllUUiWWay ^ PAINTI-.I) AM) Gll/r LXmNICI-; AM) KKiLkl.l) DAMASK WALL HANCiING m m m w (;iL']" nORDKRS FOR DAMASK HANGINGS l^^n ^^H/I^V/^ii^ JJJHII 2#^^a Mj^pi^H i^ BJ^K^^ri^^Hv^sS^ ^r^lP^rw^^^ S^i|lH|i.K^ v^trt • Jb^kjSJTi. j J^ ^^^^^Ki : ^^-ci llHIlP^^^WMMi ^^^^■^^^B^^. :W V^9^ ^^^^i^'^ ig yjii— »i ^^^Mfl^ ' ^ Hn 111^^9 HHHH^i ' l->M'i WALL DECORATION IN CAR\i;i) WOOD GILT, CIRCA i-So 79 PIKRCED PICTLKK FRAMK. IX e^\R^■Kl) wood G I LT ^•*. LsfiygcrrA C- L' Eonvriaht. WALL BRACKKT, STYLE OF THK BROTHERS ADAM L?7y_^a/t LC?l,'-^ WALL BRACKET, S'E^'LE OF CHIPPENDALE L^tyS'l'-C'L:' So The bureau book-case had for several generations been a popular article Latter Half of English furniture, and large numbers in various styles still exist; the one of the XVIII shown on page 70 represents a good example of this useRil article of furni- Century ture, as manufactured for wealthy clients at this period. It remains to consider the subject of chairs and settees. The models here illustrated are chosen as typical of the different styles which were used in English mansions during the latter half of the eighteenth century. So much attention has lately been paid to these particular articles of furniture that to many it may be unnecessary to point out which represent the work at various stages during the careers of the brothers Adam, or that the settee on page 7 2 and the arm-chair on the top of page 7 7 are rare examples of so- called Chinese Chippendale, or that in the arm-chair at the bottom of the same page is seen a specimen of that greatest vagary of all, namely, the eighteenth century Gothic style, which Horace Walpole did much to popu- larize by his villa at Strawberry Hill. The chair also shown on page 7 7 is peculiarly typical of the class of work associated with the name of Chippendale. The charming Httle settee on the next page, of about 1780, closes the list of examples chosen to illustrate the style of seats manufadured during the latter part of the eighteenth century. On page 73 is seen an unusually fine specimen of a dressing-mirror, the design for which also dates from about 1780. But so numerous were the various types of furniture upon which the cabinet makers and the carvers of this period displayed their originality and abilities that to illustrate speci- mens of every type would be impossible. In addition to the articles already referred to, clocks, screens, wine-coolers, sideboards, urns, urn tables, ladies' work-tables, tea-caddies and barometers do not nearly complete the entire list; indeed, it would seem that a greater variety of furniture existed than is met with to-day. The previous descriptions have nearly all related to what may be termed adlual articles of furniture, but the mural decorations of the same school and period are equally interesting, although less generally understood. Tapestry and wood panelling were out of date: wall-paper, unless hand-painted in Chinese or other peculiar styles, was only considered fit for secondary apart- ments; Genoese and Venetian velvets were hardly suitable for use with the modern light furniture. Silk damask had become the fashionable wall hanging, and served as a good background for gilt decorative objeds. The mirrors of the period have already been referred to; brackets for 8 1 supporting -atter Half supporting busts or china ornaments had been largely used by the previous f the XVIII generation, but the shapes now changed entirely to suit the new modes; Century those illustrated on page 80 are typical of the finest work of the schools of Adam and Chippendale respectively. The unusual open scroll carving on the picture frame shown on the same page would, upon a background of rose or green silk, form a most decorative object and one which would harmonize well with the gilt mirrors and other ornamented carvings of the period. Not only the silk wall hangings, but even the wall-papers were usually bordered along the dado rail and cornice, as well as round the doors and windows, with carved and gilt scroll-work, four different patterns of which are seen at the top of page 79. For the further embellishment of the grandest apart- ments carved ornament was designed to occupy special positions, executed in the same openwork style and also highly gilt; two specimens are also given on the same page. It is difficult to realize why the use of such applied carved ornament has not continued; nothing could be more suitable for completing decoration. To some extent it may be accounted for by the fact that, however well fur- niture in the style of Chippendale and his compeers is understood to-day, certainly the interior decoration of the same school and period, although possessing equal charm and originality, have not received the same study and interest. 82 Chapter VI CHAPTER VI. TAPESTRIES NY description of decoration of English mansions during the seventeenth century would be incomplete without reference to tapestries; but the space here available only permits of the briefest sketch of this important subjed. Tapestries have been .made at Mortlake and other places in England at various periods, but those of home manufadure can only form a very small fradion of the numbers in this country, by far the greater quantity having come from the Netherlands, for the manufadure of which England supplied the wool. During the Middle Ages tapestries were considered movable, and were usually taken down and carried, together with the furniture, on journeys from one castle to another. From the frequent reference to the subjed in State- papers, wills and other documents, the numbers of tapestries in England previous to the accession of Henry VIII must have been very large. That monarch, imitating the example of his contemporaries, was enthusiastic in coUeding specimens, and the quantity he obtained can be judged from the inventory which was taken of his goods after his death. At the various royal palaces, such as the Tower, Westminster, Hampton Court, Oatlands, None- such and Windsor, he possessed no less than 2,600 pieces. Probably many of these were formerly Church property, the subjeds being mostly religious; certainly a considerable number had belonged to Cardinal Wolsey, as the description, " Having a border of the late Cardinalls Armes," frequently occurs. A few were of Italian origin, the remainder being from the Netherlands. Queen Elizabeth herself had little money to spare on such luxuries, but Lord Cecil and other of her nobles continued to import tapestries from Flanders. Mary Qiieen of Scots owned upwards of thirty in the Palace of Holyrood. References exist of about this date to tapestry weavers at Canter- bury, Norwich and other towns, but, as in every case these were Flemish reRigees, it is probable their occupation was repairing rather than manufac- turing important pieces. By the beginning of the seventeenth century the manufadure of tapestries was almost the only trade in the Netherlands which her former rulers had not succeeded in ruining; indeed, many Flemish cities, notwithstanding their former great reputations, discontinued the weaving industry, and Brus- sels became the principal centre of the trade. However, the Archduke Albert and his consort Isabella did their utmost to revive this, the national industry. 8 3 The tame Tapestries The fame of Rubens did much to assist, and his designs were extensively uti- Hzed. Although the output had declined it was still far greater than in any other country, and large numbers of tapestries were imported to England. The history of weaving in the Netherlands during the seventeenth cen- tury shows a gradual but steady falling off, both in the quality of the work and the number of people employed. The examples illustrated on pages 85 and 87, which are both in the colledion at N° 3 i Old Burlington Street, may be taken as typical of Flemish work at the latter part of the sixteenth and at the earlier part of the following century respectively; in the border of the latter may be seen a shield with the letter B on each side, one of the marks of the Brussels weavers. At the end of the eighteenth century the trade, which had been the glory of Flanders and which had once employed many thousands of operatives, only found work for one hundred and fifty craftsmen. In 1607 Henry IV started a royal manufadory in Paris; at once this proved successful. Some ten years later King James I decided to imitate his example, the enterprise at Mortlake being the result. Sir Francis Crane was the leading spirit from the .first; in return for eredling the necessary build- ings and starting the enterprise, he was granted the fees for the making of four baronets and a monopoly of produdion in this country for twenty-four years. About fifty weavers were secretly obtained from the Netherlands, and Philip de Maecht, who had assisted in starting the royal works in Paris, was appointed manager of the works. Ading under the advice of Rubens, the Raphael cartoons, which Pope Leo X had sent to Brussels to be translated into the tapestries now at the Vatican, were acquired in 1630 for use at Mortlake; for upwards of two hundred years these cartoons were at Hamp- ton Court Palace, but they are now at South Kensington Museum. Through the services of Sir Henry Wootton, Francis Cleyn came to Eng- land about 1623 as principal designer, and continued in this capacity for about thirty years; his abilities did much to promote the success of the en- terprise. He also decorated several mansions, notably Bolsover and Holland House, with paintings. Sir Francis Crane received plenty of royal orders, but experienced much difficulty about payment; in 1623 he writes to the King: " I am already over ^16,000 in the busynes and never made returns of more than ^2, 5 00, so that my estate is wholly exhausted and my credit is spent, besides the debts that lye upon me." Under Charles I he was more fortunate, not only 84 in obtaining 85 o o ai w o z < < 05 >< ►J OS < W h o5 H c« W 0< < WW J pi >'^ a!Z - DO hh ZO 87 BRUSSELS TAPP'.STR^', EARLY SFAF.NTEKNTH CENTURY 2i ai p I z 3; O 88 in obtaining payments and grants, but in receiving even more liberal patron- Tapestries age; indeed, it was from the accession of Charles I until the death of Sir Francis in 1636 that the prosperity of the Mortlake factory was at its height. Its success created considerable envy, and petitions were presented by persons anxious to obtain favour representing that the profits made were unreason- ably large. During the troublous times of the monarchy naturally the factory at Mort- lake, which had become a Crown property, suffered considerably. As no customers could be found in England, further petitions sought for the repeal of the duty against exportation, in order that the productions might be sold in Holland, the Mortlake workmen alleging they were starving with hunger. One of the principal subjeds woven at Mortlake was the series illustrating the history of Vulcan and Venus; amongst other allegations contained in the " discovery," which Dru Burton presented in 1 6 3 o to the King, he explained how the Crown had been greatly overcharged by Sir Francis Crane, and as- serted that a profit of ^i 2,2 2 5 had been made on four copies of this par- ticular tapestry, the original having been ordered by the King. The Victoria and Albert Museum at South Kensington contains one of the series, an illus- tration of which is here given. The petition, which contains much interesting information, commences : " A discoverie of the great gaine made by the manu- facture of the Tapistrie. It may please your Ma"'' The first suits of tapistrie of the storie of Vulcan and Venus, which is the foundation of all the good Tapistries made in England." The Commonwealth is not usually credited with doing much to assist the fine arts, but the Mortlake factory is an instance to the contrary, as dur- ing that period it received considerable encouragement from the authorities. The Council of State ordered the tapestries representing the destruction of the Armada to be hung up in their Chamber, and Oliver Cromwell himself gave many instructions about various other pieces fi-om the royal collections being arranged for his own requirements. The Roundhead soldiers, however, regarded the subjects as idolatrous, and numerous tapestries in country man- sions were mutilated. It is also somewhat curious that the profusion of household luxury dur- ing the reign of Charles II was not accompanied by a revival of interest in the manufactory at Mortlake; on the contrary, the opposite was the case. It can partly be accounted for by the fact that a reaction had set in against the architecture and decoration of the early Renaissance period, and every- g I thing that Tapestries thing that savoured of the old Flemish taste was out of fashion, and also that panelling in oak or cedar in the style of Wren had become popular for covering walls. For those who still preferred tapestry, the royal factory in Paris supplied more modern and brighter examples, the principal novelty being that such French work more closely represented paintings. Evelyn, in 1683, referring to his visit to the dressing-room of the Duchess of Portsmouth, writes : " Here I see the new fabriq of French tapissry, for designe, tendernesse of worke and incomparable imitation of the best paintings, beyond anything I had ever beheld. Some pieces at Versailles, St Germains and other Palaces of the French King, with hunting figures and landskips, exotiq fowls and all to the life really don." The demand for tapestries must have still been considerable as, in a peti- tion which Francis Poyntz presented in 1 6 7 8 , it was stated that _^ 1 00,000 worth of tapestry was imported into England every year, employing 10,000 people in its manufacture abroad, and taking ^100,000 out of this country. England having plenty of wool, and the best in the world for the purpose, might with encouragement become the best magazine in the world for tapestry. During the reign of Charles II repeated alterations were made in the man- agement of the Mortlake factory, but none seem to have been successful, although the rent of the building was reduced to five shillings per annum, and ^1,000 per annum offered towards the support of the works. The French style was imitated and Verrio supplied designs, but the brilhancy of the Paris colours was never obtained. Sir Sackville Crow, one of the many who endeavoured to manage the business, was soon in the debtors' prison; he alleged that the King gave the trade little or no encouragement. From its inception until it was closed, the employees at Mortlake seem to have been entirely Flemings, and their religion was one of the many difficulties during the reign of James II. William III did little to assist, as the tapestries which were ordered in commemoration of his victories were obtained from Brussels. There is little further to relate in the history of the Mortlake factory; vari- ous attempts were made to foster the trade, but evidently its reputation had disappeared. In 1702 the surveyors stated: " The commodity did not vend as formerly so there had been but little work of late years," and, in 1702, the Crown was advised that, " It would not be to the Queen's prejudice or 92 that of that of her people if Her Majesty released to the petitioner the proviso and Tapestries conditions for employing the houses for tapestry making, and that Her Ma- jesty might lawfully release the same." Notwithstanding the decline of the factory at Mortlake, there was some revival in the demand for tapestries of other makes at the latter part of the seventeenth and at the beginning of the eighteenth centuries, and separate factories were commenced in various parts of England. The one at Lambeth attained some proportions; another instance was at Stamford, where are re- puted to have been made the set representing air, fire and water, now at Burley-on-the-Hill; others of the same make are at Belton House. One of the last known manufacturers in this country was Vanderbanc, who worked in Soho early in the eighteenth century. His productions are interesting as somewhat resembling those of the Gobelins. The other illustration which accompanies this article is of a tapestry probably by this maker at the Victoria and Albert Museum. Another factory, where imitations of Gobelins work were produced, was started by Parisot in i 750 at Paddington; it was soon afterwards removed to Fulham, but ended some five years later. Although closed for lack of funds at the end of the seventeenth century, the Paris factory of the Gobelins was soon after revived, and the work there has practically represented the industry of tapestry weaving from the early part of the eighteenth century until quite recent times. The subjects chosen have altered periodically with the many varieties of taste adopted in that country. French tapestries, intended both for the decoration of walls and for the covering of furniture, are occasionally found in English houses, princi- pally imported during the latter half of the eighteenth century. 93 Chapter VII CHAPTER VII. WOOD PANELLING WAINSCOATING, or, as it is also spelt, wainscoting, was cer- tainly the most usual form of wall decoration during the whole of the seventeenth and the first half of the eighteenth century, but before commencing to deal with these periods, the work of somewhat earlier times must be referred to in order to follow the course of its development. At the beginning of the reign of Henry VIII, Gothic traditions in England had only commenced to be affe6ied by the revival of classic knowledge already dominant in Italy; moreover, the wealth in this country was then so largely in the hands of the Church, and art was so entirely devoted to her service, that no decoration existed especially suitable for castles and manor-houses, or which varied from that employed in monasteries, abbeys and churches. Early in the sixteenth century the panels of wainscoting were frequently ornamented with grotesque figures and faces, but the most usual design was the linen-fold pattern ; indeed this had served for upwards of a century through- out northern Europe to ornament chests, cupboards and beds, as well as walls : typical specimens are shown at the top of page 97. With the distribution of Church property,many of the old buildings were destroyed, but the wainscoting which they contained was often preserved for new edifices; indeed, this pra6lice of removing wainscoting from an old house to a new, whether or not built on the old site, continued to prevail until well into the eighteenth century. Instances are to be found at Coleshill, Badmin- ton, Ditchley and numerous other mansions. By the accession of Elizabeth, the linen-fold pattern had almost disap- peared, and during her reign panels were generally left plain, as in the ex- ample shown. This specimen may date from her time, but exadly similar work continued to be made as late as the restoration of Charles II. Such plain panels were occasionally inlaid with geometrical and other designs, the inlay consisting usually of boxwood or ebony let into grooves cut in the solid panel and not merely inserted in a veneer as at later periods. Before the close of the sixteenth century, considerable knowledge of classic art existed in the Netherlands, and in all designs then producedin that country, for whatever purpose they were intended, is to be seen a quaint interminghng of the old and the new styles. Nothing marks the arrival of the Flemings in this country at the end of the reign of Qiieen Elizabeth more clearly than the carvings which they executed on wainscoting; an occupation which must have 94 employed WOOD PANELLING WITH CLASSIC PILASTER, CIRCA 1620 J II 1 1 1 n i 1 1 1 1 i t i • » J » » '" • ' * ^ ' '^^ ^^ ' ' " w .~* inn 95 OAK PANELLING, F.NI) OF SLXTEF.NTH CFNTURV 97 98 OAK p\xi-:lijx(;. karu' par'j- of sknknu^kxth ckxtury DETAIL OF CORNICE AND PANELLING IN CEDAR ROOM 99 OAK I'ANELLIXG, CIRCA i6Sc I o r WALNUT PANELLING, CROSS-BANDKD AND INLAID, CIRCA i6qo WOOD I'ANI'l.LINc; .\M)CAR\M) CORNICE AM) 0\ i:RIXX)k CIRCA 1730 f 1^*^; f • iycfc£-:e«^MwsS ;r 102 employed a considerable number of these refugees. Their immigration con- Wood PanelHng tinned through the reign of James I and during the earlier part of that of his successor; and in all the numerous mansions then ereded, the influence, if not the adual handicraft, of these Flemings is to be traced. Although all their work bears a strong family likeness, the aftual details vary considerably, the designs in no two cases being identically the same. The specimens shown on page 98 (like the other examples which illustrate this article) are in the colledionat N° 3 i Old BurHngton Street, and maybe taken as typical of the best work of this interesting period. The fad should be mentioned, especially as it is one which is, per- haps, hardly realized, that much of this early Renaissance wainscoting was not left in the bare oak with which it was generally construded, but was originally painted and often highly decorated; but as distemper was the medium generally employed, such painting has in most cases entirely dis- appeared. About the middle of the seventeenth century, a complete change began to take place both in the designs and the construdion of the panelling used in English houses. This consisted of a substitution of classic for semi-classic art, and marks the final disappearance of Flemish influence; but, before dealing with the new style, it is interesting to note the charaderistics of the principal differences. In the earlier Renaissance work the panels were sunk and the framework projeding, whereas in the later style the opposite system was adopted. In the former period, classic knowledge was only displayed by the occasional use of columns, by no means corred in their proportions, or by the adoption of rounded arches with classical enrichments. Possibly small round arches springing from the floor, such as are sometimes met with, and such as may be seen on page 95, were suggested by the arches which often form the ground floor of classic buildings. Another innovation was the abolition of small cross sedions and the sub- stitution of long narrow top panels of various widths, and accurately spaced to balance each other and to avoid monotony. In the earlier work (except in some of the latest or what may be termed transition examples, such as that shown on page 98) the ornament was of uniform size, repeating itself until the required space was covered. Inigo Jones had already produced in this country buildings true in every detail to the principles of classic art, and it was on a corred knowledge of 103 such art Wood Panelling such art that the new style of wainscoting was founded, the skirting board (still used in every modern room) being copied from the plinth and base of the classical pedestal, the dado being the die of such pedestal, and the dado moulding the cap; the upper panel takes the place of the shaft of the column, and the frieze and cornice represent the parts similarly delineated. The rules of the Roman Vitruvius as well as of Palladio and other great architefts ot the Renaissance had already been published; these works were devoted to the minutest analysis of the five orders of architecture, and translations, which were now beginning to appear in England, enabled Webb, Marsh, Gerbier, and other successors of Inigo Jones to produce not only external but internal architedure approximately corred to the principles of classic art. In Holland the same results had been obtained at a slightly earlier date, and, as the Dutch had become the recognized authorities, no doubt their influence did much to bring about the complete change in internal decora- tion in England. As previously mentioned, the panels on the wainscoting were now raised and a particular form of boledion moulding was employed, the introdudion of which is often attributed to Wren, whose work commenced immediately after the Restoration, but earlier examples exist. However, he appears to have increased the size of these bolection mouldings, and with the aid of Grinling Gibbons he instituted further elaboration, not only by carving such mould- ings, but also by applying additional ornamentation in the shapes of wreaths and drops, a subject which in this book is dealt with separately. The use ofwood for wainscoting is practically peculiar to northern Europe, and is there adopted as keeping out the cold more successfully than stone or plaster, while south of the Alps its use is avoided for the equally good reason that in hot climates it attracts vermin. The earliest examples of this classic style of panelling in wood were painted white, probably to more closely resemble the stone and plaster work in the villas and palaces of Italy. From the accession of Charles II it became the fashion to leave the wood bare, or merely waxed over; Evelyn, describing the gallery at Euston, writes: "The wainscot being of Eirr and painted, does not please me well as Spanish Oake without Paint." This fashion continued from that date until the end of the reign of Qiieen Anne, and, considering the numerous mansions then erected, naturally many examples still remain; the rooms at Hampton Court and Kensington Palace are well-known instances. The oak panelling in the 104 room room now at N" 3 i Old Burlington Street, removed from Brick Court, Wood Panelling Temple, a portion of which is illustrated on page 100, is another example. Oak was the wood usually employed, but cedar was also largely used. The accompanying illustrations (page 99), from the Cedar Room in the same collection, show the elaborate carving of the mouldings surrounding the principal panels, and also the carved cornice, one of the many small varia- tions from classic rules which Wren adopted, and of which his strict Palladian successors so much disapproved. Another wood which served the same purpose, but not so frequently either as oak or cedar, was walnut, often cross-banded and inlaid with other woods as on much contemporary furniture. The following description by Celia Fiennes of the hall in Lord Orford's house would apply equally to the example which is given on page I o I : " It is wanscoated w'"' wall nut tree the pannells and Rims round w'"" mulbery tree, yt is a Lemon Coullour and ye moldings bayond it round are of a sweete outlandish wood not much differing from Cedar but a finer Graine, the Chaires are of the same." Early in the eighteenth century, stucco or plaster commenced to com- pete with wood for the panelling of English rooms; it was largely employed by Vanbrugh and other members of the new school of Palladian architects, as representing more closely the examples in Italy, which, without great knowledge, they were endeavouring to imitate. The main anxiety at that particular period seemed to aim at producing stupendous results, and the detail often showed a coarseness unsuitable for interior decoration. By the accession of George II "architecture resumed all her rights," and buildings were designed (to quote Walpole) "in the purest style of antique composi- tion," and the pattern of wainscoting then employed again marks a distinct change. Instead of the panels being applied on the face of the framing, they were once more recessed, but the principal difference arose fi-om the care and skill which was then bestowed on the arrangement and detail of this interior woodwork. It would be impossible to illustrate a better example than that from the Stateroom at N° 31 Old BurHngton Street, shown on page 102; here the narrow panels are only slightly recessed, while the more im- portant or central panels project and are surrounded by deep mouldings carved with classic detail. The architraves, overdoors, mantels and all other parts were also designed so as to form integral parts of the complete scheme of decoration. The result of the skill and care thus bestowed produces an IOC appearance Wood Panelling appearance of dignity which in no other period or in any other country has been surpassed. The use of unpainted wood was now abandoned, and the prevailing shades of cream, green and pale blue colours which were used gave the appearance of comfort for which the rooms of this period are noted. Fre- quently additional grandeur was obtained by gilding or partly gilding some of the carving. Until the middle of the eighteenth century, the design and arrangement of this wainscoting had been in the hands of the architect, but from that time his services began to be replaced by the designer of furniture. Panelling disappeared, and in its place the walls were covered with silk or more often with wall-paper; from the decorative point of view there can be no comparison between the flat meanderings of one repeated pattern and the strong architectural lines produced by any scheme of panelling, how- ever simple. io6 Chapter VIII PLASTER DECORATION, UPPER PART OF HALL AT 30 OLD BURLINGTON STREET DESIGNED BY WILLIAM KENT 108 CHAPTER VIII PLASTER ORNAMENTATION PLASTERING may claim to be the most ancient form of decoration, for the discoveries at Tel-el- Amarna reveal the art to have existed more than i,ooo years before even the well-known examples at Pompeii were produced. The trade of the plasterer is closely allied to that of the artist painter, fresco being a method of painting with water colours on freshly laid plaster, the colours incorporating and drying with it, which is the only means of obtaining durability. The art of fresco was revived by the great painters of the Renaissance, who worked exadlly in this manner: compare the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican thus decorated by Michael Angelo. Plaster has been known under numerous names, and many varieties have existed, differing according to the plastic mixtures. The different composi- tions and the methods of application are described in considerable detail by Vitruvius. The superior quality of the Italian plaster was certainly due to considerable quantities of very finely ground marble being introduced into the finishing coat, which enabled the work to be so highly polished that it was used as mirrors and tops of tables. Numerous experiments for improving the quality of plaster are recorded: Pliny mentions fig juice; the Egyptians mixed mud from the Nile; elm bark was employed for Justinian's Church at Constantinople; bullock's blood was another ingredient. Such materials as beer, eggs, milk, gluten, sugar, pitch, and wax were used for mixing with mortar by builders of medieval cathe- drals; indeed, beer was habitually employed, Bess of Hardwick's masons " having to melt it in the cold winter of her death." Horsehair and fibre were in use in the sixteenth century. The account for repairs of the steeple of Newark Church in 167 i contains an entry: " Six strike of malt to make mortar to blend with y® lime and temper the same and 350 eggs to mix with it." The exterior ot Lord Burlington's Palladian villa at Chiswick was plastered with stucco, and during its building the sur- rounding distridl was impoverished for eggs and buttermilk. Sir Christopher Wren preferred the old method of using" marble meal," that is, marble very finely ground. The objeds of these various ingredients were either to retard the setting, to allow more time for manipulation, or to increase the ultimate hardness. The earliest examples in England seem to have been executed by the 109 Italian 1 Plaster Italian workmen introduced by Henry VII, but probably the elaborate orna- Ornamentation mentation both of the exterior and the interior of the Palace of Nonesuch during the next reign was the first revelation in this country of the wonderful possibilities of this homely material. With the religious troubles, the Italians returned to their homes, but, as plaster was henceforward continuously em- ployed, it would seem that E>nglish workmen had not only learned the trade, but had realized its value as a decorative medium. Examples of outdoor work still exist in a good state of preservation (principally in the Eastern counties) dating from the fifteenth century, and of interior work, the enormous num- ber of elaborate ceilings found in mansions erected during Elizabethan and early Jacobean periods show how universal its use had become and how thoroughly its application was understood. The men who executed this early work were not merely craftsmen, they were artists employing plaster as their medium and modelling the material in situ; by no other process can the same freedom and beauty of workman- ship be obtained; to-day it would be almost impossible to find workmen who, even if capable of modelling in situ, could design with the same feel- ing, the same delicacy and the same soft touch as their Elizabethan and Jaco- bean forbears. To avoid the metallic effeft produced by modern mechanical repetition, it is necessary to cast from moulds made from original examples. By this means the usual sharpness is avoided, and even the irregularities of the groundwork and of the mouldings are reproduced, which, unintentional as they originally were, add largely to the interest. It is by this process that the early Renaissance examples shown on pages 1 1 i and 112 were produced. Inigo Jones, accustomed to the universal employment of plaster work in Italy for interior decoration, naturally continued the practice, but his require- ments were entirely different; following classic examples, his ceilings were designed with large panels formed by heavy framework, and it was this fi-amework and not the groundwork which required to be enriched; such ornamentationconsistedof repetitions of the same pattern, and it would seem natural to first mould such detail and afterwards apply it to the framework rather than to attempt working in situ. The old method, therefore, began to disappear and to be replaced by the newer and quicker process. The ceiUngs at Rainham are perhaps the finest examples of his work, but there is little to choose between these and others such as Coleshill, Ford Abbey and Whitehall. The slavish imitation of the designs of Inigo Jones during the early eigh- teenth century applies equally to decorative work as to architecture, and the ' T o ceiling I'LASTKR CKII.INC. AM) FRIEZK. KARLV KXCLtSH RKNAISSAXCE III 'CW "" " T'*< ri.ASTKR CKlLINc; AM) KRIK/.K, KARLY l':X(iLISH RKNAISSANCF, I I 2 PLASTKR Ci;iLING, I'KRIOD OF WKF.X I I PLASTER CORNICE AND COLUMNS, PERIOD OF WREN Dirr.AIL Oh CKILIXCi IN HAIJ,, YW WILIJAM KKNT I 14 i'i,Asri-.R ()\ i-:ki)()(.)r. i:n(;lish pai.ladian pkriod 115 PLASTER ORX.AMl-XTATKIX t)X DOOR, \;y WILLIAM KKXT PLASl'ER ORNAMl'.NTATION IN HALL, l',Y W'lLLLAM KENT I I 6 I I ^$^ i t 4 f ^ $4^ If f^'^.-M $ 4.t ?.lMlMi''llMl'.l'Ml-.|Mi'.|MlMMiMl'.|l'.iMMi'OMI'|i''ll'.lMl''|l'|i % ~ , PLASTER ENRICHMENT ON CEILING, ENGLISH PALLADIAN PERIOD ii8 ceiling shown on page 1 1 8, which dates from about 1730, was doubtless Plaster intended to represent the style of the greatest architect this country has pro- Ornamentation duced. During the period of Wren the fashion of paneUing the walls with unpainted oak or cedar militated to some extent against the employment of plaster ornamentation; ceilings still required such treatment, but the carvers in wood seem now to have outshadowed the modellers in plaster; indeed, the ceiling decoration of his time, interesting as it is, often suggests the work of the sculptor rather than that of the artist conversant with the proper fundions of plaster ornament. The details of the foliage in the beautiful ceiling in the Cedar Room (facing page i ) appear almost separate from the main portion of the work, yet— and here is the main characteristic of the workof the Wren period- notwithstanding the elaboration of ornament, the metallic appearance usually found in modern work is here entirely absent. On page i i 3 is shown anotherspecimenof plaster treatment; this example is from a mansion known to have been built shortly after the Restoration of Charles II. As was then usually the case, a painting originally occupied the centre panel of this ceiling. By the beginning of the eighteenth century the immediate successors of Wren claimed to more correctly interpret classic art by the employment of numerous columns and an abundance of plaster ornamentation. Their work was often unnecessarily heavy and ponderous, but this heaviness of style was soon rectified; the emulation of the earlier work of Inigo Jones and the serious studies of Lord Burlington, Kent, Gibbs and others produced a proper knowledge of the proportions and did much towards improving classic art. Always excepting the few earlier examples by Inigo Jones, it was during the second quarter of the eighteenth century that the finest classic work in plaster ornament was executed in this country. Such examples as Houghton and Holkham would be difficult to surpass, but the age was prolific in the building of great houses with sumptuously decorated interiors, and numerous instances exist, such as the hall at N° 30 Old Burlington Street, illustrated on page 1 14, which are worthy to be compared with these splendid examples. If the particulars of his connection with the decoration of this building were not known, a comparison of the general design and of the details with the ornamentation at Houghton would prove the work of William Kent. Pro- bably Artari and Bagotti (whom Gibbs considered the best craftsman who 119 had ever Plaster had ever come to England) were employed by him on the work in both Ornamentation houses. The fact that it is one of the least expensive methods of important decora- tive treatment is also worthy of comment. Until recently a peculiar prejudice has existed in England against plaster work, apparently on the plea that it is not genuine; indeed, it is not unusual to first ascertain whether or not such ornament is carved in wood before deciding whether to admire. This prejudice was never shared by the French or Italians, who fail to understand why the work of the modeller in plaster should be less worthy of admiration than carvings in wood. In the second half of the eighteenth century, all previous styles of plaster ornamentation wereoutshadowed by the designs of Robert Adam; his man- ner of internal decoration is well known, both from his pattern books and actual examples of his work still left in London and elsewhere. Undoubtedly this style was an improvement on the "petty vagaries" in the French, Gothic and Chinese taste which for a short time were fashionable crazes; and it can claim to possess refinement, even if somewhat lacking in interest. It would appear from the following extracts from his writings that Adam was well satisfied with his own abilities; after pointing out that the works of " Michael Angelo, Raphael and other Italian architects of the Renaissance were very much misplaced" and deprecating the efforts of Inigo Jones and his suc- cessors, he adds: "It seems to have been reserved for the present times to see compartment ceilings and those of every kind carried to a degree of per- fection in Great Britain that far surpasses any of the former attempts of other nations." However, he states that " Kent's genius for the picturesque and the vast reputation he deservedly acquired made him in some measure with- stand this prevalent abuse; he has much merit, indeed, was the first who be- gan to lighten the compartments." Robert Adam had obtained a patent for a plaster or stucco process in- vented by Liardet,and he brought Pergolesi from Italy especially to execute work in this material, from which considerable profits were made. He had also brought over Zucchi, whom for some thirty years he and his brother employed in decorating their plaster ceilings with designs inspired from ancient frescoes. This work of the brothers Adam found many imitators, such as Collins, Rose, Clark and Papworth, and by the end of the century their style was universal; modern reproductions are frequent, but injustice to the work executed during the eighteenth century, it must be remembered I 2 o that the that the original intention was always either to decorate such ceilings in the Plaster manner described or to fill in the panels with various tones of colour, whereas Ornamentation the modern examples are almost invariably left plain white, thus producing an entirely different effect. To quote Adam's description: " The glare of the white so common in every ceiling till of late. This always appeared to me so cold and unfurnished that I ventured to introduce this variety of grounds, at once to relieve the ornaments, remove the crudeness of the white and create a harmony between the ceiling and the sidewalk." I 2 I Chapter IX CHAPTER IX THE SCHOOL OF GRINLING GIBBONS THE work upon which GrinUng Gibbons was engaged when discovered by the ingenious Mr Evelyn was a carving from a large painting of the Crucifixion by Tintoretto. Carvings of this chara6ler had been produced in Italy for over a century, and the fashion had been adopted in Holland during her great period of prosperity at the beginning of the sixteenth century. The exterior of classic buildings in that country , as in Italy , were frequently adorned with drops and wreaths carved in marble and in stone, and interiors were deco- rated with paintings of the same subje(!n:s; from such designs in his native land Gibbons may have obtained his inspirations. Sir Christopher Wren, during his visits to Paris, would have seen the elaborate use of applied wood-carvings of the school of Louis XIV. But whatever the source from which the idea of em- ploying this particular style of carving for interior decoration was derived, and whether or not the designs were inspired by that great architect, the results ob- tained possess so much originality, owing to the naturalistic treatment of the objefts portrayed, that we are justified in claiming this class of work as one of the most distin6live features of English decoration. To assume that the numerous examples which exist in city churches, in public halls, and in the great country-houses of England are all attributable to the hand of Gibbons would be as unreasonable as to suppose that the fur- niture of the third quarter of the eighteenth century was all the personal work of Chippendale; the form of decoration which he had introduced became the fashion, and numerous skilled craftsmen imitated his style. In their ranks were some of the foreigners whom religious persecutions on the Continent were driving to this country, but mostly they appear to have been English, and the names of some remain, notably William Watson (responsible for the won- derful decorative carvings at Chatsworth), Lobb, Phillips, Davis and Selden. Of the class of ornament most typical of this school, is that which Celia Fiennes describes in her Diary as: " Y" finest carved wood in fruitages, her- bages, gumms,beastes,fowles, etc., very thin and fine all in white wood without paint or varnish. Ye several sorts of things thus carved exceeding natural all round." To such an extent was this class of design developed that it became a recognized type of ornament and was indiscriminately used for the decora- tion of mansion or church. But another style existed, examples of which are more scarce, namely of subjeds designed either to specially illustrate the pur- 12 2 pose tor MANTELPIECE WITH CARVINGS BY GRINLING GIBBONS 123 pose for which the room was intended to be used, or the occupation of the School of owner. Of the former kind, one ot the most remarkable specimens is to be Grinling found at the offices of the New River Water Company, where hsh, fishing Gibbons nets and tackle are ingeniously grouped; another interesting example, pro- bably also by Gibbons (see page 129), is in the coUedion and illustrates the prow of a ship and other naval attributes. Military trophies are scarce, possi- bly because during the reigns of Charles II and James II there had been few opportunities of obtaining distinction in warfare; the work of Gibbons on the chimney-piece of the drawing-room ot the Governor's House at Chelsea Hospital is always regarded as the masterpiece of this style; somewhat simi- lar in composition are the picture frame and the pendant shown on pages 129 and 130 respedively. The inspiration for these designs can be traced to Ancient Rome, and the same class of subjed was adopted for the painted panels at Hampton Court; other instances are to be met with on seven- teenth century classic buildings both in France and Holland. Most frequently these decorative carvings were executed in lime-wood, the use of oak being generally regarded as denoting the earlier work of the period; probably the specimen on page 127, made from the latter mate- rial and reputed to be by Grinling Gibbons, is ot earlier date than the ex- amples reproduced on the two following pages, both of which are of lime- wood. All three were designed to serve as embellishments of the upper parts of chimney-pieces, but the composition, the treatment and the subjedts vary so much that each would seem to have been executed by a different artist. The collection contains many examples of these decorative carvings, but few can surpass these three specimens, either in design or workmanship: the one shown on page 129 being of special interest, as portraying the crown, cipher and supporters used by Charles II. As already mentioned, the carvings of the school of Grinling Gibbons and his fellow craftsmen were, perhaps, most frequently employed as decoration of the upper part of chimney-pieces (always the principal feature in English apartments); the particular style consisted of two swags joined in the centre by some special ornament, and from the outer ends pendants with the same ?nottfwtvt suspended. The space thus surrounded was sometimes occupied by a coat-of-arms (as the example at the New River Company's offices), sometimes by a portrait or picture, and frequently simply by an oak panel; occasionally, as at Chatsworth, this panel was embellished by a star or geo- metrical design formed by inlays ot various kinds of wood; this style ot 125 treatment School of treatment (which is illustrated on page 127) was borrowed from Holland, Grinling and only appears to have been used for mural decoration at about the Gibbons period of Grinling Gibbons; much contemporary frirniture being then similarly ornamented; in several great mansions oak and walnut floors exist inlaid with various patterns of the same style. The small carving shown on the left of page 130 is believed to be by the hand of Gibbons, and probably came either from one of the city churches upon which he was employed, or from the private chapel of a great mansion; it is very similar to the centre ornament in the table shown on the same page. The art of the wood-carvers of this school was not confined to the groups of " fruitages " or trophies which adorned altars, mantels and panels, but the elaboration of cornices, architraves and mouldings also found scope for their talents, and added to that wealth of gorgeous decoration for which the finest apartments of this period are so famous; the small piece of cornice shown on page 127, on which can be seen the cipher of William and Mary, is representative of such ornamental detail. The specimens illustrated in this chapter prove the immense value which must be attached to the applied wood-carvings of this school as a means of decoration: even the simplest examples are sufficient to convert a plainly panelled room into one of special interest; at subsequent periods decorative carvings were also employed, but the peculiar style in vogue during the period of Wren is characteristic only of his times. 126 Chapter X ipi>i:r i'ar']-ofmaxti':i,j'[f,ci:. car\ in(;s in oak mm^^^mM^^ -m^>y^im^mi^>^^m>'h'?*irJV m Cl'NCRl-, l'AM':i, OF MAX riJ.PIFCK WITH IXLAIH (iKOMF:FRICAL i^-\TTFRX iw'irtlll II f 'iife •U*' -dji mA OAK CCmXICF WI'l'M CIPHI-.R OF WILLIAM AXl) MARY I 2 Ul>FKk PART OK MANTKLI'lKCi:. WITH CAR\1NGS IN THE STYLV. OF (GIBBONS 128 L'i'l'I'K I'AR'I' OF MAXTELPIKCI', Wl'|-H CIPHKR OF CHARLFS II CAR\IN(;S OF XA\AL 'FROPHIl'S PICFURF FRAiNIF WITH MILI'FARV 'FROl'IIIFS, CIRCA 1700 CFHF PICTURE ITSELF OF LATER DATE) 129 lenyffon. ^ S.li^. CqpyriffTit. m * ^:^ '# '^' v.. J ,^ tS;l TAI'.l.K, SMAL]. C \R\ IN(i AM) I'l'.N DAX'I': SCHOOL OF GklN],J.\(i G Ml DON'S 130 CHAPTER X. DECORATIVE PAINTINGS NOTWITHSTANDING his failure as a ruler, no English mon- arch did more than Charles I to encourage art and genius. Inigo Jones was his architect and Vandyke his Court painter, but it was Rubens who influenced his taste and advised as to the numerous treasures which he collected. Rubens came to England in i 62 9 on a political mission as ambassador from Spain, but before his arrival he was recognized as the greatest authority of his time on art and culture; he was only here about one year, but his influence remained for upwards of a century. Magnificence in decoration has never since equalled the work in Rome under Julius II, Leo X and the other great Popes of the Renaissance. The paintings of Leonardo da Vinci, Michael Angelo, Raphael, Perugino and many others during that period illustrate the fact that painting was regarded by them as a means of decoration. Owing to the pre-eminence of the Church the subjects they illustrated were almost entirely religious. Titian, Paul Vero- nese, Tintoretto and many others followed their examples and embellished the walls and ceilings ol numerous palaces in Venice and Genoa, but here the requirements were different; art was no longer entirely the handmaiden of the Church, so that instead of religious subjects the scenes were chosen from history, classic mythology and allegory. In addition to his earlier work at Mantua, " the town of Giulio Romano " (where for generations members of the reigning family had devoted themselves to art), Rubens had studied the examples of these great artists, and it can be claimed that he introduced painting as decorative treatment into Northern Europe. His services were re- quired at every Court; even the French Queen, Marie de' Medici, although herself an Italian, employed him for the embellishment of her Palace of the Luxembourg. Holbein, Antonio More, Jansen and other portrait painters had worked previously in England, but before the arrival of Rubens there had been no artist capable of composing and executing historical subjects. James I pro- posed building a palace at Whitehall, and Charles I, more ambitious, intended that it should surpass any possessed by rival monarchs; but only the Ban- queting Hall, that wonderful example of the work of Inigo Jones, was actually erected. Rubens was paid ^3,000 for the ceiling painting in this building. Vandyke was to have decorated the walls with " the history of the Order of the Garter"; sketches were prepared, but the work itself was never com- I ; I menced Decorative menced. To quote Horace Walpole: " Inigo Jones, Rubens, Vandyke: Paintings Europe could not have shown a nobler chamber." Another ceiling painting by Rubens was afterwards brought to this coun- try, namely, by Sir Francis Child in 1760, for the decoration of the stair- case at Osterley, the subject being " The Apotheosis of William Prince of Orange." The ceilings of Inigo Jones are all designed with panels, presumably with the intention of their being eventually completed by the insertion of paint- ings— compare the one at Whitehall with other examples also designed by him, in which the paintings are omitted and the original intention seems obvious. Gentileschi, brought by Vandyke to England, carried on the work of decorative painting instituted by Rubens. He painted many ceilings for the King and for the nobility, such as at York House and Old Buckingham House; while at Cobham Hall in Kent he filled in the compartments designed by Inigo Jones. After the execution of the King, nine of his paintings (in- tended for mural decoration of the palace at Greenwich) were sold and even- tually found their way to Marlborough House. John de Critz, Sergeant Painter to James I and Charles I, had a great reputation for decorative paintings and was succeeded in his office by his brother Emanuel. Evelyn, in 1654, refers to the new dining-room at Wilton built by Inigo Jones as being " richly gilded and painted with story " by him. Evelyn also mentions other apartments in the same mansion as containing " hunting landskips " by Pierce. This artist had been an assistant to Vandyke, and after the Restoration was employed to repair the altarpieces and ceilings in London churches damaged by the Puritans. Other Dutch painters, such as Wouters and Hanneman, executed decora- tive works in England, but returned to their own country during the troubles of the monarchy. Daniel Mytens,who had painted portraits in England dur- ing the reigns of James I and Charles I, also returned and painted the ceil- ing in the Town Hall of The Hague in 1654, the subject being "Truth writing history on the back of Fame." With the restoration of the monarchy this class of work again flourished, and none of the numerous great mansions then built were considered to be complete until so decorated. Unfortunately no kind of painting in England has sufi-ered so much from time, neglect and demolition as that for ceilings and wall decorations; faulty roofs and floors and dampness of the structure are obvious causes; owing to the difficulties of removal the paintings have I 3 2 been left 133 been left to decay in tenantless houses, without receiving the periodical re- Decorative storation which for this class of painting is essential. In addition to more Paintings recent restorations, the ceiling by Rubens in Whitehall was repaired by Walton (whose charge ot £2 i 2 Sir Christopher Wren considered as "very modyst and reasonable"), by Kent and later by Cipriani at a further cost of ^2,000. At the Restoration Streater was appointed Sergeant Painter to the King, and Pepys relates how Dr Wren, afterwards Sir Christopher, and other vir- tuosos, considered his work better than that of Rubens, although he himself did not agree, John Evelyn often refers to the work of Mr Streater, and especially relates how he had decorated the dining-room in the wealthy Sir Robert Clayton's new house with paintings illustrative of the " Historic of the Gyants War." A contemporary poet wrote of the ceiling at Oxford painted by this artist: That future ages must confess they owe To Streater more than Michael Angelo. He also worked for the Earl of Chesterfield and was employed at Bulstrode, and painted several ceilings in the old palace at Whitehall. So much were painted rooms the vogue that even fashionable taverns were decorated in this manner: Pepys relates how " The Pope's Head " possessed " its fine painted room." Fuller, who had executed several commissions for the King, was em- ployed to paint the parlours of several taverns: at" The Mitre "in Fenchurch Street " he adorned all the sides of a great room in panels as was then the fashion; the figures were as large as life, and on the ceiling two angels sup- porting a mitre, in a large circle." Bankers, who painted the panels for Pepys's dining-room, was another Dutch artist who worked in England during this period; the subjects chosen by Mr Pepys were probably copies of paintings which this artist had previ- ously executed for the King and the Duke of York, and of which he had received permission to make repetitions. Michael Wright, a fashionable por- trait painter, did the ceiling for the King's bedchamber; and Tomaso, who executed ceiling and panels at Wilton, is another of the principal painters in the style of Rubens during the reign of Charles II. During the short reign ot James II, La Fosse, a French artist, attained some celebrity for decora- tive work, and received ^2,500 tor his services at Montagu House. Heude worked extensively for Lord Tyrconnel and at Bulstrode. The decoration of ceilings and complete rooms by paintings was even ,35 more Decorative more universal during the seventeenth century in Holland than in England, Paintings and the talent there available was certainly greater; the house of nearly every rich burgomaster contained one or more examples. Consequently, with the accession of William III, the fashion still further increased in this country, and amongst the numerous artists who found employment here are: Peter Birchett, responsible for the ceiling at Trinity College, Oxford, the stair- case at Schomberg House and various works at Ranelagh; Cheron, em- ployed at Boughton, Chatsworth and Burleigh; Henry Cook, who painted the ceiling at the offices of the New River Company, where are also the celebrated carvings of Grinling Gibbons; Parmentier, who had previously worked for King William in his Palace at Loo, was extensively employed decorating mansions in the North of England, notably Worksop; also Pele- grini, who painted the staircase for the Duke of Manchester in Arlington Street, and similar work for the Duke of Portland and Lord Burlington, as well as the saloon, staircase and ceilings at Castle Howard, and the staircase at Kimbolton. In many of the works he was assisted by Marco and Sebas- tian Ricci, But more celebrated than any of these was Verrio; his first work in Eng- land is recorded by Evelyn as being at Lord Arlington's house at Euston; he became so much the fashion that the great nobles vied with each other to obtain his services. Celia Fiennes refers to examples of his skill at Burleigh, Lowther, Chatsworth and Windsor; she regarded his work as the standard of excellence in painting in the same way as she regarded the work of Grin- ling Gibbons as the standard for carving. For his paintings at Windsor Castle alone he received upwards of ^8,000. Laguerre (who worked fi-equently with Verrio) also became famous; he was employed at Marlborough House, Burley-on-the-Hill, St Bartholomew's Hospital, Blenheim and Hampton Court. Verrio, not satisfied with fiUing in compartments of ceilings such as Inigo Jones had designed, omitted the divisions, as well as the usual classic cornices, and rounded over the angle of the wall and ceiling so that his paintings could spread over the whole surface without apparent break. This style, which he copied from Italy, was adopted by others; it certainly gave a heavy appearance to the apartments so treated, and the figures continuing from wall to ceiling appeared unnatural. Criticism and ridicule followed, and Pope's satire of "Where sprawled the saints of Verrio" did much to kill the fashion of historical and allegorical paintings as wall and ceiling decorations. Lanscroon (whose best work is at Drayton), Brown, Bellucci and Ami- I 3" coni, all coni, all attained celebrity; even Sir Godfrey Kneller, although essentially Decorative a portrait painter, executed a staircase for Pope's villa at Twickenham in Paintings chiaroscuro, which paintings were bequeathed to Earl Bathurst. One of the last of the decorative artists of the school of Rubens was Sir James Thornhill, celebrated for work on the dome of St Paul's, the hall at Blenheim, various paintings at Greenwich, Hampton Court, Easton Neston and Moor Park. Former reference has been omitted to the work of Francis Cleyne. He came to England during the latter part of the reign of James I to design subjeds for the tapestry manufadory at Mortlake, but he also carried out considerable decorative work in a style of grotesque, chiefly in small panels. Most interesting examples of his skill remain on ceilings, walls and furniture at Holland House, and further instances, not in such good preservation, are at Bolsover. It is also known that he worked at Somerset House, at Han- worth, and at many other mansions of the nobility. Another artist, but of quite another school, requires to be mentioned, namely, Clermont, who worked a century later; he was very extensively employed by the nobility during the reign of George II; he painted gro- tesques and foliages with birds and monkeys. Monkey Island on the Thames is so called from pictures he painted in the Duke of Marlborough's temples there; he also did the dining-room ceiling in Horace Walpole's Gothic villa at Twickenham and the walls of a similar apartment in Lord Stafford's house in St James's Square. A ceiling at N° 30 Old Burlington Street is believed to be by his hand. During the reign of our first George, while England was steeped in the strictest Palladianism, considerable latitude of classic models was permitted in French decoration. The influence of the school of Watteau and Gillot was felt in England ; Nollekens and Slater imitated their work, the latter adapting it to the ceiling at Stowe and Mereworth in Kent. Although nearly all the artists referred to above were either of Flemish, Dutch or Italian birth, yet they all worked in this country; but paintings re- quired for decorating rooms in Enghsh mansions were also supplied by artists living in Holland. The room by Hondecoeter at Belton is an instance, but it would be hard to find a finer example of a painted room than the one in the collection, an illustration of which is given on page i 3 3 , as well as a separate view of the chimney-piece on page 145; but another treatise has been issued illustrating each of the panels and relating its history. This room is by no means the only example which is exhibited— the whole of one side of the long Blue Saloon is occupied with seventeenth century paintings represent- 1^-7 ing hunting Decorative ing hunting scenes (see page 141), and in one of the smaller rooms is a large Paintings picture by De Vos (a pupil of Snyder), which is reputed to be one of the set which decorated the hall in the great house at Bulstrode, pulled down during the last century. At the top of page 140 is shown the painted ceiling in the first State Room; the photograph, however, hardly does justice to the original. For upwards of a century this painting has been attributed to Gerard de Lairesse, a celebrated Dutch artist, but the fact that it is dated i 7 1 1 , the year of his death, makes that attribution somewhat doubtful. Lairesse, although afflicted with almost complete loss of sight in i 690, then fifty years of age, continued to the end to communicate his theories and to compose classic subjects; it is possible, therefore, that it was either finished or painted by some artist friend or pupil under his advice. The ceiling painted in the second State Room (on the same page), which is a modern one, after the school of Verrio, hardly equals the example in the adjoining room, but as decorative treatment the result is excellent, and its addition has done much to increase the charm and stateliness of this beau- tiful apartment. The ceiling in the painted room, representing Jupiter and Juno in the Heavens, was executed by a celebrated Dutch artist, Hermanns Collenius. This was removed from a house built in the reign of Queen Anne, and the boards on which the ceiling is painted were, naturally, fixed to the joists from underneath; in order to preserve the surface each of the nails had to be sawn through on the upper side, a work of considerable difficulty. Another Dutch artist who attained eminence for the decoration of splen- did apartments was Jacob de Wit. In i 7 i 2 he made drawings from the paintings by Rubens in the four ceilings of the Jesuits' Church in Antwerp, which was destroyed by lightning six years later. One of his principal works was the embellishment of the great Council Chamber at Amsterdam with subjects from the Old Testament. Boucher and Fragonard are perhaps the two painters who most promi- nently represent the French school of decorative painters at the middle of the eighteenth century. For Madame de Pompadour the former painted the decorations of her boudoir at the Hotel de I'Arsenal, and the latter is respon- sible for the five paintings forming the entire decoration of a room illustrat- ing " The I_.overs Progress"; these once belonged to Mr Malvilan, and were purchased in 1898 by Mr Pierpont Morgan for ^"50,000; they were ex- hibited at the Guildhall in London in 1902. i 3 ^ Walpole STAIRCASE PAINTING 139 I 40 l'AI\-|KI) CKI]J\(;s IN THK TWO STATK ROOMS A']' ;i OLD HL' Rl.lXCrrOX STRKKT 'AINTKD I'AXKL IX SALON Al" ;i OLD BLRLIXt/LON STREET 141 WALL PAINTINGS IN "CHINLSl'; TASl'l-: 1+2 Walpole, who claims to " speak with equal impartiality on the merits and Decorative faults of Kent, the former ot which exceedingly predominated," considered Paintings the staircase at Kensington as " the least defedive work of his pencil." The restorations which it has undergone make it difficult for us now to judge of its merits; the ceiling over this stairway appears very similar to a draw- ing published by Daniel Marot, some twenty years before Kent was em- ployed there. The staircase ceiling at N° 3 i Old Burlington Street in some respeds resembles this example, and as a decorative scheme is certainly suc- cessful. Another class of ceiling treatment frequently adopted by Kent, especially in cases where the surface was divided up with plaster framework into a number of separate panels, was to fill in the side compartments with classic designs of trophies and emblems in monochrome. Sometimes the centre panel of such ceilings contained an oil painting of allegorical design, and sometimes the arms of the owner were introduced, also in monochrome; this style of painting in various shades of the same colour was also largely employed by Kent for decorating flat surfaces, into which he introduced representations of panels formed by classic mouldings and often allegorical figures. In Holland by the middle of the seventeenth century, the mania for col- lecting porcelain and all kinds ot curiosities from China and India was in full force; this soon developed a fashion for Eastern styles of ornament for the decoration of furniture and even of complete rooms. The mode spread to France and England, and, indeed, in this country the craze continued more or less intermittently until past the middle of the following century: as applied to furniture, numerous cabinets, bureaus and chests of drawers and so on were decorated with lacquer work, either executed in China or imi- tated locally with the same style of ornament: this lac treatment, applied to the panelling of the late seventeenth century, produced extremely quaint and charming effects, especially for small apartments. Celia Fiennes speaks of a small room at Hampton Court " pannell'd all w^'' jappan," and other instances exist of rooms in English country houses in which the panelling is lacquered all over in either black or red and further ornamented with Chinese figures. Another scheme for applying " Chinese" taste to the decoration of rooms was by painting the devices on paper, afterwards affixed to canvas and hung on the walls in the same way as the velvets and damasks were used during this period. As in the case of lacquer work, this decorated paper was some- 1 4 3 times Decorative times obtained from China (an example can be seen in the drawing-room Paintings ot the " House in the Wood" at The Hague), but more frequently was the work of local artists; their knowledge of Eastern life was limited, so that the results were often quaint, but, however incorrect the drawings were as repre- senting Eastern art, the talent of the artists was often great, and charming results, especially for decorating small rooms, were obtained. Many English mansions contained such " Chinese" or " Indian" rooms, some executed at the latter part of the seventeenth century, then generally by Dutch artists, and some as late as the middle of the next century, when the Dutch influence had disappeared entirely; later this hand-painted work was superseded by printed wall-papers, and although attempts were made to avoid the mono- tony of the repeated printed design by cutting out and pasting on birds, flowers, etc., in odd places, the results cannot, of course, compare to the former method. In 1746, referring to Cornbury, Mrs Delany writes: "The next room is hung with finest Indian paper of flowers and all sorts of birds, the ceilings are all ornamented in the Indian taste, the frames of the glass and all the flnishing of the room are well suited; the bedchamber is also hung with Indian paper on a gold ground, and the bed is Indian work of silks and gold on white satin." The two illustrations given on page 142 are panels out of a complete room, and serve as charming models for the work of this style. It is impos- sible to flx the exact date of the painting, but probably it was the work of a Dutch artist during the reign of William and Mary. 144 Chapter XI CHAPTER XI. VELVETS, DAMASKS, ETC. NO description of the decoration of English mansions built dur- ing the latter part of the seventeenth century, or the first half of the eighteenth, would be complete without special reference to the splendid velvets, damasks, silks, brocatelles, braids, fringes, etc., which were then so largely used. In a few cases these mate- rials were of English manufacture, but by far the larger quantity were imported from Italy. Endeavours had been made in the reign of James I to foster the silk-weaving industry, foreign workmen being employed; and in 1638 a Royal proclamation was issued with the object of encouraging it; these earlier efforts, however, practically resulted in failures. During the earlier part of the reign of Louis XIV the manufacture of velvets, damasks and silks had made great progress in France, but, in common with so many other trades, the enormous influx of religious immigrants at the latter part of the seven- teenth century transferred a large share of the industry to England. After the Edict of Nantes, the number of looms in Lyons fell from i 8,000 to 4,000, and in Tours only 70 mills remained out of 700. The English silk industry grew so fast that importation was totally forbidden. The stimu- lus was not merely temporary; throughout the reigns of William and Mary, and Anne, the silk trade advanced fast; French methods were copied and the goods were being sold as " French," whether produced there or by the refugees in England. By the middle of the eighteenth century the trade, centred chiefly in the neighbourhood of Spitalfields, was an important one; however, it was principally confined to producing the thinner qualities, such as were then used for the gorgeous dresses of both sexes; the imported material being preferred for the elaborate bed hangings, curtains and valances, as well as for the covering of furniture. Velvets had been made in Holland since the beginning of the seventeenth century, and the earliest specimens somewhat resemble the Italian examples from which they were copied, but later the Utrecht variety (very similar to what is still sold under that name) was all that country produced, and this was not nearly fine enough for the requirements of the English nobles. Lombardy, Tuscany and the neighbouring States had been producing mag- nificent velvets and damasks for nearly two centuries, and by the time the Italian Renaissance had attained its fidl bloom, at the end of the sixteenth century, classic designs were then perfected to a degree never since sur- passed. To suit the florid taste (especially of Venice) during the next cen- 147 ^^^y Velvets and tury, the designs became more redundant and brighter colours were Damasks adopted. With the stagnation which then commenced in all Italian enter- prise, little or no further change was made, and the same patterns and colourings continued to be produced, almost without variation, until the middle of the eighteenth century. It is this which makes it often so difficult to determine exactly the date the materials were produced. References to velvets and silks in old inventories are innumerable, but the contents of Ham House in 1679 ^^^^ serve as a typical example. This mansion was furnished during the reign of James I and its owners had been wealthy and prominent from then until the date in question. Here the sit- ting-room occupied by the Duchess of Lauderdale was hung with black and gold striped silk, fringed with purple and gold; her bedchamber with crim- son damask flowered with gold and bordered with a heavy fringe of gold drops, and her dressing-room with blue damask edged with striped silk and fringe. The Duke's closet was provided with " Three Pieces of Black and Gould Colour hangings of damask," and the bed curtains were to match. His dressing-room had two sets of hangings for the walls. The withdrawing room was hung with crimson damask and the adjoining bedchamber with yellow damask. The instructions sent by the Duchess of Marlborough, in i 708, to the Earl of Manchester in Venice illustrate the enormous quantities which were necessary. She required for completing the furnishing of Blenheim no less than 3,400 yards of various qualities of velvets, damasks and satin. The accompanying illustrations show a few specimens from the colle6lion at N° 31 Old Burhngton Street of velvets, such as were imported by the wealthy to this country from Venice, Genoa and France; they also represent some of the braids, fringes, galloons, cords and tassels which completed the sumptuous upholstery of state furniture in England during the late seven- teenth and early eighteenth centuries. Many other fabrics also existed, which, although unknown to-day, were largely used in upholstery up to the early part of the eighteenth century; "camlet" and "mohair" are instances, another is the strong woollen "watered" rep material (at least this is the nearest possible description) which, after re- moving the successive coverings on old chairs and settees, is frequently found to have been the original upholstery; it is met with in red, green, and some- times a peculiar shade of orange colour. It is curious why the use of this in- expensive and durable material has been abandoned, especially considering how particularly suitable it is for use on Chippendale furniture. 148 Chapter XII Len/ffoff^ napyrigTjl "m^^^^^^^^M^^^ ' „,;, ^ '11/ 4," 'f^^ .,,M \ ^\ ^"S"'™' - ^v ■ .■> ... --^ SPECIMENS OF SEVENTEENTH AND EARLY EIGHTEENTH CENTURY FRINGES 149 SPECIMENS OF OLD GENOESE \ELVET 151 SPKCIMENS OF OLD GEN'OESF, \KL\'F.T 152 154 INCISED CHINESE LACQUER SCREEN CHAPTER XII. LACQUERED FURNITURE THE earliest, and at the same time the best, examples of lacquer which we possess in England were originally obtained in Japan by the few favoured Dutch and Portuguese merchants, who, for a short time at the beginning of the seventeenth century, resided and traded in that country. These specimens went to Portugal and to Holland, but it is doubtful whether any reached England previous to the restoration of the monarchy. Hampton Court was noted for the luxuries it contained, and yet, in the inventory of Cromwell's goods, (with the exception of carpets) there is no reference to any articles of Oriental origin. However, in 1662, when visiting this palace to "see the new Queene, who, having landed at Portsmouth, had been married to the King a week before," Evelyn relates that she " had brought over with her from Portugal such Indian cabinets which had never before ben scene here." Later, in the same reign, he mentions the "japand cabinets and screenes in the Duchess of Ports- mouth's dressing-room" at Whitehall. From this date, numerous references in diaries and inventories prove that most mansions of the nobility contained examples, screens particularly being frequently mentioned; indeed, such articles seem to have become almost necessities. The panels of these lacquered screens were also used by rich Burgomasters in Holland for decorating the complete sides of rooms; several apartments so ornamented still exist in that country. The fashion was copied here; John Evelyn describes the house of his neighbour, Mr Bohun, as "a cabinet of all elegances, especially Indian. In the hall contrivances of Japanese skreenes instead ot wainscott .... the landskip on the skreene represents the manner of living and country of the Chinese." This reference is particularly interest- ing as showing what little knowledge then existed as to the differences be- tween the wares of India, China and Japan; indeed, it was not until quite recently that any reliance could be placed on descriptions of lacquered articles as correctly describing the country of their origin. A fine example is illustrated on page 154 of the type of screen purchased by the rich during the third quarter of the seventeenth century; it may have come here from Amsterdam, but possibly was imported direct, as our own East India Company had by then commenced to seriously compete with the Dutch. The lacquering is " incised," a variety which has never been imitated by Europeans. This class of work is frequently termed " Coromandel," the popular idea being that it is manufadured from the wood bearing that name; however, Coromandel is in India and the work is produced in China. The I r r misnomer Lacquered misnomer may arise from the fad that the black and brown groundwork Furniture somewhat resembles the colour of such timber. The cabinet on page i6o, which is in the same colledion, is a fine specimen of Chinese lacquer such as was imported into this country at the close of the seventeenth century. By the middle of the seventeenth century the Dutch had commenced to imitate Chinese and Japanese lacquering, undoubtedly for commercial pur- poses and not, as afterwards became the mode in England, as a fashionable occupation. In 1688 J. Stalker published Jt T'reatise o?i Japa?ini7ig and 'Dar7iishing^ which gives elaborate recipes for the preparation of the ground- work and the means of applying the necessary gilding and ornamentation. It also shows how the industry, which had become important, was already suffering from the competition of amateurs. During the reigns of George I and George II this fashion of decorating furniture with imitations of Oriental lacquer still further increased, and nu- merous lacquered articles continued to be produced. At the beginning of the reign of George II Mrs Pendarves (afterwards Mrs Delany) was a much sought after young widow leading a fashionable life in London. Various letters to her sister illustrate the then craze for imitating Chinese lacquering. She relates how " everybody is mad about Japan work," and especially refers to her friend, Lady Sunder land, daughter of Sarah Duchess of Marlborough, as " being very busy about japanning." Possessing both en- ergy and talent, she probably succeeded better than most of her acquaint- ance, and writes: " I will perfeft myself in the art against I make you a visit," and again, " I hope to be a dab at it by the time I see you "; later she advises, "the laying of the ground .... you will find it difficult unless I can show you the way, which I hope next summer to accomplish." Finally, she wittily sums up the whole art: " It puts me in mind of the fine ladies of our age- it delighted my eyes, but gave no pleasure to my understanding." During recent years it has been the fashion to " colled" old English lac- quered furniture. Often specimens, obviously the efforts of the merest ama- teurs, have fetched prices far beyond any artistic value which they can claim to possess. To-day there should be no difficulty in producing either black or red lac work, if the old methods are sufficiently studied, and provided the same care, patience, and especially the same amount of time, are devoted to the purpose as our forbears found necessary to obtain their best results. The dressing-mirror shown on page 160 is a reprodudion of a particularly fine old example. 156 When CABINET OF ENGLISH LACQUER ON GILT STAND, CIRCA i6So 157 5H LACQUKRKD CHEST OF DRAWERS, ENGLISH, CIRCA RED LACQLF,r< CABINET, ENGLISH, CIRCA 1-60 159 DRESSING-MIRROR, RED LACQUER CAlilXET, OKI ENTAL LACQU E R ^y^z. I 60 When her son came of age (in i 7 2 i ) the Countess of Warwick, who had Lacquered married the poet Addison, moved from Holland House to a new building Furniture just completed in Old BurUngton Street, nearly next door to the one which now contains the collection. At her death, two years later, an inventory was taken of her goods. The house seems to have been very completely furnished, excepting for the absence of carpets and for means of lighting the rooms. The windows were furnished with curtains and valances of mohair, camlet and crimson and yellow damask, and the coverings of the bed and chairs in the same apartments were to match. She also possessed numerous pieces of lac furniture, including two " six-leaved India japand screens," and three others covered with " India paper." The former were no doubt of incised lacquer imported from China, and the covering of the others was probably of Chinese, not India, paper. The inventory also refers to two India chests on gilt frames, one " India japand cabinet" and numerous "japand " dishes and boxes, as well as tables, chairs and stools, the latter articles being presumably decorated in England. Another interesting catalogue is preserved in the British Museum, namely, of the household goods at N° 6 Albemarle Street, belonging to Sir William Stanhope, sold by auction in 1733. From the list of pictures by great mas- ters and the description of numerous curios, the owner was evidently a great virtuoso, and, owing to successfral South Sea speculations, he had ample means to gratify his tastes. The house was a comparatively modern one when he acquired the lease eight years previously from the Duchess of Hamilton, and as the sale (which lasted six days) included the entire contents of every room from basement to attic, one is able to gauge from the catalogue the appoint- ments of an important town mansion of the period. A feature of the sale was," One cabinet of very rare brown Japan." Two other cabinets are described as "rare old Japan"; there were also live other " India Japan" cabinets on frames; five " India" screens (four of which ap- pear to have been of incised lacquer), as well as numerous "Japan" tables, bookcases, dressing-glasses and trunks. After the middle of the eighteenth century the fashion for English lac gradually abated, but for some time after was still considered a fashionable occupation; in 1754 Edwards ^ Darley published a book of designs illus- trating their interpretation of Chinese ornament. On page i 5 9 is illustrated a fine red lacquer cabinet made at about that date. 1 6 1 Chapter XIII CHAPTER XIII. ENGLISH GESSO WORK ONE of the many features of English decorative art which have ^been overlooked by the modern collector is furniture orna- Imented with gesso treatment. Originating in Italy, the method r came to us through the Dutch, and numerous examples are to be found which were made in England for the palaces and great mansions during the reign of William and Mary. The process con- sisted of covering the wood with many successive thin coats of a composition made from whiting, glue, etc., allowing sufficient time for each coat to thoroughly harden, until a covering about one-eighth inch thick was formed, the design being then carved or, rather, scraped away and the surface gilt all over. The raised parts were burnished and the groundwork either " matted " or covered with small punched indentations. In cases where the design was in high rehef,the wood was first approximately carved and completed when the composition had been applied. It is this process which has caused the frequent coupling together of the names of the trades of" carver and gilder." The objects most often met with which are decorated by this treatment are mirrors. During the first quarter of the eighteenth century they were nearly all so ornamented. It was at this date that the value of mirrors as decorative objects was first fully realized. The collection at N° 3 i Old Bur- lington Street contains numerous fine examples, of which the one shown on page 163, designed to fit in a long panel, will serve as an instance. Next to mirrors, tables treated by this process are the articles most fre- quently found. At Kensington Palace can be seen the large side-tables bear- ing the arms of William and Mary, and on the top of page i 6 5 is illustrated a small table treated by this method. On the same page another type of table is shown, and, although English in construction, the design of the ornament, as is frequently the case, shows the influence of the school of Boule. For some reason, which it is not easy to follow, much of this gesso work, and especially on tables, was at a later period of the eighteenth century painted over in black or brown, but fortunately such painting is often capable of being removed, when underneath is found the original gilding in as good a state of preserva- tion as when first applied. On page 163 is a reproduction of the celebrated torchere at Hampton Court Palace, the top of which on the same page bears the monogram and crown of George I. Copies of this model are not infrequent, but as the old process has not been understood, they are generally carved in wood, and 162 the effect TOP OF (]IR ANDOLl-: (,l!iisu-ated helo'A ) WJ'J^H ARMS OK (il'.ORGK I WORKKD IX (^KSSO LeifVonqiLC'l': Cepyn'i!!'} Leny^finlC L Cspvr'^ht CT' I'll'-'! .': y'^^^f&XW/'^ '.^^''^^ CIRANDOLE, CAR\'ED IN WOOD \\l TH GKSSO KXRICHMHNT 163 MIRROR, CARX'F.]) WOOD WITH (^jKSSO KXRICHMEXT PI'.niMKNTS OF MIRRORS WITH GESSO I'.NR ICHMl'.NT CHAIR IX t'-\R\'i':n WOOD WITH (;i;sso i-nrichmi^xt 64 TAHLK WITH CKSSC) KNRICHMKNT Lanvfot &C-.L Copyriqhl WORK - TABLK (mNAMKNTK.D WITH GKSSO C^pyr'shi 165 ■|C)1' OF A TAHIJ'; SH()WIN(; (;KSS() orxamknt SMALJ. CAIMM.r U ri'H Gl':Sb() ],M