Morton's Hand Books of the F arm. 
 
 N2: YIL 
 
 The Dairy 
 
 BY 
 
 James Long t J* C. Morton, 
 
 YmTQN & Co., Ltd., 9, New Bridoe Street, 
 
 LONDON. 
 
BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME 
 FROM THE 
 
 SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND 
 
 THE GIFT OF 
 
 $lenrg iai> Sage 
 
 1891 
 
 AMUf. ^^f//o^ 
 
 ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY 
 New York State Colleges 
 
 OF 
 
 Agriculture and Home Economics 
 
 AT 
 
 Cornell University 
 
Cornell University Library 
 SF 23g.L84 1895 
 
 The dairy, 
 
 3 1924 003 018 565 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of tliis bool< is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003018565 
 
MORTON'S 
 HANDBOOK OF THE PAEM SERIES. 
 
 Prepared under the direction of the late 
 S. CHALMERS MORTON. 
 
 KDITOlt OF THE " ^SBICDLTUB^L CrCLOr^DIA;" THS "AflKieCIiTVKAL eAXlTFJI;'' 
 
 THE " FARMER'S CALENDAR ; " THB " FABMISK'S ALWANAO ;" 
 
 " HAHDBOOK OF 'JHK DAIRY ; " " FARM LABOUBBB," ETC. 
 
Morton's Handbooks of the Farm. 
 
 Edited by James Sikolaib, Editor of Agricultural Gazette, Live Stock Journal, etc. 
 
 No. vir. 
 
 THE DAIRY. 
 
 JAMES LONG AND J. C. MOETON. 
 
 THIRD EDITION. 
 
 Bevised, and hrought up to liatt. 
 
 LONDON: 
 VINTON k CO,, Ltd., 9, NEW BEIDGE STREET, E.G. 
 
 1895. 
 
The present Volume is one of a series discussing the Cultiva- 
 tion of the Farm, its Live Stock, and its Cultivated Plants, the 
 Farm and the Estate Equipment, the Chemistry of Agriculture, 
 and the Processes of Animal and Vegetable Life. Among the 
 writers who have been engaged on them are Messrs. T. BowroK, 
 the late W. Bubsess, G. Mubray, the late W. T. Carrington, 
 the Eev. Gr. Gilbert, Messrs. J. Hiu., R. Henbt Eew, 
 Jambs Long, Sanders Spencer, and the late J. C. Morton, 
 Professors Or. T. Brown, J. Buceuan, J. Wortlkt-Axe, and 
 J. ScoTi, Dr. M. T, Masters, F.B.S., and Mr. B. Warxnoion, 
 F.O.S. 
 
PREFACE TO FIRST' EDITION. 
 
 Theee is no branch of English Agriculture 
 which has more profited by the spirit of investi- 
 gation and the practice of recording observations 
 which have of late more or less possessed us all. 
 To Mr. H. M. Jenkins, of the Koyal Agricultural 
 Society, we are indebted for a knowledge of French 
 and Danish Dairying, which has done a great deal 
 during the past ten years to improve our own dairy 
 practice. And to the rivalry and records of breeds 
 and' of individual animals on the other side of the 
 Atlantic we owe a knowledge of the possibilities of 
 milk and butter produce of which no idea formerly 
 existed. It is not too much to say that the 
 traveller and the enthusiast, the inventor and the 
 chemist, have together of late years lifted what 
 used to be the homeliest and most stagnant of all 
 departments of our Agriculture into the very fore- 
 most rank of all, so far as energy, activity, and all 
 the other evidences of life are concerned. In the 
 following pages, accordingly, along with the sub- 
 staAce of a former handbook^ published many years 
 
 * " Handbook of Dairy Husbandry," by J. Chalmers Morton. 
 Longmans. 1860. 
 
VI. PREFACE. 
 
 ago for the present writer, there will be found not 
 only those pages brought down to the present date 
 and re-written and condensed, but much added 
 information on Foreign Dairying, contributed by 
 Mr. James Long, and a tolerably full account of 
 the improved practice and experience in our own 
 Dairy districts at home. 
 
 1886. J- C. M. 
 
 PREFACE TO THIED EDITION. 
 
 Since the appearance of the last Edition of 
 this work, a good friend of British Agriculture, 
 Mk. J. C. Morton, who was responsible for the 
 bulk of the letterpress, has gone to his rest. 
 A. new Edition has been called for, and the 
 great advances and changes — for there have been 
 both — which have taken place in connection with 
 the Dairy Industry, necessitated a corresponding 
 revision of these pages, many of which have been 
 re-written. The book has simply been brought 
 up to date, without disturbing the design of its 
 original author. 
 
 October, 1892. J. L. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 FAas 
 INTE'oDtrCTION .... J , 1 
 
 CHAP. 
 
 I. — ^DaIBT STATlfeTlOB , . . • • 3 
 
 II. — Food of the Cow . ' . , 16 
 
 III. — Choice and Teeatmbnt of thb Cow , . 86 
 
 IT.— Milk 63 
 
 v. — BUTTBK ..... I 61 
 
 TI. — Cheese ..••ft* 72 
 
 VII. — G-ENEBAL Management , « , • 89 
 
 VIII. — FoBBioN Daibtino ..... 97 
 
 INDEX «,..«»> 146 
 
THE DAIRY OP THE FARM. 
 
 INTKODUCTION. 
 
 A BOOK on Dairy Husbandry ouglit to describe the 
 management of the farm so far as that is directed to the 
 production of milk, as well as the processes of the dairy 
 through the medium of which milk is made to yield 
 its various marketable products. 
 
 The present Handbook is, however, one of a series ; 
 and some of the topics usually included in an extended 
 review of dairy farming have been discussed else- 
 where. The particular management, both of breeding 
 stock and of t^e crops cultivated for their food, has 
 already been described. In the Handbook of the Live- 
 stock of the Farm, also, there are chapters on dairy 
 and other breeds of cattle, and short instructions are 
 given not only on the duties of the herdsman, but on 
 ^hose of the dairyman also ; and the reader will find, 
 m a condensed form, some of the information which is 
 more fully given here. Although, therefore, it is in- 
 tended in the present Handbook to give shortly the 
 answers of experience to such questions as — What 
 crops should be grown ? what cattle should be kept ? 
 how should they be managed, in order that the largest 
 
"ii THE DAIBY OP THE FABM. 
 
 quantity and best quality of milk may be produced ? — 
 yet our chief purpose is to supply in full the information 
 which the dairyman rather than the farmer needs, and 
 in chapters on dairy statistics, on the food and choice 
 <»nd treatment of the cow, on milk, butter, cheese, and 
 general management, and on foreign dairying, to des- 
 cribe the experiences of the dairy farmer, and the manu- 
 facture of butter and cheese, as carried on in foreign 
 countries and in our best dairy districts. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 DAIBT STATISTICS. 
 
 Dairy Produce— Milk — ^Butter — Cheese — Stock and Produce per Aore 
 — Stock and Produce of the Country. 
 
 The butter made from a given quantity of milk, the 
 produce of ordinary herds of cattle, is rarely more than 
 4 per cent., varying from one-thirtieth to one-twentieth 
 of its weight. The cheese made from a given quantity, 
 of milk is generally about one-tenth part of its weight. 
 The quantity of butter and of cheese which milk will 
 yield depends upon the breed of the cow and its in- 
 dividual character ; upon the number of weeks or 
 months during which it has been in milk; and upon the 
 food which it receives. All these particulars are included 
 in the general management of the dairy farm. But it 
 also depends upon the system of management adopted 
 in the dairy and upon temperature and skill in manipu- 
 lating the milk, cream, and curd. Add to the influence 
 of all these circumstances affecting the quality of dairy 
 produce, the fact that the quantity of milk which a 
 given acreage of land will jrield varies enormously with 
 its quality and the way in which it is cropped and 
 stocked, and it will be easily understood how thie 
 widest diversity of experience and opinion in dairy 
 management comes to prevail. 
 
 B 2 
 
4 THE DAIRY OF THE FABU. 
 
 It may be observed here, although the chemistry of 
 the subject has been elsewhere discussed, that the 
 quantity of butter and of cheese respectively which milk 
 yields to the dairyman, differs materially from the 
 quantity which it yields on examination by the chemist. 
 The casein, or strictly cheesy part of milk, does not 
 generally exceed 4 per cent, of its weight ; but the full 
 milk cheese of the daicy contains much besides the mere 
 casein of the laboratory ; generally speaking, less than 
 one-third is casein ; about one-third is butter ; often 
 more than one-third, when pm:chased by the factor, is 
 water, and 3^ to 4J per cent, of its weight is salt and 
 other mineral matter. A small percentage of sugar is 
 also present. It may well be then that milk containing 
 4, per cent, of casein should yield 10 per cent of 
 marketable cheese, or even more if the butter per- 
 centage is high. And so with the butter of the market ; 
 it differs considerably from the butter of the laboratory, 
 containing, in addition to the pure fatty matters of which 
 alone the chemist takes account, half to one per cent, of 
 casein, and 12 to 15 per cent, of water, besides a minute 
 quantity of mineral matter and sugar. And if these 
 additions do not increase the butter made in the dairy 
 beyond that which is extracted in the laboratory, it is 
 because so much is lost by the imperfect means of mani- 
 pulating the milk which are adopted. 
 
 The object of the dairy farmer being to derive the 
 largest possible profit from his land, he crops the arable 
 portion, and manages the grass in order to keep a full 
 stock of dairy cows ; these he selects of the best class 
 and from the best breeds for the produce of milk for 
 gale, butter or cheese, according to his purpose. Having 
 
DAIBY STATISTICS. g 
 
 thus insured the largest produce of the quality of 
 milk desired, he regulates his dairy management 
 in order to obtain from it, as cheaply as possible, 
 unless he is solely a milk seller, as much of the 
 finest cheese or butter as it wiU yield. Successful 
 dairy farming thus implies a knowledge of the crops, 
 the stock, and the dairy management best adapted 
 to a profitable yield of milk, butter, or cheese. And 
 these are the three divisions under which it is pro- 
 posed to arrange the details of dairy experience in 
 the following pages, this preliminary section being 
 devoted to a statement of its gross results in a variety 
 of instances. 
 
 The Yield of JKLUk. — At the Conference of the British 
 Dairy Farmers' Association, in Yorkshire, in 1890, Mr. 
 Christopher Middleton quoted from the milk register 
 kept on the Eston Grange Farm of Messrs. Bolckow, 
 Vaughan and Co., whicKthe members of the Conference 
 subsequently inspected. He showed that 20 of the 40 
 cows gave the extraordinary average of 1,005 gallons 
 per head, one animal reaching 1,430 gallons; the ration 
 while upon grass including 3 lbs. of cotton cake and 
 lib. of maize and pea-nieal. Mr. Middleton himself 
 ovras a herd of Guernseys, several of the cows in which 
 have exceeded 800, and some 900 gallons ; while many 
 of the heifers have given between 600 and 700 gallons 
 after their first calf. The herd of cows (Shorthorns 
 and Ayrshire crosses) at the Munster Dairy School 
 yielded 721 gallons per head during the first 9J months 
 of 1886, the winter ration being 28 lbs. mangels, 20 lbs. 
 hay, and 9 lbs. of meal. Mr. Eichard Barter's (Cork) 
 
b THE DAIRY OP THE FABM. 
 
 herd of Shorthorns, Dutch and Ayrshire crosses, wit! 
 one Kerry, averaged 731 gallons in 1887, the summer feec 
 being supplemented by 2 lbs. of undecorticated cottor 
 cats and 1 lb. of malt coombs, and the winter ration 
 consisting of 7 lbs. hay, 42 lbs. gorse, 42 lbs. mangels, 
 7 lbs. grains, 6 lbs. oats and barley, and 2 lbs. bran. 
 Lord Braybrooke's herd of 20 Jerseys was stated in the 
 Agricultural Gazette in 1885 to have yielded an average 
 of 478 gallons each. The Jersey Cattle Society show 
 that, upon the basis of 133 tests, cows between three 
 and four years old gave 29 lbs. 4 ozs. per day ; between 
 five and seven years, 31 lbs. ; and between seven and 
 nine years, 30 lbs. 7 ozs. The average yield of dairy 
 Shorthorn cows owned by the Duke of Westminster, at 
 the Grange Farm in 1890, was 714 , gallons. A cow, 
 Lyddy, owned by Sir John Lawes, Bart., gave 72 lbs. 
 7 ozs. of milk in one day. An Ayrshire owned by 
 Mr. Wallace, of Kirklandholm, gave 13,456 lbs. of milk 
 in 365 days. In America many instances have been 
 recorded of Dutch cows giving over 1,500 gallons of 
 milk in a year, and we have personally met with cows 
 in Holland which have given 40 quarts in a day. 
 Examples of cows of the dairy Shorthorn and Ayrshire 
 varieties yielding over a thousand gallons in a year may 
 be found in numerous herds. 
 
 The Islington milking trials which the Association 
 has conducted afford valuable information, in spite of 
 the fact that it has been obtained from selected cows 
 of presumably high milking capacity. We give the 
 average day's yield of milk of the nine years' trials, the 
 percentage of butter and total solids, and the average 
 weight of three of the leading breeds : — 
 
DAIRY STATISTICS. 
 
 
 Uilfe. 
 
 Total Solids, 
 
 Butter Fat, 
 
 Weight, 
 
 
 lbB.» 
 
 p«r cem. 
 
 percent. 
 
 ibB. 
 
 Shorthorns ... 
 
 42-55 
 
 12-87 
 
 3-71 
 
 (9) 1.359 
 
 Jersey 
 
 27-58 
 
 11-04 
 
 4-04 
 
 (19) 840 
 
 Guernsey 
 
 27-17 
 
 14-09 
 
 4-65 
 
 (5) 1,026 
 
 * About lOi lbs. = 1 gaUon. 
 
 From these instances it may be safely gathered that 
 the average yield of vv'eli-managed cows varies from 
 450 to 600 gallons of milk a year, according to breed 
 and size; the smaller breeds, such as the improved 
 Kerry, yielding but little less than the former of these 
 quantities ; and the larger, as the dairy Shorthorn, 
 and some good cross-breeds, yielding even more than 
 the latter. 
 
 It will also be understood that, by skilful feeding and 
 first-rate management, the average yield of a small dairy 
 breed like the Ayrshire may be raised as high as 600 or 
 650 gallons annually ; and that, by corresponding treat- 
 ment of the larger breeds, their yield may be raised as 
 high as 800 gallons and upwards, as in some of the 
 instances quoted. The experience of skilled dairymen 
 proves, indeed, that these figures may be exceeded ; and 
 where, cows are kept solely for the provision of milk, 
 and replaced by others at a loss of 61. or 71. a-piece so 
 soon as their yield falls below about six quarts a day, 
 the annual yield of the large-framed Shorthorn cow may, 
 by good feeding, be kept at nearly 1,000 gallons annually 
 on the average number of the herd in stall throughout 
 the year. 
 
 The Yield of Bntter. — The percentage of butter ex- 
 tracted from milk has materially increased since the 
 introduction of the separator. It is probable that where 
 
« THE OAIBY OP THE FABM. 
 
 30 lbs. of milk was formerly required to produce a pound 
 of butter, 27 lbs. only is required where this machine 
 is now used. There is no reason why this quantity 
 should be exceeded in any dairy which is supplied with 
 milk from well-managed cattle. As the separator is so 
 entirely superior to all the old methods of creaming, 
 and as it must supplant them all, it is useless to esti- 
 mate the yield of butter upon any other basis. Those 
 who can afford to ignore a system which will increase 
 the returns of the dairy so largely, are not likely to read 
 this or any other work on the subject with an econo- 
 mical view. Colonel Curtis Hayward, of Quedgeley, near 
 Gloucester, whose cattle are chiefly Shorthorns, and 
 whose accounts are very accurately kept, found that in 
 the year ending March 31, 1891, it took on the average 
 23'64 lbs. of milk to make one pound of butter, or 
 24'74 lbs. from April to September, and 22'55 lbs. from 
 October to March It should be observed, however, 
 that about one-half of the milk was purchased. 
 
 Mr. Penrose Fitzgerald states that the milk of some 
 300 cows, of which all but about 50 (Kerries) are Short- 
 horns, is separated in the Midleton Factory (co. Cork), 
 the' average quantity required to make a pound of 
 butter being for the year 28'5 lbs., this figure falling to 
 25 lbs. in November, whereas, he adds, if there were no 
 winter calves it would require no more than 23 lbs. in 
 December. At the Dunragit Creamery, where con- 
 siderable skill is exercised in the work, the quantity 
 ranges between 22 lbs. and 33 lbs., the milk being 
 produced chiefly by Ayrshire cows. The manager of 
 the Famley Butter Factory finds that it requires 28 lbs. 
 of purchased milk to produce 1 lb. of butter the year 
 
DAIBY STATISTICS. 9 
 
 through. At the Cathedral Dairy, Exeter, the quantity 
 varies between 22J lbs. in autumn to 27 lbs. in spring. 
 In 1886 Mr. James Long tested the milk of eight 
 selected Bucks dairy Shorthorns. The milk separated 
 in the two days of the test was 669 lbs., and the butter 
 churned 36 lbs., or 1 lb. per 18"5 lbs. of milk. The 
 tests conducted under the auspices of the Jersey Cattle 
 Society have elicited valuable information. So far the 
 highest yield of butter recorded in one day is 3 lbs. 5 ozs. 
 by Mr. Brutton's Baron's Progress at six years old. As 
 she gave 37 lbs. 5 ozs. of milk, the ratio of butter to milk 
 was as 1 is to 11'3 lbs. ; the separator was used. At the 
 Winchester trials in 1890, Mr. Callender's Young Dorcas 
 gave 3 lbs. 2J ozs. from 28 lbs. 4 ozs. of milk, or 1 to 
 8"99, an astounding ratio. The average ratio of milk to 
 butter of the 133 cows tested is for heifers, 20"1 lbs.; for 
 cows between 4 and 5 years, 19"41 lbs. ; between 6 and 
 7 years, 17'81 lbs., and between 8 and 9 years, 18*64 lbs. 
 Although some doubt has been cast upon the accuracy 
 of American tests, there is no question that surprising 
 results have been achieved by both Dutch and Jersey 
 cattle in the States. Cows, desee idants of the late Mr. 
 Dauncey's bull Kioter, are repcrted to have yielded 
 867 lbs. to 778 lbs. and 900 lbs. of butter within the year. 
 Thirty cows bred similarly to one of these animals are 
 said to have averaged 20 lbs. of butter per week ; and 
 twenty-seven cows, daughters of another bull of the 
 same family, averaged over 20 lbs. of butter per week. 
 Jersey cows of other families are recorded as having 
 yielded 936 lbs. and 945 lbs. of butter in the year, while 
 a Dutch cow, Parthenia, one of many wonderful butter 
 makers, is credited with the yield of 648 lbs. of milk, 
 
10 THE DAIRY OF THE FABM. 
 
 and 35 lbs. 8J ozs. of butter in seven days, upon a ration 
 of 27 lbs. of ground oats, maize, linseed, and bran, 
 while running upon pasture. 
 
 Tield of Cheese. — The yield of cheese in proportion 
 to milk is shown in the following instances of experi- 
 ments made by the writer : — Cheddar System, 120 lbs., 
 milk partly Jersey ; curd when vatted; 13J lbs. ; cheese 
 when ripe, 11 lbs. 13 oz. 305 lbs. new milk, partly 
 Jersey, produced 35 lbs. curd and 28| lbs. ripe cheese. 
 80 lbs. new milk and 80 lbs. skim produced 20 lbs. curd 
 and ISJ lbs. ripe cheese. At the Dairy Institute, Ayles- 
 bury, the following weights were obtained from ordinary 
 farm Shorthorn milk : — 
 
 
 lbs. milk. 
 
 lbs. curd. 
 
 lb?, ripe cheese 
 
 April 26 
 
 240 
 
 26 
 
 22 
 
 May 15 
 
 .300 
 
 33 
 
 28 
 
 June 21 
 
 ... ' 280 
 
 33 
 
 m 
 
 July 8 
 
 2.10 
 
 28 
 
 22 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 220 
 
 25i 
 
 22i 
 
 Sept. 2 
 
 200 
 
 24} 
 
 21 
 
 The following figures show the actual weights of 
 Stilton : — 120 lbs. June milk, about one-quarter Jersey, 
 produced 20 lbs. curd and 11 lbs. blue cheese ; 288 lbs. 
 of similar milk in August produced 52 lbs. of curd and 
 27| lbs. ripe cheese. Mr. David Byrd, of Tarporley, a 
 justly famous Cheshire cheese-maker, sold 24 tons and 
 9 lbs of cheese, or 4 cwt. 23|^ lbs. per cow, on the aver- 
 age of 114 cows, in 1884, besides 1,372 lbs. of butter, 
 whey valued at ^61 per cow, and 6,843^ gallons of milk. 
 This would probably represent over 600 gallons per cow, 
 when we include the milk necessarily given to the 
 calves, 64 of which were sold and 40 reared. Cheshire 
 
DAIRY STATISTICS. 11 
 
 dairy farmers sometimes reach 4^ cwt. (of 121 lbs.) per 
 cow, and we have heard of 5 cwt., but this extra yield 
 is generally obtained at the expense of the sale of milk. 
 In Ayrshire it is a custom for the " bower " or dairyman 
 renting the dairy to pay the farmer 480 lbs. of cheese 
 for each cow, and 384 lbs. for each heifer, the cattle in 
 each case being Ayrshires. Such is the plan adopted 
 upon the smaller farm of the champion cheese-maker, 
 Mr. Frederick, of Drumflower. 
 
 Stock and Produce per Acre. — On this point, four or 
 five cases of actual experience may be quoted. In the 
 case of the First Prize Dairy Farm, near Shrewsbury, 
 in 1884, a herd of 50 cows on 185 acres, two-thirds 
 pasture, produced close on 5 cwts. of cheese per head, 
 besides some 30 cwts. of butter in the year. Here the 
 coiys were very good dairy Shorthorns, fed hberally 
 throughout the year. Mr. Byrd, already named, kept 
 his 114 cows upon 354 acres, of which only 38 are 
 under the plough. In Scotland, Mr. Frederick keeps 
 90 cows, besides calves and a large number of pigs, on 
 300 acres of arable land. Mr. Whyte, of Kirkmabrech, 
 keeps 112 cows, besides heifers and calves, on 400 acres 
 of arable, which also carries a few hundred sheep and 
 some high-bred Clydesdale horses. Many instances of 
 a similar kind could be adduced, as well as others 
 showing a still larger head of stock per acre. The 
 stock-carrying capacity of a dairy farm, however, depends 
 largely upon the quantity of cake or corn purchased. 
 Undoubtedly a well-managed ar6,ble farm is the most 
 economical, especially where heavy forage and root 
 crops can be grown, the yield largely depending upon 
 
12 THE DAIBT OF THE FABM. 
 
 the enrichment of the manure by the liberal use of 
 nitrogenous foods. We may, however, quote the case 
 of Mr. B. Hothersall, of Lightfoot Farm, near Preston, 
 who won the first prize in his class for the best dairy 
 farm when the Eoyal Agricultural Society's meeting 
 was at Preston, in 1886. This gentleman kept 48 
 to 52 large Shorthorns upon 97 acres of grass, but 
 his ^purchases of food — grains, cake, bran, meal, 
 roots, etc. — amounted in value to £651, although this 
 sum included food for several horses, some pigs and 
 poultry. 
 
 Mr. Feamall, of Eoyton, one of three brothers, all 
 first-rate dairy farmers, keeps 100 cows, besides rearing 
 30 heifers annually and fattening 150 pigs and porkers, 
 upon 342 acres, of which 55 acres are arable. In 1885, 
 when Mr. FeamaU competed for the Eoyal Farm prize, 
 his average return exceeded £22 per cow, and his con- 
 sumption of cake and grain included purchased food 
 costing £365, and home-grown food to the amount of 
 10 tons of barley, 20 tons of oats, and 10 tons of beans. 
 Mr. Thos. Parton, who took the second prize for the 
 best &rm in the Eoyal competition, kept 67 cows, 16 two- 
 year-olds, 27 calves, and 2 bulls upon 166 acres, of which 
 82 acres were arable ; the sales of nulk, cheese, butter, 
 and pigs averaging £22 12s. lOd. per cow over 64 cows, in 
 addition to which calves sold realised £97 10s. Here 
 £132 was expended for manures and £530 for foods, or 
 about £4 per acre. The Channel Islands afford numer- 
 ous instances of the heavy stocking of land. Mr. P. Le 
 Mesurier, of St. Peter's, keeps 45 cows and heifers, 
 besides calves, a bull, and some pigs, upon 45 acres by 
 the aid of heavy forage cropping. Lucerne and rye 
 
DAISY STATISTICS. 13 
 
 grass enabled Mr. Ozanne to keep 2 bulls, 3 cows, and 
 22 heifers upon 12 acres. 
 
 The whole of these farms and herds, and many others 
 of similar character, we have seen for ourselves, and we 
 are therefore the better able to point out that the results 
 shown are only attained by the exercise of the highest 
 skill and the most energetic management. 
 
 These examples are, however, instances rather of high 
 average than of possible produce. Good dairy farms 
 mil keep a cow for at most every three acres of 
 pasture, and under good management, with some arable 
 land in addition, a smaller extent will suffice. The 
 object of a book on the subject should be rather to 
 present the maxima of agricultural experience, and 
 thus stimulate progress, than to dwell merely on 
 averages, though a knowledge of these is necessary to a 
 truthful statement of ordinary dairy statistics. 
 
 Stock and Frodnce of the Couiitry. — In this para- 
 graph we give such figures as the annual agricultural 
 statistics of the country provide. It is significant of 
 the growing extent . of the share of the pastoral, 
 gra2dng, and dairying interest in the agriculture of 
 Great Britain, that the area in permanent pasture has 
 increased nearly one-fourth during the past twenty-two 
 years. It was 12,735,897 acres in extent in 1869 ; it was 
 16,438,850 acres in 1891. Three and a half miUions of 
 acres have been laid down with permanent grasses 
 during this period. The number of cattle has also 
 increased, and almost in the same proportion. There 
 were 5,313,473 cattle of all ages in 1869, and there 
 were 6,852,821 of all ages in 1891. Of these, 2,657,064 
 
14 THE DAIRY OF THE PABM. 
 
 were cows and heifers in milk and in calf. The 
 corresponding figures for the United Kingdom, in- 
 cluding Ireland, were 22,811,284 acres of permanent 
 pasture in 1869, and 27,567,663 acres in 1891 ; 
 9,078,282 cattle in 1869, and 11,343,686 in 1891, of which 
 4,117,707 were cows and heifers in milk and in calf. 
 With all deductions for those breeds which do little 
 more than rear their calf, and for those breeds where 
 the whole milk is devoted to the raising of stock and 
 the fatting of veal, and. considering, on the one hand, 
 the small yield of some breeds and, on the other, the 
 large quantity produced by cows now fed especially for 
 the yield of milk, we may assume that the 4,117,707 
 cows yield nearly 1,480,000,000 gallons annually. Of 
 this at least one-fifteenth is taken for calves; and if 
 the consumption of milk, which has very greatly 
 increased of late years, be put at one-quarter of a pint 
 a-piece daily for each one of the populatipn, 480,000,000 
 gallons thus consumed musty be deducted, leaving 
 950,000,000 gallons for the manufacture of cheese and 
 butter, a quantity equal to the production of 
 803,000,000 lbs. of cheese and 214,000,000 lbs. of 
 butter — a quantity which would provide about 7'9 lbs. 
 of cheese and 5 "6 lbs. of butter a-piece per head of the 
 population per annum, allovying for the small quantity 
 exported. That this is not enough, and that there is a 
 growing deficiency in the . home supply, is proved by 
 the increasing quantity of butter and cheese which 
 is annually imported as appears from the following 
 table : — 
 
DAIKT STATISTICS. 
 
 15 
 
 Tear. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Tear. 
 
 Imjjorte. 
 
 Bntter. 
 
 ClieeBe. 
 
 Bntter. 
 
 Cheese. 
 
 1871 
 1876 
 1880 
 1881 
 1882 
 1883 
 1884 
 
 cwts. 
 
 1.334.783 
 1.659.492 
 2,326,305 
 2,047,341 
 2,169,717 
 2,334,473 
 2,475.436 
 
 cwts. 
 
 1.216.400 
 1.531.204 
 - 1.775.997 
 1,840,090 
 1.694.623 
 1.799.704 
 1.927,139 
 
 18g5 
 1886 
 1887 
 1888 
 1889 
 1890 
 
 cwts. 
 2,401.373 
 1.543,566 
 1,513.134 
 1,671.433 
 1,927.842 
 2,027,717 
 
 cwts. 
 1,833,832 
 1,734,890 
 1.836,789 
 1,917,616 
 1,907,999 
 2.144,074 
 
 Massabine. 
 
 1886 
 1887 
 1888 
 1889 
 1890 
 
 cwts. 
 
 887,974 
 1,276,140 
 1.139.743 
 1,241,690 
 1,079,856 
 
 , Margarine waB included with butter until 1886. 
 
 Taking the imports and exports as our basis, the 
 consTimption of imported butter and cheese per capita 
 is as foflows, the addition of the figures given above 
 showing the total consumption per head of oui 
 population per annum: — 
 
 C!onsumption of imported 
 Consumption of Home-made 
 
 Per head. 
 
 Butter. Cheese. 
 
 9-4 5-7 
 
 5-6 7-9 
 
 16-0 
 
 13-6 
 
CHAPTER n. 
 
 FOOD OP THE COW. 
 
 Pasturage— SnmmeT and Winter Feeding — Belations of Food to 
 Pasture — ^Malt and Barley — Crops of the Dairy Farm, Ensilage — 
 Schemes of Cultivation for Dairy Farms. 
 
 It is intended in this chapter to describe actual prac- 
 tice in a number of instances of cow feeding ; to state 
 such facts as are known on the relations of various foods 
 to the yield and quality of milk ; and to enumerate the 
 crops proper for cultivation on a dairy farm. 
 
 The Food of the Cow in the common practice of our 
 dairy districts is pasturage in summer, and hay and 
 chopped straw with, in most cases, turnips or mangel- 
 wurzel in winter. She will consume in depasturing 
 from 1 to IJ cwt. of grass daily, varying of course 
 according to age and size ; or during seven months of 
 grazing as much as 12 to 16 tons of green food. Pas- 
 tures which would by July have growth enough on them 
 to make from 20 to 40 cwts. of hay, and which wiU 
 when that is cut grow probably three-fifths as much 
 grass after July 1st as they had grown before, will, if 
 their growth be eaten down from week to week through- 
 out the season, have produced from 7 to 14 tons of 
 green food per acre. From IJ acres of the best grass 
 lands to as much as 2^ of the poorer class will thus be 
 
FOOD OF THE COW. 17 
 
 wanted for the summer maintenance of the cow. One 
 acre of whole grass and the aftermath of another 
 acre which had been mown for winter hay will in the 
 former case be sufficient for a cow ; and double that 
 extent will be needed in the latter case. The cow 
 would thus receive fully J cwt. of hay daily during the 
 five winter months. In Gloucestershire 2J tons of hay 
 a head are considered an ample winter's allowance. In , 
 Cheshire 2^ to 3J acres of grass land per cow are the 
 general allowance in order to supply sufficient summer 
 pasturage and winter provender ; but the dairy farms 
 in that county generally have a larger pi'oportion of 
 arable land attached to them, and it is common to give 
 the cows turnips, mangels and straw, as well as hay. 
 Cheshire dairy farmers are practical feeders, and add 
 liberal allowances of cake, bran, and maize-meal to the 
 ration when the cows are in full milk during winter. 
 Cabbage and grains are also used upon some farms. 
 
 In the now famous dairy counties of Ayrshire and 
 Wigtownshire the cows graze from May until October, 
 getting straw, turnips, and swedes, 6 to 7 tons per head, 
 from October until the following grazing season, together 
 with bean meal, cake, and oats at the rate of about 4 lbs. 
 a head. In some cases— a specific allowance being 
 made to the " bower " who manages the cows — ^the 
 allowance of meal is smaller, 280 lbs. a head for the actual 
 v/inter feeding. On many Scotch farms the food is 
 largely cooked — turnips, chaff, meal, and draff (grains) , 
 where used, being boiled together and given to the cows 
 hot. There is a very general practice in many parts of 
 England of mixing pulped roots (swedes in winter and 
 mangels in spring) and chaff together, and heaping a 
 
18 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM. 
 
 day before use, by which time it has heated. In some 
 cases grains, which have been purchased in summer 
 and pitted, are mixed with this " chop " ; in others, bran, 
 meal, or malt culms are used instead. These mixtures 
 form the main ration, while oat straw is given between 
 meals, and in some cases a little hay or even cake. The 
 economy of feeding depends upon the utilisation of the 
 food grown upon the farm, and both straw and roots 
 can be given with admirable results in combination 
 with a concentrated food such as cotton cake, bran, or 
 bean meal, all of which are rich in the constituent, 
 nitrogenous matter, in which the coarse foods are 
 deficient. In Jersey and in the richer districts of 
 Normandy the cows are tethered upon clover, vetches, 
 lucerne, or trifoliwm- incarnatwm, with the best results, 
 all these foods being rich in nitrogenous matter. In 
 Switzerland grass and hay are almost the only foods 
 used. In Holland, another excellent dairy country, the 
 same foods are the staple ; rape cake, however, is largely 
 used in winter. In Sweden, hay is the chief winter 
 food; while in Denmark, where arable land is more 
 abundant, mixed rations, with meal or rape-cake, are 
 much more general. It is now the practice to treat 
 the cow much more hberally during the winter months 
 and when she is dry than used to be the rule. The 
 bare condition in which, after calving, the cow was 
 often turned out to grass in spring is now quite 
 understood to be bad farm management. The large 
 number of cows which are now brought to the pail in 
 autumn for the provision of milk in winter for the 
 supply of towns, makes, of course, the distinction which 
 used to obtain between winter and summer feeding no 
 
POOD OP THE COW. 19 
 
 longer applicable, and the yield of milk is often stimu- 
 lated by the most liberal treatment, both as regards food 
 and shelter. Great reliance is placed on grains by many 
 farmers, a bushel a day per cow, or even more, being 
 given, together with 12 to 18 lbs. of hay, and J cwt. of 
 roots, chiefly mangel, or, in place of the two last, 
 abundance of cut green food, clover, vetches, lucerne or 
 rye grass during summer. A common method is to 
 pasture the cows in summer, giving them cut green 
 food in addition towards autumn and in early summer, 
 and to feed in stalls or sheds on roots, grains, cake, and 
 hay, and steamed messes during winter. The practice 
 of giving warm mashes is more common in the north. 
 For small Ayrshire cows, the following has been found 
 a sufficient winter dietary on which to keep them in 
 full milk : — 30 to 40 lbs. of boiled turnips, with 6 lbs. of 
 cut straw, 2 gallons of grains, and 31bs. of bean-meal 
 mashed up in them, oat straw ad lib. being supphed in 
 addition. Mr. Horsfall's winter feeding was remarkably 
 liberal, and he received his return for it in the fattening 
 of his cows at the time they were giving milk. The 
 following is the report of his management to the 
 Eoyal Agricultural Society :— He had for four years 
 given his dairy cows rape-cake, of the kind termed 
 "green" cake, which imparted to the butter a finer 
 flavour than cake of any other description ; and in order 
 to induce them to eat it, he blended it with one-quarter 
 the quantity of malt-dust, one-quarter bran, and twice 
 the quantity of a mixture in equal proportions of bean- 
 straw, oat-straw, and oat-shells ; all well mixed up 
 together, moistened, and steamed for one hour. This 
 steamed food had a very fragrant odour, and was much 
 
 o 2 
 
20 THE DAIET OP THE FABM. 
 
 relished by the cattle : it was given warm three times a 
 day, at the rate of about 7 lbs. to each cow (or 21 lbs. 
 daily). Bean-meal was also scattered dry over the 
 steamed food, cows in full milk getting 2 lbs. per day, 
 the others but little. When the animals had eaten up 
 this mixture, they were each supplied daily with 28 lbs. to 
 35 lbs. of cabbages from October to December, of kohl- 
 rabi till February, or of mangels till grass time ; each 
 cow having given to her, after each of the three feed- 
 ings, 4 lbs. of meadow hay (or 12 lbs. daily) . The roots 
 were not cut, but given whole. The animals were twice 
 a day allowed to drink as much water as they desired. 
 Mr. Horsfall ultimately discontinued the use of bean- 
 meal, owing to its comparative price, and in its place, 
 along with about 5 lbs. of rape-cake, gave an additional 
 allowance of malt coombs, and 2 or 3 lbs. of maize-meal 
 per cow. On this food, in instances actually observed, 
 his cows gave 14 quarts of milk a day, at the same time 
 that they gained flesh at the rate of about one-quarter 
 of a cwt. per month. 
 
 Although summer grazing is the commonest and 
 simplest practice, yet everything depends upon the 
 quality of the grass. On poor herbage, especially that 
 deficient in clovers, it is usually found advantageous to 
 give the cows a daily allowance of cotton cake, the flow 
 of milk increasing, while the increased value of the 
 manure has the best effect upon the pasture, which is 
 gradually improved. 
 
 Relations of Pood to Dairy Produce. — It is difficult 
 to say of any agricultural result how much of it is due 
 to any particular cause ; and in the case of dairy pro- 
 
POOD OP THE COW. 21 
 
 duce, so many causes contribute to the result that the 
 .difficulty is greatly increased. The breed, the ihdi- 
 ■vidual character of the cow, its treatment, and the 
 dairy management of its milk — all, as well as the food 
 , which it receives, affect the quantity of butter or of 
 cheese which is obtained from it ; and thus comparative 
 experiments made in order to ascertain the effect of 
 particular foods must be carried on for a length of, 
 time before their results can be considered trustworthy. 
 Experiments which have been made , by Sir John 
 Lawes, at Eothamsted, have furnished dairy farmers 
 with information of the most valuable nature. Sir 
 John sa'ys thE!,t 1 ton of milk (about 220 galls.) can ba 
 produced per acre upon first-rate land, so that a cow 
 giving nearly 800 gallons would require 3 J acres. An 
 acre of very good pasture will increase the weight of a 
 store ox from 1,200 lbs. to 1,700 lbs., the increase contain- 
 ing from 300 lbs. to 350 lbs. of dry matter, of which 35 Ibs; 
 would be nitrogenous. Now the dry matter contained in 
 800 gallonsof milk would amount to more than 1,000 lbs., 
 including nine times as much nitrogenous matter aa 
 was contained in the increase in the ox. Thus the 
 production of milk is shown to be much more exhaust- 
 ing than the production of meat by a grazing ox. 
 Writing in 1887, Sir John Lawes said that during the 
 winter months his purchased food consisted of decorti- 
 cated cotton cake and bran, the bran being given only 
 when the cows were taken in and stall-fed. A rule was 
 adopted that when a cow gave 28 to 30 lbs. of milk 
 daily during one week, she should receive 4 lbs. of cake 
 per day during the next, and at the end of that week 
 the cake should be increased or decreased one-quarter 
 
22 THE DAISY OF THE FARM. 
 
 of a povmd daily for each 2 lbs. per day of increase or 
 decrease. This rule was not strictly carried out, the 
 quantity being* sometimes found to be too large to be 
 economical. In one instance the results pointed to the 
 belief that the liberal use of cotton cake considerably 
 retarded the falling-off in the yield. The foUowiag 
 table relating to the results at Eothamsted are most 
 interesting and instructive : — 
 
 Bran 
 consamsd 
 pergaU. 
 lbs. & ozs. 
 
 Yrs. 
 
 No. of 
 cows. 
 
 TSfO.Of 
 
 weeks. 
 
 Galls, 
 per head. 
 
 Cake 
 consumed 
 per gall. 
 
 lbs. & OZE. 
 
 1884 
 
 40 
 
 47 
 
 876 
 
 — 
 
 1885 
 
 50 
 
 52 
 
 884 
 
 — 
 
 1886 
 
 46 
 
 49 
 
 810 
 
 1-7 
 
 0-12 
 
 In another table it was estimated at Eothamsted that 
 4 lbs. of cotton cake and 3^ lbs. of bran would produce 
 as much digestible nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous 
 substances as would produce 30 lbs. of milk. The 
 experiments of Lawes and Gilbert suggest that if suit- 
 able purchased foods are given soon after calving, the 
 yield of milk can generally be increased, and that such 
 milk would have a tendency to become richer rather 
 than poorer. 
 
 The teaching of science has been of immense benefit 
 to those who have availed themselves of it, but the 
 maxims of ordinary experience should never be neglected. 
 
 Crops and Poods for Dairy Stock. — The cultivation of 
 the crops suitable as food for dairy stock has been 
 described in another Handbook. At present a mere 
 list will be given of these crops, with a reference to 
 their probable yield per acre, the period of year 
 during which each is available, etc. (1.) Pasturage. 
 
FOOD OF THE OOW. 23 
 
 The grass of old meadows ol good quality is the best 
 possible summer food for dairy cows. They will usually 
 consume from 1 cwt. upwards of green food daily. The 
 annual yield of grass from meadows will vary from 7 tons 
 per acre up to 14 tons, according to the season. It is avail- 
 able in this climate generally from early in May till the 
 middle of November or later, during which time an 
 ordinary cow will consume from 10 to 14 tons of green 
 food. (2.) Hay, well made from good meadows, is the 
 very best food for dairy cows. It is, however, greatly 
 economised by the addition of straw and roots, meal, 
 and cake, but when given alone must be suppHed at the 
 rate of 40 lbs. daily, or thereabouts, a head. (3.) The 
 Glovers afford capital grazing for young stock, and on 
 arable dairy farms to milch cows also. They may yield on 
 good land, well cultivated, in two or even three cuttings, 
 if the season be favourable, 10, 6, and 4 tons respec- 
 tively per acre ; or from 12 to 13 tons per acre during 
 the season. If the cattle are foddered, as in small 
 dairies they may be, these and other green foods must 
 be supplied at the rate of folly one cwt. daily. They are 
 available from June or July tiU October. (4.) Vetches 
 sown in October, and again in April, May, and June, 
 may be made to provide a succession of food aU through 
 "the summer, commencing in May. They yield one 
 cutting, which may furnish from 6 to 10 tons of green 
 food per acre : a very succulent food if given before its 
 flowers appear ; and the better, therefore, for being cut 
 12 to 24 hours before use, in order to wither and pre- 
 vent cattle being blown. Vetches may be given with 
 excellent effect chopped with straw. (5.) Bye, cut green, 
 is one of the earliest of spring foods ; sown from July 
 
24 THE DAIET OP THE FABM. 
 
 to September, it is available in April and May, yielding 
 perhaps four or five tons per acre of green food, and more 
 as the crop approaches maturity, when of course it be- 
 comes less appropriate as a summer food. (6.) Italian 
 Bye-grass is one of the best forage plants for cows when 
 cultivated liberally. If manured abundantly after each 
 cutting, especially if the dressing can be washed in by irri- 
 gation, another cutting, weighing sometimes 10 or even 
 15 tons per acre, will be ready in a few weeks. And as 
 many as five heavy cuttings have been obtained from it in 
 the season on sewage farms. When sufficiently ripened, 
 it is one of the best possible cut foods that can be given to 
 cows, inducing an abundant yield of excellent milk. (7.) 
 Lucerne, on deep, rich, and sheltered soil will also yield a 
 succession of cuttings of excellent food for cows, weighing 
 on an average fcom 6 to 8'tons per acre at each cutting. 
 (8.) Sainfoin may be classed with the clovers as to 
 quality and quantity of produce, but it rarely produces 
 two heavy cuts in a year. Like lucerne, it is available 
 for several years on the same land, requiring of course to 
 be manured if constantly cut ; it is suitable for calcareous 
 soils, where clovers are not generally so successful; 
 and it yields probably 10 to 12 tons of green food, 
 under good management, per acre. (9.) Gorse, crushed 
 and given with other food, is hked by cows, and has 
 been successfully used in dairies. It is available during 
 November and the winter months, and, given at the 
 rate of two bushels of the bruised material along with 
 carrots and a little hay, is one of the most useful 
 winter foods for cows in milk. (10.) Ba^e is useful ia 
 early winter ; it is less Hable to affect the flavour of milk 
 than turnips, and is a very succulent and palatable food. 
 
FOOD OF THE COW. 25 
 
 Capable of being mown and brought in daily from the 
 field, it is available as a daily food during September, 
 October, and November, and, indeed, formed a portion 
 of Mr. Horsfall's feeding of his well-managed dairy 
 herd. A crop of rape will yield from 10 to 12 tons of 
 green food per acre. (11.) Cabbages of various sorts, 
 open and hearted, early and late, are much relished 
 by cows, and, when liberally manured, will yield a suc- 
 cession of food from May all through the summer, and 
 on till the end of the year. Land yielding successive 
 crops of cabbages will produce an enormous weight of 
 food — even 40 or 50 tons per acre during the season. 
 No more than half a - cwt. a day, supplemented with 
 more substantial food, preferably of a nitrogenous and 
 binding nature, such as bean or pea meal, or decor- 
 ticated cotton cake, should be given to a cow ; and care 
 should be taken to remove any spoiled portions of the 
 ration, which, if consumed, would greatly aggravate the 
 disagreeable flavOur which, under the most careful 
 management, they are apt to give to the milk. (12.) 
 Turnips, common and Swedish, are given to cows, the 
 former in early winter, the latter on till towards spring. 
 They will yield from 10 to 20, and even 25 tons per 
 acre, but they are a faulty food, owing to the flavour 
 which, without special management, when used in large 
 quantities, they give to the milk. Sixty to eighty 
 lbs. daily, along with an unlimited supply of straw, is 
 an ordinary daily ration on some farms. These roots 
 are less liable to affect the milk if steamed, or even if 
 merely pulped, but in any case the crown should be cut 
 off low down ; 15 or 20 tons of common turnips per 
 acre, and 12 to 15 tons of Swedish turnips, are an 
 
26 THE DAIBY OF THE FABM. 
 
 ordinary crop, but they are liable to so many casualties 
 from weather, insects, etc., that absolute dependence 
 cannot be placed on them for a small dairy. Swedes are 
 not only better food than common turnips, but they 
 taint the milk less readily, and keep much better. 
 (13.) Mcmgel-wv/rzels are the best root crop for late 
 winter and spring feeding of milch co ws . Not more than 
 from 40 lbs. to 70 lbs. should be given daily when they 
 are the sole dependence along with hay and straw ; but 
 a smaller quantity, pulped and given with richer food, 
 is better management, especially in butter dairies. 
 Thirty tons of mangels per acre can be grown more 
 easily than 20 tons of turnips on suitable soils, and in 
 the following spring and summer they are better food 
 per ton. (14.) Kohl-^abi is a hardy and useful crop on 
 dairy farms, yielding, perhaps, 12 or 14 tons of bulbs, and 
 a useful top as well, which cattle eat with reUsh. (15.) 
 Ga/rrots, especially the large Belgian sorts, can be grown 
 with great advantage inafreesoil;10tol2tons are a good 
 ordinary crop. They do not give a disagreeable flavour 
 to the milk, and are extremely palatable to the cattle. 
 Half a cwt. may be given daily with other food with 
 great advantage. (16.) Parsnips, while not quite so 
 palatable as carrots, are very nutritive, and extremely 
 valuable for milk production. Of the large Jersey 
 parsnips, 10 or 12 tons per acre have been grown. (17.) 
 Potatoes, when steamed, prove an excellent cow food; 
 they are sometimes used raw, but with less advantage ; 
 as compared with Swedes and mangels they are not 
 economical. (18.) Straw of our various corn and pulse 
 crops is used as winter fodder in the cow-yard. Cooked 
 bean straw, if the crop has been well harvested and cut 
 
FOOD OF THE COW. 27 
 
 before it was dead ripe, is nutritious fodder. Pea-straw, 
 if free from mildew, is also good food ; and-clean wheat, 
 oat, or barley straw with a few Swedes is often almost 
 the sole fodder of dry cows and young stock through the 
 winter ; a pound or two of cotton cake should, however, 
 be added. If straw is cut into chaff, and wetted with hot 
 and salt linseed sbup, made at the rate of about 1 lb. of 
 the linseed to each head of cattle, and mixed with some 
 ptdped roots, store stock can thus be kept in very good 
 condition through the winter. Next to good bean straw 
 oat straw is to be preferred, but it should have been 
 saved in good condition. Corn straw is the most valu- 
 able when it has been grown with seeds, a portion of 
 which will have been cut with it. In any case a few 
 turnips or mangels should be given to dry cows and 
 growing stocks, or failing these 1 lb. to 3 lbs. of linseed 
 or cotton cake, or a mixture of both. (19.) Meal of the 
 various grains — wheat, barley, oats — or of beans, peas, 
 linseed and Indian corn, is used more or less in cases 
 where rich feeding of dairy cows is adopted. Bean, 
 pea, oat and India-meal and bran are probably more 
 commonly used than any other, and the first-named is 
 especially fitted as food for cows in milk; a few pounds, 
 mixed with the daily rations is generally well repaid. It 
 should be mentioned that cake is always a safer food 
 than com meal, especially that made from wheat or 
 barley. 
 
 Linseed, ground or bruised, forms a useful addition 
 to the steamed or boiled mess given to the cow. It may 
 be given to the extent of 2 lbs. daily. A good plan where 
 an engine and boiler are kept is to mix in a tank with one 
 pail of water per cow, and cook it with the waste steam. 
 
28 THE DAIET OF THE FAEM. 
 
 In this way it forms an admirable addition to chopped 
 and pulped foods. (20.) GaAies made from the various oil- 
 producing seeds are among the best of cattle foods. 
 Linseed cake stands high on the hst, as it is the most 
 costly, but cotton-seed cake, produced from decorticated 
 seed, has taken a very high place among our cattle 
 foods. It must not be supposed that cake is specially 
 adapted for the enrichment of milk in' butter fat, and, 
 therefore, for butter production solely on account of the 
 high percentage of oil it contains. This oil has its value, 
 assisting as it does in the maintenance of the condition 
 of the cow; but it is the nitrogenous matter in the cake 
 which places it above all other foods. Decorticated 
 cotton cake, which has been, shown by repeated experi- 
 ments to be more economical than the common cotton 
 cake, is perhaps the cheapest of all concentrated milk- 
 producing foods, taking into account the high value of 
 the manure produced from it. (21.) Malt culms or 
 sprouts are a most useful milk-producing food, highly 
 nitrogenous, communicating a most agreeable flavour 
 and odour to chop, and usually moderate in price. 
 (22.) Molasses are sometimes used for dairy cows, and 
 3 or 4 lbs., mixed with a quantity of chaff and turnips, 
 induces a larger consumption of comparatively unpalat- 
 able food. (23.) Of all the foods used where cows are 
 stall fed, none excels brewers' grains for stimulating the 
 production of poor milk : from 2 to 4 pecks daily are 
 given to each cow. By gradually mixing a little with, 
 cheir ordinary ration, they will ultimately take them 
 greedily. Grains from the smaller breweries are 
 believed to be the best. They are used largely in town 
 dairies. They diminish in value, however, with every 
 
FOOD OF THE COW. 29 
 
 improvement in the processes adopted for extracting 
 the most nutritive parts in brewing or distilling. Grains 
 are now dried, and in this form they are rich in fat and 
 albuminous matter, and are likely to become popular 
 in country dairies ; by soaking in water they are 
 easily brought to the condition of wet grains. (24.) 
 Salt should be placed within reach of the cow, and a 
 lump in her manger is perhaps better than the direct 
 addition of so many ounces daily in her food. Salt 
 encourages the flow of saliva, ai^d thus stimulates the 
 conversion of starch into sugar. 
 
 We must not forget to mention what is virtually a 
 new source of succulent food in winter, the practice of 
 ensilage. Green grass, rye, vetches, or clover is packed 
 ''tightly in pits or stacks, and kept under a pressure of 
 1 cwt. or more per square foot of surface ; thus preserved, 
 it is a perfectly palatable food for dairy stock, and is 
 available all through the winter. Mr. Kirby, of Hook 
 Farm, near Bromley, showed us how he fed more than 
 100 cows on the contents of his silos, in which mown 
 grass cut the previous June had been cut into chaff, 
 and packed and pressed. And this is now a not un- 
 common experience. Cows fed on 50 lbs. of grass 
 silage, some grains, 2 or 3 lbs. of cake, and as much 
 meal, yield abundant milk of admirable quality. In 
 filling a silo the grass is well trodden as it is filled ; 
 when full, dry earth or sand is laid over the surface to the 
 required depth and weight, and the work is done. To 
 prevent it coming out sour, however, the silo is 
 gradually filled, the temperature being allowed to reach 
 130° before pressure is applied. Silage thus made 
 comes out sweet and fragrant, but in all cases, in its 
 
30 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM. 
 
 conversion, the grass has suffered a loss of feeding 
 matter. 
 
 The Cropping of Land for the Cow, notwithstanding 
 the variety of foods available for her use, is generally a 
 very simple matter. Almost all the butter and cheese 
 produced in this country is made from cows which are 
 fed upon grass in summer, and upon hay, roots — i.e., 
 turnips and mangels — and straw, -with the addition of 
 cakes and meal, in winter; while the milk supplied 
 by town-fed cows comes from brewers' grains, to- 
 gether with cabbage, cut vetches, and clover in sum- 
 mer, and hay, mangel, and similarly concentrated foods 
 to the above, in the winter. There is, however, room 
 for a great deal more economy in the utilisation of the 
 dairy farm, by adapting the arable portion more directly 
 to cow-feeding, and so enabling the occupier to keep a 
 larger stock of cattle. Let us take an instance or two 
 of small farms available for dairy management, and see 
 how far arable crops enable us to increase the stock of 
 dairy cows beyond the " one to every three acres," 
 which is the average of our ordinary dairy districts. 
 The following paragraphs describe actual cases in which 
 the advice of the writer was applied for : — 
 
 (1.) " Hill Side '-' had 16 acres of poor grass land and 
 35 acres of arable land, 5 of which were in sainfoin. 
 Let us see how many cows the occupier could keep. 
 The 20 acres of grass and sainfoin may be supposed to 
 yield 200 tons of green food ; and of the 30 acres of 
 arable land, 20 acres in clover, mangel-wurzel, carrots, 
 parsnips, and Swedish turnips, might produce annually 
 nearly 400 tons ; while the remaining 10 acres in grain 
 
FOOD OF THE. COW. 31 
 
 crops would produce, say, 15 tons of straw : 680 tons oi 
 food, at 120 lbs. each per day, would keep 20 or 25 
 cows throughout the year, and 15 tons of straw would 
 litter them in winter. This calculation is based upon 
 data which will be found true, whether the grass be made 
 into hay or not. The following is a rotation which would 
 bring out the quantities and kinds of produce suggested. 
 Let half the sainfoin and nearly half the grassland be 
 mown each year, and 5 acres of the arable land be in 
 clover, to be cut and carried to the cattle in the house. 
 The 30 acres of arable land may be divided into 6 fields 
 of 5 acres each. 1st year, corn sown with clover seeds ; 
 2nd year, clover ; 3rd year, swedes ; 4th year, corn ; 
 5th year, mangel-wurzel; 6th year, carrots. Vetches 
 or rye might be taken after a portion of the clover lay 
 and cut in time for white turnips. 
 
 
 
 Summer food 
 
 
 Winter food 
 
 5 acres 
 
 of clover 
 
 60 tons. 
 
 
 — 
 
 5 „ 
 
 swedes 
 
 — 
 
 
 100 tons. 
 
 5 „ 
 
 mangel-wurzel 
 
 . 80 „ 
 
 and 
 
 80 „ 
 
 5 „ 
 
 carrots 
 
 . 30 „ 
 
 M 
 
 30 „ 
 
 5 „ 
 
 sainfoin 
 
 . 30 „ 
 
 « 
 
 30 ,„ 
 
 15 „ 
 
 meadow 
 
 . 80 „ 
 
 » 
 
 60 „ 
 
 280 300 
 
 Of course the 60 tons of grass produce put down to 
 the column of winter food is given as hay, but that does 
 not affect its valuation as food. Here; then, by the aid 
 of arable produce we might be able to provide daily 
 food throughout the year equal to the maintenance of a 
 herd of 20 to 25 cows on a poor farm of 50 acres if it 
 were well manured and managed. A medium farm of 
 50 acres, wholly of pasture, would not, as a general 
 
32 THE DAIBY OF THE FAEM. 
 
 rule, keep more than two-thirds of the stock for which 
 food is thus provided. The crops suggested are heavy, 
 but land liberally cultivated under such a rotation 
 ought to yield well. In this, as in similar cases, great 
 help to the crops as well as to the cattle would be 
 afforded by the liberal use of cotton cake and other 
 such foods, and the careful protection of the liquid and 
 solid manure. 
 
 (2.) The following is the case of a dairy farm of 35 
 acres of meadow and 25 acres of arable land: — The 
 cows are stall, box, or shed fed during the winter and 
 during part ofi spring and autumn. Let us suppose 
 them to be under shelter 200 days in the year. Bach 
 cow must have about 8 lbs. of litter daily ; she may be 
 kept fairly comfortable with this quantity, although it is 
 certainly a scanty allowance ; she will thus require 
 14 cwts. per annum, so that 25 cows will require about 
 17 tons — a quantity which may be supposed to grow on 
 12 acres, the half of the arable land. 
 
 The arable land, then, may be cropped thus : — 
 
 1 acre of lucerne. 
 12 acres of grain crop, or 6 of wheat and 6 of oats. 
 6 acres (after wheat) — 2 of mangels, 2 of Italian rye-grass (or 
 
 trifoliiun), and 2 of vetohes. 
 
 The two latter succeeded by 4 acres of swedes. 
 6 acres (after oats) — 3 of mangels, and 3 of carrots. 
 
 Of the pastiure land : — 
 
 18 acres may be mown, and 
 17 acres depastured, each year. 
 
 The following, accordingly, will be the produce of 
 
FOOD OF THE COW 33 
 
 green food for consumption, besides the straw of the 
 12 acres of grain :— 
 
 18 acres of hay, equal to 30 tons of hay ; which may be 
 
 considered equal in green food to 120 tons 
 
 18 acres of aftermath, equal to 60 „ 
 
 17 acres depastured, equal to 190 „ 
 
 1 acre of lucerne, equal to 16 „ 
 
 2 acres of Italian rye-grass (or trifolium), equal to ... 20 „ 
 
 2 acres of vetches, equal to 20 „ 
 
 5 acres of mangels, equal to 14f) „ 
 
 4 acres of swedes, equal to 75 „ 
 
 3 acres of white carrots, equal to 36 „ 
 
 Or in all 701 tons 
 
 a quantity equal to nearly 2 tons of green food a day, 
 which will keep 26 to 30 cows very well. And the crops 
 may all be used in proper season. Beginning with 
 October, till February the cows will be feeding on 
 grass (except during severe weather), carrots, swedes, 
 and hay ; till April, on carrots, mangels, and hay ; till 
 July, on grass, mangels, rye-griss, vetches, and hay; 
 during summer, on grass in the fields and lucerne. 
 Some growers will be tempted to take a second cut of 
 rye-grass, but, the swedes will prove the better crop, 
 both as an immediate food and as a preliminary 
 to grain. Where swedes cannot be got in after rye- 
 grass and vetches, turnips or cabbage (also an 
 admirable milk-producer) can. In the southern 
 counties trifolium incarnatum may be followed by 
 swedes, turnips, cabbage, and rape. In addition to 
 this stock, two horses will be kept, and food must be 
 provided, or displaced, for them by the purchase of iOl. 
 worth of oats and hay. It is plain that other crops 
 
34 THE DAIRY. OF THE FARM. 
 
 might have a place in the scheme. Cabbages which 
 admit of transplanting in a forward stage of growth 
 from seed-beds to any land from which the crop has 
 just been taken, will be certain to have a place on such 
 a dairy farm, especially in filling up all gaps in the 
 root crops. 
 
 These instances will be considered cases of high 
 farming ; but the ordinary experience of dairy farmers, 
 who only keep one cow to every three or even four acres 
 of pasture, is more generally improved upon in a less 
 vigorous Way by the cultivation of a few acres of roots, 
 in order to economise the winter's consumption of hay, 
 to render less hay-making necessary, and to make 
 more acres of the pasture available for summer 
 feeding; thus providing for more cows on summer 
 grass, which is the most ptoductive of milk, although 
 the milk is worth less per gallon. 
 
 A large crop of food may generally be taken by 
 planting cabbages after vetches or trifolium, before 
 turnips go in, for autumn and winter consumption, 
 or after early-cut oats, for consumption in spring; 
 although much depends upon the part of the country 
 in which the farm is situated. Vetches should be sown 
 in successive patches, in order to yield a succession of 
 food during the summer months ; but it should be 
 arranged for the early vetches to be sown in autumn, 
 preferably after the winter oat crop, and the late ones 
 in spring. There is no time for a second crop after 
 the latter, if the ground is to be occupied during the 
 following year by corn ; otherwise cabbage plants may 
 be advantageously planted. In the southern half of 
 England, maize, producing from twelve to twenty to»'«' 
 
FOOD OP THE COW. 35 
 
 an acre, may be saccessfully sown in the first ten days ol! 
 June, four years out of five, for cutting in September 
 and October; thus materially assisting in extending 
 the desirable system of double cropping. Maize is not 
 only a bulky crop, but containing a large percentage of 
 sugar it is much relished by the- cows, which eat it 
 greedily. Moreover, it is, with the exception of lucerne, 
 v/hich can oiily be grown upon selected soils, the only 
 forage crop which grows luxuritintly during drought, 
 thus affording abundance of food when the pastures are 
 bare, and the farmer is in extreme difficulty as to how to 
 feed his cattle. It requires liberally feeding with dung, 
 and is most easily grown, 1^ bushels per acre being 
 strewed in every other furrow after the plough. It 
 must be harrowed and well rolled in. Drilling and 
 broad-casting are useless methods of sowing, as the 
 rook will at once take the seed ; and for this reason 
 precaution is necessary when the young 'plant fixst 
 appears. 
 
 B 3 
 
CHAPTEh III. 
 
 CHOICE AND TREATMENT OP THE COW. 
 
 Dairy Breeds: Shorthomff, Eed Polls, Jersey, Ghiemaey, Ayrshire, 
 Dutch, and Kerry — ^Individual Character: Age, Form, Other 
 Characteristics — ^Treatment of Cow : Housing, Health, Winter 
 Milk, Diseases, Milking — ^The Calf : Kearing and Feeding. 
 
 The various breeds of cattle known to English agri- 
 cu}ture, and their ordinary management, have been 
 already described in a " Handbook on the Live Stock of 
 the Farm," but it is necessary that such peculiarities of 
 breed, age, and individual character should be referred 
 to as ought to guide the choice of the purchaser. 
 
 The Dairy Breeds of Cattle.— Of the many distinct 
 breeds of cattle cultivated in the United Kingdom, only 
 six can be enumerated as strictly dairy breeds. Among 
 these are the Shorthorn, the Eed Poll, the Jersey, the 
 Guernsey, the Ayrshire, and the Kerry. — (1.) The 
 Shorthorn is the principal dairy breed of these islands. 
 In Gloucestershire there was, and still is to some extent, 
 a dark red, or brindled cow, of medium size, with 
 almost black extremities, though sometimes with a 
 streak of white along the back : but it is now becoming 
 rare. In Cheshire also there was a native breed more 
 or less resembling the Lancashire and Midland Counties 
 Long-horn/id breed ; but either by substitution or by 
 
CHOICE AND TREATMENT OF THE COW. 37 
 
 crossing, the Yorkshire cow, essentially a Shorthorn, is 
 displacing it. This, therefore, is at present peculiarly 
 the milk-producing breed of the country. Its improve- 
 ment as a milker has been marked during the present 
 decade, and its capacity to yield milk, butter, or chees« 
 is greater than that of any other cow bred by British 
 farmers. Elsewhere the Devon, a much smaller animal, 
 yields a lesser quantity of milk, although this is of 
 high quality ; the Hereford, an animal of nearly equal 
 size, is also deficient in its yield, and in neither of these 
 coupties does the prevalence of a peculiar breed pro- 
 duce anything like a general and important dairy 
 husbandry. The London milk dairies are almost exclu- 
 sively composed of the Shorthorn cow, and excepting 
 in Suffolk, Ayrshire, and the Channel Islands, it is ex- 
 tending more or less into every dairy district of the 
 country. It has the advantage over all other breeds, 
 that its calves make more valuable oxen, and its cows, 
 after five or six years' milking, are more easily turned 
 into beef. The milk, compared with that of other dairy 
 breeds, is remarkable rather for quantity than quality, 
 and therefore it is adapted either for direct consump- 
 tion or for the production of cheese, rather than that 
 of butter; yet the London Dairy Show trials have 
 shown that the milk of many Shorthorns is of excep- 
 tionally high quality, and that by carefully selecting 
 stock, a high-class butter-making herd could easily be 
 formed. Good Shorthorn cows are now offered for 
 sale in almost every considerable market in the king- 
 dom. The northern fairs, however, as those of Yarm, 
 Northallerton, Darlington, and Newcastle-on-Tyne, 
 furnish an excellent choice. Northampton, Stow-in-^ 
 
38 THE DAIET OF THE FAEM. 
 
 tBe-Wold (Gloucestershire), and the best markets in 
 .Bucks, Derbyshire, North Lancashire, and Westmore- 
 land are also noteworthy. The best young cows just 
 calved are worth from £22 to £80 a-piece : prices, how- 
 ever, vary from year to year. 
 
 (2.) The Bed Polls of Norfolk and Suffolk, a hornless 
 red breed, are of great excellence for the dairy. Like 
 all good dairy cows, they are narrow and small before, 
 compared with the development of the hind-quarters. 
 They are good milkers, and as the Suffolk dairies are 
 mostly managed for the production of butter, the milk 
 is of excellent quality. The Suffolk Poll probably 
 yields as large a quantity of milk in proportion to its size 
 as any other breed in England, and it therefore 
 deserves more attention, as furnishing suitable animals 
 for small home dairies, than, except in its own district, 
 it has received. The polled Suffolk cow is purchasable 
 at almost any of the fairs in Suffolk and the adjoining 
 county of Norfolk. 
 
 (3.) The Jersey and the Guernsey breeds, in which 
 faults as fattening stock and merits as milk-producers are 
 combined, are the favourites of the small or household 
 dairy. The great, almost deer-like beauty of the head, 
 and, indeed, in the well-bred Jersey, of its whole 
 form, makes it an ornament to the park or paddock ; 
 the unexcelled richness of its milk enables it to meet a 
 demand for cream ; and its small size makes it at once 
 less mischievous in winter in the field, and more easily 
 managed in the house. The quahty of the milk is so 
 good that notunfrequently one (or more) of this breed is 
 kept even in large dairies, where the large-framed Short- 
 horn forms the majority of the herd, for the sake of the 
 
CHOICB AND TREATMENT. OF THE COW. 39 
 
 eiirichment of their produce by the mixture of its own. 
 The best fairs at which to purchase Channel Island 
 cows are held on the islands themselves. Sales by 
 auction are, however, almost weekly advertised in the 
 London papers, where these and other imported breeds 
 are offered. The price reached is 20 guineas, and 
 higher, for well-bred young stock. The fawn-like 
 Jersey has an equal rival in the yellow and white 
 Guernsey, a larger cow, yielding as much or more milk 
 of an equal quality, with a frame and character better 
 calculated either to carry beef or to admit of crossing 
 with other beef-producing breeds. 
 
 (4.) The Ayrshire, though too small for the most 
 productive pastures of our English dairy districts, and 
 involving, owing to the great number that must be kept 
 on a given extent of ground, more labour than the 
 larger dairy cattle there prevalent, is one of the most 
 useful dairy animals we have. It possesses, more per- 
 fectly, perhaps, than any other variety, the external 
 featiires which a good dairy cow ought to exhibit, and 
 withal it displays a greater aptitude to fatten than 
 either of the other small dairy breeds. It yields a 
 remarkable quantity of excellent milk, which, if less 
 rich than that of the Guernsey or Jersey cow, is better 
 adapted for economical cheese-making. It is generally 
 red and white, small boned, with light fore-quarters, 
 and with longish horns gracefully set on the head. 
 Good Ayrshire cows are to be obtained at all West of 
 Scotland fairs and markets. The best bred animals 
 have a " fancy" price, and as much as 18Z. to 25Z. are 
 asked, for good young cattle in milk. 
 
 (5.) The Butch, a large black and white breed, large 
 
40 THE DAIBY OF THE FAKM. 
 
 homed and somewhat ungainly in appearance, has a 
 great reputation, both in this country and America, for 
 its large yield of milk, which, however, is often of poor 
 quality. The Dutch cow is most carefully bred in 
 Holland, the herd -books being kept with jealous 
 carefulness. At the Amsterdam International Ex- 
 hibition in 1884 we saw a few cows which had recorded 
 phenomenal yields, although no animal in the milking 
 classes showed anything unusual by her performance. 
 Cows have, however, been frequently imported into 
 England which have given over 1,000 gallons of milk 
 in a year, although in many cases their subsequent 
 yields have been much less satisfactory. It seems, 
 however, to be reserved for American breeders to 
 achieve the best results with this breed, for they 
 have frequently recorded 1,500 gallons in a year, 
 and in some instances over 2,000 gallons. One cow, 
 Parthenia, a six-year-old, has a record of 548 lbs. of 
 milk and 35J lbs. of butter in seven days, an average 
 of nearly 8 gallons per day. 
 
 (6.) The Improved Kerry breed of cattle is remark- 
 able for its small size and comparatively large yield of 
 rich milk. This character it possesses in common with 
 other small and mountain breeds of cattle. The 
 Anglesea breed, for instance, a race of black cattle, are 
 often spoken of as deserving more attention for the 
 dairy than they receive ; and the small Breton cow is 
 another of the same class, which was imported in 
 considerable nmnbers for household dairy use, before 
 the exclusion of live cattle from Prance. None of 
 these breeds are, however, comparable with the 
 Ayrshire, the Suffolk, or the Channel Island cow for 
 
CHOICE AND XBBATMENT OV THE COW. 41 
 
 such purposes, and still less can they compete with the 
 Shorthorns for use on large dairy farms. Selected 
 Kerries of the improved type, however, are far superior 
 to the Kerries of the Irish farms, and are worthy of 
 the attention of owners of small dairies. 
 
 Age and Individual Character. — These are the 
 features which should chiefly guide the purchaser of a 
 cow. The breeds that have been named will assist 
 him in making a choice, simply because in them 
 individual character does receive, to a certain extent, a 
 classification Thus, the characteristics of a cow 
 embrace such particulars as size, docility, form, 
 aptitude to fatten, and proved productiveness as to 
 milk ; but the cows of ainy given breed more or less 
 resemble one another in all these points, and a refer- 
 ence therefore has been made to those particular breeds 
 in which, as regards fitness for the dairy, the combina- 
 tion of all these qualities is best. It is, however, the 
 actual possession of these characteristics in the 
 individual, and not the fact of its belonging to a dairy 
 breed of acknowledged excellence, that constitutes its 
 merit ; and it may be well, therefore, to point out 
 those particulars with which excellence for the dairy 
 is generally connected. (1.) As to age:* there is 
 nothing more unprofitable than an old cow. In the 
 ordinary practice of the dairy, unless a cows aborts or 
 becomes barren, she is kept probably five or six years 
 in milk, being sold when eight or nine years old ; 
 
 • For indications of age, and many other particulars not specially 
 called for in a Handbook of Dairy Husbandry, see " Handbook of the 
 Live Stock of the Pai-m" — (Vinton and Co.). 
 
42 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM. 
 
 -this is the general practice, simply because at that age 
 the quantity, as well as the quality, of her milk falls 
 off so much, that it is better to replace her with a 
 younger animal ; but as a cow is sometimes of such 
 first-rate quality as -to induce her owner to keep her as 
 long as she wiU breed, so oftentimes it is well to part 
 with an inferior cow after a year or two's experience of 
 her. The cow is generally at her prime after her third 
 or fourth calf. In Ayrshire, when cows are let to 
 dairymen, three heifers with their first calf are 
 estimated as equal to two cows. (2.) As to form, a 
 good cow, of whatever size, is generally hghter in her 
 fore-quarters than behind; she should be especially 
 wide and deep at the loins, her skin should handle thin 
 and soft, her udder should be of fuU size, broad, 
 reaching weU forward, and back between the hind 
 legs ; it should not be baggy, but level with the base of 
 the stomach, and fine and silky to the fingers ; the teats 
 should be placed symmetrically on it, neither too close 
 nor too wide apart, and it should be ascertained 
 that they are all perfect — that the cow has not, 
 as it is said, lost any of her " quarters." This would 
 really constitute a loss of one-quarter of her milk ; for 
 the udder is not a bag from which the teats are four 
 common outlets for the fluid it contains. Each of 
 these outlets has connected with it a separate apparatus 
 for the secretion of milk; so that, on the one hand, if 
 one fail or be diseased, wholesome nourishment for the 
 young may still be obtained from the others ; but so 
 also on the other, that the loss of a teat is equal to a 
 real loss of one-fourth the milk-producing abiMty of the 
 animal. The milk veins in connection with the udder 
 
CHOICE AND TREATMENT OF THE COW. 43 
 
 should be prominent ' and large. The head should be 
 rather loiig and narrow, except at the muzzle, and the 
 neck rathei thin than otherwise ; the extremities gener- 
 , ally should be fine. (3.) Among other characteristics 
 of a good dairy cow, quietness and docility of tempera- 
 ment is a point of capital importance. 
 
 In selecting a young cow attention may often 
 advantageously be paid to the milking capacity of her 
 dam and the " milking blood " of the sire, if details are 
 known and can be obtained. 
 
 Treatment of the Cow. — The proper treatment of the 
 cow in milk, which has been separated from its calf, 
 consists simply in giving it suitable food and water at 
 regular times, allowing it suf&cient exercise for its 
 health, keeping it clean and warm, and milking it 
 properly and regularly. The subject of food has been 
 already sufficiently discussed, and the necessity, espe- 
 cially when comparatively dry food is given, of an ample 
 supply of water being allowed, has been insisted on. 
 "Where the animal is, house-fed, it should be fed on 
 succulent and dry food alternately, and at least four 
 times a day, allov?ing ample intervals for rumination. 
 In any case she could be allowed access to a pasture or 
 a yard for exercise during the middle of the day in 
 vrinter, and early and late during summer. But it is 
 of course much the better plan, where possible, to have 
 daily access to the pasture field for food as well as 
 exercise all the year round. (1.) The cow-house may 
 be an enclosed shed with a trough along its inner side, 
 and upright posts every 6^ to 7 feet, carrying a sliding 
 ring and neck strap, by which two cows are attached 
 
44 THE DAIBY OP THE FARM. 
 
 each to its place ; this shed should be open to the south, 
 and entirely closed against the weather by both window 
 and door, in winter. Or it may be a series of " boxes," 
 which may be 9 feet square, or 8 feet by 10, in which the 
 cow remains during the winter season, being littered 
 daily, rising in her lair by the continual addition of the 
 hard-trod straw and excrement. The trough in this case 
 must be capable of being raised as the floor of the box 
 rises, and if it be hung on two pins at each end between 
 two uprights, bored every three inches or so to receive 
 these pins, this raising can easily be effected ; and there 
 will be this additional advantage, that by withdrawing 
 the upper pin at either end after the food has been con- 
 sumed, the trough will turn over bottom upwards, so 
 as to hinder the cow from dirtying it. If cows are con- 
 fined permanently in this way, water must be" laid 
 on " to troughs to which they have access. Much the 
 most common cow-house, however, is that in which a 
 double row of cows is tied in couples to a long manger 
 at either side, leaving a wide interval or passage in the 
 centre for the easy removal of the dung and the easy 
 handling of litter. A sufficiency of straw for warmth 
 and cleanliness must be provided ; 10 to 15 lbs. a day 
 a-piece will be needed in the boxes : rather less will 
 suffice for stalls. Some farmers, however, use no Htter, 
 the cow standings, usually made of dry earth or chalk, 
 being very short, as in Holland, with gutters behind 
 into which the manure falls. Others use peat Utter 
 or sawdust. The best mangers are of semi-circular 
 glazed hardware, laid with the upper rim 9 inches 
 above the floor. The stalls should be 5 feet to 5 
 feet 6 inches long, the gutters 5 to 6 inches deep by 
 
CHOICE AND TEBATMBNT OP THE COW. 45 
 
 10 inches wide, with a curb of grooved firebrick. Ex- 
 cept in feeding-boxes, the dung should be removed at 
 least every morning and evening, and fresh litter sup- 
 plied at night. Where oat straw is given as food, suffi- 
 cient will usually be left for litter. It is an additional 
 security for cleanliness, and a comfort and advantage to 
 the animals, if they are occasionally curry-combed. In 
 all cases ample space and sufficient ventilation should 
 be provided, and at all times, of course, kind and gentle 
 treatment must be insisted on. An animal so sensitive 
 as, a cow, whose produce is dependent so much upon its 
 health and even temper, abundantly rewards quietness, 
 and punctuality, and liberality of treatment. On the 
 subject of patience and gentleness in dealing with the 
 cow, it may be well to add that they are especially 
 needed in dealing with a heifer rearing her first calf, 
 and just commencing to be milked, and with the calf 
 itself fi:om first to last. 
 
 (2.) Health. The cow goes with young nine months 
 and a week, or thereabouts. Of 760 cows, whose period 
 was observed by Lord Spencer, 600 calved between the 
 279th day and the 291st day, and the births were pretty 
 evenly distributed over the intervemng period, reach- 
 ing a maximum about the 284th day. 314 cows calved 
 before the 284th day, and 310 cows calved after the 
 285th day ; and it is noteworthy that a larger proportion 
 of bull calves came at late births, and a larger propor- 
 tion of cow calves at the earlier births. Thus of 881 
 calves dropped after the 284th day, 233 were males and 
 148 females ; and of 294 calves dropped before the 284th 
 day, 135 were male and 159 were female. On the 
 whole, the number of males produced by this very 
 
46 • i THE DAIRY OF THE FARM. 
 
 large number of cows was bonsiderably above that of 
 females. 
 
 Of abortion it may be mentioned that while some- 
 times, owing to accident or ill-health at the time of its 
 occurrence, it is not often (probably not at all) produced 
 by eating ergoted grass as is popularly supposed. The 
 disease is now beheved to be the work of an organism 
 communicated by infected cattle, and th^ greatest care 
 should be exercised in the introduction of new cows into 
 a herd in consequence. In cases of abortion, the animal 
 (which should at once be isolated), together with those 
 in the same house with her, should be disinfected by 
 well syringing the vagina with warm water, in which 
 carbolic acid (1 in 50) has been mixed. A buU should 
 never be allowed to season a cow which has aborted; 
 should he do so, the sheath should be well disinfected 
 by syringing with the dilute carbolic acid. The foetus, 
 after-birth, and discharge from an aborting cow should 
 be burned or buried in lime, and the stall or shed in 
 which the animal has stood should be thoroughly 
 cleansed and disinfected before it is used for any other 
 cows. Abortion is clearly infectious, and may run 
 through an entire herd, unless vigorous treatment is 
 adopted direetly it appears. As a cow which has 
 aborted once will probably do so again, the best plan is 
 to' at once prepare her for the butcher, even while 
 milking. 
 
 In the ordinary practice of our dairy districts, where 
 it is desired that the cows be in full milk, and their 
 calves be all, or nearly all, weaned by the time they turn 
 out to grass, it is common to let the bull run with them 
 from the end of May or thereabouts — Winter Milk. 
 
CHOICE AND TRKATMENT OF THE COW. 47 
 
 When a constant supply of milk, whether required for 
 the market or for use in a household, is to be supplied 
 continuously throughout the year, it is necessary either 
 to have spring and autumn calvers, or to replace dry 
 cows by those more recently calved. The cow should 
 be dried at least six weeks before calving. Simply but 
 gradually ceasing to milk it is sufficient for this 
 purpose. The parturition of the cow generally takes 
 place without, any need of assistance, but in case of 
 difficulty a properly-qualified practitioner must be 
 called in, hence the importance of. the cowman beiriig 
 in attendance. Before calving, the cow, unless in 
 poor condition, should for a few weeks be placed on 
 poor pasture, except in winter, when her ration should 
 be simple in the extreme, but immediately after- 
 wards she may receive warm mashes twice a day, with 
 her usual food for two or three days ; these are made 
 simply by pouring boiling water over bran — a peck or 
 thereabouts at a time— and letting it remain until cool 
 enough to give it as food. Steamed turnips may be 
 mashed up with it, and a pint of oatmeal will make it 
 still more nourishing. In calves the " husk " or " hoose," 
 a cough produced by worms in the windpipe, is pre- 
 vented by good water and sufficient food, and keeping 
 them from damp grass to which the sun does not pene- 
 trate ; it may possibly be cured by lime-water, " half a pint 
 daily," or turpentine in linseed oil, " one ounce in four, 
 once a week." This should be taken along with entire 
 change of food, as, for instance, removal to old sainfoin 
 in an upland district, and an allowance of linseed cake. 
 — Quarter-ill is another disease of young animals, 
 causing almost sudden death, often owing to change of 
 
48 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM. 
 
 food or exposure to cold. It is best prevented by 
 uniform treatment as to feeding, and warm and com- 
 fortabJe housing. — Hoven, in which the stomach is 
 distended by the gases produced during imperfect 
 digestion, is the consequence of greedy or rapid feeding 
 on too succulent food. An ounce of ammonia in a pint 
 of water will greatly relieve ; if not, the left flank is 
 sometimes stabbed downwards between the hip bone 
 and rib, and the gases liberated, a " trochar," 
 leaving a " canula "in the wound allowing the passage 
 of the gas, being used for the purpose. — Purging, or 
 scour, in calves is generally treated by a drachm or two of 
 carbonate of soda, given in warm milk, which helps to 
 dissolve the indigestible curd in the stomach. A com- 
 monly successful remedy is to give castor oil, which 
 often removes the troublesome secretion at the onset. 
 There should be no delay in the treatment of scour, for 
 cure is hopeless when it reaches a certain stage. — Bed- 
 water is a disease of the liver, accompanied by scouring, 
 and dark-coloured urine ; the medicine should contain 
 calomel and Epsom salts. — The drop after calving, a 
 paralysis, is prevented by allowing the cow sufficient 
 exercise, and keeping her in good health before calving. 
 In suspected or fleshy cows, there is no better treat- 
 ment than that of turning them into a poor pasture 
 when dried, and allowing them to calve there. A 
 drench of Epsom salts, ^ lb. dissolved in warm 
 water, and given twenty-four hours before calving, 
 is effective. — Foot-and-mouth disease is accompanied 
 by sore feet and blistered mouth. — And Pleuro- 
 pneumonia, an infectious disease of the lungs, 
 necessitates notice to the authorities, who prescribe 
 
CHOICE AND TBEATMENT OF THE COW. 49 
 
 somewhat severe treatment. — Diseases of the skin, as 
 ringworm and lice, are to be avoiiied by cleanliness and 
 curry-combing, also by good feeding, which keeps the 
 animal in vigorous health, and able and willing to clean 
 itself; insects may be destroyed by thoroughly rubbing 
 in tobacco-water, or carbolic soap-suds; but ring- 
 worm requires persistent dressings with mercurial 
 ointment. 
 
 When, owing to any wound or disease in the teat, 
 blood appears in the milk, the teats should be well 
 fomented with warm water, milked with gentleness, 
 and the following ointment appli^ed to them : — Palm 
 oil 3 ozs., yellow wax 1 oz., acetate of lead 2 drs., almn 
 1 dr. ; to be well incorporated together, and applieil , 
 daily after milking. — Warts on the udder, which are 
 often a great nuisance, are removable " simply by the 
 knife or cautery, or ligature when the cow is not in 
 milk." It must suffice to add here that for some of 
 these short notices, the value of most of which has been 
 verified in our own experience, we are indebted to Mr. 
 W. C. Spooner; and we conclude as we began, by 
 advising that, except where mere nursing will suffice, 
 the veterinary surgeon be consulted. 
 
 (3.) Milking. On the right performance of this opera- 
 tion depends a good deal of the produce which it obtains. 
 It should be effected gently, quickly, and perfectly — the 
 first because everything that soothes the animal is bene- 
 ficial, the last both because the milk-secretion is there- 
 by unchecked, and because the last-drawn milk is much 
 the richest. The whole subject, however, was so well 
 treated in a paragraph which appeared some years ago 
 in the Ayrshire Agriculturist, that we extract it here : — 
 
50 THE DAIRY OF THE FABM. 
 
 " The milking of cows resolves itself naturally into 
 two heads, viz., how* to milk, and when to milk. If 
 every drop of milk in the cow's udder be not carefully 
 removed at each milking, the secretion will gradually 
 diminish in proportion to the quantity each day left 
 behind. But another reason why every drop of milk 
 should be taken away is to be found in the well-known 
 fact that the last milk is doubly as good as the first 
 milk — ^hence, if not removed, there is not merely equal, 
 but double loss. Milking should be conducted with 
 skill and tenderness — all chucking or plucking at the 
 teats should be avoided. A gentle and expert milker 
 will not only clear the udder with greater ease than a 
 rough and inexperienced person, but will do so with far 
 more comfort to the cow, who will stand pleased and 
 quiet, placidly chewing the cud, and testifying by her 
 manner and attitude that she experiences pleasure rather 
 than annoyance from the operation. Cows will not yield 
 their milk to a person they dislike or dread. The ordinary 
 practice is to milk cows twice daily — at about five o'clock 
 in the morning, or in winter as soon after daylight as 
 possible, and again at the same hour in the afternoon, thus 
 leaving twelve horirs' interval between each milking." 
 
 It should be added that cleanliness in milking should 
 be obseryed — the hands should be clean and the udder 
 too. In practice, milkers neither wash their )iands nor 
 the udder of the cow, but a good milker — ^that is, one 
 who does not wet his hands with the milk when milk- 
 ing — will milk a dry udder without dirtying the milk, 
 even though the udder be not perfectly clean. In large 
 dairies milking lasts about an hour each time, and ten 
 to twelve cows are allotted to each man or woman. 
 
TEEATMENT OF THE CALF. 51 
 
 The Treatment of the Calf, when intended for veal 
 or for beef, has been already discussed to some extent.* 
 When the heifer calf is reared for dairy purposes, less 
 forcing food is required and even desirable. Ample 
 exercise, too, is necessary. The rules to be observed 
 are to give the milk, whether it be new or skimmed, of 
 the natural temperature, to be obtained by warming a 
 portion of it before mixing with the rest, and perfectly 
 sweet ; to take care that calves are brought into shelter 
 at night, at least till June and again after September, 
 and to keep them together in a field. After a few days 
 they are fed from the pail, by getting them to suck the 
 fingers under the surface of the milk ; giving them at 
 first two quarts a-piece in the morning, and two quarts 
 a-piece at night ; and it is weU to tie them up for the 
 purpose, and to let them~ remain tied up for twenty 
 minutes or more after being fed, else they take to 
 sucking and plaguing one another. A little, hay in a 
 network bag is hung here and there in the calves' 
 house, that they may learn to suck and eat it. During 
 the first winter, a little hay chaff is given, mixed with 
 pulped mangel or swedes and a little linseed cake. 
 The ensuing summer is spent in second year's clover, 
 grass, or old sainfoin as pasture, and in the case of the 
 more precocious breeds the heifers are often put to the 
 bull at sixteen months old. They are fed during their 
 second winter on a full allowance, of roots and straw, 
 with a little good hay and cake in addition. To keep 
 up a herd of dairy cows, about one-fifth their number 
 of heifer calves must be reared each year ; the^e are 
 
 * See " Handbook of the Live Stock of the Farm." — (Vinton & Co.) 
 
 E 2 
 
52 THE DAIEY OF THE FARM. 
 
 almost invariably selected from the calves of the herd, 
 the remainder being sold as soon as possible after birth. 
 If; however, it be desired to rear heifer calves for sale 
 as young cows, it is good policy to purchase them from 
 the best herds, even though £3 a-piece is paid for what 
 elsewhere would not cost one-half as much. Taking 
 them in succession, a couple at a time, several calves 
 may very well be reared in the course of the season 
 on the milfe of a single good cow, with the assistance 
 of hay and linseed cake. It is well to leave the calf 
 with its mother for a week or two in the case of 
 young cows; they are better milked by their young; 
 and if carefully stripped in addition at least once a 
 day by hand, are likely to yield more milk, and to 
 yield it more easily in the future than if the calves 
 be taken away early, as they may from older cows. 
 
 Some breeders who rear by hand, wean the calves 
 at birth, and give new milk for ten tO fourteen days ; 
 after which skim milk is introduced, until, by the aid 
 of boiled linseed, new milk is altogether knocked off. 
 We have also seen excellent results obtained by giving 
 older calves curdled skim milk, as much as they will 
 take twice daily.- Indeed, they may be prepared for 
 the butcher upon this food, to which they easily become 
 accustomed, and Of which they will consume a large 
 quantity. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 MILK. 
 Composition — ^The Dairy— The Taste of Milk— Adulteration. 
 
 The Composition of Dlilk. — Milk is essentially an 
 emulsion of fatty matters in water containing albumin, 
 casein, and sugar in solution, together with a small 
 quantity of mineral matter. Its fat is suspended 
 within it in the form of globules, varying from i-nnjth 
 to i^^^roth part of an inch in diameter, averaging about 
 ^s^nnrth of an inch. If the milk be kept at rest, these 
 globules vyill rise to its surface, and vrith a portion of 
 the milk form a coating of cream which, being violently 
 agitated, separates into butter and " butter-milk," the 
 latter containing the same constituents as milk itself, 
 although in different proportions. The composition of 
 milk, in so far as these buttery globules are concerned, 
 is ascertained in various ways. The lactometer is 
 intended to show the specific gravity of milk, and con- 
 sequently its purity. Pure milk varies between 10*28 
 and 10'33 at 60° Fahr., so that if watered or skimmed 
 its density becomes lighter or heavier. As, however, its 
 density may be maintained at its normal figure by both 
 skimming and watering, it is evident that without con- 
 currently testing a sample for cream in what is termed 
 a creamometer, the lactometer is not reliable ; it does 
 not indicate the percentage of fat. For this purpose 
 there is no simpler plan than that known as the 
 Marchand system, in which a measured quantity of 
 milk is mixed and well shaken with ether, and sub- 
 
54 
 
 THE DAIBY OP THE FABM. 
 
 sequently with alcohol, in a glass tube, and plunged in 
 a hot-water bath at 104° Fahr., when the fatty solution 
 rising to the surface indicates the percentage of fat 
 present. Soxhlet's aerometer, a more delicate process, 
 is still more precise ; whereas the lactocrit, of Laval, 
 and the control apparatus, of Fjord, are both excellent 
 for use in connection with the Swedish and Danish 
 separators. Tests depending upon the opacity of milk 
 are less reliable, and are now seldom adopted. The 
 actual composition of milk can only be ascertained by 
 analysis, but the churn will always roughly indicate 
 the quantity of fat present in milk, and cheese rennet 
 will remove the remaining ciu:d. 
 
 The liquid remainiag after the manufacture of cheese 
 is called whey. It contains the bulk of the sugar which 
 was present in the original milk, together with small 
 quantities of fat, casein, and mineral matter. 
 
 The milk of different animals varies in composition, 
 as will be plain from the following table : — 
 
 Ingredients 
 
 in 
 100 parts. 
 
 COMPOsiTioK OP Milk. 
 
 Woman. 
 
 Cow. 
 
 Ass. 
 
 Goat 
 
 Ewe. 
 
 Mare. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 6. 
 
 6. 
 
 7. 
 
 8. 
 
 Albuminoids 
 Pat 
 
 1-54 
 4-37 
 5-75 
 0-53 
 87-81 
 
 2-9 
 2-3 
 ■3-8 
 
 91-00 
 
 8-40 
 3-40 
 4-80 
 0-75 
 87-65 
 
 3-70 
 3-60 
 4-75 
 0-70 
 87-25 
 
 2-22 
 1-64 
 5-99 
 0-51 
 89-64 
 
 4-08 
 3-32 
 5-28 
 0-58 
 86-80 
 
 6-31 
 6-83 
 4-78 
 81-31 
 0-82 
 
 1-95 
 106 
 6-29 
 0-39 
 90-81 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Ash 
 
 Water 
 
 Total 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 The term albuminoids includes casein and albumin. 
 Of, these analyses. No. 1 is by Dr. Lyon Play|air ; 2 is 
 
MILE. 55 
 
 the average of two analyses by Haidlen ; 3 is by Fleisch- 
 man ; 4 is the mean of a number of analyses , 5, 7, and 
 8 are the averages of many analyses published by the 
 New York Dairy Commission. 
 
 As regards the milk of the cow, it differs in composi- 
 tion, as has been already said, according to the breed, 
 age, and food of the animal. Thus, the first-drawn 
 milk produced during the labour and excitement of par- 
 turition contains an extraordinary quantity of casein, and 
 is otherwise different from ordinary milk ; it is no doubt 
 naturally beneficial to the calf in the first day or two of 
 its life, during which time the milk not used by it and 
 drawn from the cow is generally rejected for any pur- 
 pose but the feeding of pigs. The milk of a cow in- 
 creases in quahty as she approaches the period for 
 drying off; thus a cow calving in March yields milk of 
 much superior quality in September. Again, the milk 
 first drawn from the cow is much poorer than that last 
 drawn, for whereas the first glass may contain only 
 5 per cent, of cream, the last glass may contain 20 or 
 even 25 per cent., unless the hours of milking are kept 
 twelve hours apart, or approximately so. The milk of the 
 evening is generally richer than that of the morning. 
 
 The following table gives the results of numerous 
 analyses of ordinary cow's milk : — 
 
 
 rat. 
 
 Solids not 
 
 Total 
 
 
 Fat. 
 
 Solids. 
 
 ShortliOTn (88 cows) 
 
 3-71 
 
 916 
 
 12-87 
 
 Jersey (75 cows) 
 
 4-04 
 
 10-00 
 
 1404 
 
 Quemsey (35 cows) 
 
 4-65 
 
 9-44 
 
 14-09 
 
 Bed PoU 
 
 4-08 
 
 8-82 
 
 12-90 
 
 Ayrshire 
 
 4-22 
 
 8-90 
 
 18-12 
 
 Dexter Kerry 
 
 4-99 
 
 8-94 
 
 13-93 
 
 The foregoing are the results of nine year*' milking 
 
56 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM. 
 
 trials of the British Dairy Farmers' Association, at 
 Islington. 
 
 These tables, together with the intimation that 
 casein, the essential matter of cheese, is soluble in 
 alkaline solutions, as in milk — that the butter of milk 
 is a compound of several fatty matters of different com- 
 positions, and produced in various proportions, in 
 accordance with the food consumed and the tempera- 
 ture of the period — that the sugar of milk is capable of 
 transformation by the mere rearrangement of its 
 elements into a substance having acid properties, and 
 therefore called lactic acid — that this rearrangement is 
 effected by the presence of a ferment, itself the active 
 agent of decomposition — ^that, in fact, any substance in 
 contact with it, undergoing chemical transformation 
 and decomposition, and air carrying filthy odours, the 
 product of such decomposition, are sufficient to destroy 
 its purity — that the curd of milk itself, in the presence 
 of warm air, undergoes such chemical transformations, 
 must for the present suffice on the subject of the com- 
 position of milk. 
 
 The preservation of milk in its natural composition, 
 and therefore in its sweetness, may be effected by heat- 
 ing it in hermetically closed bottles or metalhc vessels 
 up to the boiling-point. This sweetness, however, may 
 be prolonged even when exposed, by the use of chemical 
 preparations, some of which are employed by retailers 
 during very hot weather, but the custom is believed to 
 be pernicious, and cannot be recommended. 
 
 Condensed milk — that is, milk which has been sub- 
 jected to evaporation so that more than one-half its 
 water is dissipated, and the whole reduced to a thickened 
 
MILK. 57 
 
 tenacious mass — is now largely manufactured, and is 
 especially serviceable for use on shipboard, as it will 
 keep fresh for months. It usually contains a large per- 
 centage of cane sugar. 
 
 For the period during which milk is kept for the 
 natural rising of its cream, its sweetness is maintained 
 simply by keeping it cool in perfectly clean vessels and 
 pure dry air. It is in this way that chemical changes 
 are held in check. If the dairy is warili, the milk will 
 coagulate before the cream has all risen. If it is cold, 
 the cream will rise too slowly. 
 
 The Dairy. — In order to keep milk sweet, and for the 
 proper management of the processes which its manu- 
 factured products undergo, certain rooms must be set 
 apart expressly for the purpose. The milk-room should 
 be cool, for the reasons just stated ; and a somewhat 
 sunken floor, a shaded or thatched roof, and an aspect 
 to the north and east, are therefore desirable. Where 
 the old system is adopted, the vessels to hold the milk 
 are arranged on slate shelves. The floors are better of 
 stone, hard tiles, or concrete, than of wood, these 
 materials being less absorbent, whether of milk,-dirt, or 
 damp, all of which may encourage the presence of fer- 
 ments. The room should not be contiguous to either 
 drain or dungheap ; it should not be near any food 
 store', whether the larder of the house or the feeding- 
 stalls of the farmery. The air which enters it should, 
 if possible, be free from the taint which the neighbour- 
 hood of stock or maniKe more or less produces. The 
 drier, too, the air is, the better ; and therefore a setting 
 dairy should be kept clean by keeping out the dirt, 
 
58 THE DAIBT OF THE FARM. 
 
 rather than by too frequent washing. Practically, 
 however, the floor and shelves of the milk-room are 
 kept clean by washing. By strict attention to cleanli- 
 ness and ventilation, and by as far as possible excluding 
 a summer temperature, those causes — warmth and 
 humidity — ^which tend to encourage the presence of 
 ferments are excluded or held in check, so that good 
 butter or cheese can be made. 
 
 The Flavour of Uilk may be affected by food given 
 to the cows, and in its turn communicated to the butter 
 and the cheese made .from it. It sometimes occurs, 
 when the cows are grazing, and when such disagreeable 
 plants as wild garlic have been eaten. It is, however, 
 chiefly noticeable during winter-time, when coWs 
 receive turnips and cabbages in abundance. To some 
 extent the flavour may be prevented by cooking the 
 food to which it is owing ; a mash of steamed turnips, 
 chopped hay, beanmeal, oatmeal, and linseed, will pro- 
 duce perfectly sweet milk. Among the various devices 
 adopted for removing ill-flavours from nailk we may add 
 the following. "Where turnips are the cause, reduction 
 in the quantity giv^n ; removal of the crowns in which 
 the bitter flavour will be found ; the careful removal of 
 all stale bulbs or tops ; change of food. Sometimes a 
 little saltpetre is dissolved in water, and a dessert- 
 spoonful added to every gallon of the milk, or some 
 fine white sugar may be dropped into each setting-pan. 
 We have also known scalding to 170° or 175° Fahr. 
 have the desired effect. A pint of boiling water is some- 
 times added to each gallon of milk in the pail ; this is 
 well covered with a cloth for half an hour, when the 
 
MILE. 59 
 
 milk is strained into the setting-pans. Pulping roots 
 and mixing the pulp with chaff, and subsequently heat- 
 ing before feeding, clearly assists in the removal of 
 turnipy flavours. 
 
 Adulteration of Milk is confined to the admixture of 
 water or separated milk. Adulterations of these kinds 
 are still too commonly practised, as our analysts' 
 reports and the records of our police-courts abundantly 
 testify. Under recent legislation all sales of food are 
 presumed to be under the inspection of qualified 
 officers ; and of milk, as of other articles, analyses are 
 continually being made when there is reason to suspect 
 dishonesty, under Which any abnormal poverty of milk 
 is immediately detected. When the quality, either 
 as regards the percentage of cream or of total solids, is 
 found to fall beneath a certain very moderate standard, 
 the seller is liable to a fine by the magistrate. Apart, 
 however, from direct addition of water, a very general 
 cause of the inferiority of milk no doubt exists in the 
 quahty of the food. When grains, r6ots, and inferior 
 hay are the main foods given to the cows, the milk is 
 often poor, altogether apart from adulteration. 
 
 The above reference to the inspector and public analyst 
 reminds us of margarine and the artificial substitute 
 for cheese, which certainly, however, are no part of 
 English dairy husbandry, and cannot, indeed, be sold 
 as dairy produce without a breach of the law, although 
 it is constantly evaded. We do not propose to 
 describe the processes by which the offal fat' of the 
 
60 THE DAIBX OP THE FABM. 
 
 Chicago stockyards is made up into a food resembling 
 butter, for which it is, unfortunately, top often sold, and 
 known as margarine; or by which milk, deprived of 
 its cream, and re-enriched by the addition of question- 
 able fatty matters, is ijiade to produce an artificial 
 cheese. These manufactured articles are, however, 
 when cleanly made, perfectly wholesome foods; and 
 margarine especially, which is now made in England, 
 is also largely imported, and is being more and more con- 
 sumed in this and other countries. The admixture of 
 margarine with butter in certain proportions and under 
 certain conditions enables unscrupulous traders to 
 commit a fraud which is believed to be very extensively 
 and successfully carried on, for the simple reason that 
 there is no certain method of detection. Under 
 present conditions the butter trade between the British 
 farmer and the consumer is crippled, and this state of 
 affairs is chiefly owing to the facility with which 
 foreigners can place spurious manufactures upon our 
 markets, and to the persistent manner in which the 
 necessity for agricultural legislation is ignored. 
 
CHAPTEK Y. 
 
 BUTTER. 
 
 Composition — Cream — Chumiag — Implements for the Batter Daily. 
 
 The Composition of Butter varies somewhat with the 
 method of its mamifacture. If made &om whole milk 
 or from scalded cream, it contains more casein than 
 when made from cream in the ordinary way. This is 
 an important matter, not only as affecting its flavom:, 
 but also its keeping properties, for it is to the presence 
 of casein that the tendency of butter to decay is chiefly 
 owing. But the composition of butter also varies to 
 some extent with the circumstances of its manufacture. 
 It consists of a mixture of fatty acids in combination 
 with glycerine, and it is largely on the feeding of the 
 cows, and the temperature of the air, that the pro- 
 portion of these several fats present in the butter, and 
 its consequent firmness or softness, depend. The 
 following is an analysis of a good sample : — '■ 
 
 Ingredienta, per cent. 
 
 1 
 
 COMPOSITIOirOF Bdtteb. 
 
 BeU. 
 
 Pure Fats .... 
 
 Casein 
 
 Water 
 
 Ash . , . . . 
 
 90-27 
 115 
 7S5 
 1-03 
 
62 THE DAIBT OF THE FABM. 
 
 Good butter should not contain more tban 10 per 
 cent, of water and 0'7 per cent, of curd, but fault cannot 
 be found if the former does not exceed 12 per cent, and 
 the latter 1 per cent. As the keeping qualities of butter, 
 together with its purity, depend almost entirely upon 
 the presence of water and curd, advances have yet to be 
 made even in the many dairy schools which are doing 
 such good work in the country districts. The rancid 
 flavour of bad or stale butter is believed to be owing to 
 the decomposition of the glycerides of the fatty acids 
 which is favom-ed by water, but checked for a time by 
 salt or borax. The presence of bacteria, light, and air, 
 all influence the changes in butter, but it is probable 
 that the decomposition of the curdy matter present in 
 butter is the first cause of the mischief which follows. 
 The fatty acids are butyric, caproic, capryUc, and capric, 
 known as the soluble fatty acids, inasmuch as they are 
 to some extent soluble in water ; and palmitic, stearic, 
 oleic, and myristic, or insoluble fatty acids, as they are 
 not soluble in hot water, although soluble in alcohol. 
 Oleic acid forms by far the largest portion of the fat oi 
 butter, but it is to the group of soluble fatty acids 
 to which we must look for the flavouring of good butter. 
 These are present to the extent only of some 5 to 7 per 
 cent., whereas in margarine they form little, if any, 
 more than 1 per cent, of the whole. Butter is perfectly 
 granular when it has been well made, and under the 
 microscope presents a field of minute and quite distinct 
 globules but little varying in size. 
 
 Cream, whether obtained by skimming milk after its 
 ascension or extracted by centrifugal force, varies in 
 accordance with the richness of the whole fluid and with 
 
BUTTER. 63 
 
 the manner in which it has been removed. Neither the 
 quantity nor the quality of cream is a rehable guide to 
 the quality of milk. When raised in cold water or cold 
 air, its volume may be considerable and its quality poor ; 
 whereas cream raised from the same milk at a high tem- 
 perature would be smaller in volume and much thicker 
 and richer. Indeed, a thin poor cream may become 
 thick if allowed to stand at from 60° Fahr. until lactic 
 acid has sufficiently developed to cause it to coagulate. 
 The common plan is to set milk in shallow vessels in a 
 cool dairy at as near 60° Fahr. as possible until the cream 
 has all risen. This plan is now becoming old-fashioned 
 and it is not economical, inasmuch as it being imj)ossible 
 to regulate the temperature of an ordinary dairy, the 
 milk becomes sour in hot weather before the cream has 
 all risen, whereas in very cold weather the cream never 
 all rises. The common practice in Normandy is to set 
 the milk in deep conical vessels or " terrines " made of 
 earthenware. The cold systems include the " Cooley," 
 in which the milk is placed in deep cylindrical metal 
 vessels provided with loose lids, which are plunged 
 under water in a refrigerator-like box, the skim milk 
 being subsequently drawn from under the cream, which, 
 large in quantity but thin, is obtained in ten to twelve 
 hours ; the Swartz, which is chiefly adopted in Sweden and 
 Norway, where deep, oval-shaped metal vessels without 
 lids are filled with warm milk and placed in tanks of 
 iced water , and the Jersey and allied systems, in which 
 the milk is set warm in rectangular jacketed metal 
 vessels, through which cold water is regularly flowing. 
 These systems all have their merit^. Some are not 
 adapted to British dairies where ice cannot be provided, 
 
64 THE DAIBY OF THE FARM. 
 
 or where the water contains too much heat in summer, 
 whereas all are being gradually givemip in favour of 
 the separator, which must ultimately supersede every 
 other medium now that a boy or girl can remove the 
 cream from the milk of 50 cows at an average expense 
 of one hour morning and evening, and without the 
 necessity of a dairy at aU. "When, at the Danish power 
 separator trials in 1883, we suggested the hand separator, 
 the idea was looked upon as impossible. There are 
 now at least twenty different makes in the market. 
 
 There is a general opinion that if a quart of cream 
 makes a pound of butter the result is quite satisfactory; 
 but it depends entirely upon the quantity of milk from 
 which the cream was removed. The cream from the 
 separator is usually taken thin for butter-making. If 
 the cream is to be sold for consumption as cream, it is 
 skimmed much thicker ; indeed, it may have been again 
 separated, in order to make it as thick as possible. The 
 correct method of estimating the butter value of milk 
 is to ascertain and regularly record the quantity of 
 butter obtained from a given quantity of milk. The milk 
 of a mixed herd, well fed, shouldyieldllb.of butter per 27 
 to 28 lbs. of milk on the average of the year ; where the 
 separator is used, and skilled hands employed, a high- 
 class Jersey or Guernsey herd may yield 1 lb. of butter 
 per 20 lbs. of milk, or even less. Under the old system, 
 35 lbs., and even 40 lbs., are often required. The 
 leakages are usually found in the imperfect skimming 
 of the milk, the want of ripeness of the cream, and 
 careless churning. We have estimated that where all 
 these mistakes are made the loss may be 25 per cent., 
 representing a loss of 60 lbs. of butter in a large Short- 
 
BUTTER. 
 
 horu, or 1,200 lbs. in a herd of twenty similar animals 
 per annum. 
 
 Under the old shallow system of setting, the milk is 
 poured through a hair sieve or cloth strainer, for the 
 removal of hair or dirt, into vessels, in which it stands 
 some four inches deep ; after standing for 12 hours in 
 summer, or 24 hours in winter, it is skimmed with a 
 thin and almost flat metal skimmer, perforated. It is 
 skimmed a second time in the same way after another 
 12 hours, and often even a' third and fourth time, so long 
 as cream can be obtained. In specially-made creamers 
 the milk is drawn off beneath through a plug, or through 
 a syphon if the vessel be of glass or provided with a 
 glass gauge. 
 
 Before the introduction of the separator the greatest 
 quantity of milk in this country was set for cream in 
 leaden cisterns about 4 inches deep, and brown earthen- 
 ware pans white inside, some 21 inches across the top, 4 
 inches deep or thereabouts, and a foot or more wide at 
 the bottom. Vessels of tinned iron ol similar shape were 
 also and still are commonly used for the purpose. 
 Under ordinary management each day's skimming, or, 
 rather, the cream separated at each operation, at what- 
 ever interval it be taken, is commonly placed in the 
 cream-crock, a vessel which may bte of earthenware or 
 tin. Upon each addition to the store in this vessel, 
 and, indeed, the oftener the better, the whole is mixed 
 up together by means of a wooden stick kept for the 
 purpose, the object being to promote uniform ripeness. 
 
 In Devonshire the milk is set for cream in metal 
 pans of more than ordinary depth ; and after from 
 twelve to twenty-four hours, according to the season, 
 
66 THE DAIRY OF THE FABM. 
 
 these are placed upon a famace, and the contents 
 scalded by heating up to 170° or 175° F., after which 
 they stand till the milk is cool ; then the cream is 
 removed with a skimmer in the usual way. It is kept 
 in the cream-crock imtil it is ready, when butter is 
 easily made from it either by churning or "flapping" 
 with the hand in a tub for about ten minutes or less. 
 The latter plan, however, cannot be recommended ; it 
 is not only slovenly and imperfect, but uncleanly. The 
 hand of the dairymaid should never come into contact 
 with either cream or butter. 
 
 We now come to the separator, which has thoroughly 
 revolutionised modem, dairying. It has unfortunately 
 proved a valuable aid to the makers of inferior produce, 
 4or it enables the cheesertnaker and the condensed-milk 
 manufacturer to remove a portion of the cream from 
 the milk they handle with ease and rapidity. The 
 separators in the market practically work upon one 
 system : the milk passing through them is subjected to 
 centrifugal force, hence the lighter portion — the cream 
 — is separated from the heavier portion— the skim milk, 
 as it used to be called. By more or less ingenious 
 arrangements, the thickness of the cream can be 
 regulated ; in other words, more or less of the skim 
 uiilk is permitted to pass off with it. There are hand- 
 machines, which will separate 60 gallons, and power- 
 machines, which will separate 350 gallons per hour, 
 removing 97 to 98 per cent, of the butter fat present in 
 the milk. These machines vary in speed, their drums 
 revolving from 4,000 to 7,500 times per minute. The 
 cream, extracted at a high temperature (usually 75° 
 to 95° F.), is generally skimmed at the rate of 15 to 20 
 
BUTTER. 67 
 
 per cent. The separator adds rapidity to efficiency of 
 workmanship, a truly economical arrangement, and, at 
 the same time, it provides a perfectly fresh, sweet 
 skim milk for household use. Dairy machinery is, 
 however, still undergoing a process ol evolution. A 
 milking-machine has been invented and even used in 
 daily farm practice (it is the joint patent of Messrs. 
 Gray and Nicholson), while the separator has developed 
 into a combined cream-extractor and butter-maker. 
 Although both machines have to be simplified 
 before the public will " take hold " of them, it is yet 
 possible to produce butter direct from the cow, and 
 this will probably be the fin de sieole cUmJix, if we 
 are not mistaken in the wonderful man whose intellect 
 has almost encompassed the globe with separators 
 which bear the name of Dr. de Laval. The best-known 
 machines of other makers are the Danish of Burmeister 
 and Wain, the Victoria of Watson and Laidlaw, the 
 Alexandra, the Fesca, and the Lefeldt. In a butter 
 dairy where the separator is used v6ry few instructions 
 are necessary. The cream is handled as in other cases, 
 but the skim milk, if it is necessary to keep it sweet 
 for sale in summer, may be heated up to 170° F. as 
 it comes out of the machine, and then cooled down 
 • as low as possible by passing over a refrigerator. 
 In- raising cream by the various setting methods, 
 the milk should be carried to the dairy as warm as 
 possible from the cows, and at once strained into the 
 pans or creamers, which should be kept at as low a 
 temperature as possible (above 40° F.), whether by 
 the aid of cold air, ice, or water. When milk is 
 subjected to a rapidly falling temperature, as, for 
 
 1-2 
 
68 THE DAISY OF THE FAHM. 
 
 example, when it is set at 90° F. in a dairy or a 
 cold creamer at 45° E., the cream rises with great 
 rapidity. The reason is chiefly owing to the fact that 
 fat, which forms the bulk of cream, has a lower specific 
 gravity than the remainder of the milk. The difference 
 in what we may call the normal specific gravity of 
 the two materials is, however, widened under the 
 conditions presented by a falling temperature ; for the 
 fat, not being so good a conductor of heat as the 
 remainder of the milk, does not feel the change in 
 the temperature so quickly, hence it rises more 
 rapidly. Briefly, when subjected to a falling tempera- 
 ture, as suggested above, the fat of milk is Hghter, as 
 compared with the milk, than it is under other 
 conditions. 
 
 When the shallow system of setting is adopted, 
 the temperature of the dairy or setting-room should 
 not be higher than 55° F., nor lower than 40° F. 
 The choicest butters are made from the first cream 
 skimmed, but excellent butter can be made even 
 when the last possible cream is taken. 
 
 Eipened (acid) cream makes more butter than sweet 
 cream ; and if perfectly sweet cream is mixed with 
 ripened cream and churned immediately, the whole of 
 the butter will not be extracted. Sweet cream is not 
 ripened by the mere fact of its being mixed with 
 ripened cream ; time must be allowed. The mixing of 
 the cream of each skimming greatly facihtates the even 
 ripening of the bulk. Cream should not be churned 
 until twelve hours after the last skimming. It should 
 always be kept in dry air, and, where churning is 
 regular, at about 60° F. Twelve hours before churning, 
 
BUTTBE. 69 
 
 the temperature of the cream should be gradually 
 raised or decreased, as the case may be, with the object 
 of bringing it to the temperature necessary for churning 
 — -56° to 58° in summer, to 62° or 64° F. in winter, varying 
 with the temperature of the air. The cream should 
 always be strained into the churn. 
 
 Chums are of various types. The necessary points 
 are strength — as well of the metal fittings as of the wood ; 
 a mouth large enough for both hands to enter; the 
 entire absence of fixed beaters or dashers. Churning, 
 which should be more rapid in winter when the cream 
 is apt to fall in temperature, and when churning is 
 consequently prolonged, sometimes with bad results — 
 should begin slowly, the speed gradually increasing. 
 It is unnecessary to adopt a particular speed. Much 
 depends upon the quantity of cream to be churned. 
 The smaller the quantity, the more rapidly is the butter 
 produced. The churn should, however, never be much 
 more than half full. The longer the time occupied in 
 churning up to a certain point, the higher the tem- 
 perature rises, unless in very cold weather, when,, the 
 dairy being much colder than the cream, the latter is 
 reduced if the process continues too long. The only 
 danger of fast churning is over-churning and bringing 
 the butter into a lump. Churning should cease im- 
 mediately the butter granules have first formed, when 
 a little cold water should be added. The churn may 
 then be turned slowly until the butter has gathered 
 into granules about the size of hemp-seed. It is then 
 ready for washing. The butter-milk is first drawn off, 
 cold water is then added, and the churn rocked several 
 times, until finally the water last drawn off is quite 
 
70 THE DAIBT OP THE FARM. 
 
 clear. Brine is then made — the salt being in solution 
 — and ponred on to the butter, where it may remain half 
 an hour. "When this is drawn off the butter is removed 
 with a scoop, and worked on the table or butter- 
 worker until the moisture has been removed as far as 
 is possible. The butter may then be made up for sale 
 or table. If, however, there are means, it should be 
 cooled and hardened, when it will make up much 
 better. 
 
 When butter is dry salted, the salt should be ground 
 and dried, and sprinkled over the butter on the worker 
 by the aid of a dredger, at the rate of half an ounce to 
 the pound if mild salting is required, or three-quarters 
 of an ounce if it is for keeping. No larger quantity of 
 salt is necessary under any conditions. 
 
 A few other points may be noted. The churn should 
 be ventilated twb or three tinies during churning. The 
 ear and the eye should watch for the butter coming, in 
 order to select the right moment to stop. A change 
 vrill be heard in the sound of the cream, and minute 
 grains vdll appear on the glass, which wiU simultaneously 
 become clear of cream. Hot water should never be 
 poured into cream, nor should cream be suddenly cooled 
 or heated more than 3° or 4° F. just before churning. 
 The churn, the worker, and all the utensils are pre- 
 pared for use by scrubbing with hot water, followed 
 by cold, and, excepting the churn, by a rubbing with 
 salt. 
 
 Among the implements required in addition to the 
 churn are a butter-worker, rectangular in a small dairy, 
 circular in a large one ; a few strong pails, pairs of 
 slicers, Scotch hands and butter scoops, cloth strainer, 
 
BUTTBE. 71 
 
 scales and weights, a making-up board of seasoned wood, 
 and a correct thermometer. 
 
 In potting butter for further use it is even more 
 essential to remove every possible particle of curdy 
 matter and moisture than under other conditions. The 
 butter should be made in the dool of the early morning, 
 or late at night if in summer or autumn. A glazed 
 earthenware vessel should be used, and the inner surface 
 covered with layers of butter as gradually as it is filled. 
 The chief object is to keep out the air, so that by plenty 
 of pressure no interstices are formed. When filled, a 
 fine piece of muslin may be laid over the surface, and 
 upon this a thick layer of salt, or the vessel may be 
 filled up with thick brine. 
 
 Whole milk is sometimes churned. In this case the 
 milk is kept at 60° to 65° until it has absolutely thickened 
 or " lappered," when it yields a much larger percentage 
 of butter than could possibly be obtained if it were 
 churned sweet. The system, however, except where the 
 sour butter-milk sells, is almost entirely a thing of the 
 past. 
 
CHAPTEE VI. 
 
 CHEESE. 
 
 Composition — Ctird — Various Cheeses : Gloucester, Cheshire, Dwalap, 
 Cheddar, Derbyshire, Lancashire, Stilton — Utensils <rf the Cheese 
 
 Dairy. 
 
 The Composition of Cheese depends, of course, upon 
 the mode of its manufacture. The following ajialyses 
 may be accepted as trustworthy; they represent average 
 qualities of the several cheeses named, except in a few 
 special cases. 
 
 Analyses op Cheese. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Fat. 
 
 Casein, etc. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Asb. 
 
 Cheddar (Lloyd) under 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 six months 
 
 35-88 
 
 30-94 
 
 29-26 
 
 
 
 3-92 
 
 English and American 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 average 
 
 34-38 
 
 32-71 
 
 26-38 
 
 — 
 
 3-58 
 
 Cheshire (new) 
 
 36-96 
 
 29-34 
 
 24-08 
 
 5-17 
 
 4-45 
 
 Do. (old) 
 
 32-59 
 
 26-06 
 
 32-51 
 
 4-^3 
 
 4-31 
 
 Stilton, average 
 
 30-35 
 
 35-39 
 
 28-85 
 
 — - 
 
 3-82 
 
 Derby 
 
 31-68 
 
 35-20 
 
 24-50 
 
 4-38 
 
 4-24 
 
 Cream (lat prize Dairy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Show) 
 
 33-5 
 
 58-3 
 
 8-2 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Gorgouzola, average... 
 
 44-04 
 
 29-84 
 
 2806 
 
 
 
 3-87 
 
 Parmesan, average ... 
 
 31-34 
 
 19-22 
 
 41-99 
 
 — 
 
 6-25 
 
 Gruy^re, average 
 
 34-87 
 
 28-91 
 
 25-87 
 
 
 
 3-84 
 
 Boqnefort, average ... 
 
 31-20 
 
 33-16 
 
 27-63 
 
 — 
 
 6-01 
 
 Camembert (1st prize 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dairy Show) 
 
 40-30 
 
 29-9 
 
 29-8 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Edam, Dutch 
 
 36-28 
 
 30-26 
 
 24-06 
 
 — 
 
 4-90 
 
 Gouda, Dutch 
 
 21-90 
 
 24-81 
 
 46-95 
 
 —^ 
 
 6-32 
 
CHEESE. 7S 
 
 The quantity of fat present, to which the richness of 
 the cheese is due, depends, first, on the quality of the 
 milk ; next, on the cream being all retained ; and lastly, 
 on the process of manufacture beiijg conducted so care- 
 ftdly that no fat is allowed to escape with the whey. 
 
 Milk is converted into curd by the aid of rennet and 
 heat. Bennet is a preparation, obtainable in liquid, 
 powder, and tablet form, from the stomach of the suck- 
 ing calf. Formerly it was customary for cheese-makers 
 to prepare their own rennet, but the practice is rapidly 
 dying out, most of the brands now manufactured being 
 much superior as regards purity, strength, and evenness 
 of quality — all very important considerations. The action 
 of rennet is quicker the nearer the milk approximates 
 to blood heat — indeed, assuming that it is never set 
 above 95°, in British cheese-making at least, the 
 length of time it occupies in producing curd is in an 
 inverse ratio to the temperature at which the milk is , 
 set. Thus at a high temperature, such as 90° F., a 
 much smaller quantity of rennet is necessary to convert 
 a given quantity of milk into curd in a given time, 
 than at a low temperature, such as 70° F. Again, the 
 time occupied by the milk in coagulation is in an inverse 
 ratio to the quantity of rennet used ; for, if 20 cubic 
 centimetres of rennet are required to produce curd from 
 20 gallons of milk at a given temperature in one hour, 
 ten cubic centimetres only will be required to bring the 
 curd under similar conditions in two hours. 
 
 In the production of curd, the niaker has to remember 
 that there are four conditions to be considered — the 
 quantity of milk, the quality of the milk, the tempera- 
 ture at which it is set, and the time to be occupied in 
 
74 THE DAIET OP THE PABM. 
 
 bringing the curd. The temperature of the dairy has 
 also to be considered, for the same milk will occupy a 
 longer period in coagulation upon a cold day; and in this 
 climate of ours we ijiust prepare for considerable varia- 
 tions if our produce is to be of high quality. For this 
 reason some makers raise the temperature of the milk 
 one or two degrees when the temperature of the air falls. 
 Milk should always be set in vessels which will retain the 
 heat, and for small cheeses none are better than oak 
 tubs with close-fitting Hds. The rennet used should be 
 carefully kept in a cold, dark cupboard, and the bottle 
 well corked. Eennet which smells objectionably should 
 never be used, even though it be new and "home-made," 
 for bad rennet is the father of disease in cheese. In a 
 cheese dairy makers run great risks where the cows are 
 fed upon questionable foods ; where they are not care- 
 ftdly cleaned, Littered, and provided with clean quarters ; 
 where the milkers milk with dirty hands, and dip their 
 fingers in the pails ; where the milk is exposed in the 
 cowhouse for any length of time, or where dirty pails, 
 strainers, and utensils are used. An invisible germ may 
 communicate disease to a huge hundred-pound cheddar, 
 and destroy not only its value, but its maker's reputation. 
 The leading system of British cheese-making is that 
 known as the Cheddar process, which produces a mild, 
 mellow cheese of nutty flavour. There are several 
 variations of 'this system, and under each cheese of fine 
 quality is produced, not only in this country but in 
 America and in New^Zealand. In Somerset the round 
 vat is used, but in Scotland and in America the 
 rectangular vat is preferred, this being provided with a 
 jacket by means of which the milfe can be cooled or 
 
CHEESE. 75 
 
 heated. If the night's milk^s cooled, very little cream 
 rises ; if it is not, a large quantity of cream will rise, 
 and this must be removed and mixed with a still larger 
 quantity of milk. This milk is then heated to such a 
 degree as will suffice to bring the mixed evening's and 
 morning's milk to the temperature at which it is 
 decided to add the rennet; This temperature varies 
 between 80° and 85° F., and similarly the time in which 
 the curd is brought for cutting varies between 40 
 minutes and 60 minutes. Some makers add stale whey 
 to the milk before the rennet is poured in, with the 
 object of imparting to it a riper condition; others 
 induce that ripeness by subsequently scalding to a 
 higher temperature. If, however, the milk of the 
 previous evening has been maintained as high as 70° 
 F. during the night, it will usually b'e found ripe 
 enough. When the curd is firm enough to cut, the 
 knife is introduced, and it is divided with extreme care 
 into very fine cubes. When the whey has risen and 
 covered it, stirring commences with the breaker, this 
 being continued from 35 minutes to 45 minutes, when 
 the curd is left to settle at the bottom of the vat. 
 Sometimes the mass is gradually heated by the intro- 
 ductioh of steam or hot water in the jacketed vats 
 while stirring proceeds; by this means the whey is 
 easily expelled from the curd, which soon assumes the 
 small, fine, even and shotty appearance so essential to 
 success. In Somerset, scalding succeeds breaking down ; 
 a quantity of whey being removed from the vat is 
 heated and returned to the mass, which is brought to a 
 temperature of from 88° to 90° F. Stirring is then 
 continued for from 15 to 20 minutes, when the curd is 
 
76 THE DAIBY OP THE FAEM. 
 
 again allowed to settle, and a second scalding takes 
 place, the mass being heated with whey to from 90° to 
 94° F., or where one scald only is given, as high in some 
 cases as 100° F. in the autumn, a season when the 
 maximum temperature is required. The mass is now 
 stirred again from 15 to 30 minutes, then left to 
 settle, when the curd is tested, with the object of 
 ascertaining whether sufficient acid has been developed. 
 If the curd is acid enough, the whey is drawn off ; the 
 curd is then evenly piled, turned, cut twice, or even three 
 times, into cubes of six to eight inches square, and kept 
 warm between each operation. If the curd ripens 
 slowly, longer time must be given between each cutting 
 or turning. It must be mellow and distinctly acid 
 before it is ready to grind, a condition which can hardly 
 be described, but which can be perfectly demonstrated 
 in practice. After grinding it is thoroughly mixed 
 with fine dry salt at the rate of 2j per cent., and then 
 packed into the cheese mould or vat and put to press. 
 Pressing, during which the cloths are daily changed 
 and the cheese turned, lasts three days ; after which 
 the cheese is trimmed, bandaged, and taken to the 
 ripening-room, which should be maintained at from 
 64° to 70° F., the room for advanced cheese being 
 fire degrees lower. It was formerly assumed that 
 Cheddar cheese could only be made in a certain favoured 
 district, but the idea has long been exploded, and no 
 educated cheese-maker now entertains it for a moment. 
 As a matter of fact, there is no variety of cheese manu- 
 factured in a temperate climate which cannot be made 
 wherever good milk can be produced and a suitable 
 dairy provided. 
 
CHEESE. 77 
 
 With the exception of a few of the most perfectly- 
 constructed dairies in the south-west of Scotland, no 
 cheese dairies in Great Britain, nor, indeed, in Europe — 
 this we can say with safety— approach in completeness 
 those which are found on the best estates in Cheshire, 
 the county in which Cheshire cheese is the chief pro- 
 duct of the soil. In many respects the system of 
 manufacture of Cheshire is identical with that adapted 
 in making Cheddar cheese. The evening's milk is 
 cooled down to 70° F. in the American vat, and on the 
 following morning the cream is skimmed off, mixed 
 with milk, and returned. The morning's milk is 
 added, and the whole heated to from 84° to 90° F., 
 according to the practice of the dairy. The colouring 
 matter, annatto, where coloured cheese is made, is then 
 added, and well stirred in when the milk is ready for 
 the rennet. Stirring is continued from fifteen to 
 twenty minutes, after which the vat is covered up until 
 the curd has set and is ready to cut. After cutting — 
 horizontal and vertical multiple bladed knives being 
 used — heat is turned on and breaking down is com- 
 menced and continued until th§ curd is fine and firm. 
 It is then allowed to settle, and is subsequently collected 
 at one end of the vat, the whey being drawn off at the 
 other end, passing through two strainers to prevent the 
 loss of curd. A rack is placed at the bottom of the vat ; 
 this being covered with a cloth, the curd is piled upon 
 it to facilitate drainage, then it is cut into cubes, 
 turned, cut again,, subsequently broken up by hand, 
 piled, cut, and turned again until its condition fits it 
 for the mill, when it is ground, salted, 2J per cent, of fine 
 salt being used, and put, while still warm, into the 
 
78 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM. 
 
 mould. It is next placed in a small heated chamber, 
 known as the cheese oven, after which it goes to press, 
 remaining from three to six days, being turned, and the 
 cloth changed daily. Its final destination is the ripen- 
 ing-room, usually an upstairs apartment, where it is 
 systematically turned, trimmed, and bandaged, where 
 bandages are used. Like Cheddar, Cheshire cheeses 
 are of considerable size, and made of whole milk, the 
 removal of any portion of the cream seriously affecting 
 the quality of the cheese. It is not possible, however 
 carefully the work is performed, to prevent a small 
 percentage of the fat of the milk running off in the 
 whey. This fat is not lost ; it rises in the whey tank, 
 is skimmed off, and inade into butter, so that where the 
 herd of cows is large the sale of whey butter is con- 
 siderable. It is probable that, although the separator 
 might be the means of improving the butter, the whey 
 being passed through it while fresh, the extra labour 
 entailed would result in pecuniary loss. The next best 
 plan — and this entails no extra cost — is to heat the whey 
 to 95° or even 100° F., and to allow it to cool quickly, 
 and to as near 50° F. as possible ; 40° F. would be better, 
 but this would not be practicable. By this means the 
 cream rises rapidly, and may be removed before any 
 change seriously affecting its flavour has taken place. 
 
 In making cheese of this character, the great object 
 is to retain the fat, to cut fine, and to grind and salt 
 when the right moment has arrived, i.e., when sufficient 
 acidity has been developed ; for upon this depends the 
 mellowness and flavour of the cheese. As acidity is the 
 result of the activity of microscopic organisms known 
 as bacteria, it follows that should the milk or the 
 
CHEESE. 79 
 
 rennet be impure, the utensils, the dairy, or the hands 
 of the maker dirty, organisms foreign to pure milk 
 may be introduced and the cheese spoiled. 
 
 The manufacture of Gloucester and Derby cheese 
 cannot be said to be either very distinct processes, 
 or processes which ought to be encouraged. Both 
 makes are languishing; indeed, some makers do not 
 hesitate to exhibit cheese made upon the Cheddar 
 system, but in different moulds, as Gloucester or 
 Derby. We have frequently Ustened to the recitals of 
 the glorious days that are past, when cheese in these 
 two counties was a specialite — a thing to be remem- 
 bered. Happily, the speakers possessed no means of 
 inviting comparison with the cheese of to-day. Certain 
 it is that, however favourably they might at one time 
 have compared with other British makes, they can com- 
 pare no longer ; and it is equally certain that Cheddar 
 and Cheshire have never been so skilfully made and so 
 good as they are now. No other varieties but Cheddar, 
 Cheshire, and Stilton, not even the Leicester cheese, are 
 recognised at our dairy schools, and it is questionable 
 whether a single application has ever been made for 
 instruction in any but these and the soft cheeses. ' 
 
 The Accommodation needed for Cheese - making 
 
 varies in different districts. Everjrwhere, however, the 
 same instructions as to cleanliness are of course impera- 
 tive. In Gloucestershire, a room on the north side of 
 the farmhouse serves for holding the milk, whether set 
 in pans on shelves for cream, or in the cheese-tub on 
 the floor for curd. Here, too, are the leaden cisterns in 
 which the whey stands, a foot deep, for cream, and 
 
80 THE DAIRY OF THE FAEM. 
 
 from which, after skimming, it drains away to the pig's 
 vault. On the north side of this room is a paved shed 
 in which churning is done, and in which vessels are 
 placed to dry ; and at one end of this shed is a wash- 
 house (with the well close by), with furnace and boiler, 
 in which milk may be warmed, and where the vessels 
 are washed. In addition to this, there is a cheese- 
 room, generally a loft over the dairy ; but for hot 
 summer weather a detached and cool airy place is to be 
 preferred. Here, on the wooden floor and on wooden 
 shelves, the cheeses are placed and turned repeatedly, 
 until ripe for sale. 
 
 Stilton Cheese is peculiar to Leicestershire, although i 
 it can be successfully made wherever good milk can 
 be produced — where the peculiar temperature and 
 humidity it requires can be obtained, and where the 
 maker is possessed of the reqiiired skill. Before 
 attempting the manufacture of this cheese upon an 
 important scale, the maker should thoroughly master 
 the principles involved, as nothing is easier than to 
 produce an article which, when the season for sale 
 arrives, is practically worthless. 
 
 The milk, fresh from the cow and well strained, may 
 be set for curd at from 82° to 90° F. Which tempera- 
 ture suits the milk the best will have to be ascer- 
 tained in practice ; a record should, therefore, be kept 
 for reference when the cheeses are ripe. The patent 
 rennet will be found superior to that made at home. 
 When the curd is fit for cutting, it may be removed, 
 slice by slice — a cream skimmer will do very well for the 
 purpose — into a cheesecloth spread out to receive it. 
 
CHEESE. 8.1 
 
 The draining-table on which this cloth is laid should 
 be of cement or metal slightly inclined to the front. The 
 iour edges of the table should be provided with a rim, 
 and in the front there shquld be a hole through which 
 the whey can escape. It therefore resembles a sink, 
 the outsides of the cloth lying over the edges, and 
 thus the curd is kept together. When the curd has 
 become partially solid the four corners of the cloth are 
 tied together to further express the whey, and this 
 practice is continued until the curd is removed alto- 
 gether, broken up, and laid in the cooler to air. Here 
 it is left awaiting the curd produced from the milk of 
 the next meal, which is treated exactly the same. On 
 the afternoon of the second day the two curds are broken 
 up fine, salted — 2 per cent, of salt being used — and 
 the moulds filled. These operations must be conducted 
 in a dairy in which the temperature is controlled 
 between 56° and 60° F. The young cheese must not, 
 however, remain here, but be removed to an apartment 
 in which the temperature is at least five degrees 
 higher, in order that it may properly drain. Inattention 
 at this point vyill assuredly spoil the cheese past 
 recovery. It is now turned daily until it appears firm 
 enough to stand alone and to maintain its shape, when 
 'the mould is removed. The cheese is then enveloped 
 in a clean calico bandage, neatly and evenly pinned, 
 and carried to a separate shelf. It receives a fresh 
 bandage every day until the coat commences to form, 
 when it is removed to the drying-room, an apartment 
 kept at as near 55° F. as possible, the air being dry. 
 Here it is turned daily until the coat is complete, when 
 it goes to a moist apartment, five degrees warmer. 
 
82 THE DAIRY OF THE FABM. 
 
 to ripen. Stilton cheese does not realise the prices of 
 olden times ; competition is keener, and dealers know 
 it. It is questionable whether, remembering this 
 fact, and the farther fact that Stilton loses con- 
 siderably in weight by the time it is ripe for the 
 table, it pays the general maker better than first-rate 
 Cheddar. 
 
 Truckles and Wiltshire loaves are merely forms of 
 Cheddar; indeed, makers have learned that to make' 
 upon any other system is to fail to obtain the best 
 prices. When fine cheese is made in loaf form it 
 invariably sells well, as families are accustomed to go 
 direct to the maker, to whom they pay a better price 
 than he obtains wholesale, 
 
 Leicester cheese is a speciahte, and worthy of some 
 remark, although connoisseurs say that it is not what it 
 used to be. The writer has had excellent opportunities of 
 testing samples when acting as a judge at the Leicester- 
 shire shows, and he is bound to say that the inferior 
 specimens far outweigh those which possess merit. In 
 the manufacture of Leicester cheese patent rennet is 
 the best, but home-made rennet is still used, about a 
 pint per 80 gallons of milk. The milk is brought to a 
 temperature of from 76° to 78° F. in summer, but 
 during the cooler weather of the early and late seasons ° 
 80°j and even 82°, is adopted. , The curd is not fit to cut 
 for about IJ hours, and when well broken down the 
 whey is drawn off. When the curd is firm enough and 
 has developed sufficient acid, it is placed in a dry cloth, 
 very sHghtly salted, put into the mould, and then sent 
 to press for 24 .hours. It is salted on the outside for 
 four or five days, and haviag finally been well washed 
 
CHEESE. 83 
 
 with warm whey it is taken to the drying-room, where 
 it remains imtil ripe for sale, 
 
 Weusleydale Cheese deserves some notice here, for 
 when perfect it is one of the best varieties of cheese 
 produced in these islands. Mellow in the extreme, 
 rich, finely flavom-ed and blue moulded, it is scarcely 
 excelled by Stilton, however well this popular cheese 
 may be made. There has hitherto been an entire 
 want of system among the makers of the beautiful 
 Yorkshire dale, but since the writer had an opportunity 
 of seeing the practice followed, and calling attention 
 to the subject, action has been taken in the right 
 direction. Mr. John Benson, the able expert and 
 manager of the Dairy Institute of the British Dairy 
 Farmers' Association, has been engaged to make an 
 investigation and to recommend a system. This he 
 has done, and it is therefore probable that the 1892 
 make will be of a uniformly high quality. 
 
 Soft Cheese. — A few years ago the soft cheese made 
 in England was extremely limited in quantity, whereas 
 the quality, except in a few instances, was of a more 
 than doubtful character. Since the opening of the 
 Institute mentioned above, however, a large number 
 of persons, including many dairy teachers, have been 
 instructed in the manufacture of several varieties of 
 soft cheese, which are produced upon a rational and 
 definite system — a system which the writer was 
 enabled to introduce— and through this means soft 
 cheese-making is now being taught in almost all 
 
 a 2 
 
S4 THE DAIBY OP THE FABM. 
 
 parts of England. We describe three of these systeme 
 briefly. 
 
 Brie (English type). — Two tin hoops are required — 
 one plain, 2 in. deep by 10 in. in diameter ; the othei 
 of similar size., but provided with a rim. into which 
 the first-named fits. Add to this two half-inch boards, 
 12 in, square (beech is to be preferred), and a pair of 
 sxraw mats, also 12 in. square, and the plant for 
 mating one cheese is ready. The milk is set at 
 82° F. (10 to 12 lbs. will be necessary), the quantity 
 depending upon the quality of the mjlk. The curd 
 is brought __in four hours, taken up in thin slices, and 
 deposited in the mould formed by the two hoops 
 fixed together, and laid upon the mat and board. 
 Here it remains until the top hoop can be removed, 
 when a clean mat, followed by a clean board, is laid 
 over the top of the cheese, which is then inverted, the 
 dirty mat and board being removed and cleaned for the 
 next turning on the following morning. When the 
 cheese is quite firm, so that the remaining hoop can 
 be removed, it is salted with very fine dry salt, over the 
 surface and sides (one side at each of two turnings), 
 and then left until a very delicate white mould appears 
 upon the coat. It must, however, be turned each day, 
 and kept at a temperature of abdut 60° F. It is then 
 ready for the table. 
 
 Tlie Coulommiers (English type). — This variety is of 
 smaller size, the same quantity of milk (10 to 12 lbs.) 
 making two cheeses. The moulds are 2 in. deep by 5 in. 
 in diameter, and the mats and boards 13 in. long by 7 in. 
 
CHEESE. 85 
 
 wide. The rennet is added at 78° F., and the curd 
 brought in eight hours. The after-treatment is' tne 
 same as that adopted for Brie. 
 
 Mignon or Gervais. — This cheese is made of a mix- 
 ture of cream and milk, set at a temperature of 65° F. 
 Six drops of rennet (Hansens as a standard) are 
 sufficient for 2J quarts of rich milk and 1 quart of 
 cream, equal to the production of one dozen cheeses. 
 The curd is fit to cut in from six to eight hours, when it. 
 is removed into a cloth, in which it is allowed to drain 
 until it is sufficiently solid and consistent to press. 
 Eemoved into a clean cloth, it is laid within a wooden 
 frame with open sides, and pressed with a close-fitting 
 follower of wood, heavy enough to cause the whey 
 to drain away without any loss of cream. This 
 pressure, with one or two manipulations, with the 
 object of maintaining evenness of consistence, continues 
 until the curd is as thick as an ice cream, when it is 
 pressed into the specially-made moulds lined with pre- 
 pared paper, both of which are now easily obtainable. 
 This cheese is not eaten until two or three days after 
 manufacture. Thfe quantity of cream added may be 
 varied. 
 
 An excellent Skimmed XXilk Cheese may be made 
 upon the system suggested for the Coulommiers, with 
 this exception, that the temperature of setting for curd 
 should be reduced to 76° P., the curd being cut in nine 
 to ten hours. 
 
 Pure Cream Cheese is very easily made. Pure 
 cream, to which two drops of rennet per quart are 
 
86 THE DAIEY OF THE PAEM. 
 
 added, is poured into a damp cheese-cloth, atid hung 
 in a dry dairy at 62° F. to drain. When solid and 
 consistent it is placed in muslin in a perforated metal 
 mould — ^round, square, heart, diamond, or fleur-de-lis 
 shaped — covered with a follower, and pressed with a 
 small weight until it is quite firm. A few days usually 
 elapse before it is at its best. 
 
 Sage Cheese should be kept twelve months before it 
 is fit for use. Bruise a quantity of sage in a mjrtar, 
 also a little spinach for the sake of the juice, which wQl 
 give a green colour, the sage alone not being bright 
 enough in itself; these juices, squeezed together through 
 a cloth and added to about a pailful of milk with a proper 
 proportion of rennet, will make enough, sage curd for 
 one thick cheese. When the whey is drawn from this 
 in the Tisual manner, the curd will be found of a much 
 deeper colour than might be expected from the pale 
 green given to the milk. This sage curd should be kept 
 quite separate fcom the bulk. When ready for the vats, 
 having been crumbled 'into small particles separately, 
 some of the green curd should be mixed with the other 
 (about one-third is sufficient), either by laying it in 
 rows or mixing it together in the vat ; care should be 
 taken that none of the whey drawn from it gets into 
 that intended for butter, or it will give it the flavour of 
 the sage. The after-management of this cheese is the 
 same as that of other thick cheeses. 
 
 Utensils for the Cheese Dairy. — ^Besides the ordinary 
 milking pails, and sieve through which the milk is 
 poured from them, a deep cheese-tub, to stand on the 
 
CHEESE. 87 
 
 floor of the dairy, in whicli the curd is set, is required, 
 holding three gallons, or thereabputs, for every cow in 
 the dairy. Tubs or vats upon wheels are especially 
 convenient, as they can be removed from one apart- 
 ment to another. "When the milk or the curd requires 
 a change of temperature, this plan is often of great 
 value. A "ladder" is needed to rest across this tub 
 for carrying the sieve through which the milk is poured. 
 Curd breakers, curd knives, strainers, and scoops are 
 required. A curd mill, costing fcom 20s. upwards, 
 being simply a hopper, at the bottom of which is a 
 galvanised cylinder studded with short radial arms 
 revolving between corresponding pins fixed in the sides 
 of the trough, and passing the curd placed in the hopper 
 in a crumbled state, is also needed. Slate vats or tanks 
 of suificient capacity to hold the whey, where it is set 
 for cream, are necessary. Cheese-vats or moulds, in 
 which the curd is pressed into the form of the future 
 cheese ; and cheese-presses, either direct masses of 
 stone lifted by winch and rope and pulley, or lever 
 presses, are needed. The heaviest of the former 
 consists of a block of stone of nearly three feet cube, 
 and weighing 20 to 30 cwt. The latter are of various 
 forms, and produce, by the action of a small weight, 
 whatever pressure is desired. They cost about 50s. ; or, 
 if two together in one frame, about 51., and may be 
 used to exert a pressure varying fi:om 1 cwt. up to 
 30 cwt., or even more. We may also name here, as a 
 recent invention with probably a future, a series of 
 cheese-shelves arranged in book-case form, i.e., closed 
 on cne side, and slung on two pivots, enabling it to be 
 swung round, bottom upwards, so that the top 
 
88 THE DAIET OP THE FAEM. 
 
 of each shelf containing cheese becomes, in its 
 turn, the floor on which those cheeses rest ; and the 
 whole work of turning a number of cheeses is done 
 at once. For soft cheese-making a great variety of 
 small utensils are required, including oak tubs with 
 lids, curd spoons, moulds of tinned iron, mats, boards, 
 rennet measuring tubes, a salt box, and dredger. 
 
 Insects affecting Cheese. — Cheeses are liable to the 
 attacks of various insects, the principal of which are the 
 cheese-mite and the cheese-fly, PiopMla casei, whose 
 maggots are the well-known jumper. The cheese-fly, 
 we may add, is a httle greenish-black fly, with yellowish 
 head and legs. In order to escape its attacks, the 
 cheeses should be pressed dry, and so made as not to 
 crack ; they should also be repeatedly wiped with a 
 flannel cloth, and turned on boards kept clean by 
 scrubbing and occasional rubbing with fresh oil. 
 
CHAPTEE Vn. 
 
 GENERAL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 Dairying and Grazing — ^Profitable Use of Milk — Cropping of a 
 Dairy Farm. 
 
 Dairying or Grazing. — An occupier of grass land has 
 the choice of several methods of turning it into account. 
 If it is of good quality he may devote it wholly to the 
 production of beef; if it is poor, and some arable land is 
 attached, it may be wholly devoted to the rearing of 
 young stock, every cow bringing up several calves. 
 Under ordinary circumstances he may make either 
 butter or cheese ; he may sell milk, or it may be more 
 profitable to use the milk in making veal. The nature 
 of the market for his produce will probably determine 
 his choice. It is no part of our plan to discuss the 
 relative merits of grazing and dairying here, but there 
 is one point of the comparison which ought to be 
 alluded to, and that is the greater draught made upon 
 the resources of the land by any system which involves 
 the annual sale of tlie milk, either whole or manu- 
 factured into cheese. 
 
 Milk removes some of those constituents of soils on 
 which their fertility practically depends. As the sole 
 food of the young, it builds up their bone as well as 
 their flesh, and among its ash constituents, therefore, 
 are to be found the mineral constituents of bones ; 
 whereas in the casein, of primary importance in the 
 production of the muscular or fibrous tissue, nitrogen, 
 the most costly of all the fertilising property of soils, is 
 
90 THE DAIBT OF THE FARM. 
 
 the most important element. One thousand parts of 
 milk contain about 7 parts of ash or mineral matter ; 
 and this chiefly consists of phosphate of lime and 
 potash, which include the three most important mineral 
 plant foods. The following figures are taken fijom 
 leading English and German authorities. 
 
 Among the mineral ingredients of 1,000 lbs. of milk, 
 (about 100 gallons) are : — 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 Wolff. 
 ;.. 1-73 lbs. 
 
 Warington. 
 200 lbs. 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 018 „ 
 
 0-20 „ 
 
 Potash 
 
 Lime 
 
 1-50 „ 
 1-33 „ 
 
 1-70 „ 
 1-70 „ 
 
 4-74 „ 5-60 „ 
 
 If a COW yields 600 gallons of milk a year, whether 
 this be sold, or converted into cheese for sale, or set for 
 cream and made into butter and skim-milk cheese, 
 these products being sold off the farm, a considerable 
 (Quantity of mineral matter is removed from its soil. 
 
 Taking Mr. Warington's figures as our standard, the 
 loss of phosphoric acid per 600 gallon cow would be 12 
 lbs. and of potash 10 lbs. The phosphoric acid in the 
 cheapest form of phosphatic artifical manure, basic 
 slag, is 17'3 per cent., whereas the potash in kainite is 
 138 per cent. Further, one ton of good mixed dung 
 contains about 8 lbs. of phosphoric acid and 12 lbs. 
 of potash. We have also to consider that the nitrogen 
 in 1,000 lbs. of milk is about 5"9 lbs., so that the 
 quantity of dung it would be necessary to purchase to 
 replace the nitrogen removed in 600 gallons of milk 
 would be three tons, the average quantity of nitrogen 
 per ton' being about 12 lbs. Where ^^'ii^y fanners 
 
GENEEAJj MANAGEMENT. 91 
 
 are accustomed to use purchased cotton or linseed 
 cake, bean meal, bran, or malt combs in economical 
 quantities, no loss of fertilising matter occurs, and 
 this plan has the advantage that it serves a double 
 purpose. Where, however, milk selling or cheese- 
 making is continued for a long series of years, without 
 the introduction of purchased foods or manures, it 
 undoubtedly tells upon the fertihty of the soil, ani is a 
 loss to which rich grazing grounds, where full-grown 
 animals are brought simply to be fattened, are not sub- 
 ject. In illustration of the perpetual drain of phosphates 
 wliich the cheese manufacture entails upon the soil, 
 it may be mentioned here that the dairy pastures of 
 Cheshire have been wonderfully improved by the addition 
 of bone-dust as a top-dressing to the land, a manure 
 which suppHes just those ingredients of which the cheese 
 had deprived it. The loss entailed by cheese-making is 
 not so great as where milk is sold, and on a butter- 
 making farm it is still less, miless the skim-milk is sold. 
 
 The Most Profitable Use of Milk. — This necessarily 
 depends altogether on the market. (1) To sell the 
 whole milk direct to the consumer is, oftfen the most 
 profitable method. One penny , a pint is a common 
 average wholesale price to the cowkeeper, from which 
 _he must deduct the cost of churns and conveyance. 
 His cows may yield under liberal treatment from 600' 
 to 700 gallons annually, and thus return (gross) from 
 20Z. to 23Z. annually a-piece, but an average of £20 is 
 seldom exceeded. (2) To make milk into butter and 
 skim-milk cheese, may, with a yield of 600 gallons 
 a,nnually, and calculating 20 pints per lb. of butter 
 
£ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 92 THE DAIRY OP THE FABM. 
 
 and \\ gallon per lb. of skim-milk cheese, yield as 
 follows : — 
 
 600 gallons of milt = 240 lbs. of liutter, at Is. Id. 
 500 gallons of skiin-niilk = 330 lbs. of cheese, at 
 
 3d. per lb. 
 Value of whey and butter-milk 
 
 Total annual yield per 6ow ...^18 2 6 
 
 (3) To make milk wholly into cheese may, with a 
 yield of 600 gallons of milk, result in 5 cwt. of cheese 
 per annum — a very unusual produce, however ; and this 
 at 60s. per cwt., a moderate price, results in an annual 
 produce of d915 per cow, to which must be added, 
 perhaps, 50s. worth of butter and bacon, or £11 10s. in 
 all. The more common produce, however, upon the 
 best farms is : — 
 
 4 cwt, at 62s. ... 
 
 £ s. 
 ... 12 8 
 
 Whey butter 
 
 ... 2 
 
 Whey ... 
 
 ... 1 
 
 100 gallons of milt sold at 9d. 
 
 ... 3 15 
 
 , Or in all 
 
 ... ^619 3 per cow. 
 
 (4) To use the milk wholly for fatting veal, at the rate 
 of 10, 16, 20, 24, 27, 30, and 32 gallons in seven succes- 
 sive weeks, using 160. gallons or thereabouts in that time 
 for producing about 1 cwt. of veal, will enable each cow 
 thus to fatten 4 cwt. or more of veal per annum ; and this, 
 at the price of £4 per cwt., would yield i616 annually 
 per cow. From this, however, must be dedlicted the 
 cost of such other foods as the calves consume, and also 
 a certain sum at which the risk attending the manage- 
 ment of young stock -must be valued^a risk which 
 in skilled hands does not accompany the other methods 
 
GENERAL MANAGEMENT. 93 
 
 of turning milk into money, at all events to anything 
 like the same extent.. It must, however, be remem- 
 bered that a pecuniary value attaches to the manure of 
 calves so fed, vphich it is fair to add to the receipts. 
 
 It may thus be assumed, after making sundry de- 
 ductions, that £20, £18, £17 IGs., and perhaps £16 may 
 be taken as the produce of w^ell-managed, deep-milking 
 cows, in milk, butter, cheese, and veal respectively ; 
 the value of the calf, less the milk it has consumed, 
 30s. or 35s., when a week or ten days old, has to be 
 added. It will, however, be generally felt that these 
 figures stand too high for ordinary experience ; and 
 certainly that which is true of well-managed individual 
 herds is not necessarily true of all, however perfect the 
 management may be. In illustration of this, two facts 
 may be mentioned, one of which entirely corroborates 
 our estimate ; but the other, the more trustworthy of the 
 two, considerably discounts it : — (1) The dairy statistics 
 of 15 farms in Gloucestershire prove that in the year 
 of their collection, 439 cows produced 1,604 cwt. of 
 cheese, 5,268 lbs. of milk-butter, 11,420 lbs. of whey- 
 butter, besides a sale of 354 calves and 1,756 score 
 lbs. of bacon. The total sales at present prices would 
 probably stand thus : — 
 
 1,604 cwt. of cheese, at 60s. 
 
 5,268 lbs. of butter, at Is. Id 
 
 11,420 lbs. of -wrliey-butter, at lOd 
 
 854 calves, at 30s 
 
 1,756 scores of bacon, at lis. 6d. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 ... 4,812 
 285 7 
 475 16 
 531 
 
 ...; 1,009 14 
 
 d. 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 439 cows produced 
 
 ... .£7,113 17 
 
 8 
 
 This was equal to nearly £16 4s. per cow, corresponding 
 
94 THE DAIRY OP THE FARM. 
 
 very nearly to the figures suggested as the probable 
 money produce of cheese-making. (2) The other fact is 
 that in many other large dairy districts it is common 
 for the farmers to let their cows for the year to the 
 dairyman, agreeing to set apart particular pastures for 
 them, and to give them certain quantities of fodder 
 and of green and other food. The hirer of the cows 
 has the use of all the accommodation which the farmery 
 affords, the use of dairy utensils, etc., and he undertakes 
 the entire management of the animals, and of their 
 produce, which belongs to him while they remain in 
 his hands. And the fact to which we allude is, that the 
 farmer is willing to let his cows to the " bower," as he 
 is called in Wigtonshire, f or frotn iGlO to £12 a piece ; 
 which, if their average produce realises £14 or £15, 
 seems to leave a small enough margin for the labour 
 and profit of the dairyman who hires them. 
 
 The Cropping of a Dairy Farm has already been 
 considered. We refer to it again under this section to 
 insist on the great advantage to large dairy farms of a 
 considerable portion of the land being arable. The 
 ability to maintain cows during the winter season — 
 when dry, or not yielding milk enough for the main- 
 tenance of the general dairy management — on roots 
 and straw, instead of hay, and thus to set apart a 
 larger portion, of the grass for summer pasture to 
 its own great advantage, and to the greater pro- 
 ductiveness of, the cows at their most productive 
 period, cannot be overrated, while the same foods, 
 with a little hay and a liberal allowance of cake or 
 meal, will enable the farmer to maintain a full winter 
 
GENBEAL MANAGEMENT. 95 
 
 dairy. If every 100 acres of grass land, t^ing at 
 the rate of more than IJ acres per cow of whole 
 summer pasture, together with the aftermath of 
 a corresponding quantity needed for winter hay, will 
 maintain a herd of 30 dairy cows, then any source of 
 winter feeding which will displace two-thirds of the 
 hay required will set free for pasturage two-thirds of 
 the extent of grass-land to be mown. It is not too 
 much to say that by 30 acres under arable culture as 
 much winter food will be provided as by 50 acres of 
 grass-land mown. Supposing, then, these 100 acres to 
 be divided into 80 acres pasture and 20 acres arable, it 
 is plain that of the half of this pasture (40 acres), which 
 ordinarily would fall to be mown, at least two-thirds 
 (26 acres) would be set free by the winter food (straw 
 and green crops) yielded by the 20 acres arable ; and 
 the stock capable of being kept on the remaining 80 
 acres pasture, as compared with that on the 100 acres 
 of whole pasture, depends on the relative summer 
 produce of 66 acres whole grass and 14 acres aftermath, 
 as compared with that of 50 acres whole pasture and 
 50 acres aftermath. There cannot be a doubt that the 
 former will yield more food than the latter, and at the 
 most productive time of the year, while the land will at 
 the same time, under this plan, be more likely to 
 increase from year to year in value. It thus appears 
 that a larger dairy stock can . be kept upon a farm so 
 managed, while, at the same time, one-half of the 
 arable land wiU be yielding its valuable produce of 
 grain for sale. It is, however, also certain that the 
 use of home-grown beans, peas, and ground oatmeal is 
 economical and desirable while the prices are so low aa 
 
96 THE DAIET OF THE FARM. 
 
 they have been in 1890, and that where pulse cannot 
 be grown for the purpose, the use of decorticated cotton 
 cake, bran, and malt-dust should be adopted, not only 
 on account of their great value in milk-production, but 
 because of their importance in the improvement of the 
 manure. 
 
 Let us add that the selection and maintenance of the 
 herd — gentle, regular, and punctual treatment of the 
 animals throughout the year; provision of sufficient 
 wholesome" food for them, and abundant water, with 
 frequent change of pasturage when in milk — these are 
 the special maxims of successful dairying. If on the 
 one side we have the proper cultivation and manage- 
 ment of the land, and on the other cleanly, careful, and 
 skilful management in the dairy, then a maximum of 
 dairy produce may be expected. But this depends 
 essentially on the health, and therefore on the treat- 
 ment, of the animals which yield it. If one remark 
 more be permitted, it should contain the answer of an 
 old dairy farmer when asked as to the secret of his 
 success. He had, he said, always seen for himself that 
 his cows were thoroughly milked out. 
 
OHAPTEE Vm. 
 
 POEBIGN DAIRYING. 
 
 Scandinavia.-LFjba.nce :' French Cheeses, Brie, CJonlominieTs, Gerome, 
 Joumiao, Livarot, Mont d'Or, Neufchatel, Mignot, Pont I'Bv^que, 
 St. MarceUiu, St. Eemy. — Gekmant: Limburg and Baokstein 
 Cheeses. — ^Holland: Edam and Grpuda Cheese, Delft Butter. — 
 Italt : Grorgonzola, Parmesan, Eiootta Cheeses. — Switzeblaho : 
 Bmmerthaler, Qruyfere, Vaoherin, Schabzieger. 
 
 DENMARK. 
 
 It is not necessary to enter fully into the system d 
 dairying in Denmark, as far greater space would be 
 required than the limits of this work permit. It may 
 be remarked, however, that the Danish industry, 
 though but of comparatively recent creation, has been 
 conducted so energetically that it has become, if we 
 consider the size of the country, the most prominent of 
 any in Europe. It is true, however, that cheese-maMng 
 is here still in its infancy, and that there is practically 
 no cheese which is essentially Danish, which is recog- 
 nised even in Denmark. 
 
 The butter of Denmark is now so famous in this 
 country that it not only obtains a higher price than 
 the best Irish, but it sometimes beats the best samples 
 of salted butters from France; and this the French 
 authorities themselves admit with regret. At the 
 present moment the centrifugal separator is doing 
 
98 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM. 
 
 immense work in Denmark, where the system is as 
 follows : — The cows are milked very early in the 
 morning, and the milk is immediately passed through 
 the separator ; but the cream is not churned on the 
 same day. It is, however, placed in vats where a small 
 quantity of sour butter-milk is added, in order that it 
 may be sufficiently ripe for churning on the following 
 morning, it having been proved beyond doubt that 
 butter made from sour cream not only keeps better, 
 but is produced in larger quantities. The barrel and 
 Holsteia chums are in general use, and churning is 
 continued until the butter comes in small grains, when 
 the butter-milk is run off, and the butter carefully 
 removed from the chum. Where the butter-worker is 
 not used — ^though this, like the separator, is now 
 becoming popular — ^the butter is worked and made up 
 by hand, either upon a small table or in a wooden 
 trough. Here the dairymaid thoroughly manipulates 
 it, and as each piece is kneaded it is laid aside and 
 salt strewn upon the top. "When all the butter has 
 been worked, and the pile is complete, it is cut down 
 in slices, and these are again kneaded with the hand, in 
 order to thoroughly amalgamate the salt with the 
 butter. In hot weather it is laid in hardening boxes 
 upon which ice is placed (between the first and second 
 working), but be it observed it is not washed as in 
 England, the hand of the worker alone being used to 
 extract the butter-milk. When salted and firm, it is 
 quickly packed in kegs and sent to the exporter. 
 
 A great deal of attention is paid by the Danish 
 Government to the proper instruction of young people 
 destined for agriculture ; and the majority of the best 
 
FOREIGN DAIEYING. 99 
 
 dairy farmers who are sufficiently interested are pro- 
 vided with pupils sent by the Professor of Dairying. 
 These remain at the farm from twelve to eighteen 
 months, paying a small fee for the instruction 
 they receive. They feed and milk the cows, assist on 
 the farm, and are taught in the most complete manner 
 the whole routine of dairy work. Each pupil is 
 supplied with a small book, in which is a slip for each 
 day, and upon this he enters the returns of the cows 
 under his charge, often endeavouring to show a better 
 weekly return than his fellows. These figures are 
 checked by the head dairymaid, who also keeps a book 
 showing the quantity of milk obtained and cream and 
 butter yielded, with minor details which are very 
 necessary in a large dairy. The cream separator is 
 now generally used, but the Swartz plant, once gene- 
 rally adopted, is utilised for cooling cream or skim- 
 milk as may be required. This consists of a vat some 
 9 ft. by 2J to 3 ft. and some 2 ft. in depth, which is 
 built of concrete or brick hned with cement. At one 
 end is a tap for the supply of water, and at the other 
 an outlet pipe to carry surplus water away. This vat 
 is usually built in the milk-room on the coldest side of 
 the house, and is in summer daily provided with ice, 
 which is allowed to float in the water. The Swartz 
 cans are oval in shape, 24 inches deep, by about 8 inches 
 wide and 16 inches long. "When used for creaming, 
 the milk remains in these cans from ten to twelve 
 hours, when the cream has all risen and is skimmed off. 
 The skim-milk is then taken away, either for manufac- 
 ture into cheese, or for the house and the cattle, and 
 the next milking is poured , in. This system is ex- 
 
 H 2 
 
100 THE DAIBY OF THE FAEM. 
 
 tremely simple, but cannot be properly conducted at a 
 higher temperature than 45° F. If, therefore, a cold 
 spring of water can be obtained which will not rise 
 higher than this, ice will not be required, but in reality 
 an exceptionally cool milk-room is required in addition 
 to the water. Ice is generally preserved in Denmark, 
 either in barns or square yards, witli four brick walls, 
 and if well buried in sawdust and examined weekly, so 
 that crevices may be filled up by treading the sawdust 
 in, little difficulty is found in keeping it imtil the end 
 of the summer, and frequently, indeed, until a second 
 summer. 
 
 In Sweden and Norway the system of butter-making 
 is practically the same as in Denmark, and at the pre- 
 sent time it is the aim of both Swedes and Norwegians 
 to carry out the Danish system in its entirety, and to 
 obtain Danish prices. The use of the cream separator 
 is now being largely extended in these countries, and 
 every improved appliance is being gradually adopted. 
 The only cheeses worthy of the name which are made 
 in Scandinavia, and which are peculiar to it, are the 
 " Myseost," which is made from whey, and largely 
 composed of the sugar of milk, and a skim-milk cheese, 
 flavoured with cummin or carraway seed, which is by 
 no means unworthy of notice. The manufacture of 
 Cheddar and Gruyere is now being taught at the Govern- 
 ment Dairy Schools, but the results we have seen at 
 the weU-equipped schools we have visited leave much 
 to be desired. The colour of the Myseost is generally 
 green, but, although sweet, its flavour is by no means 
 agreeable, and a taste for it has to be acquired before 
 it can be enjoyed. The whey is boiled upon the 
 
FOEEIGN DAIRYING. 101 
 
 fire until almost three parts have evaporated, it 
 being continually stirred the while. During the 
 process the top or cream of the whey which had 
 previously been skimmed off is added, and when 
 a scum or foam appears upon the surface this 
 process ceases. As may be supposed, after so much 
 evaporation of water the residuum has become a sticky 
 paste, which, as we saw at Hanna Neilsen's, was 
 poured into a mortar, and there beaten with a pestle 
 by seven or eight pupil dairymaids in turn, until it was 
 ready to place in the mould, where it remained under 
 pressure for about two or three days, when it was sold 
 to be eaten fresh. This cheese can be improved by the 
 addition of new milk or cream during the process of 
 heating. The cummin-seed cheese is as a rule very 
 badly made, but were the Swedes as expert as English 
 cheese makers they would long since have made it a 
 leading article of their produce. The dairying capacity 
 of both Norway and Sweden is considerable, but by no 
 means so great as is popularly supposed. The traveller 
 is impressed with the vast areas which are covered by 
 woods, lakes, and stone. "We have seen excellent farms 
 in both countries, but the best farmers find it necessary 
 to import British cattle. The cultivation of arable crops 
 for milk production is very small, grass in summer 
 and hay in winter being the chief foods, the latter 
 being largely secured by the laborious method of dry- 
 ing upon poles or wires ; the cowhouses are substantial 
 and often cleverly constructed, the finest houses we 
 have seen in Europe being those of the Stockholm Dairy 
 Company near MoLaby, over which we were shown by 
 the very able but blind manager. There is much to be 
 
102 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM. 
 
 f 
 
 desired in some of the coimtry dairy factories, in most 
 of whicli export butter is made, and in some skim-milk 
 cheese of very inferior quaUty. The people of all these 
 comitries deserve great praise for the excellent work they 
 are doing, considering how small is their number, the 
 poverty of the material, and the modesty of the means at 
 their command. In the past it has been the practice to 
 contrast them with Great Britain and unfavourably to 
 our own country, but no one properly acquainted with 
 British dairying could make such a mistake. It is not 
 a matter of superiority of skill that Danish butter sells 
 so freely in the British market — ^it is a question of 
 economics, for we venture to say that there is no branch 
 of dairy work in which we can be approached by our 
 energetic and amiable neighbours. 
 
 France. 
 
 Although the dairy is part and parcel of the system of 
 agriculture in almost every part of France, it is hardly 
 necessary, perhaps, to say that it is much more exten- 
 sive, and far more perfect in its arrangements in the 
 northern than in the southern departments, where the 
 culture of the grape is more suitable to the climate and 
 congenial to the people. It is true that the cultivation 
 of dairy cattle and the ;manufacture of the famous 
 cheeses pecidiar to France is conducted in many 
 districts in the centre and west of the country ; but 
 there are no farmers who can approach those of Calvados 
 and La Manche, whether it be in the manufacture of 
 cheese and butter, the system of cropping for dairy 
 purposesy or the production of the highest quality of 
 
FOEBIGN DAIEYING. 103 
 
 dairy cattle. This being the case, the general remarks 
 which follow have particular reference to those depart- 
 ments, which may be taken as an example of the highest 
 class of dairy farming in France. 
 
 The cows generally preferred are those known as 
 the Cotentin, large fleshy cattle of fine quahty, and 
 magnificent milkers. These animals, together with the 
 luxm:iant pasture of these departments of Normandy, 
 have much to do with the system which has been 
 adopted and raised to such a pitch of celebrity. While 
 it is the custom to house the cattle in winter, and to 
 feed them upon hay — which is seldom built in ricks, but 
 placed in the barn in small bundles of about 10 lbs. 
 each — with mangels, turnips, and even carrots and 
 cake, the farmers have a great idea of summer pastur- 
 ing ; and to such an extent is this conducted, that we 
 have seen herds of cattle turned into meadows with 
 two feet of grass, almost ready for the scythe, into clover, 
 vetches, and lucerne, where they were tethered as in 
 Jersey, and into which the dairymaids went three 
 times a day for the purpose of milking. This is, indeed, 
 a common custom; and in large dairies, with the aid of 
 the deep brass Cannes, holding from four to six gallons 
 which are carried upon the head of the girl, or placed in 
 panniers, two upon either side of the back of a donkey^ 
 the milk is aU obtained without the necessity of driving 
 the cattle home. The dairymaid, like the labourer, is a 
 hard-working and invaluable servant, whom it would be 
 difficult to surpass in this country. "When the milk is 
 taken to the farm, it is first strained, and then poured 
 into earthenware pans, which somewhat resemble in 
 shape the galvanised iron pail used in this country, 
 
104 THE DAIET OF THE PABM. 
 
 althoTigh they are deeper and smaller in diameter at the 
 bottom. Sometimes, however, these pans are almost 
 oval in shape, v^ith a handle on either side, so, that 
 the system of setting the milk is qtiite different from 
 that usually adopted, and is a deep instead of a shallow 
 one. The milk-room, too, is entirely different from 
 those common in England. It is generally a plain 
 apartment vvith flagged floor, and a gutter down the 
 centre. The milk-pans are either set upon a small 
 raised stone or brick shelf upon two or three sides, or 
 within a wide gutter, which is formed by brickwork being 
 set about twenty inches from the waU, this being either 
 partially filled vsdth water, or so arranged that water is 
 continually running through it. In some milk-rooms, 
 however, there is hardly any system, the milk cans 
 being placed at one end of the apartment in any 
 position on the main floor. As a rule the churning 
 and working of the butter is not conducted in this 
 apartment, which is reserved entirely for milk. There 
 are three systems adopted in raising the cream. Some- 
 times it is skimmed from perfectly sweet milk ; and 
 the butter made from this cream is usually sent to 
 Paris, and obtains the highest possible prices, for the 
 Parisians demand excessive mildness in their butter. 
 In other dairies the cream is allowed to remain until 
 sour, not being taken off the milk until the latter has 
 turned, and has become a thick curd. The farmers 
 correctly beUeve that they obtain a larger yield of butter 
 by this means, and they find that it procures a finer 
 flavour, which is preferred by a large class of consumers. 
 This butter also keeps better if it is thoroughly well 
 made, but not unless. Another system which we have 
 
FOREIGN DAIRYING. 105 
 
 seen adopted in the department of La Manche is that 
 of artificially souring the milk. The milk-room is placed 
 behind the kitchen, so that a commmiication can be 
 niade between the flue and the milk-room. At a certain 
 time in thd day a slide is opened, and a quantity of hot 
 air is sent into the milk-room, which is at all other 
 times exceptionally cool, and the sudden change turns 
 the milk. In these cases, upon lifting the cream in the 
 pans with the skimmer, the milk underneath is found 
 to be an absolutely thick curd. This curd the farmer 
 uses for two purposes : in some cases for his men, and in 
 others for his calves, which are entirely fed upon it until 
 they are fit for the Paris butcher, when they are sent up 
 in the form of large veal. This fact is worth noting as 
 affording another means ,of utilising the skimmed milk 
 ' with considerable profit. In churning, which practice 
 is, generally speaking, conducted in time for the 
 markets of the districts once or twice a week, as the 
 case may be, the barrel chum is almost invariably used, 
 and in large dairies two are worked at the same time 
 by means of a connection through the waU, with a 
 horse-gear outside. A number of different churns have 
 at times been exhibited in these departments, but the 
 farmers do not take to them, and the barrel may be seen 
 everjrwhere. The churn is generally turned at a slow 
 pace until the granular butter is formed ; and much 
 importance is attached to this, for the cleansing, and, 
 we may almost say, the working of the butter is 
 conducted within the churn. This could not possibly 
 be done if it were converted into lumps before churning 
 was stopped. Where salt is used it is almost invariably 
 mixed with the butter in the churn, and any practical 
 
106 THE DAIRY OP THE FARM. 
 
 dairyman will see, after a few moments' reflection, that, 
 where mild salting is practised, there can be no better 
 opportmiity of thoroughly amalgamating it with the 
 butter than by pouring it into the chum in the form of 
 brine while the butter is in this granular form. Every 
 particle of butter-milk is washed out, and the butter 
 can be salted to the greatest nicety by means of careful 
 washing after the brining process, thus modifying the 
 strength of the salt to the required taste. When this- 
 is done the butter is taken out, very slightly worked, 
 and made up into huge lumps or cones, and placed in 
 baskets of appropriate size, ready for market or despatch 
 by rail to the large blending houses, where it is graded — 
 blended with margarine or vnth other samples of similai 
 quality, coloured, and if necessary salted for England. 
 Naturally, in some cases, it is put into pots either foi 
 the merchant or for shipment : in others it is prepared, 
 in the form in which it may be seen in London shops, 
 in pound or half-pound rolls, or in kilogrammes or half- 
 kilogrammes. The churning process usually takes place 
 in an apartment adjoining the milk-room, also paved 
 with stone, and plentifully suppHed with water, these 
 two materials being a sine qud non with the French 
 dairy farmer. On the best dairy farms there is generally 
 a drainage system for carrying waste milk and butter- 
 milk into the piggeries, although these are sometimes, 
 at a considerable distance. 
 
 Cheeses. — It might almost be said that the variety of 
 cheeses of France is greater than that of aU the rest of 
 Europe put together. We should not be surprised if 
 this were the case : at all events the number is very 
 
POBBIGN DAIEXING. 107 
 
 large, although many of the cheeses are quite local and 
 almost identical with those made in other parts of the 
 country and known under other names. French writers 
 divide them into two classes, haird and soft ; the latter 
 being sub-divided into new and ripe cheeses, and the 
 former into (1) pressed and salted, and (2) cooked and 
 pressed cheeses. New cheeses are found in almost 
 every market in France, and in several forms. Thus 
 they are made by large milk dealers in the cities from 
 surplus milk which they cannot hope to dispose of in 
 any other way. Small farmers manufacture them from 
 skim-milk, and send them into the markets in a very 
 tasty form at a very low price, while others with greater 
 skill make new milk cheeses, or cheeses of combined 
 new milk and cream, which realise good prices, giving 
 them names such as Bondon, Neufch^tel, Normandie, 
 Malakoff, Suisse, double cream, etc. The perfected or 
 refined |Soft cheeses, which are seldom sold until com- 
 pletely ripe, and which are both made and ripened, and 
 purchased and ripened by the farmers, include those of 
 Normandy — the principal of which are Camembert, 
 Livarot, Pont I'Eveque, and Mignot— those of the 
 departments of Seine, Marne, Oise, Meuse, etc., which 
 include Brie in its various forms, e.g., Brie de ferme. Brie, 
 courant, Brie de saison, the Coulommiers Brie — also 
 the Troyes, Barberey, Eroy, and the Chaource ; together 
 with cheap imitations of both Brie and Coulommiers. 
 Again, among numerous other soft cheeses popular in 
 France are Mont d'Or, EoUot, Marolles, Langres, Void, 
 Gerome, St. Florentin, Olivet, Bourgogne, MacqueHnes, 
 Thury, Munster, Compiegnes, and Senecterre. Among 
 what are called froTnages a pate ferme, or hard cheeses, 
 
108 THE DAIBY OF THE FARM. 
 
 are Eoquefort, imitation Eoquefort, Journiao, Sept- 
 moncel, Gex, Mont-Cenis, Sassenage, Cantal, Languiole, 
 and a variety of other cheeses of the Auvergne; also 
 HoUandes Fran9aise, or French-made Dutch, &omage 
 de Bergues, Gruyere and its imitations, Eangiport, 
 Port du Salut, and ihe fromages of the Pyrenees, also a 
 variety of others made *rom the milk of goats and sheep. 
 The descriptions following relate to a selected number 
 of varieties which are at the head of their respective 
 classes, and which are slightly varied in different 
 departments.* 
 
 Brie.— In the manufecture of the Brie cheese the 
 rennet is added to the milk as the latter comes from the 
 cow, and in a general way one particular make, that of 
 Boll, is preferred rather than home-made rennet. Thus 
 it is always of one strength, and a proper quantity can 
 be added without difficulty. Bight-twentieths of a cubic 
 centimetre are used for each litre of milk. The mixture 
 is set in a tin vessel holding about forty litres, and after 
 being slightly stirred with a spoon it is left in a room 
 at a temperature of 65° F. It may be added that in 
 summer-time, in spite of the evenness of the temper- 
 ature, six-twentieths only are required to obtain the 
 same result. At the end of four hours the curd has 
 become firm and elastic to the touch. It is then placed 
 in moulds made of tinned iron, two being used for each 
 cheese, and varying in diameter, some cheeses being 
 twelve inches across, and others not more than half 
 
 *See also "BritiBh Dairy Fajming," illustrated by the writer of 
 these lines, published by Chapmain & Hall, in which this department 
 is exhaustively treated. 
 
FOREIGN DAIEYING. 109 
 
 that size. The top mould fits into the bottom one, and 
 the curd is filled to its rim, so that when it has drained 
 and sunk considerably this is taken off. The top mould 
 is 2 inches, and the bottom 3i inches in depth. The 
 curd is fit to move when the whey rests on the top quite 
 clear and bright. For ladling it into the moulds, a 
 slightly concave tinned iron plate is used. The moulds 
 stand upon small round boards called planchettes, upon 
 which straw mats are laid, the boards being placed upon 
 fluted benches made of cement, from which the whey 
 drains off. At the end of three hours, when the top mould 
 is taken off, a dry mat is placed on the top of the curd, 
 and a clean board laid over this, when the cheese in the 
 bottom mould is inverted and left to drain for eight to 
 ten hours. Next day fresh mats are used in the same 
 manner, the straws being laid in a contrary way to 
 those of the previous day, so that the cheese is marked 
 evenly on each side. The mould is next removed and 
 the plain cheese left upon the sloping boards, having 
 been first salted with very fine salt, sprinkled by the left 
 hand and spread by the right, by means of a goo'se-quill. 
 At the end of twelve hours each cheese is laid upon 
 a round willow frame called a clayette, which is placed 
 on the top of the cheese, this being at once inverted 
 and the mat beneath removed. The cheese is next 
 taken to the drying-room, and salted on the rim and 
 the outer face, and placed upon shelves to dry, plenty 
 of air being necessary, and this should be passed through 
 . the room in as energetic a manner as possible. The 
 cheese is turned morning and evening, a clean clayette 
 being used each time. On the third or fourth day a 
 white mould appears in large patches, and when this 
 
110 THE DAIRY OP THE FAEM. 
 
 has covered the face of the cheese it is taken to another 
 apartment, where the currents of air are stronger, but 
 are regulated at will as it may be found necessary to 
 hasten or retard the development of ripening. Here 
 the cheeses, are placed upon dry mats resting upon 
 boards, and turned every twenty-four hours, the mats 
 being changed each time. The mould becomes blue at 
 the end of a month, when it is the custom of the 
 farmers to sell the cheeses either for immediate con- 
 sumption or for further ripening by the merchants. 
 
 Coulommiers. — In the manufacture of Coulommiers, 
 which resembles Brie in almost every particular, the 
 rennet should not be added at a temperature exceeding 
 77° F. The quantity per litre of milk is from one and a 
 half to three-twentieths of a cubic centimetre, according 
 to the season, the curd standing thirty-six hours in an 
 apartment at 64° F. before it is touched, when it is 
 softer and less elastic than that obtained in the 
 manufacture of the Brie. The. remaining portion of 
 the process resembles that of the Brie; but it may be 
 added ■ that the cheese is much smaller in diameter, 
 ripens much quicker, and can, in fact, be eaten with 
 greater relish on the eighth or tenth day from its 
 manufacture, when the Brie at this period would be 
 tasteless. 
 
 Gerome. — This is a soft round cheese, weighing from 
 4 lbs. to 8 lbs., and sometimes made with the addition 
 of aniseed. The milk is coagulated at the temperature 
 at which it comes from the cow, and is placed in a 
 deep copper vat holding some 40 quarts, and covered 
 
FOREIGN DAIRYING. Ill 
 
 ■with a lid, in the centre of which is a wooden funnel. 
 To the bottom of this is attached a cloth for straining. 
 The rennet is home-made, and the quantity added 
 varies according to its strength, which can be ascer- 
 tained with a little practice. The curds and whey are 
 divided with a ladle in half an hour, and the vat 
 covered for a second half-hour, when the division is 
 continued until the curd has formed into small pieces 
 about the size of a nut. When this has been accom- 
 plished it is taken out and put into cylindrical moulds 
 5 to 9 inches in diameter, two being used to each 
 cheese, the one fitting into the other. The larger one 
 is pierced with a number of holes for drainage. The 
 height of the two moulds when fixed is about 14 inches. 
 At the end of twelve hours the curd will have sunk into 
 the bottom mould, when the top is taken off. It is 
 now called a cheese, and changed into a fresh clean 
 mould, and placed upside down upon a shelf. In six 
 hours it is again turned, and it is twice turned during 
 the two following days. "When draining, the cheeses 
 are always put upon a sloping shelf from which the 
 whey can run off. The temperature of the room in 
 which they are made is about 60° F. Salting is next 
 performed, the two surfaces being well sprinkled ; and 
 this operation is repeated every three or four days, the 
 cheeses being turned each time. Tm;ning is continued 
 for three days after salting, and the surfaces moistened 
 with tepid water. "When a dry crust has formed, they 
 are removed to the dfying-room, or sichoir, in which 
 large numbers are kept in a small space, the aeration 
 and temperature being perfect. "When thoroughly dry, 
 the Gerome cheeses are taken to the cave or ripening 
 
112 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM. 
 
 cellar, where they must be carefully managed. The 
 largest remain here some three to four months, and are 
 frequently turned and washed with slightly tepid water 
 during the time. As soon as they are brick-red in 
 appearance, and sufficiently firm to yield to the pres- 
 sure of the finger, they are marketed. A good GI-6rome 
 is firm, rich, and oily, with a feW small holes in the 
 centre, in this respect somewhat resembling Gruyere. 
 
 Uvarot. — One of the most popular cheeses in France, 
 and one which is not only profitable in its manufac- 
 ture, but well adapted for production by our dairy 
 farmers, is the Livarot, which takes its name from the 
 town of Livarot in the department of Calvados, the 
 principal centre of its manufacture. To the workmen, 
 who consume immense quantities of 'it, it is almost 
 indispensable. The milk taken from the cow is creamed 
 on the following day and poured into large wooden 
 tubs, holding about 50 gallons, being then' brought 
 to the temperature which it possessed on leaving the 
 cow. The rennet is then added, in summer one, 
 and in winter two dessertspoonfuls being required for 
 every 6 gallons of milk. As a rule this is made on the 
 premises, several calves' stomachs being cured together, 
 for each of which a large spoonful of salt and there 
 glasses of water are used. In one or two hours the 
 coagulation is complete, when the curd is broken up 
 and laid upon rushes or a clean cloth. Before placing 
 in the moulds, it is necessary that the curd should be 
 reduced to ' small cubes no larger than lumps of sugar. 
 After having been left to drain for a quarter of an hour, 
 the curd is placed in the circular wooden moulds, where 
 
FOREIGN DAIRYING. 113 
 
 it completely drains and attains a proper consistence. 
 This result can be obtained in three or four hours if it 
 is warmed, but the quality of the cheese will be impaired. 
 Moreover, it must not be left too long in the moulds — one 
 to four days, according to the season of the year and the 
 temperature, being quite sufficient. The moulds are 
 turned over one hour after the curd has been placed in 
 them, and this operation is repeated half a dozen times 
 before the cheeses are released. They are salted with 
 the hand, and left for four or five days on inclined, 
 wood or stone tables, and then taken to the hdloir, or 
 , the market. The hdloir is an apartment with windows 
 let into opposite walls, through which a current of air 
 passes for the purpose of desiccating the cheeses placed 
 in them in various stages upon the lath racks, which have 
 been previously covered with straw. In this place they 
 are left for fifteen to thirty days, and then taken to the 
 cave, all the apertures of which are closed, and in which a 
 uniform temperature is kept. In consequence of the gas 
 given off from the cheeses, the walls are not made of 
 brick or stone, but of mortar mixed with chopped hay. 
 The cheeses, placed on planks, are turned twice weekly 
 in winter, and three times weekly in summer, being 
 slightly wetted each time with pure water, and salted 
 afresh when necessary. At the end of eight or ten days 
 in the cave they are set on their edges on a species of 
 sedge to assist the process of drying. They remain 
 in the cave for three to six months, according to 
 their size, and, when packed for transmission to 
 market, are coloured with annatto. It requires about 
 five pints of milk to make a cheese; and September 
 and October are the months chosen in which to 
 
114 THE DAIEY OF THE FABM. 
 
 commence the process of manufacture. Several 
 makers of Livarot cheese manufacture from 5,000 
 to 8,000 dozen in a season, besides purchasing 
 many white ones to perfect in their own caves, which 
 Bell at 3i to 8f francs per dozen, and ultimately realise 
 15 to 20 francs, or, during Lent, 20 to 30 francs. At 
 the Lisieux market, one of the best in the Department, > 
 three varieties of cheese are sold — white cheese, which 
 is eaten fresh and is most delicious, at 2d. retail, or 
 1.20 to 2 francs the dozen; Camembeft, of medium 
 quality, from 4 to 5.50 francs; and Livarot, which varies 
 from 9 to 11 francs the dozen; while at St. Pierre 
 about 1,000 dozen are sold in the market every week, 
 at an average of 7 francs the dozen. At the markets of 
 Vimoutiers. Livarot, Lisieux, St. Pierre, and at Lisieux 
 Station, very large quantities are also sold ; and, since 
 1866, the. total value of the cheeses manufactured has 
 more than doubled. 
 
 Jouruiac. — This cheese is made to resemble Eoque- 
 fort, but instead of being manufactured from ewes' 
 milk it is entirely composed of the milk of the cow. 
 The following is the system adopted at the farm of 
 M. Laforce, who resides some 3,300 feet above the 
 level of the sea. When the milk comes from the 
 cow it is poured into a wooden pan, made of pine, 
 which will hold the milk from a hundred cows. 
 It is then carried to the cheese-room, and the rennet is 
 immediately added. After the curdling and the separa- 
 tion of the whey are complete the curd is placed in 
 cheese-moulds made of tinned iron, in which it is left 
 to drain for three or four days, and afterwards carried 
 
FOREIGN DAIEYING. 115 
 
 to the cave, which is kept at a uniform temperature oi 
 77° F., where it is constantly watched and attended to 
 by special workmen. Every cheese is turned daily and 
 frequently sprinkled with fine white salt. After a short 
 time they are removed to other caves, which are much 
 colder and provided with strong currents of air. Here 
 they are placed upon their sides and pricked to the 
 centre with needles in order to place in contact with 
 the air a fine meal composed of rye, wheat, and barley- 
 meal, which, at the moment of placing the curd in the 
 cheese-moulds, was laid within the body of the cheese. 
 This composition, when properly made, gives rise to 
 the formation of a blue mould in the interior of the 
 cheeses ; and if the colour is of a fine blue it is classed 
 as first quality, providing of course it is of equal flavour. 
 During the time the cheeses remain in the second cave 
 they are daily rolled and scraped, in order to avoid 
 spontaneous growth of foreign fungi. They are usually 
 ripe at the end of two months, and despatched for sale 
 in cases holding one dozen each. 
 
 Mont d'Or. — These very delicious small cheeses are 
 made of new milk, either by the addition of the 
 morning's to the evening's, or twice a day. The rennet 
 is not added to the milk, but the milk to the rennet, 
 this being placed in the vessel in which setting is to 
 take place. When thoroughly firm the curd is brokeii 
 up and placed in single hoops, similar to those used foi 
 Cpulommiers ; these, however, being placed upon larger 
 hoops, which are made of wood, and on the top of 
 these a couple of straw mats are laid to encourage 
 draining and prevent curd passing through. The 
 
116 THE DAIRY OF THE FABM. 
 
 diameter of the metal hoop is from 12 to 13 centi- 
 metres, and that of the wooden one a shade more, the 
 height of each being about 8 centimetres. When the 
 motdds are filled, they are placed upon a fluted inclined 
 shelf in order to drain, each cheese being turned at the 
 end of two hours, when clean mats replace the wet 
 ones. Next day the same process takes place, when 
 they are carried to the sSchow for farther drying, 
 shelves covered with rye straw being provided for the 
 purpose, and the cheesy is here taken out of the 
 mould. Turning takes place four times a day, but 
 there is no salting other than that which results from 
 a continual damping of each surface with brine. When 
 sufficiently dry, at the end of two or three days the 
 cheeses are removed to the ripening-room, where they 
 remain for a week during warm, and a fortnight in 
 cold, weather. 
 
 Boqnefort. — It is only necessary to refer to the 
 Roquefort cheese — to state that it is made of sheep's 
 milk, that the system of manufacture is somewhat 
 intricate, and that, as it is not likely to be attempted 
 in this country, we do not deem it necessary to give a 
 detailed description. 
 
 Nenfchatel. — This little cheese, which takes its name 
 from the little town in the Brie district, in the Depart- 
 ment of Seine-Inferieure, is largely imitated by milk 
 dealers in London, who find the system a ready way 
 of disposing of their surplus and sometimes spoiled 
 milk. It is sold both new and ripened; and is 
 made from poor and rich milk respectively, those 
 
FOBBIGN DAIRYING. 117 
 
 made from skimmed milk being largely consumed by 
 fche poorer classes. The milk is coagulated in vessels 
 holding about twelve quarts, the rennet being added 
 when the temperature is about 90^* F. The pans are 
 left from thirty-six to forty-eight hours, after which 
 the curd is deposited in cloths, which are hung to drain 
 over square forms, the corners of the cloths being fixed 
 to the four corners. It is next put into a dry cloth 
 and slightly pressed for nine hours or more if the whey is 
 not extraicted. Being now tolerably solid, it is placed 
 in small cylindrical moulds, which give it its shape, 
 salted at the ends, placed on planks in rows, and carried 
 to the (perfecting or ripening ceUar, In a few days a 
 white mould appears, and it is then ready for thvi 
 market as a new cheese. If ripening is to be complete 
 . it remains much longer and is regularly turned. One 
 pound of rich milk is estimated to make a cheese, so 
 that as a gallon will make ten, and the poorest cheeses 
 realise a penny each, the maker does remarkably well 
 with his milk. Naturally the prices vary according to 
 the quality, some makers preferring to add cream to 
 the milk, while others use skim-milk only. The^e are 
 a variety of ways of manufacturing these white cheeses, 
 whether they are to be ripened or not. In some Cases 
 a mould is used which resembles a small box about 3 
 inches high by 4 inches square, holes being pierced in 
 the sides. In other cases a similar box is used, which 
 stands upon four legs; and in others again a heart- 
 shaped wicker frame is adopted, or a round mould of 
 wood in which holes are similarly pierced. The curd 
 of skim-milk is used in several forms for the manufac- 
 ture of fresh soft cheeses, and is even sold in its neAv 
 
118 THE, DAIEY OF THE FABM. 
 
 state for that purpose. In some cases, where it has 
 been made at a temperatmre of 80° F., it is mixed with 
 a small quantity of cream, and when the two are 
 thoroughly amalgamated the mixture is put into small 
 moulds, and left to drain ; but the curd must be par- 
 ticularly soft or the amalgamation wiU not be perfect. 
 Little cheeses of this nature can be made in so many 
 ways that it is not surprising the French take so much 
 trouble to understand and manufacture them, and that 
 we should be able to see such numbers of different 
 varieties in their country markets. 
 
 Gamembert- — This is the most popular French cheese 
 among Enghsh consumers. It was invented nearly a 
 century ago by Marie Fontaine, ancestress of the Paynel 
 family, some of the best makers of the present day, the 
 farm of one of whom (Mesnil Mauger) we visited, to see 
 the process of manufacture, several years ago. It takes 
 its name from the commune of Camembert, in which 
 Mdlle. Fontaine resided. The cheese is made from 
 whole milk, and cream is not added as is popularly 
 supposed. There are imitations made of partially 
 skimmed milk, which are now flooding the English 
 market, but they do not possess the quahty of the real 
 article. A portion of the morning's milk is added to 
 the milk of the previous evening, this being heated 
 in a tub to temperatures varying between 80° and 
 90° F., when the rennet is added, the quantity depend- 
 ing chiefly upon its strength and the time of the year. 
 
 As an even quality of rennet is very important, 
 some makers prefer not to manufacture their own. 
 We have always found patent rennet answer the 
 
FOREIGN DAIRYING. US 
 
 purpose better than rennet of any other kind, pro- 
 ducing cheese of the finest quality. When mixed, 
 the milk is stirred for two or three minutes. It 
 is then covered and left for two to four hours, 
 according to the season, and when the finger can be laid 
 upon the surface without curd adhering, it is ready for 
 work. The curd is next taken out with spoons, and 
 placed in small cylindrical metal moulds, some four 
 inches in diameter, in which the cheese is shaped. 
 These are open at both ends, and stand upon rush- 
 mats which are laid upon sloping tables, with gutters at 
 the ledge for carrying off the whey as it runs down 
 from the cheeses. As a rule 2 to 2 J litres of milk 
 are required to make each cheese. After remaining all 
 day in the moulds, the cheeses are first turned, with 
 the faces upon clean mats, and left to drain until the 
 next day, when they are again turned. When quite 
 firm they are taken out of the moulds, rapidly salted, 
 placed upon wooden shelves, and left for two or three 
 days, being regularly turned until they are ready to 
 send to the drying-room, where they are laid upon 
 shelves covered with straw. This drying-room, or 
 hdloir, is specially designed to admit as much air as 
 possible, the more energetic the current the better; 
 although it must not be carried straight through fi:om 
 window to window, but arranged so as to affect the 
 whole apartment, as shelves are placed from top to 
 bottom. The windows must also be covered with fine 
 wire gauze, to prevent the entrance of insects and dust. 
 The cheeses must be daily examined while under the 
 drying process, and turned or removed a,s may be 
 required. They remain in this apartment from fifteen 
 
120 THE DAIEY OF THE FARM. 
 
 to twenty-five days , according to the season. During the 
 first week they are turned daily, and afterwards every 
 other day. About the tenth day they become covered 
 here and there with fine white patches of mould, which 
 gradually extend over the whole cheese. They are 
 not removed until they no longer stick to the fingers 
 when touched. The next process is that of ripening in 
 the cave de perfection, or curing cellar, which is an 
 apartment with glazed windows and interior shutters 
 arranged to prevent the entrance of the sun. The 
 temperature must be low — about 50° F. — and the 
 apartment slightly humid. Too much moisture is not 
 desirable, and the floors are often paved to prevent 
 this. Shelves are built round the room, and upon these 
 cheeses are placed according to their age. As they are 
 taken from the top, the lower tiers are removed up, and 
 space left for new cheeses as they arrive — a foot 
 dividing each shelf. The cheeses remain here from ten 
 to twenty days, during which time the most constant 
 attention is paid to them, for they are turned almost 
 every day, and every phase of fermentation watched, 
 and assisted or checked as may be found necessary. 
 On some farms they are made all the yeai: round, large 
 dealers purchasing the cheeses from the smaller makers 
 in their new state, and drying and ripening them 
 themselves in their own specially prepared apartments. 
 The most imperfect ripening is that of summer ; 
 hence cheeses are seldom made by farmers during the 
 hot months. "When the process is complete, each 
 cheese is wrapped in paper and packed away in sixes, 
 and again wrapped up and packed in wooden cases or 
 willow baskets in wheat chaff, and despatched to the 
 
FOBBIGN DAIRYING. 121 
 
 markets. In the best season they reach 6s. 6d. to 
 7s. 6d. a dozen, but in summer they are often sold as 
 low as 4s. — ^realising, however, Id. to 8d. each in the 
 London markets. Upon the average, it takes 2 litres 
 to make a cheese i of 300 grammes, or about lOJ 
 ounces. M. Paynel used 1,000 litres of milk daily when 
 making Camembert, and turned out some 500 cheeses 
 per day, these yielding him an average of 6s. 6d. a dozen. 
 A good Cotentin cow is expected to give 3,000 litres 
 of milk, or about 1,600 cheeses, which, at 5s. 6^^. a dozen, 
 would be nearly £'66. In the Department of .Calvados 
 many farmers make from 10,000 to 160,000 cheeses each ; 
 while from the village in which M. Paynel presides, 
 twenty-four makers in one season sent out 62,000 
 dozen. The price of Camembert cheese, however, has 
 fallen since our visit to Mesnil, and the competition in 
 the English market is now very keen. 
 
 Miguot. — This cheese receives its name from the 
 family of Mignot, who were the first to make it. It is 
 made in two varieties — the new or white cheese produced 
 from April to " September, and the Mignot passS from 
 September to April, the latter being the more valuable. , 
 The milk of the morning is creamed in the evening, and 
 mixed with the evening's milk. It is then heated until 
 it slightly scalds the finger, when it is poured into 
 earthen vessels and a spoonful of rennet added to every 
 40 litres. It is next placed near the fire, and left from 
 eight p.m. until six the following morning, being covered 
 the while with a double cloth with a small hole in the top 
 to prevent souring. The coagulation is very slow, but 
 when it is effected the work of manufacture is proceeded 
 
122 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM. 
 
 with as in the case of the Pont I'Eveque, with the ex- 
 ception that the Mignot is drained less than that cheese. 
 In making the white cheese, the midday milk is skimmed 
 in the evening, and mixed with the evening's milk, both 
 being warmed as before-mentioned. It is then placed 
 in earthenware vessels and covered with a cloth until - 
 the next morning, when it is skimmed and used with 
 the new milk of the morning, after which the rennet is 
 added. The rest of the process is as for the Mignot 
 passe, both cheeses being subjected to very slow drainage 
 of the whey. They are rapidly made, salted upon the 
 evening of the day they are put in the moulds, dried 
 almost without air, and despatched to market a day or 
 two afterwards. When ripe, the Mignot has a rich 
 golden colour, and resembles the Livarot and Pont 
 I'Eveque in flavour. It is made in both round and 
 square forms, and reaches 4s. to 6s. a dozen in winter. 
 
 Font I'iSveiiue. — This popular little cheese is made in 
 the district of the town from which it takes its name, 
 between Lisieux and Honfleur. Its original name was 
 Angelot, or, as some think, Augelot, from the valley of 
 the Auge (Oise) . It is now made in three qualities, 
 according to the quantity of cream used in its manufac- 
 ture. In the first quality the fleurette, or first cream, 
 is added to new milk after milking ; or vrith some makers 
 pure milk is used alone. The second quality is made 
 from the morning's milk which has been added to the 
 evening's milk after skimming ; while the third quality is 
 made from the skim-milk of three milkings, vrithout any 
 addition of new milk. In autumn four milkings are 
 sometimes mixed, but in summer seldom more than two ; 
 
FOEEIGN DAIEYING. llicJ 
 
 while in winter five and even six are occasionally used. 
 In making cheeses from new milk, the latter is placed 
 upon the fire until lukewarm, when the rennet is added, 
 and as in the case of the Camembert, just sufficient is 
 used to cause coagulation, too much giving a disagreeable 
 flavour, and causing too active a separation. No rule as 
 to quantity can be given, this being ascertained only by 
 practice with the particular rennet. The milk is stirred 
 with the hand, and left for about fifteen minutes, when 
 the whole becomes set. It is then cut to the bottom of 
 the vessel with a wooden knife, and left five minutes after 
 being covered with a cloth. .The curd is next taken 
 out, and laid upon reed mats, called glottes, where it is 
 left to drain for a short time. The square moulds, 
 made of ash or beech, are then filled with curd and 
 placed upon the same mats until drainage is complete, 
 these being turned several times during the half-hour 
 following the operation, and many more times during 
 the day. After being continually placed upon fresh dry 
 mats of a similar kind, in forty-eight hours the cheeses 
 are taken from the mould, and salted with fine dry white 
 salt. One side is salted in the morning and the other 
 in the evening, only a small quantity of salt being used. 
 They are then taken to the sechoir, or drying-room, 
 and placed upon long shelves suspended from the 
 ceiling. This apartment is aired or ventilated, as 
 described above. The cheeses remain equi-distant 
 from one another for two or three days, and are turned 
 only once a day, and when dry they are carried to the 
 ripening cave or cellar, and laid close to each other in 
 boxes, this close proximity being supposed to assist 
 their ripening. Great care must, however, be exercised ; 
 
124 THE DAISY OF THE FARM. 
 
 they must be frequently examined, and turned over 
 every tvfo days, and afterwards stood upright, and 
 finally flat one upon the top of the other. They remain 
 from two to four months in this apartment, according 
 to their size and quality ; the richest remaining for a 
 less period than the poorest, and if these are small and 
 thin, fifteen to twenty days is often sufficient to perfect 
 th^m. Poor cheeses which are kept for a long period 
 sometimes become too hard, when they are enveloped 
 in a cloth damped with whey, this process making 
 them more tender. A well-made Pont I'Eveque cheese 
 retains its qualities for a year, and even two years, if 
 properly taken care of ; but it must be prevented from 
 coming into contact vyith damp and- too much air. 
 The richest cheeses are made in the autumn, the mid- 
 summer cheeses being generally from milk which has 
 been skimmed for butter-making. This cheese has a 
 tendency to harden, but this is prevented in a great 
 measure by the addition of a little boiling water in the 
 milk when it is put together. Milk used for the manu- 
 facture of this cheese in summer must , not exceed a 
 lukewarm heat, or it will become too hard, whereas in 
 autumn and winter the makers prefer that it should 
 slightly bum the finger. 
 
 In making the second quality of cheese, a litre of 
 boiling water is generally added to six or seven litres ol 
 milk, a little more being used in autumn than in 
 summer. In making the third quahty the makers 
 simply boil the water, which is poured into the milk, the 
 latter not being heated at all. Great care, however, is 
 needed, as old milk is liable to turn. This cheese must 
 be eaten quickly, as it will not keep more than about 
 
FOREIGN DAIRYING. 125 
 
 three months, but otherwise it is almost as fine as 
 cheese made from whole milk. It becomes a velvety 
 blue in three weeks, showing that it is ripe, when it 
 should be at once marketed. To make a good cheese 
 valued at Is. 3d., 4 litres of new milk are required; and 
 5 to 6 for a 2-firanc, or Is. 8d., clieese ; thus 4 
 litres, valued in England at about 7d., produce a cheese 
 worth double the money, in addition to the whey, 
 which would increase the return. The richest of these 
 Pont I'Eveque cheeses, called "Bespoken," and made 
 of two- thirds whole milk and one-third cream, are 
 seldom marketed, but reach from 30 to 40 francs per 
 dozen, and are found upon the tables of the rich in 
 Paris and other parts of France. Many of the farmers 
 in the district manufacture from 4,000 to 5,000 cheeses 
 per annum. 
 
 St. Marcellin. — This cheese is made from goat's 
 milk, unskimmed, and derives its name from the 
 district in which it is made. The cheeses weigh from . 
 about 4 to 4J ounces, and, if eaten fresh, should be 
 consumed within twenty-four hours. In hot weather 
 they, are considered particularly agreeable, though 
 called cheeses of the third quality. The rennet is 
 manufactured according to the custom of each par- 
 ticular farmer, but is generally made from calves' veils 
 and white dry wine. No definite rule can be given as 
 to the quantity to be used, as this varies with different 
 makers, and according to its strength ; but a httle 
 practice will determine this point: If too much is 
 used the cheese becomes slightly sour. In winter the 
 milk is heated a little before working commences, bui 
 
126 THE DAIEY OF THE FARM. 
 
 not in summer. When the milk is curdled, it is placed 
 in small goblets or mugs, holding about two pints, 
 which are perforated all over the surface. After it is 
 sufficiently drained, and unable to lose its form, it is 
 quickly salted, taken from the moulds, and placed in 
 an apartment upon a shelf, on which is a layer of rye 
 straw. This apartment must be well aerated and in a 
 sheltered position, and the cheeses turned and salted 
 daily during the hot weather; once every two days 
 being suf&cient in the cold season. When they com- 
 mence to dry, the crust assumes a yellovrish, and 
 subsequently a blue, colour ; and in this state may be 
 marketed as cheeses of the second quality. In order to 
 make a more perfect article the cheeses are placed in a 
 closed compartment in a cellar, being always laid upon 
 straw. Here they take a blue, and then a yellow, 
 mould, and are considered to be of the best or first 
 quality. ' The chief feature in the manufacture of St. 
 Marcellin cheese is, that the most rigid cleanliness 
 is observed in every operation. Second and third 
 qualities can also be made from unskimmed cow's 
 milk, while good cheeses may be manufactured by 
 adding to the goat's milk 25 per cent, of milk from the 
 cow. It is questionable, however, whether we in this 
 country can make so tasty an article in the absence of 
 the peculiar and exceptional pasturage cultivated by the 
 French farmers of the district in which this cheese is 
 made. 
 
 St. Bemy. — The milk and rennet are put together 
 for the manufacture of this cheese, at a temperature of 
 96° F. ; 10 to 12 grammes — a third, or a little over a 
 
FOREIGN DAIRYING. 127 
 
 third of an ounce — of rennet being used for every 
 100 litres of milk. If the milk is not set direct from 
 the cow, it must be warmed until it reaches the 
 required temperature. St. Eemy cheese is sometimes 
 made from mixed milk and sometimes from new milk, 
 according to the sy;stem of the maker. The curd is 
 usually formed in from twenty to twenty-five minutes ; 
 but if at the end of this time it is not fit for use, a 
 small additional quantity of rennet is added, without 
 re-warming the milk. When firm it is cut into pieces 
 with a utensil made for the purpose to assist the 
 separation, and it is then left for half an hour, after 
 which the whey is removed and the curd placed in the 
 moulds, which are allowed to stand upon a sloping 
 table until late in the afternoon, or six or seven hours 
 from the time of commencing the work, when 
 they are turned and left to drain until the next 
 morning. They are then salted for the first time, 
 and again turned and left for twenty-four hours. 
 Next day they are again slightly salted, and when 
 fairly dry are placed upon small plates or dishes, 
 and laid upon shelves and turned two or three times 
 daily ; the plates, which are of trood, being moistened 
 each time. If they become at all hard they are washed 
 with lukewarm skim-milk, with the aid of a brush, 
 When thoroughly drained they are put upon drying 
 shelves until quite dry and fit for the refining cave; 
 but before being taken here they are usually passed 
 through some fresh water, whatever the season of the 
 year may be. When in the cave, which is a particu- 
 larly cool cellar, they are washed at least twice a week 
 in summer with a brush, care being taken to remove all 
 
128 THE DAIEYOP THE FABM. 
 
 mouldiness as it appears ; but the washing is not needed 
 so much as they proceed in the ripening process. 
 
 GERMANY. 
 
 There are a variety of systems in force in the different 
 countries of which this nation is composed, but it is not 
 necessary to refer to any other than that which is general 
 in North Germany, for in the South butter-making as 
 well las cheese-making is conducted in an old-fashioned 
 manner, which would afford no instruction to the modern 
 dairy farmer. North Germany has become an impor- 
 tant dairy district, since the first factory was built at 
 Kiel, this having been but the precursor of many others 
 which are now in full work in various parts of Sleswig- 
 Holstein, Brunswick, and Hanover. Perhaps the most 
 intelligent portion of North German dairying is in 
 connection with these factories, to which the farmers 
 send their milk for conversion into butter and cheese, 
 receiving in return a sufficient sum to pay them well 
 for their trouble. Home dairying in Germany is neither 
 advanced nor especially intelligent, and cannot compare 
 with that of either France or Denmark; but scientific 
 dairying is equal to that of either country, for German 
 scientists in this department have no superior in Europe. 
 As in Denmark, it is the custom in the factories to 
 manufacture keeping butter, much of which is sent out 
 in little round pots with covers, which hold a kilo- 
 gramme (a little over 2 lbs.) ; and which, being salted, 
 will keep for a length of time. The butter is invariably 
 made frorn cream which has been soured, whether it has 
 
FOBBIGN DAIRYING. 129 
 
 been separated by tbe centrifugal machine or raised in 
 the Swartz vat; and it is aknost invariably churned in 
 a vertical churn known in this country as the Holstein. 
 As a general rule, the farmers who conduct their own 
 dairies churn until the butter has become solid, when 
 they fail to thoroughly cleanse it, and often salt it too 
 highly, but great efforts are being made to educate them 
 and their families in the various dairy schools which 
 are numerous in Germany. In the factories an excellent 
 system is conducted ; the milk is heated after its 
 arrival, skimmed by the separator, and the skim and 
 butter milks largely used in the manufacture of cheese. 
 Most factories sell cream in two quahties, as is some- 
 times done in London; and they also sell skim-mUk and 
 butter-milk to the poor, their vans being seen in every 
 large city, with the taps of the cream, new, skim, and 
 butter milk outside, with the prices of the day painted 
 over each. Some Germans also use their butter-milk 
 for their horses, for which it is a valuable food, and said 
 to pay much better than giving it to pigs. Pigs, how- 
 ever, are largely kept for the purpose of consuming the 
 whey and such milk as cannot otherwise be disposed of. 
 There is perhaps more care taken to prepare foods for the 
 poorer classes than in any other dairying country ; for, 
 in addition to the milk above mentioned, curds are 
 largely sold at IJd!. a pound, much of which is made 
 from butter-milk, while skim-milk and butter-milk sell 
 at remunerative prices. The principal cheeses made in 
 Germany are also particularly adapted for consumption 
 by the poor, and of these we may specially name the 
 Limburg and Backstein; the latter being made in 
 varieties known as Lahkase, Hartz kase, and Saur kase. 
 
130 THE DAIET OF THE FAEM. 
 
 The Limburg Cheese, which is also largely made in 
 Belgium, and which is almost the only dairy product 
 at all famous in that country, is manufactured from 
 skim-milk, and realises in North Germany about 2Jd. 
 a pound to the maker, selling retail at 3d. each. It is 
 made from milk at a temperature of about 95° F., 
 sufficient rennet being added to set the curd in forty 
 minutes. There is no great art in its manufacture, for 
 immediately it is fit to work the curd is ladled out of 
 the vat and placed in the moulds upon a table made for 
 the purpose. This table may be two yards long by 
 two and a half feet broad, one end being higher than 
 the other. It is divided into squares by movable 
 partitions, which may be made of wood or tin, so that 
 when these are fixed in position there are a number of 
 moulds or divisions four inches square. These divisions 
 are perforated, and along the bottom of the table are 
 very small fluted channels for carrying off the whey. 
 Sometimes the curd is laid on the tables before the 
 divisions are inserted, these being placed in the curd 
 when it has become firm. On the following day the 
 cheeses are formed, taken out and salted, being turned 
 several times for three days upon the shelves upon 
 which they stand, when they are taken to the drying- 
 room, and remain sometimes for a considerable period. 
 Occasionally the Limburg is sold fresh, but it may be 
 kept until thoroughly ripe, at the end of two or three 
 months, when it obtains a higher price. 100 litres of 
 milk (22 gallons) usually make 8 kilogrammes (about 
 18 lbs,) of cheese. 
 
 The Harts Kase is made from skimmed sour-milk at 
 
FOHBIGN DAIRYING. 131 
 
 a temperature of 90° F., the whey being completely 
 separated from the curd by the process. At the end of 
 a few hours the curd is dipped out of the vat and placed 
 on a similar table to that used for the Limburg, but in 
 addition it is pressed by weights which are put upon 
 the top of each cheese. In a short time the curd is then 
 placed in a mixing-tub and salted at the rate of one 
 ounce of salt to three pounds. It is then ground, 
 worked, and once more placed in the moulds upon the 
 table. They are next again slightly pressed, taken out 
 of the moulds and put upon the shelves of the cheese- 
 room to dry, being turned at first twice a day, and 
 afterwards once only. They are then taken to the 
 curing cellar ; but, unlike the French, who encourage a 
 growth of fungus, this is destroyed as rapidly as it 
 appears, by being brushed off. 
 
 Bacbsteiu. — There are a variety of systems by which 
 this cheese is made, although they do not materially 
 differ ; it is manufactured either from skim or half- 
 skimmed milk at a similar temperature to that adopted 
 for the Limburg, being also converted into curd in the 
 same period of time. After setting, instead of being 
 immediately placed on the cheese-table, it is cut up 
 into cubes to allow the whey to drain, and afterwards 
 again cut into cubes for the same purpose. It is next 
 placed in the wooded moulds similar to those used for 
 Limburg ; and when sufficiently solid, each cheese is 
 taken out and treated in a similar manner to that which 
 we have described above for the Limburg. There are 
 also a variety of cheeses known by other names made 
 in North Germany, but the systems of manufacture 
 
 K 2 
 
132 THE DAIRY OF THE PAEM. 
 
 closely resemble those already described. In the South, 
 however, there are a few kinds which need not be 
 referred to, as they resemble in almost everything but 
 name those which we have described as being made in 
 France and Switzerland. 
 
 HOLLAND. 
 
 Although the greater portion of the Netherlands is 
 devoted to dairying, the chief dairying districts are 
 North and South Holland and Priesland, each of which 
 has its speciahte. In the first, the famous Edam or 
 round Dutch cheese is manufactured, together with the 
 almost equally well-known Campine butter; in the 
 second, the flat Dutch or G-ouda cheese is a staple in- 
 dustry, in addition to the btitter of Delft ; while Fries- 
 land is, perhaps, more famous than either for its butter,, 
 one port alone in this provmce having exported 400 
 tons in one season. In North Holland it is the custom 
 of the dairy farmers to sell their worst calves at a 
 month old, rearing the best for the dairy, and it is re- 
 markable that throughout Holland larger numbers of 
 cattle are kept per acre than perhaps in any other 
 dairying country. In raising cream the Dutch farmer 
 still uses the shallow pan, but it is of wood, although 
 in many cases the Swartz system is fashionable. In 
 South Holland the best farmers expect to realise 660 
 gallons of milk per cow, one gaUon making a pound of 
 cheese ; and we ire not surprised at this, for the size 
 and milking qualities of Dutch cows are generally 
 known. In the best dairies it is customary to skim at 
 
FOBEIGK DAIEYING. 133 
 
 twelve hours to make the first quality of butter, and 
 at twenty-four for the second ; but twenty-four and 
 thirty-six hours' skimming are most frequent with the 
 small farmers. 
 
 In the manufacture of Delft butter the milk is first 
 cooled in copper vessels, which stand in very cold 
 water for two hours. It is then transferred into shallow 
 pans in a cool dairy, skimming taking place at twelve, 
 eighteen, and twenty-four hours. The churns used 
 are exceedingly primitive and much inferior to those 
 adopted in this country. The working of the butter is 
 done by hand ; but as a general rule it is not thoroughly 
 well washed nor too carefully made, but the salting and 
 packing are exceedingly well managed. Although an im- 
 mense quantity of butter is imported into this country 
 from Holland, there is very little of high quality, or 
 such as our makers need attempt to produce, the 
 greater part of it being an imitation, in the art of pro- 
 ducing which the Dutch seem to have long taken the 
 lead. There are numerous factories in Holland, and 
 large quantities of inferior butter, especially Campine, 
 are made for the purposes of mixing with, and giving a 
 character to, the imitation they turn out. 
 
 Edam. — The most famous dairy products of Holland, 
 so far as British consumers are concerned, are the 
 Edam and Gouda cheeses. The former is the round, 
 red Dutch, and we have seen it made as follows: — The 
 rennet is added to the milk at a temperature of 90° F., 
 and in twenty to twenty-five minutes it is cut with an 
 instrument resembling a lyre with a dozen strings. 
 After standing for a short time for the separation to 
 
134 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM. 
 
 take place, the whey is taken out and the curd after- 
 wards thoroughly worked by the hand ; when fit, the 
 curd is placed in the moulds which, in this case, the 
 cheese being globular, are divided into halves. When 
 full, the two halves are pressed together, and pressed 
 as tightly as possible. The solid curd is next taken 
 out, a cloth is wrapped round it, and it ia placed in 
 fresh moulds, and subjected to pressure in a lever press 
 until the next day. The moulds are placed in dishes 
 to catch the whey, and the same pressure is generally 
 exerted upon several cheeses at one time. At the end 
 of some hours the cheese cloth is removed, and the 
 cheese placed in a semicircular mould with a foot to it, 
 and several holes perforated in the sides. A piece of 
 flat board is then placed on top, and it is again put 
 under the press. After sufficient pressure has been 
 obtained, the cheeses are salted and turned daily for 
 eight or ten days, at the end of which time they are 
 soaked in brine and subsequently dried, coloured, and 
 rubbed with linseed oil. 
 
 Gonda. — In the manufacture of the flat Dutch or 
 Gouda cheese there is some resemblance to the Edam 
 system; the rennet coagulating the milk in about 
 forty minutes, after which time the curd is gently cut 
 and the whey allowed to separate for ten minutes, 
 when it is again manipulated. After another rest the 
 curd settles at the bottom of the vat, and the whey is 
 drawn off. Hot whey is then mixed with the curd, 
 and it is again allowed to remain for a short time, the 
 whey being subsequently removed with a utensil 
 specially made for baling. The curd is afterwards 
 
FOREIGN DAISyiNG. 135 
 
 well worked and evenly broken up. It is then pressed 
 in the bottom of the vat and again broken up, as a mill 
 is not used. It is afterwards placed in perforated 
 moulds (being previously covered with cloth) which are 
 immediately put to press, the pressure being increased 
 regularly until the following day, when it is turned and 
 provided with a clean cloth. The cheeses are then laid 
 in salt and water, where they remain for three days, 
 after which they are washed with whey and taken to 
 the drying-room. Here they are placed upon shelves, 
 and daily turned until the second week, when turning 
 is performed every other day. At the end of a month 
 they are fit for sale, but it is the custom of some of the 
 better makers to keep them for a much longer period, 
 when the flavour is considerably improved and the 
 consistence is more mellow. The Gouda cheese is 
 generally made of new milk, but, as in all cheeses, there 
 are many farmers who skim the milk once before they 
 set it for curd. 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 Bntter-xuakiug in Italy is not generally conducted 
 upon a principle which can be termed either modern 
 or perfect. Upon small farms, the cream, which is 
 raised in open pans, often made of wood, is churned in 
 cylindrical churns, the beaters within being turned 
 instead of the churn itself. This is the general custom, 
 in Lombardy. In Piedmont it is quite common for 
 the farmer to place his cream at 50° F. into a round 
 box called a Purragie, which has a kind of spoon 
 
136 THE DAIEY OF THE FARM. 
 
 attached to the axle. This is turned by a crant, and the 
 revolution of the spoon is upon the inside of the peri- 
 phery of the box. This process is rather laborious,. and 
 requires the services of two men. " The dairyman of 
 Parma," we are told, " beats his milk with a cream 
 whipper, and skilfully lets the floating cream, which 
 gathers into a bucket, overflow into a fine-edged wooden 
 bowl, and thence into the churn." In summer ten 
 pounds of ice are added to thirty quarts of cream, while 
 in winter the cream is heated, the tempera,ture being 
 usually kept at from 57° to 67° P., the Itahans per- 
 mitting a pretty wide margin. When in the chum the 
 cream is beaten by two men alternately with a butter 
 beater attached to a frame, this being raised and 
 lowered by leverage. The butter forms in about forty 
 to forty-five minutes, water, being added if formation is 
 desired quickly, and ice if it is necessary to retard it. 
 The butter is worked by hand, formed in large lumps, 
 and left to drain. In some parts of Italy it is cus- 
 tomary to keep butter in bladders, a method which is 
 considered very convenient, and which enables it to be 
 kept for a length of time. There are a few excellent 
 butter factories in Italy, some of which export butter 
 to England and India ; and, with the help of the 
 modern dairy schools, with some of which we are 
 acquainted, Italian dairying is likely to improve. 
 
 We have inspected some excellent cheese factories 
 in Italy, numbers of which have been started since the 
 year 1873-74, when the Government offered large 
 prizes and gold medals to the best-managed associa- 
 tions. In Sicily, strange to say, small dairymen, 
 instead of daily manipulating their own milk, take it 
 
FOEBIGN DAIEYING. 137 
 
 to the large cowkeepers, until they have delivered 
 some 300 quarts. They then receive that quantity 
 back at one time, and deal with it in the manufacture 
 of butter or cheese, this system of reciprocity being 
 found mutually beneficial. The Italian cheeses known 
 in England are the Parmesan and the G-orgonzola. 
 These popular varieties are very largely made, and we 
 have devoted considerable time to a study of their 
 manufacture, both in Lombardy and Parma. 
 
 Gorgouzola. — In making this cheese the milk is 
 coagulated while warm from the cow, great attention 
 being paid to the preparation of the rennet, the 
 quantity required being only ascertained by experience. 
 The curd is set in from fifteen to twenty minutes. 
 The whey is then separated as much as possible, and 
 the curd hung up to drain in coarse strainers. This 
 process is conducted twice daily, after each milking. 
 By the time the evening's curd is ready that of the 
 morning is naturally cold ; but the cheese is composed 
 of the two, the cold curd being placed in the centre and 
 the warm at the top and bottom. Thus each cheese is 
 made up of three layers, and as the hot and cold curd 
 never properly combine, two sets of interstices are, as 
 it were, created, in which, as it matures, the well- 
 known green mould forms, and adds to the cheese the 
 delightful flavour which is so much approved in this 
 country. During the first day of manufacture the 
 cheese is turned three times, and on the following 
 morning it is put, into a clean cloth and salted, this 
 process being continued for at least a week, sometimes 
 longer, one ounce of salt generally being used to about 
 
138 THE DAIRY OP THE FAEM. 
 
 eight pounds of curd. In some cases the salting 
 operation is conducted by a special process of turning 
 and pressing against a salted surface, this giving 9 
 better crust to the cheese. The wooden mould withi' 
 which the curd was placed in the first instance is not 
 removed until the fourth day, when the cheese has 
 commenced to ferment. At the end of twenty-five 
 days a good cheese is generally a pinkish white in 
 colour ; but if it is inferior it becomes nearly black, the 
 crust in this case being soft, and the body of the 
 cheese rapidly deteriorating. If, however, the crust is 
 hard, washing in brine will improve it. The tempera- 
 ture of the cheese-room is usually between 57° and 
 67° F. The ripening process commences in April, and 
 frequently continues until August. One gallon of milk 
 usually makes one pound of Gorgonzola cheese. 
 
 The Farmesan, or Formaggio di Grana, cheese is very 
 largely made in Italy. In its manufacture the milk, 
 often skimmed, is heated, according to its condition and 
 age, from 77° to 86° P., although this is somewhat 
 guess-work, for the distinction is almost invariably 
 made by hand. The rennet, which is a pulpy material 
 made from the actual stomach of the calf, is then added 
 in the proportion of half-an-ounce to 500 gallons. The 
 principle it contains is dissolved by the aid of a pestle 
 in small wooden utensils made for the purpose, and 
 filtered through a fine sieve directly into the milk vat; 
 The curd having formed, is broken with a utensil 
 called a rotilla, a disc being at the bottom end. The 
 working is continued for forty minutes, with intervals 
 every now and then, that the curd may be consohdated 
 
FOEEIGN DAIRYING. 139 
 
 but not hardened. When the whey is removed, ha'f- 
 an ounce of saffron is added to the contents of the vat 
 per 80 gallons. The pan containing . the curd is next 
 placed upon the fire and heated for nearly an hour up 
 to a temperature of 112° F., being stirred during the 
 time with the utensil named above. When the curd has 
 broken up into minute particles it is removed from the 
 fire, and a quantity of the cold whey, which had been 
 drained off, is added to the mixture to assist the curd 
 in forming in a mass at the bottom, where it is gathered 
 and squeezed with the disc of the rotilla. It is then 
 loosened and drawn to the surface, where it is collected 
 in a cheese cloth, and lifted out into a mould and there 
 left in its wet state for an hour. After this it is placed 
 in a box made of beech and bound with hoops. A cloth 
 is placed over it, and a wooden follower, upon the top 
 of which heavy weights are laid. In this state the whey 
 is pressed out ; but, after a few hours, it is again dipped 
 in the whey, but returned to the mould after being 
 enveloped in buckram, — this, by means of the pressure, 
 giving the cheese the peculiar print which is always 
 seen upon its crust. After some hours it is salted and 
 then dipped in salt water and again pressed between 
 the boards. The salting process is continued every 
 other day for a fortnight, when it is taken to the curing- 
 room and occasionally scraped, being finally well rubbed 
 with oil. Parmesan takes a considerable time to ripen, 
 hence the poorer makers sell to merchants who have 
 splendidly equipped cellars for the purpose. In one such 
 cellar near Parma we saw cheese vahied at some ten 
 thousand pounds. 
 
 There is a cheese made in various parts of Italy 
 
140 THE DAIRY OF THE PABM. 
 
 similar to the whey cheeses which are made in two or 
 three English counties. This is called Eicotta. The 
 curd, if we may so call the solids obtained from the 
 whey, is the solid matter remaining in the milk after 
 the extraction of the casein and fat. This is sometimes 
 placed in a vessel of cold water, well shaken, and after- 
 wards pressed with the hand. In half-an-hour the sur- 
 face of the water is covered with a scum. This is the 
 fat or butter of the ricotta. In making the cheese, the 
 whey is boiled, a little of the sour whey from the last 
 making being first added. In this process, a scum also 
 rises, which may be used at once in the form of butter, 
 or converted into a regular cheese. It may be improved 
 by several modes of salting and curing, or by the addi- 
 tion of sweet milk or cream. 
 
 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 Dairy farming in Switzerland is an important 
 national industry; but in the mountainous cantons 
 which are shut off from the outer world for almost 
 half the year, where the cattle graze, and the cheeses 
 are made at an altitude of some 7,000 feet, the system 
 is exceedingly primitive. In these districts it is 
 customary for one or two men to take the entire 
 cattle of the village to the mountains for the 
 summer, to live with them, milk them, and make 
 the cheeses, a hut being provided for the purpose. 
 Once a month the OAvners below visit the herds and 
 test the quantity of each cow's yield ; by this means 
 the cheese is ultimately divided, and the herdsmen 
 
FOREIGN DAIRYING. 141 
 
 paid. In the more fertile cantons, such as Zurich, 
 Zug, Lucerne, and Schwytz, the young cattl^ are 
 grazed upon the motmtains, but most of the cows are 
 housed the whole year round, getting grass during 
 summer and hay during winter, cake and corn feeding 
 being almost unknown to the farmers. The milk is 
 usually set for cream in shallow wooden vessels, for 
 ahnost every dairy utensil is made of wood in 
 Switzerland. The cream is churned sweet, the churns 
 resembhng a Gruyere cheese or a small millstone in 
 shape, and they are consequently difficult to manipulate 
 and impossible to clean. The butter is exceedingly 
 mild and seldom salted, but it must be eaten fresh, for 
 it will p.ot keep. In cheese-making, unless in the 
 factories and on the best farms,, the milk is turned by 
 a primitive kind of rennet made of vinegar and sour 
 whey, in which pieces of bread are soaked ; and if we 
 except the very beautiful copper cheese kettles, the 
 finest apphance of the kind which we know, there are 
 no good dairy utensils made in the country. The 
 principal cheeses are — Bmmenthaler, which we call 
 Gruyere ; Gruyere, which in the country is often a real 
 skim milk cheese ; Vacherin ; and Schabzieger. 
 
 Emmeuthaler. — In the manufacture of this cheese, 
 the milk must be at a temperature of from 93° to 96° 
 F. If, however, it is extra rich, it may be a degree 
 higher, whereas for poor milk it should be a degree 
 lower. Again, as in summer cooling is slower than in 
 winter, it is not necessary that the temperature should 
 be quite so high. The quantity of rennet added is 
 usually 3 lbs. to 650 or 700 lbs. of milk, this rennet how- 
 
142 THE DAIRY OP THE FAEM. 
 
 ever, being specially prepared by each maker. At the 
 expiration of from 20 to iO minutes the curd has be- 
 come firm and manipulation then commences. In the 
 first place it is cut through slowly and regularly with a 
 wooden knife called a sabre de bois, which reaches to 
 the bottom df the kettle. It is then left for a short 
 time for the whey to divide from the curd, and after- 
 wards heated afresh to a much higher temperature 
 before it is again cut up. The breaking of the curd 
 continues for some time, until at last, the whey being 
 removed, it gets harder, and forms into small grains. 
 The operator then takes a large cloth, stretches a metal 
 band across one end, and this he dips to the very 
 bottom of the kettle beneath the curd, which is in- 
 geniously gathered into the cloth. The metal band is 
 then disengaged, the four corners of the cloth affixed to 
 a hook suspended over the vat, and the whole is imme- 
 diately swung across and dropped into the centre of a 
 huge Grwyere hoop which is placed upon a table. Here 
 it is worked into shape, cleverly covered with dry 
 cloths, the hoop pulled tightly, and the cheese well 
 bound within it. It is then placed in the cheese press, 
 where it remains for about three hours, a pressure of 
 eighteen pounds being given for each pound of 
 cheese. After this it is taken out and provided with 
 clean cloths and again pressed, the changing of the 
 cloths taking place four, five, and even six times during 
 the day. The next morning the cheese is again taken 
 out and placed upon a table for salting, being first well 
 scraped or pared. The salt is laid upon the surface, 
 and well brushed in with a brush provided for the pur- 
 pose, about 4 lbs. of salt being used for 100 lbs. of cheese. 
 
FOEEIGN DAIRYING. 143 
 
 It is then taken to the cheese-room and placed upon a 
 shelf, and here it is that it is either perfected or spoiled, 
 for if the temperature is too low it becomes hard and 
 solid, and if too high it swells, and large holes are 
 formed within. If, however, the maker tests each 
 cheese with his finger daily, there is little fear of any 
 being spoiled. Good EmmenthaTer or Gruyere, as the 
 same cheese is called in France, where it is also made, 
 is one of the choicest products of the dairy. 
 
 Gpuyere. — Gruyere in Switzerland is a half-fat 
 cheese, the evening's milk being skimmed and then 
 added to the milk of the morning, the latter being 
 heated to a temperature of 110° F. before the addition 
 of the evening's milk, so that the mean tempera- 
 ture of the mixture is about 93° F. before the 
 rennet is added. The system of adding rennet is con- 
 trolled by a simple experiment which the maker em- 
 ploys, adding one spoonful to three spoonfuls of milk 
 before the bulk of the milk is touched. If this minute 
 quantity sets in sixty to eighty seconds, all well and 
 good, and he is satisfied of the strength of the rennet. 
 As a general rule, the proportion is 1 part of rennet to 
 140 parts of milk. When set, the curd is cut, as in 
 the case of the Emmenthaler. The remainder of the 
 system of manufacture very much resembles that des- 
 cribed above. A hundred pounds of milk usually make 
 nine to eleven pounds of Emmenthaler cheese, or six 
 to eight pounds of the poorer Gruyere. 
 
 Vaclierin. — The Vacherin cheese is chiefly made in 
 Canton Fribourg. New milk is heated to a temperature 
 
144 THE DAIRY OF THE FARM. 
 
 of 100° to 104° F., and after the cnrd has set it is 
 gently divided with a net made for the purpose, and 
 left for an hour, when the whey will be found at the 
 top of the vessel. This is then baled out and the curd, 
 placed in a mould, in which it is left to drain for fifteen 
 minutes, being wrapped in a cloth and slightly pressed. 
 The cheese is turned, and the cloth changed four times 
 during the day, in order that the whey may be com- 
 pletely pressed out or absorbed. It is taken out of the 
 mould the next day, and laid upon a clean cloth and 
 left to dry and ripen, being turned and the cloth 
 changed every second day. 
 
 Schabzieger. — This cheese, which is famous in some 
 parts of Switzerland, is chiefly made from the albumi- 
 nous portion of the milk called sere; and, strange to 
 - say, the more completely the milk is skimmed the more 
 successful is the manufacture of the cheese. The milk 
 is heated until boiling point, when a quantity of cold 
 butter-milk is added, little by little. Next a small 
 quantity of azi — a prepared sour butter-milk — ^is added, 
 and the mixture removed from the fire. Coagulation 
 having now taken place, the mass is stirred with a large 
 spoon, and after being allowed to stand for a short time 
 the solid portion is taken out and placed in boxes pre- 
 pared for the purpose, pressed, and then subjected to a 
 heat of 60° F. in order to start fermentation. This is 
 but the beginning of the manufacture, for it is allowed 
 to ferment for some weeks,- when the cheese is groimd 
 and salted, and a small quantity of a herb named Meli- 
 lotus coerulea, which is finely pulverised, added, to 
 impart the well-known flavour of the zieger. The 
 
FOREIGN DAIRYING. 145 
 
 cheese is now beaten, and made up into very small 
 conical shapes. It is estimated that thirty pounds of 
 skim-milk will make three and a half pounds of Schab- 
 zieger, which is not eaten as is ordinary cheese, but 
 mixed with butter and spread upon bread. 
 
 Since the above lines were written we have 
 frequently pointed ■ out that the leading varieties of 
 cheese which we import from the Continent can be 
 made as perfectly in Great Britain as in their 
 respective countries. Dairy farmers do not, however, 
 embrace the opportunity, sound and unmistakable as it 
 is. But foreigners have been over to us to learn 
 to make Cheddar and Stilton, and efforts are already 
 being made to produce Continental Cheddar for the 
 British market ; while we British Dairy Farmers on our 
 side, so far from manufacturing Gruyere, Parmesan, 
 and Camembert for export, do not attempt to produce 
 either for our own consumption. We have shown the 
 way by precept and in practice ; more we cannot do. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Abobtion, 46 
 
 Acconmiodatiouforcheese-inaking,79 
 
 Acre, stock and produce per, 11 
 
 Adulteration of milk, 59 
 
 Age and character of dairy cows, 41 
 
 Arable dairy farms, 94 
 
 Artificial foods, 27 
 
 Ass milk, 54 
 
 Ayrshire cow, 39 
 
 Backsiein cheese, 31 
 Brewers' grains, 28 
 Brie cheese, 84. 
 Butter, 61 
 
 — composition of, 61 
 
 — consumption of, 15 
 
 — imports, 15 
 
 — making, 61 
 
 — yield, 7 
 
 Casbaqes, 25 
 Cakes, oil, 28 
 Calf, treatment of, 51 
 Camembert cheese, 118 
 Carrots, 26 
 Casein, 4 
 
 Cheddar cheese, 74 
 Cheese, 72 
 
 — accommodation for, 79 
 
 — analyses of, 72 
 
 — Brie, 84, 108 
 
 — Cheddar, 74 
 
 — Cheshire, 77 
 
 — composition of, 72_ 
 
 — consumption of, 15 
 
 — Coulommiers, 84, 110 
 
 — cream, 85 
 
 — Derbyshire, 79 
 
 — French, 106 
 
 — Gloucester, 79 
 
 — imports, 15 
 
 — insects afEectiug, 88 
 
 — making, 73 
 
 — Mignou or Gervais, 85 
 
 — room, 79 
 
 — sage, 80 
 
 Cheese, skimmed milk, 35 
 
 — soft, 83 
 
 — Stilton, 80 
 
 — utensils for making, 86 
 
 — Wensleydale, 83 
 
 — yield, 10 
 Cheddar Cheese, 74 
 Cheshire cheese, 77 
 Churning, 69 
 Chums, 69 
 
 Clean milking, 96 
 
 Clover, 23 
 
 Composition of butter, 61 
 
 — milk, 53 
 
 Cooley system, the, 66 
 Cotentiu breed of cons, 103 
 Coulommiers cheese, 84, HO 
 Cow, food of, 16 
 Cow, choice and treatment of, 36 
 Cowhouse, 43 
 Cream, 62 
 Creamometer, 53 
 Cream cheese, 85 
 
 Crops and foods for dairy stock, 22 
 Cropping land for the cow, 30 
 
 — — a dairy farm, 94 
 
 Curd formation, 73 
 
 — miU, 87 
 
 Dairy, the, 57 
 — ^. breeds, 36 
 
 — examples, 5 
 
 — farms, cropping of, 94 
 
 — relations of food to, 20 
 
 — statistics, 3 
 
 — stock, crops and food for, 22 
 Dairying or grazing, 89 
 Denmark dairying, 97 
 Derbyshire cheese, 79 
 
 Drop after calving, 43 
 Drying the cow, 47 
 Dutch cattle, 39 
 
 — cheese, 133 
 
 — ' — Edam, 133 
 
 — — Gouda, 134 
 
 — dairying, 132 
 
INDEX. 
 
 147 
 
 Edam cheese, 133 
 Emmenthalei cheese, 141 
 Ensilage, 29 
 Eigot, 46 
 Ewe's milk, 54 
 
 Food and produce, 20 
 Food of cow, 16 
 Foods for daily stock, 22 
 Foot-and-mouth disease, 48 
 Foreign dairying, 97 
 
 — Denmark, 97 
 
 — France, 102 
 
 — Sweden & Norway, 100 
 French cheeses, 106 
 
 — — Brie, 108 
 
 — — Conlommiers, 110 
 
 — — Camembert, 118 
 
 — — G^rome, 110 
 
 — — Joumiac, 114 
 
 — — Livarot, 112 
 
 — — Mignot, 121 
 
 — — Mont d'Or, 115 
 
 — — Neufohatei, 116 
 
 — — Pont I'EvSque, 122 
 
 — — Boquefort, 116 
 
 — — St. MarceUin, 125 
 
 — — St. Bemy, 126 
 
 Genbbal management, 89 
 Gentleness and ptmctnalitj;, 96 
 German dairyiug, 128 
 
 — — cheese, 130 
 
 — — Bacli^steiu, 131 
 
 — — Hartz kase, 130 
 
 — — Limburg, 130 
 Gerom^ cheese, 110 
 
 Glo'ster cheese, 79 
 Goat milk, 54 
 Gorgonzola cheese, 137 
 Gorse, 24 
 Gouda cheese, 134 
 Grains, 28 
 
 Grazing or dairying, 89 
 Gruyere cheese, 143 
 Guernsey dattle, 38 
 — produce, 7 
 
 HiJBiz kase, 130 
 Hay, 23 
 
 Health of Cows, 46 
 Holland, 132 
 Hoven, 48 
 Husk or hooae, 47 
 
 iMfLBHENTS, 63 
 
 Imports of dairy produce, 15 
 Insects affecting cheese, 88 
 Introduction, 1 
 Italian buttennaking, 135 
 
 — cheese, 137 
 
 — — Gorgonzola, 137 
 
 — — Parmesan', 138 
 Italian rye-grass, 24 
 
 Italy, 135 
 
 Jersey cattle, 38 
 
 — produce, 7 
 Joumiao olieeBe, 114 
 
 Kerry cattle, 40 
 Kohl rabi, 26 
 
 Lactometer, 53 
 Land, cropping of, 30 
 Limburg cheese, 130 
 Linseed, 27 
 Livarot uheese, 112 
 Lucerne, 24 
 
 Malt Culms, 28 
 Mangel wuirzel, 26 
 Mare's milk, 54 
 Margarine, 59 
 
 — imports of, 16 
 Meal, 27 
 
 Mignou cheese, 85 
 Mignot cheese, 121 
 MUk, 53 
 
 — adulteration of, 59 
 
 — analysis of, 54 
 
 — composition of, 53 
 
 — condensed, 66 
 
 — flavour of, 58 
 
 — profitable use of, 91 
 
 — sale, 96 
 
 — yield of, 5 
 Milking, 49 
 
 — machine, 67 
 MolasseEL 28' 
 Mont d'Or cheese, 115 
 
 Neufohatel cheese, 116 
 
 OUEO-MAHQAKIirH, 69 
 
 Parmesan cheese, 138 
 Parsnips, 26 
 Pasturage, 22 
 Fleuro-pne nmonia, 48 
 Pont I'Bv Sque cheese. 123 
 
148 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Potatoes, 26 
 
 Profitable use of milk, 91 
 
 Purging, 48 
 
 QuARTEK-ni, 47 
 
 Bapb, 24 
 
 Bed poll cattle, 38 
 
 Red-water, 48 
 
 Relation of food to dairy produce, 20 
 
 Remedies for ill- tasted butter, SB 
 
 RocLuefort cheese, 116 
 
 Rye, 23 
 
 Saoe cheese, 86 
 
 Sainfoin, 24 
 
 St. Marcellin cheese, 125 
 
 St. Remy cheese, 126 
 
 Salt, 29 
 
 Sohabzieger cheese, 144 
 
 Schemes of cultivation, 30 
 
 Scour, 48 
 
 Separators, 66 
 
 Shorthorn cattle, 36 
 
 Skim-milk cheese, 85 
 
 Skin diseases, 49 
 
 Soft cheese, 83 
 
 Sore Teats, 49 
 
 Statistics, dairy, 3 
 
 Stilton cheese, 80 
 
 Stock and produce, 11, IS 
 
 Straw, 26 
 Summer food, 16 
 Swartz system, 129 
 Sweden and Norway, 100 
 Switzerland, 146 
 Swiss cheese, 141 
 
 — — Emmenthaler, 141 
 
 — — (xruydre, 143 
 
 ^ — Schabzi^ger, 144 
 
 — — Vaoherm, 143 
 
 Tasib of milk, 58 
 Treatment of the cow, 43 
 — — calf, 61 
 
 Truckle cheese, 82 
 Turnips, 25 
 
 Utensils for Cheese Dairy, 86 
 
 Vaohekin cheese, 143 
 Vetches, 23 
 
 Wabm, 49 
 Water-supply, 44 
 Wensleydale cheese, 83 
 Winter food, 16 
 Woman's milk, 6i 
 
 Yield of butter, 7 
 — cheese, 10 
 * Wii1]r 5 
 
HANDBOOKS OF THE FARM. 
 
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 secure an intelligent development of the resources of our soil, and 
 with the assistance which advanced Chemical investigation provides, 
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 No. lY. TKE SOXXj. 
 
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