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PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 A FULL REPORT OF THE 
 
 PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS 
 
 OF THE 
 
 CONFERENCE HELD IN BOSTON IN 
 NOVEMBER, 1889. 
 
 REPORTED AND EDITED BY ISABEL C. BARROWS. 
 
 BOSTON : 
 
 PRESS OF GEORGE K. ELLIS, I4I FRANKLIN ST. 
 
 1890. 
 

 INTRODtfCfTORY NOTE. 
 
 The Conference in the interest of Physical Training which took 
 place in Boston November last, a full report of which is herewith 
 presented, was held in pursuance of the following call : — 
 
 " A Conference in the interest of Physical Training will be held 
 in Huntington Hall, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, 
 on Friday and Saturday, Nov. 29 and 30, 1889. . . . 
 
 " The object of this Conference is to place before educators differ 
 ent systems of gymnastics, and to secure discussion of the same, 
 with a view to clearly ascertaining the needs of schools, and deter- 
 mining how they may best be met. 
 
 "The Conference will be presided over by William T. Harris, 
 LL.D., United States Commissioner of Education. . . . 
 
 " Many prominent educators have signified their intention of being 
 present, and a cordial invitation is extended to all who are interested 
 in this important subject." 
 
 John W. Dickinson, Sec'y Mass. State Board of Education 
 
 Edwin P. Seaver, Suft. of Public Schools, Boston. 
 
 Francis A. Walker, President Mass. Institute of Technology. 
 
 Charles T. Gallagher, Liberty D. Packard, 
 
 John G. Blake, M.D., Solomon Schindler, 
 
 Russell Elliott, M.D., Richard C. Humphreys, 
 
 William H. Grainger, M.D., B. B. Whittemore, 
 
 Charles M. Green, M.D., William A. Mowry, 
 
 James S. Murphy, J. P. C. Winship, 
 
 Emily A. Fifield, Thomas J. Emery, 
 
 EPH S. Fallon, Samuel B. Capen, 
 
 George R. Swasey, L. B. Pingree, 
 
 Members Boston School Committee. 
 
11 
 
 A. Hemenway. Edward Cowles, M.D. 
 
 Robert C. Metcalf. G. F. Jelly, M.D. 
 
 Louisa P. Hopkins. Walter Channing, M.D. 
 
 E. L. Call, M.D. Geo. B. Shattuck, M.D. 
 
 Lucy E. Sewall, M.D. A. N. Blodgett, M.D. 
 
 H. I. Bowditch, M.D. C. P. Putnam, M.D. 
 
 Charles F. Folsom, M.D. J. J. Putnam, M.D. 
 
 S. G. Webber, M.D. Henry Ahlborn, M.D. 
 C. F. Withington, M.D. 
 
 H. G. Leland, M.D., Medical Director Y. M. C. A. 
 
 E. O. Otis, M.D., Medical Director Y. M. C. U. 
 
 John B. Moran, MX)., Instructor in Hygiene, Boston Public Schools. 
 
 William F. Warren, D.D., LL.D., President of Boston University. 
 
 Albion W. Small, LL.D., President of Colby University. 
 
 Robert H. Richards, of Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 
 
 Morton Dexter, Editor of " Congregationalist." 
 
 Helen Shafer, President of Wellesley College. 
 
 Alice Freeman Palmer, Kate Gannett Wells, 
 
 Of Massachusetts State Board of Education. 
 
 Ellen H. Richards. Ellen M. Folsom. 
 
 Mary E. Blake. Pauline A. Shaw. 
 
 Heloise E. Hersey. Selma Wesselhoeft. 
 
 Marian Hovey. Mary Hemenway. 
 
 Mary B. Claflin. Isabel C. Barrows. 
 
 Catharine Ireland. Amy Morris Homans. 
 Elizabeth R. Cabot. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Introductory Note, 
 
 First Session: 
 
 Physical Training, an address by William T. Harris, LL.D., i 
 
 The Nature of Physical Training and the Best Means of securing its 
 
 Ends, by Edward Mussey Hartwell, Ph.D., M.D., 5 
 
 The German System of Gymnastics, by H. Metzner 23 
 
 Discussion : 
 
 Dr. W. T. Harris, ' 28 
 
 Edwin P. Seaver, 28 
 
 Dr. E. M. Hartwell, 29 
 
 Dr. E. Hitchcock 32 
 
 Edwin P. Seaver, 32 
 
 Dr. E. M. Hartwell, 33 
 
 Larkin Dunton 33 
 
 Dr. John P. Reynolds, . . 33 
 
 The Place of Physical Training in a Rational Education, by Claes J. 
 
 Enebuske, Ph.D., 35 
 
 Second Session : 
 
 The Chief Characteristics of the Swedish System of Gymnastics, by 
 
 Nils Posse, M.G 42 
 
 Discussion : 
 
 The Earl of Meath, 51 
 
 Dr. J. W. SeaVer, 52 
 
 Dr. W. G. Anderson 54 
 
 Some Principles regarded as Essential in the Direction of the Department 
 
 of Physical Education and Hygiene, by Edward Hitchcock, M.D., . 57 
 
 Discussion : 
 
 Dr. Alice T. Hall 59 
 
 Dr. Helen Putnam 59 
 
 Dr. E. M. Hartwell 61 
 
 Third Session: 
 
 The System of Physical Training at the Hemenway Gymnasium, by D. A. 
 
 Sargent, M.D., 62 
 
 Discussion : 
 
 Dr. Walter Channing, 77 
 
 Miss Lucile Eaton Hill 79 
 
 Dr. Carolyn C. Ladd, 80 
 
 Miss Rutch C. Tousley, 80 
 
IV 
 
 Ray Greene Huling, 8i 
 
 Dr. L. V. Ingraham, . .... 82 
 
 Dr. F. N. Whittier, . . ... ... 83 
 
 General Francis A. Walker, ....... . .... 85 
 
 The Laws to be followed in teaching Physical Culture, by Dr. C. W. 
 
 Emerson, 87 
 
 Fourth Session: 
 
 Remarks by E. P. Seaver, 96 
 
 The Pedagogic Phase of Physical Training, by Hamilton D. Wey, M.D., 99 
 
 Address of M. de Coubertin 112 
 
 Address of S. S. Curry, 115 
 
 Military DriU, by Hobart Moore, ... ..... 121 
 
 Appointment of Permanent Committee, ... 126 
 
 Remarks of Dr. D. A. Sargent . 126 
 
 Remarks of Nils Posse, 128 
 
 Remarks of Dr. E. M. Hartwell, . . 129 
 
 Resolution of Thanks, ... 132 
 
 Names of Writers and Speakers, 133 
 
 Index of Subjects and Books to which Reference was made, . .134 
 
iFtrst .Sesston. 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING. 
 
 A Conference in the Interest of Physical Training was 
 held at Huntington Hall, Massachusetts Institute of Technol- 
 ogy, Boston, on Friday and Saturday, Nov. 29 and 30, 1889. 
 William T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Educa- 
 tion, presided. In opening the Conference, Dr. Harris said : 
 
 We open this morning a Conference devoted to the con- 
 sideration of physical exercises for the development of the 
 body. Physical training, I take it, is a part of the subject of 
 hygiene in its largest compass, which includes dietary and 
 digestive functions, and matters of rest and repose as well as 
 matters of muscular training. We wish to discuss physical 
 training in view of hygiene, and to avoid, if we can, all narrow 
 interpretation of our subject. The advantage of such a Con- 
 ference as this is that extremes come together ; and, by com- 
 parison of views, each one learns to supplement his own 
 deficiencies. We shall all be delighted to find new phases of 
 the subject. Hygiene wishes ttf make the most of the body 
 for human purposes, — not for animal purposes, but for human 
 purposes. Hygiene includes several departments, of which 
 physical training is one. 
 
 I shall define physical training as the conscious or voluntary 
 training of the muscular side of our system, which is the 
 special side under the concrol of the will. Of course we under- 
 stand that the vital processes go on without the will, and that 
 this is an advantage, — it is better that they should remain in- 
 voluntary. Of course the voluntary system has relations to 
 the involuntary system, and this is one of the first questions 
 which have been considered by persons who have thoroughly 
 studied physical training. What can we do with our wills .' 
 What can we do with our muscles that shall help on the vital 
 
processes and develop them ? That is a deep subject. It 
 should be the first which attracts the attention of persons inter- 
 ested in physical education, and it should be also the last one. 
 We ask what we can do by the action of our wills in the matter 
 of developing the muscles of the chest, of the legs, and of the 
 arms, and inquire what are the relations of muscle-action to 
 ■digestion and sleep and such matters. We have not yet 
 probed these subjects to the bottom, nor have we ascer- 
 tained the fundamental relations of the voluntary to the in- 
 voluntary functions in diseased conditions. We are continu- 
 ously finding some new phases, and I suppose the medical 
 profession discover more new facts in relation to this than 
 persons specially interested in physical training alone. Phy- 
 sicians discover cases in which some oversight in regard to 
 will-training has resulted in interfering more or less with the in- 
 voluntary processes, so that the latter have been retarded, thus 
 injuring some of their functions. We all acknowledge the 
 importance of discovering and settling the limits between these 
 two processes and defining all the relations between the in- 
 voluntary vital processes and the conscious voluntary move- 
 ments, and the transition of these voluntary movements into 
 involuntary ones again through the principle of habit. The 
 exercise of the muscles by voluntary effort calls into action 
 the higher nervous motor-centres of the body and brain. That 
 is to say, physical training such as is advocated by us relates 
 especially to the will, and therefore to the very highest nerve- 
 centres of the physical system. This reveals its relation to 
 rest and recreation. Now, when one, for instance, is studying 
 science or art or literature or any school studies, he is exercis- 
 ing these same high nerve-centres. Let him pass from study 
 to one of these systematic physical exercises, and he does not 
 get the required rest. It is not rest and repose from the exer- 
 cise of these higher nerve-centres, at least. Of course all of 
 our specialists in physical training know that it is not a relief 
 from will-tension, and the question remains : In how far is such 
 exercise as that valuable ? In what way is it a relief } Those 
 who put forward theories of physical exercise and training have 
 their views with regard to this, and the opinions of different 
 
individuals vary. I take it that one of the most important re- 
 sults of this Conference will be the adjusting of differences of 
 opinion with regard to this point, — in how far the use of the 
 muscles by the will can afford rest and recreation from studies 
 and from sedentary occupations, and in how far they will serve 
 so well as free play. We all know the difference between play 
 and work. In our play, caprice governs, and there is real re- 
 pose for the will. But in work the will takes the body and the 
 mind and puts them under forms prescribed by others or under 
 such forms as it has adopted for itself in its rational hours. 
 Its action in work is as much inhibitory and holding back as it 
 is spontaneous and free exercise. But play is not inhibitory. 
 Play has its use in education. We are discovering more and 
 more how play is an exceedingly important function ; that it is 
 the source of the development of individuality through spon- 
 taneity. The individual through play learns to know, to com- 
 mand, to respect himself, and to distinguish between his own 
 impulses and inclinations and those of others. Great strength 
 of individuality grows from play. Nations that postpone play 
 until maturity fail in this respect. In China it is said that old 
 men of sixty enjoy flying kites. In this country boys of twelve 
 or fifteen fly kites ; but there aged men love to do it ; and chil- 
 dren do not feel the same interest in play in China as they do 
 here. 
 
 These considerations, with regard to the relation of the vol- 
 untary culture of the body to the involuntary, the relation of 
 the muscles to the vital organs, have been receiving much 
 attention in the new physical education : the old physical edu- 
 cation thought that muscular education was all that was neces- 
 sary to the training of the body, and this view prevailed here 
 up to about the year i860. The new physical education began 
 with the work of Dr. Hitchcock at Amherst, and was followed 
 up by Dr. Sargent in the Hemenway Gymnasium at Cam- 
 bridge, Dr. Hartwell at the Johns Hopkins, and their co- 
 workers in the various colleges and universities. The student 
 now studies this problem broadly, and focuses his attention on 
 this relation of the voluntary to the involuntary, and tries to 
 discover whereby the vital organs, — the lungs, the heart, the 
 
stomach, all the digestive organs, the kidneys, — in short, how- 
 all the functions that are involuntary in their action may be 
 assisted and influenced by voluntary action and motion. The 
 old gymnastic did not pay attention enough to this relation of 
 exercise to the vital organs to discover its negative effects. . It 
 did not determine the limits of muscular training. In the case 
 of calisthenics, for example, the will-power is called into play, 
 and it is no relief from the strain on the brain to go from the 
 study of arithmetic or from the concentration of attention on 
 the work in recitation to the performance of physical manoeu- 
 vres that demand close attention to the teacher who gives the 
 signal for the calisthenic exercises. A very powerful exercise 
 of the will is demanded in calisthenics, whereas free play (not 
 systematic games) is rest for the will. The recess spent in 
 play in the school-yard is a great rest and refreshment. I 
 mention this because there has been a movement throughout 
 the country, commencing long ago in Evansville, Ind., to do 
 away with the recess. A superintendent who had given much 
 time to studying the moral development of children came to 
 believe that the recess is the cause or the means of a great 
 deal of immorality, and that by abolishing it he would bring 
 the pupil more under the control of the teacher, thereby in- 
 creasing the moral hold on the pupil. That movement spread 
 to various places in this country. Rochester for a long time 
 has had no recess. At Albany, also, the schools have no 
 recess. This abolishing of the recess has led our conservative 
 educators who hold their faith in the old regulation to look 
 with suspicion on this experiment, and to try to discover in 
 what forms there is apparent a physical reaction, and in what 
 forms there are counter-movements on the part of physicians 
 and others, tending to mould public opinion. 
 
 I hope that the papers and discussions will discuss elabo- 
 rately and settle these questions which naturally arise in our 
 minds. I have the pleasure of introducing as the first speaker 
 Dr. Edward M. Hartwell of Johns Hopkins University, who will 
 speak on the Nature of Physical Training and the Best Means 
 of securing its Ends. 
 
THE NATURE OF PHYSICAL TRAINING, AND THE 
 BEST MEANS OF SECURING ITS ENDS. 
 
 BY EDWARD MUSSEY HARTWELL, PH.D., M.D., 
 
 Associate in Physical Training and Director of the Gymnasium, in the 
 Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore. 
 
 In ordinary speech it is convenient to speak of moral, mental, 
 and physical training as if they had little or nothing in common ; 
 though, strictly speaking, the principles which underlie each are 
 practically the same. My main contention in regard to the 
 nature of physical training is, that bodily exercise constitutes so 
 considerable and necessary an element in all human training 
 that physical training is entitled to be recognized and provided 
 for as an integral and indispensable factor in the education of 
 all children and youth. 
 
 The aim of any and of all human training is to educe faculty, 
 to develop power. As the means of developing power, certain 
 actions are selected, taught, and practised as exercises ; and 
 power when developed takes the form of some action or exer- 
 cise due to muscular contractions. Viewed thus, muscular exer- 
 cise is at once a means and an end of mental, and moral, as well 
 as of physical training ; since without bodily actions we have no 
 means of giving expression to mental power, artistic feeling, or 
 spiritual insight. Without muscular tissue we cannot live or 
 move. 
 
 It behooves us then, at the outset, if we wish to discuss intel- 
 ligently the means of securing the ends of physical training, to 
 consider somewhat closely the nature and proper effects of mus- 
 cular exercise. We need consider here only such muscular tissue 
 as is found in the voluntary muscles, which constitute nearly one- 
 half of the human body by weight. Contractility, the distinc- 
 tive endowment of muscular tissue, has its seat in the proto- 
 plasmic contents of the muscle cells. The amount of motion 
 
which is transmitted by a contracting muscle to the bones of a 
 joint — or whatever parts of the body the muscle is set apart 
 to set in motion — depends upon the number and arrangement 
 of its component cells. These muscle cells are sausage-shaped 
 bodies, varying from ^^ to -j^ of an inch in diameter, and are 
 seldom more than i^ inches long. The cell protoplasm is con- 
 tained in a tubular sheath of tough, elastic, connective tissue, 
 and is closed at both ends. Sarcolemma is the technical name 
 given to this sheath. The sarcolemma has a single opening, 
 through which the essential central strand — the so-called axis 
 cylinder of a nerve fibre — finds its way into the muscle fibre 
 or cell. The terminal portion of the nerve fibre spreads out 
 under the sarcolemma, forming a flat protuberance known as 
 the motor end-plate, and then ramifies in fine fibrils throughout 
 the contractile cell-substance. At its hither, or central end, 
 the axial fibre of the nerve is continuous with the irritable gray 
 matter of a nerve cell. We have, then, the contractile substance 
 of the muscle cell connected with the irritable stimulus-gen- 
 erating and transmitting substance of the central nerve cell, 
 the connecting link being the axis cylinder of the muscle or 
 motor nerve, which cylinder is simply a portion of the nerve 
 cell's irritable contents long drawn out, in the form of a strand 
 (which is protected and insulated by appropriate sheaths which 
 we need not here describe) until it reaches the muscle fibre, in 
 which it takes the form of the end-plate and its ultimate fibrils. 
 What is true of a single muscle fibre is true of all the fibres of 
 a given muscle ; and what is true of one voluntary muscle is 
 true of the entire five hundred. Voluntary muscles have sen- 
 sory as well as motor nerve fibres. They are channels for the 
 impulses which give rise to muscufar sensibility, and are con- 
 nected with centrally situated nerve cells which minister to our 
 muscular sense, — the sense, that is, which keeps us informed 
 concerning the condition of the muscles, and the extent to 
 which they are contracted. 
 
 Under normal conditions the muscle cell shortehs only when 
 it is stimulated through the discharge of some portion of the 
 energy of a motor nerve cell into it. Muscular contractions 
 are therefore dependent upon the action of the nerve cells in 
 
which they are initiated and controlled. Without dwelling upon 
 the details of structure presented by muscles and their nervous 
 connections, it is sufficient to recall to mind that a single muscle 
 is a vast aggregation of contractile cells, arranged in myriads of 
 linear series called fibres, which in turn are gathered into pack- 
 ets, technically termed fasciculi ; that muscle arteries and veins 
 usually lie alongside of each other amongst the fasciculi, while 
 their capillaries form a fine mesh-work lying between and upon 
 the fibres and cells, without penetrating the sarcolemma of any 
 cell ; that the walls of the capillaries are permeable to lymph, as 
 the fluid portion of the blood is called, so that muscle fibres are 
 enabled to derive their food-supply from the lymph in which they 
 are bathed ; that fibres and fasciculi, together with their accom- 
 panying nerve fibres and nutrient blood-vessels, are supported 
 and bound together by elastic connective tissue ; and that the 
 muscle so made up has its own special sheath and is bound by 
 inelastic tendons to the parts which are approximated through 
 its action. 
 
 The effects of exercise upon a muscle and its nervous connec- 
 tions now demand our attention. Immediately a muscle begins 
 working, under whatever stimulus, the blood stream passing 
 through it becomes changed. The arterial twigs dilate; more 
 blood is poured into the capillary vessels which surround its 
 fibres ; and more blood flows away from it, through its veins, 
 towards the heart. If the supply of arterial blood to a muscle is 
 cut off or diminished, its irritability is lowered ; i.e., a stronger 
 stimulus is required to make it contract. The same result fol- 
 lows also, if it is fed with blood deprived of oxygen, or otherwise 
 poisoned ; or if the muscle vein is tied and the waste products, 
 normally drained off through the veins, are retained in the 
 muscle. The irritability of a muscle is also lowered by pro- 
 longed or excessive stimulation, even when its in-going and out- 
 going blood streams are unobstructed. These, then, are the 
 main conditions for the health of a working muscle : a full 
 supply of proper food and of oxygen, unimpeded and sufficient 
 drainage, and rest at due intervals. Given these three condi- 
 tions in the body, and exercise of a working muscle causes it to 
 increase in size and weight, through an increase of the size and 
 
number of its fibres. Furthermore, a working muscle differs 
 from a resting muscle in that it is appreciably hotter ; by the 
 presence of a low murmur, called the muscle sound ; and on 
 account of certain electrical peculiarities which it presents. Now 
 a healthy muscle habituated to exercise, a trained muscle, that 
 is, can do more work, and do it better, than an unexercised 
 muscle, and for two reasons. Exercise makes the muscle larger, 
 harder, and stronger, improving it simply as a tool in all its 
 structure ; and secondly, the muscle responds more quickly and 
 fully to the stimuli ,by which it is stirred up to work. In other 
 words, the muscle becomes more responsive and obedient to its 
 stimulators, the nerve centres, through its better acquaintance 
 with them. Growth, or increase in the size and number of its 
 structural elements, and development, or increased facility in 
 its functional activity, are the main effects of exercise in the 
 case of a single muscle. The same is true of the muscular 
 system as a whole. Exercise enlarges and strengthens it on 
 the one hand, and renders it more readily discriminative and 
 responsive as regards stimuli, on the other. 
 
 Muscular activity, too, is one of the chief agents in promoting 
 wholesome tissue changes in all of the bodily organs, and deter- 
 mining the normal growth and development of the organism as 
 a whole. The normal growth and balanced working of the 
 organs concerned in the digestion and assimilation of the food ; 
 the circulation and oxygenation of the blood ; and the secretion 
 and excretion of waste or noxious products of tissue changes, are 
 all largely promoted by well-regulated muscular exercise. The 
 influence of exercise in these respects, and in securing the full 
 and symmetrical growth of the bones and muscles is somewhat 
 generally, though vaguely appreciated, and constitutes the bur- 
 den of eulogy and exhortation of most of the articles and ad- 
 dresses of those who advocate physical training. 
 
 The nervous element involved in muscular exercise is oftener 
 overlooked or neglected than recognized and set forth. Maclaren, 
 whose book on " Training in Theory and Practice " is the best 
 of its class in English, defines exercise as " muscular movement " 
 simply, and declares its object to be the "destruction and reno- 
 vation of tissue." This is the ordinary view, from which you 
 
will find but little deviation. " We seek in vain in most physio- 
 logical text-books," says Du Bois Raymond, Professor of Physi- 
 ology in the University of Berlin, "for instruction respecting 
 exercise. If it is given, only the so-called bodily exercises are 
 generally considered, and they are represented as merely exer- 
 cises of the muscular system. Therefore it is not strange that 
 laymen in medicine, teachers of gymnastics, and school teachers 
 believe that. Yet it is easy to show the error of this view, and 
 demonstrate that such bodily exercises as gymnastics, fencing, 
 swimming, riding, dancing, and skating, are much more exercises 
 of the central nervous system, of the brain and spinal marrow. 
 It is true that their movements involve a certain degree of mus- 
 cular power, but we can conceive of a man with muscles like 
 those of the Farnesian Hercules, who would yet be incompetent 
 to stand or walk, to say nothing of his executing more com- 
 plicated movements." 
 
 The arm of the blacksmith has been brought into play so 
 often, by writers and talkers upon exercise, that every school 
 boy credits the statement that muscles grow larger, harder, and 
 stronger when duly exercised, and become weak, flabby, and 
 wasted if they are suffered or forced to remain inactive. It is 
 less obvious, though it can hardly be doubted, that use and dis- 
 use work similar effects in the case of nerve cells and fibres, 
 both sensory and motor. There is abundant evidence, though 
 much of it is of the negative sort, to show that the exercise of 
 the muscles not only reacts upon the nerves and centres with 
 which they are connected, in such wise as to enhance the power 
 and ease with which they originate and transmit stimuli, but that 
 it also leads to an increase in the size, number, and elaboration 
 of their parts. But this evidence is chiefly to be sought in the 
 writings of those who have made the normal and diseased con- 
 ditions of the nervous system their special field of study ; since 
 text-book makers and the writers of popular articles seldom 
 make use of the material which has been accumulated by pro- 
 fessional physiologists, and those who devote themselves to the 
 study and care of the idiotic, the paralyzed, and the insane. 
 
 The fact should never be lost sight of that a single muscle is 
 not a simple organ, but is made up of two clearly distinguish- 
 
lO 
 
 able, though conjoined, mechanisms : a contractile, executive 
 mechanism, the muscle proper, and a stimulating, regulative 
 mechanism consisting of nerve fibres and gray-matter nerve 
 cells. Each mechanism has its blood-vessels for supplying food 
 and drainage ; and the amount of blood supplied to each is pro- 
 portionate to its functional activity. If in life the two mechan- 
 isms become dissociated, or if either suffer from mal-nutrition, 
 unregulated exercise, or structural depravity, the dual organ is 
 thrown out of gear, and its working becomes disordered or 
 abohshed in much the same way as in a human being, when it 
 is attempted to split him into a mental part and a bodily part, 
 and to train the dissevered fractions to functionate as entities. 
 Muscular action is then a resultant effect due to the balanced 
 working of the conjoined mechanisms alluded to. The nervous 
 mechanism is concerned in a somewhat higher kind of work 
 than that of its merely muscular colleague, and may be said to 
 represent the movements of which the latter is the seat and 
 instrument. Between the nervous arrangement which repre- 
 sents the twitch of a single muscle inserted into the base of a 
 hair follicle, and that which represents and governs the varied 
 and rapid muscular adjustments which characterize the hand 
 and fingers of a cunning craftsman or artist, there exists every 
 grade of complication. 
 
 If we ^compare an adult man and one of the highest of the 
 lower animals, in respect of the movements of which they are 
 capable, we find that they possess many in common, such as 
 those of locomotion, respiration, and the like, but that man is 
 distinguished from the brute by certain movements such as those 
 involved in maintaining the erect posture, and in the action of 
 the hands and vocal organs ; and that, corresponding to these 
 two classes of movements, there are two classes of nervous 
 mechanisms by means of which they are represented. These 
 mechanisms have been well termed fundamental and accessory 
 respectively. 
 
 Similarly it is demonstrable that while the human infant and 
 adult possess many nervous mechanisms identically alike in 
 structure and function, the adult is characterized by certain 
 other mechanisms whose structural peculiarities, connections,. 
 
II 
 
 and powers have been evolved and superadded as the result of 
 growth and training. The law of evolution, as applied to the 
 nervous system, is now very generally recognized by neurolo- 
 gists. In Ross's " Diseases of the Nervous System," for in- 
 stance, this law, which was originally enunciated by Herbert 
 Spencer, is described as "a progressive integration, both of 
 structure and function, during which there is a passage from 
 the uniform to the multiform, the simple to the complex ; from 
 the general to the special. The nervous system of man is at 
 first similar to that possessed by all animals which possess a 
 nervous system, or, at any rate, all those which are sufficiently 
 elevated to possess a spinal cord ; but as development proceeds, 
 the nervous system of man becomes differentiated from that of 
 an ever-increasing number of the lower animals, while still main- 
 taining a general likeness to the nervous system of the higher 
 animals up to the time of birth. This, then, constitutes the 
 fundamental portion of the nervous system of man ; but after 
 birth the accessory portion which, up till this time only appears 
 in a rudimentary condition, now undergoes progressive develop- 
 ment. It will then be seen that the fundamental portion is first 
 developed, and that the superaddition of the accessory portion 
 greatly increases the multiformity, the complexity, and the 
 speciality^ of the human nervous system, and that it is the 
 latest product of its evolution." 
 
 There are certain areas in the gray matter of the fore-brain 
 of man whence proceed, it is now generally held, stimuli to 
 the most important groups of voluntary muscles. In one of 
 these regions are the centres which control the different groups 
 of muscles of the upper extremity ; and for the sake of simplicity 
 we may consider that the centres of the muscles which move 
 the shoulder, elbow, wrist, and fingers lie near to and are con- 
 nected with one another. The movements of the shoulder and 
 elbow, as well as those of the trunk, are fundamental and well 
 organized in the infant, as compared with those of the wrist 
 and fingers, which are accessory, and later acquired. In order 
 that the movementsof the di fferent segments of the fore-limb 
 should be properly co-ordinated as to force, direction, and degree, 
 
 1 The word is so spelt in Ross. 
 
12 
 
 their motor centres must habitually discharge their stimuli in 
 due sequence and degree. This comes only through practice. 
 Experiments on young puppies show that their motor areas are 
 not sufficiently developed, until they are ten days old, for them 
 to make voluntary movements with their limbs. Ferrier declares 
 that "the degree of development and control which a puppy 
 reaches in ten days or a fortnight is not attained by the human 
 infant under a year or more." The infant, through the growth 
 and development of the appropriate accessory centres, first gains 
 control over its foot and leg, then over its arm and hand, and, 
 later, over tongue and lips. It is evident that the arms of a 
 blacksmith, and those of a five-year-old boy, and of an infant 
 differ greatly as regards size,' strength, and skill ; but the 
 essential differences which exist between them reside in the 
 nervous mechanisms which represent the movements of which 
 their respective muscles are capable, rather than in the muscles 
 themselves. Not only are the motor nerves of the blacksmith 
 the largest, but the cells in his motor areas are also more nu- 
 merous, larger, more branched, and more widely connected with 
 other cells. Exercise plays, if not the predominant, at least a 
 very considerable, part in producing this result ; and the still 
 more important result, viz., that the motor centres of the black- 
 smith discharge their stimuli more directly, steadily, accurately, 
 and tirelessly into their appropriate muscles than do those of his 
 apprentice. It is hardly necessary to show, though it could easily 
 be done, did time permit, that the organs of special sense and the 
 sensory centres are similarly affected and improved by exercise. 
 The obvious effects of exercise are at once seen, if one com- 
 pares the right and left arms of the average blacksmith with 
 one another. It is well known that the centres which control 
 the right hand are situated in the cortex or outer layer of 
 gray matter of certain portions of the left fore-brain ; and that 
 those which control the left hand are in the right fore-brain. 
 Flechsig, who has made exhaustive studies as to the course 
 and number of the motor fibres which connect the muscles of 
 the two extremities with their respective main centres, concludes 
 that the number of fibres going to the right hand is, to the 
 number of fibres going to the left hand, as three to two. 
 
13 
 
 The mere disuse of a muscle causes it to diminish in size. 
 This wasting is technically called atrophy. The most extreme 
 forms of muscular atrophy and paralysis are due to diseased 
 conditions which originate in nerve centres or nerve fibres^ 
 though to the uninstructed eye the muscles would appear to be 
 the only organs affected. Lesions in the central nerve system 
 may cause the bones to atrophy, as well as the muscles. The 
 development of a group of muscles, of an entire limb, or even 
 of one side of the body, may be arrested by reason of certain 
 forms of central nervous disease which occur in infancy and child- 
 hood. Observations made upon the brains of persons born with 
 an arm or hand lacking, taken in connection with those made 
 upon the brains of persons who had had an arm or hand ampu- 
 tated, go to prove that the suppression or considerable diminu- 
 tion of certain movements brings about a condition of atrophy, 
 or arrested development, as the case may be, in those centres 
 which would normally represent such movements. One may 
 attain to the stature and semblance of manhood, and yet, by 
 reason of the arrested development of certain of his motor 
 centres, be nothing better than an infant, or a mere animal, as 
 regards his powers of action : while epilepsy, paralysis, and 
 atrophy may reduce a man, stage by stage, to the condition of 
 an untrained child, or of a helpless idiot, or even to that of a 
 living corpse. 
 
 The functional improvement of the nervous mechanism which 
 represents any movement, whether it be simple or complicated, 
 reflex, automatic, or voluntary, is the most important effect of 
 muscular exercise ; or, in other words, muscular training which 
 fails to develop brain power, falls short of its aim. It is not 
 altogether clear just how it comes about that, through trial and 
 repetition, an action which is at first a difficult or impossible 
 feat becomes a pleasurable accomplishment, then a routine per- 
 formance, and at last an almost instinctive act. But there is a 
 settled conviction among those who know most about healthy 
 and diseased nerves, that the frequent or habitual passage of 
 stimuli from a given group of cells through definite fibres to 
 the muscles concerned in a given movemeftt, leads to some 
 kind of a rearrangement of the molecules composing the irritable 
 
14 
 
 protoplasm of fibres and cells, so that less and less resistance is 
 offered to the passage of subsequent impulses from the same 
 source. Somehow or other the memory of past actions and the 
 stimuli which evoked them becomes imbedded or organized in 
 the motor centres. His once too vividly impressed sensory 
 centres cause the burnt child to dread flame ; and the difficulty 
 of interesting an old dog in new tricks, except so far as he 
 delights to criticise and decry them, arises from the preoccupa- 
 tion of his centres by old impressions, rather than from their 
 increasing insusceptibility to fresh ones. 
 
 From careful studies made as to the character of the dreams 
 of the blind, it appears that the memory of visual objects is not 
 organized until between the fifth and seventh year of life. Per- 
 sons born bUnd do not dream of objects in the outer world; and 
 those who become blind before attaining their fifth year do 
 not dream of objects seen by them before their loss of sight. 
 They are blind-minded as well as blind-eyed as regards such 
 objects. There are authentic cases recorded of persons whose 
 memory of objects — seen before the access of their blindness — 
 persisted for twenty, thirty, and even fifty years ; then the record 
 of their visual impressions became effaced, and they ceased to 
 dream of objects in the outer world. The case of a man born 
 without either hands or feet is in point here. Although he had 
 eyesight he did not dream of executing hand or foot move- 
 ments ; yet he had sufficient use of his stumps to write what 
 is termed "a good hand." There was no record of hand or foot 
 movements in the centres which ordinarily control such move- 
 ments ; so that he was unable to dream of movements which 
 he had never executed. On the other hand, the instances are 
 very numerous in which men, who, having lost a limb by ampu- 
 tation, could feel their fingers or toes while awake, and dream 
 in sleep, or when awake, of making complicated movements 
 with their lost members. " Persons who have had an arm am- 
 putated," says Dr. Weir Mitchell, "are frequently able to will 
 a movement of the hand, and apparently to execute it to a 
 greater or less extent. A small number have entire and pain- 
 less freedom as regards all parts of the hand." They must be 
 blind-minded, indeed, who can deny in the face of such facts 
 
IS 
 
 that muscular exercise plays a part in the development of brain 
 power. 
 
 " The muscles," says Dr. Crichton-Browne, an eminent Eng- 
 lish writer on insanity and kindred diseases, " not only, by the 
 locomotion which they render possible, widen the field from which 
 our sense impressions are gathered, but also by the experiences 
 which their own activities involve, expand our mental resources 
 a thousand fold. An analysis of our ideas at once reveals to us 
 that we have few that are of purely sensory origin ; our ideas 
 of form are not mere revived optical impressions, which are 
 properly limited to color, but ocular impressions combined with 
 ideal ocular movements. Our idea of a circle is a combination 
 of an ideal colored outline with an ideal circular sweep of the 
 eyeballs, or it may be of the tactile impressions coinciding with 
 an ideal circumduction of the arm or hand, or perhaps both 
 these factors combined. And so it is with our ideas of weight, 
 distance, and resistance, which all involve sensory and motor 
 factors ; and to revive in memory any such ideas is to revive 
 both the sensory and motor elements of their composition, and 
 to repeat definitely in certain nerve centres the processes which 
 correspond with certain motor acts." 
 
 Now the centres of motor ideation require to be exercised in 
 order that they may be properly developed, and may contribute 
 usefully to mental processes ; and hence muscular training is 
 likely to assume a more important and precise place in our edu- 
 cational systems of the future than it has done hitherto. The 
 defective exercise of any group of muscles during the growth 
 period of its own particular centre will result not only in the 
 dwarfing of that centre, but a corresponding hiatus or a general 
 weakness must exist in the whole mental fabric. 
 
 From this we might deduce that swaddling bands so applied 
 at birth as to restrain all muscular movements, and kept on 
 during infancy and childhood, would result in idiocy — a specu- 
 lation to which the wretched muscular development of most 
 idiots and imbeciles, and the fact that their mental training 
 is most successfully begun and carried on through muscular 
 lessons, give some countenance. We should also have to infer, 
 that in order to hold up a sound and vigorous brain, we must 
 
i6 
 
 insure free exercise to the different groups of muscles in the 
 order of the development of their centres, and must in no 
 degree interfere with the natural sequence of their evolution. 
 That being so, we must necessarily ascertain what that natural 
 sequence is which is so important a guide to education ; for, in 
 our present ignorance of it, we may unwittingly be doing much 
 mischief. 
 
 Suppose that we are encroaching on the time at which hand 
 centres ought to receive their most valuable education, — their 
 nascent period, — and are devoting that time to the cultivation 
 of the tongue and lip centres, then we should be impairing the 
 full development of the brain ; for the hand-controlling centre, 
 if not fully exercised at its nascent period, can never afterwards 
 attain to the highest cunning. But it seems that not only 
 tongue, but hand, and foot, and eye, and arm, and every muscle 
 of the body, must be trained in due season, if education is to do 
 what we expect of it, and result, not in headaches, and imbe- 
 cilities, and nervousness, and insanity, but in well-balanced 
 growth of body and mind. 
 
 It seems to me evident that muscular exercise deserves more 
 attention than educators in this country have ever been willing 
 to give it, and that when properly chosen, regulated, and guided, 
 it may make a boy into a better man, in many respects, than his 
 father was, and enable him to transmit to his progeny a veri- 
 table aptitude for better thoughts and actions. Herein lies the 
 power of the race for self-improvement, and the evolution of a 
 higher type of man upon the earth. 
 
 " I do not think," says Bagehot, in his " Physics and Politics," 
 " that any who do not acquire this notion of a transmitted 
 nerve-element will ever understand the connective tissue of 
 civilization. We have here the continuous force which binds 
 age to age, which enables each to begin with some improve- 
 ment on the last, if the last did itself improve, which makes 
 each civilization, not a set of detached dots, but a line of color, 
 surely enhancing shade by shade. There is by this doctrine a phys- 
 ical cause of improvement from generation to generation, and no 
 imagination which has apprehended it can forget it ; but unless 
 you appreciate that cause in its subtle materialism ; unless you 
 
17 
 
 see it, as it were, playing upon the nerves of men, and age after 
 age making nicer music from finer chords, you cannot compre- 
 hend the principle of inheritance, either in its mystery or its 
 power." 
 
 We have seen that the effects of exercise upon a single muscle 
 are chiefly two. On the one hand, there results a general con- 
 dition which may be termed the heightened health of the neuro- 
 muscular machine, which state of health involves the attain- 
 ment and maintenance of a normal degree of size, strength, and 
 working power in its structural parts ; and on the other hand, a 
 more complex and special effect, viz. the acquisition or organ- 
 ization by its neural parts, of proper habits as regards the orig- 
 ination, transmission, and regulation of stimuli. The ends of 
 exercise may then be characterized as the promotion of health 
 and the acquisition of correct habits of action. The first is a 
 hygienic end, while the second is a distinctly educational end. 
 It matters not whether we consider a single muscle, which 
 admits of only a single limited motion, or a group of muscles, 
 or the communal structure we call the human body, or a class 
 of school children, or a regiment of soldiers ; the ends of exer- 
 cise in each case are the same and can only be attained by a 
 combination of hygienic and educational measures. 
 
 The main field of education is, then, the nervous system, and 
 the especial province of physical training is found in its accessory 
 portions. The principles of all forms of physical training, how- 
 ever various and divergent their special ends may be, are based 
 upon the power of the nervous system to receive impressions 
 and register them or their effects ; in other words, upon its 
 ability to memorize the part it has played in acquired move- 
 ments, and on occasions to recall and revive such movements. 
 
 It is coming to be clearly recognized that the function of our 
 public and preparatory schools and colleges is not to fit their 
 scholars to engage as specialists in either intellectual, commer- 
 cial, or industrial pursuits. The same rule holds good as to the 
 kind, or, rather, degree of physical training which should be 
 aimed at in our schools and colleges. It is not their business 
 to train up ball-players, carpenters, clerks, or professionals of 
 any kind. General bodily training is the kind demanded ; but 
 
i8 
 
 training so general that it is vaguely, or spasmodically, or half- 
 heartedly carried out, or worse still, that is left to run itself in 
 accordance with the whim or frenzy of the persons to be trained, 
 will surely and deservedly fall short of success. Intelligence, 
 system, organization, funds, and patience are just as impera- 
 tively required in physical training as in the training of engineers, 
 musicians, or philologians. 
 
 The law of the evolution of the nervous system seems to me 
 to furnish a sufficient criterion by which to estimate the worth or 
 success of any scheme or system of physical training. Any system 
 that does not provide first of all and continuously for the train- 
 ing and exercise of the central or fundamental groups of muscles 
 will fail utterly in securing either the hygienic or the educational 
 end of exercise ; and any system which substitutes training of 
 the accessory neuro-muscular mechanisms for that of the funda- 
 mental ones, or which exacts undue work of undeveloped acces- 
 sory centres, or attempts their training out of the proper order of 
 their ripening, is bound to contribute more towards the promo- 
 tion of brain forcing than towards its prevention. 
 
 The most fundamental mechanisms of the trunk are those 
 which are concerned in the movements of respiration and of 
 circulation. They are quite fully organized at birth : but the 
 need for their exercise ceases only with the life of the organism. 
 The centres which represent the muscles by means of which 
 the trunk is kept erect and balanced upon the pelvis are acces- 
 sory, if compared with those mentioned above, but are funda- 
 mental as compared with those which represent the muscles of 
 locomotion. The muscles of the trunk are called into fuller and 
 more frequent play as soon as the child ceases to go on all-fours, 
 and it must then learn, after a fashion, which may exigently 
 demand correction or further training later on, to co-ordinate 
 the movements of its limbs with those of its trunk. The child 
 learns to flex its thigh upon the body, the leg upon the thigh, 
 and to elevate the heel from the ground considerably earlier 
 than it can raise its toes, so that the foot shall swing clear of 
 the ground and it be enabled to begin another step. What 
 folly it would be to try to teach a toddling infant to run, or 
 j ump, or dance ! 
 
19 
 
 Similarly the training of the hand and fingers should not 
 only be preceded, but accompanied by the exercise of the mus- 
 cles of the forearm, arm, shoulder, and trunk. You shall not 
 gather ripe manual cunning from a limb whose trunk attach- 
 ments are undersized, untrained, or deformed. This fact points 
 to the danger of exacting genuine manual training from young 
 pupils, especially if it be divorced from its proper adjuvant and 
 corrective general gymnastics. It is simply impossible to make 
 any technical drill, such as wood-turning, penmanship, singing, 
 piano exercises, or even the manual of arms, meet the proper 
 ends of bodily education either for children, adolescents, or 
 adults. Technical training, appealing as it does to the most 
 accessory mechanisms, should be grounded on general hygienic 
 and educational training ; should not be pushed at too early a 
 stage; and should be left, where it belongs, in the hands of 
 special trainers. 
 
 Pastimes, out-of-door sports, and systematic gymnastics are 
 the forms of exercise which yield the best results in the physi- 
 cal training of school children and college students. The plays 
 of the kindergarten, the athletic sports to which British and 
 American youth are so devoted, and the systematic gymnastics 
 of the Swedes and Germans have all developed from one germ, 
 from healthful play, that is ; the vital energy of this germ is 
 found in the universal and ineradicable impulse of all healthy 
 children to play. The children of every generation, no matter 
 how prim, or sour, or ascetic their parents may be, are always 
 playing animals. That it is so is a most fortunate thing for the 
 race : were it not so, the victims of war, pestilence, and educa- 
 tion, and of that voracious monster that men call business, would 
 be vastly more numerous than they are. 
 
 In the athletic sports of young men we see the highest and 
 fullest expression of the play instinct. The essential difference 
 between athletics and gymnastics is one of aim. The aim of 
 athletics, unless of the illegitimate professional sort, is pleasur- 
 able activity for the sake of recreation ; that of gymnastics is 
 discipline or training for pleasure, health, and skill. We have 
 but to compare the aims, methods, and results of each, and to 
 call to mind the characteristics of the nations which have 
 
20 
 
 affected athletics on the one hand an(i gymnastics on the other, 
 to perceive that gymnastics are more highly developed, and 
 present more features of educational value. Gymnastics, as 
 compared with athletics, are more comprehensive in their aims, 
 more formal, elaborate, and systematic in their methods, and are 
 productive of more solid and considerable results. 
 
 I have no disposition to disparage athletic sports. I would 
 that they were more general and better regulated than they are 
 in our country. I believe that they are valuable as a means of 
 recreation ; that they conduce to bodily growth and improve- 
 ment ; and that their moral effects are of value, since they call 
 for self-subordination, public spirit, and co-operative effort, and 
 serve to reveal the dominant characteristics and tendencies, as 
 regards the temper, disposition, and force of will of those who 
 engage in them. But they bear so indelibly the marks of their 
 childish origin, they are so crude and unspecialized as to their 
 methods, as to render them inadequate for the purposes of a 
 thorough-going and broad system of bodily education. It is 
 well to promote them, and it is becoming increasingly necessary 
 to regulate them ; but it is unwise and short-sighted to consider 
 them as constituting anything more than a single stage in the 
 best bodily training. 
 
 Gymnastics have been most popular and genera^ among the 
 most highly trained nations, such as the Greeks of old and the 
 Germans of to-day. The most athletic, and, at the same time, 
 one of the most ill-trained of modern nations, is the British. I 
 mean simply this, that an Englishman believes, and acts upon 
 the belief, that you come to do a thing right by doing it, and 
 not by first learning to do it right and then doing it ; whereas, 
 the Germans leave little or nothing to the rule of thumb, not 
 even in bodily education. German gymnastics embrace three 
 well-marked fields or departments ; viz., popular gymnastics, 
 school gymnastics, and military gymnastics. The organization 
 of the last two departments is maintained and controlled by 
 the government for strictly educational purposes ; while the 
 Turnvereine, as the popular gymnastic societies are called, are 
 voluntary associations of a social and semi-educational but wholly 
 popular and patriotic character. The fondness of the German 
 
21 
 
 people for gymnastics is as marked a national trait as is the 
 liking of the British for athletic sports. The German system 
 of gymnastics has been most highly developed in Prussia, where 
 not far from a fifth of the population is undergoing systematic, 
 physical training at the present time, under the combined 
 agencies of the schools, the army, and the Turnvereine. In 
 Switzerland and in Norway and Sweden, you will find school 
 and military gymnastics, especially in Sweden, quite as fully de- 
 veloped as in Germany, and popular gymnastics not so much so. 
 One of the main defects of our school training hitherto is 
 found in the fact that lessons and tasks are set which involve 
 the activity of the accessory parts of the nervous system, before 
 its fundamental portions have been properly built up and trained. 
 The result of this inverted and unnatural order of teaching is 
 seen in myriad forms of nervous disease which find expression in 
 St. Vitus' dance, grimaces, spasms, convulsions, and other forms 
 of disordered muscular action, as well as in the protean forms 
 of headache, nervous exhaustion, and mental derangement, so 
 common nowadays amongst sedentary people and brain-workers. 
 For the purpose of forestalling such results, I would encourage 
 games for boys and girls during their school life ; and would require 
 of them compulsory attendance upon instruction in gymnastics, 
 drawing and modelling, and in the elements of certain selected 
 handicrafts for general educational purposes. Physical training 
 has long been recognized as an indispensable means for awak- 
 ening and developing mental faculty in idiots ; and has been 
 employed with astonishing success, for several years, in the 
 "training of criminal dullards in the State Reformatory at 
 Elmira, New York. Did time permit, it would be interest- 
 ing to consider the methods and results of teaching gymnastics 
 to idiots and criminals. I must content myself with referring 
 you to the writings of the late Dr. Edward Seguin, of New 
 York, the reports of the managers of the Elmira Reformatory, 
 and the brochures of Dr. H. D. Wey. 
 
 My plea is, that inasmuch as physical training enters of 
 necessity into the training of every school child, every appren- 
 tice, every recruit, those who undertake to train scholars or 
 craftsmen, artists or authors, should see to it that mental train- 
 
22 
 
 ing should not be pursued to the neglect or detriment of bodily- 
 training; that each kind of training should be given its proper 
 place in the compulsory curriculum of our public schools ; and 
 that bodily training should be given in appropriately fitted 
 places, by specially trained and well-qualified teachers, in a 
 systematic, well-ordered, and rational way. 
 
 It is not within the scope of this paper to set forth the les- 
 sons to be learned from the best European systems of physical 
 training, or to show how fragmentary and defective our so-called 
 American systems have been and are ; but I may remark, in 
 passing, that a careful study of the German and Swedish systems 
 of school gymnastics will be found an indispensable preliminary 
 step for those who propose to organize a natural, rational, safe 
 and effective system of American physical education. 
 
 The price of wisdom may be beyond that of rubies ; but the 
 price of health, which Plato conceived to be the natural order 
 and governance of one another, in the parts of the body, its 
 price is above that of either gems or wisdom. 
 
 A paper on "The German System," by Heinrich Metzner, 
 of the New York German Turnverein, was read, in his absence, 
 by Mr. Carl Eberhard, Superintendent of the Boston Athletic 
 Club Gymnasium. 
 
23 
 
 THE GERMAN SYSTEM OF GYMNASTICS. 
 
 BY H. METZNER, 
 Principal of the School of the New York Turnverein. 
 
 The desire to improve or to attain a higher standard in cul- 
 ture and civilization, natural to almost every human being, is 
 the cause of all education, its aim is the perfection of mankind, 
 and its means are the gradual development of all faculties, mental 
 and physical, by instruction, example, and exercise. 
 
 Education should therefore strive to avoid a partial or one- 
 sided development by preferring either body or mind at the 
 expense of the other, or to strain any one faculty to great pro- 
 ficiency and thus destroy and disturb the harmonious activity 
 and co-operation of both mind and body. 
 
 This maxim, however old and often demonstrated, has not yet 
 gained that public recognition which is necessary to secure its 
 practical application in the schools of this country. 
 
 As gymnastic exercises, we denote all bodily exercises and 
 movements produced by the controllable muscles with conscious- 
 ness and intention, for the purpose of developing all bodily facul- 
 ties in an agreeable manner, and at the same time of bringing 
 out all those qualities which are the natural result of health and 
 strength ; namely, courage, self-reliance, and joyfulness. 
 
 A gymnastic system we may call the scientific combination 
 of the gymnastic exercises, based on physiological laws, their 
 classification, and the instruction of their practical application. 
 
 A method is the application suiting the different wants as to 
 sex, age, bodily condition, and health. 
 
24 
 
 The system is based upon the knowledge of the human body, 
 its divers organs, their relative functions, and of the laws of 
 anatomy and physiology. The method is the result of practical 
 experience. 
 
 The German system of gymnastics ranks high among all the 
 different systems known. It is not an experience of late years, 
 like so many others which have been put forward with great 
 promises and pretensions by their inventors, in order to meet the 
 want of bodily training in our present school education, which, 
 however, have been laid aside again after a short trial on account 
 of their insufficiency. The German system has been diligently 
 built up during almost a century by men of science, especially 
 physicians, physiologists, and pedagogues of high reputation. 
 It is in practical use since that time, and is to-day in vogue in 
 many European countries, in a more or less modified form. In 
 the army, as military gymnastics ; in the education of the youth, 
 as school gymnastics ; in the halls of the German turners, as 
 popular gymnastics. 
 
 It is practised in classes by hundreds at the same time, as 
 well as by single individuals as home exercises. 
 
 The German system embraces all the different branches of 
 gymnastics : exercises with apparatus, light gymnastics or calis- 
 thenics, and also all those exercises known as out-door sports, 
 as running, leaping, jumping, throwing the stone and the use of 
 all hand-apparatus, as wands, dumb-bells, and clubs. 
 
 The German system has three marked features which no 
 other system can claim in so predominant a manner. 
 
 I. It aims at general physical culture, and not at the culture 
 of one special branch. Therefore it declines the development 
 of a certain organ or faculty at the expense of others. In re- 
 gard to this we may call attention to the fact that all who have 
 gone through a regular course of exercises in accord with this 
 system have been thoroughly developed, and rank as high in 
 proficiency as any person educated by another system. The 
 contests among the turners are thus arranged, that exercises in 
 all the different branches must be performed. This is also the 
 case when testing scholars in regard to their proficiency. The 
 numbers gained, added together, decide the grade of develop- 
 
25 
 
 ment. The strife for specialties is even not permitted, and a 
 partial or one-sided development is therefore unknown. Yet this 
 does not prevent individual skill and inclination from bringing 
 about a greater result in a certain branch ; this result, however, 
 is not gained by a loss or lack in any other branch. 
 
 II. It allows, or rather, induces the exercises in classes. 
 The classes are selected by a careful investigation as to 
 strength, ability, age, etc., and for that reason it suits as well 
 those who practise merely for physical development as those 
 who aim at a proficiency of a higher grade. The exercises in 
 classes are a source of endless pleasure, refreshment of mind, 
 and joyfulness not only to children, but even to adults. They 
 are furthermore an inducement for promotion and the ambitious 
 desire to keep step with other scholars. They act as a stimulant 
 for greater exertion. It is an undeniable truth that all those 
 who have continually practised in a German gymnasium, or in a 
 school in which the German system of gymnastics had been in- 
 troduced, acknowledge that the hours spent there count among 
 the happiest of their childhood or manhood. The variety and 
 great number of exercises of the German system and their 
 scientific arrangement allow new and indefinite combinations. 
 The teacher can always select a certain number of exercises 
 suitable for his class which are as agreeable as instructive 
 and interesting to every one of the classmates. Not only the 
 body, but also the mind is kept in a wholesome and refreshing 
 activity which will keep away all weariness and tediousness 
 which are so often found in other systems. The class exercises 
 of the German system allow also the instruction of a large num- 
 ber at the same time, providing sufficient room is at hand. 
 
 III. The instruction begins with the most simple and easy 
 movements and proceeds gradually to a higher degree. All fear 
 of danger or harm to the body is a priori excluded. The appa- 
 ratus used in school practice is not at all complicated or expen- 
 sive. A number of climbing-poles, ladders, and some light 
 apparatus for the high and long leap are sufficient. They 
 may even be omitted altogether if the necessary room for such 
 could not be provided for. In this case, however, we cannot 
 call the training a complete one, as the aim of training is not 
 
26 
 
 only the achievement of a development of muscles, limbs, and 
 organs, but also the achievement of courage and self-reliance. 
 It is a fact that many a man or woman could have avoided dan- 
 ger or saved their lives had they been courageous or resolute 
 enough to risk a leap or to take hold of a ladder in a moment 
 of need. 
 
 The great variety of useful exercises that may be made with 
 the above-named apparatus, together with the utilization of the 
 almost endless variety of simple and complicated free exercises, 
 with or without the common hand-apparatus, as wands, dumb- 
 bells, clubs, etc., which may be executed in the schoolroom, 
 bring about as satisfactory results as any other system. In 
 addition to this we may proudly assert that its scientific and 
 educational value has met with approval wherever it was allowed 
 a fair trial. And we also may assert that no other system has 
 so large a variety of exercises and combinations as this. And 
 for that reason alone it is more qualified for introduction wher- 
 ever gymnastic exercises are wanted, especially in the schools. 
 
 The German system is not in vogue only in the halls of the 
 turners and in their schools. It has already gained its ground 
 in some of the colleges and athletic clubs, in private and in 
 public schools, where teachers educated in the seminary of the 
 North-American Turnei'bund act as instructors. 
 
 The German system does not claim to have any special exer- 
 cise of its own, or to be the sole proprietor of any, that no other 
 system may also produce ; no. But it may properly claim that 
 it has correctly and practically arranged the gymnastic material 
 for the use of any one who seeks health, strength, or refresh- 
 ment of mind and body. 
 
 In the German gymnasia and schools the lessons begin regu- 
 larly with a series of free and order exercises. Every scholar 
 has to participate in them. The rhythmical order in which they 
 are produced calls forth absolute attention, and allows no back- 
 wardness. They impress on each a feeling of responsibility 
 toward his associates. The mistakes or errors, or an insufficient 
 execution of any one, injures the good impression of the whole, 
 and thus tends to greater carefulness and prevents negligence 
 on the part of the scholar. 
 
27 
 
 Class exercises on apparatus follow the free exercises. A 
 change of apparatus takes place, and then the lesson ends with 
 some exercises left to individual inclination. The latter, how- 
 ever, are limited to a short time according to the ability of the 
 scholars, or may be prohibited altogether to beginners. Thus 
 under the eye and control of the teacher a scene of activity and 
 liveliness is exhibited, which the educator will look upon with 
 satisfaction and delight. 
 
 In consideration of the above-stated facts a careful examina- 
 tion and a fair trial of the German system of gymnastics, free 
 of all prejudice, may properly be demanded when the question 
 is practically to be decided which of the different systems is 
 best apt to be adopted in the programme of our public schools. 
 The German system has not been influenced by any other. 
 Since the days of Guts-Muths, Jahn, and Eiselen, the founders 
 of German gymnastics, and Adolph Spiess, the founder of the 
 elaborate structure of school gymnastics, it has had material 
 enough to give freely from its wealth to other systems, and many 
 of the latter boast features of German origin. May the decis- 
 ion of the question be based on a fair and close examination. 
 Neither this paper, which states but a few points of merit of the 
 German system, nor a short exhibition of exercises by scholars 
 is sufficient to show the educational value of it. 
 
 But whatever the result of this agitation may be, let us hope 
 that wise and cautious observation and study, uninfluenced by 
 prejudgment or prejudice, will bring about the decision. 
 
 Allow nie to close this brief sketch with the remarks of Dr. 
 Edward Mussey Hartwell of Johns Hopkins University in the 
 "Circular of Information," written in 1885 for the National 
 Bureau of Education. 
 
 He writes : "If physical training should ever be pursued intelli. 
 gently and systematically in the schools of any American state 
 or city, many of the same problems with which the educational 
 authorities in Germany, Switzerland, Sweden, and France have 
 been so deeply engaged inevitably present themselves." I am 
 far from thinking that such problems can be satisfactorily solved 
 by the attempted introduction of any unmodified foreign system 
 of gymnastics or athletics. But I am firmly convinced that 
 
28 
 
 whoever may be impelled or called upon to attempt to provide 
 an adequate remedy for the present lamentable neglect of physi- 
 cal training in American schools and colleges can readily save 
 money, time, and trouble if they will but study the German 
 system of turning; "for there can be no doubt," to borrow the 
 words of Professor Du Bois-Reymond, "that German turning, 
 in its wise mingling of theory and practice, exhibits the happi- 
 est, yes, the most adequate solution of the great problem with 
 which pedagogues have been busy since Rousseau, — a truth 
 which, after a short obscurity, is now hardly contested, but the 
 physiological principle of which a few are beginning to under- 
 stand." 
 
 DISCUSSION. 
 
 Dr. Harris. — The German movement is a movement which looks most 
 to the conscious development of the muscles through the will. Over against 
 it stands the English system of developing muscle unconsciously by athletic 
 sports. I suppose we shall have the distinction between these two principles 
 presented, and I hope their claims may be adjusted. It is an important ques- 
 tion to decide whether we should make physical training a matter of special 
 effort of the will, subordinating the will of the pupil to the will of the in- 
 structor, or whether we shall seek such physical training in free play from 
 games. That is indeed the chief practical subject that we have before us 
 now. I suppose that every one acquainted with medicine knows that physical 
 training by the exercise of the will, instead of re-enforcing the vital processes, 
 may thwart them and injure them. I know of chronic cases of dyspepsia, for 
 example, that have never been curEd by gymnastics ; but there are certain 
 kinds of voluntary and involuntary movements that certainly help digestion. 
 It is known that horseback riding is beneficial, a favorable reaction being 
 caused by the jolting movement of the horse. This is supposed to be espe- 
 cially a kind of exercise that helps the healthy action of vital organs. Some 
 have contended that it is the best exercise for consumptive people. I call 
 attention to this, not to indorse the theory, but to indicate one of the trends 
 which I hope the debate will take. I call first on Dr. Hall of Baltimore. 
 
 Dr. Hall begged to be excused till after the paper on the 
 Swedish system should be read, as that was the system in use 
 in Baltimore. 
 
 The president called on Mr. E. P. Seaver, superintendent of 
 schools in Boston. 
 
 Mr. Seaver. — I came here to learn. I freely confess that I know very 
 little about this subject, and it would be a piece of presumption on my part 
 
29 
 
 to occupy the time. I will make one request, however, for further light. 
 Dr. Hartwell, in his very interesting paper, quoted some well-known medical 
 writers, and he mentioned one book from which, if I understood him aright, 
 something might be learned about the proper classification of the nerve- 
 centres and about the proper kinds of exercise to be applied to bring these 
 centres into full development and activity. My hope was that before that 
 paper was concluded we should have from him a little information as to the 
 literature on the subject, so that laymen like myself and pedagogues like 
 myself might be able to make up the deficiencies of our knowledge by reading 
 as well as by listening to papers. 
 
 Dr. Hartwell. — I am sorry to say that the literature in English upon 
 systematic physical education is not very voluminous or satisfactory. The 
 German and Swedish systems, although springing out of the exercises of 
 the Turnvereins, have been moulded and built up as the result of a good deal 
 of thought and effort on the part of educators and scientific men. The 
 German system owed its start as popular gymnastics chiefly to the work of 
 " Father Jahn," as he was called. He conceived the idea of using physical 
 training as a means of bettering the youth of the nation, and making them 
 strong, courageous, and able defenders of their country at the time of Prussia's 
 deepest humiliation and trial. Before Jahn came Guts-Muths, who, enamoured 
 of the Greek gjminastics, began writing about g3nmnastics for schools about 
 a hundred years ago. He taught gymnastics for many years in Salzmann's 
 Philanthropium in Schepfenthal. 
 
 But the gymnastic movement under Jahn was at first of a political rather 
 than of a pedagogical character ; and when the war of liberation came in 
 1813, the Turners were found, almost to a man, in the ranks of those who 
 broke the Napoleonic yoke. That gave great popularity to the exercises, and 
 paved the way for school gymnastics. The ideas and methods of Jahn still 
 survive in many of the exercises used by popular societies known as Turn- 
 vereine. The consolidated Turnvereine constitute the organization known 
 as the Deutsche Turnerschaft, which numbers between four and five thousand 
 gymnastic societies in Germany and Austria, and has a membership of nearly 
 four hundred thousand. The principle of the Jahn Turning was the doing 
 the best one can according to bodily ability, under the lead of a more 
 accomplished gymnast called a " Vorturner." It became necessary, later, to 
 modify the methods of popular gymnastics in order to meet the more formal 
 methods of school training. That was accomplished chiefly by Adolph Spiess, 
 who was, like Jahn, a school teacher, but, unlike Jahn, not a popular agitator. 
 Spiess wrote an elaborate book on the subject of school gymnastics. Jahn's 
 book, or a portion of it, was translated into English by Dr. Beck, one of his 
 pupils. This translation was published about 1828, in Northampton, Mass., 
 when Dr. Beck was a teacher in the famous Round Hill School. Most of the 
 German literature on this subject has not been translated. The same may 
 be said of the Swedish literature. There are books enough on all branches 
 of gymnastics in both of those languages, and in each of them you may find 
 periodicals devoted to the interests of school gymnastics. 
 
30 
 
 The physiological efifects of exercise to which I have referred with most 
 emphasis in my paper, are generally not touched upon in the hand-books put 
 into the hands of medical students and the teachers of Turning, whether those 
 hand-books be printed in German, Swedish, or English. It is only in the 
 scattered writings of specialists that you will find anything approaching to 
 an adequate exposition of the effects of muscular exercise upon the nervous 
 system. In Ross's " Diseases of the Nervous System " the difference between 
 the fundamental and accessory parts of the nervous system is clearly set forth, 
 and the proper order to be followed in their training is alluded to. In " The 
 Book of Health," edited by Malcom Morris, and published by Cassell & Com- 
 pany, you will find a valuable and original article by Dr. J. Crich ton-Browne 
 on "The Nervous System in its Relation to Education." The best general 
 exposition of the whole subject is that given by Professor Du Bois-Reymond 
 of the University of Berlin, in his " Physiology of Exercise," which appeared 
 three or four years ago, in translated form, in the " Popular Science Monthly." 
 But the criticism of gymnastic methods, German and Swedish, in just the 
 light I have presented this morning, I do not think is to be found in any of 
 the ordinary books. Certainly it is not in Maclaren's " Training in Theory 
 and Practice," or the ordinary American and English text-books on physiology. 
 
 A good deal more than is given in Mr. Metzner's paper could be brought 
 out in regard to the German system. The first attempt to introduce gymnas- 
 tic training into this country was made by Dr. Beck and Dr. FoUen, who had 
 been friends and pupils of Jahn. The attempt was made in 1825, at the 
 Round Hill School at Northampton, where Beck and Follen were teachers. 
 But the inducements for them to become professors at Harvard College were 
 greater than to engage in any crusade for gymnastics. Gymnastic apparatus 
 of the German sort was put up on various college greens, and there was an 
 enthusiastic outburst in schools and academies in favor of physical training. 
 The interest was but superficial and shortlived. When the machines grew 
 old or became warped by exposure to the weather, they were not renewed, 
 and the interest died out. There were some doctors in Boston then who 
 exerted themselves in behalf of gymnastic training. Dr. John C. Warren was 
 the President of the Tremont Gymnasium, the first gymnasium of any size 
 started in this country. That was in 1826, I believe. It is interesting to 
 note that they made an attempt to get Jahn to come over and take charge of 
 it. He was then in exile from the capital, and in political disgrace. Failing 
 to secure him, they did secure Dr. Francis Lieber, the jurist and publicist of 
 later days, who came to this country to teach swimming and gymnastics here 
 in Boston. He took charge of the Tremont Gymnasium for awhile ; but that 
 gymnasium finally died a natural death, and Dr. Lieber's fame rests in his 
 career as a publicist, not as a gymnasiarch. A large number of gentlemen, 
 however, experienced benefit from that gymnasium, — men like Dr. Francis 
 Gardner, Dr. John P. Reynolds, and others. It is also interesting to note that 
 Father Jahn's son has lived for many years in Baltimore, and that the son of 
 the latter is now one of the special teachers of gymnastics in the Chicago 
 
31 
 
 public schools. The grandson was adopted by the North-American Turner- 
 bund, and very largely educated at its expense. 
 
 A dozen years or so ago eflforts were made to provide physical training for 
 the boys in the Boston Latin School. Doubtless these efforts were due, in a 
 measure, to the influence of the Tremont Gymnasium. 
 
 Then, just before the war, came Dio Lewis, who adopted a part of the 
 Garman system, and invented bean-bags and rings, and substituted wooden 
 dumb-bells for iron in class exercises. A part of his outfit was an iron crown 
 for the head, which was decorated with the stars and stripes. He had a 
 school of gymnastics, which lived at Lexington for a few years. I remember 
 that Superintendent Philbrick said of the Lewis gymnastics, " the problem is 
 now solved ; here are exercises that can be used in the school-room without 
 iixed apparatus." But it did not turn out so. I do not believe that you can 
 introduce fully or satisfactorily either the German or Swedish systems of 
 training, unless you have buildings or rooms fitted and furnished to meet 
 their requirements. You may introduce free movements, such as we shall see 
 here, which can be performed in the class-rooms, and you may accomplish 
 great good with them. Such a movement, to do this, has gained already 
 considerable headway in other parts of this country. 
 
 American educators have given so little attention to German gymnastics 
 that I hope I may be pardoned for relating a personal experience here. Some 
 years ago I had occasion to prepare a report for the United States Bureau of 
 Education on this matter of physical training. In getting material together, I 
 visited all the principal college and Christian Association and other gymna- 
 siums of the country. This brought me into many different cities. I had, 
 too, at my disposal all the literature in the library of the Commissioner of 
 Education in Washington ; but I did not anywhere come across any allusion 
 to the German system of Turning as it exists here, and has existed since 1848. 
 No one even suggested a visit to a Turnhalle. It was only after I went to 
 Germany, when I had completed my report, that I learned what the German- 
 American Turners were doing, and what they had done. I was, fortunately, 
 enabled to revise my report before it was printed. It is worth while to re- 
 member, in undertaking to do anything toward organizing the introduction of 
 gymnastics into schools, that the German Turners in this country have main- 
 tained for many years a school for the teaching of teachers. The North- 
 American Turnerbund, which numbers more than thirty thousand members, 
 owns property free from debt worth more than $2,000,000, including one 
 hundred and sixty gymnasium halls, and libraries aggregating fifty-three thou- 
 sand volumes. It has one hundred and forty teachers, who have graduated 
 from its Normal Seminary, at the end of a well-considered course of training. 
 The gentleman whose paper you have heard read, Mr. Metzner, and the gen- 
 tleman who read it, Mr. Eberhard, and Mr. Groener, the teacher of the 
 Boston Turn Schule, are graduates of that seminary. There are some fifteen 
 thousand boys and six thousand girls in the Turn Schules of the North- 
 American Gymnastic Association, who are regularly taught gymnastics by 
 
approved German methods. This teaching goes on every week in New York, 
 Boston, Milwaukee, St. Louis, and other cities, but so quietly that most 
 educators pay little attention to it. I hold that the best-trained body of 
 gymnastic teachers in this country, not excepting those engaged in our col- 
 leges, are those trained and maintained by the Turnerbund. The Turnerbund 
 was founded by exiles from Germany. Their aims are not only those of 
 which we have heard, but one of their aims is to discuss political, social, 
 assthetic, and ethical questions. For instance, the New York Turnverein 
 maintains classes in drawing and modelling, and it also has a theatre, which 
 its theatrical club and singing society use for their special purposes, and 
 schools where upwards of nine hundred children are taught the German lan- 
 guage and literature on certain days, and on other days have gymnastic and 
 domestic training. The same Verein also has a cadet battalion of ninety 
 boys, who are trained in target-shooting, as well as in the manual of arras. 
 More than this, since 1885, the German system of gymnastics, as represented 
 by the free movements, which are simple movements without apparatus, or 
 light gymnastics in which hand-apparatus, such as wands, rings, and dumb- 
 bells, are employed, has made great progress in certain sections of our 
 country. As a general thing, special gymnasiums have not been provided. 
 The exercises are performed in the class-rooms. But it cannot be said that 
 the system has been introduced as a whole. Neither it nor the Ling system 
 can be fully adopted until specially fitted gymnasiums are provided. But in 
 the courts of the school buildings, in the halls and school-rooms, free and 
 light gymnastics have been introduced in the cities of Chicago, Kansas 
 City, Milwaukee, Pittsburgh, Denver, Louisville, Keokuk, St. Joseph, Rock 
 Island, Davenport, and in other Western cities. They have also been intro- 
 duced, to some degree, I am told, into the schools of Holyoke, of this state, 
 and of Orange, N.J. The school population of the towns and cities where 
 this sort of gymnastics is in successful working I estimate to be about four 
 hundred thousand. In Chicago they have fourteen special teachers who teach 
 gymnastics, at salaries ranging from $750 to $1800. In many of the other 
 cities instruction is given by a director of gymnastics to the ordinary teachers, 
 who in turn instruct their scholars. Gymnastic exercise is obligatory in the 
 schools of all grades in Kansas City and in Chicago. I had, not long ago, a 
 letter from the chairman of the committee on physical culture in Chicago 
 schools, saying that the system worked admirably, and to the satisfaction of 
 the Board, the teachers, and the pupils alike. 
 
 Dr. Hitchcock. — I want Dr. Hartwell to answer the question as to the 
 literature accessible on this subject, better than he has done. He was always 
 a good boy in college, and I do not want to see him floored now. 
 
 Dr. Hartwell. — If Superintendent Seaver will repeat his question, I will 
 try to answer it. 
 
 Mr. Seaver. — I was quite well satisfied with Mr. Hartwell's answer. It 
 is always interesting to hear a man talk who is full of his subject. What I 
 wanted specially to know was, what books there are from which one can get 
 
33 
 
 a criticism or critical estimate of these different systems of gymnastics, having 
 in view this classification of the nerve centres into fundamental and accessory, 
 so that we may reach a more clear conclusion as to which is the better system. 
 
 Dr. Hartwell. — I do not know of any. Very much of what I said was 
 gathered from many quarters, from monographs and special works brought 
 together by myself. 
 
 Mr. Seaver. — Then Dr. Hartwell will have to write such a book himself. 
 
 Mr. DuNTON of the Normal School. — To what extent are gymnastics in 
 the common schools in Germany taught by the regular teachers, and to what 
 extent have they special teachers for this department? If we had proper 
 rooms and proper apparatus, would it be practicable for the regular teachers 
 to conduct the exercises ? 
 
 Dr. Hartwell. — German schools are divided into two classes. The 
 higher sort leads to the University in the Technical School; they are the 
 Gymnasien and the Real-Schulen. Most of these have special teachers of 
 Turning, who have received their training at a normal school for training 
 teachers of gymnastics. There are such normal schools in all such capitals 
 as Berlin, Dresden, Munich, and Stuttgart. In the lower, or primary schools, 
 — the Volks-Schulen, — it is a more common practice for the pupils to be 
 taught gymnastics by the ordinary class teachers. But these teachers have 
 to learn to teach gymnastics in the normal schools where they obtain their 
 professional training. The same holds good with regard to the Swedish 
 schools. The higher schools for boys correspond to the German Gymnasien 
 or Real-Schulen. In them special teachers are installed. The number of 
 teachers in schools of this grade is, I think, about thirteen hundred men ; 
 but of this number ninety-five are specially trained and fully installed teachers of 
 gymnastics. In the lower, primary schools, corresponding to the Volk-Schulen, 
 the teaching is carried on by the teachers themselves, who, like those in 
 Germany, have had instruction in teaching gymnastics in the normal schools. 
 
 Dr. John P. Reynolds was asked to speak. 
 
 Dr. Reynolds. — I ought not to speak upon this subject. I am too 
 little familiar with its details. But my interest' in every branch of it is very 
 warm. Perhaps I may be permitted to say a word about gymnastics in Ger- 
 many, as they come to the knowledge of a traveller in that country. In 
 Germany, education of the body, no less than of the mind, is compulsory for 
 every man-child, from the son of the sovereign to the son of the day-laborer. 
 He must be trained in walking, in running, in leaping, and in a host of other 
 bodily exercises. With us, the great obstacle to all this is, that we cannot 
 bring the community, and especially teachers, to recognize the immense im- 
 portance of such instruction. Teachers largely make up this assembly. Even 
 if I appear to any of them an unfriendly critic, I deeply appreciate the attain- 
 ments and the worth of the instructors of the Boston schools, and I hold 
 their calling in the most sincere admiration. 
 
 Nearly twenty years ago, several members of the School Board, eager to 
 advance the interests of the Latin School, attempted, among other changes, 
 
34 
 
 to introduce there, in a very tentative way, the teaching of gymnastics, hoping 
 thus to make an entering wedge for its general recognition in the public 
 schools. A young instructor, rarely qualified, was found. It would have 
 done your hearts good to see the spirit with which the boyS took hold of the 
 work. Those of you who have this forenoon listened to the representative of 
 gymnastics at the Johns Hopkins, will know what a magnificent teacher the 
 Latin School had secured. But in a year or two the Latin School gymnastics 
 came to an end ; and from that date, if we except the excellent light work of 
 Professor Monroe, which shortly after his death ceased, bodily culture has 
 found no place in our schools. Yet through all those years, German boys, by 
 hundreds of thousands, have had, every one of them, unceasing care that 
 their bodies be made supple, hardy, and strong. In that same period nearly 
 a million children have passed through the Boston schools. Had our chil- 
 dren no equal right to this priceless help ? I will not say who robbed us of 
 Mr. Hartwell. No interest in gymnastics existed. Nobody had leisure to 
 take in the need of watching and strengthening the body. Instructors needed 
 the whole time for Greek, for Latin, and for Mathematics. School hours 
 were too crowded to admit gymnastics. Taxpayers were reported to hold 
 such exercise an idle luxury. Not many years since the teachers of Southern 
 Germany made just these objections. There, too, the schools could spare no 
 time for training the bodies of the boys. But the new German Empire gave 
 no quarter, and by its answer, " You shall," at once silenced all resistance. A 
 despotic, tyrannical authority might secure this exercise for every Boston boy 
 and girl. I have no belief that anything else ever will. 
 
 Travelling in Germany many years ago, I had the privilege of entering 
 various German schools, and one day watched with interest an hour of gym- 
 nastics at Frankfort-on-the-Main. That school took especial pride in its 
 teacher, another Hartwell in build, fresh from his normal training in Berlin. 
 It was a rare pleasure to see him give his first lesson. A small, bare yard 
 and a most unpretending shed, with simple apparatus, made up his resources. 
 In the yard the older boys, of seventeen and eighteen, were soon leaping, 
 after a short, quick run, from a spring board, over a high horse ; while in the 
 shed the younger fellows, divided into small squads, were rapidly set at work 
 at one piece or another, — the first boy directed by the teacher, and then in 
 his turn leading his comrades, — going over the horses, shooting the bars, 
 trying all the feats that we so long to see grown common with us. 
 
 It has been found no light matter to bring home to those with whom the 
 decision rests the inestimable value of training like this. 
 
 Only one other word : Some one intends shortly to exhibit, as an object- 
 lesson, the exercise of the boys that occupy those front seats. Gymnastics in 
 a room hot as is this seem to me unreasonable. Gymnastic exercise in air 
 above fifty (Fahr.) degrees ought to be held a piece of barbarism. 
 
 A class exercise was then given by about twenty boys, under 
 the direction of Emil Groner, of the Boston German Turnverein. 
 
35 
 
 The following paper was then read : — 
 
 THE PLACE OF PHYSICAL TRAINING IN A 
 RATIONAL EDUCATION. 
 
 BY CLAES J. ENEBUSKE, PH.D. 
 
 Mr. Chairman, Ladies, and Gentlemen : — Inasmuch as 
 you are certain to find it out before I have proceeded very far, 
 I think it better to make a clean breast of it at the outset and 
 own right up that I am not an American. For that reason I 
 am not a master of the English language. I must ask you to 
 bear with the eccentricities of speech to which I am a victim, 
 and as far as possible let my good intentions offset my bad pro- 
 nunciation. 
 
 As I look about me at this large gathering of distinguished 
 people, it is a pleasure to reflect that we are assembled here in 
 the interest of humanity. We have come from widely separated 
 homes to mingle ideas, to express opinions, to weigh arguments, 
 and out of the confusion to mould a system which shall make 
 posterity our grateful debtors. We come, each of us, with con- 
 clusions founded upon careful study, but we should be willing 
 to sacrifice them to the great common cause for which we labor, 
 anxious only for the success of the best, eager to be convinced 
 for the general good. 
 
 The subject of physical culture, the great question for which 
 we are laboring to formulate an answer, is by no means a 
 modern one. It has grown old with the world. Ages ago 
 this same question demanded the attention of scholars. Every 
 succeeding age has given its answer, and those answers have 
 varied as the experience and temperament of the ages have 
 undergone change. And now, aided by the thought and guided 
 by the experience of the ages that have gone, it is our duty to 
 find an answer that shall be compatible and in keeping with 
 the advanced thought and enriched experience of our own. 
 
36 
 
 The questions presented in the recent report of the Board 
 of Supervisors on physical training in the public schools aim 
 to embrace the essential requirements which a system of physi- 
 cal culture must meet. Allow me to repeat the first and most 
 important of these questions. It is this : " Is it the purpose of 
 the system to develop the whole body and its parts symmetri- 
 cally and harmoniously ; to preserve, increase, or produce bodily 
 health, strength, and proportion ; and to maintain and promote 
 physical activity, dexterity, and efficiency ? " 
 
 Let us who attempt to answer it consider well the responsi- 
 bility. It is a question suggested by important and urgent 
 reasons. It is broad and complicated, and of vast importance 
 must the answer be. 
 
 The question as presented seems to be a compilation of three 
 requirements, which I shall take the liberty to mention sepa- 
 rately. It requires first that physical training should develop 
 the parts symmetrically and in good proportion and the whole 
 body harmoniously. These words suggest to us the conception 
 of the classic Greeks. Beauty and harmony was the aim of 
 the bodily exercise of their age. Secondly, it demands that 
 training should produce bodily strength and promote physical 
 activity, dexterity, and efficiency. These words bring us face 
 to face with the Roman conception of the object of physical 
 culture. Finally, we read that physical education should pro- 
 duce or increase bodily health. This brings us nearer to our 
 own age, and expresses the true conception of the aim of physi- 
 cal education in the present century and in this couijitry. 
 
 The combined question represents the best thought of three 
 distinct ages and of three distinct peoples. It combines the 
 thought and aim of ancient, literary, beauty-loving Hellas, of 
 powerful, disciplinary, purpose-strong Rome, and of modern, 
 intelligent, energetic America. 
 
 A system that shall answer this question, that shall meet 
 these requirements, must be one, that shall satisfy at once the 
 demands of three distinct ages, of three distinct classes of men, 
 equal perhaps to each other, but in their characteristics widely 
 different, — art-loving Hellas, war-loving Rome, and peace-lov- 
 ing United States. Would such a system, or rather would 
 
n 
 
 such a lack of system, be wise ? Would it be satisfactory ? It 
 would be a compilation of thought, an aggregate of ideas, but 
 could there be any unity of comprehension ? 
 
 In this one sentence, which aims to define the true object of 
 physical culture in schools, there lies hidden a dualism that will 
 prove prolific of controversy. There are in it sources of end- 
 less conflicts, conflicts over essentials and over trifles, until that 
 formula is found which shall express the fundamental idea, 
 about which the others shall cluster in organic union and 
 harmony. 
 
 If we shall still further dissect this question, we shall find 
 new difficulties arise as we proceed. We read physical culture 
 should produce symmetry and harmony. To whom shall we 
 turn as the authority upon symmetry and harmony "i We seek 
 the artist. We ask him to produce symmetry and harmony in 
 our boys and girls ; but his skill is with chisel and marble, not 
 with the crude material of untrained human frames. We turn 
 to our friend the anthropometrist. He has figures to express 
 the proportions of the average man ; but of symmetry he knows 
 no more than ourselves, and into the domain of harmony he 
 can go no further than his conception of art leads him. Will 
 his rod and caliper fulfil the requirements that our purpose 
 aims to achieve .■" The question demands of us bodily health, 
 and we turn to the physician. And of whom shall we procure 
 our conception of activity >. Perhaps from the business man or 
 the race trainer. Dexterity is demanded — we must call upon 
 the artisan. Efficiency is sought. Let us not slight the mili- 
 tary man, although the question makes no requirement of the 
 important qualifications of discipline. Strength is an element 
 demanding attention, and the athlete puts forth his claims. But 
 who is the man, who unites in himself the capacities of the 
 artist, the anthropometrist, the physician, the athlete, the busi- 
 ness man, the artisan, the soldier ">. Who is he that comprises 
 within his person the qualities enumerated, and these in suitable 
 proportion } 
 
 I have suggested that the question, because of its lack of 
 unity in the definition of physical training, will give rise to 
 diversities. These diversities must be the cause of needless 
 
38 
 
 delay in the distribution of the benefits of physical training to 
 the pupils of the public schools. For the purpose of averting 
 this danger and dissolving these diversities — for the purpose of 
 unity — it is imperative that we find a definition that, while it 
 embraces all the demands enumerated, at once regulates their 
 mutual relation of co-ordination and subordination, and brings 
 them in sympathy and harmony beneath the sceptre of a single 
 governing central idea. 
 
 Who is the suitable person to whom we can submit our ideas .' 
 Who is clearly the best judge of the proper aim of physical 
 training in schools ? I will name him : The physical educator. 
 And where shall we turn to find a suitable answer to our ques- 
 tion .' I respectfully submit to you that Sweden has given us a 
 definition of the object of physical training in schools, which, I 
 believe, embraces better than any other, the requirements de- 
 manded in the report of the supervisors. With your kind per- 
 mission, I will repeat that definition. It is this : " The object 
 of educational gymnastics is to train the pupil to make his body 
 subservient to his own will." 
 
 A system of physical culture which shall make the body sub- 
 servient to the will, must necessarily be one that shall produce, 
 increase, and maintain health, strength, activity, dexterity, and 
 efficiency. These are all conditions demanded by the will. 
 And it must necessarily follow that, where health, strength, 
 activity, dexterity, and efficiency are found, there symmetry and 
 proportion will be also. Inasmuch, then, as this definition 
 seems to meet the requirements which experience and necessity 
 demand, I suggest that the idea of Sweden be adopted as ex- 
 pressing the best conception of the object of physical training. 
 About this idea the thoughts of ancient Greece, of Rome, and 
 of modern America group themselves in perfect sympathy and 
 harmony. 
 
 But this idea must not be understood as identical with and 
 must not be confounded with the idea of the mediasval age. 
 This also contemplated the necessity of bringing the body under 
 the subjection of the will. But it was not a lawful subjection ; it 
 was the tyranny of mind over the body, — the mind a despot, the 
 body a serf. 
 
39 
 
 The Swedish definition implies the modern conception of a 
 harmonious relation of body to mind. It means the complete 
 but the joyful submission of the functions and activities of the 
 body to the dictates of the will. Such a harmonious submission 
 of the body to the will is but another expression for health, 
 though it is broader in its scope, more comprehensive, and above 
 all it is the most suggestive to the physical educator. It will pre- 
 vent his placing strength as the paramount aim of the physical 
 training. At every turn the question confronts him : Is there 
 a distinct, unchangeable, necessary relation between strength 
 and health, between strength and the body's harmony with will ? 
 It must teach the educator that the true aim is to clothe the 
 healthy frame with honest muscles which shall act as faithful 
 and efficient servants of the will. This is the true province of 
 the system of physical training for our schools. 
 
 As far as the problem of health enters into the object of 
 physical training, the educator must make his work the training 
 of scholars, not the treatment of patients. The average boy 
 and girl are not patients nor invalids, albeit they are the children 
 of a nervous age. The demand for proportion and harmony of 
 the body must be subjected to the same reasonable test, and, 
 while he fully recognizes the importance of keeping his pupils 
 within the limits of proportion, that gives evidence of health, 
 yet he will not attempt to change nature's own plan of physical 
 individuality. He will not deem it his aim to find in mankind 
 a distinct, never-varying relation between bodily proportion and 
 health. He will not be ruled by the prejudice that the indi- 
 vidual is worthier as he more nearly approaches the scheduled 
 proportions of the average man. He will demand the proof, as 
 yet unprovided, that the individual who conforms to the geometric 
 symbol of the anthropometrist must necessarily be a worthier 
 type of mankind. Until he receives this proof, he will be sat- 
 isfied with that symmetry and proportion which nature displays 
 in the individual frame, when the conditions of health — that is 
 to say, the harmony of the body and the will — are carefully 
 guarded and promoted. 
 
 The faithful educator who understands fully the needs and 
 the aim of physical training will never allow the demands for 
 
40 
 
 physical activity, dexterity, and efficiency to lead him into a cor- 
 ruption of his office to unworthy ends. He will not consider 
 it within the province of his training to endow the pupils with 
 the swiftness of the horse or the suppleness of the serpent. 
 The bodily skill which he shall strive to produce will be a general 
 and not a special one. Even the demand of the soldier to have 
 that skill requisite for his calling developed in the school must 
 be made subservient to the general purpose of physical training 
 in the schools. 
 
 But the question will be asked, Shall physical training be 
 limited to this relation of body and will ? Must not the true 
 system be one that shall stimulate the intellect, that shall arouse 
 the moral qualities of courage, self-reliance, etc. ? I reply that 
 a true system of physical training must and does. But we must 
 not lose sight of the necessity of a prudent distribution of labor 
 even in educational work. Physical education is not synony- 
 mous with education. It is but one of the many departments 
 of the whole province of education. Education has for its aim 
 the highest development of the best possibilities of the individ- 
 ual. But the aim can be obtained only through the harmonious 
 workings of the different departments. The spiritual and moral 
 education shall bring the human will into harmony with the 
 religious and moral purposes of man. The intellectual education 
 shall bring the will under the leadership of the enlightened 
 intellect. The physical education, while partaking in a measure 
 of the essence of the other departments, shall aim especially to 
 bring the body into harmony with the will. 
 
 The physical educator must not stand isolated. He must 
 take his position upon the same plane and by the side of the 
 minister and the secular teacher. When this is done, when 
 they begin to labor in sympathy and harmony, then, and not 
 till then, we shall begin to see the features of the ideal man. 
 
 Ling's pedagogical gymnastics is a system of physical train- 
 ing the practical application of which is in accord with the views 
 upon the object of physical training which I have advanced. 
 While it develops health, strength, proportion, and efficiency 
 by means of bodily positions and movements, based upon the 
 laws and needs of human organism, the central idea of devel- 
 
41 
 
 oping and increasing the will's control of and command over 
 the body is expressed in every movement, in every day's lesson 
 and throughout the whole course of lessons, by which the train- 
 ing is carried out. 
 
 Without going into a detailed description of this system, I 
 would say that I should deem it an especial favor to be allowed 
 to make answer in plain sentences to the charges which I antici- 
 pate will be brought against it. Thanking you for your very 
 kind indulgence, I will for a time make room for abler and more 
 pleasurable speakers. 
 
42 
 
 &ttonti Session. 
 
 Friday, December 2. 
 
 The conference was called to order at 3 p.m. by Dr. Harris. 
 The following paper was read : — 
 
 THE CHIEF CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SWEDISH 
 SYSTEM OF GYMNASTICS. 
 
 BY NILS POSSE, M.G. 
 
 If a chemist were called upon to explain in a few words the 
 general contents of his science and how it differs from other 
 sciences, he would probably refrain from trying such an experi- 
 ment ; for his dilemma would be the same as mine to-day ; he 
 would hardly know where to begin or how to select from such 
 an abundance of material. The fact is, that to understand fully 
 the Swedish system of gymnastics, or any other that has any 
 righteous claim to the prefix "system," it is necessary to be 
 thoroughly conversant with the principles that are fundamental 
 to all gymnastics ; it is a knowledge not to be gained in a few 
 minutes, nor to be explained in a few words. Yet I will attempt 
 to state briefly in what respects the Swedish method differs 
 from the others. 
 
 The Swedish system of gymnastics, devised by P. H. Ling in 
 the beginning of this century, was already at its birth founded 
 upon the laws of nature and upon the laws of the human organ- 
 ism. Since the days of Ling the system has been much per- 
 fected and improved by Ling's followers, who have made it 
 keep even pace with the progress in those sciences upon which 
 it is based. For that reason the system is not altogether as 
 antiquated as some of its antagonists would fain have the unini- 
 tiated think ; and the fact that it has survived in a country 
 
43 
 
 where nothing is done in a superficial and irrational way ought 
 to be a guarantee for its efficiency. 
 
 First let us consider how the exercises are selected. 
 
 The exercises are chosen according to their gymnastic value, 
 which quality depends on how the movement combines the 
 utmost effect on the body with simplicity and beauty of per- 
 formance. Only such exercises are used whose local and gen- 
 eral effects are fairly well known and proved to be needed by 
 the body. Not only the needs of the individual, but his abilities 
 as well are to be taken into consideration ; and for that reason 
 the teacher must know how to vary the exercises according to 
 the degree of physical culture possessed by the pupil. The move- 
 ment should have its developing effects in a short time ; it 
 should be simple so that every pupil can do it fairly well ; and it 
 should have beauty of execution according to each one's ability. 
 
 In order to supply the needs of the organism and to develop 
 the body harmoniously, the exercises have to overcome a great 
 many tendencies to faulty growth or bad posture ; and i\\s, greater 
 or less value of a movement depends on its power to counteract 
 or correct these tendencies. It naturally follows that the sys- 
 tem uses no exercises which would encourage such faults (for 
 instance, using chest-weights for beginners, etc.). If an exer- 
 cise gives rise to faulty posture, it is discarded, or at least post- 
 poned till some future day when it can be correctly executed. 
 
 In accordance with the physiological truth that the first, great- 
 est, and most extensive effect of exercise is on the respiratory 
 organs, and that hence, during exercise, these organs must be 
 allowed perfect freedom of motion, the Swedish method disap- 
 proves of and discards all movements which compress the chest 
 (such as Indian club swinging), or which in any way interfere 
 with free respiration ; and the greatest attention is given to the 
 proper development of the chest. In recognition of the fact 
 that, to be truly strong, a man must know how to breathe well, 
 much prominence has been given to "respiratory" exercises. 
 "Breathe!" "Don't hold your breath!" are common exhorta- 
 tions in gymnasiums where this method is used. 
 
 In judging of the effects of an exercise, we think the least of 
 the muscular development produced ; for, the effect of all gen- 
 
44 
 
 eral exercise is to develop muscle, and this aim is reached with- 
 out especially working for it. But we think all the more of the 
 effects produced on nerves, vessels, etc., for the results in this 
 direction can be vastly changed by varying the movements (as 
 demonstrated in Medical Gymnastics) ; in other words, the exer- 
 cises have been made to harmonize with the laws of physiology. 
 How this is done will be understood from the description of 
 the exercises which are contained in each lesson (to which I 
 shall soon refer). 
 
 Measuring a man's strength, we compare the man to himself; 
 we do not say that a man is strong because he can hold so much 
 air, or because he can lift so many pounds, or because he can 
 jump so high. But when he possesses a healthy, well-balanced, 
 and well-proportioned body, which his will has under good con- 
 trol, then he possesses physical culture, even though in the eyes 
 of some he may seem weak as compared to others. It is this 
 health, symmetry, and harmony we aim at in selecting the exer- 
 cises ; and that the Swedish method accomplishes its purpose 
 has been too well demonstrated to leave room for doubt. 
 
 Movements are never chosen " because they look so pretty '' ; 
 for educational gymnastics do not aim at beauty of performance. 
 When gymnastics do have such an aim they are called " aestheti- 
 cal," and these have but little effect toward physical develop- 
 ment. And yet we claim that when a movement is well done 
 it is graceful as well. Some persons mistake a languid manner 
 of motion for grace, and hence claim that the Swedish exercises 
 "are too jerky to be graceful." It is to be remembered that all 
 gymnastic movements are not slow, nor do they have an even 
 velocity ; there are some that can and always should be done 
 with great and accelerating speed, and you can move quickly 
 and yet do it gracefully. By making the component motions of 
 movements like the arm-extensions merge into each other in a 
 " graceful " manner, the effect of the movements is completely 
 lost. On the other hand, if exercises like leg-elevations, back- 
 ward-flexions of the trunk, etc., are done in a "jerky" manner, 
 these movements are incorrectly executed and have lost their 
 best effects. 
 
 Our second point for consideration is the regularity of method. 
 
45 
 
 In order that gymnastics be systematic there must be pro- 
 gression. In the Swedish method this is adhered to very 
 strictly, so that the exercises, beginning by the very simplest, 
 gradually become stronger and more complicated. So closely 
 has the effect of movements on the human organism been stud- 
 ied, that the slightest change of position — even the turning of 
 a hand — has its recognized influence in the progression ; and 
 it is here that the system demands the most from the teacher : 
 without a good knowledge in this direction he becomes worse 
 than useless. No movement is attempted unless the previous 
 ones of the same kind have been thoroughly practised ; and no 
 exercise is used whose commencing position has not already been 
 practised sufficiently to guarantee its correctness ; for, if the 
 commencing position is faulty, the movement cannot be rightly 
 executed. 
 
 The Swedish method does not disapprove of chest-weights, 
 dumb-bells, and allied forms of apparatus ; but through years 
 of constant practice it leads up to them, claiming that before 
 increasing the weight by external means, you should make a 
 progression by prolonging the lever of the weight already pres- 
 ent. So, for instance, a backward-flexion of the trunk with the 
 arms extended upward and the hands holding weights must neces- 
 sarily be preceded by the same movement without the weights, 
 and that by a flexion with the hands fixed behind the neck, and 
 still earlier with the hands on the hips, etc. 
 
 In a like manner the method prepares the way for sesthetical 
 gymnastics, for fencing, military drill, and other forms of applied 
 gymnastics, yet insisting that educational gymnastics form the 
 basis of all these. This is reasonable ; for, unless you have 
 learned to control the involuntary co-ordination of motion, which 
 is the cause of "faults" in gymnastics, you will hardly be able 
 to produce the great voluntary co-ordination required in all forms 
 of advanced gymnastics. 
 
 Now, when you are to put this progression into practice, you 
 will not feel as if groping in the dark ; for, in this method, the 
 movements have been thoroughly systematized and included 
 under distinctive headings, where there is no more a jumble, 
 but where the rules of progression can be well carried through 
 
46 
 
 by a teacher familiar with the theory of gymnastics. After 
 years of practical investigation it was found that if, in every 
 lesson, the exercises followed each other in a certain, compara- 
 tively unchanging order, the movements could be made stronger ; 
 they could be given more duration ; ill results could be completely 
 prevented ; and hence the good effects became all the more pro- 
 nounced. For that reason all movements were divided into 
 classes, and this order was made the basis for the classification. 
 All the exercises can be included under the various headings ; 
 and within each class — with infinite variety — the exercises 
 grow gradually stronger as the pupils develop. 
 
 This classification will be found not only to contain exercises 
 filling the needs of the organism, but to correspond to physio- 
 logical principles as well. To understand this we shall have to 
 consider it a little in detail. 
 
 (i) Introductions. By these we understand some simple exer- 
 cises used at the beginning of a lesson to gain a little general 
 muscular control, to correct the base and general position, etc. 
 
 (2) Arch-flexions, which consist of backward-flexions of the 
 trunk ; they have the effect of straightening the dorsal region 
 of the spine ; of vaulting the chest forward by drawing the lower 
 ribs apart, thus increasing the chest-capacity ; and of cultivating 
 the extensibility of the upper region of the abdomen. 
 
 (3) Heaving-movements, which consist of various exercises in 
 a hanging position, and others that have the effect of expanding 
 the upper part of the chest by lifting it upward ; incidentally 
 they also develop the arms. If these movements are not pre- 
 ceded by the arch-flexions they will produce lameness in the 
 upper region of the abdomen. Free-standing arm-extensions 
 are classified in this group, since their effects resemble those 
 of heaving-movements, for which they also prepare the way. 
 
 (4) Balance-movements. The two preceding exercises are 
 strong, hence they increase the heart-beat noticeably. Now a 
 rest ought to ensue, — the word rest not to be understood as 
 meaning inactivity, but changed activity, — and the time is con- 
 veniently filled by the gentle movements which we call balance- 
 movements. These require but little effort from any one of the 
 many muscles brought into play ; the heart-beat is not increased 
 
47 
 
 by them, but it becomes lessened by the mechanical propulsion 
 of the blood into the legs (the more equal distribution of the 
 blood-pressure). At the end of a balance-movement the pupil 
 is again ready for more specific work. 
 
 (5) Shoulder-blade-movements consist of arm-movements which 
 have the effect of placing the shoulder-blades in correct posi- 
 tion. These exercises are in a measure dependent on arch- 
 flexions and heaving-movements ; for, unless the dorsal region 
 of the spine is straightened and the upper region of the chest 
 is extensible, but little can be done toward overcoming a 
 " stoop." 
 
 (6) Abdominal exercises bring into forcible play the abdominal 
 walls ; their effects are to incite peristalsis, to promote diges- 
 tion and to shorten the stay of the food in the intestinal canal. 
 
 (7) Lateral trunk-movements consist of rotations and sideways- 
 flexions, etc., of the trunk. They have a far-reaching effect on 
 the general circulation by accelerating the flow in the inferior 
 vena cava, leading the blood off from the abdomen and legs, 
 etc. Incidentally they also expand the chest laterally and 
 strengthen the muscles around the waist. 
 
 (8) Slow leg-movements. By this time the heart -beat is again 
 much increased ; the slow leg-movements furnish a means of 
 lessening it. For, by these the blood becomes mechanically 
 propelled forward, through the forcible, passive extension of 
 some muscles, while others are in gentle, active contraction. 
 These movements may be conveniently omitted, when the pre- 
 vious exercises are not strong enough to make them a necessity. 
 
 (9) Jumping and vaulting. These exercises have the effect of 
 cultivating the general elasticity of the body more than does 
 any other form of movement. And if we recall that grace and 
 elasticity are very nearly identical in gymnastics, we under- 
 stand the gymnastic need of these movements. But they also 
 have practical value ; for we are often called upon to jump ; 
 and if it so happens, it is well to know how. They develop 
 courage, self-reliance, a true appreciation of space, and produce 
 great ability of voluntary co-ordination of motion as well. The 
 Swedish method differs from all others (not founded on it) in 
 its manner of preparing the jumping by practising the inter- 
 
48 
 
 mediate positions, before the real movement is attempted, as 
 well as in demanding that correct "landing" should be insisted 
 upon. In like manner the vaulting is prepared by first culti- 
 vating in the pupil the habit of clinging to the bar, no matter 
 what happens, before he is made to leap over it. And the pro- 
 gression is so strict, that we have no accidents to record in these 
 "violent" or precipitate movements. 
 
 (lo) Respiratory exercises. These consist of deep inhalation 
 and exhalation accompanied by some arm-movement that will 
 expand and contract the chest in even rhythm with the respira- 
 tory act. The movements, which can be conveniently combined 
 with some movements of the legs or trunk, have the effect of 
 restoring free respiration (the jumping putting the pupil out of 
 breath) and to lessen the heart-beat. Respiratory exercises are 
 brought in not only at the end of every lesson, but at any time 
 when their effects are needed, and often also at the beginning 
 of a lesson containing strong exercises that require an increased 
 amount of oxygen. 
 
 To this daily curriculum various additions are often made, 
 such as to bring in one more shoulder-blade-movement, when 
 needed ; or another heaving-movement ; or an abdominal exer- 
 cise ; or to leave the last one entirely out for children, and so 
 on — as the teacher may decide. 
 
 In addition to the free-standing movements, each class con- 
 tains numberless exercises on apparatus, and supplies a suffi- 
 cient number to form a progression from early infancy to well- 
 developed manhood — through all the grades in school and 
 college, and in after-life as well. 
 
 The third point in which the Swedish system differs from the 
 majority of others is in the method of applying the exercises. 
 
 The movements are applied to words of command, this being 
 the only method enabling the pupil to concentrate his mind on 
 one thing at a time, that thing being his own movement. This 
 is in accordance with the definition of gymnastic movement, 
 which tells us that, unless a movement is done with full volition, 
 it ceases to be gymnastic. In those methods which use imita- 
 tion, memorizing, etc., the movements become mechanical, the 
 pupil dividing his attention between himself and something 
 
49 
 
 outside him, i.e. they cease to be gymnastic. Objections have 
 been raised to using words of command, because " it is too tire- 
 some," "too soldier-like," etc. To this we can answer, that to 
 get the full recreation and rest out of exercise we should put 
 our whole mind into it, this being much less tiresome than to 
 exercise while we think of something else. On the one hand 
 we have the theory of a small minority of antagonists, that 
 gymnastics without music do not give enough recreation, espe- 
 cially to children, because there is not enough exhilaration in 
 such exercises ; on the other hand we have the statement of a 
 large majority of children and others who have tried gymnastics 
 to music as well as to words of command, the children saying 
 that there is " much more fun " in the latter, and the adults 
 that there is "much more to them." As for the second objec- 
 tion, we claim that discipline is necessary not only for a soldier 
 but for everybody, if we are to have any control whatsoever 
 over ourselves ; and hence discipline should form a part of 
 everybody's education. Words of command have other advan- 
 tages. They teach the pupil to think quickly ; to act as quickly 
 and to do a thing in the shortest possible time. This is no 
 little gain in the present age of hurry and competition. Besides, 
 the use of commands enables the teacher always to keep his 
 class " in hand " ; it becomes easier for him not only to teach, 
 but to correct as well. 
 
 The Swedish method disapproves utterly of the use of music, 
 for the very simple reason that but few gymnastic movements 
 are rhythmical, and cannot be made to be so without sacrificing 
 the movement. On the other hand, every gymnastic movement 
 has a rhythm of its own, which, however, distinctly differs from 
 the rhythm of music. If music were to be used, its rhythm 
 would have to change at every motion, and I doubt if any 
 player, even a Rubinstein, would be able to make it do so. 
 Take, for instance, such a movement as " preparation to jump- 
 ing " (consisting of i . Heel-elevation. 2. Knee-flexion. 3. Knee- 
 extension. 4. Lowering of the heels) ; the first motion is 
 exceedingly quick; the second moderately quick; the third 
 comparatively slow; and the fourth still slower. Now, where 
 is the music to fit such a movement .' 
 
so 
 
 A recent lecturer on gymnastics made the somewhat startling 
 statement that "the arm-movements are not gymnastics (for 
 example : arms extended sideways, in front, above the head, 
 etc.)." If that teacher had said "arm-movements done to 
 music are not gymnastics," the statement would have been 
 correct. For let us investigate these arm-extensions. Start- 
 ing with arms hanging down, they consist of flexion upward of 
 the forearm, a movement occurring slowly from beginning to 
 end, — if it is to be done correctly, — and extension in any direc- 
 tion, which movement, once started, occurs with great and 
 accelerating speed. Now, if this is done to music, the flexion 
 takes place so quickly that the forearm rebounds and gives the 
 intermediate position of semi-flexion instead of complete flexion. 
 In consequence thereof the extensors are not in the state of 
 complete relaxation which should exist before they are made to 
 contract, and their contraction will not be as forcible nor as 
 quick as it ought to be. Besides, the music will give it the 
 same speed as it gives to the flexion, which is entirely wrong. 
 In most flexions a great many comparatively strong muscles 
 perform the motion, hence these movements must occur slowly; 
 whereas the extensions are executed by few and comparatively 
 weaker muscles, hence they can and should occur more quickly 
 than the flexions. This is especially evident in the arm-exten- 
 sions just mentioned, and when they are done to music, their 
 gymnastic form always has to be sacrificed, i.e. they cease to be 
 gymnastics. In a like manner we could investigate all other 
 gymnastic movements and with the same result in all except a 
 few oscillatory movements, like walking, running, etc. 
 
 Besides, when exercising to music, the pupil will be found 
 to pay more attention to the rhythm of the music than to the 
 form of the movement (if we presume that the latter could be 
 made rhythmical), and we get the same result as in all cases 
 where work is done with divided attention — one of the things 
 has to be sacrificed for the other. 
 
 From the above it will be seen that the system is rational, 
 since it seeks a reason for everything that it uses or adopts ; 
 it makes theory and practice harmonize. But it is practical as 
 
SI 
 
 well ; for it does not rely on elaborate apparatus for existence, 
 since the exercises, not the apparatus, constitute the system. 
 The movements can be taken anywhere where there is suffi- 
 cient floor-space to stand on and sufficient oxygen in the air. 
 On the other hand, though the system prefers its own appara- 
 tus, the exercises can be most easily adapted to apparatus 
 belonging to other systems, or to such simple means as ordi- 
 nary chairs and desks, or other furniture. Though apparatus 
 is desirable, it is not absolutely necessary for good physical 
 development, especially in gymnastics for children. 
 
 Whatever its deficiencies, the system has not only survived 
 on its own merits, in spite of the close scrutiny to which it 
 has been subjected by gymnastically learned men all over the 
 world, but it has finally been adopted in every country where 
 its principles have been thoroughly tested, even conservative 
 England having at last yielded. 
 
 Before closing, I take occasion to warn you against confound- 
 ing Swedish Educational Gymnastics with Medical Gymnastics, 
 commonly known as " Swedish Movement Cure " ; although 
 based on the same principles, the two are entirely different, not 
 only as to their purposes, but in the exercises used as well. 
 
 An exhibition of the Swedish system of gymnastics was then 
 given by a class of ladies under the care of Mr. Posse. 
 
 DISCUSSION. 
 
 Dr. Harris invited the Earl of Meath to open the discussion. 
 
 The Earl of Meath. — Mr. President, Ladies, and Gentlemen, — I was 
 utterly unprepared to be called upon at this early hour ; I had hoped first to 
 hear a little of the discussion. It is certainly true that I have been interested 
 in this question of physical education, but I am afraid that I cannot lay claim 
 to any great knowledge on the subject. It is also true, as you have been told, 
 that "conservative England" has, to a certain extent, adopted the Swedish 
 system. That is to' say, the Swedish system has been quite recently intro- 
 duced into the board schools of London, and I and others are endeavoring 
 to induce the Government and local authorities to spread this system through 
 the board schools of the whole land ; however, we have not yet succeeded. 
 The reason that we in England believe this Swedish system to be the one 
 best adapted to our schools, is, I am afraid, one which the eminent lecturer 
 
52 
 
 would not think a very good one. I believe it is simply because we find it 
 the most economical. I need not tell you that taxpayers do not like to be 
 taxed ; and if you can show them that you can help them without compelling 
 them to put their hands in their pockets to pay for it, they will listen. We 
 who are anxious to have physical education carried out have rather jumped at 
 this Swedish system because they told us that no apparatus was necessary, 
 and I believe that a good many support it for that reason. But I believe 
 there is a great deal more to be said in its favor than that it is economical. 
 Those who have tried it are persuaded that it has the most scientific principles 
 behind it upon which one can teach physical exercises ; that whereas the ordi- 
 nary system only exercises certain muscles, this system exercises all, and in 
 such a way that it shall not be hurtful to the muscles or injurious to the health 
 of the pupils. An illustration of the success of the Ling system was seen this 
 year in London, when a Swedish gentleman, anxious to show what his country 
 could do, brought together some forty Swedish gentlemen, picked indiscrimi- 
 nately from those he met at the Paris Exhibition, and invited them to London to 
 show what they could do in Sweden. These gentlemen, of all professions, 
 came together, and after exercising simply four times, gave an athletic exhibi- 
 tion which I do not think could have been equalled except by professional 
 acrobats in our country. 
 
 I believe that in this country, as well as in the one I come from, physical 
 exercises are much needed. In England our towns are rapidly increasing. 
 Here also you have large centres of population, and in these centres there are 
 few means for the poorer classes to train their children in healthy exercise. 
 In New York I have been struck by the want of open spaces where children 
 can exercise their limbs. I believe that if these civilized nations that are 
 congregated into large centres do not take some means to exercise the young, 
 that we shall find physical deterioration taking place. I am perfectly certain 
 that that is the case in the large towns of England, and I feel pretty sure, 
 after passing through some of the more crowded parts of New York, that 
 this physical training is just as much needed here. It is therefore with the 
 greatest pleasure that I welcome the advent of Swedish gentlemen here who 
 are able to demonstrate to you what a successful system the Swedish system 
 is, and I only hope that we shall see this system introduced into all of our 
 national schools and into all of our public schools. 
 
 Dr. Jay W. Seaver of Yale University. — This is a day when Yale men 
 are not in public. Princeton put us in the hole yesterday, and I do not know 
 when we shall be able to come out ! But I know that Yale men agree with 
 me in feeling great interest in this matter of physical education; and so I am 
 heart and soul with you, ladies and gentlemen of Boston, in your meetings 
 here to-day and to-morrow, where you are trying to arrive at some conclusion 
 as to what shall be the best system of physical training to introduce into your 
 public schools. You seem to have reached the point that you see there is a 
 need for something, and that is half of the battle. 
 
 I do not know enough about this Swedish system to say that that is the one 
 
53 
 
 which will satisfy every need. I do not believe that it is. I might say exactly 
 the same of the German system, and I might say that we have not yet in 
 America developed a system that will be perfectly satisfactory, but I do believe 
 that you are right when you try to start on some systematic method. As far 
 as my knowledge goes, there has never been a system developed with so much 
 scientific study and painstaking as this Ling system. But our American needs 
 are peculiar. If we had an open lot in every square in our large cities, and 
 pleasant weather through the twelve months of the year, I do not think that 
 we should need many gymnasiums. I am an advocate of out-door work. So 
 far I am "English, you know!" I advise every man to work out doors so 
 long as he can, even until the weather is inclement. But I recognize that we 
 must have something else. Now, then, if this Swedish system is the one that 
 can best be adapted to your Boston circumstances and surroundings, if you 
 can make the environment modify that system so that it shall become Ameri- 
 canized, I believe you will have the most perfect system that has ever been 
 developed. I believe in it because you have a peculiar condition in your 
 public schools. You have children who are over-trained mentally and under- 
 trained physically. We are producing a set of dudes, and not of robust, 
 hardy young men and women. We want to turn right about face, and get 
 more bone and muscle, more blood in our necks, and then we shall accom- 
 plish more. If we do this we shall not retrograde. The Ling system will 
 train and develop the bodies of our boys and girls. 
 
 But I believe that if we adopt this system we must modify it. Whatever 
 system we take, it must be adapted to the circumstances in a scientific way, 
 50 that we may get results that shall mean something. If we make mistakes 
 we can again change and modify. That is the peculiar genius of America. 
 We are not afraid to try something new, to launch out into seas before un- 
 known to us. If we make mistakes we easily repair them. The system for 
 your schools must be something entirely different from that of our colleges. 
 The work that Dr. Hitchcock is doing at Amherst, Dr. Sargent is doing at 
 Harvard, and Dr. Hartwell is doing at Baltimore, is very different from what 
 is demanded in the primary, grammar, and high schools. The conditions are 
 •diiferent. They work for men who have reached years of intelligence, who 
 are old enough to have judgment and regard for their own physical welfare. 
 If a course of work is marked out for them, they will follow it. But you can- 
 not do this with children. They do not know what is best for themselves and 
 they do not care, and as we are crowding tliem five hours in the day and five 
 days in the week with mental work, we must provide something for their 
 physical welfare. We must build them up physically and give an outlet to the 
 nervous energy which is driving them on day after day, and making old men 
 and women of them before they are out of their teens. 
 
 What will the Swedish system do ? I believe one criticism can be made 
 that is fair and honest, — that it requires too much mental attention. The 
 pupil must have his attention centred on the instructor all the time. The 
 pupil has all the time to watch for the word of command. Here in America 
 
54 
 
 (it may be wrong, but it is true) we do not care a snap for any man's say sa 
 We do not like to be ordered around to do anything. It always made me 
 mad, as a boy, and it does still, to have any one talk to me in a dictatorial 
 way. I believe it is contrary to the American spirit and custom. Is this an 
 insuperable objection to the Swedish system? I think not. I believe that 
 some of these gentlemen who are so successful as teachers will see the needs 
 of America, and will modify that certainly objectionable phase. It is for you 
 Yankee schoolma'ams to help out in this, and I am glad to see you are inter- 
 ested in this work, for I am told that it is mostly school teachers who have 
 illustrated this system in class work here to-day. You know the needs of 
 Yankee boys and girls, as well as of Irish and German. If you understand 
 this Swedish system, you will see chances for improving it. It is not a sys- 
 tem that was established one hundred years ago in all its perfection, born, like 
 a certain mythological creature, full-armed and ripe. It has been the devel- 
 opment of generations. Add the developments of another generation to it, 
 and see if it will not be a little more perfect flower than it is to-day. I believe 
 that if there is one thing where we Yankees surpass other people, it is in our 
 inventive ingenuity. We are always criticising, and seeing some fault that 
 we can remedy in other people's work. Can we not take this system and 
 remodel it, and make it just what we want? 
 
 I am, further, a great believer in the good effect of the personality of a 
 teacher. I do not believe you will ever, by hunting around, find a system 
 that will be successful in the hands of every teacher. I believe Dr. Sargent 
 must pursue one method, Dr. Anderson another ; Dr. Hitchcock will follow 
 another, and that Dr. Hartwell will take still another. The foundation princi- 
 ple being the same, the method of execution may differ. We cannot follow 
 in the same method, or run in the same rut ; but if there be any system de- 
 vised which shall introduce individual enthusiasm into this work, we shall 
 have success. 
 
 Dr. W. G. Anderson of the Brooklyn School for Physical Training. — 
 I am an American. It is natural, therefore, that I should defend anything 
 that is American if it is worthy of defence. Mr. Posse has given several 
 exercises illustrating the methods adopted by our teachers. I have never 
 seen a good teacher give such grotesque movements. They are not fair 
 selections from our work. 
 
 The so-called American system is as scientific as that of Ling. Why 
 should it not be? We begin where he stopped; we have his experience. I 
 have much respect for the German and Swedish systems ; I have had expe- 
 rience in both : but, taken as they are, they will not suit the American people. 
 We have ideas of our own ; and it is not often that methods of other coun- 
 tries will suit us, unless they are modified. I believe in music. My expe- 
 rience has shown me that as good results can be obtained fi-om many exercises 
 if accompanied by appropriate music. If two classes take the same move- 
 ments, one class working to an accompaniment played by an expert (for it 
 requires an expert to play for gymnastics), the other class drilled by counting 
 
55 
 
 or thumping on the floor with a stick, how can you prove that music has 
 been detrimental in one case, while the counting was beneficial in the other? 
 Did the fife and drum have any effect on tired soldiers during the war? I 
 have not found that the exhilaration caused by music in gymnastics has inter- 
 fered with the muscular or nervous training of children. We do not, of 
 course, do everything to music, but many of the lighter exercises can be thus 
 executed ; and I have yet to hear an argument that will convince me that 
 such gymnastic training suffers by music. This work is to go on in the 
 schools. I hardly think it will be a success if pupils are obliged to exercise 
 in the space between the desks, while the regular teacher leads them. 
 
 In the first place, we do not associate physical culture with a small space. 
 Room is required. The aisles will of necessity limit the number of exercises, 
 while, in the second place, I do not believe the regular teacher can or will 
 spare the time to learn the science of physical training, that she may teach 
 gymnastics to her pupils. 
 
 Unless I am greatly mistaken, our teachers have all they can do. Their 
 time is spoken and paid for. Extra work will involve additional expense. 
 I admit that a few enthusiastic teachers will start the work in their schools, 
 but I doubt if they keep it up. It is not for a week or month : it is for years, 
 day after day. I would suggest that the basements be cleared out, well 
 heated, lighted, and ventilated, equipped with appliances for light gymnastics, 
 a special teacher engaged, and the pupils sent to her fi-om fifteen to thirty 
 minutes a day. 
 
 The instructor of gymnastics, being a specialist, can do better work than 
 the regular teacher, who would be compelled to learn two professions if she 
 were to supervise the work and teach it as it should be taught. I believe 
 that the system adopted by the Boston Public Schools must be an eclectic 
 one. It must embrace the best ideas of all known methods. The unmodi- 
 fied Swedish and German systems are not so attractive to Americans as 
 the same arrangements changed to suit our likes and dislikes. The system 
 itself will not produce the results, but the way the system is taught. I believe 
 that perfection exists only in the mind. If our system is perfect, we can only 
 approach this high standard by the best-known methods of imparting knowl- 
 edge. All the country will watch the Boston schools if they adopt physical 
 training as a part of their regular curriculum, because of their reputation in 
 mental work.- If these schools are going to give but a few minutes each day 
 to gymnastics, and the work be confined to the aisles, we shall not have grand 
 results. If a mental branch requires one hour a day, then why not give the 
 same time to corporal education? 
 
 I have spoken rather positively on this subject, because I have some right 
 to. For six years I have given all of my time as a physician to the physical 
 training of school teachers and children. In the Adelphi Academy, where I 
 teach, there are nearly one thousand pupils of both sexes, the majority of 
 whom take exercise daily (obligatory). This has given me an opportunity 
 to make observations that no other American physician has had ; in fact, I 
 
S6 
 
 do not know of another doctor of medicine in this country who can make the 
 same statement. If the Allen system is the best, I should recommend its 
 adoption. If the Ling or German systems will answer, then take them. I 
 do not believe we are in a position just now to say which is the best. If the 
 Boston masters will try the Ling system for one year, then we shall have men 
 who can better judge of its merits ; but at the same time a similar test should 
 be given to the so-called American system. One word about my own methods. 
 Most of the gymnastic motions I have classified into an alphabet of sixteen 
 movements, each having its own name and special purpose. The combina- 
 tions made by this arrangement are coundess. The various physical defects 
 in children caused by lack of proper exercise have been tabulated, and the 
 movements of the alphabet adapted to them. There is a cause, reason for, 
 and remedy for such defects, which include certain mental weaknesses, and 
 we try to make the children understand the "whys and wherefores" of this 
 work. Progression is a part of our methods. Variety is essential. We try 
 to make the work pleasing. We borrow and modify, if necessary, ideas from 
 other systems. We believe that this training is beneficial to both mind and 
 body. 
 
 The President then introduced Dr. Edward Hitchcock of 
 Amherst as one of the pioneers in physical education in this 
 country. Dr. Hitchcock read a paper on "Some Principles 
 regarded as Essential in the Direction of the Department of 
 Physical Education and Hygiene," prefacing it with the follow- 
 ing remarks : — 
 
 Dr. Hitchcock. — I do not know what to say about children, except that 
 we have had ten of them at our house ; but as to children in the public schools 
 I do not know anything about them. If I can help you any by telling you 
 what we have been doing at Amherst College in physical education, I shall be 
 glad to do it. Let me say first that I am gratefiil for the compliments that 
 these young and bright men have given to me. 
 
 The gentlemen have spoken of American methods. I have been working 
 at physical culture for quarter of a century, expecting every year that Amherst 
 College would want to try another man, but I am still there. I do not, how- 
 ever, think that we have a system. We have got a branch of the service, as 
 artillery, infantry, and the various bureaus are branches of the military ser- 
 vice. But I do not think that we have a system that can be incorporated in 
 the schools yet. I must take a strong stand on that. We have not a univer- 
 sal system that will govern us. But I am rejoiced that the Boston people are 
 discussing the question of the Ling system. I rejoice that they are ready and 
 willing to bring up something different from what we have been at work at, 
 and by and by we shall get something worthy out of it. We are always ex- 
 perimenting ; indeed we are an experiment as a nation. 
 
57 
 
 SOME PRINCIPLES REGARDED AS ESSENTIAL 
 
 IN THE DIRECTION OF THE DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCA- 
 TION AND HYGIENE. 
 
 "There really does not exist a system of physical education which is both natural 
 and essential, and which can be, and has been, beneficially incorporated into existing 
 educational methods." — Dr. G. D. Stahley, in " The Doctor "for November, i88g. 
 
 BY DR. EDWARD HITCHCOCK. 
 
 Physical education, as the term is understood in Amherst 
 College, is such a cultivation of the powers and capabilities of 
 the student as will enable him to maintain his bodily conditions 
 in the best working order, while providing at the same time for 
 the greatest efficiency of his intellectual and spiritual life. To 
 promote this end, official direction should so control the student 
 that he cannot seriously neglect his physical, with which are so 
 closely interdependent his intellectual and moral interests. He 
 must not be permitted to cultivate any other part of his nature 
 at the expense of the physical, nor, on the other hand, any part 
 of the physical at the expense of any other part. 
 
 Every student, immediately on entering college, is subjected 
 to a thorough and searching anthropometric examination, and 
 furnished with a systematic statement of his physical condition. 
 To each are then given, by public lecture and private interview, 
 certain theoretical and practical principles by which he may care 
 intelligently for his own health. As early as possible in the 
 course he receives instruction in human anatomy and physiol- 
 ogy, illustrated by actual preparations of the human body and 
 hy papier machi models. 
 
 Every student of average health of body and condition of 
 limbs is required to take, under the eye of a professor, teacher, 
 or director, as often as four days in each week, a certain mini- 
 mum amount of muscular exercise, of such nature as is adapted 
 to a class of young men working together. The exertion de- 
 
58 
 
 manded by this exercise is not violent, but only such as is 
 rhythmic, steady, and adapted to secure free movements of the 
 body and limbs. The results sought therein are elasticity, vigor, 
 and suppleness, rather than great or prolonged muscular power. 
 
 Besides its provision for the simple and somewhat methodical 
 movements required of the students by classes, the gymnasium 
 is furnished with abundant fixed apparatus for bilateral use, and 
 for the symmetrical development of all parts of the body ; which 
 apparatus is intended for voluntary use by the students. Also 
 to a few men in the college a limited supply of heavy apparatus 
 is accessible, though always to be used under more or less super- 
 vision from the director or trainer. With this special apparatus 
 the director is able to prescribe exercises adapted to any individ- 
 ual whose bodily development is unequal or imperfect. 
 
 In addition to the above-mentioned uses, the gymnasium is 
 regarded as the place where play and amusement not of a 
 required, systematic or prescribed character may be had and 
 encouraged. 
 
 Athletic sports and contests are to be encouraged within 
 limits. The physical examinations will reveal a few who ought 
 under no consideration to enter a race, match game, or contest 
 for a prize or record. For the great mass of the students, how- 
 ever, training in out-door sports is considered most desirable. 
 
 Every one is recommended also to be out of doors, in wind, 
 storm, or sunshine, engaged in some active exercise such as 
 walking, running, or riding, for at least one good hour each day. 
 This is a supplement to the gymnasium, not a substitute for it : 
 a well-lighted, well-heated, bath-furnished gymnasium, readily 
 accessible the year round, is a sine qua non for the education 
 of college students, whatever else they may have in the way 
 of physical training. 
 
 Experience has demonstrated the need of having in charge 
 of the department two medical men, who may be freely con- 
 sulted on all matters of public and personal health, and in all 
 ordinary accidents and disorders, though with no compulsion 
 to the student as to treatment strictly medical. These physi- 
 cians are expected, in term time, to know the physical condi- 
 tion of every student ; a duty easily fulfilled, as they meet the 
 
59 
 
 student at his daily required exercise at the gymnasium, where 
 any physical weakness will certainly manifest itself. 
 
 A competitive class exhibition has proved itself an essential 
 requisite for keeping up a high standard of class work. Am- 
 herst College believes, moreover, that the department of physi- 
 cal education and hygiene should stand on a footing of recognized 
 equality with the other departments of the curriculum. 
 
 That is the result of what we have been doing at Amherst 
 for twenty-eight years. It is not a standard for Boston, or any 
 one else. I do not suppose Dr. Sargent, Dr. Seaver, or Dr. An- 
 derson would adopt it. It is greatly dependent on the person- 
 ality of the man. The personality of the man must guide his 
 class. A teacher of Greek, mathematics, or literature may be 
 an excellent teacher of these branches, and not necessarily be 
 able to teach physical education well. Until we are able to get 
 good teachers, and are willing to pay them well, I am afraid we 
 shall continue in this experimental age. 
 
 A dumb-bell exercise followed, under the charge of Mr. H. L. 
 Chadwick, of the Young Men's Christian Association, who con- 
 tended that America had a system of her own, and that he 
 would demonstrate that fact by the exercises of the class of 
 boys before the audience. 
 
 The discussion was then resumed, and Dr. Harris called first 
 on Dr. Alice T. Hall of the Women's College, Baltimore. 
 
 Dr. Hall. — The Women's College of Baltimore was the first to place 
 the department of physical education on the same plane as the other depart- 
 ments, requiring an hour a day through the four years before a degree will be 
 granted. When I began to study this question of physical training, I took a 
 few weeks' course of Dr. Sargent. I did not ask for a certificate, for I knew 
 that after five weeks' study I did not know enough to teach gymnastics. But 
 I got an idea of what a teacher should be. Then I went to see the systems 
 in other countries. I went first to Germany. There I saw the girls exercise 
 in unhygienic clothing and in an unhygienic room and in an uninterested 
 manner. Still, I thought they did very well. Then I went to Sweden, and 
 the first thing that impressed me was the magnificent carriage of the men, 
 women, and children. They walked without music; they held themselves 
 erect; their heads were well poised; their step was firm; they had, in a 
 word, perfect control of themselves, to an extent that I had never seen in any 
 
6o 
 
 other country. I went to the schools. I saw the children exercising at their 
 desks, with little apparatus. Their attention was something remarkable. 
 Every eye was in the right place ; they were not looking at their neighbors ; 
 their motions were perfect, and they were as interested as they possibly could 
 be. Then and there I decided that the Swedish system was the one that 
 could be used to the greatest advantage in America, until we had taken what 
 was best in all, and made a system of our own. That is what I believe we 
 are coming to. When our gymnastic classes were formed in Baltimore, they 
 were put under the care of a Swedish lady who had graduated from the Royal 
 Central Institute at Stockholm. I noticed that the girls who entered were 
 like ordinary American college girls. They carried themselves in the Ameri- 
 can style. They were free and easy, but their movements were not altogether 
 good. In a month's time the improvement was something wonderful. Their 
 walk on the street and their carriage in general is remarkably improved, and 
 they have had as yet but twelve lessons. We Americans have a great liking 
 for apparatus. We can do anything; but we must have appliances to do 
 with. We like to have people see that we can do things well. But I should 
 say that if we have to consider economy in connection with this question, let 
 us economize in the apparatus. Let us provide as simple apparatus as may 
 be, and give the money to the teachers for teaching gymnastics. We shall 
 get better teachers if we pay better salaries. The exhibitions which have 
 been given demonstrate pretty fairly the different systems. In the last, the 
 so-called American, we have seen a great deal of energy expended, and many 
 movements that would have been well done had more attention been given to 
 position. In the German system, we have seen the effect of not training the 
 attention, and I think this is one of the most important things to be trained. 
 If a child's attention is trained, and its powers of observation are well 
 developed, that child will do better work in his other studies. That is one of 
 the reasons why I favor the Swedish system, for it gives those results. 
 
 Dr. Helen Putnam of Vassar College. — All colleges for women will be 
 glad to see the public schools adopt some good system of physical training. 
 I have been interested in ascertaining from the students at Vassar the amount 
 of physical education which they had previous to coming to college, and have 
 recorded these data, to guide us in adapting our work to their abilities, and 
 to inform myself as to the work of schools in this direction. The number of 
 young women who come to college having had no educational physical exer- 
 cise is something that has surprised me. The percentage of seven hundred 
 students receiving some such training is twenty-nine ; but as nine per cent 
 had their training in private gymnasiums, only twenty per cent reported 
 school work. Of this twenty per cent not more than one per cent had work 
 which was sufficiently well conducted to require a gymnastic suit. The others 
 exercised in ordinary dress. In the year 1883-4 the percentage was twenty- 
 nine, the same as the percentage of the whole; in 1888-9 forty-nine per cent 
 claimed to have had gymnastic work, which shows recent increase of interest 
 in the subject. Nine per cent, however, worked privately, instead of in school, 
 
6i 
 
 and three per cent had work which was of no value. These facts may be 
 taken fairly to represent the physical education now given to girls in the best 
 schools of the United States ; that is, sixty-three per cent of the school-girls 
 have no attention whatever paid to physical training. Only ten students of 
 this thirty-seven per cent of seven hundred had their work under the direction 
 of a physician, or were examined by a physician before undertaking it. Yet, 
 in making a diagnosis of the heart and in examining the back for asymmetries, 
 I find that the proportion having organic heart disease and lateral spinal cur- 
 vature, as well as other defects, is the same among those who have had gjmi- 
 nastics (school or private) as among those who have not. Such conditions 
 require special attention. It seems to me that this indicates that whatever 
 system is adopted by the public schools, it is necessary, hand in hand with it, 
 to have a medical examiner, who shall be a competent physical diagnostician, 
 and whose duty it shall be to examine the pupils before they take any gym- 
 nastic work. 
 
 Dr. Hartwell. — Those physicians who have seen many cases of curva- 
 ture of the spine would say, I think, that a large percentage of the cases are fur- 
 nished from among school children. You might almost say that such deformities 
 are promoted by school habits, improper desks, bad positions — especially in 
 writing and drawing. For a good many years it has been a rule in Sweden 
 for the government to appoint a physician as medical officer, to examine the 
 scholars in the schools a stated number of times during the year. The school 
 physician's report is made to the Department of Education. This officer is 
 superior to the teachers of the school. If he finds pupils puny, anaemic, 
 hectic, or otherwise unfitted for the ordinary school work, he has the power 
 to say this child has too much school work, or this child must have no home 
 lessons, or he must stay out altogether, or do so and so. If he finds physical 
 deformity ; if he finds a child with a beginning of scholiosis, or curvature of 
 the spine, or with any other aifection which should prevent him from taking 
 the regular gymnastic exercises, he forbids the child to take such exercises. 
 If the child, in his judgment, should have special medical gymnastics, the 
 teachers in many schools are so well trained that they know how to give the 
 medical gymnastics. I have no hesitation in saying that the Royal Central 
 Gymnastic Institute in Stockholm is the best school for training teachers of 
 gymnastics in the world. It will be seen from what I have said that Sweden 
 has already adopted a system of medical supervision for schools such as 
 Dr. Putnam regards to be necessary. 
 
 Question. — Does that medical inspector have the power to inquire 
 whether these deformities are caused by school work or by something out 
 of school ? 
 
 Dr. Hartwell. — I think he has power to review all questions. 
 
 Adjourned. 
 
62 
 
 Eljirlr Sefigion. 
 
 The conference met Saturday, November 30, at 10 a.m., and 
 was called to order by Dr. Harris. The first paper was read by 
 D. A. Sargent, M.D., of Harvard University. 
 
 THE SYSTEM OF PHYSICAL TRAINING AT THE 
 HEMENWAY GYMNASIUM. 
 
 BY D. A. SARGENT, M.D. 
 
 In order that I may give you a comprehensive idea of the 
 system of Physical Training pursued at the Hemenway Gym- 
 nasium, it will be necessary to refer at the outset to its history 
 and development. 
 
 As this is closely connected with my own experience, I shall 
 be obliged to give you a brief autobiography. 
 
 In the fall of 1869 I accepted a position as Director of the 
 Gymnasium at Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Me. 
 
 At that time I began to make measurements of students, and 
 to observe the differences in size, strength, and development 
 that characterized different habits and conditions of life. 
 
 Two years later attendance at the gymnasium was made com- 
 pulsory to all classes, and I was called upon to devise a system 
 of exercises that would be at once efficient, progressive, and 
 popular. 
 
 In thinking this matter over I could not shut out from my 
 mind the marked difference in physique of the men who had 
 come under my observation. Some of them were six feet in 
 height, and weighed over two hundred pounds ; others had a 
 stature less than five feet and weighed under one hundred 
 pounds. Some could lift a thousand pounds and push their 
 vireight up between the parallel bars from twenty to forty 
 
63 
 
 times, while others could not lift one-tenth of this amount or 
 push their weight up once. 
 
 Had these young men been required to pass a physical ex- 
 amination and come up to a certain physical standard before 
 entering college, the task of devising a scheme of appropriate 
 exercises would have been a simpler one. 
 
 To expect that a class of individuals, varying between these 
 extremes, could be grouped together and given the same kind 
 of exercise with any hope of benefiting all seemed to me little 
 less than absurd. Yet this was the Dio Lewis plan, and I had 
 no other system before me, in America, as a guide at that 
 time. 
 
 In looking over the records of the students I had examined 
 I found that the young men who had been accustomed to walk 
 long distances to and from school, and to spend certain portions 
 of the year doing manual labor on farms, in mills, lumber yards, 
 etc., generally showed a superior physique, unless the work had 
 been excessive and begun at too early a period. Moreover, I 
 found that the young men who had been accustomed to special 
 employment, such as blacksmithing, wood-chopping, milking 
 cows, etc., showed a special development in certain parts of the 
 body, as the forearm, upper-arm, and back, while they were 
 lacking in the development of other parts. 
 
 In this way I went through the list, marking the peculiar 
 development that seemed to accompany the special occupations 
 and exercises to which the boys had given attention before com- 
 ing to college. 
 
 The conclusion that I reached was this : If actual labor will 
 produce such good physical results in certain directions, why 
 will not a system of exercises in the gymnasium, resembling 
 actual labor, accomplish the same result in opposite directions, 
 and in this way be made to supplement the deficiencies of one's 
 occupation, and to develop him where he is weak. 
 
 With this idea predominating, I began to work for its attain- 
 ment in 1 87 1. 
 
 The nearest approach that I could make to the realization of 
 this idea at Bowdoin College, for lack of funds, was the estab- 
 lishment of a lot of crude pulley-weight appliances of different 
 
64 
 
 heights and weights, to which I introduced the students as a 
 class exercise. 
 
 Pulling window-weights over a wooden roller by aid of an 
 iron handle, in a cold, unfinished building, four times a week 
 did not impress the faculty as an exercise that would be likely 
 to add to the popularity of the required system, and I think 
 that they had some doubt as to the expediency of letting an 
 instructor, "who was only a freshman," try the experiment. 
 The experiment was tried, however, and it proved so successful 
 that I was able to leave the department the next year in charge 
 of assistants, who were also students, and spend three months 
 in New Haven, trying to introduce the same system at Yale 
 College. 
 
 I mention this fact in order that you may see that the success 
 of the new movement was largely due to the peculiarity of the 
 exercise, and not to any personal force or character behind it. 
 In fact, I now know that I hit upon one of the great principles 
 that should govern all artificial exercise, without knowing it. 
 (Of this I shall speak later.) 
 
 I ought to add that we used the wooden dumb-bells and In- 
 dian clubs to alternate with the pulley-weight appliances in 
 class exercises. 
 
 For the result of this system of exercises upon the- growth 
 and development of the students at Bowdoin, I must refer my 
 hearers to the tables published in Mr. Blaikie's admirable little 
 book, "How to get Strong." 
 
 After the completion of my medical studies, in 1878, I elabo- 
 rated my old system of measurements, and had the first patterns 
 of my long-contemplated developing appliances constructed. 
 
 These consist of what are familiarly known as chest-weights, 
 chest-expanders and developers, quarter-circles, leg-machines, 
 finger-machines, etc., to the number of forty different pieces. 
 
 These appliances were first used in my private institution in 
 New York City in 1878, and were placed in the Hemenway Gym- 
 nasium in 1 879. It would seem that this style of apparatus met 
 a long-felt want, for it immediately sprang into popular favor. 
 
 As it had been publicly announced that these appliances were 
 not patented, but were given to the public for educational pur- 
 
6s 
 
 poses, they were soon copied in one form or another by various 
 manufacturers, and have since been generally introduced into 
 the school, college, athletic club, and Young Men's Christian 
 Association gymnasia throughout this country, and in different 
 parts of Europe. 
 
 To what extent this style of apparatus is now used in the 
 United States may be inferred from the fact that some of it has 
 been put into three hundred and fifty or more institutions, rep- 
 resenting a total membership of over one hundred thousand. 
 
 Thus it will be seen that the system to which I invite your 
 attention is not a thing of recent growth, but one that has been 
 undergoing a process of slow development for the past twenty 
 years. 
 
 That you may understand what it is in its present form, as 
 carried out at Harvard University, let me ask you to follow me 
 through one of the physical examinations of a student, and see 
 what we do for him. Every student who enters the University 
 is entitled to an examination, and eighty-seven per cent of the 
 whole number avail themselves of this privilege. 
 
 As soon as the student presents himself at the director's 
 office (which is done by application and appointment), he is 
 given a history blank, which he fills out, giving his birthplace, 
 nativity of parents, occupation of father, resemblance to par- 
 ents, natural heritage, general state of health, and a list of the 
 diseases he has had, all of which information is absolutely nec- 
 essary in order for the examiner to put a correct interpretation 
 upon the observations to follow. The student is then asked to 
 make certain tests of the muscular strength of the different 
 parts of his body, and to try the capacity of his lungs. 
 
 He then passes into the measuring room, and has his weight, 
 height, chest-girth, and fifty other items taken. His heart and 
 lungs are then examined before and after exercise, and a careful 
 record made of the condition of the skin, muscles, spine, etc., 
 which the tape measure fails to give. 
 
 All the items taken are then plotted on a chart, made from 
 several thousand measurements, and the examiner is then able 
 to know the relative standing of this individual as compared 
 with others for every dimension taken, also his deviation from 
 
66 
 
 symmetry and the parts which are in special need of develop- 
 ment. 
 
 To confirm the plotting of the chart, and to awaken in the 
 young man a genuine interest in his physique a photograph of 
 each student desiring it is taken in three positions, and pre- 
 served for comparison with those to be taken of him later. 
 
 From the data thus procured a special order of appropriate 
 exercises is made out for this student with specifications as to 
 the movements and apparatus he may best use. At the present 
 time this special order consists for most students of an illus- 
 trated handbook, in which the apparatus, the weights for it, and 
 the times to use it are carefully prescribed, together with such 
 suggestions as to exercise, diet, sleep, bathing, clothing, etc., as 
 will best meet the needs of the individual under considera- 
 tion. 
 
 Now I think it will be admitted by all thoughtful persons that 
 one-half the battle for mental education has been won when you 
 arouse in a boy a genuine love for learning. So one-half the 
 struggle for physical training has been won when he can be 
 induced to take a genuine interest in his bodily condition — to 
 want to remedy his defects, and to pride himself on the purity 
 of his skin, the firmness of his muscles, and the uprightness of 
 his figure. 
 
 Whether the young man chooses afterwards to use the gym- 
 nasium, to run, to row, to play ball, or saw wood for the purpose 
 of improving his physical condition matters little, provided he 
 accomplishes that object. 
 
 The modern gymnasium, however, offers facilities for building 
 up the body that are not excelled by any other system of exer- 
 cise. The introduction of the new developing appliances has 
 opened up the possibility of the gymnasium to thousands to 
 whom it was formerly an institution of doubtful value. The 
 student is no longer compelled to compete with others in the 
 performance of feats that are distasteful to him. He can now 
 compete with himself, — that is, with his own physical condition 
 from week to week, and from month to month. If he is not 
 strong enough to lift his own weight, the apparatus can be ad- 
 justed to a weight he can lift. If he is weak in the chest or the 
 
^7 
 
 back, he can spend his time and energy in strengthening those 
 parts without fear of strain or injury. 
 
 In fact, he can work for an hour, going from one piece of 
 apparatus to another, keeping always within the circuit of his 
 capacity, and adding slowly and surely to his general strength 
 and powers of endurance. If the heart is weak, the lung 
 capacity small, the liver sluggish, the circulation feeble, or the 
 nervous system impaired, etc., special forms of exercise can be 
 prescribed to meet these conditions. 
 
 Gentle running is usually advised as a constitutional exercise 
 for all of those who can take it. This is usually severe enough 
 to start the perspiration, and make- a bath of some kind desira- 
 ble. A tepid sponge or shower bath is generally advised ; and 
 in my opinion, the bath which regularly follows the exercise at 
 the gymnasium, and the habit of bathing established thereby, is 
 almost as valuable as the exercise itself. 
 
 After a period of six months or more, the student returns 
 again to the Director's office, and has another examination, in 
 order to ascertain what improvement he has made, and to re- 
 ceive any new suggestions. 
 
 This, in brief, is the educational part of the system of physi- 
 cal training carried on at the Hemenway Gymnasium. 
 
 The system of athletics and heavy gymnastics carried on at 
 the college during term time the authorities are in no way re- 
 sponsible for. These are managed by the students themselves 
 through their different athletic organizations. The faculty ex- 
 ercise a conservative influence, in requiring every man to be 
 examined and get a certificate from the Director of the Gymna- 
 sium before he can enter as a competitor in athletic contests. 
 By taking this precaution, many a student, whose zeal for ath- 
 letics was in excess of his ability, has been undoubtedly saved 
 from injury, and the character of the sport has been maintained. 
 The authorities believe that athletic sports, kept within bounds 
 and carefully regulated, are a valuable adjunct to our System of 
 physical training, and they are constantly making endeavors to 
 increase Harvard facilities in this direction. 
 
 Some of us believe it is more to the credit of a university to 
 have one hundred men who can do a creditable performance in 
 
68 
 
 running, rowing, ball-playing, etc., than to have one man who 
 can break a record, or a team that can always win the cham- 
 pionship. 
 
 The great aim of the gymnasium is to improve the physical 
 condition of the mass of our students, and to give them as 
 much health, strength, and stamina as possible, to enable them 
 to perform the duties that await them after leaving college. 
 How well this work is being accomplished I hope to be able to 
 show at some future time. Just at present I will only make 
 one statement, which has been made before, but which some of 
 you may not have heard. 
 
 We have to-day on our record books at Harvard the names 
 of two hundred and forty-five students whose test of general 
 strength (of arms, chest, back, legs, lungs, etc.) surpasses the 
 test of the strongest man in 1880. (The Gymnasium was 
 opened that year, it will be understood, and few of the men 
 then in college had been in the habit of taking systematic 
 exercise.) To-day we have over twelve hundred men who at- 
 tend the gymnasium more or less regularly. 
 
 While the number of the men coming to the University has 
 increased fifty per cent during the past ten years, the number 
 using the gymnasium has increased over one hundred and fifty 
 per cent during the same interval. 
 
 Perhaps the most important work the University is doing 
 in the way of physical training is at its Summer School for 
 Teachers. 
 
 This has only been established three years, but within that 
 time we have had one htxndred and sixty-one pupils. The most 
 of them were teachers in physical exercises at colleges and sec- 
 ondary schools in different parts of the country. Among the list 
 were several physicians, thirty-two college graduates, army offi- 
 cers, school superintendents and principals, and many teachers 
 and professors in other branches, who attended for their own 
 improvement or in the interest of the institution which they 
 represented. 
 
 The list of instructors last summer comprised seven physi- 
 cians, six specialists, and seven student assistants. The theo- 
 retical work of the course comprised lectures and recitations in 
 
69 
 
 the Elements of Applied Anatomy and Physiology and in Per- 
 sonal Hygiene ; also lectures and practical talks on Anthro- 
 pology, Anthropometry, Physical Diagnosis, Methods of Pre- 
 scribing Exercise for the Individual, Physical Exercise in the 
 Treatment of Spinal Curvature, Testing for Normal Vision and 
 Hearing, and Massage and its applications. 
 
 The practical work of the course consisted in Free Move- 
 ments, Calisthenics, Light Gymnastics, Marching, Methods of 
 Conducting Squad, Class and Division Exercises, Gymnastic 
 Games, Heavy Gymnastics, Track and Field Athletics, Physi- 
 cal Examinations, Practice in Measuring and the Use of Testing 
 and Developing Appliances, Boxing, Fencing, Swimming, and 
 Voice Training. 
 
 This school is restricted in its usefulness by the little time 
 that can be devoted to it. But as most of the teachers have 
 had considerable experience, and are tolerably well trained by 
 preparatory study and physical exercises before coming to the 
 school, the amount of efficiency acquired is greater than would 
 at first seem possible. 
 
 At my private gymnasium (which was established for the 
 Harvard Annex) I have had a normal class for women for the 
 past eight years, and it was in this humble institution that most 
 of the teachers now directing the gymnasiums of our large col- 
 leges for women were trained. 
 
 Now that the subject of physical education is before the pub- 
 lic, and a popular sentiment seems to be setting in this direction, 
 there is not a little danger that it may lose its force, or be turned 
 in wrong directions by the over-zealousness of some of its teach- 
 ers and advocates, and the extravagant claims of a certain class 
 in the community who wish to reap a pecuniary profit from the 
 movement. 
 
 When gymnasium instructors arrange a new order of exer- 
 cises and claim to have invented a system of physical training, 
 when machine companies and manufacturing establishments 
 issue papers and books of instruction in physical exercises, and 
 the apostles of physical culture who have no gymnasiums make a 
 virtue of necessity, and claim that change of clothing, bathing, and 
 the use of apparatus are not necessary for the perfect develop- 
 
70 
 
 ment of the body, it is well for those having the best interests 
 of the rising generation at heart to ask themselves a few ques- 
 tions. 
 
 Has the experience of other nations, and the history and 
 biographies of peoples and individuals distinguished for health, 
 strength, and powers of endurance, taught us nothing ? 
 
 Have the researches of the anatomist, physiologist, and scien- 
 tist during the past century thrown no light on this subject? 
 In other words, have we discovered no broad underlying princi- 
 ples upon which the subject of physical education rests? 
 
 It seems to me that we have made great progress in this 
 direction, and some of us are working according to principles 
 which, if not true, should, in the interest of the cause, be re- 
 futed. 
 
 I have given some idea of the practical working of our sys- 
 tem at Cambridge ; now let me invite your attention to a con- 
 sideration of some of the theories and principles upon which it 
 is founded. 
 
 " The characteristic physiological property of muscular tissue, 
 and that for which it is employed in the body," says Martin,^ 
 "is the faculty possessed by its fibres of shortening forcibly 
 under certain circumstances." This property is called contrac- 
 tility, and upon the full performance of this function depends 
 not only the healthy condition of the muscles, but of the various 
 parts of the body with which they are connected. 
 
 Now, what are the circumstances under which a muscle per- 
 forms its greatest contraction ? 
 
 1st. "There must be a succession of strong and oft-repeated 
 stimuli. 2d. The muscle must have a load to carry or resist- 
 ance opposed to its shortening." 
 
 This can be illustrated by the experiment so often conducted 
 in the physiological laboratory. Take a muscle without a weight 
 attached to it, and apply a stimulus. The muscle will contract 
 say a quarter of an inch. Now apply a weight of one pound to 
 it and apply the same stimulus. The muscle will contract half 
 an inch. Attach a still heavier weight, say two pounds, and 
 apply the same stimulus, and the muscle will contract one inch. 
 1 "The Human Body" (Chapter x.), by H. Newell Martin, D.Sc, M.A., M.D. 
 
71 
 
 And so the experiment could be carried on until a weight was 
 attached which would cause the contractions of the muscles to 
 be less and less until they finally ceased. " So that up to a cer- 
 tain limit, resistance to the shortening of a muscle makes it 
 more able to shorten, and the greater extension of the muscle 
 due to the greater resistance opposed to its shortening puts it 
 into a state in which it is able to contract more powerfully." 
 
 Upon the interpretation of this simple physiological fact de- 
 pends the foundation of two great systems of physical training 
 — one faction advocating that the antagonizing muscles in free 
 movements, without apparatus, furnish all the resistance that is 
 necessary; while the other faction claim that the resistance 
 afforded by opposing muscles is not sufficient, and that weights 
 of some kind, or apparatus, is necessary to bring out the work- 
 ing force of the muscle used. 
 
 I believe that the last conclusion is the correct one. The 
 study of the human skeleton as a whole and in parts, the pecu- 
 liar formation of the tuberosities and prominences of the bones, 
 and the size and strength of the muscles attached to them, 
 all go to show that the limbs were not only designed to be 
 moved, but to help man bear his burden, overcome obstacles, 
 and fight his way in the world. 
 
 Where do we look for the best specimens of physical develop- 
 ment but to those engaged in all-round, vigorous, manual labor ? 
 Yes, as Maclaren says, "exercise, which is voluntary labor, 
 must resemble actual labor, if it be desired to obtain from it 
 the physical advantages which actual labor bestows." 
 
 The work done by a muscle in a given contraction when 
 it lifts a weight vertically against gravity is measured by the 
 weight moved multiplied by the distance through which it is 
 moved. This test furnishes the best means of judging of the 
 efficiency of a system of exercises. 
 
 We saw in the laboratory experiment that when the muscle 
 simply lifted its own weight that it did no work, and that noth- 
 ing was accomplished when it tried to lift a weight too heavy 
 for it, but that there was an intermediate weight that it 
 lifted to the greatest height, and did the greatest amount of 
 work. 
 
72 
 
 What is true of this single muscle is true of all the muscles 
 of the body ; there is a certain weight with which the different 
 groups of muscles can do the most effective service in a given 
 time. If the weight is too light or too heavy, the best effect 
 of the exercise is not realized. 
 
 This may be illustrated by the familiar use of the chest- 
 weights (so-called). If you go through the movements without 
 any weight, the exercise is insipid. If, on the other hand, you 
 load the boxes up to their full capacity, you will find that there 
 are only one or two movements that you can do, and these only 
 for a minute or so. Now, if you have carefully gauged your 
 strength to about five pounds (which is, perhaps, the average 
 weight used in these appliances), you will find that you can go 
 through the full set of exercises (comprising some forty or fifty 
 separate movements) and feel that you have accomplished some- 
 thing that will be a benefit to you. This statement is equally 
 true of all the different developing appliances found in a well- 
 equipped gymnasium ; and to the fact that our modern appara- 
 tus can be adjusted to the strength of the strong and the weak- 
 ness of the weak may be attributed a large part of the value 
 and popularity of those thriving institutions. 
 
 But there is another principle now taken advantage of, to 
 which the modern gymnasium owes a great part of its effi- 
 ciency. In view of the tendency of the times I cannot help 
 thinking that it is a valuable one. 
 
 In primitive races individuals of the same tribe bear a close 
 resemblance to each other. As they progress in civilization 
 difference of function begins to work a difference in structure ; 
 and we begin to get a marked variation in size, form, and 
 feature. 
 
 In highly civilized communities the minute division of labor 
 carries this variation still further ; so that it is not only possible 
 in many cases to distinguish individuals by their calling, but the 
 particular branch of work in which they are engaged can be 
 easily determined by its influence upon their physical structure. 
 In other words, men are moulded by their trades and occupa- 
 tions, and many of the diseases with which they are afflicted 
 arise from physical defects due to faulty positions and want of 
 
73 
 
 appropriate exercise. Perhaps no class in the community have 
 their physical characteristics more marked than the student- 
 class. The type may be distinguished by a drooping head, flat 
 chest, hollow back, and constricted ribs just over the stomach. 
 It is not necessary to look for the causes of these defects. 
 They are faulty positions while studying, pressure of the desk 
 against the body, the constriction of clothing during the grow- 
 ing period, the relaxed state of certain muscles, and the over- 
 strained condition of others. 
 
 Most occupations, including that of the student, tend to over- 
 use the flexor muscles and to compress and constrict the body, 
 thus lessening its internal capacity and interfering with the 
 functions of important organs. Thus the resistance of the 
 clothing, weights lifted and borne on the back or shoulders, and 
 even the use of heavy dumb-bells for health's sake, all tend to 
 force the ribs downward and lessen the diameter of the thorax. 
 To remedy this evil a system of artificial exercise is necessary. 
 
 Just here we touch upon a principle that has escaped the 
 attention of most teachers. If this deformity is brought about 
 by the natural action of the muscles, that is, by their acting 
 centripetally from their origin to their insertions, surely the 
 remedy is to make them act centrifugally from their insertions 
 to their origins. By grasping a bar or a pair of rings above the 
 head, the parts where the muscles are inserted become fixed, and 
 if the muscles contract, the parts from which they originated 
 must move. In this case all the diameters of the thorax are 
 increased and the chest capacity enlarged. In this principle 
 lies the value of the rings, trapeze, ladders, parallel and horizon- 
 tal bars, and in fact all of the climbing appurtenances to those 
 who are able to use them. By the invention of the chest-ex- 
 pander, chest-developer, quarter-circle, high pulleys, and inclined 
 planes, travelling parallels, and similar apparatus, the same 
 principle can be applied by any one, however weak, and the 
 same result can be accomplished. It requires a little more 
 time, but the effect is likely to be more durable. 
 
 By the use of the pulley-weight system, resistance can be 
 applied to any pairt of the body from any direction. In this 
 peculiar property lies its great value as a means of enlarging 
 
74 
 
 the thoracic cavity and counteracting the cramping and con- 
 stricting tendencies of modern occupations. 
 
 I have dwelt upon these principles at some length because I 
 have reason to believe they have not been well understood by 
 persons interested in the subject. Some of the other theories 
 that have guided me in formulating a system of exercises I shall 
 state briefly in the form of a summary, together with those I 
 have just mentioned. 
 
 As far as I have been able to discover, they are based on 
 sound physiological principles. 
 
 (i) The person should be sufficiently interested in the exer- 
 cise to give it his attention in order to secure the necessary 
 volitional power to start the movement. Whether the exercise 
 is interesting in itself is a matter of little consequence. 
 
 (2) There should be a weight or resistance to overcome in 
 order to bring out the working force of the muscle. In using a 
 weight the muscle gradually acquires the force with which it 
 tries to contract. 
 
 (3) The exercise must be performed with sufficient vigor and 
 rapidity to engage the energetic contraction of the muscles em- 
 ployed. When this is done, old tissue is broken down, and its 
 place is supplied with new material in increased quantity, thus 
 augmenting the size and strength of the muscles. 
 
 The brain gains the power and energy which the exercise 
 requires it to put forth. 
 
 (4) Weak parts must first be strengthened, and then as 
 many muscles as possible must be brought into action in 
 order to secure a full-orbed and harmonious development of 
 the whole body. One-sided development is usually attained by 
 robbing some other part of its just share of the body's nutri- 
 ment. 
 
 Most persons in their daily occupations use the flexor muscles 
 more than the extensors — thereby cramping the vital organs 
 and interfering with their functions. To remedy this tendency 
 the muscles should be made to act from the centre as far as pos- 
 sible in all forms of artificial exercise. 
 
 (5) A sufficient number of muscles should be called into action 
 at one time to stimulate the action of the heart and lungs and in- 
 
75 
 
 crease the circulation and respiration. This is one of the most 
 important considerations to bear in mind in regard to exer- 
 cise. To keep up this increased respiratory activity, and to aid 
 the heart in removing the waste material and hastening forward 
 the new, the limbs and walls of the chest must be absolutely 
 free from any ligatures or constrictions. The slightest interfer- 
 ence with the action of the respiratory muscles at this time em- 
 barrasses the functions of the lungs and heart. This is the 
 reason why loose clothing is always advised for exercise. 
 
 (6) As a latent period precedes the contraction of a muscle, 
 so a momentary period of rest should as far as possible precede 
 movement in exercise. This is best secured where there is an 
 alternation in the movements, as in walking, running, rowing, 
 etc. All tetanized movements, such as holding weights, attitu- 
 dinizing, standing or sitting in a constrained position, etc., tend 
 to impair the tone of the muscles by interfering with the nutri- 
 tion of both muscles and nerves. 
 
 (7) The exercise of the young should be of such a composite 
 nature as to bring about the co-operation and co-ordination of 
 the muscles. This involves principally the training of the cen- 
 tral nerve system. All gymnastic sports and athletic games 
 that require skill, dexterity, coolness, courage, and presence of 
 mind, are included in this list, and are exceedingly valuable to 
 any system of physical training, as adjuncts in the development 
 of character. 
 
 (8) All vital processes depend largely upon the maintenance 
 of animal heat. But animal heat is now known to be generated 
 in the blood while passing through the muscles, and not in 
 the lungs, as was once supposed. The full contraction of the 
 muscles greatly aids this function, and helps to force the warm 
 blood through the tissues and back again to the heart. 
 
 (9) In order to realize the best results from physical exercise 
 and keep up the general nutrition of the body, all muscular 
 effort should be followed by a bath or vigorous stroking and 
 rubbing. 
 
 (10) In every kind of physical exercise the qualities at first 
 required are the qualities at length developed. Thus, if the 
 exercise requires strength, strength will be the result ; if cour- 
 
76 
 
 age is exacted, courage will be the outcome; if quickness, 
 quickness ; and so through the whole range of faculties exer- 
 cised. 
 
 Knowing what is desired, it is an easy matter to prescribe 
 the appropriate training. In this very fact lies an element of 
 danger, which it is well for us to consider. There should be 
 a better understanding of the physiology of exercise, a recogni- 
 tion of the supreme value of unity in development, and more 
 information as to what constitutes the normal man for different 
 races, ages, and conditions of life. 
 
 Until these questions are settled there will continue to be 
 the widest difference of opinion as to the kind, amount, and 
 place of physical training in a scheme of education. The pres- 
 ent aspect of the subject in Europe and in this country fur- 
 nishes illustrations to the point. 
 
 Germany, tired of the dull, stereotyped exercises of the 
 Turnverein, is making a plea for sports and games ; old Eng- 
 land and our New England, perplexed with athletics run wild, 
 are attempting to substitute a rational system of exercise for 
 competitive sports ; while France and Sweden are beginning 
 to realize that calisthenics and free movements, though bene- 
 ficial to the graces, afford little or no exercise as such. Yet 
 these are the nations that gave us our first ideas on the 
 subject. 
 
 What America most needs is the happy combination which 
 the European nations are trying to effect : the strength-giving 
 qualities of the German gymnasium, the active and energetic 
 properties of the English sports, the grace and suppleness 
 acquired from the French calisthenics, and the beautiful poise 
 and mechanical precision of the Swedish free movements, 
 all regulated, systematized, and adapted to our peculiar needs 
 and institutions. 
 
 The highest development of strength, activity, and grace is 
 not compatible in the same individual, and consequently many 
 persons prefer to sacrifice one in order to gain the other. But 
 robust, vigorous health is only maintained in a body in which 
 life's forces are well adjusted and well balanced. 
 
77 
 
 The discussion was opened by Walter Channing, M.D., as 
 follows : — 
 
 Dr. Channing. — As I understand the subject of this Conference is physi- 
 cal training in schools, I shall limit my remarks to that subject. I suppose 
 we are all laboring for the same end, yet we have too much to say about 
 systems. Who, I may ask, can lay claim to any special system? Is not the 
 work done by diiferent investigators partly founded on the accumulated expe- 
 rience of others and partly on theu- own ideas ? 
 
 Ling was the man who adapted rational mechanical movements to the 
 principles of what the organism demanded. He was able to both establish 
 principles and put them to the best of successful practice. In as far as this, 
 and only as far, are we bound to follow him. 
 
 The questions with us to-day are ; ist. What are the principles which should 
 guide us in the physical training of children? and 2d, how can these princi- 
 ples be applied? We saw and heard yesterday a good deal of the application, 
 but little, I regret to say, of the underlying principles. 
 
 We had, for example, exhibitions of the "German," " Swedish," and "Ameri- 
 can" systems, as they were called, though I should be more inclined to call 
 them the systems of a German gentleman I do not know the name of, Mr. 
 Posse, and Mr. Roberts, late of the Young Men's Christian Association Gym- 
 nasium. They were all admirable in many ways, and yet how easy it is for 
 us all to criticise them. 
 
 Some of the exercises were too hard for young children, especially girls ; 
 some over-strained the attention, others were too heavy and woodeny, and 
 especially too great prominence was given to a high degree of excellence, 
 producing an almost painful tension, it seemed to me. 
 
 Such objections as these could be multiplied, and more specifically stated, 
 but that is not exactly what I wish to bring out. 
 
 What do we want to accomplish ? Let us remember first of all that we want 
 to take a lot of young, immature, active, restless, often ill-nourished little 
 creatures, and big ones too, for that matter, not classes of adults, and so 
 guide and direct them that the existing faulty physical conditions may be 
 overcome and the foundations laid for future physical health. 
 
 Let me pause here a moment to lay emphasis on the necessity for such a 
 foundation. Let us remember that a correct method of physical training is 
 the chief means by which we may hope to overcome and prevent the tendency, 
 now so common among us, to mental and nervous instability and degeneracy ; 
 a tendency, I may say in passing, due to no one cause, but excess in various 
 directions. 
 
 We must then have the most simple, varied, and active exercises for the 
 youngest children, naturally growing harder as the children advance in years ; 
 and we must have plenty of oxygen and inspiring surroundings, otherwise the 
 solemnity and depression of the school will deprive them of much of the 
 desired benefit. 
 
78 
 
 In the higher schools the exercises must be neither between, on top of, 
 nor under the desks, but in a well-equipped gymnasium. It is useless to think 
 of avoiding expense in this direction, for the idea of progression in work can- 
 not otherwise be maintained, and the whole system would eventually die of 
 inanition. 
 
 And we must have music too, for some of the movements can be better 
 done to music. The time can be adapted to many movements, as I have 
 demonstrated myself and seen demonstrated a thousand times, and no theories 
 can upset the evidence on this point. Of course no one would think of jump- 
 ing, or vaulting, or throwing bean-bags, or of cutting pigeon wings, or pirou- 
 etting to music. But exercises with dumb-bells, wands, chest-weights, and 
 chest-bars will, in nine cases out of ten, be more effectually and enjoyably 
 done with music than without. It is often a great gain to have less of the 
 personality of the teacher, which often is liable to the little upsets which aifect. 
 all human nature, and more of the soothing effects of the music, which tend 
 to keep alive harmony and good feeling between teacher and pupils. 
 
 I have very serious doubts how much can be accomplished in the end, for 
 purposes of the physical training of children, by the placing of their instruc- 
 tion in the hands of the ordinary teachers unless they have taken a regular 
 graded course of several years in gymnastic work. It is in itself a many- 
 sided profession, and requires both wide experience in studying the physical 
 condition of many people, and enthusiasm to make its success assured. 
 
 Many ordinary teachers would never be able to instruct at all in gymnas- 
 tics, even after taking special courses. The professional teacher would, how- 
 ever, be employed only for merit, and a much higher grade of work would be 
 the result. 
 
 The great difficulty in making a success of gymnastic training in times past 
 has been the tendency, from poor teaching and lack of interest in, and appre- 
 ciation of, the work, to become more and more mechanical and circumscribed. 
 A slow, lingering, and painful death would be the natural consequence. 
 
 There is less danger of this now, as more is known about physical training, 
 and the demand for something to counteract the exhausting tendencies of 
 modern life is imperatively thrust upon us. 
 
 To sum up my brief remarks, I would say in a word, we should adopt no 
 so-caUed specific system, but take what is good in each without fear or favor;- 
 then place the whole carrying out of the plan in the hands of skilled profes- 
 sional teachers, preferably women, who have had an extended experience in 
 the instruction of children. No others can fully estimate the high and respon- 
 sible character of the undertaking. I have a strong feeling that women will 
 make extremely good teachers, especially with children, who require so much 
 patience and a knowledge of their particular needs which a man does not have, 
 though he may have very good intentions. I was much interested in the 
 paper of Dr. Sargent, for he presented the side of the heavy gymnastics 
 admirably. We have got to take the best things out of each system and mix 
 them all up and apply them as we see the need. 
 
79 
 
 Miss LuciLE Eaton Hill, Director of Gymnasium, Wellesley College. 
 
 I am very glad that I did not know I was to be called on, because in the ex- 
 citement of the moment I may say something that I would not dare to say if 
 I had time to think about it. 
 
 It seems to be the fashion to have a system of physical training, — then I 
 am sure I have one. I shall call it " eclectic," for I ha^e endeavored to take 
 the best ideas from all systems and roll them into a ball for Wellesley, to be 
 unwound at our discretion. 
 
 But I hate the word " system," — don't you ? I mean the running-in-one- 
 track part of it, and being satisfied with one's own ideas without recognizing 
 the good in all methods. 
 
 I am sure Dr. Sargent would feel at home in the Wellesley Gymnasium, 
 because we have the statistics of over a thousand women, and we use his 
 system of measurements and strength-tests. Dr. Hitchcock would feel at 
 home with us because the minimum amount of exercise in the gymnasium 
 is compulsory, and we march very well indeed. Dr. Anderson would be at 
 home because we could not swing Indian clubs as remarkably as we do with- 
 out music, and Dr. Posse would be gratified if he knew that there are just 
 as many exercises that he could not possibly perform with music ! To General 
 Moore we owe our enthusiasm for the "setting up" drill, and we have a real 
 drum. 
 
 I want to speak in behalf of the little girls in our schools. I am sure it is 
 because they need it so much that this great interest is shown in physical 
 training. I do not think the boys are of quite so much consequence, — do 
 you ? " If strong be the frames of the mothers, the sons shall make laws for 
 the people " ; and we are working for the future generations ; to be sure it is 
 far-reaching philanthropy. 
 
 Let us fancy ourselves little girls, wriggling five hours a day on uncomfort- 
 able chairs, twisting ourselves into impossible shapes, not one of which affords 
 the desired relief. 
 
 Do you blame us, little animals that we are, desiring the freedom of kittens 
 and puppies and colts, if we demand the privilege of exercising vigorously 
 and breathing deeply for five or ten minutes at the close of every hour, while 
 cool, pure air rushes through the warm, close room ? 
 
 I do not see why the regular teachers in the primary, intermediate, and 
 grammar schools cannot be trained to lead their own classes in the various 
 exercises, thereby benefiting themselves also. Mild competition should be 
 encouraged between schools of the same grade, and opportunity afforded at 
 the end of the year for public approval and the awarding of prizes. Of 
 course (?) the teachers will be paid extra for this extra work. 
 
 But in the high schools, when little girls become "young ladies," and can 
 no longer romp out of doors with boys, because it is "unladylike"; when 
 they begin to turn up their hair and lengthen their fi-ocks, and put oh corsets, 
 I tell you it will take the combined wisdom of every specialist in the country 
 to meet the needs of the case ; and the only persons who can successfully do 
 
8o 
 
 this are women. I know you all agree with me. Then floor room must be 
 given for more advanced exercises, with apparatus if desirable. 
 
 When our preparatory schools adopt a thorough course of physical training, 
 the work of the directors of gymnasia in women's colleges will no longer be 
 to correct the bad habits formed by lack of such training in public schools, 
 but wUl be as far ahead of preliminary drill as higher mathematics is in advance 
 of the multiplication table. 
 
 The object of such training should be the strengthening of the vital organs, 
 the increase of lung capacity.the symmetrical development of the muscles, 
 and the training of the nerves, keeping ever in mind the aesthetic importance 
 of physical culture as well as the hygienic. 
 
 The Senior class of Wellesley College, the majority of whom become 
 teachers, will be trained in the system adopted by our public schools, so they 
 in their turn will be ready to continue the good work, and thus complete the 
 " circle." 
 
 Is it not wiser to first show the members of the Schbol Board what sys- 
 tematic thorough work we can do with the time and room they willingly give 
 us (we can do anything with nothing, if we make up our minds to do it) ; 
 then by and by will they not be so delighted with the results that they will be 
 anxious to do more, because a theory has been made practical? 
 
 Dr. Carolyn C. Ladd of Bryn Mawr College. — I received a letter two 
 weeks ago asking me to attend this Conference and to take part in the dis- 
 cussions. I said, in replying, that I would be present, and would take part if 
 I had anything to say. Several times I have had things to say, but every 
 time some one else has said that very thing better than I could have done. 
 At present I have very little to put before you. I want first of all to empha- 
 size the need of physical training for girls, from the age of twelve to the age 
 of entering college, about eighteen or nineteen. As the speaker before me 
 said, little girls get a fair amount of exercise because they play out of doors 
 with their brothers. But from twelve to nineteen, during the time they are 
 preparing for college, they have very little physical exercise or work, and that 
 is the time when their bodies are forming, and they are laying the structure 
 for the work of life, and it is the time when they should educate their bodies 
 and develop their physical strength. 
 
 I had the pleasure of seeing the Swedish system in Sweden this last sum- 
 mer, and I found it very excellent in every particular. It seemed to me that 
 one great cause of the excellence of its results is that the teachers are all 
 well trained to carry out the system. And they are required to carry it out 
 through all the board schools and those that lead up to the higher institutions. 
 If we could get a system — Swedish, American, or whatever it might be — 
 that could be thoroughly carried out in our common schools and the schools 
 that prepare our women for college, then I think the difficulties that we are 
 discussing would be done away. 
 
 Miss Ruth C. Tousley of Jamestown, N.Y. — We have had gymnastics 
 in our schools for twenty-five years. Our superintendent, Mr. Samuel G. Love, 
 
8i 
 
 came to Boston about twenty-six years ago and saw the exercises given by 
 Die Lewis. Since tlien we have Iiad such exercises in our public schools, 
 partly our own, partly Dio Lewis's, partly gained from Dr. Anderson at the 
 summer school at Chautauqua. We take everything that we find will be help- 
 ful to the children. I feel that I have gained a great deal from being here. 
 The Swedish system is entirely new to me, and I do not know whether it 
 could be put into the public schools or not as it is. I find music is very 
 attractive from the age of ten up. All the scholars of the high school go into 
 the gymnasium some part of the day. They come in for a rest from their 
 studies. We could not give the time to gymnastic work that they give in 
 college ; being under the super\'ision of the state, there is so much work 
 required of us in other directions. The children enjoy the exercises very 
 much. One of our little schemes to encourage them in their work is to 
 say, " I would like to see how well you can do it, how well you can carry 
 yourselves, and I will know by that how you enjoy coming here," and it 
 is interesting to see how they brighten up and how well they do. After 
 hearing our college professors I find I know very little about the work, but I 
 am glad to report that we have had physical exercises ever since our high 
 and grammar schools were organized in our little city, which we consider a 
 progressive one, and we stand ready to adopt whatever system is the best. 
 
 Mr. Ray Greene Huling of New Bedford. — I suppose I am here because 
 I have the capacity to learn, and not because I have any fund of knowledge 
 which I can give to others on this subject. I am in the position of a juryman, 
 whether intelligent or not will depend on the character of the message I bear 
 home with me. Certainly I came with one quality which the lawyers like in 
 a juryman, — the absence of preparation for the decision of the question 
 before us. 
 
 I listened yesterday with intense interest to all that was said to us, and 
 faithfully used my eyes (and my spectacles) in observing the exercises ; but I 
 was impressed more than anything else with the fact that it was all in great 
 measure above the level of the common schools of Massachusetts. It seems 
 to me that a system, to be used with advantage in our public schools, must 
 be not only devised by physiologists and physicians and by those who are 
 trained in various methods of applying the principles of physical growth, but 
 also revised by experienced school teachers. I have been very glad to hear 
 quite a little said this morning about the limitations which the school-room 
 evidently puts upon any system of physical education. The school-room is 
 not a perfect appliance in any sense. Its main work is intellectual education, 
 but that can be done only to a limited degree. The school has another side, 
 that of morals, and moral education is an even more valuable product than 
 mental education ; yet this work it can do only fairly well. But to physical 
 education the school-room is adapted least of all. Consider the one element 
 of time. I asked my superintendent of schools yesterday, " How much time, 
 on the average, can you allow to be given in the public schools of our city to 
 physical education? " " Well," said he, " to begin with the primary schools, 
 
82 
 
 twenty minutes a day ; in the higher classes, not more than fifteen minutes a 
 day." I turned this morning to a gentleman of large experience in public 
 school-teaching, and asked him how much time could be given to this work 
 in the large cities. " Not more than ten or twelve minutes, with our present 
 course of instruction," he said. And now I venture to ask Dr. Sargent how 
 much of his admirable system could be accomplished in ten, twelve, or fifteen 
 minutes a day, through the school life of the boys and girls ? It is evident 
 that we must appeal to the practical experience of our teachers before this 
 problem can be solved. 
 
 I trust that the outcome of this meeting will not be simply the separation 
 of the different members of it, and a carrying away of confused and scarcely 
 crystallized opinions to the different parts of the state, but that there will be 
 provision made for the appointment of a commission which shall consider this 
 whole subject from the point of view of experience, and that a report will be 
 made through the public press at some later time, giving a definite plan on 
 which the common schools, from the primary to the close of the high school, 
 may begin to work. And I suggest that a suitable composition of that com- 
 mittee would be to have gentlemen like Dr. Sargent and Dr. Hartwell, who 
 should represent the physiological side of the question, and two others 
 -who should know the public schools of the state completely, and a fifth per- 
 son who should be a lady, a lady trained to observe boys, and especially girls, 
 from the point of view of physiology, if possible a physician who has also 
 been a schoolma'am. 
 
 Dr. L. V. Ingraham. — I have been interested in physical training for 
 about five years, from a medical standpoint. I have been connected with a 
 gymnasium for working girls, and have seen a good deal of regular school 
 work in two of the leading private schools of this city. 
 
 My experience confirms what has been very admirably stated, and what I 
 think has been proved by the experience of i Sir Edwin Chadwick of England 
 in connection with ' ' the Factory Act " ; viz. , " the receptivity of the minds of 
 the great mass of children for direct instruction does not exceed three hours 
 daily.'''' This statement is confirmed by all of the leading physiologists. I 
 consider that before anything can be properly done in connection with the 
 physical training of boys and girls we must do away with flooding them with 
 words, thus wrapping things up in mysteries which the little brain cannot 
 unravel. Mental instruction should be interlarded with physical and manual 
 training. Let the manual training come when the child is fourteen or fifteen 
 years old. Let the child up to that time have ample recreation and out-door 
 exercise, and whatever exercise is deemed proper for winter months be used 
 under proper circumstances and in suflScient amount. We must consider this 
 thing not entirely fi-om the point of view of the boards of education. I bow 
 in all honor to the boards of education ; but they should not say that we can 
 ■ only have twenty minutes a day for the children's physical development, just 
 
 1 "The Health of Nations," by Sir Edwin Chadwick, edited by B. W. Richardson, 
 VVol. I. p. 228. 
 
83 
 
 because we may never have had any more time for it. Let us not go on in a 
 track because it has been long travelled. I suggest this, being very much 
 interested in this work, and from seeing the effect of so-called overwork in 
 the schools. I do not think mental training is thought by physicians to keep 
 children from being well, but rather the keeping them still too long at a time 
 — the want of variety in work and position ; keeping them nominally at work 
 when no impressions are made, and nothing gained except weariness, this 
 surely is not mental training. I think, if the time for direct instruction were 
 reduced, and we could introduce a sufficient amount of physical and manual 
 training to break up these periods somewhat, that the problem would be more 
 nearly solved. But it is a matter of evolution, and it will take a long time to 
 reach a happy solution. 
 
 Mr. Whittier of Bowdoin College. — I think that in many respects this 
 is a remarkable gathering. Here we are, all the various schools of gymnas- 
 tics, each bringing forward its own system. And it is a great thing for physi- 
 cal culture that the different schools can meet together in this way. Imagine, 
 if you can, the different schools of medicine — old school, homoeopathic. Chris- 
 tian science, and others — coming together in a conference and discussing the 
 relative merits of their different systems. It would take all the policemen of 
 the city to control such a gathering. It has been made evident here that 
 there are many systems of physical training, and the fact that the doctors of 
 physical training disagree in regard to their respective merits, as they cer- 
 tainly do, may seem to a great many to throw discredit on physical training 
 as a whole. But there are two reasons why doctors disagree in this. One 
 of them was put forward yesterday ; it is on account of the individuality of 
 the teachers. Dr. Hitchcock finds that he succeeds best with one system ; 
 Dr. Sargent succeeds best with another system. Then another reason is, 
 that different pupils need different systems. Suppose Drs. Sargent and 
 Hitchcock should change places. I have no doubt that if Dr. Hitchcock 
 came to Harvard, and Dr. Sargent went to Amherst, they would have to 
 modify their plans to suit the different conditions. We saw yesterday a plan 
 of exercises as carried on by the Young Men's Christian Association. I be- 
 lieve that for those associations that plan is a very good one ; but I do not 
 think it would do for a plan of exercise for our colleges. You must change 
 your plan of work to suit your conditions, and each teacher must map out a 
 plan to suit himself. I have been much interested in the Swedish system as 
 it has been shown here. I think there is a great deal of good in it ; but there 
 is much in it that I do not believe in. I find in many cases that Indian clubs 
 give a good form of exercise. I also believe in the occasional use of music. 
 Again, it seems to me not quite right to claim that certain exercises are not 
 gymnastics, as, for instance, the crossing of the arms, which brings into play 
 the muscles in front of the chest. We have those muscles given to us, and I 
 think it is natural for us to use them. Certain exercises have been con- 
 demned as not gymnastic, because they bring us into cramped positions. It 
 is a good thing to be brought into cramped positions sometimes, provided we 
 
84 
 
 do not stay in them. We shall be obliged to take such positions occasionally 
 all through life, and it is well to get used to them. I think we can gain a 
 good deal of information by watching children in their play, especially young- 
 sters from two to four years old, as they tumble about on the floor. Theirs is 
 the natural system, the system that nature leads them to adopt. Don't you 
 see them getting into cramped positions? As they grow older, if their play 
 is natural, they will use every muscle that God has given them. When they 
 are older yet, if they are boys, and play foot-ball, they will often get into posi- 
 tions that are a trifle cramped, and no very great harm seems to result from 
 it. Our system of physical education should be a natural one, so far as pos- 
 sible. We should try to copy from nature. It has been said that gymnastics 
 is an artificial thing, and so it is. Our whole lives, under the modern plan of 
 civilization, are artificial, and we have to use an artificial system of gymnastics 
 to balance the artificiality of our lives ; but in doing so we must copy nature 
 as far as possible. We must use all the muscles that we have, and to an 
 extent proportionate to their importance. I do not believe in outlawing a set 
 of muscles altogether, because they cramp the chest when over-developed. 
 It does not do for us to set up the claim that one muscle is wrong and should 
 not be used, because they are all given to us to be used. 
 
 At Bowdoin College we have a graded system of physical exercises. We 
 have Dr. Sargent's system entire. When a man comes to college, he is ex- 
 amined according to Dr. Sargent's plan ; exercises are prescribed for him ; an 
 illustrated handbook is given to him, with prescriptions fully made out to suit 
 his individual case. The chart used at the Hemenway Gymnasium is also 
 given, and every effort is made to interest the young man in his physical self. 
 In addition to this, a graded system of class exercise has been mapped out. 
 The Freshmen have military drill, Indian club swinging, and free gymnastics. 
 The object of this first year's exercise is largely to strengthen the man, to 
 straighten him up, to give him a good carriage, to get his round shoulders into 
 position, to correct his drooped neck, and in general to strengthen the weak 
 places. In the Sophomore year comes class work with wands, dumb-bells, 
 and other light apparatus. In the Junior year we pass on to a different style 
 of class work. Here we introduce fencing with single sticks, and exercises of 
 that character. In the Senior year we have fencing with foils. The men also 
 receive careful training with the heavy apparatus of the gymnasium. Each 
 class is divided into three squads, according to strength and activity. The 
 strong men are put into the first squad, and they are given pretty hard work. 
 The weaker men are given less active work ; and the weakest men, the third 
 squad, are drilled the first year mainly on the chest-weights and other devel- 
 oping apparatus, while they are given more or less running and other consti- 
 tutional exercises. This system of squad work is kept up through the course, 
 making it more and more difficult as the men increase in strength. I believe 
 that men get a good deal of mental as well as physical training from out-of- 
 door sports. It takes a bright man to play base ball or foot-ball. It brings 
 into play all the qualities that a man has. It gives physical courage, will 
 
8s 
 
 power, presence of mind, coolness in times of danger, and many other quali- 
 ties that it is well to have. But the trouble with out-of-door sports is that 
 the men who need the most of this sort of training get the least ; and so we 
 give gymnastic work, fencing, single stick, and other similar exercises to 
 develop the same qualities, — physical courage, will power, self-control, and 
 many others, — so that those who need this training most may get it, as well 
 as those who need it least. 
 
 Of course a plan that works well in a college must be greatly modified 
 when it comes to be introduced into the common schools. In fact, you could 
 not have anything so elaborate. I do, however, believe that some of the 
 same principles can be carried out. I think there is a field for gymnastics 
 and physical exercise that reaches beyond the maintenance of health. There 
 are a great many qualities of mind that are not developed by Greek, Latin, or 
 mathematics that can be developed by physical culture. I think that the sys- 
 tem which will ultimately be used in our public schools will be of gradual 
 growth. We must take for it the best of all the systems that we have. 
 Above all, the plan must be a natural one. It will be difficult to arrange such 
 a plan. It is difficult to decide just how far the nervous system can be 
 trained without carrying it to such an extent as to make the work a nervous 
 strain. It is difficult to decide just how far the physical system can be trained 
 without making the work a physical strain. The whole thing ought to be 
 made a matter of careful consideration. I have no doubt it will be the work 
 of years ; but I believe that it ought to come, and that it will come. 
 
 Dr. Harris having occasion to leave the Conference, Gen. 
 Francis A. Walker, president of the Institute of Technology, 
 was called to the chair. 
 
 Gen. Francis A. Walker. — I feel it a great honor to preside for an 
 hour over this distinguished body of educators who have met to consider 
 what is certainly a most vital question, relating to our public school system 
 of education. I am happy to have an opportunity to testify to my own deep 
 interest in the matter. It seems to me positively shocking the way in which 
 we abuse our little children. We take them at an early age and bring them 
 into school-rooms almost always over-crowded, very often ill-ventilated, and 
 place them at desks ill-constructed and ill-adapted to their physical needs. 
 We keep them at work there in cramped positions, which even my friend 
 from Maine would hardly justify as part of any gymnastic, for five hours a day 
 during years. Whatever view a man may take of the function of the State 
 as to the proper use of our schools, it seems to me too clear to need to be 
 discussed that, if the State will exercise its power to take our children from 
 us by force of law and place them in cramped positions and false attitudes for 
 five hours a day, shut up like jack-knives, that the State has the right and it 
 is its duty to, at least, undo the mischief it has caused. It ought at least to 
 give the children time and opportunity to straighten themselves out, after all 
 
86 
 
 the injury which has been done to them through these restrained positions 
 and this repressed activity. 
 
 I am, myself, not so anxious about the functions of the State, or about 
 the use to which we shall put our school-rooms and teachers, as to have any 
 scruples regarding the farther introduction of gymnastics into the schools, 
 even beyond the point necessary to undo the mischief which the State has 
 done. To my mind the sole question with regard to any proposed extension 
 of the functions of the State is, Can the State in this way do a great good to 
 the community without setting in motion any force that will produce ultimate 
 evil or harm ? Can any one doubt how that question would be answered in 
 regard to the introduction of school gymnastics ? The State can do no harm 
 in this way ; and it is within the power of the State to set in motion enor- 
 mous forces for good. 
 
 In regard to any proposed use of our school-rooms and teachers, it seems 
 to me that, again, the question is, Is this something which is of great impor- 
 tance to the fature happiness of the pupils, and can or will it be done other- 
 wise than in the school-room ? I do not believe that the great majority of 
 the children in our cities will learn, for instance, the proper use of the needle 
 in their own homes ; therefore, I believe in teaching the use of the needle in 
 the schools. I believe, again, that the great majority of girls, as population 
 is now constituted in our cities, will not learn to cook food properly in their 
 own homes ; so I believe in teaching this to them in the school-room. Again, 
 the great majority of parents pay, and will pay, whatever you may say or do, 
 little or no attention to the physical training of their children ; they do not 
 teach them to stand properly, to walk well, or to expand their chests and 
 lungs ; and as this will not be done in the homes, then, for Heaven's sake, let 
 it be done in the schools ! 
 
 General Walker then introduced Dr. C. W. Emerson, President 
 of the Monroe College of Oratory of Boston, who read a paper 
 on the " Laws to be followed in teaching Physical Culture," 
 which was afterwards illustrated by a drill in light gymnastics by 
 the pupils of the College. 
 
87 
 
 THE LAWS TO BE FOLLOWED IN TEACHING 
 PHYSICAL CULTURE. 
 
 BY DR. C. W. EMERSON. 
 
 The good spirit manifested in this place is a liberal education 
 in itself. The enthusiasm that has come to us, and that will 
 come to us, and that we carry to our homes, will be of inestima- 
 ble value. I do not consider it so necessary that we insist upon 
 any particular system of physical culture as that we agitate the 
 public mind concerning the value of physical culture. We are 
 lethargic as a public on that subject ; and although some one 
 has said that there is now a little "Boston craze" started about 
 it, the public at large is not awake to its value. • The testimony 
 brought in here from every source in regard to public schools, 
 and the time they allow for physical exercises, is sufficient to 
 show us that they have no idea of what physical culture re- 
 quires. Why, it is astonishing to me, in view of the past and 
 in view of the future, that men do not see that in a republican 
 government we must depend upon the strength, the power, of the 
 men and the women who carry it forward ; that nothing is at- 
 tained without the rounding of the whole man. I scarcely need 
 to refer to the Greeks, and yet, so far as education is concerned, 
 they have been the despair of all succeeding ages. We have 
 had in no age schools to be compared in results with their 
 schools. Nowhere else has there been such personal education. 
 What did they lay as the basis ? Physical culture. They built 
 it all on that. It all grew out of that. In that is the secret of 
 their success. We point to Greece for the greatest orator, for 
 the greatest creative poet, for the first man in what we consider 
 the highest mental philosophy. Plato intellectually stands at 
 the head of all the philosophers of the world. We must re- 
 member then that that which made the Greeks what they were 
 about four or five hundred years before Christ, was the natural 
 
88 
 
 evolution from physical culture. We, in this age, have begun at 
 the other end. We begin with the head, but I am glad to see we 
 are beginning to recognize that the feet and the legs are of some 
 value. If we introduce physical culture into our schools, it will 
 create in them an entire revolution. The question seems to be, 
 Have you anywhere a system that you can wedge in that will not 
 take more than five minutes a day to make a strong man or a 
 strong woman .■' That is the question before the country to-day. 
 The liberality that has been exhibited here, by which each one 
 has freely and good-naturedly expressed his own opinion with- 
 out dictating to others, is very pleasant. It is remarkable, I 
 think. The way this Conference has been carried forward is a 
 model for all conferences. I have been in a great many so- 
 called religious conferences, but I neVer in my life saw such a 
 desire on the part of all to agree in disagreeing. We are bound 
 to agree anyhow in the fundamentals. We come with that 
 spirit, determined to agree, like the Frenchman and his wife. A 
 year or two after his marriage the man was asked whether they 
 lived together in peace. "Yes," was the reply, "we do, but we 
 have to fight for it." 
 
 Now I would like to ask of any one who has a system that he 
 loves as he does his own soul, if he would desire to have that 
 system established by law in this country to the exclusion of all 
 others .' There is not a person here who would say this. The 
 moment that you establish any system by law all progress in 
 that system stops then and there ; there is no more growth — 
 except towards China. 
 
 I do not therefore wish to bring forward the advocacy of any 
 particular system, but some principles that must be involved in 
 all systems. And the first thing that I should mention is that 
 we must see that the vital organs are lifted up to their proper 
 altitude. There is no other physical defect so general as this, 
 that the vital organs are from one to four inches too low among 
 adults and youth down to the age of four or five years. The 
 child, before he is three or four years old, has vital organs which 
 are very high. After he has been in school a few years they 
 gradually go down till you find they are much below the normal 
 altitude. 
 
89 
 
 As to the consequences, every physiologist will agree with 
 me when I say that no vital organ below its normal altitude can 
 perform its functions properly. The lungs will not consume 
 the air as they should, the stomach will not digest food as it 
 ought, the heart will not throw the blood with the vigor which 
 is required. I want to say that this lifting the organs up does 
 not necessarily consist in throwing the chest out. The lungs 
 are not on the outside ; they are in the trunk of the body, and 
 as they are lifted up they throw the shoulders apart and broaden 
 the back as much as they fill the chest. They enlarge the chest 
 just in that region where Dr. Sargent says measurements are 
 now made. 
 
 The question put before us by the President is to be consid- 
 ered in two forms : What is the relation of muscular action to 
 the nervous system ? and. What is the relation of muscular action 
 to the vital organs .' The President said that he should like to 
 have this matter considered, how by physical exercise we could 
 cure dyspepsia. 1 am sorry he is not here this afternoon, for 
 I would like to tell him that I have never known of a case of 
 chronic dyspepsia where the stomach was as high as it ought to 
 be and the person had sufficient nourishment. And that re- 
 minds me that I have wondered if something could not be done 
 to feed our children before we work them quite so hard. I have 
 known more cases than I have kept record of, of persons cured 
 of dyspepsia by muscular exercise. But the first thing is to lift 
 the vital organs sufficiently high in the body. There is too 
 much said about holding the shoulders back, as though they 
 were given us to put behind us. The shoulders are on the side, 
 where they belong, where they are ready for us to use. To get 
 our lungs up it is not necessary to throw the shoulders back. 
 To bend the back and bulge the front of the body forward is to 
 sacrifice the back to a protuberance in front. It is an injury to 
 the lungs and especially an injury to the stomach. I would 
 rather see a person round-shouldered than to see his back driven 
 in to get an expansion in front. Upon the normal position of 
 the spinal column depend so many things. The motion of the 
 ribs depends on it. Think of all the muscles attached to the ribs 
 aside from the attachment of muscles to the column itself. 
 
9° 
 
 All exercises of the arms and the legs should be such as to more 
 powerfully exercise the body than the arms and the legs them- 
 selves. The arms and legs may rest, but the muscles that sur- 
 round the body are not to rest and were not destined to rest from 
 birth to death. They have no period of rest. Here is a curious 
 fact of observation, that the muscles around and over the vital 
 organs, though not attached directly to any, — and the separa- 
 tion is clean and clear-cut, — yet there seems to be such a rela- 
 tion between any vital organ and the muscles over it that you can 
 judge of it by the muscles over it. You can judge of the con- 
 dition of the stomach by the condition of the muscles over it. 
 Dr. Sargent would not need to ask a man how his dinner agreed 
 with him if he could examine the muscles over the stomach. A 
 person with chronic dyspepsia cannot bear to have the muscles 
 over his stomach touched. If he happens to meet a blundering 
 June bug he collapses. Why is it so ? My opinion is that it is 
 by reflex action from the brain. These muscles that hold the 
 organs in place create such action and activity in the pneumo- 
 gastric nerve that it carries life and animation to the stomach 
 and liver. I know not how else to account for it, for it is an 
 observable fact. I saw it first recorded by Dr. Jackson thirty 
 years ago, as a record of his long experience with persons with 
 dyspepsia and those who had what they called "liver complaint." 
 
 Action, exercise, should be so directed as to produce two 
 benefits : first, the commonly acknowledged benefit to the 
 blood ; and, secondly, that which I wish to emphasize, the way 
 respiration affects the organs below the lungs. The muscles 
 that hold the stomach in place constitute a portion of the mus- 
 cles of respiration ; and therefore if a person breathes only in 
 the upper part of the chest he does not exercise what is below 
 the lungs. Deep, full breathing exercises the muscles round 
 the waist and exercises the viscera. The contents of the vis- 
 cera are thus moved, or their motion is quickened. I am aware, 
 in saying this, that certain works in physiology declare that 
 men and women ought to breathe differently ; that, while men 
 should take a full and deep respiration, women should not ; that 
 woman is not constituted so that she should, certainly after the 
 years of puberty. Yet if you look at the muscles of respira- 
 
91 
 
 tion, you find that they are precisely alike in men and women, 
 and the stomach and the liver need the same motions in both 
 sexes in order to promote their activity. I believe that gymnas- 
 tics should be directed toward the blood-making power, that is, 
 toward promoting the healthy activity of the organs contained 
 in the trunk of the body that make the blood. You work your 
 child's brain to its utmost capacity to learn certain things, and 
 to be able to recite certain lessons. You are doing this for 
 what .' If I ask you if this is to go on all his life, you say No ; 
 that you are preparing him for life, giving general culture in the 
 schools. Now think a moment. You give him these lessons to 
 learn, while at the same time you weaken his brain. What can 
 he do with this knowledge afterwards ? It is not altogether the 
 knowledge that a man possesses which gives him power, although 
 knowledge is said to be power ; but the question is. What can 
 the man do with it ? Has he added to his brain power by this 
 study.' Yes, provided that he makes blood enough for that 
 brain, otherwise he has not added to the sum total of his power. 
 He may know how to solve a problem in geometry, but the 
 knowledge of the solution of that problem may not have added 
 anything to his personal power, unless he has sufficient blood to 
 sustain the brain which he is using while he is trying to disci- 
 pline it by means of these lessons. 
 
 The effect of muscular action upon the arterial system should 
 also be considered. The heart cannot do all the work of carry- 
 ing the blood through the system. It is assisted by the action 
 of the arteries, and they are prompted to a healthy activity by 
 the effect of the muscles on them — the muscles while in exer- 
 cise. You can convince yourself of this by opening and shut- 
 ting your hand vigorously. You see how red the inside of the 
 hand becomes. The motion has assisted the arteries. We 
 hear this question often asked when a man is said to have died 
 of apoplexy. Was he fleshy .'' We hear the same question when 
 a man is said to have died of heart difficulty. Was he stout i* 
 As though a man were more likely to have heart disease when 
 he is stout, or to have apoplexy if he is stout. That does not 
 necessarily follow. If the man does not take proper physical 
 exercise he may be likely to have these difficulties, especially in 
 
93 
 
 the matter of the heart, provided too much exercise is put upon 
 it, and it is not assisted by the arteries. 
 
 How can the arteries be assisted best ? They can be assisted 
 by any muscular exercise. Any form of muscular exercise is 
 better than no form at all, but there may be some forms that 
 are better than others, so far as assisting the arteries to carry 
 the blood through the system is concerned. I believe those 
 motions the most helpful are at the same time the most beauti- 
 ful. I am aware that I am altogether unorthodox in saying 
 this, that a beautiful movement is the most helpful one. I 
 believe that a curved movement assists more than one that is 
 made in an angular manner or one in a straight line. There 
 seems to be a prevalent belief that the uglier the exercise, the 
 more beneficial it is. That aspect reminds me of what a man 
 said to me once in an audience. He called my attention to 
 some one who was present, and said, "There is a good man." 
 " How do you know .-' " I said, " are you acquainted with him ? " 
 "No," he replied, "but he is so ugly he must be good." It 
 seems to me as if this notion prevailed in matters of physical 
 culture. It is sometimes so ugly that it must be good. Why 
 can a movement not be beautiful and helpful at the same time .■• 
 If any one can find a physiological reason for it, I wish he would 
 bring it forward. To my understanding every physiological 
 reason is against it. The movements of the Greeks were beau- 
 tiful, and no other nation ever cultivated the physique as they 
 did. Other things being equal, the slower the movement, the 
 greater the result. Notice the feeble man. If he is compelled 
 to make a movement he does it with a jerk. He cannot raise 
 his arm slowly and steadily at the same time. There is a jerk 
 in his walk. These jerks indicate his weakness. If you see a man 
 full of jerks physically, you always believe there is something 
 physically weak in the man. Jerks, then, are a sign of weakness. 
 
 The matter of music has been brought up. I believe that 
 movements regulated by music are more beneficial than those 
 that are not. Music is natural to man ; music acts on the 
 nervous system in a strange and mysterious way. Our move- 
 ments are dependent on the nervous force. Without that 
 stimulant, no voluntary movement could take place. 
 
93 
 
 Again, moderation should be observed in the beginning and 
 closing of exercises. Begin slowly. Use your utmost power at 
 the middle of your exercises, then let the latter part be less 
 strong. Never start suddenly in physical exercise. What is 
 the record in regard to animals } How many horses have fallen 
 dead when suddenly started from a walk. Again, how many 
 have fallen dead when suddenly stopped at the height of speed. 
 It is the same with men. About two years ago a gentleman 
 ran to catch a train. He caught the train, stopped, and dropped 
 dead. It was not the running that killed him ; it was not the 
 vigor of the exercise ; it was the sudden stopping that killed 
 him. Men who have the care of horses understand that truth. 
 They will not allow a horse to stop suddenly that has been at 
 the top of his speed. You will see that all of my exercises are 
 gentle. In about the middle all the strength is put forth, and 
 at the end it is lessened. The efEort is so hidden that super- 
 ficial observation will reveal only that a person is, for instance, 
 lifting the arm. But if any one thinks there is no strength used 
 because the person is not lifting a heavy weight, I should like 
 to have him try it. Slowness, precision, and definite aim are the 
 three directions that I give for exercises. 
 
 Again, we should secure and maintain certain obedience. I 
 believe most thoroughly that, in addition, we want a certain sense 
 of freedom. While you are putting forth your utmost strength, 
 you want, at the same time, a sense of freedom. If you feel 
 restrained, there is something wrong. You are not putting 
 your manhood into it. In order to obtain that sense of freedom, 
 it is necessary that some portions of the body be free and unre- 
 strained. The muscles bear a certain relation to each other. 
 If I raise my arm, the muscles are so arranged between the shoul- 
 der and the neck, that they pull on the muscles of the neck. If 
 I hold the neck rigid, I have given undue exercise to those 
 muscles, exercise that a child would never use at its play. In 
 nearly all of our muscular exercises that are taught there seems 
 to appear a lack of knowledge on this subject of the relation 
 which the muscles sustain to each other. If I carry my hand 
 forward, there is a motion of the shoulder. There should be 
 maintained the utmost economy possible. The object is not to 
 
94 
 
 see how much exercise you can get out of a boy ; it is to get 
 accurate, exact, and physiological exercise. The reflex action 
 of the muscular sense should be considered. If you have 
 developed muscular sense, there is a certain reflex action through 
 other muscles. I would like to have that provided for. 
 
 Physical culture should continue through life. You cannot 
 lay up a storehouse of health during five years of exercise to 
 draw on for the next fifty years. You want to develop yourself 
 in a system of physical exercise that you can repeat every day 
 as long as you live, no matter where you are or how situated. 
 It is the continuance of exercise that gives it value. You may 
 take special exercise to bring up a greater degree of power for 
 some special occasion. But the highest good in physical culture 
 comes from continuance therein. I have noticed that some who 
 have studied in gymnasiums have become fine, strong men. 
 What has made them so .■" They did not develop themselves 
 in a day or a year. But you say you are going out into the 
 world, and you cannot carry a gymnasium with you. You can- 
 not carry all the apparatus necessary. Can you do nothing to 
 remedy that difficulty ? You cannot carry dumb-bells, rings, 
 clubs, parallel bars, and all the things you find in a well-fur- 
 nished gymnasium. I am not antagonizing these things. I 
 know that I have been reported again and again as doing so. 
 And it may seem to some that I am absolutely antagonizing the 
 use of apparatus. I do not ; I simply antagonize this idea, that 
 they should take the place of what may be termed free gymnas- 
 tics. Many kinds are right in this way. They are doing good 
 in their place and time, a great deal of good, but we cannot 
 always have them. You want something you can take with 
 you. So if you are teaching physical culture, be sure that if 
 you do not teach anything else, you so teach a man that he can 
 carry himself well, that he can know how to use his arms. 
 Teach first such exercises as are necessary to his health, rather 
 than try to make a Hercules of him. Whatever you choose to 
 add after that for specific reasons, very well and good. There 
 are some who will not take exercise unless they can have a 
 machine. Give such people machines then. Some boys will 
 not take hold without dumb-bells and Indian clubs. Give them 
 
9S 
 
 those things. Give them exercise in some way, for they mu?" 
 have it. 
 
 Dr. Sargent. — In the interest of physical education, and in the interest 
 of truth, as I see many teachers here who are going out to promulgate these 
 ideas, I should like to ask Dr. Emerson to name the physiology from which 
 he has extracted the principles he has enunciated this morning. 
 
 Dr. Emerson. — Give me time, and I will do so. 
 
 The Chairman. — There will be time this afternoon. 
 
 Adjourned. 
 
96 
 
 jFourtij Seggton. 
 
 Saturday, December 3. 
 
 The Conference met at 3 p.m., Dr. Harris in the chair, who 
 announced that general business was in order. 
 
 Mr. Ray Greene Huling offered the following resolution : — 
 
 Resolved, That a Committee of eleven be appointed to take into considera- 
 tion the best means of presenting in the common schools the method or 
 methods of physical education ; this Committee to be appointed either by the 
 chair or by the audience, as shall be thought best. 
 
 The motion was seconded by Mr. E. P. Seaver, Superintendent 
 of Schools, Boston, who spoke as follows : — 
 
 If you will allow me, I will say two or three words in second- 
 ing that motion. I wanted to get an opportunity this morning 
 to support the suggestion which was then made, and which has 
 now been presented in the form of a motion. As to the com- 
 position of the Committee, it seems to me that a word or two 
 might be said. Of course, the need of such a Committee is 
 apparent. It does not need illustration. We have heard a 
 good deal during these two days ; much of wisdom has been 
 shot into the air. We want some process by which it can be 
 concentrated, brought to a focus, brought to a practical issue. 
 We need the physicians, from whom we have heard a good deal. 
 We need, too, the masters in physical training, from whom we 
 have heard a good deal, and very interestingly too. There is 
 another class from whom we have heard very little during this 
 Convention, and who ought to be represented on a Committee 
 of the kind proposed. I refer to the school teachers. It is 
 possible that if a part of the time had been set aside for them, 
 some of the conditions of the problem before us would have 
 
97 
 
 been more clearly stated than they have been stated up to this 
 point. The limitations under which we must work need to be 
 fully appreciated before the principles of which we have heard 
 can be usefully and effectually applied. We need to get an 
 accurate, clear knowledge of the situation, and I know of no 
 class of persons in the community better prepared to state 
 accurately what the situation is than the school teachers them- 
 selves. I might illustrate this possibly, by instancing some of 
 the remarks which have fallen, and which might be carried 
 away by members of the Convention as representing accurately 
 the state of things. I will illustrate by referring to one amongst 
 a dozen. One speaker told us, for example, this forenoon, that 
 we in Massachusetts — I am saying this for the benefit of those 
 who come from the West — take the children from the control 
 of their parents by force of law, and shut them up in the school' 
 rooms, and keep them in cramped and strained positions for 
 five hours a day. The literal fact is that nothing of the kind 
 is done. T understand what the gentleman desired to say to 
 our visitors from other parts of the country and from abroad. 
 The remark was not probably intended to accurately represent 
 the state of facts. It was intended — and those of us who 
 know General Walker know what his intention was — as an 
 innocent rhetorical device, a picturesque exaggeration, used for 
 the purpose of making a proper impression ; and when the 
 object of discussion is to stir up thought, set the pot boiling, 
 why, froth of that kind comes to the surface. The office of a 
 Committee of this kind will be to skim off a good deal of this 
 froth, and find what the clear liquid facts are. I am not going 
 to say what goes on in Boston schools. There are many of us 
 in the audience who could illustrate the facts, and testify to 
 them, if it were desired. It is, however, a fact that we are 
 devoting a portion of the five hours to physical exercise of some 
 sort. 
 
 It has been said, again, that but ten or twelve minutes can be 
 given to this work. It is easy to smash the course of study, 
 and double the time, if necessary. What we want is the best 
 possible course of exercise on which to employ that time. And 
 the problem has complications from this side which have not 
 
98 
 
 been presented. Again, as to limitation of space. A good 
 many of these exercises must be done between desks, in spaces 
 eighteen inches square, or they will not be done at all. We 
 have school basements and we have school halls, and we have 
 lately put some of these spaces to good use. Rather more 
 time and effort have been spent upon this subject for a year 
 and a half or two years past than was spent twelve years ago. 
 But we are not satisfied. We want more light. We want 
 something that will work under the conditions which exist, and 
 accurate knowledge of these conditions must be communicated 
 to this Committee of eleven which is proposed ; and, therefore, 
 I hope that the proposition itself will be carried out, and that 
 in this Committee will be an adequate representation of the 
 school teachers who are engaged in the practical work of carry- 
 ing out these theories. I second the motion. 
 
 It was moved as an amendment that three of the Committee 
 should be grammar-school teachers. 
 
 Mr. Huling said that he saw no reason for distinguishing 
 between the grammar and the other grades, which would make 
 it wise to place any restriction on the character of the teacher 
 taken. 
 
 The amendment was not seconded, and Mr. Huling's motion 
 as originally put was unanimously passed. On further motion 
 it was 
 
 Voted, That the Committee should be appointed by the chair before the 
 close of the session. 
 
 A paper on "The Pedagogic Phase of Physical Training," by 
 Hamilton D. Wey, M.D., of New York State Reformatory of 
 Elmira, was read. 
 
99 
 
 THE PEDAGOGIC PHASE OF PHYSICAL 
 TRAINING. 
 
 BY HAMILTON D. WEY, M.D. 
 
 Physical training and its collateral branches, comprised in 
 the term athletics, is entered upon for the following purposes : 
 I, Diversion; 2, Mere muscular increase; 3, Pecuniary gain; 
 4, Physical renovation and renewal; 5, Mental quickening and 
 strengthening. 
 
 The third object is foreign to my subject ; the first and sec- 
 ond have an indirect bearing; while the fourth and fifth are 
 closely connected with and related to the pedagogic phase of 
 physical training. 
 
 From the days of Plato to the present time the connection 
 between a clean, clear mind and a fair body has been alluded 
 to and dwelt upon, but empiricism has delayed a proper appre- 
 ciation of the subject and the advent of the new gospel of 
 physical training founded upon the principles of physiology. 
 
 History tells the tale of Greece and Rome attaining their re- 
 spective supremacies through physical excellence ; and from 
 resulting mental capabilities came their contributions to litera- 
 ture and art. The possession of power and acquisition of wealth 
 induced a change in modes of living, luxury and dissipation 
 replacing simplicity of habits and physical integrity, and na- 
 tional supremacy waned under the blight of individual decay 
 induced by the gratification of sensual desires and appetites. 
 The story of mental enfeeblement following physical deteriora- 
 tion is as old as man himself. 
 
 The fusion of mental and physical training in the compulsory 
 educational system of Germany has been brought about during 
 the last hundred years. To Guts-Muths, Jahn, and Spiess 
 belongs the credit of the building up of German gymnastics. 
 
100 
 
 All were teachers, and each one was, it is assumed, conscious of 
 the physical deficiencies of his pupils. 
 
 Contemporary with them, Ling of Sweden, after a life of 
 vicissitudes and excitement as a fatherless boy, theological stu- 
 dent, tutor, naval volunteer, and fencing master, was instrumen- 
 tal in the founding of the Central Institute of Stockholm, of 
 which he became the director in 1816. In addition to developing 
 the Swedish movement cure he organized systems of popular 
 and school gymnastics which bear his name at the present 
 time. 
 
 In circular No. 5, of the Bureau of Education, Washington, 
 "Physical Training in American Colleges and Universities," by 
 Dr. E. M. Hartwell, it is stated that the Round Hill School, 
 established in 1825, at Northampton, this state, was the first 
 institution in this country to make gymnastics a part of the 
 regular course of study and instruction. This was done by Dr. 
 Charles Beck, who had been the pupil and friend of Jahn in 
 Germany. The good effects of the Round Hill School were 
 appreciable years after it had ceased to exist, for want of proper 
 pecuniary support. 
 
 In 1856 Dr. George C. Shattuck of this city, a former Round 
 Hill boy, founded St. Paul's School at Concord, N.H., a school 
 where a lively and healthy interest has ever been taken in gym- 
 nastics and athletic sports. In his deed of gift Dr. Shattuck 
 states : " The founder is desirous of endowing a school of the 
 highest class for boys, in which they may obtain an education 
 which shall fit them either for college or business ; including 
 thorough intellectual training in the various branches of learn- 
 ing ; gymnastic and manly exercises adapted to preserve health 
 and strengthen the physical condition ; such aesthetic culture 
 and accomplishments as shall tend to refine the manners and 
 elevate the taste, together with careful moral and religious 
 instruction." 
 
 Prior to i860 the authorities of American colleges were 
 indifferent to the necessity of a supervision over the physical 
 well-being of their students, neither providing them with in- 
 struction in gymnastics nor facilities for athletic sports. The 
 student attended college that he might absorb the greatest 
 
lOI 
 
 amount of mental pabulum while there, or indulged in dissipa- 
 tion as the result of passing beyond the direct influences of 
 home ; unmindful in either case that the body had other claims 
 to consideration than the avoidance of manifest disease. 
 
 Nor can more be said in this respect in favor of public and 
 private schools prior to the time named, save in the case of the 
 two institutions already noted. 
 
 Passing mention should be made of the efforts of Miss Cath- 
 erine Beecher at Cincinnati in 1837, of which she says : "When 
 physical education takes the proper place in our schools, young 
 girls will be trained in the class-rooms to move head, hands, 
 and arms gracefully ; to sit, to stand, and to walk properly, and 
 to pursue calisthenic exercises for physical development as a 
 regular school duty as much as their studies ; and these exer- 
 cises, set to music, will be sought as the most agreeable of 
 school duties ; " of the heavy gymnastics of Dr. Winship, and 
 the system of Dio Lewis ; all of whom were enthusiasts in their 
 work, and all alike lived to see their systems wax and wane. 
 
 Other individual systems have been devised that enjoyed a 
 brief season of popularity and then passed away because their 
 originators had no higher conception of physical training than 
 exercise for the sake of exercise alone, and a means of providing 
 an outlet for the escape of superfluous energy. 
 
 At the present time there are three principal methods of 
 physical training in vogue, the so-called American, the German, 
 and the Swedish, which I name in alphabetical order and with- 
 out regard to preference. These severally or in composite form 
 are employed in this country wherever the work of physical 
 training in its highest sense is carried on. 
 
 A consideration of athletic sports does not strictly fall within 
 the scope of this paper, as athletics constitutes a specialty in 
 the field of physical training and bears much the same relation 
 to it that ophthalmology and neurology do to the general prac- 
 tice of medicine. In order to be a scientific specialist it is neces- 
 sary to first become a successful all-around practitioner. This 
 applies to physical training and athletic sports as well as to 
 medicine. 
 
 Physical training in the highest and broadest meaning of the 
 
102 
 
 term is the cultivation of organic perfection of the human 
 body, the correction of disparities, overcoming of defects con- 
 genital and acquired, strengthening of points of least resistance, 
 and an approximation to the proportions of an ideal man. 
 
 This implies a conception of man, not as a dual being of 
 body and mind; but as an unity into the scheme of whose 
 organism enters the indisputable fact that for all mental action 
 there is a corresponding physical basis, mind and body being 
 the two halves of a perfect whole. Without matter there is no 
 mind, and the absence of mind can be accounted for by change 
 in structural components, as want of development, error of 
 nutrition, degeneration of tissue, functional faults, and per- 
 verted action, all of which constitute studies in pathology and 
 psychology. 
 
 A proper study and appreciation of the physiology of exercise, 
 together with a recognition of the fact that " education cannot 
 create anything new, it can only develop and unfold the already 
 existing faculties of the human mind," furnishes an understand- 
 ing of the manner in which the bringing to the highest degree 
 of organic perfection the human body and the overcoming of 
 structural weakness, disparities, and deformities, reacts upon 
 the mental faculties, increasing the activity and receptivity of 
 the brain and nervous system. 
 
 There is no greater educational fallacy than the idea that the 
 brain is educated at the expense of muscle, and muscle at the 
 expense of brain, that excellence in both cannot be attained 
 simultaneously. 
 
 The body deteriorates under exclusive mental cultivation, 
 because it is sacrificed through neglect and inertia, and proper 
 hygienic conditions lost sight of and ignored. It deteriorates 
 because the laws of physiology are unheeded and transgressed. 
 
 The essential principles of physical training comprise more 
 than is included in mere muscular increase, — structural amplifi- 
 cation. 
 
 Developing apparatus for structural increase ; free-hand exer- 
 cises to promote muscular co-ordination and extend the scope 
 of action, together with consequent stimulation of the special 
 senses, as sight and hearing ; massage, whereby the peripheral 
 
103 
 
 nerves are impressed, which in turn react upon their special 
 centres situated within the central nervous system ; the bath as 
 an aid to elimination, — all these when properly supervised and 
 systemized resolve themselves into a dynamic agent apprecia- 
 bly influencing the functions of the brain and nervous system. 
 
 In appreciation of the fact that exclusive mental cultivation 
 tends to bodily enfeeblement and degeneration, most of the 
 institutions of higher learning in this country have provided 
 for their students gymnasia equipped with all needful apparatus, 
 and in charge of men, usually graduates in medicine, who are 
 competent to recognize the physical deficiencies of undergrad- 
 uates and apply the proper measures of relief. As an estimate 
 of the importance attaching to physical training, it is only neces- 
 sary to mention that at the present time the directors of college 
 gymnasia are physicians, and not, as formerly, retired and broken- 
 down athletes or adventurers. 
 
 Of what advantage is a liberal education if secured during 
 college life at the cost of the contraction of affections peculiar to 
 sedentary life, and which later, when a professional career with 
 attendant anxieties and exactions or a business life with its cares 
 and responsibilities is entered upon, declare themselves in nerve 
 tire and nervous exhaustion ? Instances are not wanting, though 
 happily less common now than formerly, owing to improved 
 methods in education, where ambition to excel and desire to 
 reach an exalted plane either in college or subsequently, paved 
 the way for a long train of neurotic symptoms indicative of a ner- 
 vous system vitiated and weakened, the result of developing men- 
 tal faculties at the expense and in the neglect of their bodily 
 habitation, conditions favorable to the contraction of vices, as the 
 opium and alcoholic habits. A healthy and social dunce is a more 
 agreeable member of a household than an educated neurasthe- 
 niac versed in the sciences and familiar with all languages past 
 and present. 
 
 The time is fast approaching, if indeed it be not already here, 
 when boarding-schools, colleges, and universities will by public 
 sentiment be compelled to pay the same attention and consid- 
 eration to the physical needs and necessities of those whose 
 education they assume the charge and guidance of that they 
 
I04 
 
 do in the matter of mental culture. And the institution that 
 allows a student to develop his mind at the expense of his body 
 and the cost of mental warping will be regarded as having proved 
 itself indifferent to its trust. 
 
 Physiological laws know neither sex nor condition, and what 
 is applicable to the male applies more forcibly in the case of 
 the female. 
 
 The present tendency of government is to assume paternal 
 offices, and judging by the signs of the times, the season is 
 approaching when public school boards and commissioners, in 
 addition to an observance of the sanitary laws found in the book 
 of statutes, will be compelled to take cognizance of physical 
 needs and change their curriculum to include corporal develop- 
 ment as well as mental unfolding. The time may be delayed 
 somewhat by reluctance to introduce what is still regarded in 
 many quarters as an educational innovation, and by the fact 
 that parents grant the public school authorities less control 
 over their children than when they intrust them to those in 
 charge of boarding and preparatory schools. Encourage a boy 
 to be manly and cultivate a love for boyish sports. Do not 
 attempt to repress as coarse and a thing to be condemned the 
 ebullition of his animal spirits. A boy-girl is to be preferred 
 to a girl-boy. 
 
 A child brought up by those who have knowledge that it is 
 in possession of a body that calls for exercise to influence aright 
 its development that it may not be weakened by the demands 
 made upon its economy during the growth period, is placed in 
 a condition more favorable to the successful unfolding of its 
 dormant and potential mentality than the child enervated by 
 the undue care and coddling misdirected parental affection 
 sometimes imposes. 
 
 And here it is proper I should make a distinction between 
 physical care and physical training. Briefly, the former may 
 be stated to be sufficient attention given the purely animal 
 functions to insure their continuance, forethought in dress for 
 protection against the elements, a regard for personal appear- 
 ance in conformity with the usages of society, and observance 
 of sanitary laws to the end that preventable disease may be 
 
I05 
 
 avoided. Physical training is the overcoming of disparities of 
 members, correction of errors of nutrition with general systemic 
 accretion and extension, brought about by physiological methods. 
 Ignorance in the matter of the former with errors arising from 
 artificial modes of living may cause a need and necessity for 
 the application of the latter. 
 
 I would that I could portray with the same distinctness and 
 power of definition by picture of pen, as I can recall it by men- 
 tal imagery from object lessons furnished by my work in physi- 
 cal training, the reciprocity existing between the physical and 
 mental state. As physical conditions have been improved, the 
 volume and character of mental action have been increased ; 
 while conversely, with exclusive mental cultivation and corporal 
 neglect, the physical man would maintain itself for a time until 
 a certain degree of mental fulness had been attained, after which 
 body and mind synchronously would decline, as if to emphasize 
 the words of Scripture that much study is a weariness of the flesh. 
 
 I assume it to be in accord with the theory and principles of 
 pedagogics that initial educational work should be under the 
 direct supervision of a skilled and accomplished teacher, and 
 not a novitiate who regards primary class work as but a stepping- 
 stone to preferment. 
 
 The greater the mental and physical embarrassments under 
 which a pupil labors, whether due to heredity or environment, 
 the greater the necessity for skilled teachers to supervise the 
 rudimentary processes of education, and lay the foundations 
 deep and broad for a correct habitude of mind and body. 
 
 Many a child of tender age is sent to school not so much to 
 hasten its education as to relieve an overburdened mother of 
 a portion of her cares. An intelligent teacher can direct the 
 play and sports of such an one that they become factors in body 
 growth and contributors to mental breadth and depth. 
 
 It has been truthfully observed : " Training and education 
 begin where previous functions and acquirements ceased. The 
 beginning of the treatment of each child is where his natural 
 progress stood still." 
 
 The fundamental principles of a true system of education 
 appear in the aphorism of the elder Seguin already quoted : 
 
io6 
 
 "The beginning of the treatment of each child is where his 
 natural progress stood still," be the same in corporal or mental 
 lines, or both combined. 
 
 In the education of defective classes, the dependent repre- 
 sented by the idiot and feeble-minded child, together with those 
 out of adjustment with society, as the stunted dullard and illiter- 
 ate youthful criminal, the child deficient in moral sense and 
 disposed to criminality, prevailing educational measures as 
 exemplified in ordinary class-room teaching are disappointing 
 because they are not sufficiently far-reaching and penetrative. 
 It is as reasonable to assume that the earth will bring forth 
 her increase for the use of man without a proper previous 
 preparation of the soil as that these defectives can be raised to 
 a degree of healthy mental action by efforts directed solely to 
 the mental half and the exclusion of improvement of the tissues 
 composing the physical. 
 
 It is nearly a quarter of a century since Dr. Edward Seguin 
 gave to the world his classic work on " Idiocy," approaching 
 which nothing has since appeared. It discusses the moral 
 treatment, hygiene, and education of the idiot, and presents a 
 full and clear exposition of the physiological method of educa- 
 tion in the treatment of this class of deficients which is the 
 "adaptation of principles of physiology, through physiological 
 means and instruments, to the development of the dynamic, 
 perceptive, reflective, and spontaneous functions of youth." 
 
 At the Twelfth Annual Conference of Charities, at Washing- 
 ton, in 1885, there was not a listener not moved nor scarcely an 
 eye undimmed as James B. Richards related in plain and simple 
 language the story of Sylvanus. Briefly and in the language of 
 Mr. Richards : Sylvanus was eight and a half years old. He 
 had never known his mother, and a smile had never been seen 
 upon his face. His father had tried to send a light from some 
 shining object into his eyes, but he never blinked but once. 
 He had not the power of locomotion ; his lower limbs were 
 paralyzed. Not even the sense of pain or the sense of touch 
 did he have. This boy I found dressed in a red flannel gown, 
 lying upon the floor. He could not even roll over ; he could do 
 nothing. 
 
I07 
 
 I took the boy with me with the greatest care to the institu- 
 tion, and dealt with him as with a babe. He was held in arms, 
 fed, rubbed, manipulated, worked upon to see if we could arouse 
 the energy of his body. He was properly bathed and exercised, 
 and everything done to develop him. After a month's careful 
 study of his case, I made up my mind I must get down to him. 
 Where did I get my lesson .' I observed one day how a 
 mother, a bright, intelligent woman, managed her child. She 
 was upon the second floor ; and her boy, who was on the lower 
 floor, disobeyed her. She did not scream to him from the top 
 of the second flight of stairs, saying, "Jack, you must not do 
 that." She came down stairs, both flights, and getting right 
 down to him on the same level with him, eye to eye, she said, 
 " My dear boy, don't you know that that is wrong .' " The boy 
 melted and threw his arms around his mother's neck. That is 
 where I got my lesson. Get upon the floor, — get down where 
 the child is, right down there. If he knows anything, it is 
 down there. You must take hold of the slightest things in 
 your favor. Day after day, for an hour at a time, for three 
 months, I took a book and read aloud to that boy, — intelli- 
 gently, as if he understood every word I said, adapting the 
 intonations as if I were reading to an intelligent person. . . . 
 He finally heard this voice that was ringing around him in a 
 musical tone month after month ; and one day, when I came 
 and simply sat in a chair and read to myself, I looked on one side 
 to see if he missed me, and the child actually appeared uneasy. 
 Imagining that he missed me, I lay down on the floor beside 
 him as usual, saying : " Oh, you want me, Sylvanus ? Well, I 
 am here." He breathed a soft " ah ! " I had planted the first 
 want. He wanted me, and he wanted me there. He had felt 
 my influence there ; I was too far off in the chair. So I read 
 to him two or three months more. Then, instead of reading 
 aloud, I read to myself one day. After a long time, I saw he 
 was trying to do something. I watched him. Gradually, he 
 lifted his finger and laid it on my lips. " Oh, you want me to 
 read to you, do you ? " And so I read. Another want had 
 been implanted. I read to him every day, letting him always 
 have the privilege of opening my lips. At last he smiled, — 
 
io8 
 
 the first smile of recognition that ever came to the child's 
 features. It was enough to pay me ten thousand times over 
 for all I had done. . . . This boy, step by step, went on. Finally, 
 I could take him up and have him where I pleased. He was 
 near me; we were one. He felt it and knew it. He was 
 glad to be taken up. This training went on till one day I 
 found he could move his limbs. I put him on his hands and 
 knees, to teach him to creep. This was nearly a year and a half 
 after he came to the institution. As I placed him there, I said, 
 "I wonder if I can help him to talk." He had not talked any. 
 I said to him : " Now move this hand : that is right. Now the 
 other : that is a good boy. Now move this leg : that is right. 
 Now the other : that is a good boy," guiding them as I spoke. 
 I did this every day for months, till finally I found he was try- 
 ing to do it himself between the drills. A while afterward I 
 thought I saw his lips moving as he did it. Putting down my 
 ear very close, I found he was talking. He was whispering to 
 himself : " Move this hand : that is right. Now the other : that 
 is a good boy. Now move this leg : that is right. Now the 
 other : that is a good boy." He had heard me talk in such a 
 way that it had aroused him to talk. 
 
 And so pupil and teacher went on. Object lessons were 
 taken up and followed out until a connection was established 
 in the expanding mind of the former. The teacher's reward 
 was when the mother came to see her son. Entering the room, 
 she looked about and said, " Where is Sylvanus .' " When he 
 heard his name, he answered : " Here I am ; is that my mother? 
 Oh, mother, I am so glad to see you." 
 
 The efforts of Dr. Seguin in the physiological training of an 
 idiot hand and eye ; and the faithfulness and patience of Mr. 
 Richards in rescuing Sylvanus from his state of mental blank 
 and physical incapacity, are applications of physical training 
 with crowning results in those cases where absence of conscious 
 wants constitutes the greatest helplessness and deficiency. 
 
 I shall not be guilty of digression in alluding to a paper 
 bearing the title, "Physical Training of the Insane," read at 
 Newport, in June last, by Dr. Walter Channing. Dr. Channing 
 says : " With the insane, of course, the results have been more 
 
I09 
 
 varied and uncertain, but on the whole they have been gratify- 
 ing directly and collaterally. There can be no doubt nutrition 
 has been improved in a number of cases, but the especially 
 perceptible result, which is more marked as time goes on, is the 
 generally improved physical and moral tone, both among patients 
 and employes. There is less susceptibility to trifles, more free- 
 dom of motion, more independence of action, more appreciation 
 among all of the value of exercise and care of the body, and 
 more co-operation in the general treatment. ... I feel that 
 I am as yet not beyond the elementary stage of physical train- 
 ing of the insane by means of gymnastics, but the results are 
 certainly favorable enough to encourage me to persevere. I 
 can say from my personal experience, that there is much more 
 in such work than I had ever imagined. This confidence is, of 
 course, of great assistance in carrying out the details of what 
 might be called, 'gymnastic treatment,' for I cannot help having 
 some enthusiasm for a plan of treatment which has been of such 
 benefit to sane subjects, as well as to the nervous and insane." 
 
 The application of physical training for the amelioration of 
 certain nervous and mental conditions is not an idea of recent 
 introduction ; but like many other therapeutic measures, when 
 first proposed, failing to meet with general favor, it was relegated 
 to the background till time and circumstances should be more 
 favorable to its acceptance as a means of treatment. 
 
 A modicum of attention bestowed upon the bodies of chil- 
 dren, inmates of orphan asylums, refuges, and correctional in- 
 stitutions, in addition to the routine life of such, as the providing 
 for vital necessities, food and raiment, medicine for sickness, work 
 in shops to dispose of accumulated and accumulating energy, 
 school-room instruction, and a short occasional outing in the 
 open air that the wind may whistle around the person and re- 
 move the odors, would evolve a better type of humanity with 
 increased receptive power of mind and morals. 
 
 A little more than three years ago the work of physical train- 
 ing as a pedagogic measure was entered upon at the New York 
 State Reformatory, at Elmira. 
 
 This departure in the treatment of youthful criminals was 
 brought about through a recognition, based upon years of obser- 
 
no 
 
 Tation, of the futility of attempting to treat primarily, by mental 
 and moral means, certain delinquents who had demonstrated by 
 their acts their unfitness and inability to maintain themselves 
 in harmony with society. 
 
 This class is represented by the poorly nourished boy of the 
 overcrowded tenement house ; the homeless wanderer about the 
 streets and docks who, by daily association and participation, be- 
 comes familiar with crime in its various phases until a life of 
 criminality resolves itself into his normal state by reason of his 
 knowing no purer atmosphere ; the boy rich in conceit and poor 
 in experience, who goes astray attempting to demonstrate his 
 parents' ignorance of the world when they urged upon him the 
 avoidance of certain so-called pleasures ; and the overgrown 
 and stupid dunce found in every rural district, a neglected yokel 
 barely able to read and write, without resources within himself, 
 and corroded by the tales of lewdness and crime told nightly at 
 the cross-roads store to the accompaniment of 
 
 " The loud laugh that spoke the vacant mind." 
 
 Such as these the teacher in the school-room failed to reach. 
 They would sit and listen and forget, if indeed they ever com- 
 prehended, or in mind revert to acts and scenes connected with 
 their former lives. 
 
 An experimental class of twelve was formed. We took them 
 in hand, regulated their diet as to quantity and kind, washed 
 and massaged them, and put them daily through free-hand exer- 
 cises. It was a laborious task to teach them precision and rapid- 
 ity of action in their exercises, but perseverance demonstrated 
 their susceptibility and responsiveness to this mode of stimula- 
 tion. 
 
 The class was continued for five months, when the men were 
 returned to the conditions of prison life they were formerly 
 unable to conform to. For the succeeding five months they 
 were carefully watched and noted to see if the improved physi- 
 cal state and resulting increased cerebral power would prove 
 ephemeral and subside upon withdrawal of the stimulation that 
 produced it, or, continuing, be the beginning of a state freed 
 from former embarrassments. 
 
Ill 
 
 The latter was the case, as generally they maintained them- 
 selves in the performance of their requirements, which pre- 
 viously they could not do, in the threefold lines of behavior, 
 school, and labor, averaging collectively seventy-one per cent 
 as against forty-six per cent for the five months preceding their 
 being taken in hand. 
 
 From this beginning the work of physical training has gone 
 on, until now the physical training class has come to be a school 
 preparatory to those of letters and the trades for the unformed 
 and crude boy, the weak in body, and feeble in mind. 
 
 The experience gained has taught the lesson that those whose 
 mental and moral powers rest upon a badly constructed and 
 faulty physical base cannot be reached by attempts made pri- 
 marily to lift the mental and moral man above the embarrassing 
 and hampering physical conditions that found expression in 
 wrongdoing of head and hand, as criminality, but rather by 
 bringing the physical habitation of the mind to the fulness of 
 its perfection, that the subtle connection between the cerebral 
 cells, motor and sensory, may be direct and to the line, not hesi- 
 tating and devious, with resultant evil.. 
 
 A hundred and sixty-four boys and young men, ranging from 
 sixteen to twenty-nine years of age, comprising epileptics, a few 
 not far removed from feeble-mindedness, together with instances 
 of physical, mental, and moral perversion, have been selected 
 during the time the work has been in progress, that by an 
 improvement in tissue and harmonizing of the various mem- 
 bers of the body increased cerebration may be brought about, 
 and a power established to distinguish between right and 
 wrong. 
 
 The work of physical training, that the perfection of the 
 scheme may be attained, is a trian one, comprising muscular 
 exercises that structural amplification and harmony may be ob- 
 tained, the bath and massage for organic excellence and adapta- 
 bility to the requirements of the hour, and diet, that the subject 
 may be fed, not filled, a proper nutrition producing the desired 
 force that these severally may be brought about. 
 
 This triality being well carried out, the physical and mental 
 parts of man will fall into alignment, and there will have been 
 
112 
 
 an education of the activity, the intelligence, and the will, three 
 functions of the unit man. 
 
 Monsieur Pierre de Coubertin, secretary of the French Edu- 
 cational Reform Association, was invited to address the Con- 
 ference. 
 
 M. DE Coubertin. — Mr. President, Ladies, and Gentlemen : 
 I thank you for the hearty welcome you have given me by your 
 applause ; I do not take it as granted to my unknown self, but 
 to my country, your sister republic. 
 
 Dr. Harris kindly said that you would be interested in what 
 I should have to tell you. I do not agree with him ; and I 
 firmly believe that the result of my boldness in answering the 
 call will be to give you rather a poor idea of the way we 
 Frenchmen speak English. It may also give you an unfair 
 idea of the way we fulfil our duties. Being commissioned by 
 the French Government to visit the universities and colleges of 
 this country, not only with reference to the subject of physical 
 training, but with reference to other branches, my duty is to 
 present my report previous to any public statement on the sub- 
 ject. But I understand, from inquiries I have made, that the 
 French Minister of Public Instruction is not here to-day, and I 
 trust you will be kind enough not to let him know what I have 
 been doing in Boston ! 
 
 I was asked the other day what, in my opinion, American 
 education was like. I answered that in some respects it looked 
 like a battle-field where English and German ideas were fight- 
 ing. While I fully acknowledge that from the physical point 
 of view nothing can be said against the German system, I 
 believe, on the other hand, that from the moral and social point 
 of view no system, if so it can be called, stands higher than 
 the English athletic sport system as understood and explained 
 by the greatest of modern teachers, Thomas Arnold of Rugby. 
 His principles are the ones on which was founded last year the 
 French Educational Reform Association. I wish I could give 
 you a detailed account of the work our Association is engaged 
 in carrying out ; it is no less than a general reform of secondary 
 education. We leave aside the primary school question which 
 
"3 
 
 our government has lately settled, as I believe, in the best way. 
 In such schools a systematic course of physical training is 
 needed, and the experiments that have been tried in France 
 have proved so successful that there is no reason why we should 
 try anything else. The German methods have now only to be 
 developed in all our primary schools and made the general rule. 
 We also leave aside higher education, for the simple reason that 
 if we want to have well-trained men, who will enjoy manly 
 games and sports, the best and quickest way to realize that 
 wish is to train the boys who are to become the men, and ta 
 develop among them a strong taste for manly games. 
 
 We believe that the most important period in a boy's educa- 
 tion is the one extending from his twelfth to his nineteenth 
 year. During that period not only his brain, not only his body, 
 but above all his will can be trained. His qualities as a citizen 
 depend almost entirely on the lessons he receives at that early 
 time of his life. I must state what kind of a citizen we need 
 in France ; I do not know that our ideal type is the same as. 
 yours, though I am inclined to think that the difference is not 
 very great. We want free-minded, self-governing men, who- 
 will not look upon the State as a baby looks on its mother ; 
 who will not be afraid of having to make their own way through 
 life. Such is the work that our Association has pointed out to 
 French teachers as being the most important part of their duty. 
 It involves practically what I should call the training for freedom. 
 
 Now, where is the ground on which such a training can take 
 place } What is the freedom which a boy of fifteen can enjoy .'' 
 Is it intellectual freedom 1 How can this be } I believe if a 
 boy were left to his own impulses in that way, he would leam 
 nothing at all. He would set aside Latin, Greek, history, and 
 mathematics, and be content with reading novels on rainy days. 
 Is it moral freedom .' I need not say what would come of that. 
 His play is the only part of his life where he can enjoy freedom. 
 Let him have the management of his own games, and so you 
 will turn out a man fitted for social life, that is, as long as you 
 consider society as a gathering of free men ; some do notj and 
 it is quite natural that they should have another aim in educa- 
 tion. We do, and this is our aim. 
 
114 
 
 Now, can the English system of free athletic sports be car- 
 ried on together with a systematic course of gymnastics ? I 
 ^believe that to a certain extent ■ it can, so long as you do not 
 ;make that course compulsory, and it does not interfere with the 
 unanagement of the athletic clubs and societies. 
 
 I must draw your attention once more to the fact that I am 
 mot speaking of the public schools nor of the universities. I 
 ■need not say that I have been very much interested in what I 
 ahave seen in this country, at Amherst, Harvard, Cornell, and 
 ■other places. The work done there must be good. Its useful- 
 ness is proved by the fact that such men as Dr. Hitchcock of 
 Amherst, Dr. Sargent of Harvard, and Dr. Hartwell of the 
 Johns Hopkins believe in it and carry it out themselves. I 
 am only speaking of the schools where boys from twelve to 
 nineteen are taught. Such are our French lyceums, colleges in 
 .England, and some recently founded schools in this country, as, 
 JEor instance, Groton School, Lawrenceville, the Berkeley, and 
 ■others, where Arnold's precepts are followed. Any one who 
 has read Stanley's " Life and Correspondence of Arnold," or that 
 -charming book "Tom Brown's Schooldays," knows what kind 
 of good Arnold has done for his country. But I did not realize 
 how great had been the change till last year when Mr. Glad- 
 .■stone told me about the state of things when he was himself 
 an Eton boy, sixty-five years ago. The moral standard was 
 then very low. The boys had sport, but they turned it into 
 rbrutality ; hazing, fagging, and mischief of all kinds went on 
 -every day. Masters and pupils looked on one another as 
 strangers, if not as enemies. Then came Arnold ; in five 
 years' time Rugby was completely transformed, and the reform 
 ;spread all through England. That was some fifty years ago ; 
 .and if you study closely the political, social, and moral events 
 in England for the last fifty years, you will find, as I did with 
 no little bewilderment, that the change was sudden and general 
 in politics as well as in society. I wish I could give you more 
 details, — I am writing a book on the subject, — but the only 
 • thing I will say is, that the educational reform carried out by 
 Arnold and his followers has been one of the most important 
 •events in the life of the English people, and that it prepared 
 
IIS 
 
 the way for the bright period called the Victorian era, the chief 
 characteristic being the wonderful influence of athletic sports 
 on the moral and social qualities of boys. 
 
 In connection with the Exhibition we had this summer a great 
 number of congresses in Paris, so many indeed that the "Figaro " 
 proposed to give a prize to the man who should not be a member 
 of any congress, if such a man could be found. Among others 
 we had one on Education, of which I had the honor to be the 
 secretary. Early in January we issued a circular and sent it to 
 the head-masters of English colleges all over the world. Six 
 thousand copies were sent, and we got a great many answers — 
 from the Cape Colony, from Australia, from America, from Eng- 
 lish settlements in China, and from Canada, — to the following 
 questions : What are the games played in your school or uni- 
 versity } If there are local plays, give the chief rules. How 
 many hours do the boys play ? a day .? a week ? What about 
 riding horseback, fencing, military drill, rowing.' Are they 
 allowed to form athletic associations ? Have they debating 
 societies .' Do you believe in athletics improving companion- 
 ship .'' morality ? work ? temper ? I added that detailed ac- 
 counts, books, pamphlets, and school reports and papers would 
 be accepted with gratitude, and we got so many that we were 
 obliged to open a library to put them in. 
 
 This inquiry has showed us that all over the world English- 
 men, who perhaps knew very little about Arnold himself, were 
 still holding to his views and ideas and believed them to be the 
 best. A reform of the same kind we are now trying to intro- 
 duce in France, according to the perhaps unchristian, but very 
 practical principle : when you find your neighbor has something 
 good, take it. 
 
 S. S. Curry of the Boston School of Expression. — For one, 
 my heart goes out in gratitude to the noble lady whose interest 
 and benevolence have made it possible for us to come together 
 and hear the principles of some of the methods of physical train- 
 ing presented and discussed. It is appropriate for me to say 
 this, as the special phase of training which I represent is one 
 that was omitted. I, however, understand that it was absolutely 
 necessary to make a selection, and to leave out all training which 
 
ii6 
 
 had relation to the voice, to development of grace, or for the 
 purposes of expression. 
 
 As I was asked to participate in the discussion, I took it for 
 granted that it was on account of my connection with vocal 
 training and my study of the relation of physical training to the 
 voice and the responsiveness of the body to emotion. I accord- 
 ingly prepared some points which were the result of experience 
 and study which might throw light upon physical training. But 
 with the small amount of time remaining to the convention, I 
 do not feel it right to give all three, and so will merely ask a 
 few questions of these physical trainers, hoping that such ques- 
 tions may awaken thought, if not lead into a line of observation 
 and investigation which so far has been overlooked. 
 
 I do not do this in a controversial spirit, but with a sincere 
 endeavor to convey to you something as a small recompense for 
 what I have received from you. 
 
 Dr. Hartwell, in the first paper before the convention, said 
 that there were three actions which distinguished a man from 
 an animal. One of these was those associated with the upright 
 position, and another with the muscular actions in relation to 
 the voice. If this be true, how comes it that you as physical 
 trainers so completely overlook the voice in its connection with 
 the body, and consider vocal training so entirely distinct from 
 physical training ? 
 
 Again, I wish to ask why it is that our leading vocal trainers 
 keep their pupils, if possible, away from the gymnasium ? It is 
 their experience, as many have told me, as it certainly has been 
 mine, that much of the work in the gymnasium injures the 
 voice. Is there not something wrong, and have you carefully 
 considered what the mistake is ? Would you be willing that I 
 should explain my understanding of the difficulty .' As I look 
 into the faces of physical trainers from all over this country, I 
 feel that this is an important question. 
 
 I rejoice with you in all that you have done. A vast number 
 of discoveries have been made in relation to physical training 
 in the last few years, which do great honor to the investigators. 
 To my own personal knowledge — and I have heard the same 
 stated by others — the moral atmosphere about Harvard has 
 
117 
 
 been greatly improved during the past five years. Men do not, 
 to the same degree, drink and smoke and engage in many things 
 which were formerly very common. They say athletes must 
 not do so. These things lower the tone of the system and 
 hinder development, and I earnestly hope that you will go on 
 in your investigations ; but, in your deep researches in physi- 
 ology, do not forget that there are other ways of looking at man. 
 The Greeks did not possess the remarkable knowledge regarding 
 physiology that you have, but they studied a man artistically, 
 and accomplished results which have never since been rivalled. 
 There are other forms of harmony which are greater and deeper 
 than muscular proportion. Muscles may seemingly be in exact 
 proportion to each other, and yet there may be some vital part 
 in the depths of the body which may be weak, and it is the weak 
 part which needs attention. 
 
 Now if I could have time, I might unfold a great many points 
 where the ordinary gymnastics injure the voice. I once taught 
 a young actor, whose throat was sore when he came to me, and 
 his breathing abnormal. I did my best to restore the normal 
 relationship, but he seemed to get no better. One day he asked 
 me if I thought the gymnasium tended to hinder his voice and 
 upset his breathing. I asked him what he did. I carefully went 
 over with him the programme of exercises which he practised. All 
 was clear to me. I did not advise him to leave the gymnasium, 
 because I have ever felt that if gymnastics were properly prac- 
 tised they would be a great aid to the voice. I went over all 
 his exercises and explained to him how to practise them. His 
 voice began to improve at once ; everything was restored. He 
 insisted, in a few days, on leaving the gymnasium ; but if he 
 could have practised in accordance with the principles I gave 
 him, and would have obeyed instructions, it would have been 
 unnecessary. 
 
 One cause of the abnormal effect of the gymnasium is that 
 the man is caused, in some exercises especially as ordinarily 
 practised, to acquire a labored method of breathing. In fact, 
 Maclaren justifies this, and says that one of the benefits of the 
 gymnasium is that it introduces the muscles usually connected 
 with labored breathing, and causes the man to use them regu- 
 
ii8 
 
 larly. This is absolutely disastrous, if not ruinous, to the 
 voice. 
 
 Of course every gymnastic exercise is an exaggeration, and 
 it must be an exaggeration along the line of nature's normal 
 intention. An exaggeration that perverts or displaces nature 
 will be degrading in its tendency. The fundamental aim of all 
 gymnastics, as is shown by Ling, must be to extend and develop 
 the breathing ; but this must not be forced, must not be has- 
 tened or strained, but the growth of the breathing must be 
 gradual and along the line of nature's normal intention. 
 
 Again, why do so many of our physical trainers, if not all, 
 give such exercises as constrict and stiffen the hips. Several 
 exercises which have been shown upon this platform during this 
 convention have had this tendency. Now if you will observe 
 nature all around you, you will see that every man has an appar- 
 ent centre, about which all parts of the body move. His limbs 
 seem to radiate about the apparent centre. Compare the awk- 
 ward man with the man who moves gracefully. You will find 
 the awkward man, if he centres himself anywhere, centres all his 
 actions in his hip, while the graceful man centres, so to speak, 
 his activities more at the centre of the upper part of his chest. 
 
 Why is the axial line of the body forgotten ? Sir William 
 Turner, Professor of Physiology in Edinborough University, 
 says that the axial line runs from the summit to the base of the 
 spinal column, and that this is his fundamental anatomical pecu- 
 liarity as distinguished from an animal ; that the curvatures of 
 the spine, in relation to this axial line, are increased in disease, 
 and made abnormal in many aspects. Why is this line forgotten 
 in physical training ? I can take any of your exercises and not 
 destroy this axial line of the spine, but can so use the exercise 
 as to establish its summit where it should be established, and 
 enable a man to stand in stable equilibrium rather than in un- 
 stable equilibrium. You know it is a simple principle of physics 
 that if a body is supported below the centre of gravity it is in 
 unstable equilibrium, but if supported above the centre of 
 gravity it has stable equilibrium. A large number of the men 
 we see upon the street Walk in unstable equilibrium. When we 
 find a man standing in stable equilibrium, with the activities of 
 
iig 
 
 his body around the centre of his chest, we find ease, and grace, 
 and repose. Will not you physical trainers make some observa- 
 tion upon these points ? 
 
 Our Commissioner of Education, the chairman of this meeting,, 
 has defined education in his commentary upon Rosenkranz's. 
 " Philosophy of Education," as the actualization of the ideal. If 
 physical training is a part of education, it must be the actualiza- 
 tion of the ideal physical man through exercises. Consciously- 
 or unconsciously in the mind of every physical trainer there is 
 an ideal man, and every physical trainer, as he examines a man,, 
 penetrates into his needs, and not only has this general ideal,, 
 but from specific insight into nature's intention regarding the 
 particular man before him, forms an individual ideal. Yom 
 doctors know the difficulty in making a pathological diagnosis, 
 but a diagnosis for physical training is in some respects more 
 difficult. For the trainer has not only to see what the man is,, 
 but what he may become, and prescribe such exercises as will 
 enable him to become what nature intended him to be. This 
 proves clearly that the physical trainer must be an educated 
 man. Special development and training are very essential.. 
 He must not be narrow, must have no hobby but the broadest 
 conception of his subject and the deepest intuitive insight into 
 the needs of men. 
 
 Dr. Hartwell, in the opening paper, indicated a very great 
 advance in showing that training must have respect to the 
 nerves as well as the muscles. His criticism of the definitioni 
 of exercise as muscular movement, by Maclaren, was well taken. 
 But why did he not bring out the other side } Movements do» 
 not necessarily evolve a man. They may degrade him by a. 
 process known in science as devolution. And if physical exer- 
 cises tend to establish a centre in the hip, so that all the man's 
 radiation seems to take place from this point, the man is. 
 degraded, and not ennobled. But you say that in physical 
 training man must be centred everywhere. There is a sense 
 in which this is true ; but if the centralization of the man is. 
 in different parts not related to the one great centre corre- 
 sponding with the centre of gravity of the man, the unity of his 
 organism is more or less destroyed, chaos is introduced amongj; 
 
I20 
 
 his parts, and all grace and ease, and strength as well, will be 
 destroyed. 
 
 Notwithstanding the advances made, have any of you at this 
 Conference received any suggestions as to the power of an exer- 
 cise to elevate a man or to degrade him ? Have you had any 
 principle even hinted that can enable you to better make your 
 diagnosis and apply prescribed exercises so as to elevate a man 
 in the scale of manhood, and not degrade him into an animal ? 
 
 It is fifty years last May since the death of Ling, and we do 
 well to-day to do him honor. Dr. Richter, the great physician 
 -of Hanover, said "his principles are incontestable," while a lead- 
 ing French authority says " if he was not the creator of the 
 modern, scientific gymnasium ; he was its regenerator." But 
 the greatness of Ling was his principles rather than his mere 
 methods or so-called system. Fifteen or twenty of these prin- 
 ciples, which I gathered many years ago in an imperfect form, 
 have been to me guiding stars in all my work of training. They 
 have been so broad and so deep that I have realized their truth 
 in every phase of training, and I gladly pay tribute to all he has 
 done for me. 
 
131 
 
 The following paper was then read : — 
 
 MILITARY DRILL. 
 
 BY HOBART MOORE, 
 Of the Boston Public Schools. 
 
 Military drill as a system of physical exercise has been in 
 use in the high schools of Boston for a period of over twenty- 
 five years. During this long test of its value many discussions 
 have arisen, and a mass of testimony has been received from 
 physicians and others acknowledging the physical and moral 
 benefits derived from this system of physical training. When 
 first introduced into the public schools, the pupils were few in 
 number ; to-day over fifteen hundred boys receive instruction in 
 this department of the school work. The application of the 
 rudiments of military science for so long a time has resulted in 
 adapting it to the requirements of the scholar until it has 
 become an established organization comprising all the boys in 
 the high schools of the city. While the tactics and discipline 
 of the army of the United States are very closely followed, mod- 
 ifications have been found necessary to make the drill conform- 
 able to the size and age of the pupils. On the other hand, the 
 movements prescribed by the authority on military tactics have 
 been somewhat extended in order to make a more perfect sys- 
 tem of physical exercise. Movements in the manual of arms 
 have been added to equalize the exercise of the muscles on both 
 sides of the body, so that as now taught the movement of the 
 piece from one position to another affords a great variety of 
 exercise, and particularly brings into action the muscles of the 
 arms and chest. 
 
 The scholar executes his movements by words of command, 
 his instructor being enabled thereby to control him, give him 
 the requisite amount of exercise, and prevent over-exertion. 
 
122 
 
 He is taught the position of the soldier which he must assume 
 at the completion of every movement. 
 
 The balance step, while furnishing a light form of exercise, 
 insures to him a proper motion and regularity in the use of the 
 muscles of the leg. He is now prepared to march. The num- 
 ber of steps he is to take per minute is carefully prescribed ; 
 and soon becoming accustomed to this regularity and precision, 
 he acquires the habit of walking with a dignity, steadiness, and 
 soldierly bearing not apparent in those who have never had this 
 or similar training. 
 
 In the double-time movement he obtains more violent exer- 
 cise, and if he follows the instructions given him about breath- 
 ing, he develops a healthy expansion of the lungs, and soon 
 accustoms himself to execute this movement for a long time 
 with little fatigue. 
 
 The exercises termed the " Setting-up Exercise," the first to 
 which the scholar is introduced on his entry into training, is 
 one of the most valuable parts of the whole system, and has 
 been in use in the schools ever since it was introduced into the 
 regular army. It is admitted by all to be one of the most effi- 
 cient of the various forms of light exercise, and is used by the 
 pupils at every drill. In the hall of the English High and 
 Latin Schools of this city these and various other elements of 
 the drill are given with excellent results to four hundred boys 
 at one time. 
 
 Having exercised in all these different movements, the schol- 
 ars are formed into companies and instructed in executing ma- 
 noeuvres and the manual of arms in rapid succession. The 
 use of the musket gives flexibility, firmness, muscular strength, 
 and an erect position of the body. The company movements 
 cultivate precision and freedom of motion. 
 
 This combination of movements has been found by long 
 experience to be a most valuable form of exercise for pupils of 
 the age of those attending our high schools. 
 
 Parents who have had boys previously instructed in the drill 
 have often requested that their younger sons be allowed the 
 privilege of attending this exercise. The novelty of becoming 
 a soldier is very attractive to the average school boy. So 
 
123 
 
 anxious has he been to enter upon the course of drill that the 
 school committee were obliged to limit the age at which he may 
 'be admitted. 
 
 I speak of this to show that one of the most valuable features 
 of this system of instruction is found in the fact that the 
 scholar enters into these exercises with a real interest, a lively 
 imagination, and an entire forgetfulness while performing his 
 military duties, that the main purpose of his actions is to develop 
 his physique. 
 
 The drudgery of simple exercises thus covered up with the 
 enthusiastic spirit of a soldier gives to the scholar the best 
 physical exercise he could obtain ; namely, that acquired in a 
 pleasant and unconscious frame of mind. 
 
 It is quite common to speak of the exercise as a means of 
 physical training merely. The fact is overlooked, or little 
 thought of, that it furnishes a moral culture of scarcely less 
 value than the bodily exercise it affords. It helps materially in 
 training boys to habits of obedience, obedience which is prompt, 
 which is unquestioned, and which boys feel to be manly. It has 
 been truly said "that the American boy runs no risk of being 
 overtrained in this direction." It has proved efficacious in pro- 
 ducing orderly habits and is a most important aid in the discipline 
 of the school. This is the universal testimony of teachers in the 
 schools in which the drill is a part of the curriculum. It devel- 
 ops a more manly spirit in the boy, invigorates his intellect, 
 both directly and indirectly, makes him more graceful and 
 gentlemanly in his bearing, and fits him for the primary duties 
 of life, — those of a good citizen. 
 
 The physical condition of boys entering upon military in- 
 struction has been carefully observed, and it conclusively shows 
 that they never have had a proper course of physical exercise 
 during the time they have spent in the lower grades of our 
 schools. 
 
 Accustomed as they have been to close confinement to their 
 desks and school-rooms, many of them arrive at the high schools 
 with the right shoulder lower than the left and with a tendency 
 to be round-shouldered. They are so slow and stiff in the use 
 of the muscles that they are unable at first to perform in a satis- 
 
124 
 
 factory manner the simplest forms of the setting-up exercises. 
 This condition of the boys is partly accounted for when it 
 is considered that the seats occupied by them are a con- 
 stantly acting cause of curvature of the spine or other deform- 
 ity. In some German cities the setting-up exercise is used as 
 a curative measure in the treatment of spinal and other de- 
 formities. 
 
 My long observation of the physical condition of scholars 
 about to enter the course of military drill convinces me that 
 there should be some thorough and efficient system of physical 
 culture based upon the elementary principles of military train- 
 ing, commencing with the lightest forms of the exercise in the 
 primary schools and progressing through the grammar schools, 
 and so training the muscles of the scholar as to counteract the 
 tendencies toward deformity continually surrounding him. In 
 this way he would be better prepared, when he enters the high 
 school, for the more extensive training of military drill. 
 
 Whatever may be the different movements prescribed for the 
 lower-grade schools, they should in every instance be executed 
 by words of command, so that the actions of the scholar will be 
 continually within the control of the instructor. 
 
 The execution by command enables him to think quickly and 
 directs his thoughts to the movement rather than to the 
 exercise. 
 
 A system of physical culture should not be adopted simply 
 for boys. The girls are in greater need of exercise, and should 
 be equally considered in a discussion of this subject. 
 
 In the primary and grammar schools the setting-up and other 
 light forms of exercise would be the same for girls as boys. 
 The training of girls in our high schools in the more extensive 
 instruction of military drill, so far as that system is applicable 
 to them, has been very successfully tested in one of those 
 schools. 
 
 In so short a paper I have been able Only to touch upon some 
 of the more noticeable features of the drill and to suggest that a 
 system having the principles of military drill running through 
 it would contribute more physical, intellectual, and moral bene- 
 fit than any other system. 
 
125 
 
 Dr. J. G. Blake, of the Boston School Board. — It is hardly 
 necessary to defend military drill before an audience composed 
 in part of the parents of pupils in our boys' high schools. I do 
 not think that its most ardent advocates will claim that it is a 
 perfect system of physical training ; but there are many good 
 points in its favor, and I am glad to add my testimony to that 
 of General Moore. 
 
 The points which I should like to make in its behalf are, first 
 its freedom from accident or injury to the boys. During a ser- 
 vice of fourteen years on the High School Committee, and as 
 chairman for several years, no report of injury to any pupils 
 from participation in the drill has been brought to my notice. 
 When we remember that in the Boston High and Latin Schools 
 alone about twelve hundred boys take part in the drill, this 
 exemption becomes remarkable. The same could not be said 
 of the most carefully supervised gymnasium. Second, the boys 
 enjoy it, and it is a rare occurrence to have an application for 
 release from the drill. Of course, if any pupil is thought to be 
 physically unfitted, he is not allowed to take part ; and no pupil 
 under thirteen years of age is allowed to drill unless by special 
 request of his parents. 
 
 Third, it is a good mental and moral discipline — the boy 
 learns to obey, and that is the first step towards learning to 
 command. There is very little danger of the average American 
 schoolboy being overtrained in this particular. Fourth, it helps 
 to form character ; all the associations of the soldier's life are 
 such as we should like our boys to remember, — patriotism, 
 chivalry, love and defence of country and home. Fifth, it is 
 a powerful aid in maintaining a high order of discipline in the 
 schools, and an incentive to study, as the offices are the rewards 
 of good conduct and scholarship. 
 
 And lastly, with the present limited means at our command 
 for a more perfect gymnasium course, we can do more in the 
 time allotted to the drill — two hours a week — than by any 
 other method which has yet been discussed — for the same 
 number of boys. 
 
126 
 
 The following committee on Physical Training was then 
 announced by Dr. Harris in accordance with the resolution 
 offered by Mr. Huling : — 
 
 Edwin P. Seaver, Superintendent of Schools, Boston. 
 
 J. W. Dickinson, Secretary Board of Education, Boston. 
 
 Edward M. Hartwell, M.D., Baltimore, Md. 
 
 D. A. Sargent, M.D., Harvard College, Cambridge. 
 
 Miss Amy Morris Homans, Boston. 
 
 Ray Greene Huling, New Bedford. 
 
 James A. Page, Boston. 
 
 C. G. Meleney, Superintendent of Schools, Somerville. 
 
 Prof. Lucile E. Hill, Wellesley College. 
 
 Prof. J. B. Powell, Washington, B.C. 
 
 Mrs. Louisa P. Hopkins, Boston. 
 
 Dr. Emerson was asked to speak for five minutes, in reply to 
 the question asked by Dr. Sargent in the morning. 
 
 Dr. Emerson. — Dr. Sargent thought that in the interest of 
 education he would like to have me state in what books the 
 ideas that I presented this morning could be found. He did 
 not say this as doubting what had been said, as he told me per- 
 sonally. It was not a challenge. It was simply asking me to 
 put you on the line of hunting up these things for yourselves. 
 I will say that, in the form that I put them together, I do not 
 know of any book where you will find them. But you can find 
 the foundation in Carpenter's Physiology, and also in Flint's, 
 and in several others that it is not necessary to mention. I 
 only gave you the facts that could be found in books ; the 
 placing them was my own as was the logic growing out of them. 
 
 Dr. Sargent. — I do not care at this late hour to reply in 
 full to Dr. Emerson's paper. I asked him to state in what 
 anatomies and physiologies the principles he advocated could 
 be found, because as I understood him I could not help think- 
 ing that some of his statements were misleading. 
 
 Years ago I gave up making positive assertions in regard to 
 the body. I felt that I could not tell a man that he was not 
 symmetrically or harmoniously developed, for I did not know. 
 
 A great many other things occurred in connection with my 
 early practice that made me feel that I was working in the dark, 
 for I could find no data to guide me. 
 
127 
 
 After comparing my experiences with a number of others who 
 were interested in the study and search for truth, for principles, 
 we agreed upon a uniform system of measurements, as the first 
 step towards obtaining data that would be a guide to ourselves 
 as well as to others. 
 
 We are now engaged in the great work of making physical 
 measurements of individuals throughout this country and dif- 
 ferent parts of the world, for I have returns from countries as 
 remote from us as Australia and New Zealand. 
 
 I have just been informed that the international committee 
 of the Young Men's Christian Association have adopted the 
 general principles of this system of measurements, and will 
 carry the uniform plan into all of their gymnasiums. 
 
 Soon we may hope to have sufficient data to enable us to lay 
 out the best system of physical training for all classes. Now 
 we have not the light, we have not the facts. 
 
 I have occupied considerable of your time to-day in dealing 
 with principles, because I do not think this is the place to dis- 
 cuss methods. It is the broad general principles upon which 
 the subject is founded, upon which physical education must 
 rest as a basis, that we want to understand. Anatomy and 
 physiology furnish us the foundations. These subjects are the 
 same throughout the civilized world. What we want to do is to 
 find out what the laws of physiology are, and apply them to 
 our systems of exercise. That is what they are doing at the great 
 Central Institute at Stockholm ; that is what some of us are 
 doing here. At our training school in Cambridge we do not 
 talk of methods or systems, but of principles. 
 
 Many teachers go into schools where they have no apparatus 
 to work with. But after seeing the pupils they know what they 
 want to do, and avail themselves of any agency at hand, as 
 books, chairs, desks, etc., to accomplish the desired result. 
 Any teacher who is tied to a system, or to the apparatus of 
 an expensive gymnasium, is incapacitated for labor in this field ; 
 though these valuable adjuncts, like books and chemical and 
 philosophical apparatus, furnish the best facilities for accom- 
 plishing the object in view. 
 
 If the question were asked, whether the methods current at 
 
128 
 
 the Hemenway Gymnasium could be applied to the public 
 schools, I should say certainly they can, though they are not 
 at present adapted to such uses, as no demand until recently 
 has been felt from this direction. 
 
 I realized sometime ago that the best way to get at the public 
 schools was through the colleges and universities. There is no 
 reason why the same principles could not be applied to the chil- 
 dren of the public schools as well as to those in the secondary 
 schools. 
 
 Many things have been said during this convention that will 
 furnish food for thought and themes for discussion. But I 
 think we have no right to consider this gathering a school. It 
 is not for me therefore to answer such questions as were asked 
 by Professor Curry, as'to what develops this joint or that mus- 
 cle. These are questions which a convention of gymnastic 
 teachers might properly discuss. What we want to get at are 
 the broad underlying principles that furnish the physical basis 
 of education, that can be applied to the building of the intellect- 
 ual faculties, because that must ever be the chief end and aim 
 of the school teacher. 
 
 Nils Posse. — I thoroughly agree with the last speaker, that 
 the matter of method is of but little consequence comparatively. 
 It is the instruction given to the teacher which is the essential 
 part to be looked after. What we do in Sweden in the way of 
 instructing a teacher to teach gymnastics is not to say. You 
 shall teach the Swedish system. We are too broad for that. 
 We instruct him in the theory of gymnastics, and teach him 
 how to use all the material at hand, so that really we teach an 
 eclectic system. 
 
 Perhaps you may think the Swedish system contains nothing 
 but "light caHsthenics " ; if so, you are mistaken. It is true 
 the Swedish method begins with very simple exercises ; because 
 a person's abilities are very small when he commences, no 
 matter how old he is. He has to start where the child begins, 
 not only in mental matters, but in physical as well. So also 
 here. As his ability grows, so also the exercises change, and 
 the exercises that previously were easy and gentle gradually 
 become stronger. We do not in our schools "keep children 
 
129 
 
 eight or ten years between the desks working at the same 
 thing." We have progression. We try to give them as much 
 variety as possible with such limited means as desks and chairs. 
 But every high-grade school has its own complete gymnasium, 
 where we take the scholars for about half an hour a day. We 
 have three hundred (more or less) in one group, and they work 
 with apparatus. 
 
 ■ The instruction given to the teacher enables him to use for 
 apparatus such simple things as desks and chairs. It was stated 
 here that these exercises could not be done in the school-room. 
 I venture to say that they can be done, and are done every day 
 in Boston schools, between desks and chairs, and that they have 
 been used there from day to day for nearly a year. Those who 
 doubt can go and see for themselves. 
 
 It was also stated that the Swedes and other Europeans have 
 come over here for information, because they found that their 
 methods were "insufficient." Do Americans go abroad to study 
 because their country is inferior } No ; they go because they 
 wish to become broadened. So do we. Our system is very 
 good because it is eclectic ; and we are perfectly satisfied with 
 its efficiency. The theory of gymnastics recognizes no system ; 
 for if gymnastics are founded on the theories that should be 
 fundamental for all gymnastics, they will all be alike, or almost 
 alike ; they will be gymnastics, and need no distinguishing pre- 
 fix. Why, then, do we come here } Why do we go and look 
 into other systems 1 Because we wish to increase our material, 
 and to become as broad as possible. We, do not say that we 
 wish to have the Swedish system in Sweden because it is Swed- 
 ish. We take the best, no matter whose it is, just as the French 
 gentleman has said, " if your neighbor has something you want, 
 go and take it," provided he is willing to give it. 
 
 Dr. Hartwell. — I am very glad to re-echo almost all of 
 what Mr. Posse has said in regard to the Swedish system. 
 It is a system because it proceeds from principles carefully 
 thought out, by means and measures carefully selected, and its 
 parts are joined together for definite purposes, with the idea of 
 accomplishing certain definite results at each stage of the teach- 
 ing. And I agree with him entirely that the Swedish is based 
 
13° 
 
 upon physiological principles; but unfortunately there are 
 national prejudices which come in here and there and prevent 
 the partisans of one system from properly appreciating otheir 
 systems at their full value. For instance, I found in St. Peters- 
 burg a class preparing to become teachers of gymnastics, trained 
 according to what was termed the Russian-American system, its 
 originator having been greatly impressed by the late Dio Lewis's 
 books, — whose contents are largely, as I have said, adaptations 
 from the German system of gymnastics. Nowadays Germans 
 and German institutions are not popular in Russia. 
 
 It is not calling a thing by a name that makes it a system, 
 and that is the point I wish to urge in regard to the so-called 
 American system. There is none. There are various attempts 
 to systematize gymnastics in various parts of the country, under 
 different people, with different and limited experiences. They 
 join various exercises together, and tag them a, b, c — x, y, z, 
 and claim that the result is a system. It reminds me of the 
 classification of Ohio colleges and universities, made by some 
 observant person once. He said when there were something 
 like forty such institutions, that those that had a building of 
 three stories were called universities, while those that had build- 
 ings of only two stories were called colleges. By the time we 
 get a three or four story experience, and when we have had that 
 for twenty, thirty, or forty years, we can begin to talk about an 
 American system. The fact is, these Swedish and German sys- 
 tems shade into each other, having much in common. Here is 
 one of the last books in Swedish on this subject of gymnastics, 
 one of a series, edited by Captain Victor Balck, of the Central 
 Institute of Stockholm, the best institution in the world of its 
 kind. I believe that the teachers from the Central Institute are 
 the best in the world of their kind, because they are more thor- 
 oughly taught, and for a longer time than any body of teachers 
 that I know of. In this book you will find certain German exer- 
 cises recommended. When the two systems are compared, it 
 will be seen that certain exercises are left out of one that are 
 used in the other. There was, at one time, an attempt made 
 by a Prussian army officer named Rothstein, to establish the 
 Swedish system in full force in Prussia, in opposition to the 
 
131 
 
 then partly developed system, which, being based on the ideas 
 of Jahn, was very popular. The result has been rather curious. 
 Rothstein banished certain pieces of Jahn's apparatus, such as 
 parallel bars, horizontal bars, etc., from the Central Gymnastic 
 Institute in Berlin, of which he was director. This led to a 
 tremendous turmoil. After some years of discussion a medical 
 commission was formed, in whose deliberations such men as Vir- 
 chow, Langenbeck, Du Bois Reymond, took part, to consider 
 this question. The result was that the banished apparatus was 
 reinstated, the decision of the commission being that "the bar 
 exercises might be improved, from a medical point of view, but 
 should not be suppressed." 
 
 On the other hand, it is worthy of notice, that in Norway the 
 use of both Swedish and German methods is common in the gym- 
 nastic clubs. In the German army certain pieces of apparatus 
 constantly used are of Swedish origin, and they are used accord- 
 ing to the methods originally introduced by Rothstein in the 
 forties. Our American system, as it is called, resembles the 
 corner of a crazy quilt, as compared with the design of a Turk- 
 ish rug, when compared with the Swedish and German. The 
 question with us should be, How shall we get the best elements 
 for a system that shall fit our case ? My reply is, by carefully 
 studying both systems. It is lafgely a question of taste and con- 
 venience which you introduce. Do not be in a hurry to intro- 
 duce either. We Americans have started off in what may be 
 called a bumptious manner, in this as in other lines. But that 
 need not prevent us from the saving grace of being able to learn 
 from the example and experience of others. We are learning 
 all the time, and we are very willing to learn. We have at 
 least established a department of athletics, if not a system. We 
 have an inherited taste for out-of-door games that is not going 
 to be squelched. We have Dr. Sargent's system of supervision 
 and guidance, on the one hand, and such work as Dr. Wey is 
 doing, on the other hand, — building up by physical training the 
 most poorly organized and criminal defectives, to show that we 
 are capable of originating new methods. From the experience 
 of the Elmira Reformatory we have gained more proof of the 
 capabilities of this work than from the work yet done in anv 
 
132 
 
 college. It shows that the effect of physical training, even when 
 that training is not of the most elaborate nature, is improved 
 brain power. 
 
 I have been asked if I have ever heard of devolution. 
 Devolution is implied by evolution. One has but to under- 
 stand, to know that the latest acquired of our movements, which 
 are the most unstable and the most difficult of muscular move- 
 ments, are those which give way the first under the onset of 
 disease. The nerve centres which represent them are usually 
 the first to be attacked. 
 
 In paralysis, control over the lips and tongue is sooner lost 
 than that over the muscles of mastication or respiration. Per- 
 haps no better or more striking example of devolution, pro- 
 ceeding from improper training and the disregard of the plain 
 teachings of physiology, could be adduced than that whereby 
 a minister becomes a sore throat. 
 
 On motion of Mr. Ray G. Huling, who also put the motion, 
 the name of Dr. William T. Harris was made the second name 
 on the Committee on Physical Training. 
 
 On motion of Mr. Huling it was voted that the committee 
 should have power to fill vacancies made by resignation, and 
 that sufficient time to prepare a full report should be allowed. 
 
 Luther Gulick, M.D., Director of the Physical Department of 
 the Young Men's Christian Association, Springfield, Mass., 
 offered the following resolution : — 
 
 Resolved, That the most cordial thanks of this Conference be extended to 
 Mrs. Hemenway and to Miss Homans for the generosity and large-mindedneSs 
 that led them to undertake and guide this Conference ; and to express our 
 conviction that not only the Boston public schools, but the whole cause of 
 physical education in America, has received a great impetus from this meeting, 
 which is the result of their labors. 
 
 The motion was seconded by Dr. Winfield S. Hall of Haver- 
 ford College, and was passed unanimously. 
 
 The Conference adjourned. 
 
NAMES OF WRITERS AND SPEAKERS. 
 
 Anderson, W. G., M.D., 54. 
 
 Blake, J. G., M.D., 135. 
 
 Chadwick, H. L., 59. 
 Channing, Walter, M.D., 77. 
 de Coubertin, M. Picrte, 1x2. 
 Curry, S. S., 115. 
 
 Dunton, Larkin, 33. 
 
 Eberhard, Carl, ii. 
 
 Emerson, C. W., M.D., 87, ia6. 
 
 Enebuske, Claes J., 35. 
 
 Gr<5ner, Emil, 34. 
 
 Gulick, Luther, M.D., 139. 
 
 Hall, AUce T., M.D., 59. 
 
 Hall, Winfield S., 132. 
 
 Harris, W. T., LL.D., i, 28. 
 
 Hartwell, E. M., M.D., s, 29, 33, 61, 129. 
 
 Hill, Lucile Eaton, 79, 
 
 Hitchcock, Edward, M.D., 39, 56, 57. 
 Huling, Ray Greene, 8x, 96, 98, X33. 
 
 Ingraham, L. V., M.D., 82. 
 
 Ladd, Carolyn C, M.D., 80. 
 
 Meath, Earl of, 51. 
 Metzner, H., 23. 
 Moore, Hobart, 121, 
 
 Posse, Nils, M.G., 42, 128. 
 Putnam, Helen, M.D,, 60. 
 
 Reynolds, John P., M.D., 33. 
 
 Sargent, D. A., M.D., 62, 95, 126 
 Seaver, E. P., 28, 32, 33, 96. 
 
 Tousley, Ruth C, 80. 
 
 Walker, Francis A., 85. 
 Wey, Hamilton D., M.D., 99. 
 Whitrier, F. N., M.D., 83. 
 
INDEX OF SUBJECTS AND BOOKS TO WHICH 
 REFERENCE IS MADE. 
 
 Abdominal exercises, 47. 
 
 Adclphi Academy, 55. 
 
 Adolph Spiess, 27, 39. 
 
 American college girls, 60. 
 
 American system of gymnastics, 22, 53, 54, loi. 
 
 Americans^ what they need, 76. 
 
 Apparatus, in United States, 65. 
 
 Arch-flexions, 46. 
 
 Athletic Club, Boston, 22. 
 
 Athletic sports, 19, ao, 58. 
 
 Atrophy of muscles, 13. 
 
 B. 
 
 Bagehot's " Physics and Politics/* 16. 
 
 Balance-movements, 46* 
 
 Berkeley School, 114. 
 
 Boston Latin School, physical training in, 31, 33. 
 
 Boston School of Expression, 1x5. 
 
 Boston Turn Schule, 31. 
 
 Bowdoin College, 62, 84, 
 
 Catherine Beecher, loi. 
 
 Characteristics of Swedish system of gymnastics, 
 
 The, 43. 
 Chest-weights, 45, 72, 73. 
 " Circular No. 5,*' Bureau of Education, 100. 
 Committee on Physical Training, 126. 
 Conference of Charities and Correction, 106. 
 Contraction of muscles under exercise, 70. 
 Cramped positions, 74, 83. 
 Curvature of spine in school children, 61. 
 
 D. 
 
 Dio Iicwisi 63, 81, iot| 130. 
 Discussions, 28, 51, 59, 77. 
 *' Diseases of the Nervous System," by Ross, n, 
 
 30- 
 Dr. Beck, 39, 30. 
 Dr. Edward Seguin, ai. 
 Dr. Follen, 30. 
 Dr. Francis Gardner, 30. 
 Dr. Francis Lieber, 30. 
 Dr. J. C. Warren, 30. 
 Dr. J. Crichton-Browne, 15, 30. 
 
 Dr. John C. Warren, 30. 
 Dr. Weir Mitchell, 14. 
 Dreams, of the blind, 14. 
 Du Bois Reymond, 9, aS, 131. 
 Dyspepftia and gymnastics, 28, 90. 
 
 E. 
 
 Effect of muscular action on arterial system, 91. 
 
 Eflect of exercise on muscles, 6; on nerves, 7. 
 
 Eiselen, 27. 
 
 Elmira Refarmatory, 109. 
 
 Exercises of the young, 75. 
 
 Exercises, system of, 74. 
 
 Factory Act, The, 82. 
 
 " Father" Jabn, 27, 39, 30, 100. 
 
 Ferrier, x2. 
 
 Flecbsig, xa. 
 
 French Educational Reform Association, xxa. 
 
 George C. Shattuck, 100, 
 
 German gymnastics, 19, so, 91, 2a, 33, 24, 31. 
 
 German system, 24, loi, 130, 131. 
 
 Girls, exercise for, 79, 80. 
 
 Girls, their need of exercise, X34. 
 
 Grace in exercise, 92. 
 
 Graceful gymnastics, 44. 
 
 Greek culture, 87. 
 
 Greek excellence, 99. 
 
 Greek gymnastics, 30, 29, 36. 
 
 Groton School, 1x4. 
 
 Guts-Muths, 37, 39. 
 
 Gymnastics, German system of, 33. 
 
 Gymnastics in England, 52. 
 
 Gymnastics with reference to the voice, Z17. 
 
 H. 
 
 Harvard Annex, 69. 
 
 *' Health of Nations, The," 82. 
 
 Heaving-movements, 46. 
 
 Hemenway Gymnasium, system of physical 
 
 training at, 63. 
 Herbert Spencer, 11. 
 " How to get Strong," by Blaikie, 64. 
 Hygiene, its relation to physical exercisci x. 
 
135 
 
 " Idiocy," by Edward Seguin, M.D., io6. 
 Individuality developed by games, 3. 
 
 James B. Richards, xo6. 
 Jumping and vaulting, 47. 
 
 Lateral trunk-movements, 47. 
 
 Lawrenceville School, 114. 
 
 Laws to be followed in teaching physical culture, 
 
 87. 
 
 " Life and Correspondence of Arnold," by Stan- 
 ley, 114. 
 Ling system, 52, 53, 56, 77, 100. 
 Literature on physical education, 29. 
 London schools, gymnastics in, 51. 
 
 M. 
 
 Maclaren, quotation from, 71. 
 
 Maclaren's *' Training in Theory and Practice," 
 
 8. 
 Malcolm Morris, 30. 
 Medical gymnastics, 44. 
 Medical supervision of schoob, 6x. 
 Military drill, 121, 125. 
 Military drill for girls, 134. 
 Muscles, contraction of, 70. 
 Muscular exercise, deserves attention, x6. 
 Music, disapproved of by Swedish system, 49. 
 Music in gymnastics, 78. 
 
 N. 
 
 Nature of physical training. The, 5, 
 Nervous system, education of, 17* 
 New physical education. The, 3. 
 
 Pastimes, xg. 
 
 Pedagogic phase of physical training, 99. 
 
 Percentage of girls receiving physical training, 60. 
 
 '* Philosophy of Education," by Rosenkranz, 1x9. 
 
 P. H. Ling, 40, 42, 53, 54, 120. 
 
 Physical care and physical training, difference 
 between, 104. 
 
 Physical culture, through life, 94. 
 
 Physical education and hygiene, principles essen- 
 tial in, 57. 
 
 Physical Training, address on, 1. 
 
 Physical training as a pedagogic measure, 109. 
 
 Physical training, best means of securing, 5. 
 
 " Physical Training in American Colleges and 
 Universities," by E. M. Hartwell, 100, 
 
 " Physical Training of the Insane," by Walter 
 Channing, M.D., 108. 
 
 Physical training, pedagogic phase of, 99. 
 
 Physical training, place of, in rational education, 
 
 35" 
 " Physics and Politics," by Bagehot, 16. 
 " Physiology of Exercise," by Du Bois Rey- 
 
 mond, 30. 
 Physiology of exercise, 102. 
 Place of physical training in a rational education, 
 
 the, 35- 
 
 PlatO, 32. 
 
 Principles essential in physical education and 
 hygiene, 57. 
 
 R. 
 
 Real Schulen, 33. 
 
 Recess in schools, abolishing, 4. 
 
 Record of strength of students, 68. 
 
 Resolutions, 96, 98, 133. 
 
 Respiratory exercises, 48. 
 
 Raso's "Diseases of the Nervous System," xi, 
 
 39. 
 Round Hill School, 29, 30. 
 Royal Central Gymnastic Institute, 60, 6x. 
 Rugby, XX4. 
 
 S. 
 
 Schools, function of, 17. 
 
 Setting-up exercise, 132; for girls, 134. 
 
 Shoulder-blade movements, 47. 
 
 Sir Edwin Chadwick's " The Health of Nations," 
 83. 
 
 Slow leg-movements, 47. 
 
 Sore throats, 117. 
 
 St. Paul's School, Concord, N.H., xoo. 
 
 Students, physical examinations of, 65* 
 
 Swedish gymnastics, chief characteristics of, 43. 
 
 Swedish movement cure, 51. 
 
 Swedish system, 53, 54, loi, 138, 139, 130, X31. 
 
 ** Sylvanus," story of, 106. 
 
 System of physical training at Hemenway Gym- 
 nasium, The, 63. 
 
 T. 
 
 " The Book of Health," by Malcolm Morris, 30. 
 
 '* The Nervous System in its Relation to Educa- 
 tion," by Crichton-Browne, 30. 
 
 Thomas Arnold and his principles, 112. 
 
 Time, in schools, for gymnastics, 8i< 
 
 "Tom Brown's Schooldays," 114. 
 
 " Training in Theory and Practice," by Mac- 
 laren, 8, 30. 
 
 Tremont Gymnasium, 30. 
 
 Turners, in Germany, 29. 
 
 Turning, teachers of, 30. 
 
 Turnvereine, 20, 31, 31. 
 
 Volks Schulen, 33. 
 
 Will-tension, 3. 
 
 W. 
 

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