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 Anthropoloay. By Dr. Paul Toplnard. With 
 
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LIBRARY OF CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE. 
 
ANTHROPOLOGY 
 
 DR. PAUL TOPINAED, 
 
 PEEPABATOB OP ANTHEOPOLOGT AT THE ECOT.B BES HAUTES <TUDES, 
 
 CT7KATOB OP THB MUSBTTIC OF IHB AHTHEOPOLOGICAL a0CIET7 07 FABIS, 
 
 ETC, 
 
 BY 
 
 PEOFESSOR PAUL BROOA. 
 
 TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENOS. 
 
 NEW EDITION. 
 
 Wlitif JFovtv^nim WLooUtnts, 
 
 LONDON: CHAPMAN AND HALL, 
 
 Limited. 
 1890. 
 
^ 0<&^ T . M - 
 
 T 
 
 CHAHLBS DIOEEKS AlfD ETANa, 
 
 CETSTiX PALACE paBSS. 
 
AUTHOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 Ajitheopologt, of all branclies of natural sciencBj was tke 
 last to be developed ; nevertheless it is one whioii now lays 
 claim to hold the first place in the attention of the scientific 
 world. For fifteen years this science, whose title even was 
 not settled, had but few adherents. Since 1749, the date at 
 which it was inaugurated by BufEon, there have been, in 
 every generation, a certain number of learned men who 
 have directed their attention to it, and among these have 
 figured many distinguished anatomists and naturalists. But 
 these men, devoted to studies whose utility was not as yet 
 appreciated, formed, as it were, a staff without an army, 
 and if they had a few select readers we may safely say they 
 had not the public at large. 
 
 A new era manifested itself in 1859, in consequence of 
 the foundation of the Societe d' Anthropologic de Paris. The 
 Ethnological Societies of Paris, and of London and New 
 York, which had preceded it, had not been able to extend 
 their influence beyond a very limited area; some valuable 
 Works had been published, but the majority of the members 
 
vi PREFACE. 
 
 remained indifferent. When, in 1848, the Societe Bthno- 
 logique de Paris ceased to hold its meetings, no notice was 
 taken of it; and when, eleven years later, some of its 
 members resolved to found a society for the special study 
 of Man, and of the i-aces of mankind, it was with difSculty, 
 after six months of parleying, that nineteen of the pro- 
 moters could be brought together, of whom many were 
 only members in name. 
 
 This new society, founded with so much diiEculty, 
 obtained, however, rapid and unexpected success. Enlarg- 
 ing all at once the programme of ethnology, by grouping 
 around the study of the human races the medical sciences, 
 comparative anatomy, and zoology, prehistoric archseology, 
 palseontology, linguistics, and history, and designating under 
 the title Anthropology the science whose domain was thus 
 largely extended, the new society opened its portals to all 
 those who cultivated these numerous branches of human 
 knowledge. 
 
 Ethnology had remained, up to this period, a speciality 
 prosecuted but by few; anthropology, on the contrary, 
 addressed itself to learned men of every class. It attracted to 
 it physicians, naturalists, archseologists, linguistics, happy to 
 be able, each in his sphere, to lend his aid ; and soon these 
 valuable auxiliaries manifested their desire to become pro- 
 ficient by an assiduous devotion to its study. To the rapid 
 accession of learned men to its ranks, and of others who 
 became interested in it, are we to attribute the rapid diffusion 
 of anthropological knowledge. 
 
 This movement, which had its origin in Prance, rapidly 
 extended to other countries. On all sides anthropological 
 societies sprang up, which were founded on the same basis 
 
PREFACE. fii 
 
 and worked on the same general plan. Anthropological 
 conferences were organised, and in the greater number of 
 general meetings for the advancement of science, anthro- 
 pology has now its section the same as other sciences. 
 These conferences have been remarkable from the number 
 of members who have taken an active part in them, and from 
 the still larger number of their adherents. The latter are 
 no longer to be computed by hundreds but by thousands. 
 For example, the only society of anthropology in Paris has 
 now on its roU upwards of four hundred native members, 
 while the members comprising the two English societies is 
 nearly double that number. There is now a large and 
 distinguished body of persons who fuUy estimate the 
 importance of the science, who approve its objects, and who 
 naturally interest themselves in them. This is the happy 
 outgrowth of the extension of the general scheme of 
 anthropology. Other results, still more fortunate, have 
 been brought about. Works have become multiplied in 
 proportion to the number of workers. Many questions of 
 altogether a novel character have arisen j many others have 
 changed their aspects ; all have been elucidated by constant 
 and patient research. Innumerable facts have been observed, 
 discussed, verified ; and in the brief period of sixteen 
 years greater progress and more important discoveries have 
 been made in anthropology than at any period since iis 
 foundation. 
 
 But the rapidity with which the development of anthro- 
 pology is proceeding is a source of considerable difficulty to 
 those who are desirous of studying this science. No one 
 can pretend to become conversant with all the subjects of 
 general knowledge which it lays under contribution ; to 
 
viii PREFACE. 
 
 master them with the depth and precision which imply a 
 thorough acquaintance with them, he must abandon the 
 idea of becoming a perfect anthropologist. Division of 
 labour is more necessary here than anywhere else. In this 
 vast domain each one pitches his tent in the spot where his 
 special tastes^ his peculiar bias, and his particular know- 
 ledge invite him. But in order that these researches, so 
 multiform, may not run the risk of becoming discursive, 
 and may be directed to one and the same end, it is necessary 
 that all labourers in the work should early become ac- 
 quainted with the general principles of anthropology, with 
 its tenets, and with the whole of the facts which it has 
 established. This want has been sensibly felt for some 
 years. Prom all sides a demand has sprung up for an 
 elementary treatise on anthropology — a systematic resume 
 where questions might be studied which are the subject of 
 discussion in our societies or treated of in original papers ; 
 a work, ia short, which should be at the same time a guide 
 for students and a manual of reference for others. Such a 
 work has not appeared up to the present time. The 
 remarkable " Le9ons sur I'Homme," by Carl Vogt, embraced 
 only the subject in a general way : they were published^ 
 m.oreover, twelve years since, and do not give the latest 
 information on the science. The excellent little treatise of 
 Omalius d'Halloy, "Sur les Races Humaines," is purely 
 ethnological;' it embraces only one special part of anthro- 
 pology, and does not supply the want to which we refer. 
 
 An important gap had to be filled up. The founders of 
 the BibHoth^que des' Sciences Contemporaines have felt it 
 incumbent upon them to step in, and have confided to 
 Dr, Topinard the difiicult task of elucidating, in a single 
 
PREFACE. ix 
 
 volume, a science of vast dimensions in process of rapid de- 
 velopment, and one whicli hitherto has not received sufficient 
 attention. More than one had shrunk from attempting it. 
 An individual devoting himself to original research, and 
 engaged in duties to which he is anxious to give his 
 undivided attention, is generally little disposed to employ 
 his time in writing a work of a popular character. But 
 M. Topinard is one who is thoroughly equal to the task. 
 An appeal was made to his ardent love for anthropology, 
 which appeal has not been made in vain. He has been 
 most unwearied in his efforts, and has brought his work 
 to a successful issue. He has rendered signal service to 
 anthropology, for which, on behalf of the friends of the 
 science, I cordially thank him. 
 
 PAUL BROCA. 
 
mAN81.AT0R'S PREFACE. 
 
 WniViST cmloftviniring I'nlthfnlly to oxoouto the task of 
 olothing »i\ Kngllsl) i>-iirli Dr. 'ropimuHl's work on AtvtJ\w- 
 pulug'y, the trausltitor wishos it tv> bo umlorstood that he 
 (K>os not uooossiwily onvUn-so all tlio \io\vs of its talented 
 iuUUor. llimsoU' a pupil ^>f tho illustrious rrloUtu\l, ho early 
 booniuo aoquiuutod with that great man's argumouts in 
 favour of Mouogonisui, so towibly ail\-i\uood \u his work 
 " 1k>s«vvvhos into tho Tlusioal History of Mankind," Sub- 
 soquont thoughtful stiuly ha!< only tondod to ooidirm him in 
 tho truth of thoso argun>onts, and in an ontiiv boliof in tho 
 authoutioity of i\\i'' Mosaio l{oooi\ls, which no sophistry on 
 tho part of tho advooatos of Polygvnisni has boon ablo to 
 shako, th\o or two n»attoi*s of dot;>il tvntainod in tl»o 
 originjvl havo boon onuttod, with a viow io ivndor the ■work 
 n»o(v aooopt,ablo to tho giMun-al ivador, fnnn whon\, as woll 
 as f(vn\ tho pisiftK-ssioutd vtx-ulor, indulgence is oi^avod for 
 many ootiscious dofivts i)\ tho t.rat\slatiou, 
 
 BOBEirr T. H. HAKTTd'A*. 
 
COl^TEMS. 
 
 PASI 
 
 Pkeface vii 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Definition of Anthropology — General Olitline "Of the Subject — 
 Its Relations to Medicine and Ethnology — Its Applications 
 — ^History — Plan of the Work^Zoological Classification ... 1 
 
 PART I. 
 
 OF MAN CONSBDEEED IN HIS ENSEMBLE, AND IN 
 HIS EELATIONS WITH ANIMALS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Phtsicai. Charactees. 
 
 Skeleton and Skull in General — Zoological Facial Angle — 
 Cranial Capacity — Situation and Direction of the Occipital 
 Foramen — Occipital and Biorbital Angles ... 29 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Pies 
 
 Vertebral Column — Sacrum — Pelvis — Thorax — Sternum- 
 Parallel between the Superior and Inferior Extremities 
 — The Hand and Eoot^Proportions of the Skeleton ... 61 
 
 CHAPTEE III. 
 
 Muscles — Organs of Sense — Viscera — Larynx — Genital Organs 
 — ^Nervous System — Brain : its Structure, Convolutions, 
 Weight — Rudimentary Organs and Reversive Anomalies... 91 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Physiological Characters— Development of the Body — Em- 
 bryogeny. Sutures and Epiphyses, Teeth — Determination 
 of the Age and Sex of the Skeleton — General and Special 
 Functions — Psychical Manifestations, Faculty of Ex- 
 pression 128 
 
 , CHAPTER v.. , .; 
 
 Pathological Characters — Diseases — Pacts of Teratology — 
 Microcephalus — Hydrocephalus — Premature Synostoses 
 ■ — Artificial Deformations of the Skull — Conclusion as to 
 Man's Place in the Class of Mammalia 168 
 
 PART 11. 
 
 OF THE EACES OF MA5TKIND. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Species ^ — Variety — Race — Classification of Races — Physical 
 Characters — Anatomical Description — Craniology — De- 
 scriptive Characters — Processes of Blumenbach, of Oweu, 
 of Prichard— Craniometrical Characters — Principles and 
 Methods of employing Craniometry ... ... ... ... 193 
 
CONTENTS- 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Measurement of the Cranial Cavity — Straight and Curved 
 Measurements — Cephalic, Vertical, Frontal, Nasal, Orbital 
 Indices — Facial Triangle 226 
 
 CHAPTER ni. 
 
 Projections — -Horizontal Alveolo-condylean Plane — Auricular 
 Radii — Prognathism^Oraniometrical Angles of Jacquart, 
 De Quatrefages, Broca, Welcker ... 263 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Skeleton : its Descriptive and Osteometrical Characters — Its 
 
 Pr6portions — The Viscera — The Brain : its Weight ... 297 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Physical Characters in the living Subject — Anthropometrical 
 Characters — Proportions in Art — Stature — Measurement of 
 the Head and Body 314 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Descriptive Characters — Colour of the Skin, Eyes, and Hair — 
 Pilous System — Physiognomy — Form of the Face, Nose, 
 Mouth, and Ears — External Genital Organs — ^Tablier and 
 Steatopyga ... 340 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Physiological Characters — Age — Menstruation — Crossing — 
 
 Inheritance — Consanguineous Union ... 363 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Influence of Milieux — Acclimation — ^Weight of the Body. — 
 Muscular Strength — Pulse — Respiration — Intellectual 
 Functions — Pathological Characters — Causes of the Ex- 
 tinction of Races 385 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTEE IS. 
 
 Ethnic, Linguistic, Historical, Archaeological Characters : 
 their Value — Prehistoric Races — Our Ancestors of the 
 Eough and Polished Stone Period 417 
 
 CHAPTEE X. 
 
 Anthropological Types — Blonde and Brown European Types — 
 Hindoo, Tschinghanian, Iranian, Celtic, Berber, Semitic, 
 Arabian Types ... 442 
 
 CHAPTEE XI. 
 
 Einnish and Lapp Typos— Mongolian, Esquimau, Samoyed, 
 and Malay Types — Polynesian Type — American and Pata- 
 gonian Types — Eed African Type ... 465 
 
 CHAPTEE Xn. 
 
 Negro, Kaffir, Hottentot Types — Papuan, Negrito, Tasmanian 
 Types — ^Australian Type — Conclusion of the Subject of 
 Human Eaces 487 
 
 PAET III. 
 
 ON THE OEIGIlSr OE IIAK 
 
 CHAPTEE L 
 
 Monogenism of M. de Quatrefages— Polygenism of Agassiz— 
 Transformism of Lamarck — Selection of Mr. Darwin 
 —Their Application to Man, his Genealogy, his Place in 
 Nature 
 
 515 
 
ANTHROPOLOGY. 
 
 mTEODUCTIOK 
 
 DBFINITIOir OF ANTHROPOLOGY GENERAL OUTLINE OF THE SUBJECT 
 
 ITS RELATIONS TO JIEDICINB AND ETHNOLOGY ITS APPLICATIONS 
 
 HISTORY PLAN OF THE WORK ZOOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 The -word Anthropology is of ancient date, and has always signified 
 tke study of Man ; originally, of Man moral, and, later on, of Man 
 physical. At the present time it comprehends both. We may 
 almost say that Aristotle was the originator of it. He termed 
 those Anthropologists who carried on dissertations upon Man. The 
 word is found for the first time in the title of a work of Magnus 
 Hundt, in 1501. It is frequently to he met with subsequently as 
 synonymous with " a description of the soul," or of " a description 
 of the body and soul, and of the laws which govern their union." 
 In 1772, Diderot and D'Alembert defined it as "a treatise on 
 Man." In 1778, Kant wrote a work on psychology, entitled "An 
 Essay on Anthropology." Blumenbach takes it ia the acceptation 
 we give it at the present day. In 1838, Serres assumed, at the 
 Museum, the title of Professor of Anthropology, or of the Ifatural 
 History of Man ; and M. Edwards, in. 1839, defined it as the 
 knowledge of Man in his physical and moral relations. Here and 
 there, however, we find it more or less misinterpreted. Physicians 
 have published, under this title, encyclopaedias embracing at the 
 same time anatomy, physiology, pathology, and hygiene. A 
 
3 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 chapter in Professor Karl Sclimidt's " Lettres Anthropologiques," 
 written in 1852, is entitled " The Anthropology of the New Testa- 
 ment, or Jesus Christ." Three years ago an author in the " Eevue 
 des deux Mondes " employed it as a synonym for the " Eeproduction 
 of the human figore on Grecian yases." But such differences of 
 signification are no longer aUo-wable. The word has a meaning, 
 stamped upon it hy the whole of Europe, which cannot he ignored ; 
 it designates a science as well recognised and as definite as chemistry, 
 astronomy, or social economy. 
 
 Definition. 
 
 Anthropology is the branch of natural history which treats of 
 Man and of the races of Man. It may be summed up in the 
 following definitions : 
 
 " Anthropology is a science which has for its object the study 
 of the human race, considered as a whole, in its separate individu- 
 ahty, and in its relations with the rest of nature." — Br oca. 
 
 " Anthropology is a science pure and concrete, haviug for its 
 aim the thorough knowledge of the human group, considered : 
 (1) In each of the four typical divisions — as to variety, race, species 
 — compared with each other, and in relation to their respective ex- 
 ternal conditions. (2) In its ensemble, and in its relations with the 
 rest of the animal world." — Bertillon. 
 
 " Anthropology is the natural history of Man, considered mono- 
 graphically, as a zoologist studying an animal would understand 
 it." — De Quatrefages. 
 
 Such is an outline of the subject for our consideration. It com- 
 prehends aU the points of view from which the enlightened 
 naturalist would look, who desired to give a complete history of any 
 animal, and of its settled varieties. He examines (1) Its external 
 form, and its internal organs after death. (2) The functions of 
 these organs during life. He notes how the heart beats, the lungs 
 respire, the brain thinks. He ascertains whether the animal is a 
 biped or a quadruped j how its functions of reproduction are per- 
 
INTEODTJCTION. 3 
 
 formed, what are the influences "by which it is governed, what the 
 ■character of its food, what its hahits, its instincts, its passions. 
 
 (3) Its particular mode of associatiag with those of its own species, 
 such as the wandering life of the dingo of Australia, and the bison 
 of America, or the sedentary life of the heaver and the ant. 
 
 (4) Its method of conveying its meaning to a distance by more or 
 less articulate sounds, as by the rapid friction of the wing-covers, 
 or by the simple vibrations of the larynx. (5) Its migrations, 
 whether voluntary or forced, periodical or spontaneous, owing to 
 the pursuit of an enemy, or m consequence of a flood, or from 
 change of climate. (6) Its numerous records. Archseology indeed 
 gives us an insight into the habits of animals in bygone times, 
 their migrations, the period at which they became domesticated by 
 Man, and those species which have become extinct. 
 
 The naturalist, in this way, is enabled to give some sort of 
 description of each group, and of each of its divisions, and to dis- 
 tinguish them from those to which they are the most closely allied. 
 Then, by synthesis, he estabhshes their respective position in the 
 classification of animated beings, and the family, genus, species, or 
 variety to which they belong. Having made himself acquainted 
 with the relations which his object of study bears to the rest of the 
 animal kingdom, he proceeds to enter upon the higher path of 
 philosophical inquiry. 
 
 Programme. 
 
 ■ The course which the anthropologist takes is equally clearly de- 
 fined. His aims are the same, his method of proceeding is identical. 
 His subject is a twofold one : (1) Man considered in his ensemble, 
 so far as the group to which he belongs differs from, or is analogous 
 to, contiguous groups in the class of mammalia with which he is in 
 nearest relation. (2) The varieties of mankind, commonly caUed 
 races, a word which has but little present significance as compared 
 with that which will be accorded to it at a later period. AH 
 the traits and characters with which the naturalist is occupied 
 «quaUy engage his attention, and even with greater intensity. 
 
 B 2 
 
4 INTKODUCTIOK 
 
 Certain cliaracters of his embryo state, of but trifling interest 
 in the animal, possess in him a very high degree of importance. 
 These characters may be classified under four principal heads, 
 viz. (1) Physical, whether studied on the dead body or on the-- 
 living. (2) Physiological, which have a particular name assigned 
 to them, according as they have reference to the brain, or to the 
 intellectual faculties and phenomena. (3) Characters resulting 
 from the social condition. (4) Those having reference to history, 
 archseology, language, &c. The mode of pursuing the investigation 
 is precisely the same for Man as for animals. If our inquiries- 
 respecting the latter require the most rigid scrutiny, what shall we 
 say when the subject of them is ourselves ? Intuitive reasoning, 
 ajjrioi-i reasoning, and other methods of a similar nature, should 
 be altogether excluded. Whether we are determining Man's 
 position on our planet, and the part which he plays at the head of 
 organised beings ; whether he is the sole representative of a king- 
 dom — the human kingdom — or is only the first of the order of 
 Primates, the same processes of scientific investigation must be put 
 in operation. M. de Quatrefages, one of the strongest defenders of 
 human prerogatives, expressly tells us this : Man is an animal • 
 he comes into existence, reproduces his own species, and dies. 
 Memento te hominem esse / was an exclamation to the conqueroE 
 of old. 
 
 Method of Investigation. 
 
 Man in his entirety — that is to say, in his physical and moral' 
 relations, to quote W. Edwards — is the subject of anthropology^ 
 No zoologist would dream of dividing the study of an animal into- 
 two portions, and of entrusting them to learned men of dififerent 
 orders, some limiting themselves to the anatomical and physio- 
 logical characters of certain organs, others directing their attention 
 only to the brain and nervous system. Neither should the study 
 of Man, under the pretext that one portion possesses supreme 
 importance over another, be divided between men of science 
 and philosophers. Each would look at Man or animal from hia 
 
INTRODUCTION. 5 
 
 own particular point of view ; but the anthropologist and the 
 naturalist should take a comprehensive view of the whole. To 
 understand the working of a machine, one must study its system of 
 wheels, and make ourselves acquainted with the mechanism and 
 structure of similar machines. The organisation, whether animal 
 or human, simple or complex, is governed hy the same general laws, 
 is constituted of the same elements, and performs similar functions. 
 Men's mode of life, of thought, and of association, is as important 
 to know as their mode of walking or breathing. The cerebral mani- 
 festations, in their infinite variety, are as much characteristic of 
 races as the volume and quality of the brain distinguish man from 
 the brute : they are two orders of facts which are inseparable. If 
 the structure of the organ indicates its function, so the function 
 ^nd its various manifestations indicate the organ. The body and 
 the mind are as indissoluble as matter and its activity, or, as it 
 used to be called, its properties. 
 
 The field of anthropology, then, is immeasurably vast, and might 
 be defined as "the science of Man and of mankind," according 
 to James Hunt ; or " the biology of the human species," according 
 to M. Broca. Numerous and varied are the subjects of general 
 knowledge which it lays luider contribution ! 
 
 Its more immediate domain is the comparative anatomy and 
 morphology of Man and animals ; then the history of animals, and 
 of mammalia in particular, and especially of the anthropoid apes ; 
 then the different branches of medical science, notably physiology, 
 of which psychology in health and disease forms part ; then that 
 which has reference to nations, and consequently to travel, as 
 ethnography, geography, history, language, and, lastly, prehistoric 
 archasology. This is not all — law, the arts, literature, equally con- 
 tribute their share. L(5on Guillard, barrister and anthropologist, 
 who died at Buzenval, demonstrated, eight months previous to his 
 death, its intimate connection with the science of comparative law, 
 a subject taken up by M. Acollas in 1874.* 
 
 * " L'Anthropologie et I'ifitude du Droit compare," by L. Gnillard, iu 
 " Bull. Soc. d'Anthrop.," 2ud series, vol. v. ; " L'Anthropologie et le 
 Droit," by B. AooUas, in " Bull. Soc. d'Anthrop.," 2nd series, vol. ix. 
 
6 INTKODUCTION. 
 
 The year previously, M. C&ar Daly liad shown, before the 
 Soci^t(5 d'Anthropologie, that architecture, ia its elementary forms, 
 varies according to the distiactive character of each race. F^tis, in 
 1867, suggested a classification of races, based upon their musical 
 systems.* Dances, songs, and national poems, like the heathen 
 mythologies, serve to trace out their origin and affinities. The ' 
 first attempts at anthropometry, for the purpose of determining the 
 proportions of the human body, and craniometry, for analysing 
 the physiognomy, are due to artists. 
 
 We see, then, that anthropology appeals to all willing workers, 
 whatever the direction of their studies or the nature of theiu pro- 
 fessional occupations may be. All, with scarcely any preparatory 
 study, may contribute to its progress ; it is sufficient to indicate tO' 
 them its aim — the knowledge of Man. The mere word " anthro- 
 pology " frightens many people, who imagine that it has to do with 
 medicine. 
 
 Medicine. 
 
 The study of Man, relegated at first to the dissertations of 
 philosophers, on assuming a real basis naturally became shared both 
 by physicians and naturalists j the former, however, had but little 
 leisure to deal with the special questions which it involved, while 
 the latter were reluctant to regard it in the same light as they did 
 that of the brute creation, which was the special subject of then- 
 investigation. It was necessary that anthropology should be un- 
 constrained. Both at the Museum and in the Faculty of Medicine 
 of Paris, it has its representatives and its classes, but it holds a 
 thoroughly independent position there. While medicine has 
 especial reference to the individual — to the human machine — 
 anthropology studies the human group and its varieties. The 
 former has but one aspiration, one aim — the prevention and cure of 
 disease ; the latter studies Man, his origin, and his relations with 
 other animated beings, without troubling himself about the manner 
 
 * "La Classification des Eaces," by F^tis Sen., in " Bull. Soc. d'Anthrop.," 
 2nd series, vol. ii., 1867. 
 
nsPTEODUCTION. 7 
 
 in which society ia general may treat the question. Their method 
 of looking at things is altogether different. Is it a question of 
 anatomy? Medicine looks at the organ in relation to adjoining 
 parts, as it bears upon surgical operations, or at its structure, the 
 better to understand whether its performance is regular or dis- 
 turbed. Anthropology finds in it only elements of comparison 
 with animals or between races. Is it a question of physiology, of 
 pathology, of hygiene, or of therapeutics t They still diverge. The 
 one seeks in the brain the method by which thought is elaborated, 
 and how it is transformed into action ; the other sees in it only 
 different manifestations, varying according to race. Diseases are 
 not alike in aU latitudes. When it is a question of clitnate, it is 
 specially in the province of medicine ; when of race, it is for 
 anthropology to step in. So with respect to the action of remedies, 
 each regards the question from its own particular point of view. 
 Lastly, hygiene has a bearing upon anthropology, owing to the part 
 which it plays, or its influence on external circumstances, acchma- * 
 tion, or crossing. 
 
 An acquaintance with the medical sciences, without being indis- 
 pensable to every anthropologist, gives him a marked advantage. 
 Reciprocally, a knowledge of anthropology invests the physician 
 with a certain pre-eminence. It augments his interest in anatomical 
 and physiological studies, and is the climax of academic study. 
 "We are surprised, therefore, that instruction in it does not form 
 part of the regular course in oui' principal faculties. Looking at it 
 in connection with the healing art, it is indispensable that the 
 medical men in our navy and mercantile marine, called upon, as 
 they are, to practise among races the most diverse, should know 
 how to distinguish them, as well as to recognise the varieties of 
 local circumstances under which diseases present themselves. 
 
 \ 
 
 Ethnography. \ 
 
 \ 
 
 The word "ethnography" was employed at the commencement of 
 the present century as synonymous with a description of nations. 
 
« INTRODUCTION. 
 
 It was made use of in 1826 in the "Atlas GeograpMque " of 
 M. Balbi, and was ratified under the influence of what was sub- 
 sequently termed linguistics. Wiseman, in 1836, defined it as 
 "the classification of races by the comparative study of languages ;" 
 M. Broca, as simply the description of each nation in particular. 
 The word "ethnology" had its origin in the title of the Society of 
 Ethnology of Paris, in 1839. It embraces, as set forth in the 
 statutes of that society, " the physical organisation, the intellectual 
 and moral character, the language, and historical traditions which 
 serve to distinguish races." It is used in the same sense in England 
 by Prichard, Lubbock, Logan, Brace, <fec. In 1866, M. Brooa ex- 
 tended its meaning as follows : " The particular description and 
 designation of these races, the study of their resemblances and dis- 
 similarities as regards physical constitution, as well as intellectual 
 and social condition. The inquiry into their actual affinities, their 
 distribution in the present and in the past, their history, their more 
 *or less probable, more or less doubtful relationship, and their re- 
 spective position in the human series. Such is the purpose of that 
 division of anthropology which we designate by the name of 
 ethnology; the sources whence it gathers its inquiries are numerous, 
 it borrows from ethnography, or a description of peoples. . . . " * 
 
 Ethnology. 
 
 M. Littr6 confines the term " ethnology " to its etymological mean- 
 ing. " Ethnology," he says, " treats of the origin and distribution 
 of peoples, and ethnography of their description. According to M. 
 Frederic Miiller, anthropology has reference to the study of races, 
 ethnology to that of peoples. Latham had already described 
 ethnology as the speculative, and ethnography as the descriptive 
 part of the science of peoples. 
 
 For ourselves, we regard anthropology and ethnology as two 
 different aspects of the study of Man ; two distinct sciences, each 
 
 * Lecture by James Hunt at the Anthropological Society of London, 
 January 3, 1865 ; Article, " Anthropologie," in the " Dictionnaire Euoycl. 
 des Sciences Medicales," by M. Paul Brooa, vol. v. Paris, 1866. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 9 
 
 ihaving its own adherents, enjoying an independent existence, but 
 always having a unity of design. The former occupies itself with 
 Man and the races of mankind, which it succeeds in minutely 
 unfolding. The latter only concerns itself with such peoples and 
 ^tribes as geography and history hand over to us, and is divided 
 into two parts — ethnography, which is the description of each 
 people, of its manners, customs, reUgion, language, physical charac- 
 teristics, and origin in history ; and ethnology, properly so called, 
 which looks at these in their ensemble, and as applying to all or to 
 many peoples. 
 
 It is the province of ethnology, then, to be engaged with con- 
 stituent elements, with the origin and descent of peoples, and even 
 to make a classification of them based upon their language. It 
 makes use of the term " races " somewhat carelessly. But it is not 
 within its province to determine the characteristics or to make a 
 correct classification of the races of mankind. It does not possess 
 the qualifications for such a task, which requires the combination of 
 aU the active powers of anthropology, and especially anatomical 
 appliances and zoological experience, to which it is a stranger. 
 
 The expression "races," as used by the ethnologist, is a permissive 
 one. To the anthropologist, it is one of deep meaning. He looks 
 upon it as synonymous with the natural divisions of the human 
 ■oToup, however remote the period at which they were constituted. 
 Cynology being the natural history of the dog, the inquiry into 
 the primitive races which have produced its innumerable cross 
 breeds would belong to cynology ; so the inquiry into the various 
 human races constitutes anthropology, and not ethnology. Ethnology 
 then, as its etymology signifies, is the general science of nations.* 
 
 Nationality. 
 
 The study of anthropology requires a cahn and vigorous judg- 
 ment, free from prejudice, with but one aspiration — that of truth. 
 There is no more delicate subject to handle. We have aU been 
 
 * "Anthropologie, Ethnologie, et Ethnograpliie," in " Bull. Soo. d'Anthrop.," 
 tiy Paul Topinard. 1876. 
 
10 INTEODTJOTION. 
 
 brouglit up witli preconceived notions, which have saturated our 
 brain substance, at a period when it was becomiag fully developed, 
 and was the better fitted to retain impressions.* Now anthropo- 
 logical facts at times clash with certain matters of faith, which 
 religious teachers have ever considered necessary for the best 
 interests of mankiud. On the other hand, our pride is ruffled ; it 
 is not wUliag to descend from the pedestal on which it has reposed, 
 intends to have nothiag ia common with the animals, and clamours 
 when we tell it that there is no great gulf between them and our- 
 selves. "What we do, what We think, is ever the high, the noble, 
 the good, the true. Our physical type, as Europeans, is the nearest 
 approach to perfection. Those who have the round head, or who 
 imagine that they have it, affirm that it is the most intellectual. 
 With the Chinese, the flat face, the oblique eyes, and the 
 hairy upper lip, are the very perfection of beauty. The negro 
 looks upon black as the most beautiful of colours. In the in- 
 tellectual world, our moral condition, our civilisation alone merit 
 the title of beautiful. Our customs alone are dictated by reason, 
 those of other nations are barbarous. The political passion misleads 
 us in the same way. JSTationality, according to the Germans, is 
 determined by language, a doctrine purely ethnographic and 
 radically false ; as M. Abel Hovelacque has so forcibly put it, this 
 is only " a social cause." Brought into being by a fortuity of cir- 
 cumstances, rather than by the' geographical disposition of places, 
 it is afterwards maintained by a community of interests, of suffer- 
 ing, and of glory. Blood poured out in a common cause cements 
 it ; hearts thi-obbing in unison with it, from one end of a territory 
 to the other are its characteristics, t 
 
 Applications. 
 
 It is asked if anthropology has any application to real life, and 
 
 * We stall have frequently to revert to this point, more particularly in 
 our description of races. 
 
 N t " Langues, Eaoes, Nationalites," by A. Hovelacque, editor of the 
 " Eevue de Linguistique." Paris, 1872. 
 
INTRODUCTION. II 
 
 ■what is its pretended aim? But liad Aristotle, Linnaeus, Buffon 
 no object in Tiew when describing the animal kingdom ? Newton, 
 when pondering over the problem of gra-eitation, and Cuvier, when 
 investigating the characters of fossil species 1 Did Pasteiir, when 
 refuting the theory of spontaneous generation, contemplate the 
 advantages which patient industry would deduce from it t !N"o, 
 true science, that which leads to the most briUiant results, is. 
 essentially disinterested. To know how to enlarge the field of 
 human thought, and to satisfy a legitimate curiosity, such are its 
 actuating principles. 
 
 Anthropology, more than any other science, is capable of exer- 
 cising an influence on our social organisations. Is not its object to 
 lay open to our view Man as he reaUy is, to unfold to us the secret 
 of his acts, his passions, and his wants in the past, and possibly 
 in the future 1 
 
 The first English society having any relation to anthropology 
 was founded with a view to help forward the abolition of slavery, 
 and did in fact powerfully contribute to this result. The first of 
 any note in France had for its object to give currency to an idea 
 which M. Edwards had gathered from the writings of Sir "Walter 
 Scott and of the two Thierrys — namely, that races and their 
 temperaments play an important part in the existence of nations. 
 History, elucidated by anthropology, thus assumes a new aspect ; 
 causes and effects are more readily explained, and the anthropo- 
 logical replaces the theological in our conceptions of past ages.* 
 
 Civilised peoples are everywhere taking the place of savage races, 
 or substituting for them races less warlike in character. To this end 
 governments have to choose between two courses of action, either 
 to destroy or to bring them together. The former, spite of certain 
 recent examples, is not admissible ; the latter is only realisable by 
 ■understanding the distinctive character of the vanquished nation, its 
 capabilities, and the nature of its race. Our method of action 
 
 * W. F. Edwards, " Des Caraotferes Physiologiques des Kaoea Humaines 
 considerees dans leur Eapports avec I'Histoire." Letter to M. Amedee 
 Thieny, in 1829, in " Mem. Soo. Ethnol.," vol. i. 
 
12 , INTRODUCTION. 
 
 cannot be too deeply penetrated with this truth, if we would give 
 its right position to the native race of Algeria, which is the 
 Barhary, and ought not to he considered as the Arab race. Anthro- 
 pology teaches us how to recognise them. 
 
 Man iuures himself to almost every climate, but only by dint 
 of perseverance. One race dies out in a country, while another 
 thrives in it. By following certain principles, the difficulties are 
 more or less surmounted. The science of accUmation, therefore, 
 is one department of anthropology. It has been said that races 
 may be compared to countries in which diseases are variously 
 developed, and which require different hygienic treatment. It is 
 as necessary to bo able to distinguish races as in medicine to 
 diagnose the arthritic, the herpetic, or the nervous temperament. 
 In the sad expedition to Mexico the knowledge of one of the 
 characteristics of the negro race led to a most happy result. Vera 
 Cruz, where at first there was considerable mortality among the 
 French troops from yellow fever, was afterwards garrisoned by black 
 soldiers from Upper Egypt, who possessed an immunity from that 
 disease. 
 
 We are not now living in the time of Albert Diirer and of 
 Eubens, when artists were satisfied with delineating the forms and 
 features of those around them to represent those of foreign nations. 
 Our annual exhibitions testify the progress which has been made 
 in this direction. In the galleries of the Museum we sometimes 
 meet with painters studying the varieties of the human head, and 
 at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, the professor of anatomy knows that 
 he must teach the different forms of the beautiful, as seen in every 
 country and imder every chmate, and, therefore, must be an anthro- 
 pologist. 
 
 Whether we accept the modern doctrine or not, it is undeniable 
 that Man, by a certain method of high breeding and well-managed 
 crossing, is capable of being changed in successive generations, 
 in his physical as well as ia his moral character. According 
 to the modes adopted, he will go on either degenerating or 
 improving. Anthropology comes in here with the highest, and at 
 the same time most practical aim, and its utility in this alone 
 
INTRODUCTION-. 13 
 
 should secure for it the encouragement and patronage of our learned 
 societies. 
 
 Anthropology, be it observed, is far from being a science of 
 luxuiy. At this very moment it is leading to most important 
 results, and is throwing new light upon all the sciences bearing 
 upon Man. Ifaturalists, physicians, men of letters, artists, philo- 
 sophers, lawyers, diplomatists, travellers, archseologists, and linguists^ 
 are all carrying the material wherewith to build the edifice. To 
 those who apply themselves closely to its study it is a somewhat 
 arduous task, but to the great majority it is a recreation. 
 
 History. 
 
 ^ This may be recited very briefly. The study of nature, and of 
 Man in particular, may be traced back to the period of the earliest 
 efforts of the human mind ; but anthropology as a special science, 
 separate from natural history, is but of yesterday. Unknown up 
 to the close of the last century, it has only started into life towards 
 the latter half of the niueteenth century. Its rudiments are found 
 scattered up and down in the writings of physicians and natu- 
 rahsts. The former by observing Man under all climates, the latter 
 by placing him as the type of the perfectly organised being, 
 accompKshed for anthropology what M. Jourdain did for prose. 
 
 Such were Hippocrates, who describes in his book, " On "Water, 
 Air, and Place," the character of "the Scythians and other no- 
 madic tribes," as well as the cranial malformations of the Macro- 
 cephaU on the other side of Palus-M^otidus ; Aristotle, who com- 
 pares apes with Man, and speaks of human hybrids and of 
 Ethiopians ; Pliny, whose frequently fantastic recitals have been 
 justly criticised by Isidore Geofiroy Saint-HUaire ; Galen, who, 
 while dissecting monkeys, prepared the way for human anatomy 
 founded by Mundinus and VesaHus (1544). As to philosophers, 
 they have had nothing to say with respect to Man's history. No 
 doubt some, like Lucretius, have shown their acuteness of appre- 
 hension of its facts; but those who long afterwards proclaimed 
 
14 INTRODUCTIOIT. 
 
 the true method of observation have the greatest claim on our 
 gratitude. 
 
 ISTatural History took its rise with Aristotle, and made no 
 further progress. Belon, in 16.55, was the first to compare the 
 skeleton of Man with that of another animal — ^namely, a bird. Up 
 to the eighteenth century, the chef-d'oeuvre of creation, to use a 
 classical expression, was only studied by physicians. Linnaeus, in 
 1755, restored him to his place in his classification, and by applying 
 to him his binary nomenclature, under the title of Tiomo sapiens, 
 obliged naturalists to accept him as belonging to them. About 
 the same period Buffon devoted two volumes to the "Vari^tds 
 Humaines"(1749). 
 
 The way was open. Almost simultaneously Daubenton, in 1764, 
 published his memoir on "La Situation du trou Occipital dans 
 I'Homme et les Animaux;" Blumenbach, in 1775, his inaugural 
 thesis on " Les Variations du Genre Humain ; " Soemmering, in 
 1785, his " M^moire sur les N^gres;" Camper, in 1791, his pos- 
 thumous dissertation, " Sur les Differences que pr^ente le Visage 
 dans les Eaces Humaines;" White, in 1799, his work on "The 
 regular gradation of Man and Animals." 
 
 Many notable travels were undertaken about this period. On 
 land we may mention those of Byron, Bruce, Lavaillant, Pallas, 
 Barrow; on the sea, those of Bougainville, Cook, La Perouse, 
 Peron. The Museum of Paris shone out in all its f uU. lustre ; 
 natural history made gigantic strides ; observations were going on 
 quietly. By degrees, two rival schools sprang up : the one called 
 the dassigue, represented by Cuvier, which confined itself to facts ; 
 the other called the philosophical, or des idies, which Lamarck and 
 Etienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire represented. Lamentable prejudices 
 imf ortunately came to be mingled with their wranglings. Linnseus 
 and Blumenbach had spoken of mankind without attaching any 
 definite importance to it. Lamarck maintained that species vary 
 and are transformed. So far orthodoxy was not affected, but 
 the danger appeared serious ; the younger men were carried away 
 with the eloquence of Etienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire. A watch- 
 word seemed to be sent forth : " The world was created in six 
 
rNTRODUCTION. 15 
 
 days ; Adam and Eve are the progenitors of all living races ; tlie 
 universal deluge utterly destroyed everyttiag but the privileged 
 pairs saved with IToah." Science must bend before these articles 
 of faith. 
 
 The first assault -was concluded to the detriment of Lamarck, 
 "who was too modest in presence of the imposing authority of 
 Cuvier. The second was unfavourable to Etienne G-eoffroy Saint- 
 Hilaire : the transformation theory appeared to be vanquished. The 
 third had aU sorts of revolutions of fortune, and was prolonged 
 up to about the year 1859, after the discovery of Boucher de' 
 Perthes : the ground was apparently shaken. The classical or 
 orthodox school, then known by the name of monogenist, pleaded 
 in favour of the unity of the human species, and of the variability 
 of races under the influence of external circumstances and of cross- 
 ings. The opposite, or polygenist school, maintained, on the 
 contrary, the plurality of races, and the non-influence of external 
 circumstances. In Prance, the former took shelter under the great 
 jiame of Cuvier ; Virey, Bory de Saiat- Vincent, and A. Desmoulins 
 were the partisans of the latter. But about the year 1813, a 
 vigorous champion came forward in favour of the monogenists, in 
 the person of Prichaid. His most- important arguments occupy five 
 volumes, and are full of instruction, while they constitute, at the 
 present moment, a veritable vade-mecum for the anthropologist.* 
 The work of Prichard was exclusive. Another, after the model of 
 Yirey's "L'Histoire IfatureUe de I'Homme," ia 1801, but more 
 comprehensive in its character, appeared ia London ia 1817. It 
 was entitled, " Lectures delivered before the College of Surgeons on 
 the Ifatural History of Man," by Lawrence, and rather advocated 
 the plurality of the human species, although pretending to uphold 
 the monogenistic doctrine. These two works, to which we may 
 add that of M. Desmoulins on "Les Eaces Himiaiaes," in 1826, 
 prove that the researches on Man had lost nothing on an appeal to 
 
 * The first edition of " Researclies into the Physical History of Man," hy 
 Prichard, appeared in 1813, and was in one volume ; the second, n two 
 yolmnes, appeared in 1826 ; and the third and last, in five volumes, from. 
 1836 to 1837. 
 
16 TNTEODUCTION. 
 
 principles. Linguistics and etlmograpliy, originaUy almost synony- 
 mous terms, and human comparative anatomy, were in course of 
 development. Erom Klaproth. and Abel de E^musat to E^nan,. 
 Chav^e, and Erederic Miiller, the number of persons won over 
 to anthropology by the study of the comparative structure of 
 languages was immense.* 
 
 >('The first ethnographical society of which there is any record was 
 instituted in Paris in 1800, under the title of the "Society des 
 Observateurs de I'Homme," and died of inanition during the war. 
 The second was instituted in London in 1838, and was of an 
 exclusively philanthropic character. The fact of the polygenists 
 having declared that the black races are inferior to the white, was 
 used as an argument in favour of slavery. The society should have 
 set its face against this doctrine, and it suffered the penalty for not 
 doing so. The following year, M. Edwards founded the Soci^t6 
 Ethnologique de Paris, which has furnished some excellent works, 
 at the fore-front of which is to be mentioned a pamphlet by its 
 founder, " Sur les Caractferes Physiologiques des Eaces Humaines 
 considerees dans leur Eapports avec THistoire." Some admirable 
 works soon appeared, both in France and elsewhere, having similar 
 ethnographical views, among which we may mention, " L'Homme 
 Am6ricain," by Alcide d'Orbigny.f 
 
 In comparative anatomy, the skull, to which the labours of th& 
 first anthropologists had been directed, continued to attract their 
 attention. The " Decades " of Blumenbach were followed by 
 others. la 1830, Sandifort published the first volume of his 
 "Tabulae Craniorum Diversarum Gentium." In 1839 appeared 
 the best work of its kind, the " Crania Americana," by Morton • 
 and in 1844, his "Crania ^Egyptiaca." In 1845, the "Atlas de 
 Cranioscopie," by Carus ; in 1856, the first volume of "Crania 
 Britannica," by Davis and Thumam ; in 1857, the " Crania* 
 Selecta," by Yon Baer, &c. Many others might be mentioned. 
 
 * " La Lingai3tique," by M. Abel Hovelacque. 2nd edition, Bibliothfeque 
 des Sciences Contemporaines. Paris, 1876. 
 
 f " L'Homme Amerioain de I'Amerique Meridionals," by Alcide d'Orbiguy, 
 Two vols. Paris, 1839. 
 
INTKODUOTION. 17 
 
 At Heidelberg, Tiedemann, known by his incomplete cubic 
 measurements of the skull; ia Sweden, Eetzius, by his division 
 ■of skulls iato long and short; ia Holland, Van der Hoeven; in 
 Germany, Wagner, Huschke, Lucse, &c. The influence of such 
 authorities as these somewhat encouraged anatomists in France to 
 enter upon so unpopular a path of study ; and, besides Daubenton, 
 we may mention Dureau de la Malle, DubreuU, FoviUe, Maslieurat- 
 Lagemard, Pucheran, Lflut, Parchappe, Serres, Jacquart, Jouiiu. 
 
 Anthropology, up to this time, did not exist as a separate 
 science ; its efforts were of a restricted character ; it had no pro- 
 gramme ; its name was mentioned only casually. It became of the 
 utmost importance to centraKse all the studies bearing upon the 
 natural history of Man and his races. This was the task ofi^^ 
 Soci^t^ d'Anthropologie, which was founded in Paris in 1869,/ 
 under the direction of Dr. Paul Broca, a professor of the Facility 
 ■of Medicine, by a few savants, among whom may be mentioned 
 Isidore Geofiroy Saint-HUaire, De Quatrefages, Gratiolet, Dareste, 
 Ernest Godard, Charles Eobin, B^clard, &c. The society, con- 
 ceived in the most liberal spirit, was composed of scientific men of 
 every denomination, whether Kterary men or those devoted to the 
 study of art, so that, if any question arose, it could be discussed by 
 the highest authorities. Anthropology, which, in 1838, gave to 
 the Museum the chair of the !N'atural History of Man, started on 
 & new basis. 
 
 Following the example of Paris, other cities founded societies 
 bearing the same name: viz. London, in 1863; New York, St. 
 Petersburg, and Moscow, in 1865; Manchester, in 1866; Florence, 
 in 1868; Berlin, in 1869 ; Vienna, in 1870; Stockholm and Tiflis, 
 in 1874. 
 
 The date of the foundation of the society of Paris was coincident 
 with two events of the highest importance : the public confirmation 
 ■of the discovery of Boucher de Perthes, who traced back the 
 antiquity of Man to a remote period; and the pubhcation of a 
 work by Darwin on the " Origin of Species," which has contributed 
 so much to give to the science of Man the impetus of which we are 
 now the witness. It marks with distinguished significance the 
 
 c 
 
18 INTEODUCTIOK. 
 
 oommencement of a new era. It is witli the facts and estaMisliedi 
 opinions generally received at the present time that we propose to- 
 deal in this volume. Many names have been omitted in this brief ' 
 historical outline, which we shall hope to have an opportunity of 
 supplyiug as we proceed. 
 
 Plan of the Work. 
 
 The plan of this work is a necessary sequence from what has 
 been stated. Of the two branches of the study of Man — ^the one 
 anthropology proper, which has to do with Man and his races, the 
 other ethnology, which treats of nations — the former will alone 
 occupy our attention. 
 
 Our subject naturally divides itself into two parts. (1) The study 
 of Man considered as a zoological group. (2) The study of human 
 races as divisions of that group. In the first part we shall con- 
 sider the three series of characters — the physical, the physio- 
 logical, and the pathological— upon which natural history depends ; 
 and in the second part, more particularly those to be deduced from 
 archaeology, linguistics, and ethnography. 
 
 In the iirst part we shall endeavour to show the relations which 
 subsist between Man and animals, and shall consider a number of 
 questions which have reference to medical studies, regard Man in his 
 ensemble, and have an especial bearing on our subject. 
 
 In the second part, after describing the characteristics which 
 serve to distinguish races, we shall give a summary of the various 
 physical types which the present improved state of science exhibits 
 to us, and upon which the determination of races depends. 
 
 In the third part we shall detail the various theories as to Man's 
 origin. 
 
 It wiU be necessary for us to say a few words, by way of intro- 
 duction, as to the methods of zoological classification, and to give a 
 description of the animals to which we shaU frequently have to 
 refer. 
 
 Zoological Classification, 
 
 When the naturalist looks off from matters of detail, and con- 
 templates the animal kingdom in its entirety, he is struck with the- 
 
INTEODUCTION. 19 
 
 small number of agencies at work to obtain the most diverse 
 forms. He observes that in a general way there is a continual pro- 
 gression from the simplest to the most complex organisms. He 
 speaks of it, in other words, as " the general harmony of natme," 
 " the plan followed by nature," " unity of type, of agreement in 
 form, or of organic likeness." He compares the succession of 
 beings to a ladder (Bonnet), to a chain, or to a tree with many 
 branches. He has an intuitive impression, whether formulated or. 
 not, that there is a succession and gradation in the different types 
 of animals, as if some organic force were incessantly iu operation, 
 modifying and increasing the number and variety of species. 
 Cuvier, who feared to soar above facts, maintained, on the contrary, 
 the doctriue of successive creations. He then abandoned it, and 
 finally maintained, with Isidore Saint-Hilaire, that existing species 
 are not descended from those of a bygone age.* 
 
 "Whatever may be the secret of the origin of animated beings, it 
 is certain that appearances seem to f avom the idea that they sprung 
 originally from one another. Many gaps exist between - them ; 
 but their niunber is daily decreasing, owing to unexpected dis^ 
 coveries in the bowels of the earth, in the depths of the 
 ocean, or in some hitherto unexplored corner of the globe. It 
 has been repeatedly said : " Nature does not make sudden jumps." 
 There is a successiveness observable throughout, especially in 
 minutise. 
 
 M. Ch. Martins and M. Durand (de Gros) have furnished us with 
 examples of this.+ The method by which the fin is transformed 
 into the bent limb, having one direction, as in the tortoise, or an 
 opposite one, as in Man ; how it becomes divided into a longitu- 
 dinal shaft, which is enlarged or reduced in. size, according as it . 
 goes to form the leg of the dog, the wild boar, the horse, or -the. 
 gorUla, is truly marvellous. 
 
 Agassiz used to demonstrate to his audience at Hew York how 
 
 * "Vie et Doctrine de B. GeofEroy Saint-Hilaire." Paris, 1847. 
 
 t " Creation et Tranaformisme," by J. P. Durand (de Gros), in " Bull. Soo. 
 d'Anthrop." 2nd series, vol. v., 1870 ; " Hommes et Singes," by ,L. Agassiz, 
 in the "Bevue Scientifique," 2nd series, vol. iii..p. 818, 1874. 
 
 c 2 
 
20 INTEODUCTION. 
 
 " by twisting this, and elongating that," one might form a fish, 
 a reptile, a mammifer, or an ape, &c.* 
 
 Hence the difficulties which naturalists experience in exactly 
 circumscribing the limits of the divisions upon which their classi- 
 fications rest, and of giving to each the proper name which be- 
 longs to it. That which is family in one becomes order in another ; 
 that which is genus becomes species, and vice versa. All depends 
 upon the point of view from which they are regarded, and the 
 particular opinion formed as to their characteristic features. 
 
 In order to account for the disputes which are going on about 
 Man, and the place which he occupies relatively to other beings, it 
 is necessary that this should be thoroughly understood. In some, 
 classifications depend upon clearly defined natural groups, which are 
 recognised, though they cannot be strictly demonstrated. In others 
 they are based upon certain groups shading off into contiguous 
 groups. " Methods of classification," writes Daubenton, " have 
 one principal defect which it is impossible to avoid, namely, that 
 art takes a larger share in their arrangement than nature." "Classi- 
 fications," says Lamarck, " are artificial methods ; nature has not 
 really formed either classes, orders, families, genera, or unvarying 
 species — ^but individuals only." Geoffroy Saint-HHaire, on his return 
 from Egypt, alluded to them in these terms ; "A useful method, 
 doubtless, but necessarily imperfect in its resources, and incomplete 
 in its aim; true science ought to have higher aspirations." The 
 illustrious opponent of Cuvier, who was about to publish a cata- 
 logue of the Museum, which was a veritable classification, gave it 
 up, although the proof-sheets were in the press. 
 
 Nevertheless, classifications are valuable, and, indeed, indispen- 
 sable. They assist study, bring together animated beings, generally 
 in a natural way, and mark the measure of progress accomplished. 
 In natural history we understand classification to mean the grouping 
 together of beings according to their degree of probable relationship, 
 based on the number and importance of their common characters. 
 
 Thus, throughout the whole of the animal kingdom, one observes 
 
 * " Hommes et Singes," by L. Agassiz, in the " Revue Soieutifiqne," 
 2ud series, vol. iii. p. 818, 1874. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 21 
 
 one principal special feature yrheiebj to establish, a primary division 
 of four branches. From the presence or absence of a skeleton, 
 ■whether internal or external, we distinguish Zoophytes, MoUusca, 
 the Aiticulata, and the Vertebrata. "We may remark, before going 
 farther, that zoophytes approximate in their inferior forms to 
 cryptogams of the vegetable kingdom, but that now a new kingdom 
 has been placed between them, formed of organisms stiU more 
 . elementary, under the name of rbgne de protistes (Hseckel). From 
 many characters, derived principally from the external covering, 
 Vertebrata have been divided into four classes, viz. : EeptUes, 
 Fishes, Birds, and Mammalia. Mammalia, again, are divided — 
 according to the existence or non-existence of an external abdominal 
 pouch, in which the young pass through the second phase of 
 their development — into two sub-classes — the Didelphs and the 
 Monodelphs. 
 
 So far, the chief characteristics present modifications so funda- 
 mental in the arrangement of the principal apparatus of the 
 organism that, by virtue of the law of subordination of cliaracters, 
 it is easy to confine oneself to a single one. The presence of an 
 internal skeleton is proof of a special arrangement of the nervous 
 system no less characteristic. Indeed we have no other choice than 
 to divide Yertebrata in this way, and it is no less necessary as 
 regards those next in the series. The more we descend in the sub- 
 divisions of the former, the more the difficulty increases. We then 
 have to consider many features in combination, and are not com- 
 pelled to adopt any fixed plan. At each step the same uncertainty 
 presents itself. What is the general characteristic of the group ? 
 And is it reaUy the proper one ? Have we not created it ourselves, 
 according to the distinctive feature we may fix upon 1 
 
 AU scientific classification is provisional and arbitrary, as long as 
 a science is in course of development. Its province is chiefly to 
 introduce some order into the medley of individuals it has under 
 its immediate notice, to set up beacons, the correctness of whose 
 guidance time wUl either establish or annul. Two groups being 
 given, it is easy by laying hold of individuals the most dissimilar 
 to distinguish two opposite types. But a certain number of indi- 
 
22 IKTRODUCTIOK. 
 
 viduals will always more or less deviate from them, and mil he 
 blended -with, contiguous types altogetlier dissimilar. 
 
 There are few secondary divisions in natural history which can 
 he regarded as settled, and which might not he changed to-morrow. 
 Thus, to the four classes of Vertebrata, many have added a fifth 
 under the name of Batraehians, making them a distinct class from 
 reptiles. So the Didelphs, one of the most correctly defined of 
 the suh-classes, from being based on their habitat, have been 
 displaced and abolished, most of them being classed with the 
 Edentata or the Rodents, the remainder becoming a distinct order 
 under the name of Pedimana. 
 
 Species is the convenient zoological unit. We will define it in 
 due course. On the one side we have varieties ; on the other, 
 ■genera, families, &c. A genus is the assemblage of many species 
 presenting certain poiats of connection ; a family, the assemblage 
 of many genera, and so on. Between the genus and the species we 
 sometimes have sub-genera ; between the genus and the family, the 
 particTilar tribe we are in search of ; between the family and the 
 order, the sub-order, &c. The number of genera in a family, or of 
 species in a genus, is indeterminate. 
 
 Mammalia. 
 
 N"ow, in the class of Mammalia, the Didelphs include the Mar- 
 supials (kangaroo, opossum) and the Monotremes (echidna, orni- 
 thorhynchus). The Monodelphs include (1) The Cetacea and 
 Amphibia. (2) The Pachydermata and Ruminantia. (3) The 
 Edentata, the Rodentia; the Carnivora, the Cheiroptera, the Quad- 
 rumana, and the Bimana — the Orders according to Cuvier. "We 
 cannot enlarge further on this subject. In a special work on 
 Zoology, published in the Bibliothfeque des Sciences Contem- 
 poraines, will be found what the general opinion is as to these 
 divisions. We have to do with the last two, and we shall discuss 
 them according to theic relative importance. 
 
 Linnaeus associated Man, the monkey, and the bat, in one and 
 the same order, under the name of Primates. This purely zoolo- 
 
INTRODUCTION. £3 
 
 gical arrangement, wWcIl placed Man at the head of the' series of 
 animated beings, greatly disturbed Bltimenhacli, Lac4p6de, Daii- 
 henton, and Cuvier ; and in a spirit of reaction, as it would seem, 
 duvier proceeded to isolate Man in a distinct order, and placed the 
 monkey in another order, the bat in a third, &c. 
 
 Two principal classifications are before lis, in which the distance 
 which separates Man from his nearest zoological connections is 
 •estimated differently. In one, Man forms a distinct order, in the 
 same category as the ape or one of the Carnaria ; in the other, he 
 forms merely one family in the order of Primates, the various 
 divisions of the monkey tribe coming afterwards. Thus : 
 
 Primates. 
 
 First system of classification. — First Order : Man. Second Order: 
 Apes. Third Order : Bats. Fourth Order : Dogs, Bears, &o. 
 
 Second system of classification. — First Order : Primates. First 
 ■Famihj : Man. Second Family : The higher Apes, or Anthropoids 
 (the gorilla, the chimpanzee, the orang, and the gibbon). Tliird 
 Family: The Monkeys of the Old Continent, or Pitheoians 
 {semnopithecus, guenon, magot, cynocephalus [baboon]). Fourih 
 Family : The Monlteys of the New Continent, or Cebians (howl- 
 ing monkey, atele [spider monkey], sajou, ouistiti [marmoset]). 
 Fifth Family : The Lemurs, Macauco, Galseopithecus.* 
 
 * We draw atteBtion to the various Barnes in this list, to which we shall 
 frequBBtly have to refer. In cnrreBt language we sometimes speak of the 
 Anthropoids as the great apes or monkeys, and the Pitheoians and Cebians 
 as the common or true monkeys. Frequently the epithet "Simian "will occur 
 in like manner, as synonymous with monkey-like, particularly those of the 
 first three families. 
 
 Lesson united the Pitheoians and the Cebians, under the name of 
 Simiades ; so that he had in the first order, or Primates, five families : 
 the Hommidese, the AnthropomorphsE, the Simiadffi, the Lemuriens, and the 
 False Lemuriens. Huxley divides Ms families into seven— namely : the 
 Anthropini (man), the Catarrhini, the Platyrrhini, the Arotopithecini, or 
 Marmosets, the Lemurs, the Cheiromyini, and the Galseopitheoi, or flying 
 monkeys. Two of these appellations originated with Geoffiroy Saint-Hilaire, 
 the Catarrhini, or monkeys of the Old Continent; and the Platyrrhini, or 
 
24 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Second Order : Tlie Cheiroptera, or Bats. 
 
 TJdrd Order : The Camaria. First Family : The Plantigrades 
 Second Family : The Digitigrades, &c. 
 
 Anthropoid Apes. 
 
 We notice that the Lemurs, or iaferior monkeys, form the 
 transition between the common monkey and various genera 
 scattered through the succeeding orders. For example, between 
 the family of Anthropoids, the Gibbon forms the connecting link 
 with the Pithecians ; and some of the Cebians have a similar 
 relation to the Lemurs. It is from these intermediate forms 
 that we flU up the gaps in question. 
 
 Which of these two systems of classification is the better 1 If 
 we consulted only our own wishes, the answer would be an easy 
 one. Each of us has the consciousness of being vastly superior to- 
 the highest class of apes, and would desire that the separation 
 should be as wide as possible ; but this is only a matter of feeling. 
 It is a question of fact. Let us proceed then. The question re- 
 solves itself into the following terms : 
 
 monkeys of the New Continent, wiioli are distinguished by the structure 
 of the nose. Others have understood the word " Catarrhini " to mean those 
 without a tail (Anthropoids), or with a tail (Pithecians). The second 
 classification which we have above summarised is that which M. Broca has- 
 adopted in his memoir, " Sur I'Ordre des Primates," in 1869. 
 
 Among the Anthropoids, the genus Gorilla is limited to a single species, 
 the Gorilla Savagii, whose habits have been described by Paul du Chaillu. 
 — (" Voyages et Aventures dans I'Afrique ifiquatoriale." Paul du ChaiUu. 
 Paris, 1863. And " A Journey to Ashango Land," by the same author. 
 Loudon, 1867.) Of the Chimpanzee, or Troglodytes, there are at least six 
 species : the black, the most common ; the Aubryi, a specimen of which waa 
 brought to France by Count Aubrey ; the Calvua, or bald ; and the Koolo- 
 kamba, mentioned by M. du Chaillu ; the Schweinfurthii, from the rivers of 
 the "White Nile ; and the Livingstonii, or Soko, from the banks of Lake 
 Benguela. With the exception of the last two, all are to be found from the 
 Gambia to the 13th degree of south latitude. The Orang-outang, or Simla, 
 or Satyrus, includes two species : the Ruf us, or red-haired, of Borneo ; and 
 the Bicolor, of Sumatra. Lastly, the Gibbon, or Hylobates, has numerous 
 species, of which about ten have been described. The largest is the 
 Siamang, or Hylobates Syndaotylua. 
 
INTEODUOTION. 25 
 
 What is the value of the characteristic points of difference be- 
 tween Man and monkeys, and especially the anthropoid apes 1 Are 
 these differences as great as those which separate two families or 
 two orders 1 
 
 The nature of the reply will he dependent on the facts we are 
 ahont to set forth in the following chapter, and which M. Broca 
 proposes to call anthropologie zoologique.* 
 
 * M. Broca, in tlie article in the "Diotionnaire Encycl. des Sciences 
 Medicale," mentioned at page 8, divides anthropology as follows : (1) Zoo- 
 logical anthropology, or the study of the human group considered in its 
 relations with the rest of organised nature ; (2) Descriptive anthropology, 
 or the study of the human group considered in its individual relations; 
 (3) Greneral anthropology, or the study of the human group considered as a 
 whole. On one occasion our esteemed master rehearsed to us his views 
 somewhat as follows : Medicine studies individuals ; ethnography, peoples ; 
 ethnology, races; and general anthropology, man in his ensemble, and in his 
 relations with animals — this last constituting a particular section as zoological 
 anthropology. Our objection is, that the denomination " zoological " relates 
 as much to the part which treats of the human races as to that which treats 
 of Man in general, and that we proceed by the same methods in both, the 
 pre-eminence attaching to anatomical characters. We wish that ethno- 
 logy were taken, according to its etymological sense, to express the general 
 science of peoples, according to Frederic Miiller's method, and that the 
 study and description of primitive races, regarded as natural divisions of 
 the human group, were left to anthropology proper. (Seepages.) M. Broca 
 in his system has considered ethnology as merely a branch of anthropology, 
 which consequently should enter into the plan of this work; whilst in 
 ours, ethnology, though furnishing numerous materials to anthropology, 
 preserves an entire independence, and requires a distinct volume. 
 
PART I. 
 
 OF MAN CONSIDERED rS" HIS ENSEMBLE, AND IN 
 HIS RELATIONS WITH AJSTIMALS. 
 
CHAPTEE L 
 
 PHYSICAL CHARACTEKS. 
 
 SKELETON AND SKULL IN GENERAL ZOOLOGICAL FACIAL ANGLE 
 
 CBANIAL CAPACITY SITUATION AND DIBBCTION OP THE OCCIPITAL 
 
 FORAMEN OCCIPITAL AND BIOBBITAL ANGLES. 
 
 The characters of the human group are- of two orders : some 
 organic, to be studied on the skeleton and on the dead hody ; 
 others physiological, on the Kving. Among the former, those to be 
 drawn from the skeleton occupy the first rank; the skeleton, in 
 fact, determines the general form of the body, serves for the 
 attachment of muscles, and marks out the boundaries of the 
 visceral cavities. 
 
 Osteologieal Considerations. 
 
 The skeleton of Mammalia— the class of Vertebrata which will 
 alone engage our attention — is composed (1) Of a central axis, con- 
 stituted by the bodies of the vertebrae ; (2) Of a series of osseous 
 arcs directed backwards, to form, by their aggregation, a large 
 canal, in which are contained the brain, the cerebellum, and the 
 spinal cord; (3) Of a series of arcs directed forwards, bounding 
 certain cavities which are occupied, above by the organs of 
 vision, smell, and taste — then by the central organs of circulation 
 and the lungs — lower down by the digestive apparatus — and lower 
 stUl by the organs of reproduction; (4) Of the appendages to 
 various segments called extremities, the anterior serving, in a 
 general way, for prehension, the posterior for locomotion. 
 
Frontal 
 
 Superior Maxillary 
 Inferior Maxillary 
 
 Clavicle 
 
 Thorax and Ribs 
 
 MetatarsTis 
 
 Occipital. 
 
 Cervical Ver- 
 tebrae. 
 
 1st Dorsal Vei 
 tebrBe. 
 
 Omoplate. 
 
 Humerus. 
 
 Ulna. 
 
 Os Uiacus of Pel- 
 vis. 
 
 Carpus. 
 Metacarpus. 
 
 Phalanges. 
 
 Fibulii. 
 
 .Calcaneum^ 
 
 Phalargcs. 
 
 FiQ. 1. 
 
Chap, i.] PHYSICAL CHAEACTEES. 31 
 
 The skeleton is composed in Man of one liundred and eighty- 
 eight bones, exclusive of the patella, a small hone developed in the 
 thick part of liie tendons of the principal extensor muscle of the 
 thigh ; that is to say, twenty-six for the vertebral column, eight for 
 the cranium, fourteen for the face, thirty-two for each of the superior 
 extremities, and thirty for each of the inferior, &c. 
 
 The twenty-six bones of the vertebral columji are divided thus : 
 seven cervical vertebrae ; twelve dorsal ; five, and sometimes six 
 lumbar ; five or six sacral bones, which, being anchylosed, form the 
 sacrum ; and four or five caudal, which, more or less welded to- 
 gether, form the coccyx. To speak correctly, the cranium is formed 
 of three modified vertebrae, and is the true commencement of the 
 vertebral column. 
 
 Every vertebra, whether cervical, dorsal, or lumbar, consists 
 
 (1) In the centre, of a foramen, through which the cord passes ; 
 
 (2) Anteriorly, of a body, which is artictdated to those of the ver- 
 tebrae above and below by a fibro-cartilaginous disc, called the 
 intervertebral; (3) Posteriorly, of a spinous process, bifurcated in 
 the cervical region, simple in the rest of the column, the bases 
 of which are called laminae; (4) Of two transverse processes, attached 
 to the body by two pedicles ; and (5) Of four articular processes, 
 which serve to attach the vertebra to those above and below. 
 
 The eight bones of the cranium consist of four middle and 
 symmetrical — -the occipital, the sphenoid, the ethmoid, and the 
 frontal ; and two lateral pairs — ^the parietal and the temporal. 
 
 The middle portions of the occipital, the sphenoid, and the 
 ethmoid represent the body of each of three vertebras. The large 
 flat portion of the occipital, temporal, and frontal is called the 
 squamous portion, or ecaille (shell). These bones come under the 
 denomination of flat bones. They have an internal surface, which 
 looks towards the cranial cavity, called by M. Broca mdocrdne, 
 and an external surface. 
 
 The body of the occipital (0, Kg. 2) is formed by the basilar 
 process, which is united to the body of the sphenoid by an im- 
 portant articulation, the basilar suture. Its surface is transversely 
 divided by a semicircular ridge, for the attachment of the muscles 
 
32 PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. [Chap. i. 
 
 of the neck, the middle portion of which is occupied by the inlon, 
 or external occipital protuberance; the portion above, or sur- 
 occipital, is separated during a part of intra-uterine existence, and 
 exceptionally in the adult, and is designated the interparietal, or 
 sub-occipital bone. The portion below has a second curved line, 
 also for the attachment of muscles. 
 
 Pig. 2.— F, Frontal bone ; P, Parietal ; 0, Occipital ; T, Temporal ; S, Greater wings of the 
 sphenoid : the body of the bone is underneath ; M, Superior maxilla ; J, Malar or 
 jugal bone ; N, Bones of the nose, or nasal bones ; A, Median portion of the arch, 
 or superior alveolar border, called point alvc'olaire ; E, Nasal spine, or point soiis-nasal : 
 G, Root of the nose, the bottom of which, is occupied by the naso-frontal suture, or 
 point naml ; V, Position of the centre of the coronal^ or fronto-parietal suture of the 
 cranium, or J^regma ; L, Point where the parieto-occipital suture is \mited to that of 
 the opposite side, and to the sagittal, or biparietal suture (not seen in the plate), or 
 lambda ; I, External occipital protuberance, or inion ; B, Mastoid processes ; V, Ex- 
 ternal orifice of the auditory canal, also called trou, or point auriculaire ; Z, Zygomatic 
 arch, formed, in front, by the malar bone, behind, by a process called the zygomatic^ 
 arising from the temporal bone ; D, Point where the four sutures unite — the coronal, 
 the fronto-sphenoid, the temporo-sphenoid, and the temporo-frontal, or pterion; 
 C, Curved line or temporal ridge ; B, Point where this Hne crosses the coronal 
 suture, or sttiphanion. All the portion situated below the temporal ridge, marked by 
 the letters S D T constitutes the temporal fossa. 
 
 At the union of the basilar process and the squamous portion is 
 the occipital foramen, or foramen magnum of foreign authors, the 
 middle, anterior, and posterior portions of which bear the names of 
 basion and opisthion, the lateral portions being occupied by the 
 occipital condyles, by which it is articulated with the first cervical 
 vertebra, or atlas. Two irregularities in the bone sometimes exist, 
 
Chap, i.] PHYSICAL CHABACTEES. 33 
 
 namely, in front of the basion, an eminence which has been called 
 the third condyle of the occipital ; and on the external part of the 
 ordinary condyles, an eminence called the jugular process. 
 
 The parietal hones (P) present nothing to paiticularise hut a pro- 
 jection in the centre, which marks the centre of ossification, and 
 takes the name of parietal eminence. The frontal bone (F) is 
 divided externally into two portions — the superior and the inferior. 
 The superior, or squamous, has at the sides two curved Unas, termed 
 temporal ridges, which give insertion to the temporal muscle ; and, 
 nearer the median line, two projections, termed the frontal eminences. 
 The inferior, or sub-cerebral, belongs to the face, and presents from 
 without inwards. (1) The external orbital processes, by which it is 
 articulated with the malar bones, their sharp lower border forming 
 the superior border of the orbits ; (2) Eidges, or superciliary arches, 
 which correspond with the position of the eyebrows, and have a 
 similar direction ; (3) A projection, or glabella, on the median hne. 
 The median point, answering to the point of separation of the two 
 cerebral and sub-cerebral portions, is called the point sus-orbitaire, 
 or ophryon. 
 
 The surface of the temporal (T) is divisible externally into three 
 portions : a mastoid portion, forming the mastoid processes (B), to 
 which powerful muscles are attached ; a squamous portion ; and a 
 zygomatic portion. The zygomatic is simply a horizontal process, 
 which arises by a root, or longitudinal crest, surmounting the audi- 
 tory or auricular opening. A fourth portion is especially seen on 
 the inferior and intracranial surface, called the hard or petrous 
 portion, in which is enclosed the auditory apparatus. 
 
 The sphenoid (S), so called on account of its being wedged in 
 between the bones at the base of the skull, consists of a body, 
 which at birth is formed of two portions, called anterior sphenoid 
 and posterior sphenoid ; of two descending wings, or pterygoid 
 processes, which form the boundaries of the posterior nares ; of 
 two large ascending wings, of which the highest external portion is 
 seen at S, Fig. 2 ; and of two lesser horizontal wings, which form 
 part of the cranial cavity, where they separate the middle and 
 anterior cerebral fossse. Viewed from above, that is to say from 
 
34 PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. [Chap. i. 
 
 the side of the cranial cavity, the body of the sphenoid presents 
 an excavation, the sella turcica (L, Fig. 6), a transverse fissure, the 
 optic fissure, and between the two a slight ridge, to which the 
 Germans have given the name of ephippium. 
 
 The ethmoid has special relation to the nasal fossae, and only 
 has interest to the anthropologist from the side of the cranial 
 cavity, where it impinges upon the median line between two portions 
 
 IiZ2'T^'^'^°5^^^h "'' ™pra-ntvsal point, in the centre of the minimum frontal 
 width MM ; N, Nasal point m the centre of the naso-frontal suture ; B, Nasal spine, 
 ?fvpnl^;''Sif''°?*Ti --h- Middle point of the superior alveolar arch, or superior 
 alveolar point ; S, Point of junction of the temporal ridge and the coronal suture 
 or stephanion ; B, Position of the frontal eminences ; D, Maxillary bones ; J, Malar 
 hones ; G, Anterior nares ; Z, Zygomatic arches ; F, Mastoid processes. 
 
 of the frontal, by giving attachment to the crista gaUi and the 
 cribriform lameUa, through which the filaments of the olfactory 
 nerve pass from the cranial cavity into the nasal foss». 
 
 The principal bones of the face are the nasal bones (N, Fig. 3), 
 which unite with the frontal to form the naso-frontal suture at 
 the root of the nose ; the superior maxillary bones (D), a prolonga- 
 tion of which, called the ascending process, is articulated with the 
 frontal at the sides ; the palate bones, which enter into the forma- 
 tion of the roof of the palate behind; the malar, or jugal bones (J), 
 
Chap, i.] PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 35 
 
 which project backwards, and at the side, at the junction of the 
 temporal, to form a sort of bridge called the zygomatic arch ; and 
 the inferior maxillary bone. The superior maxiUary bones are the 
 principal bones of the face. At the sides they are articulated with 
 the malar bones ; above, they form the inferior wall of the orbits ; 
 internally they are united to the bones proper of the nose, and 
 form the boundary of the anterior nares; below, they form, by their 
 union, the superior alveolar arch. At the point where the posterioi 
 border of the ascending process joins the frontal and the os unguis, 
 is the particular spot for the application of the craniometer, oi 
 dacryon. On the median line of the part subjacent to the anterior 
 nares, are two other important points — the sub-nasal, which corre- 
 sponds with the border of the nostril, occupied by an osseous point 
 called the nasal spine, and the alveolar poiat, situated in the middle 
 of the alveolar arch, at its anterior and inferior portion. 
 
 The inferior maxillary bone is composed altogether diiferently — 
 of a body, of a vertical and posterior ramus, which forms an angle 
 with it, and of a border or alveolar arch. As a matter of detail, 
 we may mention the coronoid process and the articular condyle, 
 which terminate, the one in front of, the other behind, the superior 
 border of the posterior ramus; then the mental emiaence, and 
 behind it, internally, the tubercles g^ni. 
 
 The thorax comprises, besides twelve dorsal vertebrae, which 
 close it in behind, the sternum in front (Fig. 1) and twelve ribs on 
 each side. Seven, called the true ribs, are directly connected with 
 the sternum by cartilages; and five false are only united to it 
 indirectly, the last two bearing the name of floating. 
 
 The abdomen has no bone, ia the proper sense, belonging to it, 
 but at certain points of its parietes are seen thick fibrous bands, 
 which are the vestiges of ribs to be found in some mammalia, and 
 especially in reptiles. 
 
 The pelvic cavity, or pelvis (Pig. 10), is composed of bones 
 which equally appertain to other parts, namely, to the vertebral 
 column and the inferior extremities. 
 
 Each extremity is composed (1) Of a base, which is the shoulder 
 in the one and the haunch in the other. The bones which com- 
 pose it form, by unituig with those of the opposite side, an osseous 
 
 D 2 
 
36 PHTSIOAl CHARACTERS. [Chap. i. 
 
 cincture at each extremity of the truiii. At the superior extremity 
 these are the clavicle and scapula ; and at the inferior, the iliac, or 
 coxal bone, formed of three primordial bones — the pubis, the 
 ischium, and the ilium. (2) Of a first segment, the arm, formed 
 by the humerus ; and the thigh, by the femur. (3) Of a second 
 segment, the forearm, formed by the radius and ulna; and the 
 leg, by the tibia and fibula. (4) Of a third segment, the hand, 
 made up of eight bones for the carpus, five for the metacarpus, 
 and three for each finger, except the first, which has only two ; 
 and the foot, made up of seven bones for the tarsus, five for the 
 metatarsus, and three for each toe, except the first, which has only 
 two. Of the bones of the tarsus, the calcaneum, or bone of the 
 heel, merits particular notice. 
 
 The femur, which we select as an example of a long bone, con- 
 sists of (1) a shaft, or diaphysis, formed on its outer surface of a 
 layer of compact tissue, and on its inner of a medullary canal ; and 
 (2) of extremities, or epiphyses. At the upper extremity are the 
 greater and lesser trochanter — processes for the insertion of 
 muscles ; the neck, which is very long, and takes an oblique out- 
 ward direction; and the articular head. The lower extremity 
 consists of an internal and external condyle, and an articular 
 surface. The humerus consists, in like manner, of a shaft, two 
 tuberosities at the upper extremity, a very short neck, and a head ; 
 inferiorly, of two processes — an external and an internal condyle. 
 
 The bones, whether long, short, or flat, are covered by in- 
 equalities, tubercles, eminences, or processes, all having the same 
 object — namely, to furnish points of attachment for muscles and 
 ligaments. It is to these several points we apply our instruments, 
 as well as to certain edges and prominences, when making osteo- 
 metrie measurements. We ought to mention also the styloid 
 process, at the outer side of the lower extremity of the radius ; 
 and the internal malleolus, on the inner side of the lower extremity 
 of the tibia, &c. The flat bones of the cranium are united together 
 by sutures, the long bones of the extremities by articulations. 
 The most interesting of these latter, as far as we are concerned, is 
 (1) The scapulo-humeral, in which the head of the humeru.s is 
 received into the glenoid cavity of the scapula, a sort of ligamentous 
 
Chap, i.] PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 37 
 
 bag, in wluch the two surfaces are kept in contact, and at the same 
 time are permitted to glide easily the one upon the other. (2) The 
 coxo-femoral articulation, in -which the head of the femur is 
 received into the cotyloid cavity of the ihum. (3) The hinge-Kke 
 articulations of the elbow and the ankle-joints, which only permit 
 the movements of flexion and extension. (4) The superior articu- 
 lation of the radius, so marvellously adapted for free rotation in 
 every direction, &c. 
 
 Bones, when first formed, consist of cartilage, the osseous matter 
 being deposited at certain points, which afterwards coalesce. Later 
 on, when the entire bone has become fuUy formed, and old age 
 begins, those with sutures become soldered together edge to edge. 
 Thus we have two orders of phenomena — ^the fusion of osseous 
 pouits in one and the same bone, and the fusion of distinct and 
 contiguous bones, which we must be careful not to confound, and 
 upon which we shall have more to say presently. 
 
 Variations of the Skeleton. 
 
 The number of bones slightly varies in the mammalian series. 
 All have seven cervical vertebrae, except the ai, or sloth, which has 
 nine, and the lamantin, or sea-cow, eight. Among long-necked 
 quadrupeds, as the giraffe, they only increase in height. The 
 number of dorsal vertebrae, and of pairs of ribs which they support, 
 is less constant — ^from eleven in the bat, they attain to nineteen or 
 twenty in the elephant. The number of the lumbar vertebrae 
 deviates but little, and varies generally from four to seven. The 
 lamantin, however, has but one, while the dolphin has eighteen. 
 These inconstancies do not, however, appear to have the importance 
 which we might imagine. Genera far removed from one another 
 have the same number of ribs or dorsal vertebrae : as the orang, 
 the hare, the camel, the cat, and the kangaroo, which have twelve ; 
 while contiguous species have a different number, as the ox of 
 Europe, which has thirteen ; the aurochs, or wild ox, fourteen ; and 
 the bison, fifteen — all three of the genus bos. Often the dififerenoe 
 is merely that a lumbar vertebra becomes dorsal, or vice versa. 
 When, in the human subject, there is a thirteenth rib on one side 
 
38 PHTSICAL CHAEACTBES. [Chap. i. 
 
 only, or thirteen on both, a lumbar vertebra is the point of articu- 
 lation. The number of caudal or coccygean vertebrse varies in the 
 monkey tribe — not including the anthropoid apes — from one to four 
 in the magot to twenty-nine to thirty-one in the baboon and some 
 of the ateles ; and among the rest of mammalia, from two in the 
 Egyptian tapir to sixty ia the Cape rorqual. 
 
 The bones of the head are constructed in. animals after the same 
 model as in Man ; certain parts of them are more or less developed ; 
 the cells or sinuses interposed between their laminae are more or 
 less large ; some sutures, by closing slowly, leave certain portions 
 of the bone isolated ; while others, owing to their becoming con- 
 solidated early, diminish the number of bones. Hence the cause of 
 the differences met with between them. Man, at his full develop- 
 ment, has the smallest number of bones, and the rodents, at birth, 
 the greatest number. Among the latter, the squamous portion of 
 the occipital bone is divided into two, while the parietal and frontal 
 are cemented together into one. 
 
 The anterior and posterior sphenoids, united in Man, are distinct 
 in the greater number of mammalia. The squamous and petrous 
 portions of the temporal, on the contrary, remain distinct id, the latter, 
 and perhaps, with one exception, are united in Man and the monkey 
 tribe.* Moreover, we frequently observe in Man, as an anomaly, 
 the reproduction of normal arrangements in other animals, as if 
 by a sort of reversion towards certain states which its own organisa- 
 tion might have gone through previously. Thus the fusion of 
 the parietals into one — as among the rodents — the division of the 
 frontal into two separate bones — common among mammalia — the 
 persistence of an interparietal bone, &c. The early fusion of the 
 two bones proper of the nose, especially in the inferior races, and 
 the tardy consolidation, on the contrary, of the intermaxillary with 
 the maxillary, are other examples of the same kind. 
 
 Bones of the Nose. 
 The bones of the nose proper remain separated on the median 
 line up to an advanced age in the white ; their union is frequently 
 
 * " Traite d'Anatomie Comparee," &o., by J. F. Meckel. Translated into 
 French by Th. Schuster. Ten vols. 8vo. Paris, 1858. 
 
Chap. I.] PHYSICAL CHAEACTERS. 39 
 
 completed at twenty or twenty-five years in Hottentots. Of twenty- 
 seven skeletons of adult men, taken at random by M. Broca, the 
 fusion existed in five, all in negroes. In tlie cliimpanzee they 
 appear united at two years of age ; in the gorilla and the pitheoians 
 even sooner. But in the cebians their fusion is slow, so that these 
 resemhle Man in this respect more than the anthropoids. 
 
 Camper has forgotten the tardy union of the intermaxillary 
 with the maxillary hones, and having made their constant absence 
 to be distinctly characteristic of Man, we must speak of them more 
 at length. 
 
 The intermaxillary bones, to the number of two, appear to be 
 united in the form of a wedge, enclosed between the two superior 
 maxillary, supporting the incisor teeth, and having above two 
 processes which partly close in the anterior opening of the nasal 
 f ossEe. Though easily seen up to the third month, their independent 
 existence is brief, they commence to consolidate at that period at 
 their external side, and become united with the maxillary about 
 the third year. I^Tevertheless their palatine sutures do not entirely 
 disappear till towards twelve or fourteen years of age, according to 
 M. Sappey, and were still visible in one hundred and four out of 
 two hundred French skulls examined by M. Hamy. AH the 
 phases of their solidification wordd be retarded in the negro races. 
 
 InternuKdllary Bones. 
 
 In the majority of mammalia the intermaxOlary bones continue, 
 on the contrary, beyond adult age, and remain distinct. The 
 elephant, the dolphin, and the sheep are an exception, and resemble 
 Man in this respect; so do the anthropoids — their intermaxillary- 
 suture should disappear about the end of the first dentition, accord- 
 ing to M. Vogt. In descending the scale in monkeys, the inter- 
 maxillary generally partakes of the characters which it has in the 
 generality of quadrupeds. 
 
 In the extremities the general type of Man and mammalia varies 
 but little, and is unimportant. Some bones, for example, which, 
 owing to the habits of the species, are superfluous, become atrophied, 
 or anchylosed together. Thus the clavicles are reduced to mere 
 
40 PHYSICAL OHABAOTBES. [Chap. i. 
 
 vestiges ip. some carnivora, and disappear altogether in ruminants 
 and amphibious mammalia. Sometimes one of the hones of the 
 forearm or the leg becomes reduced in size, or anchylosed to the 
 adjoiuing one. The same phenomenon is observed even more fre- 
 quently at their extremities. The metatarsal or metacarpal bones 
 are four in. number in the sloth, two in the stag, and one, called 
 the cannon bone, in the horse. There is some relation between 
 this number and that of the digits or toes. Thus the pig has only 
 four digits, the rhinoceros three, the greater number of ruminants 
 two, and the horse but one, called the hoof. In the horse the 
 atrophy of other digits is manifest, the vestiges of them remaining; 
 at the sides in the form of needle-like roughnesses. 
 
 An analogous absence, as if from want of use, occurs in the bones; 
 of the pelvis of amphibious mammalia, whose hinder extremities 
 have become of little importance, or are wanting. The pelvis is- 
 only represented by certain osseous styles which are amalgamated 
 with the soft parts, or is altogether wanting. This is to be noticed 
 in the dugong, the porpoise, the whale, &c. 
 
 Relations of the Cranium to the Face. 
 
 The cranium is formed of two portions in all mammalia — the- 
 cranium proper, the receptacle of the brain; and the face, the 
 receptacle of the principal organs of sense and of the masticatory 
 apparatus. Their development is in an inverse ratio, and their 
 respective situation in relation to that development. In Man the 
 cranium is large and placed above the face ; in quadrupeds it be- 
 comes less, and recedes more and more backwards ; in monkeys the- 
 siae and situation of the cranium and face are intermedial. These 
 two characters thus assume a considerable importance, and are the 
 point de depart of other subordinate characters, which, in their 
 turn, assist in distinguishing men and animals. It is natural, 
 therefore, that anthropologists should early have bethought them of 
 some decided methods of estimating their value. Various methods, 
 have been proposed ; the one most in vogue is that of the facial angles. 
 
 This was one of the first attempts of craniometry. This branch 
 of anthropology, so cultivated at the present time, has been hitherto 
 
Chap, i.] 
 
 PHYSICAL CHAEACTERS. 
 
 41 
 
 studied especially with reference to the comparison of races, and 
 ■vviU consequently be treated at length in the second part of this 
 work, which is specially set apart for that purpose. We will not 
 now anticipate the subject further than by mentioning a few of the 
 more striking characters which distinguish Man in general from 
 animals. 
 
 Facial Angles. 
 
 The facial angles are four in number. The most ancient is the 
 angle of Camper. It is formed by two Hnes, one called the hori- 
 
 FiG. 4. — HH', Horizontal of Camper; FF', Facial line of Camper; FAH', Tme 
 angle of Camper ; F B K, Angle of Greoffroy Saint-Hilaire and Cuvler, its vertex 
 at the edge of the incisors ; 1 C M, Angle of Jules Cloqaet, its vertex at the alveolar 
 border ; O D H', Angle of Jacquart, the sub-nasal point ; O D, Facial line of 
 Jacquart. 
 
 The most useful angle is that of Cloquet, with its vertex at C, but whose facial 
 line, C I, impinges, not at the most projecting point of the forehead, but imme- 
 •diately above the superciliary arches, 
 
 zontal, H H', Fig. 4, which its author marked as a principal guide, 
 over the auditory opening, and the inferior border of the nares ; 
 the other, called the facial, F F', tangent to the two most pro- 
 minent points of the face — the glabella, or central point of the 
 forehead, above ; the surface anterior to the incisor teeth, below. 
 
42 PHYSICAL CHAEACTEKS. [Chap. i. 
 
 The original intention of Pierre Camper* -was to give to artists 
 a method of comparing the heads of living persons with the skulls 
 of different races and of different ages; hut in another -work he 
 extended its use to animals 
 
 Camper's Angle. 
 
 Its apex was situated at the intersection of these two lines, at 
 a point, A, Fig. 4, placed sometimes in front of the superior 
 maxUlary, as in negroes ; sometimes hehind, as in many animals 
 — the dog, for example ; or at the nasal spine, as in the white 
 races. " The angle which the facial or characteristic line of the 
 face makes," says Camper, "varies from 70 to 80 degrees in the 
 human species. All above is resolved hy the rules of art, all helow 
 bears resemblance to that of apes. If I make the facial line lean 
 forward, I have an antique head ; if backward, the head of a 
 negro. If I still more incline it, I have the head of an ape ; and 
 if more stiU, that of a dog, and then that of an idiot." 
 
 The second angle was suggested by Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and 
 Cuvier in 1795, and afterwards abandoned, no doubt owing to the 
 difficulty of taking it with accuracy on certain animals. The facial 
 line of Camper was maiutaiaed, but the horizontal line became 
 oblique, K B, passing across from the auditory opening to the border 
 of the incisors, B, where the apex of the triangle is situated. 
 
 The third angle is a mean between the two preceding ones. The 
 facial line rests tangent superiorly at the most prominent part of 
 the face, but stops short below, on a level with the superior alveolar 
 border, I G. The horizontal line descends obliquely, like that of 
 Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and Cuvier, but terminates at the same 
 alveolar border, G, which becomes the apex of the triangle. Jules 
 Cloquet adopted it in 1821. 
 
 The fourth angle, which moreover has enjoyed very considerable 
 repute, was the result of a misconception. M. Jacquart, in adopt- 
 ing it in 1856, thought to follow m the footsteps of Camper, or 
 
 • " Dissertation snr les Differences reelles qne presentenfc les Traits du 
 Visage chez les Hommes de differents Pays et de dife&ents Iges," by- 
 Pierre Camper. Posthumons work pnbKshed by his son. Paris 1791 
 (•written in 1786). ' 
 
•Chap, i.] PHYSICAL CHABACTEE8. 43 
 
 rather in the principles which had guided Morton in the construc- 
 tion of his goniometer.* One of these two liaes is the facial linp. 
 of Camper, terminating at the nasal spine, D, the other the hori- 
 zontal hne, hut stopping short also at this point, D H'. Its apex 
 therefore is always formed at the nasal spine, D. 
 
 Our own measurements, made on more than eleven hundred 
 human skulls, and on about a hundred skulls of animals, enable 
 us to form a judgment as to the value of these four facia] 
 angles.t 
 
 JacqiiarPs Angle. 
 
 The angle of Jacquart, at its apex at the nasal spine, varies 
 Tinder five influences. (1) The degree of prominence of the nasal 
 spine, very strongly marked, as M. Broca has observed, in the 
 white races, often not observable in negroes; (2) The degree of 
 prominence of the glabella, which, about one hundred and ninety- 
 nine times out of two hundred, is the superior point of the facial 
 Une ; (3) The difference of height of the auditory foramen rela- 
 tively to the base of the skull; (4) The more or less marked 
 elongation of the face, that is to say, the degree of prognathism ; 
 (5) The amount of development forward of the anterior portion of 
 the brain, as shown by calculations made among the hydrocephali, 
 in whom the brain-case is very much enlarged, and among the 
 microcephali, in whom it is very much diminished in size. Under 
 aU these various influences, it is very diflScult to determine which 
 has the greatest predominance, and consequently which represents 
 the angle of Jacquart. 
 
 The angle of Camper diminishes or increases for the same 
 reasons, except that it has no reference to the prominence of the 
 nasal spine. It takes account, however, of the elongation of the 
 face in its sub-nasal portion, which has by far the most influence 
 
 * "MensTiration de 1' Angle Facial et Gomom^tres," by H. Jacqnart, in 
 "M^m. Soo. de Biologie," 1855 ; " De la Valeur de I'Os fipaotal " (measure- 
 ments of sixteen facial angles), by the same author, in "Journal Anat. et 
 Physiol.," 1866 ; " Crania Americana," by S. G. Morton, Philadelphia, 1839. 
 
 t "feudes BUT Pierre Camper et sor 1' Angle Facial dit de Camper," by 
 Paul Topinard, in " Revue d'Authropologie," vol. ii., 1874. 
 
U PHYSICAL CHABACTBRS. [Chap, k 
 
 on prognatliism in Man, and which the angle of Jacquart altogether 
 leaves out of consideration. 
 
 Angles of Qeoffroy and Guvier. 
 
 The angle of Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and Cuvier also sets aside 
 the nasal spine, and takes in, in the same way, the sub-nasal region 
 of the face ; but at the same time exhibiting it in a more complete 
 manner. Hence we shall accord to it the preference. Why,, 
 indeed, should we preserve the pretended horizontal line of Camper ? 
 It does not exist in Man, and still less in animals. By intersecting 
 with the facial line it more frequently has but one virtual apex, which 
 gives an unfavourable impression. The auriculo-dental line of Saint- 
 Hilaire and Cuvier is, on the contrary, rational ; it passes along at 
 the same extremity of the face, and does not lose one of the two 
 portions which one desires to measure- — the development of the 
 face. Apart from these objections, which appertain to all the 
 facial angles, the angle of Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and Cuvier has- 
 one specially belonging to it, namely, the impossibility of accepting; 
 the Hne of the teeth as the extremity of the face. In a great many 
 animals, in fact, the front teeth are either curved downwards, im- 
 moderately elongated into offensive weapons, or are altogether 
 wanting ; frequently, also, they fall out during hfe, or are lost after 
 death. 
 
 Gloquet's Angle. 
 
 The angle of Jules Cloquet has all the advantages of the pre- 
 ceding, without this latter objection ; we consider, therefore, that- 
 it should have the preference. 
 
 The principal objection which attaches to aU the facial angles is 
 the adoption of, not the most logical point for the superior 
 extremity of the facial line, but the most prominent, which is 
 always found to be, with the angle of Jacquart, and almost always 
 with the others, the glabella, or the centre of the superciliary 
 ridges. The differences of prominence of these parts causes the 
 facial angle in Man to vary several degrees ; that is to say, there is 
 as much difference as there is between the natural faculties of 
 races the most opposite. In animals it is even more so ; and Cuvier 
 
■Chap, i.] 
 
 PHYSICAL CHAEACTBES. 
 
 45 
 
 made up his mind, under all circumstances, to abide by the 
 principle of Camper. What he very properly sought was the 
 anterior limit of the brain at the lower part of the forehead — the 
 yoint sus-orMtaire of M. Broca. In a gorilla, for example, by 
 "taldng the most prominent point, which Kes over the superciliary 
 arches, the facial angle, at its apex at the nasal spine, would be 
 about 49 degrees ; whereas in reahty, that is to say at the supra- 
 orbital point, it is only 37 degrees. Consequently it is always the 
 anterior limit of the cranial cavity, whichever angle is preferred, 
 and not the most prominent point, which should be taken for the 
 facial line superiorly. It is in this way that the following angles 
 have been measured, for the purpose of showing the difference 
 between the most divergent human crania we have met with, an 
 anthropoid and a carnivorous animal. 
 
 FA-CIAL ANGLES (FACIAL LINE AT THE SUPBA-OEBITAL POIKt).* 
 
 GeoflEroy Saint-Hilaire, 
 Native of Lower Brittany. . . 68'5 
 Namaquois negro ... ... 54i'0 
 
 Male gorilla 29-0 
 
 Newfoundland dog... ... 25'0 
 
 . Cloquet. 
 
 Jacquart. 
 
 Camper. 
 
 .. 12-0 . 
 
 .. 85-0 .. 
 
 , 81-5 
 
 .. 560 . 
 
 .. 62-6 .. 
 
 . 590 
 
 .. 31-0 . 
 
 .. 320 .. 
 
 . 31-5 
 
 .. 24-5 . 
 
 .. 250 .. 
 
 . 250 
 
 The facial angle adopted for the comparison between Man and 
 •animals is that of Cloquet, the superior extremity of the facial line 
 being transferred to the supra-orbital point. "We shall give it the 
 name of " angle facial zoologique." The following table gives some 
 examples of its division : 
 
 ANGLE OF CLOQUET (iTS VERTEX AT THE ALTEOEAK BOEDER AND THE FACIAL 
 LINE AT THE SUPEA-OKBITAIi POINl). 
 
 WMte man, maximum ... ... ... ... 72'0 
 
 Namaqnois negro, miuimnm .. . ... ... ... 560 
 
 2 male chimpanzees ... ... ... ... .-. 38*6 
 
 1 „ „ let dentition ... ... ... 51'5 
 
 5 male gorillas ... ... ... ... ... 32"2 
 
 3 female gorillas ... ... ... ... •• 31-8 
 
 1 male orang ... ... ... ... ... ■■■ 28'5 
 
 1 ,, „ 1st dentition 50'5 
 
 * The angles in this and the following table have heen taken principally 
 "by projection, from drawings made with the craniograph of M. Broca. 
 
4,6 
 
 PHYSICAL CHARAOTBES. 
 
 [Chap. i. 
 
 1 magot (pitheoians) . . . 
 
 2 macaques ,, 
 
 3 baboons „ 
 
 2 howlers (oebians) 
 
 1 maM (lemurians) 
 
 2 badgers (plantigrades) 
 
 1 bear ... 
 
 2 elephants (proboscideans) 
 1 seal (amphibia) 
 
 1 phasoalomys (marsupialia) 
 
 2 horses (eqnidae) 
 6 dogs (oarniTora) 
 2 foxes „ 
 
 2 lions „ 
 
 2 paoas (rodentia) 
 
 2 sheep (rmninantia) . . . 
 
 2 kangaroos (marsupialia) 
 
 1 wild boar (paohydermata) 
 
 86-5 
 37-4 
 32-3 
 31-7 
 26-5 
 32-0 
 30-5 
 30.2 
 28-0 
 250 
 24-0 
 24-3 
 22-5 
 22-5 
 22-2 
 21-5 
 20-4 
 100 
 
 It follows from tkis (1) That between the narrowest facial angle of 
 an adnlt man, which is 56 degrees, and the widest angle in an adult 
 anthropoid (one of our chimpanzees), which is 42 degrees, there exists- 
 an interval as great as these two extremes are exceptional ; (2) That 
 between anthropoid apes, next in order, there is no such line of 
 demarcation ; (3) That by this characteristic, man is separated in 
 the most remarkable manner from the rest of the mammalia, in- 
 cluding the anthropoids. It has been argued, from the enormous 
 angle in young anthropoids, that one must make the comparison in 
 the child and not in the adult man, and then the distance is quite 
 as great. 
 
 The facial angle, then, furnishes a primary characteristic of Man 
 in relation to animals. But it expresses less the relation of the 
 size of the face to the size of the cranium, than the absolute 
 development of the former. It attains seventy-two degrees in Man,, 
 because the face is small and short, and only ten degrees in the 
 wild boar, because it has considerable length and flatness. 
 
 MetJiod of Guvier. 
 
 Other methods lead to the same result. The most simple 
 consists in estimating the importance of each part, and of com- 
 
Chap, i.] 
 
 PHTSICAIi CHABACTEES. 
 
 47 
 
 paring tliem afterwards. Cuvier estimated, upon sections, that the 
 cranium, in proportion to the face, was as follows : 
 
 White man 
 
 ... 1:1 
 
 Negro 
 
 ... 4:1-25 
 
 Ctimpanzee 
 
 ... 3:1 
 
 Gibbon, sapajou, and macaque 
 
 ... 2:1 
 
 Hedgehog... 
 
 ... 1:1 
 
 Porcupine 
 
 ... 1:2 
 
 Hare 
 
 ... 1:3 
 
 Horse 
 
 ... 1:4 
 
 Whale 
 
 ... 1:15 or 20 
 
 Method of Segond. 
 
 M. Segond has proposed to measure, upon antero-posterior 
 sections, the various angles formed at the level of the anterior 
 border of the occipital foramen, by lines drawn from the principal 
 points of the middle circumference of the head. On these sections 
 he applies a graduated circle, whose centre corresponds to the basion 
 (B, Fig. 6), and upon which needles, or movable radii, are directed 
 towards the points desired. The face is thus found intercepted by- 
 two lines, the one separating it from the cranial cavity, and which 
 meets at the supra-orbital point ; the other going to the inferior 
 border of the jaw ; the cranium being included between the same 
 line of separation and the long axis of the occipital foramen. These 
 two angles have given us the following results, which satisfactorily 
 exhibit the relative development of the cranium and of the face : 
 
 2 European infants 
 
 adults 
 
 3 adult negroes 
 1 chimpanzee 
 
 1 gorilla 
 
 4 orangs 
 Otter 
 Tisoaoha 
 Dog ... 
 Eat ... 
 Fox ... 
 Hippopotamus 
 
 Cerebral angle. 
 158° 
 159° 
 152° 
 116° 
 108° 
 108° 
 105° 
 100° 
 
 97° 
 
 95° 
 
 82° 
 
 76° 
 
 Facial angle. 
 22° 
 47° 
 46° 
 56° 
 54° 
 47° 
 24° 
 41° 
 32° 
 27° 
 29° 
 45° 
 
 The process of Cuvier does not seem to have been applied but 
 
48 
 
 PHYSICAL CHAEACTERS. 
 
 [Chap. i. 
 
 Tery approximately ; tkat of M. Segond gives only one of the 
 elements of comparison. It would be better to measure directly 
 the base of the triangles, of which M. Segond only notices the 
 angles, and to calculate their area ; or to obtain, on one side, the 
 volume of the face by a sort of triangulation ; and on the other, of 
 the cranium by the ordinary cubic measurement of its cavity. M. 
 Assezat has commenced that part of the study which relates to the 
 face in his " Edcherches sur les Proportions de la Face," communi- 
 cated, ia 1874, to the French Association for the Advancement of 
 Science ; it rests with him to extend it to animals. The question 
 .as regards the cranium is not yet settled. 
 
 Oapaeity of Cranial Cavity. 
 
 The capacity of the cranial cavity is arrived at, as we shall see 
 presently, by filling this cavity with grains of different sorts, and 
 preferably with small shot, ia accordance with certain directions. 
 The figures giving the height, volume, or weight of the human 
 body, as compared with the volume of the braiu ia the mammalian 
 : series, would form a very instructive table, if observers had taken 
 more care to give us either one of these three elements. Our object, 
 however, being to give more particularly the comparison of Man with 
 ithe anthropoid apes, the following data wUl suffice : 
 
 
 
 Cubic centimetres 
 
 Man, European male, in round numbers ... ... 1500 
 
 16 gorillas, males 
 
 531 
 
 3 „ females ... 
 
 
 
 472 
 
 1 gorilla, 2nd dentition 
 
 
 
 440 
 
 1 „ 1st „ 
 
 
 
 413 
 
 3 oranga, males 
 
 
 
 439 
 
 1 orang, female 
 
 
 
 418 
 
 1 „ 2nd dentition 
 
 
 
 404 
 
 1 „ 1st „ 
 
 
 
 425 
 
 7 chimpanzees, males 
 
 
 
 421 
 
 3 „ females 
 
 
 
 .. 404 
 
 1 chimpanzee, 1st dentition 
 
 
 
 ■S28 
 
 2 lions ... 
 
 
 
 .. 821 
 
 I bear ... 
 
 
 
 .. 265 
 
 1 wild boar 
 
 
 
 207 
 
 1 ram ... 
 
 
 
 150 
 
 1 Newfoundland dog ... 
 
 
 
 .. 105 
 
Chap, i.] 
 
 PHYSICAL CHAEACTBBS. 
 
 49 
 
 Thus we perceive tliat the capacity of the cranial cavity, and 
 consequently the volume of the organ it encloses, increases slowly 
 and gradually in animals, but suddenly and to a prodigious extent 
 as we pass to Man. !N"ow all the animals except the last two or 
 three are obviously of the same size as Man. If the three 
 anthropoids are a little less in stature, their limbs, head, chest, and 
 especially their abdomen, are much larger ; the gorilla, especially, 
 is enormous, and ought, other things being equal, to have greater 
 cranial capacity than man. The chimpanzee, however, has only 
 38'06 per cent.; the orang, 29'26; and the gorUla, 3540, as com- 
 pared with Man, while the extreme proportions among gorilla males 
 are from 31 "66 to 41 '53 per cent. Moreover, the diiFerence between 
 the sexes is as iu Man : the cranial capacity of the anthropoid 
 male exceeds that of the female by about 50 cubic centimetres. 
 
 M. Vogt has tabidated a number of cubic measurements of the 
 skuU, obtained by various methods other than our own, and 
 amongst them that by the use of millet. They cannot be directly 
 compared with ours, but their mutual relations merit consideration. 
 Thus : 
 
 Cubic centimetres. 
 1450 
 
 German skull, male 
 
 1 gorilla, male 
 
 2 gorillas, females 
 8 orangs, males 
 
 7 „ females 
 
 3 chimpanzees, males 
 1 chimpanzee, female 
 
 500 
 423 
 448 
 378 
 417 
 370 
 
 The conclusions deduced from these agree with preceding ones. 
 By taking the mean, on the one hand, of all the anthropoid males 
 of M. Vogt, and, on the other, that of all of ours, and comparing 
 them with the corresponding mean in Man, we arrive at the follow- 
 ing result : 
 
 Mean absolute capacity of anthropoids.. 
 Its proportion to that of man 
 
 Vogt's 12 cases. Topiuard's 26 cases. 
 444 cub. cent. ... 490 cub. cent. 
 30-63 per cent. ... 32-66 pur cent. 
 
 It is very evident from this that the three anthropoids in 
 question have, cmteris paribus, three times less cranial cavity than 
 Man. We do not hesitate to say that, taking into account the 
 
60 
 
 PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 
 
 [Chap. i. 
 
 bulk of the body, it is not three, but four and even five times less 
 than is here stated. There seems to us to be a very fundamental 
 distinction between Man and the animal most nearly resembling 
 him. We have three or four times more brain — three or four times 
 more thinking matter! The supremacy which our very exalted 
 intellectual faculties secure to us, is confirmed to us by the existence 
 of an exceptional development of the organ which is its seat. 
 Anatomy furnishes us, at the outset, with powerful characters 
 sufficient to satisfy the most jealous defenders of human preroga- 
 tive, and to console them under the difiiculties they wHL meet with 
 in matters of minor importance. We shall consider, shortly, the 
 minimum and maximum variations observed in the capacity of the 
 human cranium, and in the weight of its contents. But it may be 
 useful to notice here these variations in the three great anthropoid 
 apes. The three following series refer only to adults, and are the 
 most significant that we have been able to bring together. In the 
 first, the cubic measurement has been made by one and the same 
 process — that of filling the skull with small shot ; in the two others 
 the processes were different.* 
 
 TOPINARD. 
 
 16 gorillas, males 
 3 „ females 
 3 orangs, males 
 
 7 chimpanzees, males ... 
 3 „ females 
 
 VOGT, ETO.f 
 
 3 gorillas, females 
 
 8 orangs, males 
 
 7 „ females, and doubtful 
 3 chimpanzees, males ... 
 
 WYMAN, ETC. 
 
 10 gorillas, males 
 4 „ females ... 
 7 chimpanzees 
 
 Capacity in cubic centimetres. 
 
 ... 475 to 623 
 
 ... 395 „ 580 
 
 ... 433 „ 478 
 
 ... 382 „ 482 
 
 ... 387 „ 425 
 
 ... 370 to 490 
 
 ... 390 „ 400 
 
 ... 335 „ 425 
 
 ... 390 „ 410 
 
 ... 424 to 535 
 
 ... 385 „ 391 
 
 ... 294 „ 424 
 
 *The anthropoid apes and other animals we have measured were pro- 
 cured from the Museum, and also from the Institnt Anthropologique. We 
 are also indebted to M. Tramont, the preparator of natural history at the 
 Institut Anthropologique, and to M. Bouvier, special preparator, for the 
 loan of a number of specimens, for which we beg to express our obligations, 
 
 " M^moire sur les Microcephales," by Charles Vogt. Genera, 1867. 
 
PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 
 
 51 
 
 Chap, i.] 
 
 The cranial characters in Man and animals, which we are about 
 to examine, are partly the result of the difference of volume of 
 their cranial cavity, and partly, and more especially, of the dififer- 
 «nce of their natural posture. Man alone stands perfectly upright ; 
 
 BV 
 
 "Fig. 5. — K, Anterior border of the occipital foramen or baaion : C, Its posterior border, or 
 opiathion : KG, Side view and plane of tbe occipital foramen; A, Alveolar point ; 
 P, Inferior surface of an occipital condyle (articulating witb the first cervical 
 vertebra, or atlas) ; A P Q, Horizontal plane of the base of the skull, or alveolo- 
 condylean ; I, Inion ; L, Lambda ; B, Bregma ; O, Supia-orbital point, or ophryon ; 
 G, Glabella ; N, Nasal point ; E, Sub-nasal point ; A, Alveolar point. 
 
 the anthropoid apes have an oblique or side movement in pro- 
 gression ; the other mammalia have a horizontal attitude ; hence 
 their name — quadrupeds. 
 
 Attitude of the Body 
 
 The head, in all the mammalian series, is articulated with the 
 vertebral column by means of the condyles of the occipital, which 
 rotate from before backwards, and from behind forwards, in cavities 
 formed in the bodies of the first cervical vertebra, or atlas. Between 
 and behind these condyles is the occipital foramen, through which 
 the spinal cord enters the skull ; its middle and anterior point is 
 the basion, and its posterior point, the opisthion, of which we have 
 already spoken. In quadrupeds, the occipital foramen and its 
 ■condyles are situated very far backward, and in some, as the horse, 
 they no longer occupy the base of the skull, whose posterior surface 
 
 E 2 
 
52 PHYSICAL CHABACTERS. [Chap, i- 
 
 becomes vertical. The mazzh is at. the same time more or less 
 elongated, as the zoological facial angle showed us just now. It 
 foUows (1) That the head is no longer ia equilibrium upon the 
 vertebral column, but falls forwards. (2) That its position has to 
 be raised in order that the animal may see straight before him, the 
 axis of the orbits being altered accordingly. In order to com- 
 pensate for this excess of weight of the head ia front, and to- 
 prevent its falling forwards, quadrupeds are furnished at the nape- 
 of the neck with a very powerful ligament, called the posterior 
 cervical, known in ruminants by the name of nerfde hceuf (paxwax). 
 It runs along the spine, becomes free at the level of the seventh 
 cervical vertebra, and is inserted into the external occipital pro- 
 tuberance, or into a depression which replaces it. The powerful 
 muscles of the neck contribute, with it, to preserve the head more- 
 OT less in position. 
 
 Conditions of Equilibrium of the Head. 
 
 In Man, on the contrary, the head is naturally in equilibrium 
 upon the vertebral column. The occipital foramen occupies the 
 middle of the base of the skuU ; the weight of the portion in front 
 of the basion, and that of the portion behind it, are sensibly equal, 
 and the posterior cervical ligament is wanting, or is only represented 
 by a simple aponeurotic interlacing. His position with regard to- 
 seeing, on the other hand, is horizontal; the axis of the orbits 
 is directed forwards, and the back of the retina is anatomically 
 arranged in accordance with this. Special physiologists demon- 
 strate in the same way that man's organisation is such that he sees 
 better in the erect posture. Another result of the position of 
 the head is a certain horizontality of the plane of mastication of 
 the molars as well as the incisors, as may be shown by inserting 
 between the teeth a flat rule, placed parallel to the horizon. 
 
 Situation and Direction of Occipital Foramen. 
 
 The occipital foramen is situated in the European at an equal 
 distance between the anterior and posterior portion of the entire* 
 
Ohap. I.] PHYSICAL CHARACTEES. 53 
 
 cranium. In the negro, it is a little more backward; in tlie 
 anthiopoid ape it is considerably so ; in tbe various quadrupeds it 
 again recedes, and stUl more in tbe horse and the hippopotamus, in 
 which it no longer forms part of the base of the skull Its plane 
 looks downwards and forwards in the white man, directly down- 
 wards in the negro, notably downwards and backwards in the 
 anthropoid ape, and stOl more so in quadrupeds. The fundamental 
 characteristics of the occipital foramen are its situation and 
 direction. The portion of the occipital which is behind the 
 foramen is very nearly horizontal, if not convex downwards, in 
 Man ; whereas in animals it is more or less elevated from before 
 backwards, and from below upwards. The foramen cannot there- 
 fore be removed backwards, without its posterior border being 
 elevated at the same time ; when stiU. farther back, this part of the 
 occipital shell is transformed, as it were, into another posterior and 
 altogether vertical wall of the skull, which is the boundary above 
 of a strong horizontal crest, situated upon the superior semi- 
 circular line. These successive modifications of posture are oblique 
 as compared with . those of the biped, or, properly speaking, 
 quadrupedal. The more the foramen is carried backwards, the 
 more the equ.ilibrium is disturbed, and the more the weight of the 
 anterior part increases to the detriment of the posterior. 
 
 It wiU be sufficient to measure one of the two terms ; for ex- 
 ample, the inclination of the plane of the occipital foramen ; that is 
 to say, the angle which it makes with a given line being taken as a 
 i;erm of comparison, to find the other, namely, the amount of dis- 
 placement of the foramen. This is what was done by Daubenton, 
 in 1764, by choosing the line D (see Pig. 6), passing from the 
 posterior border of the occipital foramen to the inferior border of 
 the orbit. The angle D A, looking forwards, thus determined 
 was to 3 degrees in Man, 34 degrees in an orang-outang, 
 47 degrees in a macauco, about 80 degrees in the dog, and 90 de- 
 grees in the horse. But Daubenton has never mentioned how he 
 measured this angle; he appeared to be satisfied with a very 
 ■doubtful approximation, to judge by his drawings. This measure- 
 ment, the first attempt at craniometry, necessarily engaged the 
 attention of M. Broca. By means of his occipital goniometer, he 
 
'54 PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. [Chap. I. 
 
 at once demonstrated tliat the prolonged plane of the occipital 
 foramen was elevated occasionally, in the white man, above the line 
 adopted hy Daubenton, which gave an inverted or negative angle, 
 which the latter had not foreseen. M. Broca was thus led to sub- 
 stitute for the line of Daubenton another passing from the same 
 point, the opisthion, to the root of the nose, and at a later period 
 
 Fig. 6. — The anterior half represents the skull intact, in order to show the inferior border 
 of the orbit ; the posterior half represents the skull open for the purpose of showing^ 
 the occipital foramen and its two median points, anterior and posterior. O, Opisthion, 
 or posterior border of the occipital foramen, hidden by the centre of the dial of the 
 goniometer : B, Basion ; D, Inferior border of the orbit, or anterior terminating point 
 of the line of Daubenton : N, Nasal point preferred by M. Broca ; D D D', Line of 
 Daubenton ; A B O A', Plane of occipital foramen prolonged both ways ; A D, Oc- 
 cipital angle of Daubenton ; A O C, Occipital angle of Broca ; A B E, Basilar angle of 
 Broca ; K, Basilar groove ; L, Sella turcica : I, External occipital protuberance, or 
 inion ; J, Internal occipital protuberance. 
 
 to measure a second angle by transferring the apex of the first to 
 the basion. 
 
 Ifow we have three angles relating to the occipital plane. 
 A first, D A, or occipital of Daubenton, has its apex at the 
 opisthion, and its sides formed by the occipital plane and by the 
 opisthio-suborbital line ; a second, N A, or occipital of Broca, has 
 this same apex, and for its sides the same plane and the opisthio-nasal 
 line j and a third, ABE, or basilar of Broca, has its apex at the 
 
Chap, i.] 
 
 PHYSICAL CHAHACTEKS. 
 
 55 
 
 basion, and its sides formed by tbe occipital plane and tke basio- 
 nasal line. The foUowiag table exhibits the results : 
 
 
 Occipital angle 
 of Daubenton. 
 
 Occipital angle 
 of Broca. 
 
 Basilar angle of 
 Broca. 
 
 25 human series from... 
 
 l°5to + 9°3 
 
 10° 3 to 20° 1 
 
 14° 3 to 26° 3 
 
 4 chimpanzees 
 
 26=2 
 
 35° 5 
 
 45° 5 
 
 8 orangs 
 
 31° 2 
 
 45° 2 
 
 65° 2 
 
 5 gorillas 
 
 32° 5 
 
 44° 6 
 
 53° 2 
 
 9 gibbons 
 
 31° 5 
 
 40° 6 
 
 51° 5 
 
 12 pithecians 
 
 19°6to23°8 
 
 33° 3 to 35° 3 
 
 45° 6 to 49° 0* 
 
 Thus the direction of the occipital foramen changes somewhat 
 abruptly ia passing from Man to the anthropoid apes, and forms a 
 line of demarcation between them which corresponds with their 
 difference of posture. Between anthropoid apes and some others of 
 the monkey tribe and the strictly mammalian quadrupeds, as the 
 horse or the elephant, the deviation is still greater. The plane of 
 the foramen is raised backwards to 90 degrees. 
 
 Horizontality of Vision. 
 Horizontality of vision ia the living subject, and of the axis 
 of the orbit in the skeleton, depends more exclusively still on 
 the upright posture. M. Broca, to whose labours we shall have so 
 frequently to refer, is now prosecuting this subject. 
 
 Alveolo-condylean Plane. 
 Of aU the hnes, or planes, used iu craniometry, the most convenient, 
 and, at the same time, the most physiological, is the alveolo-condy- 
 lean plane, determined by three readily accessible points, viz. the 
 alveolar, or middle point of the superior alveolar arch, and the most 
 sloping poiats of the inferior surface of the occipital condyles. It 
 is represented in Fig. 5 by the line A P Q, and ia Fig. 7 by the 
 line C C. It is in relation to this alveolo-condylean plane, which 
 is also called the natiiral plane of the base of the skuU, that M. 
 Broca measures the degree of incliaation or of straight direction of 
 vision, or, rather, of th« plane passiag through the two orbital axes. 
 
 * We refer to the memoir of M. Broca, " Sur les Angles Occipitaux," 
 " Eevne d'Anthropologie," vol. ii. p. 193, for the second decimals. More- 
 over, we purpose in this volnme confining ourselves generally to the first. 
 
56 
 
 PHYSICAL CHABACTEES. 
 
 [Chap. i. 
 
 The dihedral angle which they form by being prolonged is 
 called positive, or ordinary, when the plane of vision is raised, and 
 the meeting of the two takes place backward; and negative, when 
 
 FiQ. 7.— A, Horizontal axis of the orbit passing through the centre of the optic foramen 
 behind and through the centre of the base of the orbit in front ; 0, Alveolo- 
 condylean plane, or plane of Brooa (see A P G, Fig. 6). The other references are 
 the same as in that figure. 
 
 it is depressed, and the meeting is in front. In the following table 
 the former has no sign before it ; the latter is accompanied by the 
 sign - . The second column refers to another character which wiU 
 come afterwards. In Fig. 7, the alveolo-condylean plane, C C, is 
 parallel, as we see, to the plane of vision, A. 
 
 
 Orbito-alveolo- 
 
 Biorbital 
 
 
 cundylean angle. 
 
 angle. 
 
 43 men... 
 
 - 08 
 
 47° 47 
 
 5 gorillas 
 
 19° 31 
 
 39° 04 
 
 1 orang 
 
 28-53 
 
 45° 90 
 
 4pitheoians 
 
 15° 441 
 
 52° 24 
 
 5 oebians 
 
 7°22 
 
 41° 59 
 
 1 maki 
 
 23° 58 
 
 73° 72 
 
 3 dogs 
 
 24° 94 
 
 70° 51 
 
 .S rabbits 
 
 31° 15 
 
 143° 43 
 
 2 horses 
 
 36° 09 
 
 109° 19 
 
 1 wild boar ... 
 
 47° 61 
 
 98° 94 
 
■Chap, i.] PHYSICAIi CHAEACTEES. 57 
 
 Thus we find that the vision of Man is sensibly horizontal in 
 relation to the alveolo-condylean plane, since it is not depressed 
 €ven one degree in a mean of forty-three skuUs, while it is raised in 
 -all the mammaUa, including the anthropoid apes, from a mean of 
 7 degrees in cebians to 36 in the horse, and 47 in the wild boar. 
 
 Biortital Angle. 
 
 The divergence of vision furnishes another differential character 
 i;o which M. Broca has given his attention, in his memoir 
 " Sur le Plan Horizontal de la TSte," to which we refer the reader" 
 for the figures. The second column above gives some of them, 
 under the head of biorbital angle. It is the angle, open in front, 
 which the two visual axes form between them, or, in other words, 
 their degree of divergence. It varies from 40 degrees to 50 degrees 
 in Man, and from 33 degrees to 62 degrees in the monkey tribe ; is 
 raised to 73 degrees in the lemiu", increases enormously in quad- 
 rupeds, and attains 143 degrees in the rabbit. This is how Man is 
 commingled with the generahty of monkeys as far as the lemurs, 
 and is separated from the mass of quadrupeds. The anthropoid 
 apes, however, share his lot ; like him they have their orbital axes 
 .a little divergent. 
 
 Temporal Fossa. 
 
 Of aU the mammalia, Man has the least development of the 
 muscles of the jaw, and the smallest extent of surface for insertion 
 •of these muscles. What a difference between his small temporal 
 fossa, bounded above by a curved hne, which is at times clearly 
 marked, and the deep fossa of the anthropoid apes ! ISoi only does 
 the whole of the lateral surface of the skull in these latter give 
 insertion to the fibres of the temporal — the masticatory muscle par 
 excellence — ^but also on the median line in the male there is besides 
 a large elevated crest, which allows of these fibres being increased 
 to any extent. The elevation, too, of the temporal line, the extent 
 of its curve, and its nearness to the median line, are, in the human 
 group, marks of inferiority. In certain prehistoric skulls from 
 Florida, and modem ones from ISew Caledonia, the two lines. 
 
58 PHYSICAL CHAEAOTERS. [Chap, u 
 
 distant normally from 8 to 10 centimetres, do not deviate but about 
 3 to 4 centimetres, thus showing a marked resemblance to the female 
 anthropoids. 
 
 The condyles of the inferior maxillary, and the glenoid cavities- 
 in which they are received, are directed transversely in the 
 carnivorous mammalia, from before backwards in rodentia, and are 
 flat in the herbivora. In Man they have an intermediate direction, 
 thus bearing testimony to his omnivorous functions. 
 
 Teeth. 
 
 ' The teeth, divided into incisors for cutting, canines for tearing,, 
 and molars for grinding and triturating, show still more clearly this 
 aptitude of Man. Of his immediate zoological neighbours, the 
 orang and the chimpanzee resemble him the most iu this respect,, 
 particularly in their molars ; the gorilla, on the contrary, differs 
 from him, and in the arrangement of his teeth somewhat resembles, 
 the carnivora. 
 
 The canines are larger in the anthropoid apes, and have a length 
 and size which entitle them to be regarded as offensive weapons,, 
 particularly in the goriUa. Between the canines and the upper 
 lateral incisors may be noticed, among adult anthropoid apes, as ia 
 the greater number of the monkeys next in order, a gap, called 
 diastema. This is, in great part, for the reception of the inferior 
 canine, while the superior canine presses between the inferior 
 canine and the first premolar, and so wears itseH a place mechani- 
 cally. Another characteristic of the teeth of anthropoid apes is the 
 projection of the anterior incisors, which is more exaggerated than 
 in the lowest races of the human group. 
 
 Man, at least the white, has vertical teeth ; the canines, as weU. 
 as the molars and incisors, are close together and smaller. His 
 small permanent molars have two tubercles, and the larger four ; in 
 this respect there is no difference between him and the anthropoids. 
 There are twenty temporary and thirty-two permanent teeth, exactly 
 as in the four anthropoid apes, the pithecians, and the greater 
 number of the lemurs. In the cebians, a small molar is added 
 on each side, which raises their total number to thicty-six. Some 
 
Chap, i.] 
 
 PHYSICAL CHABACTBRS. 
 
 59. 
 
 monkeys have a different dental formula ; the macauco, for example, 
 has thirty-eight. 
 
 The progress of the eruption of the teeth in monkeys, and their 
 periods of succession, are but imperfectly known. It is certain that 
 the eruption is more rapid (cceteris paribus) in the anthropoid apes 
 than in Man.* 
 
 The superior alveolar arch in Man is generally in the form of 
 an hyperbola with relatively short branches ; that of the three 
 
 Fig. 8.— a, Jaw of the European ; B, Jaw of the Chimpanzee. 
 
 principal anthropoid apes takes the form of a U with long and 
 exactly parallel branches; that of the sajou and the macaque is 
 eUiptical. — {Broca). Other characters have been given as peculiar- 
 to Man ; for example : 
 
 * See " L'Homme et les Singes Anthropomorphes," by M. Magitot, in 
 " Bull. Soc. d'Anthrop.," 2nd series, vol. iv. p. 113. Paris. 
 
■60 PHYSICAL CHAEACTERS. [Chap. i. 
 
 The presence of a cliin — ^that is to say, of a small triangular 
 surface, more or less projecting atove the inferior border of the jaw. 
 But this character has lost its value since its ahsence has been 
 noticed in a certain number of human specimens, among them the 
 prehistoric jaw of the N'aulette, and some contemporaneous ones 
 represented by MM. Quatrefages and Hamy. 
 
 The existence of the tubercles g^ni, on the posterior surface of 
 the inferior maxillary bone, which are replaced by a depression in 
 monkeys. But exceptions of an opposite kind are met with con- 
 tinually, such as tubercles in the anthropoid apes, the depression 
 on the jaw of the Naulette, &c. 
 
 The presence of a nasal spine. But some monkeys have one, 
 -whilst in many negroes it is so slight as to be almost invisible. 
 
 Different Cranial Characters. 
 
 The articulation of the greater wing of the sphenoid directly 
 with the parietal. — {Owen). But in a great many specimens of 
 ■different races, especially the inferior ones, a bridge formed by the 
 union of the temporal and frontal is interposed between the two 
 preceding bones. M. Broca describes the first of these arrange- 
 ments as usual in Man, under the name of pterion en H (see D, 
 Fig. 2), and the second as usual in monkeys, under the names of 
 pterion retourne, when the temporal and sphenoid are largely united, 
 and of pterion en K when they only touch each other. 
 
 The size of the mastoid processes. This is a result of the 
 •development of the sterno-mastoid muscles which are attached to 
 them, and have relation to the biped posture. 
 
 There is no new cranial or facial character, however strongly 
 marked, which can be drawn as a line of demarcation between Man 
 and animals, but numerous cases wiU arise to efface or to weaken 
 it. In the head, the transition to the anthropoid apes would be 
 inappreciable, but for the five following characters of Man: 
 (1) The increase of volume of his cranial cavity; (2) The rela^ 
 tively inverse diminution of the face; (3) The increase of the 
 facial angle which arises from it; (4) The situation of the occipital 
 ioramen below, and at the centre of the base of the skull, and the 
 
Chap, ii.] TERTBBEAL COLUMN. 61 
 
 horizontality of the two orbital axes, both dependent on the biped 
 posture. But the first is of such pre-eminent importance that we 
 would sum up by saying : The head of Man is only distinguishable 
 from the head of animals by a single important character — the 
 capacity of the brain-case. 
 
 CHAPTEE II. 
 
 VERTEBEAL COLUMN SACEUM — ■ PELVIS THOEAX STERNUM 
 
 PARALLEL BETWEEN THE SUPERIOR AND INFERIOR EXTREMITIES 
 THE HAND AND FOOT ^PROPORTIONS OP THE SKELETON. 
 
 Veriebral Column. 
 
 The cervical region, which is in continuation with the head, does 
 not materially differ in the mammalian series, except in the height 
 of the vertebrae as before stated. M. Broca has, however, described 
 certain variations in it. The spinous processes, bifurcated in Man, 
 are simple in the anthropoid apes and in monkeys ; but in some 
 human skeletons of an inferior race they have been found simple ; 
 and in the chimpanzee two of them are bifurcated, which establishes, 
 a transitional link between them. In the second place, the anthro- 
 poid apes and Man have the superior surface of each vertebra 
 bounded by two projections, which are wanting in the inferior 
 monkeys, whilst they have no little appendix with transverse 
 processes, as in the lemurs and camivora. Their types, in con- 
 sequence, have been disarranged by being separated from that of" 
 the next zoological groups. 
 
 Conditions of the Equililrium of the Trunk. 
 
 The differences which the dorso-lumbar region presents are very 
 characteristic. Normally composed in Man of twelve dorsal 
 vertebrae and of five lumbar, it has sometimes thirteen dorsal and 
 only four Imnbar, as in the gorilla and chimpanzee. There is not. 
 
<62 EQUILIBRIUM OF THE TEUNK. [Chap. li. 
 
 therefore, any very serious difference in this respect hetween these 
 two and ourselves. The orang, on the contrary, loses one lumbar 
 vertebra, and the gibbon gains one dorsal, which brings up the 
 "total number of dorso-lumbars to sixteen in the one and eighteen 
 in the other. In the pithecians generally, and in most of the 
 «ebians, there are nineteen, there beiag more lumbar in the former 
 and more dorsal iu the latter. In lemurs there is an iacrease in 
 both regions, but especially in the lumbar. The slender loris has 
 ■altogether twenty-three or twenty-four dorso-lumbar vertebrae. 
 
 The dorso-lumbar region presents other differences much more 
 important, which have relation to the three kinds of posture or 
 ■attitude of niammalia — the vertical, the oblique, and the horizontal. ■ 
 
 The human head is in natural equilibrium on the spiae — weU 
 and good ; but the weight of the viscera contained ia the thoracic 
 and abdominal cavities tends to throw the whole trunk forward. 
 To counteract this, two anatomical arrangements come in. Elastic 
 ligaments, called yellow, are interposed between the vertebral 
 laminse, and, by virtue of their structure, keep the body erect 
 without fatigue. A number of ligaments and inuscles, almost 
 always more or less fixed at a right angle — that is to say, under 
 the most favourable incidences, at the extremity of the spinous 
 .and transverse processes throughout the entire length of the column 
 — conduce to the same end. In the second place, the vertebral 
 column presents three alternative curvatures, which tend to preserve 
 the line of gravity of the head and trunk in the axis of sustentation 
 passing through the pelvis. By the first of these curvatures, the 
 cervical, whose convexity looks forwards, the weight of the head 
 is brought backwards ; the second, or dorsal, being directed the 
 reverse way, brings the centre of gravity forwards ; while the third, 
 or lumbar, with an anterior convexity, serves the purpose of keeping 
 the whole column erect. 
 
 In quadrupeds, on the contrary, there are only two curvatures, 
 the one cervical, as in Man, the other dorso-lumbar, with the con- 
 vexity looking backwards, like the dorsal region in Man — or rather 
 looking upwards.* It foUows that, if by any contrivance one 
 
 * It is weU to remark that in the vertical posture of Man, the posterior 
 part of the oolulnn, and of the whole trunk, looks backwards, and the 
 
Chap, ii.] CURYATtTEBS OF THE VERTEBEAL COLUMN. 63 
 
 compelled tlie individual to stand upright, the line of gravity 
 ■would be forcibly brought forwards, and the weight of the viscera 
 would come to lean against the anterior wall of the thorax, or the 
 inferior wall of the abdomen. 
 
 Curvatures of the Vertebral Column. 
 
 Monkeys, in this respect, are divided into two groups : the 
 pithecians, the cebians, and the lemurs, ■which have the dorso- 
 lumbar curvature only, conformably with their quadrupedal attitude ; 
 and the anthropoids, which appear under various aspects, more 
 approaching, however, the human arrangement. Many gibbons 
 have three very marked curvatures. In the chimpanzee, the lumbar 
 •curvature, distinctive of the human group, is only over the last two 
 vertebrae, and in the orang, over the last. The gorilla, with his 
 straight lumbar column, is farthest removed from Man, without, 
 Jiowever, presenting the absolute organisation of the quadruped. 
 
 The division of the trunk and of the vertebral column in 
 Tuammalia in general into two series — the one anterior, the other 
 posterior — and the absence of all distinction of this kind in Man, 
 is more characteristic. Let us explain this, according to the views 
 of M. Broca. 
 
 A muscle is a fleshy mass, elongated, and more or less attached 
 at its two extremities, which approach each other when the muscle 
 contracts imder the influence of the vnll. The more movable 
 extremity is displaced, drawing along vnth it the lever to which 
 it is attached, whilst the other, rendered immovable by other 
 muscles, remains stationary. In any movement, then, we must 
 ■consider the action of a whole system of muscles, and not of one 
 -only. 
 
 In Man, the muscles which indirectly contribute to locomotion, 
 
 anterior part forwards ; whilst in the horizontal poStTire of quadrupeds, the 
 former looks upwards and the latter downwards. In the same way the 
 upper extremities of Man become anterior in quadrupeds, and the lower 
 posterior. The anthropoid apes passing continually from one posture to 
 the other, both orders of arrangement can be applied to them. 
 
 "L'Ordre des Primates: ParaUfele Anatomique de I'Homme et des 
 ■Singes," by M. Broca, " Bull. Soc. d'Anthrop.," 2nd series, vol. iv. p. 228, 1869. 
 
64 ANTEVBESION AND BETEOTBESION. [Chap. ii. 
 
 by fixing the pelvis and the successive portions of the vertebral 
 column which furnish the point d'appui, are attached to the 
 spinous and transverse processes of the vertebra, and tend through- 
 out their whole length to draw or bend them downwards in a direct 
 ratio to the limited mobility of the whole column. The dorsal 
 processes yield considerably, are bent down and imbricated ; those 
 of the lumbar yield less. 
 
 In quadrupeds the traction of the process is exerted, on the 
 contrary, in the direction of the anterior extremity in the lumbar 
 vertebrae, and of the posterior in the dorsal. These processes are 
 inclined, then, in a contrary direction — the lumbar upwards and 
 the dorsal downwards. The spot where the change of direction 
 takes place establishes the division between the anterior and the 
 posterior series. It is situated in the carnaria, between the last 
 dorsal vertebra but one — which is attached to the thorax by a costal 
 oartUage — and the last, which only supports one of the fl.oating 
 ribs. The spiuous process of the one is inclined upwards, that of 
 the other downwards, and it is there that the two series becom& 
 independent. 
 
 Anteversion and Retroversion. 
 
 Thus, by the appearance alone of a vertebral column, we recognise- 
 the habitual attitude of the individual. In Man, the processes are 
 aU oblique below, or in retroversion ; he has but one series. In 
 quadrupeds, the dorsal processes are descending, except the last, 
 and the lumbars ascending, or in anteversion ; they have two 
 series. 
 
 All the monkeys proper are in the latter category, generally in a 
 very marked way in lemurs, less in cebians, less still in the higher 
 species — the pithecians. " The scene suddenly changes as regards 
 the anthropoid apes. All the characters indicating the func- 
 tional separation of the series in front, and of that behind, have 
 completely disappeared. The dorsal spinous processes, by their 
 length, their great obliquity, and their imbrication, approximate to 
 the human type much more than to that of the pithecians and other 
 apus ; those of the false dorsal are obliquely inclined towards the 
 
Chap, ii.] STYLOID PROCESSES OF THE VERTEBRA. ' 65 
 
 pelvis, as in Man; and those of the lumbar have not the least 
 tendency to anteversion ; far from it, for often they are rather 
 inclined towards the pelvis." — (Broca). 
 
 In the semnopithecus (Kg. 9), belonging to the family of 
 pithecians, are represented the single dorso-lumbar CTirvatm'e, with 
 its convexity looking upwards ; the retroversion of the spinous 
 processes of the dorsal vertebrae (except the last two), the ante- 
 version of the lumbars, and the scarcely visible processes of the 
 
 Fie. 9.— Skeleton of Semnopithecua Entellus, one ol the Pithecians. 
 
 last two dorsal, answering to the separation of the trunk into two 
 series — ^the one anterior, the other posterior. 
 
 Styloid Processes of Vertebra. 
 
 The consolidation of each series into one compact whole is 
 the last distinctive character of quadrupeds. The ribs and the 
 sternum are the intermediary of this consolidation in the anterior 
 Series, which is a reason for the last dorsal with an independent 
 
 F 
 
66 SACRUM. [Chap. ii. 
 
 rib being excluded from it. A special system of processes, called 
 styloid, detached from tbe lumbar vertebrae, and which does not 
 exist in Man, nor ia the anthropoid apes, has the same design in 
 the posterior series. 
 
 Sacrum and Coccyx. 
 
 The mode of termination of the vertebral column — ^below in 
 bipeds, behind in quadrupeds — ^has been the object of careful study 
 by M. Broca. According to him, the vertebrae -which are articulated 
 with the coccyx form the true sacrum, while all the remainder 
 appertain to the tail, which is divided into two segments ; the one 
 basic, formed of true caudal vertebrae, in which the spinal canal 
 remains ; the other terminal, formed of false caudal vertebrae — 
 that is to say, with their bodies reduced in size. 
 
 All the inferior monkeys, with but few exceptions, have a sacrum 
 of three vertebrae, all articulating at the sides with the ilium — that 
 is to say, true sacral vertebrae. The tail, which forms the termi- 
 nation, is composed of five true and twelve false caudal vertebrae 
 in the macaque ; of seven true and twenty-two or more false in 
 the ateles paniscus ; of five to seven true, and twenty-four to 
 twenty-six false, in the cynocephali generally; of five true and 
 four false in the lori, &c. 
 
 In the so-caUed tailless moiikeys, the sacrum is formed, as in 
 those above mentioned, of three anchylosed vertebrae ; but the 
 remainder is either reduced in size in each of its two kinds of 
 vertebrae — as in the cynocephalus niger, which is reduced to three 
 true and three false caudals ; or more or less atrophied from the 
 extremity to the base, as in the magot, which has no trace of false 
 caudals, and has from one to four true. 
 
 In Man the type is altogether different. His sacrum is composed 
 of two parts, the one consisting of three vertebrae, as in the monkeys 
 mentioned above, which articulate with the ilium and constitute the 
 sacrum nScessaire ; the other of two or three vertebrae, free at their 
 external borders and having a spinal groove, and which represent 
 a sacrum suppUmentaire, anchylosed with the former. The coccyx 
 consists of four or five vertebrce — all false. Man, then, has a tail 
 
Chap, ii.] PELVIS. 67 
 
 formed of six or eight pieces, the fiist being at the hasic segment 
 and the last at the terminal segment, as in Tn a.TnTin a.1ia. generally. 
 The justice of this interpretation is confirmed by studying the 
 extremity of the vertebral column in the foetus. 
 
 To what type do the anthropoid apes approximate t "In aU, 
 the true caudal Tertebrae are anchylosed mth the sacrum, as ia 
 Man, and the coccyx is composed of false vertebrae only, similar 
 to those of the coccyx of Man — that is to say, more developed in 
 ■width than in height, and flattened from before backwards." — 
 (Broea). The supplementary sacrum of Man is formed, four times 
 out of six, of three vertebrae, instead of two ; and that of the 
 anthropoid ape varies from two to four. Ought we to look upon 
 this as a difference ? Other morphological variations in the coccyx, 
 of less importance, equally present themselves in both. 
 
 In a word, Man and the higher apes resemble each other iu the 
 conformation of the taU, at the same time that they differ in this 
 respect from monkeys proper. 
 
 TJie Pelvis. 
 
 The pelvis exhibits considerable differences between Man and 
 quadrupeds, which arise from their different attitude. It is 
 fornied of two halves which originally consisted of three distinct 
 bones — ^the Uiimi, the ischium, and the pubis, at the junction of 
 which, externally, is the cotyloid cavity (c, Fig. 10). It is divided 
 by a circular crest, called the superior brim, into two portions, termed 
 the greater and lesser pelvis. The fcetus lies, and is matured, in 
 the former, and passes into the latter a short time previous to 
 birth. 
 
 In Man, the Uiac bones are expanded, laterally, into two great 
 wings, thin in the centre, and concave — admirably constructed to 
 support the mass of the viscera, and in the female the weight of 
 the foetus. Their external surface, or external iliac fossa, is, in 
 consequence, convex, to give insertion to the muscles of the buttock. 
 In quadrupeds, on the contrary, the Oiac bones are closer together, 
 are elongated on each side of the lumbar portion of the column, and 
 
 p 2 
 
68 
 
 EELYIS. 
 
 [Chap. ii. 
 
 convex on their internal surface, the external becoming inversely 
 concave. 
 
 The iliac bones in Man therefore have somewhat the form of valves, 
 which are composed of flat bones. They rapidly become long and 
 tapering, on the contrary, in quadrupeds, as in the equidse, the hare, 
 and the kangaroo, and are converted, as it were, into long bones. 
 Between these two arrangements are seen all kinds of intermediary 
 ones. 
 
 The measurements which we have made upon two hundred and 
 
 Fio. 10.— The pelns in Man : a, Portion of the base of the sacrum, which is articulated 
 •with the last lumbar vertebra ; b. Iliac crest, or superior border of the ilium ; 
 c. Cotyloid cavity, in which is received the head of the femur ; d. Symphysis pubis, 
 or articulation of the two bones of the pubis ; e. Point where the ischium, which is 
 to the outside, is united to the pubis, which is to the inside. 
 
 seven diiferent pelves, serve to throw light upon this subject, and 
 may be thus summed up : * 
 
 The maximum length, taken from the point of the ischium 
 to the farthest point of the iliac crest, exceeds the maximum 
 breadth taken from one iliac crest to the other in 23 per cent, 
 of the ruminants examined, thirty-two of the carnivora, thirty- 
 
 * " Sur les Proportions Generales chez I'Homme et les Mammiferes," by 
 Paul Topinard, in " BuU. Soc. d'Anthrop.," 2nd series, vol. x., 1875. 
 
Chap, ii.] THORAX. 69 
 
 tliree of the rodentia, thirty-seven of tlie marsupialia, and thirty- 
 eight of the edentata. It is the reverse ia Man — the hreadth is as 
 28-77 per cent, to the length. The anthropoids vary, but they 
 come nearer to Man than to quadrupeds. The gihhons, like the 
 other monkeys, have stUl the length greater than the breadth. 
 In chimpanzees, the two are nearly equal. The gorillas and orangs 
 are very nearly allied to Man. The breadth exceeds the length 
 in 24 per cent, in the former, and in 16 -50 in the latter. For 
 certain physiological reasons peculiar to their group, the elephants 
 and the mastodons have the pelvis of similar conformation to that 
 of Man. 
 
 Consequently the sacrum of quadrupeds is straight, elongated, 
 a little hoUow on its internal surface, and is iu contrast with 
 that of Man, which is wide at the base, thick, conical, and curved 
 at the point. The sacrum of anthropoid apes holds a middle 
 position, and frequently resembles that of some of the inferior 
 races of Man, as the Hottentot, dissected by Jeffries Wyman, or 
 the Bosjes woman, by Cuvier. 
 
 At the same time that the human pelvis becomes wider and 
 diminishes in height, its antero-posterior diameter becomes shortened, 
 relatively to that of the anthropoid ape and other mammalia. The 
 promontory — ^that is to say, the projecting angle in front which 
 the curve of the loins makes with the curve of the sacrum, is, on 
 the other hand, stronger, in accordance with the requirements of the 
 biped attitude. We may add that the tuberosities of the ischium 
 are shorter, less widely separated, and less marked than in the 
 anthropoid, and that the symphysis pubis is shorter. 
 
 That which we remark in the pelvis may also be found at the 
 other extremity of the trunk. 
 
 Tlie TJiorax. 
 
 The thorax, in Man, is more developed transversely; that of 
 quadrupeds, on the contrary, is more so from before backwards, or 
 from the sternum to the spine. The arms in the former have to 
 move in aU directions, and especially outwardly, and to this end 
 
70 STERNUM. [Chap. u. 
 
 are kept wide apart by the arches, which are the clavicles. In the 
 quadrupeds proper, they only serve for locomotion, fall in a parallel 
 way downwards, and remain apart. Thus the clavicle disappears, 
 and the thorax becomes flattened sideways. Monkeys, in this 
 respect, hold an inferior position to quadrupeds, a superior one to 
 Man. The lemurians, the cebians, and the pithecians have the 
 thorax compressed laterally, the anthropoid apes rather from before 
 backwards. 
 
 The volume of the chest could not furnish any special character. 
 Its development is enormous in the three great anthropoid apes. 
 Whilst the circumference was about ninety-four centimetres in 
 a thousand and eighty Englishmen measured by Mr. Hutchinson, 
 
 Pia. 11.— Anterior portion of the sternum in Man : St, Sternum, showing the three 
 divisions— the upper or handle, the middle or body, and the lower or xiphoid 
 appendix ; H, Rihs ; R', Costal cartilages. 
 
 it attained one hundred and fifty-seven in an immense gorilla 
 measured by Du ChaDlu. 
 
 The Sternum. 
 
 The sternum in the same way, while broad and flat in Man, is 
 narrow and developed antero-posteriorly, or rather from below up- 
 wards, in quadrupeds. In this respect the anthropoid apes come 
 nearer to Man. 
 
 The sternum is composed, speaking philosophically, of seven 
 portions, corresponding to the seven ribs which are directly articu- 
 lated with it, and of a xiphoid appendix. These are distinctly 
 seen in the foetus, but at bu-th are reduced to two — exclusive of the 
 
Chap. ii.J THE HAND AND FOOT. 71 
 
 appendix — namely, the handle and the body, the latter being 
 formed by the anchylosis of the six lower portions. The handle, or 
 upper separated portion, exists in all the mammaha with clavicles ; 
 the appendix also. The body is entire in Man; in the greater 
 number of the monkeys proper it is composed of six distinct parts ; 
 in one of the anthropoids, the gibbon, it is entire, as ia Man, and 
 in the other three it is divided into three or four. Thus we see 
 that in this respect the anthropoid apes, and notably the magot, are 
 between Man and the pithecians. 
 
 The extremities, four in number in the majority of mammaha, 
 are reduced to two, the anterior, in the whale and the porpoise. 
 Their terminal segment bears the name of foot or hand, a denomina- 
 tion upon which Blumenbach and Cuvier based their division of 
 the order of Primates of Linnseus into Bimana, comprehending 
 Man, and Quadrumana, embracing the monkey tribe, a name which 
 Tyson had given them in 1699. 
 
 The Hand and Foot. 
 
 What then as to the hand and foot, and especially the hand'? 
 Cuvier says that which constitutes the hand is the faculty of 
 opposing the thumb to the other fingers for the purpose of taking 
 hold of the smallest objects. Agassis terms the hand, " a hmb 
 having a certain number of fingers bending one way, another finger 
 being opposed to them." He defines a foot as, " a limb terminated 
 by digits aU on the same level, and all having the same direction." 
 
 The hand is recognised, according to Huxley, by the disposition 
 of the bones of the carpus and of the metacarpus ; the foot by the 
 presence of short flexor muscles, a short extensor of the digital 
 appendices, and a long peroneal All these definitions look only 
 to one side of the question. M. de La Palisse's maxim is that it 
 is their use which distinguishes the foot from the hand. 
 
 Tlie Foot. 
 
 M. Broca, with greater breadth of view, says : " A foot is an 
 extremity which serves chiefly for standing or walking ; a hand is 
 
72 THE FOOT. [Chap. n. 
 
 an extremity -vvliicli serves principally for prehension and touch." 
 We might add that the fin is an extremity which serves principally 
 for natation, &o. The hand is perfect when it answers the end for 
 which it was exclusively intended. The foot is perfect when it 
 is only constructed for waLking. Both are imperfect when they 
 encroach on the functions which do not specially belong to them. 
 An anterior extremity may lose all its functions of prehension, and 
 it would be only a foot. Various physiological variations, and of 
 different degrees, are noticed in the mammalian series. 
 
 But if the sole of the foot bears directly on the ground, or if the 
 palm of the hand grasps objects, the whole extremity is, in reality, 
 applied to its general function, all its parts are made conformable 
 to the purposes for which it was designed. It is not, then, the 
 foot or the hand only, but the extremity as a whole, which we must 
 examine to discover its function of prehension or locomotion. This 
 has been already done by M. Broca. 
 
 The anatomical conditions, which secure to the inferior extremity 
 its function of locomotion, "may be reduced," says M. Broca, "to 
 three: (1) The root of the extremity — that is to say, the head of 
 the femur,* should be received iuto a deep hemispherical cavity, 
 looking downwards and outwards, which allows the limb to move 
 freely from before backwards, and' from behind forwards, to 
 execute the two movements of progression, whilst the other move- 
 ments, and, in particular, adduction, are very limited ; (2) The two 
 bones of the leg shotdd be immovable the one on the other, and more 
 or less united together as a single bone, in order to bear the weight 
 of the body, and so that the foot may not turn ; (3) The articula- 
 tions immediately above the part touching the ground should only 
 allow two movements — those of flexion and extension — and should 
 be bent at a more or less right angle, in order to present to the 
 ground a flat surface, formed at the expense of the posterior surface 
 of the extremity, now become inferior." 
 
 Man, who exclusively rests on his two feet, realises all these 
 conditions in the highest degree. His femur, retained in the 
 
 * We refer the reader to page 30 and following for the anatomical expres- 
 siona employed here, and elsewhere, with respect to the skeleton. 
 
Chap. ir.J 
 
 THE FOOT. 
 
 73 
 
 cotyloid cavity by a virtual vacuum, is moved as a balance in two 
 directions. The articulations of his knee and instep are hinge-like. 
 His tibia and fibula are immovable, and fall perpendicularly on the 
 
 J f 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 Fig. 12. — A, Skeleton of the hand, the forearm as in supination (the radius outside,^ on 
 the side of the thumb, the ulna inside), and a part of the humerus of the gorilla. 
 B, Skeleton of the foot, leg (fibula outside, tibia inside), and part of the femur of 
 the gorilla. 
 
 crown of an elastic arch, which rests on the ground by the cal- 
 caneum behind and the metatarsus in front. 
 
 In the majority of mammalia, these arrangements are identical, 
 
74 THE HAND. [Chap. ii. 
 
 or analogous. Whether tlie constituent columns of the foot amount 
 to four, three, or two; whether the individual hears on his 
 phalanges, his metatarsus, or the entire sole of the foot, they are 
 always adapted for waUiLng and for support. 
 
 The cheiroptera, which make use of their foot as a hook, and 
 perhaps kangaroos, which are able to grasp in a slight degree, are 
 the only animals having free movement of the two bones of the 
 leg one upon the other. We shall speak of the monkey tribe 
 presently. 
 
 The Hand. 
 
 The indispensable qualities for the regular performance of acts 
 of prehension and touch, of which the upper extremity of Man 
 offers the best example, are also three in number. 
 
 (1) The articulation of the humerus with the scapula, or scapulo- 
 humeral, should be movable in two directions, in order to allow 
 the arm and hand play in every direction. Circumduction and 
 adduction, if hmited in the femur, are not neglected here. The 
 presence of the clavicle, by widening the shoulders, favours the 
 latter ; the glenoid cavity is small, ovoid, and looks outwards ; the 
 axis of the humeral head lies perpendicularly. These last two 
 features are sufficient of themselves, in doubtful cases, to enable one 
 to recognise the character of the upper extremities. We are now 
 about to show this. 
 
 The arm is a thigh turned round, says Professor Ch. Martias.* 
 The articular liue of the knee and that of the elbow are both 
 transverse, but while the flexion of the knee takes place backwards, 
 that of the elbow is forwards ; the patella and olecranon, which 
 are analogues, occupy inverse positions. In reptiles the two 
 extremities are, on the contrary, symmetrical ; and, as M. Durand 
 (de Gros) says, isomerous, flexion being exerted in the same direc- 
 tion. How is this difference in mammalia to be explained ? In a 
 very simple way. The part of the arm which is above the middle 
 third has undergone, in the former, a twisting from behind for- 
 
 * "Nouvelle Comparaison des Membres Pelviens et Thoraciques," by 
 Ch. Martins, in " Mem. Acad, de Montpellier," 1857. 
 
Chap, ii.] 
 
 THE HAND. 
 
 75 
 
 wards, and from within outwards, as if the honehad been tumedround. 
 Proofs of this are visible upon the humerus ia the shape of a 
 groove of torsion. This is why the thumb, which is inwards in 
 the foot, has become outwards in the hand. But this twisting or 
 rotation, has not the same extent in bipeds and quadrupeds, or 
 rather in. the humeri of the limbs, whether designed for prehension 
 or for locomotion. 
 
 Fig. 13. — Skeleton of the forearm : A, In supination ; B, In pronation ; 
 R, Radius ; U, Ulna. 
 
 H, Humerus ; 
 
 In the. former case it is about 180 degrees, in the latter about 
 90 degrees. Moreover, in bipeds, as in quadrupeds, the forearm 
 is bent upon the arm in a similar way relatively to the body. It is 
 because the glenoid cavity of the scapula describes, in the latter, 
 a complementary are of a circle, equally from behind forwards and 
 from without inwards, that so much of it is spared for the 
 humerus ; consequently it looks forwards relatively to the axis of 
 the body in these, and downwards in quadrupeds. The 90 
 degrees for the humerus and the 90 for the glenoid cavity, thus 
 
76 THE HAND AND FOOT. [Chap. ii. 
 
 give the 180 degrees which make of the arm a " thigh turned 
 round." The degree of rotation varies sometimes in both, and the 
 part which the humerus takes in it is measured hy the angle 
 which the vertical plane of its head makes with the vertical and 
 transverse plane of its inferior extremity. 
 
 Thus an angle of torsion of the humerus of 180 degrees, and a 
 glenoid cavity looking outwards, are the characters which the 
 scapulo-humeral articulation exhibits in the extremities destined 
 principally for prehension. A similar angle of 90 degrees, and a 
 glenoid cavity looking downwards,* are, on the contrary, the 
 characteristic of the function of locomotion. If the cavity, in this 
 case, had looked outwards, the head of the humerus, instead of 
 resting upon it, would he driven back against the articular capsule, 
 which by the least shock would be ruptured. 
 
 (2) The radius should turn freely over the ulna, so that the 
 hand, placed in pronation at its extremity, can be put in supination 
 and lay hold of objects readily. Fig. 13 shows the difference 
 between these two positions of the arm. This rotation in Man is 
 about 180 degrees. 
 
 (3) The hand should be situated upon the prolonged axis of the 
 forearm, the carpus being articulated with the radius in such a way 
 as to have every kind of movement, and especially the most com- 
 plete flexion and extension. Everything which adds to the mobility 
 of the phalanges, and facilitates especially the opposition of the 
 thumb to the other fingers, is favourable to tliis end. 
 
 Thus mobility of the member in all its parts is that which 
 characterises the hand, solidity that which marks the foot. The 
 details of configuration is only a question of relative perfection in 
 either case. 
 
 Hand and Foot. 
 
 The anterior extremities of Man exhibit all the attributes above 
 mentioned, which go to make up a perfect organ of prehension. 
 Those of the carnivora and paohydermata differ from them entirely, 
 
 * Downwards, because we are thmking of qnadrupeds ; but if we suppose 
 the trunk vertical, it is forwards. 
 
Chap, ii.] THE HAND AND FOOT. 77 
 
 and are adapted in all their parts for locomotion. We find all 
 terrestrial mammalia incliaing towards one or other of these two 
 types. In the kangaroo, the movement of pronation and supina- 
 tion, the axis of his hand being in continuation with that of the 
 forearm, the conformation of his five digits, everything, except that 
 the glenoid cavity looks forward,* goes to show that his anterior 
 extremity is formed for prehension. In the dog, the anterior 
 extremity, on the contrary, is better adapted for progression, and, 
 therefore, the two bones of his forearm move one upon the other. 
 It is scarcely necessary to enumerate the many rodentia, carnivora, 
 and edentata which employ their front paws as hands to seize their 
 prey, to carry it to the mouth, to burrow ia the ground, to caress 
 their young, to carry them, &c. 
 
 In the common monkeys the anterior extremities hang loosely at 
 the sides of the body ; their angle ' of humeral torsion is that 
 of quadrupeds. In the lemurs, the ouistiti, the atele, and the 
 sapajou it is as high as 95 or 100 degrees; in the magot, 105 
 degrees; in the semnopithecus, 110 degrees. The amount of rota- 
 tion of the radius is variable ; in some cebians and pithecians it 
 does not exceed 90 degrees ; iu the mone it attains to 100 degrees. 
 When the common monkeys use the hand as a foot, it is held at an 
 angle more or less approaching a right angle, and leans on the 
 ground by the whole palmar surface, with the digits extended ; it 
 has then all the character of a foot. But if they use it for seizing 
 objects, or the limb is left to itself, as in the dead body, the axis 
 of the hand is continued in a straight Hne with that of the forearm. 
 It is, then, to aU intents and purposes, a hand. 
 
 With regard to their posterior extremity, it possesses aU the 
 characters which render it adapted for locomotion ; its terminal 
 extremity is set at a right angle, and rests on the ground by the 
 whole plantar surface. Tlie digits are nevertheless longer, and the 
 thumb more loosely attached and more spreading, than in. Man ; 
 the thumb is not opposed to the other digits, as we have said, but 
 by its span it plays the part of one leg of a cramp-iron or pincers, 
 
 * We say forwards because the kangaroo holds himself most frequently 
 in the standing position. 
 
78 THE HAND AND FOOT. [Chap. ii. 
 
 the four other digits forming the other leg. It is by this means 
 that monkeys hang on to the houghs of trees as well by their feet 
 as hy their hands. In a word, the common monkeys have feet 
 behind and hands in front, but they employ them subordinately, 
 the former for climbing and the latter for walking. Properly 
 speaking they neither belong to quadrupeds nor to the quadru- 
 mana. 
 
 In anthropoid apes all the characters proper to the organ of 
 prehension are developed in the same degree as in Man : there is 
 the same independence of the limb — greater in the gibbon perhaps ; 
 the humeral angle of torsion is about 150 degrees, whilst that of 
 the negro is 154 degrees, and that of the white man 168 degrees, 
 according to M. Gegenbaur; the movement of pronation and of 
 supination of the radius is from 140 to 180 degrees, whilst that of 
 Man is 180 degrees ; the axis of the hand is in continuation of that 
 of the forearm ; the power of extension, that is to say, the move- 
 ment which would, when required, make it serve for a foot, is less 
 than in Man; the configuration of the bones of the hand is 
 identical with that of Man, except that the orang and some gibbons 
 have an additional bone in the carpus, called the intermedium, 
 and that the thumb has greater span in the gorUla, and is some- 
 what atrophied in the orang, and perhaps in the chimpanzee. As 
 to the inferior extremity, the resemblance to that of Man is stiU 
 more close, except that the orang has the great toe much smaller, 
 and much more behind. In fine, the gorilla most nearly approaches 
 to Man in the shape of his hand and foot, while the chimpanzee 
 comes next. 
 
 The anthropoid ape seizes the smallest objects with the thumb 
 and fingers of his hand, which he opposes perfectly. In the foot 
 the opposition is nil — it is not greater than that of Chinese 
 oarsmen, Nubian horsemen, or painters without arms, who lay 
 hold by bending the toes all together, or by making the second toe 
 act as a thumb. His thumb and digits can only clasp the two sides 
 of a bough, like the two legs of a cramp-iron, in the act of climbing. 
 His ordinary method of progression is in an oblique direction, the 
 legs close together, the arms extended and somewhat separated 
 
Chap, ii.] THE HAND AND TOOT. 79 
 
 when making a step; the forearms in pronation, and the hands 
 closed, resting altogether upon the inner border and the dorsal 
 surface of the phalanges. The orangs which we have had an 
 opportunity of seeing, walked with the toes turned under, and with 
 the external border of the foot resting on the ground. It seems, 
 nevertheless, that other anthropoids sometimes rest on the entire 
 iiat surface of the sole of the foot, and that they keep the toes 
 extended. With regard to the erect position, the anthropoid ape 
 assumes it frequently, but only by accident. Thus we have seen 
 gibbons run along in the upright position, the arms elevated above 
 the head, and thrown backwards, evidently in order to place their 
 centre of gravity in a more favourable position. The gorilla 
 generally runs away from Man, but if he suddenly finds himself in. 
 his presence, or has to cover the retreat of the female, he faces his 
 enemy with the greatest bravery, holds up his head, strikes his 
 chest, and comes forward in an upright position with the head 
 erect. The chimpanzee frequently straightens himself in the same 
 manner. The orang is so apathetic that he almost always walks 
 along crawKng. 
 
 In a word, the anthropoid ape is a biped, but he possesses an 
 arrangement of the feet which allows him to walk upon the 
 branches of trees. He is bimanous, but he has the assistance of 
 his hands in walking, as we ourselves should have if, with longer 
 arms, we wished to imitate him. His attitude in progression is 
 more nearly the vertical than the horizontal, and is sometimes that 
 of Man and sometimes that of quadrupeds. 
 
 To return to terrestrial mammaha. Their posterior extremities 
 are always adapted for progression, the anterior sometimes for pre- 
 hension, sometimes for progression, frequently for both. The four 
 extremities should, in the main, be simply for support. The more 
 or less perfect adaptation of the anterior to the act of touch and 
 prehension is a characteristic of gradual development, and if one 
 must establish a graduated scale in reference to this matter, the 
 series would succeed each other as follows ; the pachydermata and 
 ruminantia, camivora in general, kangaroos, ordinary monkeys, 
 anthropoid apes, Man. 
 
80 STATURE. [Chap. ii. 
 
 Stature. 
 
 Having considered the skeleton in detail, it remains for us to 
 examine it in its ensemble. Height and size in comparative 
 . anatomy have a secondary value, the largest animals go side by 
 side with the smallest in contiguous genera. Among the gibbons, 
 for example, the siamang reaches 1'16 mfetre; the entelloid, 80 
 centimetres. The other anthropoids come nearer to Man than that. 
 The chimpanzee is about 1 '30 mfetre ; the two or three species of 
 orang from I'lO mfetre to 1'60 mfetre ; the gorilla from 140 mfetre 
 to 1"73 mfetre, and more. Now the height of an adult man (France) 
 is about 1 '65 mfetre, and this varies in every part of the globe from 
 1'30 mfetre to about 2 mfetres. Among pithecians, the cynocephali 
 are generally the tallest; the nasious measures I'lO mfetre, the 
 miothecus, 30 centimetres ; the cebians vary from 90 centimfetres in 
 the brachyuri to 20 centimetres in the ouistiti; the lemurs are 
 small. So much for the approximate measurements. How can we 
 compare animals, some of which go on aU-fours, and others in a 
 semi-inclined attitude, with Man, who is perfectly erect 1 
 
 Their general forms have more interest. Man varies so far as 
 to merit the epithets tall and thin, or short and stout ; he is lean 
 or fat, his neck is long or short, his abdomen drawn in or prominent. 
 In the anthropoid apes the differences are also great. The gibbon 
 is slender, long in the body, and made for agility, in this respect 
 approaching to the semnopitheci ; he only wants a tail to make him 
 resemble them in his movements. The orang, on the contrary, is 
 duU, apathetic, and squat ; he walks with measured steps. The 
 gorilla is remarkable for his athletic figure; he is said to wrestle 
 even with the leopard, and to have the best of it. Both the oran" 
 and the gorilla have monstrously prominent bellies, which belongs 
 to their herbivorous or granivorous mode of feeding. The chim- 
 panzee, though less muscular in his hmbs, and not so stout, has, 
 like the gorilla, considerable strength. Among the Gaboon species 
 we would mention the koolokamba, which, to judge by his 
 skeleton, ought to have slender limbs. , 
 
Chap, ii.] PEOPOETIONS OP THE SKELETON. 81 
 
 Propoi-tions of the Skeleton. 
 
 The proportions of the skeleton have also mtich interest. Their 
 study having hitherto afforded more results ia the comparison 
 hetween man and animals than in that of races hetween them- 
 selves, we shall speak of them here in a general way. 
 
 Osteometry. 
 
 Osteometry, one of the most promising branches of anthro- 
 pology, and one having an intimate connection with craniometry, 
 is a study which has especial reference to the measurement of the 
 facial angle and the direction of the occipital foramen, matters 
 already considered. Osteometry itself is only a part of what 
 should he called zoometry, which has to do with animals, in con- 
 tradistiaction to anthropometry, which has Man for its object of 
 study. Are we to seek for the proportion of the body on the 
 skeleton or on the living subject? This is the question which 
 governs all osteometry. 
 
 On the Uviag subject one has the advantage of being able to 
 refer each particular measurement to a unit of comparison, as 
 stature, if we are dealing only with Man, or length of trunk or of 
 the vertebral column, if we extend our examination to animals. 
 But in spite of the greatest skiU. on the part of the preparator who 
 mounts the skeleton, there is always somewhat of arbitrariness in 
 the mode of articulating the bones, and of replacing the inter- 
 vertebral substance with discs of leather. The bones are not found 
 at all in the same condition when dry and when in the fresh state ; 
 in the former case the cartilages are dried up, and so reduced in 
 size that it is impossible to form any proper comparison between 
 one skeleton and another. If we take a single articular extremity, 
 the retraction of its investing cartilage is slight, but if we take the 
 twelve surfaces of the entire hand, which are found between the 
 tip of the fingers and the wrist, it amounts to something con- 
 siderable. On the living subject, it is true, the measuring points 
 are sometimes difficult to recognise, or are altogether inaccessible. 
 
 G 
 
82 EEOPORTIONS OF THE SKELETON. [Chap. n. 
 
 To take the length of a femur, for example, as it is exhibited in 
 the upright position, we place the two condyles fiat on the table, 
 the bone takes its natural direction, and the length required is the 
 projection comprised between the plane of the table and the. plane 
 which is parallel to it, passing through the highest point of its 
 head. On the living subject we have no means of obtaining any- 
 thing of the kind ; the head of the femur is out of view iu the 
 cotyloid cavity. Under these circumstances we are obliged to be 
 satisfied with a different length, and we have recourse to other 
 points of measurement — ^below, to the external side of the inter- 
 articular space ; above, to the poLiit of the great trochanter, which 
 is covered by a thick cushion of cellulo-adipose tissue, and the mass 
 of fibrous tissue and tendons which have insertion in this tuber- 
 osity, and whose consistence can scarcely be distinguished by the 
 finger from the resistance of the osseous tissues. The same 
 difficulties, althoilgh less in amount, are met with in the wrist, the 
 elbow, and the shoulder. 
 
 In a word, on the living subject we are enabled to make com- 
 parisons of differences arising from stature, but from bad measur- 
 ing points ; on the skeleton, to take perfect measurements, but to 
 have no certain term of comparison. Another advantage of the 
 measurements in the living subject is that they can be taken, by 
 those interested in the study, in foreign countries, and upon a large 
 number of individuals. 
 
 Anatomists employ both methods. Some, taking care that the 
 skeleton is properly mounted, give the particular length of each 
 bone relatively to its height, or to the vertebral column. Others 
 compare the bones directly together, without taking into account 
 the height. For our own part we think the arbitrary mode in 
 which the skeleton is mounted is exaggerated. The disposition of 
 the articular processes of the vertebrae obliges the preparator to give, 
 almost unconsciously, the proper thickness to the intervertebral 
 discs ; his sources of error arise entirely from the drying up of the 
 cartUages on the articular surface of these processes, amount- 
 ing to fifty in the entire column. The skeleton of a gorilla, 
 one of the tallest ever seen, mounted in America, was 1-650 
 
Chap. II.] PROPORTIONS OF THE TRUNK. 83 
 
 metres in height ; the animal measured, immediately after death, 
 1-727 metres. Four gorillas were dissected in the Lahoratory of 
 Anthropology, and their skeletons, -which -were afterwards mounted 
 by M. Tramont, were less by three centimetres. 
 
 These remarks have no reference either to the head or to the 
 pelvis, whose internal proportions alone we generally study, hut 
 simply to the trunk, the extremities, and their segments. Let us 
 now proceed to results, referruig the reader to Chapter IV. of 
 Part II. for a description of the usual methods of proceeding in 
 taking measurements. 
 
 Proportions of the Trunk. 
 
 The first element of comparison which it is necessary to know, 
 is the relative proportion of the trunk to the height of the hody. 
 The length of the trunk can only he measured on the living subject, 
 but the measuring points difier. The Americans, in their measure- 
 ments made on a million individuals during the "War of Secession, 
 chose as boundaries the spinous, or promiaent process of the 
 seventh cervical vertebrae, and the perinseum. In their four series 
 of measurements, which were taken with the greatest care, in from 
 207 to 1,064 individuals, the mean length was from 362 to 394- 
 thousandths of the stature. Qu^telet takes from the cla-iricles above, 
 and from the perinaeum below ; his mean is about 354-thousandths 
 of the stature. In M. Seriziat's statistics, we have taken the interval 
 between the biacromial line, or -width of the shoulders, and the 
 biischiatic line, or -width of the seat; the mean was 362-thou- 
 sandths. The length of the trunk in Man would then be more 
 than one-third, and less than two-fifths of the stature. In the 
 anthropoid apes there are less indications. In a goriUa killed by 
 Du Chaillu, the distance from the seventh cervical vertebra to the 
 point of the sacrum was about 440-thousandths of the stature. 
 In M. Broca's laboratory, we have compared the length from the 
 seventh cervical vertebra to the point of the sacrum in eleven 
 skeletons of men, and one of the gorilla. Its relation to the stature 
 was 366 in the latter, and varied from 292 to 340-thousandths in 
 
 G 2 
 
84 GEANDE ENVERGTJHE. [Chap. n. 
 
 the former. The trunk of Man thus estimated would he shorter, 
 hut only relatively, hecause his lower extremities increase his 
 height. We are precluded, from want of space, from giving here 
 the proportions of the thorax, and especially its circumference in 
 Man and the animal. 
 
 Grande Envergure. 
 
 The relation of the grande envergure to the stature deserves our 
 consideration. By the name grande envergure we understand the 
 distance from the middle finger of one hand to the middle finger of 
 the other, with the arms extended at full length hke a cross. This 
 distance is ahout six centimetres shorter than that of the sum of the 
 hiacromial diameter, and the length of the two extremities, taken 
 in the ordinary way, from the acromion to the middle finger, 
 hecause, in measuring the Umb in an extreme state of ahduction, the 
 head of the humerus is buried in the armpit, and the limb is 
 thereby shortened. The envergure exceeds the stature, in Man, 
 variously from to 89 parts in the thousand. In a series of 10,876 
 American soldiers it was as 1-043 to 1-000. In the anthropoid 
 apes, especially the gibbon and the orang, it is considerably greater. 
 Its relation to the height was 1-654 in a gorilla, measured im- 
 mediately after death, and about 1-428 in a chimpanzee of the 
 bald species. "We see in a moment the enormous difference between 
 these and Man. 
 
 The proportions of the extremities have been studied by White, 
 Humphry, Leharzic, Broca, Huxley, Hamy, Weisbach, Qu^telet, 
 and Gould, in the adult man, and in some animals. We may now 
 proceed to consider them both on the living subject and on the 
 skeleton, but with the drawbacks we have mentioned. The first 
 method for ascertaining the dimensions of the upper extremities, 
 which exhibit the greatest difference between Man and the ape, is 
 the grande envergure previously aUuded to. The second, stiU more 
 simple, consists in noticing the exact point to which the extremity 
 of the middle finger reaches in the position of the soldier standing 
 at "attention." This extremity was separated from the upper border 
 of the pateUa by an interval of from seven to twelve centimetres 
 
Chap. ii.J PEOPORT^ONS OF THE EXTREMITIES. 85 
 
 in the mean results obtained on soldiers of different races in the 
 American army. According to Mr. Huxley, the hands reach the 
 middle of the thigh in Man, below the knee ia the chimpanzee, 
 the middle of the leg in the gorilla, the antle-bones in the orang, 
 and the ground in the gibbon. The direct measurements which 
 we are about to mention are preferable. 
 
 Proportions of the Extremities. 
 
 The relation of the superior to the inferior extremities is different 
 in Man and the anthropoid apes. It is easily obtained by measure- 
 ments taken on the living subject, but the measuring points sadly 
 vary among different observers. It is obtained still better on the 
 dry bones, whose length is added, leaving out the hand and foot, 
 which do not appear the same in the upright posture, the one 
 giving its long axis, and the other only its thickness. The first 
 figures we quote are those of Mr. Huxley, which have no reference 
 to the stature, but to the entire vertebral column from the atlas to 
 the point of the sacrum = 100. This is very useful for making the 
 comparison with animals, and especially quadrupeds.* The two 
 men are a European and a Bosjesman, the extremes of the group. 
 
 
 Superior extremity 
 less the liand. 
 
 Inferior extremity 
 less the foot. 
 
 2 men 
 
 79 
 
 ... 113 
 
 1 cMmpanzee 
 
 96 
 
 ... 90 
 
 1 gorilla 
 
 115 
 
 ... 96 
 
 1 orang 
 
 j_i__' 'i . 
 
 112 
 
 /-t\ rT^^__. . i_ ^ 
 
 ... 88 
 
 1 *j * 1 I 
 
 Prom this it appears: (1) That the upper extremity is shorter 
 and the lower longer than the vertebral column, while this is the 
 reverse in the anthropoid apes, with the exception of the upper 
 extremity of chimpanzees ; (2) That of the two extremities, the 
 upper is shorter and the lower longer in Man, whilst this is the 
 reverse in. anthropoids. But the cases before us are not sufficiently 
 numerous, and the measurement was made upon the mounted 
 skeleton. 
 
 * "Man's Place in Nature," by T. H. Huxley; translated into French by 
 E. DaUy. Paris, 1858. 
 
86 PROPORTIONS OF THE EXTREMITIES. [Chap. n. 
 
 Dr. Humpkry* has taken lus measurements independently, and 
 lias made tkem bear relation, not to tlie column, but to the entire 
 height of the individuals examined. Of his fifty men half are 
 Europeans and haK negroes. His figures show the following 
 results, which exhibit the relation of the added lengths of the 
 humerus and radius to the added lengths of the femur and tibia, 
 the latter being taken as = 100 : 
 
 H + R : F + T. 
 
 somen 68-1 
 
 4 chimpanzees ... ... ... ... ... 103"5 
 
 2gorillaa 117-1 
 
 2 orange ... ... ... ... ... ... 141'1 
 
 The result is similar to the preceding : the anthropoid apes have 
 the upper extremities longer, and the inferior extremities shorter 
 than Man, but we may stUl raise the objection that the height 
 taken on the skeleton is not exact. Then we must compare the 
 absolute length of the additional bones directly with each other. 
 
 To this end we have measured eighteen anthropoid apes, the 
 
 largest number upon which any one observer has practised. We 
 
 will give their measurements together with those made on Man, 
 
 published by M. Broca.+ The following table shows the relation 
 
 of the sum of the humerus and radius to the sum of the femur and 
 
 tibia, the latter being taken as = 100 : 
 
 H + E : F + T. 
 somen 689 
 
 8 gorillas 101-3 
 
 9 chimpanzees ... ... ... 108'2 
 
 1 orang ... ... ... ... 140-4 
 
 The deductions are the same. Whether, therefore, we compare 
 the measurements in relation to the vertebral column to the height 
 
 * " A Treatise on the Human Skeleton," by G. M. Humphry. Cam- 
 bridge, 1858. 
 
 t " Snr les Proportions du Bras, de I'Avant-Bras, et de la Clavicule, chez 
 les Nfegres et les Europfens," in " Bull. Soc. d'Authrop.," vol. iii., 1862 ; and 
 " Sur les Proportions Relatives des Membres Superieurs et des Membres 
 Inf&ieurs chez les Nfegres et les Europ^ens," in " Bull. Soc. d'Anthrop.," 
 2nd aeries, vol. ii., 1867, by Paul Brooa; see also the article " Membres," in 
 " Enoycl. des Sciences M^dioales," by M. E. Dally, Paris, 18V3. 
 
Chap, ii.] EELATION OF THE EADIUS TO THE HUMERUS. 87 
 
 or the alDsolute measurements, the result is the same. The upper 
 extremity, from the wrist to the shoulder, is shorter ia Man, longer 
 in the anthropoid ape, than the lower extremity from the instep to 
 the articulation of the hip. The respective proportions of the two 
 segments which enter into the constitution of each wiU. throw 
 further light on the matter. 
 
 Relation of the Radius to the Humerus. 
 
 The relation of the radius to the humerus, or of the forearm to 
 the arm, iirst received attention ia 1795, by "White, who thus be- 
 came the founder of osteometry as applied to Man. By measure- 
 ments made on the living subject, and on the skeleton, he proved 
 that the forearm of the negro is longer than that of the white 
 races. His researches, which had long passed out of notice, were 
 revived by Lawrence in 1817. Mr. Humphry again took up the 
 question in 1858, embraced the lower extremities in his measure- 
 ments, and extended the comparison between Man and the anthro- 
 poid apes. Lastly, ia 1862 and ia 1867, M. Broca casuaUy 
 touched upon the subject ia the two memoirs before referred to.* 
 
 There are more or less marked shades of difference ia the relative 
 dimensions of the bones of the extremities, and before inquiring 
 into them it is weU to bear in miad the general fact. The radius 
 is always smaller than the humerus, and the tibia smaller than the 
 femur ia the human skeleton. It is the same in the goriUa and 
 the chimpanzee. The same may be noticed in the tibia of the 
 orang, while the radius is perceptibly equal to the humerus, which 
 proves that the proportions are not the same ia aU the anthropoids, 
 and differ as ia the human races. 
 
 The followiag table gives the relative proportion of the radius to 
 the humerus, 100 being taken as the length of the latter. The first 
 column has been calculated with the measures of Mr. Humphry 
 
 * Eeferenoee to books ooonpy so mucli space that we can only give the 
 more important ones. The researches of White are to be fomid in his 
 memoir, p. 14 ; in Lawrence's work, p. 14 ; that of Humphry, p. 85 ; and 
 that of M. Broca, p. 86. 
 
88 RELATION OF THE TIBIA TO THE FEMUR. [Chap. ii. 
 
 upon the 50 men and the 8 anthropoid apes previously alluded 
 to, and the second with those of M. Broca upon 30 men of all 
 races, and with our own upon 18 anthropoid apes : 
 
 Humphry. Broca and Topinard. 
 
 Man 75-1 76-1 
 
 Gorilla 77-1 79-8 
 
 Chimpanzee 90-1 90-3 
 
 Orang 1000 857 
 
 Setting aside some differences of detail pertaining to individual 
 varieties, arisiug from the mode of proceeding, the general results 
 agree in hoth columns. The difference between Man and the ape is 
 not great, looking at the proportion between the upper and lower 
 extremity, but it is not the less certain. In f[uestions of proportion 
 a slight matter materially alters the result. The radius is shorter 
 compared with the humerus in Man than in the anthropoid ape. 
 As the number of gorillas and chimpanzees in the two lists amounts 
 to 22, the question may be regarded as settled so far as they are 
 concerned. It is less so as regards the three orangs, which, taken 
 together, show the relative length of the radius to be 9.5-2, pre- 
 suming that we regard this bone as longer than in the two other 
 kinds of anthropoids. 
 
 The relative proportion of the tibia to the femur, the latter being 
 taken as = 100, is given in the following table, in the same subjects 
 as in the one preceding : 
 
 
 Humphry. 
 
 Broca and Topinard. 
 
 Man 
 
 ... 82-6 ... 
 
 80-6 
 
 Gorilla 
 
 ... 84-7 ... 
 
 77-8 
 
 Chimpanzee 
 
 ... 84-5 ... 
 
 78-7 
 
 Orang 
 
 ... 86-6 ... 
 
 85-7 
 
 The results appear to contradict each other. According to those 
 of Mr. Humphry, the tibia would be shorter than that of the apes. 
 According to ours, looking at the greater number of gorillas and 
 chimpanzees, which makes the matter stUl more decisive, the 
 human tibia would, on the contrary, be longer, our single orang 
 being left out of consideration. Some of the differences in these 
 
Chap, ii.] PROPORTIONS OF THE FOOT AND HAND. 89 
 
 two lists are probably attributable to the metliod of calculating, 
 M. Broca and myself having left out the internal malleolus, and 
 Mr. Humphry having probably included it. The main point is that 
 each of us has proceeded in the same way in all the series. We 
 admit that the second segment of the lower extremity is gene- 
 rally shorter iu the anthropoid ape, whilst that of the upper is 
 longer. Might not the two conditions be explained in the same 
 way ? The leg would be shortened in the ape because his lower 
 extremity is less exclusively employed in progression ■ his fore- 
 arm would be lengthened, on the contrary, because the upper 
 extremity, in addition to its function of prehension, contributes to 
 progression. 
 
 The relative proportion of the humerus to the femur, the latter 
 taken as = 100, has also been a subject of study. Our figures and 
 those of Mr. Humphry represent it as follows : 
 
 
 Humphry. 
 
 Broca and Topinard. 
 
 Man 
 
 ... 71-1 ... 
 
 70-7 
 
 Chimpanzee 
 
 ... 90-8 ... 
 
 100-5 
 
 Gorilla 
 
 ... 110-2 ... 
 
 113-4 
 
 Orang ... 
 
 ... 131-6 ... 
 
 128-6 
 
 With some minute shades of difference the conclusions arrived at 
 are similar. The humerus is shorter in proportion to the femur in 
 Man, and longer in the anthropoid apes. We may hence infer, by 
 taking into consideration the greater length of the upper arm in 
 the anthropoids, and the greater length also of the radius, that the 
 two bones contribute, each in its degree, to the lengthening of the 
 whole limb in these animals. 
 
 Thus a long humerus, a stiU longer radius, a short femur, a still 
 shorter tibia, such are simian characters, the more human being the 
 very reverse. 
 
 The relation of the foot and the hand to the stature, or to the rest 
 of the corresponding limb, can only be examined on the living 
 subject. Later on we shall . give their relative lengths in the 
 human races, the term of comparison faihng us as regards the 
 anthropoid apes. But, for want of a better, we shall give the 
 
Gorilla 
 
 ... 14,-54 
 
 Chimpanzee 
 
 ... 18-00 
 
 Orang 
 
 ... 2083 
 
 90 VARIOUS CHARACTERS. [Chap. ii. 
 
 measTirements relatively to stature taken on the skeleton by Mr. 
 Humphry : 
 
 Hand. Foot. 
 
 Man 11-82 16-96 
 
 20-69 
 
 21-00 
 
 25-00 
 
 The foot and the hand are thus shown to become larger as "we 
 pass from Man to the anthropoids, and progressively so in the three 
 mentioned above. We shall say nothing of the relation of the 
 clavicle to the humerus, concerning which but little has been 
 recorded. 
 
 Such are the primary results with regard to the comparative 
 proportions of Man and anthropoids. Can we say anything further 
 as to the near affinity of one of them to Man ? 
 
 The question is only doubtful as between the gorUla and the chim- 
 panzee. In every instance recorded in our list the orang occupies 
 the most remote position, except as regards the tibia in the siugle 
 case in our list which the two cases of Mr. Humphry nullify. The 
 gorilla has the whole of the upper extremity, including the radius 
 and the hand, more human, while in the chimpanzee the resemblance 
 is only as regards the humerus and tibia. In considering only the 
 two upper segments, each seems to have an advantage ■ in its 
 way, the gorilla by his shorter forearm, the chimpanzee by his 
 shorter arm. The length of the upper extremity and of the hand 
 have, however, the greater weight in the balance, and we should give 
 it in favour of the gorilla. But in the long bones, as well as in 
 the vertebral column and skull, there . are characters besides the 
 dimensions which as yet have been but little studied. Only to take 
 one example : the greater obliquity of the femur, the greater angle 
 which its neck makes with the diaphysis, and the comparative 
 slenderness of the entire bone give the advantage to the chimpanzee, 
 and especially to the koolokamba species. It is indisputable that 
 the proportions of the skeleton are very different in the four kinds 
 of apes, although in their general type there may be much similarity. 
 We will say more : they differ even in the species of one and the 
 
Chap, hi.] MUSCLES. 91 
 
 same genus; ■wMch it telioves us to consider, when, during the 
 prosecution of these studies, we shall have more subjects at our 
 command. We shall consider this relation of the anthropoid apes 
 in general, as weU as of men in general at a future time. 
 
 CHAPTER IIL 
 
 MUSCLES ORGANS OF SENSE VISOEBA. — LARYNX GENITAL ORGANS 
 
 NEBVOTJS SYSTEM BRAIN : ITS STBUCTITEB, CONVOLDTIONS, 
 
 WEIGHT RUDIMENTARY ORGANS AND REVERSIVB ANOMALIES. 
 
 The study of the muscles naturally follows that of the skeleton. 
 Their arrangement throughout the whole mammalian series is 
 dependent on configuration, and on the Tarious functions of 
 movement. In no part of the organism is there to he found a 
 more palpable demonstration of the great physiological law that 
 " use makes the organ," than in the wasting away of those parts 
 which are not in use, and the hypertrophy of those constantly at 
 work. K"evertheless the type varies somewhat : the muscles are 
 the same, but at one part a muscular fasciculus becomes strong or 
 is reduced to a mere vestige ; at another a portion is detached, or 
 subdivided, or its insertions are a little nearer or a little farther off. 
 The muscles of the monkey are so like those of Man, that up to 
 the fifteenth century, descriptions of them absolutely took the place 
 of the latter. We are indebted to Andr6 Vesalius for having 
 shown that the dissections of Galen were never carried on but upon 
 monkeys. The resemblance is stiU more perfect in the anthropoid 
 apes. 
 
 We shaU. confine ourselves to mentioning some of the differences 
 which we find among anthropoids. The cutaneous muscle which 
 is so developed in the majority of mammalia, as well as iu the 
 ordinary monkeys, for the purpose of contracting the skin, is 
 concentrated in the cervical region in the anthropoid apes, where 
 
92 MUSCLES. [Chap. hi. 
 
 its size is almost equal to tliat of Man. The -whole of the cervical 
 muscles, whose development in quadrupeds and iu the inferior 
 monkeys is in proportion to the necessity of maintaining the head 
 in the horizontal position, have merely an importance in the 
 anthropoid apes and ia Man, commensurate with the oblique 
 attitude iu the former and the upright ia the latter. 
 
 The trachelo-acromialis muscle of Cuvier, which is met with in 
 many of the mammalia, and especially in monkeys, is wanting in 
 Man, as well as in the gorilla and the chimpanzee ; it seems to be 
 merely a supplement to the elevator scapulae, which Man possesses 
 also. 
 
 The great rectus abdominis muscle, which has generally four 
 aponeurotic intersections in mammalia (Cuvier), and seven in the 
 cynocephali, has but five in man, in the chimpanzee, and in the 
 gorilla. It is said that the anthropoid apes have a long abductor 
 of the great toe more than Man, but it is merely a fasciculus of the 
 tibialis anticus muscle. It is also said that they have a short 
 extensor of the great toe, and an extensor digitorum with three 
 tendons instead of four as in Man ; but it is a misinterpretation of 
 the same fact. The extensor of monkeys is in reality the counter- 
 part of the same muscle so irregular in Man. So with regard to 
 the black cliimpanzee. It is said to have no proper extensor 
 indicis. Two chimpanzees in M. Broca's laboratory, however, 
 had it. 
 
 Nevertheless, between Man and the anthropoid apes there are 
 differences, though they are but slight. The situation and the inser- 
 tions of the pectoraHs minor vary in the two groups, and in that of 
 the inferior monkeys ; but these variations are less recognised 
 between the two former than between the anthropoid apes and the 
 group next to them. The short flexor of the thumb, so powerful 
 in Man, in anthropoids is atrophied, and blended with the deep 
 flexor of the fingers, which is connected with the index. A tendon 
 of this last, in the gorilla, is inserted into the thumb, and assists in 
 the movement of flexion. The same tendon in the orang and the 
 gibbon is furnished by the adductor of the thumb. 
 
 In place of the proper extensor of the index and of the extensor 
 
Chap, hi.] MtTSOLBS. ya 
 
 of the little finger, the orang and the ordinary monkeys have only 
 one muscle, -with four tendons supplying the four fingers, not 
 taking iato consideration the common extensor of the fingers ia 
 either case. 
 
 In the foot the differences are not so great. The great toe, on 
 ■whose pretended movement of opposition an entirely erroneous 
 system has heen hased, is suppHed by the same muscles as ia Man. 
 Nevertheless, owing to its more lateral insertion into the meta- 
 tarsus, it is found that the long lateral peroneal muscle contributes 
 partially to its flexion. 
 
 The transverse adductor of the great toe, rudimentary in Man, is 
 well developed in monkeys. The flexors of the toes differ some- 
 what in Man, and in the anthropoids ; but what the movements 
 gain in force and extent in the latter, they lose in independence 
 and precision in the former. In the orang the long flexor of the 
 great toe is entirely wanting. 
 
 The sole muscular peculiarity by which the anthropoid is really 
 separated from Man and is brought into closer affinity with the 
 ordinary monkeys, is the existence in the arm of a fasciculus called 
 the accessory of the latissimus dorsi, which does not exist in Man, 
 and is inserted superiorly into the tendon of the latissimus dorsi, 
 and inferiorly into the head of the humerus. It has also been 
 observed in a rudimentary state in some negroes. Two features of 
 the muscular system have been noticed as distinctive of Man and 
 animals, especially monkeys. These are the prominence of the 
 buttocks and of the calves of the legs, owing to the development 
 of the gluteal muscles and of the triceps, to which is due the 
 strength of the tendo achillis. Such is the fact, and is a result of 
 the biped attitude. The use of the gluteal muscles especially is to 
 keep the thigh extended upon the pelvis. But in both respects 
 the gorilla, casts of whose muscles have been taken from the sub- 
 ject, and reproduced in pasteboard by M. Auzou, is unquestionably 
 more favoured than some negroes. 
 
 Moreover all the minute, or at least the more important points, 
 which seem peculiar to the anthropoid, are found from time to 
 time in Man, and especially in the negro race. M. Chudzinski, 
 
94 OEGANS OF SENSE. [Chap. iii. 
 
 preparator to tlie laboratory of the Ecole des hautes .Titudes, has 
 already published two exoellent memoirs upon this subject.* 
 
 Organs of Sense. 
 
 In these is included the cutaneous envelope •which smrounds 
 the body, protects it against external agencies, and is the seat of 
 the ftmction of touch. 
 
 One of the characters ■which distinguish the class of mam- 
 malia from that of birds, fishes, and reptiles, is the presence of hair 
 upon the body. De BlainviUe proposed to substitute for his 
 designation that of pilifhres. Some, however, have the skiu naked, 
 as certain cetaceae. The characteristic of man proposed by Lin- 
 naeus, therefore, is anything but a correct one : homo nudus et 
 inermis. Man really has hair not only on the head, on the face, 
 under the armpits, and on the pubis, but over the whole of the 
 body, and in certain races quite a thick crop on the chest, behind 
 the shoulders, and on the limbs, resembling down, and masking 
 the colour of the skin. The history of Esau is a most probable 
 one. Compared with the majority of mammaha, and in particular 
 of monkeys, Man is the least hairy ; the palms of his hands and the 
 soles of his feet are alone without hair, which is to be accounted for 
 by its having worn away. 
 
 The smooth and indurated surfaces on the buttocks, called 
 callosites fessieres in the pithecians, are wanting in the anthropoid 
 apes, with the exception of certaiu gibbons, as well as in the cebians 
 and lemurs. 
 
 The naUs, claws, and hoofs of mammaha are a secretion from the 
 skin, like hair and horns. The presence of flat naUs, not bent 
 round, on the fingers and toes, has been given as a characteristic of 
 Man. We must, therefore, associate the anthropoids with him. 
 The orang alone forms a partial exception, having no nail on the 
 great toe. Flat nails are found in the pithecians ; they are bent 
 
 * " Contribution k I'Anatomie du NSgre et Nouvelles Observations sur le 
 Syet^me Mnsoiilaire du Nfegre," by T. ClradzinBld, in the " Eevue d'Anthro- 
 pologie," vols. ii. and iii. 
 
Chap, hi.] PALMAR WEINKLES. 95 
 
 round into claws in the cynocepliali ; tlie flat nail and tlie transition 
 to the claw are seen sunultaneously ia others. The ouistitis, some 
 other ceMans, and the arctopithecians have claws, except on the 
 great toe. In lemiirs it is the reverse : the claw is found on the 
 great toe, and nails on the other toes. 
 
 The arrangement of the wriukles and of the corpuscles of Pacctni 
 in the palm of the hand has reference to the function of touch. 
 
 In Man, there are two principal wrinkles in the hand, one pro- 
 duced hy the flexion of the last three fingers, the other hy the 
 flexion of the thumb, and passing round the eminence, thenar ; a 
 third, which is variable, and between the two, is joined at its 
 external extremity with the latter, and is free, and nearly paraHel 
 with the former at its internal extremity. According to M. Alix, 
 the fold of the thumb is wanting in the monkey tribe, and the 
 other two are united to form one. The fact is evident in the three 
 inferior groups, but doubtful as regards the first. If some 
 anthropoids exhibit in consequence of this an inferior simian 
 arrangement, Man is exceptionally in the same position. The 
 corpuscles of Paccini, or tactile corpuscles, are little bodies situated 
 in the direction of the nervous filaments of the palmar surface of 
 the hand and fingers, and of the plantar surface of the foot. 
 M. l^epveu has shown that their appearance under the microscope 
 is alike in Man and the chimpanzee, whilst it is somewhat different 
 in the common monkey, the baboon, and the sajou. 
 
 The organ of vision is similar in Man, the anthropoid apes, the 
 pithecians, and the cebians. But in many lemurs, the fundus of 
 the eye assumes a glittering appearance, which in the cat and the 
 ox has received the name of tapetum. A Httle muscular fasciculus 
 also exists, analogous to the musculus choanoides found in the 
 majority of quadrupeds. 
 
 The nose, anatomically the same ia Man and the monkey tribe, 
 presents merely morphological changes. Sometimes projecting in 
 the former, in a less degree however than in the nasicus, one of the 
 pithecians, it is at other times more or less flat, as in the generality 
 of monkeys. The nostrils are, usually directed downwards, as in the 
 anthropoid apes and pithecians, and sometimes sideways, as in 
 
96 VISCERA, [Chap. hi. 
 
 cebians ; two arrangements wliioli have suggested to Geoffroy Saint- 
 Hilaire his division of monkeys into catarrhini and platyrrhini. The 
 septum is comparatively thin in the catarrhini, and thick at the 
 anterior triangular border in the platyrrhini. The cartilage of the 
 ear, whose form and length are so variable in different mammals, in 
 monkeys is usually strong, having no fold behind ; it is sometimes 
 square above, and rounded off, and is without a lobule. These 
 arrangements are occasionally found in Man. On the other hand, 
 the ears of the gorilla and the chimpanzee are often as well folded 
 as those of Man. 
 
 The pithecians have two pouches, named cibqjous, which open in 
 the mouth — ^the anthropoids, like Man, having nothing of the 
 kind. 
 
 Viscera. 
 
 The length of the alimentary canal is about six times the length 
 of the body, or about eleven mfetres, according to M. Sappey. In 
 carnivora it varies from two to eight times, and in solipeds and 
 ruminants from ten to twenty-eight times ; in monkeys it is from 
 five to eight times, in the gibbon about eight. 
 
 The stomach of all the monkey tribe is simple as in Man. The 
 semnopithecians and the colobians are exceptions ; their stomach 
 if not multiple, is at least multUocular, resembling the herbivora in 
 this respect. The commencement of the large intestine, or csecum, 
 lies in the right iliac fossa, as in Man, and is covered in front by 
 the peritoneum. In pithecians, the csecum is, on the contrary, 
 enveloped by the peritoneum, which forms one of the folds of the 
 mesentery behind, and is designed for the purpose of facilitating 
 the mobility of that part of the intestine. In the anthropoid the 
 peritoneum surrounds the caecum, as in Man. 
 
 An appendix, the vermicular, is annexed to the human csecum. 
 It exists also in anthropoid apes, but is wanting in the monkeys 
 below them, with the exception of some lemurs. 
 
 The liver of Man has, properly speaking, only two lobes ; in 
 anthropoid apes it is similar. In the other monkeys, on the 
 contrary, it is very much subdivided, as in the lion and the rabbit. 
 
Chap, in.] PEfllTONBtTM AND PERICARDIUM. 97 
 
 M. Broca in his memoir, " Sur les Primates," has drawn attention 
 to the variations of the peritoneum, the serous memhrane which 
 is reflected round the organs in the abdominal cavity, and has for 
 its ohject to isolate them, and to allow them to glide smoothly 
 upon one another. His opinion is, that the arrangement of the 
 peritoneum does not perceptibly differ in Man and the anthropoid 
 apes, whilst in passing to the pithecians it immediately exhibits 
 marked differences. 
 
 The distinction of mammalia into bipeds and quadrupeds may 
 to a certain extent be recognised by the arrangement of their 
 internal organs. The marked peculiarity of the peritoneum in its 
 relation to the caecum may be specially mentioned. In the chest 
 we see differences of the same description. 
 
 The pericardium, or membrane surrounding the heart, is to this 
 organ what the peritoneum is to the intestines. In Man it is 
 altogether separated from the sternum and is attached to the 
 diaphragm, a transverse muscular septum which separates the 
 thoracic from the abdominal cavity. In quadrupeds it is firmly 
 fixed to the sternum and to the articulations of the ribs, and is not 
 attached to the diaphragm. In the former, indeed, the heart lies 
 on the diaphragm, in the latter on the sternum, in accordance with 
 the attitude of the animal. In monkeys the arrangement is inter- 
 mediate; in lemurs the pericardium does not adhere to the 
 diaphragm except to a very limited extent ; in cebians and pithe- 
 cians the surface attachment increases in size. In the anthropoid 
 apes the pericardium is as in Man. Similar changes occur in the 
 direction of the heart, in the length of the vena cava inferior, and 
 in the curve of the aorta near its origin. 
 
 In quadrupeds a result of the non-attachment of the heart to the 
 diaphragm, is the interposition between the two of a lobule of the 
 right lung. This lobule, known by the name of impar, exists 
 throughout the whole mammalian series, from the marsupialia to 
 the carnivora, and is wanting in Man. In the lemurians and the 
 cebians it is also developed. In the pithecians it becomes less ; in 
 the gibbons it is almost nil; in the orang, the chimpanzee, and 
 the gorOla there is not the slightest trace of it. 
 
 H 
 
98 THE LARTNX. [Chap. ni. 
 
 From the viscera we now pass to tlie vessels, wliere we shall 
 always find a confirmation of the same fact — ^namely, that the 
 organisation of anthropoids is a counterpart of that of Man, and 
 difiers widely from. that of the other simian groups. "We shall say 
 a few words respecting the larynx and the organs of reproduction 
 hefore entering upon a study of the very Jtiighest importance — ^that 
 of the brain. 
 
 The Larynx. 
 
 The larynx, or organ of voice, is at the upper extremity of the 
 windpipe, where the glottis is situated, through which the air is 
 respired. It is composed, like the trachaea, of cartilages, though 
 much larger. The two principal ones are the cricoid below and 
 the thyroid above. It is closed at certain moments by another 
 cartilage, which acts like a valve, and is called the epiglottis. In 
 aU essential points this little apparatus is identical throughout the 
 entire mammalian series, and notably in that of monkeys. 
 
 Upon four points of its extent — that is to say, below the cricoid, 
 between it and the thyroid, between the thyroid and the epiglottis, 
 and between the vocal chords — are seen occasionally dilatations 
 or ampullss, which have considerable importance in anthropoid 
 apes; some median and single — giving rise to three primary 
 anatomical varieties — others lateral and double, forniing a 
 fourth. The first, or tracheal variety of dilatation, is observed in 
 the horse, the ass, and in the coaita, one of the monkeys of the 
 cebian group ; the second in two other kinds of cebians ; the third 
 in a lemur, a cebian, two pithecians, and a gibbon. The fourth 
 variety exists ia a rudimentary state in Man under the name of 
 arriere-cavite, or ventricle of the larynx,* and attains with age, in 
 the three higher anthropoids, an enormous development, especi- 
 ally in the male, and is known in them under the name of air 
 sac. In a young chimpanzee dissected by M. Broca, it formed 
 
 * M. Sappey described it under the name of portion verticale of the 
 ventricles of the larynx. It is situated, he says, at the upper border of the 
 thyroid cartilage, close to the hyoid bone, and in rarer instances reaches 
 to the base of the tongue, and extends under its mucous membrane. 
 
Chap, hi.] LARYNGEAL SACS. 99 
 
 two little lateral projections about the size of a pea, whicli over- 
 lapped above the superior border of tbe thyroid. In the ao-ed 
 gorilla and orang the projections become larger, and run under 
 the sterno-mastoid muscles, under the trapezius, envelop the 
 
 Fig. 14.— Vertical and antero-posterior section of the face and neck : a, Bodies of the 
 cervical vertebrae : m, Basilar process, or body of the occipital bone : 'rt, Floor of 
 the anterior cerebral fossa ; o, p, q, Superior middle and inferior shells of the nasal 
 fossae ; l. Arch of the palate ; /, Velum of the palate ; k, Genio-glossal muscles of 
 the tongue, attached in front to the tubercles geni, situated at the posterior surface 
 of the lower jaw ; b, (Esophagus : c, Trachsea ; d, Thyroid cartilage ; e, Epiglottis ; 
 iy Os hyoides, serving as a point of attachment for important muscles of the tongue 
 and larynx. The transverse slit which is seen in the latter, and whose borders form 
 the vocal chords, is the ventricle of the larynx, into which the arriire-cavitc of 
 Morgagni opens. 
 
 clavicle, and reach down to the armpits. They are, in fact, 
 veritable hemise. In a morphological point of view, these sin- 
 gular organs establish an important difference between Man and 
 the anthropoids in question; but, in an anatomical point of 
 Adew, the difference is nil ; it is the same organ, only of a dif- 
 
 H 2 
 
100 ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION. [Chap. hi. 
 
 ferent size. We may add, lastly, that the true air sac is absolutely 
 wanting iu aU the other apes, so that this, which appears to 
 establish a character between Man and the anthropoid, shows, 
 on the contrary, their relationship, and the distance of the latter 
 from others of the monkey tribe. 
 
 Organs of Beproduction. 
 
 The characters which they furnish are those to which we 
 attach the greatest value in the various departments of natural 
 history ; the class mammalia is, indeed, based upon them. AK 
 mammalia are viviparous — ^that is to say, bring forth their young 
 aUve — and aU have teats. These glands vary in number, generally 
 being equal to that of the young which they bring forth at a birth, 
 and they vary also in situation. The cat has 8; the bitch, 10 ; 
 the agouti, 1 4 ; woman, 2, although generally she has but one 
 child at a birth. They are abdominal in the carnivora and the 
 marsupialia ; iuguinal in soUpeds and ruminants ; and pectoral iii 
 the woman, the elephant, and the lamantin. In this twofold 
 point of view, monkeys, including the anthropoid apes, are con- 
 structed after the type of Man. Many lemurs have four teats — 
 two pectoral and two inguinal, some macaucos having four pec- 
 toral ; aU the others have two teats, attached to the breast. 
 
 Among mammalia, a few", as the marsupials, have no placenta — 
 that is to say, an intermediate fleshy substance between the embryO' 
 and the uterus ; others have one, called en zone, when it occupies 
 a considerable surface of the internal parietes of the uterus, or e?i 
 disque when it occupies only a smaU portion. Man, the monkey 
 tribe, the rodentia, the inseotivora, and the cheiroptera belong to 
 this category. There is some diflference between them however.. 
 In Man the placenta is single, and the umbilical cord is composed 
 of one vein and two arteries. In cebians it is stiU single, but 
 it is furnished with two veins and two arteries. In pithecians- 
 it is double ; it has, however, only one cord, formed of one vein 
 and two arteries. In which arrangement do the anthropoids ap- 
 
Chap, hi.] CEEEBBO-SPINAL AXIS. 101 
 
 proaoh to them? The gibhon, which usually holds the transi- 
 tional position between them and the pithecians, has, like them, 
 a double placenta. In the chimpanzee, on the contrary, it is 
 single, as in Man {Owen). The orang and the gorilla have not 
 been examined on this point. 
 
 After the descent of the testis into the scrotum in Man, the 
 peritoneal communication is obliterated ; in other mammalia it is 
 persistent. JSTothing is yet known as to this in anthropoids. The 
 same may be said with regard to quadrupeds generally. The uterus 
 in them has two comua, and is divided into two cavities. That of 
 woman is, as a rule, unilocular ; that of ordinary monkeys holds a 
 middle position. 
 
 Nervous System. 
 
 In the Invertebrata it is composed of little masses of gray sub- 
 stance interspersed through the viscera, and attached to them by 
 nervous filaments. In the Vertebrata there is, in addition, another 
 and a symmetrical apparatus, consisting of an axis, called the 
 cerebro-spinal, of centrifugal nerves for movements, and of centri- 
 petal for impressions. The essential differences between them are 
 to be found at the superior or anterior extremity of the axis or 
 encephalon, which we shall first describe as it exists in Man. 
 
 The spinal cord, called medulla oblongata at the level of the 
 fiist cervical vertebra, passes through the occipital foramen, beneath 
 the transverse fibres which unite the two lobes of the cerebellum 
 under the name of ^oms varolii, and divides into two fasciculi called 
 the cerebral peduncles, one to the right the other to the left ; they 
 then spread out into two fan-like expansions of white fibres, pass 
 upwards and outwards, bend down at the borders like a mushroom 
 about its stalk, and go to form the cerebral hemispheres, on the 
 surface of which is a layer of gray substance. The white portion is 
 the conducting matter, the gray the sentient and reacting. At the 
 internal contiguous borders of the hemispheres the white transverse 
 fibres become bound together to form the corpus caUosum. Each 
 
102 BNCEPHALON. [Chap. hi. 
 
 is surrounded by a canal, forming a series of cavities, of whicli the 
 principal are tte lateral Tentricles, wMcli exhibit thiee cornua : 
 the anterior or frontal cornu, the inferior or temporo-sphenoidal, 
 and the posterior or occipital — the last presenting an elevation on 
 its floor caUed hippocampus minor. 
 
 The encephalon consists of (1) The cerebelliTm; (2) The portion 
 lying between its two lobes connecting the medulla oblongata with 
 the brain — the pons varolii, or protuberantia annularis ; (3) The 
 brain proper, formed by the peduncles and the series of expansions 
 which proceed from them — ^viz. the tubercula quadrigemina, the 
 optic thalami, and the corpora striata — by the ventricles, and by 
 the cerebral hemispheres, the surface of which exhibits sinuosities. 
 
 The priucipal sinuosities are called convolutions, and the 
 secondary ones, folds. The external surface of the brain occupied 
 by these is divided into distinct portions or lobes by fissures, and 
 the convolutions of which these lobes are composed, by sulci. The 
 communications between the lobes are called transition convolu- 
 tions {pits de passage), and those between one convolution and 
 another in the same lobe, anastomoses. 
 
 From the base of the encephalon arise the first twelve pairs of 
 nerves, or encephalic nerves. The first are the olfactory, the 
 bulbous portion of which — called the olfactory bulb — lies longi- 
 tudinally in a depression on the surface of the anterior lobe ; the 
 second are the optic, whose decussation at the median hne is called 
 the chiasma. 
 
 When we place the encephalon on its upper or convex surface, 
 and remove the cerebeUum and pons varolii by a transverse section 
 passing between the junction of the latter with the cerebral 
 peduncles, the whole inferior surface of the two hemispheres is 
 exposed to view (Fig. 15). At the junction of the anterior third 
 with the posterior two-thirds is seen a deep transverse fissure, 
 with its concavity looking backwards. This is the fissure of 
 Sylvius (A, Fig. 16). The portion in front is the inferior surface 
 of the frontal or anterior lobe ; that behind is the inferior surface 
 of the posterior lobe, which is separated into two weU-marked 
 
Chap. III.] EXTEENAL SURFACE OF HEMISPHERES. 103 
 
 and tmequal portions, the one with its convexity looking for- 
 wards and outwards, which is the inferior region of the temporo- 
 
 Fig. 15, — Inferior surface of tlie encephalon : A, Anterior or frontal lobe ; B, Temporo- 
 sphenoidal portion of the posterior lobe : A and B are separated by a fissure with its 
 concavity looking backwards — the fissure of Sylvius. C 6, Cerebellum ; M, Section 
 of the spinal cord where it joins the medulla oblongata ; VI, Annular protuberance — 
 at its anterior border are seen the two cerebral peduncles ; C C, Corpus callosum — 
 the dotted line is on the median or inter-hemispherical Hne ; I to XII, The twelve 
 pairs of encephalic nerves at their origin ; I, Olfactory nerve with its bulb ; II, Optic 
 nerve, the union of which with that of the opposite side forms the chiasma ; III, 
 IV, VI, Nerves of motion of the globe of the eye ; V, Trigeminal, or fifth, supply- 
 ing the m,uscles of expression ; XII, Hypoglossal nerve, the nerve of motion of the 
 tongue. 
 
 Sphenoidal lobe, the other, posterior or concave, upon which the 
 cerehellum lies. 
 
 The superior or convex surface of the hemispheres may be viewed 
 from above or laterally, the plates sometimes representing them 
 
104 FISSURE OF SYLVIUS. [Chap. hi. 
 
 under one aspect, sometimes under another. We prefer the latter 
 method. Each hemisphere has an internal surface, which looks 
 towards the median line, and an external. 
 
 The first thing which strikes the attention on looking at the 
 external surface is the fissure of Sylvius, which has passed round 
 the inferior border of the hemisphere, and whose external surface 
 is shown at A, Fig. 1 6. It is divided into two branches, which 
 unite in the form of a V. The anterior and vertical is very short, 
 and is lost in the anterior lobe ; the posterior is longer, and passes 
 obliquely backwards and a Httle upwards, having below it a large 
 elongated and very distinct cerebral lobe, which is the temporo- 
 sphenoidal lobe already seen from underneath. The fissure of 
 Sylvius corresponds on the skull with the superior border of the 
 squamous portion of the temporal {Broea). 
 
 There is no mark of equal importance to this on the external 
 surface of the brain, and it is asked how we contrive to make any 
 other fundamental division. It is, however, in the midst of the 
 sulci, apparently so complicated, that we take the fissure of Eolando 
 (B, Kg. 16) as the line of separation of this surface into the 
 anterior or frontal, and the posterior or parieto-occipital lobe. It 
 is constant, and, in. the foetus, the most clearly defined after the 
 fissure of Sylvius. Its situation and direction are nearly the same 
 in aU healthy brains. It commences some millimetres above the 
 fissure of Sylvius, and passes vertically, or rather a little obHquely, 
 backwards, reaching to within a few millimetres of the superior 
 border of the hemisphere. Its obliquity and its situation are 
 indicated by the two following relations : The total length of the 
 brain being reckoned as 100, the portion in front is to that behind 
 as 43-0 to 57'0 at the inferior extremity of the sulcus, and as 56-3 
 to 43-7 at its superior. It follows from this that the middle por- 
 tion should be equidistant from the two extremities of the 
 hemisphere. M. Hamy calculates that the inclinajtion of the 
 sulcus in the adult is about 70 degrees. 
 
 Gratiolet thought that the fissure of Eolando corresponds exactly, 
 on the skull, with the coronal suture. M. Broca was the first to 
 notice that, in the European, it is always from 40 to 56 millimetres 
 
Chap, m.] CONVOLUTIONS. 105 
 
 "behind it at its upper part, 47 in the middle, and 15 at the lower 
 part.* 
 
 A second fissure marks another division of the external surface 
 of the hemispheres — namely, the external perpendicular fissure 
 (E E, Fig. 16). It separates the posterior lohe into two, the 
 parietal and the occipital lobe, and on the skull answers to the 
 lambdoidal suture, beiag distant from it about two millimtoes. In 
 order to discover it, the student should look for it from its pro- 
 longation on the floor of the hemisphere, to a few centimetres from 
 the posterior extremity, where it takes the name of internal per- 
 pendicular fissure. It is so caUed because it exactly separates, 
 from below upwards, the most remote part of the hemisphere, to 
 form of it an occipital lobe. 
 
 We have then (1) An anterior or frontal lobe, bounded behind by 
 the fissure of Eolando; (2) A middle or parietal lobe, included 
 between the latter and the external perpendicular fissure ; (3) A 
 posterior or occipital lobe, situated behind the perpendicular fissure ; 
 and (4) An inferior or temporo-sphenoidal lobe, subjacent to the 
 long branch of the fissure of Sylvius. Such are the important 
 divisions on the external surface of the hemispheres. We shall 
 now describe those of the internal surface, as well as its convolu- 
 tions. 
 
 Convolutions. 
 
 The acts of transmission in the brain, which have reference to 
 altogether voluntary movements, to certain refiex movements, to 
 sensations, or to certain phases of intellectual operations, have for 
 their seat the fibres of which the central white mass of the hemi- 
 spheres is formed. The initiative acts of thought pass, on the 
 contrary, through the gray substance which constitutes the cortical 
 portion of these hemispheres. Consequently, the greater the 
 amount of gray substance, and of surface upon which it can be 
 developed in a continuous layer, the more power the truly intel- 
 lectual phenomena acquire. To this end, the surface is folded and 
 
 * " Sur ]a Deformation Toulousaine du Crane," by Panl Broca, in " Bull. 
 Soc. d'Anthrop.," 2nd series, vol. vi., 1871. 
 
106 CONVOLUTIONS. [Chap. iir. 
 
 contorted, so as to increase its extent. Such is the office of th& 
 convoliitions, elongated and tortuous swellings, separated hy sulci 
 more or less deep. It was long thought that their arrangement 
 was inextricable and the result of mere chance. This is an error r 
 the complexity is only apparent. They consist of fundamental 
 parts, or convolutions, properly so called, whose type is constant 
 throughout the human series ; and of secondary parts or folds, 
 which exhibit variations between one individual and another, 
 similar to those which the features of the countenance present. 
 The brain of the foetus at the beginning is smooth. The fissures 
 appear first, then the sulci. At the seventh month the convolu- 
 tions are simple but formed ; at birth it is the same with the folds. 
 At a later period the whole is completed. The convolutions 
 become enlarged and more complex as age advances, in proportion 
 to the activity which the organ exhibits. A convolution would be 
 rectiliaear in a subject of tolerable intelligence, as in the patient of 
 Bicetre, whose brain we have now before us. In another subject 
 of superior intelligence it would be tortuous, double, and altered in 
 form, by the pressure of neighbouring redundant convolutions. The 
 sulci woidd be hidden, and the anastomosis between one convolu- 
 tion and another, ia a rudimentary state in the former, while in the 
 latter it would be considerable, and would cause a change in the 
 configuration of the primary convolution. This, which is caUed 
 the richness of the convolutions — that is to say, their development 
 in number and tortuosity, causes not only an absolute increase in 
 the quantity of these convolutions, but also a reduction in size of 
 each of them taken singly. Large and simple convolutions are thus 
 a sign of idiotcy, or of weak intellect, in any race. Small convolu- 
 tions with numerous foldings are a sign of large intellectual capacity. 
 However, by carefully studying the brains of monkeys, of the 
 foetus, of infants, and of idiots with simple convolutions, all this 
 is explained. Desmoulins first drew attention to this subject.* 
 The imaginative fancies of phrenologists, and some recent results 
 in reference to the localisation of the faculties, have given it a 
 
 * " Anatomie du Systfeme Nerveux," by A. Desmoulins, vol. ii., 1825. ; 
 
;ChaP. III.] 
 
 CONVOLUTIONS. 
 
 107 
 
 new direction. E"ow, thanks to tte labours of Gratiolet, Owen, 
 Turner, Bischoff, Broca, and Ecker, it has been made clear. All 
 that we must do is to turn it to account lq studying the science of 
 comparative intellectual phenomena.* 
 
 3 
 
 Fig. 16, — Diagram of the external surface of the brain : A, Fissure of Sylvius ; B, Fissure 
 of Rolando ; C, Parallel sulcus ; D, Interparietal sulcus ; E, External perpendicular 
 fissure. 
 
 1, First antero-posterior frontal convolution, double ; 2, Second frontal convolution ; 
 3, Third frontal convolution ; 4, 5, 6, Convolutions of ^the orbital region of the frontal 
 lobe; 7, Ascending frontal, or ascending anterior convolution ; 8, Ascending parietal, 
 or ascending posterior convolution ; 9, Superior parietal convolution ; 10, Inferior 
 parietal convolution, or curved fold ; 11, 12, First and second temporo-sphenoidal con- 
 volutions ; B, Third temporo-sphenoidal convolution in continuation with the third 
 temporo-sphenoidal of the internal surface ; 14, The three storeys of the occipital 
 lobe ; ffl and 6, First and second plis de passage, uniting the two parietal convolutions 
 with the occipital lobe ; e and (Z, Third and fourth plis de passage, uniting the last 
 two temporo-sphenoidal convolutions with the occipital lobe ; e. Gyrus, belonging to 
 the third transverse frontal convolution, 
 
 Tlie external or convex surface of the brain (Figs. 16 and 18), 
 looked at in profile, is that from which we shall commence our 
 description of the convolutions. "We shall consider first the fissuje 
 
 * " Sur la Structure des Circonvolutions." See " Eecherclies sur la 
 Structure de la Couche Oorticale des Cir convolutions," by M. Baillarger, in 
 " Mem. Acad, de Medecine," 1840, vol. viii., and the article " Cerveau," in the 
 " Dictionnaire Encycl. des Sciences Medicales." 
 
108 FRONTAL AND PARIETAL LOBES. [Chap. in. 
 
 of Sylvius — that is to say, its base, and the parts belo-w and above. 
 The base only deserves mention as regards the point of the V. 
 By separating the two lips at this point we discover a weU-marked 
 ttiberole, called insula of Eeil, and also central lobule, because it is 
 situated in the exact line of the cerebral peduncles ; it is ocpupied 
 by five or six shallow folds, which radiate from its inferior angle. 
 The region below, or temporo-sphenoidal lobe, forms a large mass, 
 obhquely directed from below upwards, and from behind forwards, 
 and is traversed in the same way by a sulcus, which is parallel to 
 the fissure of Sylvius, and which on that account is caUed the 
 parallel sulcus (C). From its posterior extremity a small cul-de-sac 
 passes to the centre of the parietal lobe, and sometimes a prolongar 
 tion towards the occipital lobe. A second sulcus is observed below, 
 but of much less importance. The intermediate enlargements are 
 termed the first, second, and third temporo-sphenoidal convolutions 
 (11, 12, 13), the third or inferior appertaining also to the inferior 
 surface of the brain. 
 
 The region above includes both the frontal and the parietal 
 lobes, separated by the fissure of Eolando, whose two lips form two 
 of the most distinct convolutions of the whole system of the 
 external surface. Having the same direction as the sulcus which 
 separates them, one belongs to the frontal lobe and takes the name 
 of anterior ascending convolution (7), the other 'to the parietal lobe, 
 and is called the posterior ascending convolution (8). 
 
 The frontal lobe, so important in Man, since it is in it that 
 his highest faculties reside, consists of three regions : one, which 
 we shall find on the external surface ; a second, which is seen 
 on the inferior ; and a third, the most important of all. The 
 second rests upon the roof of the orbit, and comprises three or four 
 smaU convolutions of but little interest : one bound up between 
 the sulcus of the olfactory nerve and the internal border of the 
 hemisphere, and which forms the termination of the first frontal 
 convolution; the other two being in continuation, in the same 
 way, with the two frontals on the external surface. 
 
 The frontal region proper of the anterior lobe comprises four 
 convolutions : an anterior or frontal ascending, already mentioned, 
 
Chap, hi.] FRONTAL LOBE. 109 
 
 and three longitudinal and parallel, superposed in three storeys. 
 The first, or superior frontal convolution, arises by one, and some- 
 times by two roots from the superior extremity of the ascending, 
 becemes double, skirts the superior border of the hemisphere, and 
 is lost in the orbital region. The second, or middle frontal con- 
 volution, arises also behind, by one root, and bifurcates occasionally 
 to give an anastomosis to two adjoining frontal convolutions. The 
 posterior part of the sulcus, which separates it from the third, cor- 
 responds, according to M. Broca, to the curved temporal line of the 
 parietal. The third, or inferior frontal convolution, commences in 
 the most sloping portion of the ascending frontal, forms a large 
 gyrus round the small branch of the fissure of Sylvius, and loses 
 itself in front. 
 
 M. Brooa's way of looking at it is somewhat different. He 
 merely brings in the ascending frontal convolution to assist in the 
 description. According to him there are only three frontal convo- 
 lutions, all antero-posterior and parallel, including, at the back, the 
 portion of the ascending convolution where each takes its origin, 
 which must not be forgotten when discussing the localisation of th^ 
 faculty of language. We know indeed that there is aphasia — that 
 is to say, loss of speech ; or aphemia — that is to say, loss of speech 
 with preservation of the intellect, whenever an acute lesion occurs 
 at the posterior part of the third frontal convolution of Broca when 
 this lesion is on the left side. The faculty of language has its seat 
 on botb sides, but it is put in exercise from this side in the greater 
 number of cases. Its surface has a vertical extent of about four 
 centimetres, and an antero-posterior of from two to three and a half. 
 Its form is that of a quadrilateral, bounded in front by the smaU 
 branch of the fissure of Sylvius, and behind by the base of the 
 fissure of Eolando. Its centre corresponds, on the external part of 
 the skull, with a point situated about one centimetre and a half 
 behind the coronal suture, and three centimetres above the pterion.* 
 
 * " Sur le Si%e de la Faculte du Langage Articule," by P. Broca, in 
 " Bull. Soc. d'Anthrop.," Paris, 1861 ; and " Sur la Topographie Cerebrale, 
 ou sur les Kapports Anatomiques du Crane et du Ceryeau," by the same, in 
 " Revue d'Anthrop.," vol. v., 1876. 
 
110 PARIETAL AND OCCIPITAL LOBES. [Chap. hi. 
 
 The next, or parietal lobe, included between tbe border of the 
 hemisphere above, the fissure of SyMus, and the temporo-sphenoidal 
 lobe below, and the perpendicular fissure behind, is formed by three 
 convolutions. The first, or posterior, ascending, has been described. 
 The second, or superior parietal convolution (9), commences by one 
 or two roots towards the middle and superior portion of the posterior 
 ascending, describes a number of vertical flexures which reach to 
 the superior border of the hemisphere, and form a smaU. lobule, 
 which is very easily recognised. The third is below, and is separ 
 rated from it by a transverse sulcus, called the interparietal 
 sulcus (D) ; it arises at the inferior part of the posterior ascending, 
 in the angle which it makes with the fissure of Sylvius, turns 
 round the end of this and ends in a group of vertical flexures, 
 which anastomose, sometimes with the first, sometimes with the 
 second temporo-sphenoidal convolution, and sometimes with both. 
 This is the inferior parietal convolution, or curved fold of 
 Gratiolet (10), so called because the fold embraces in a simple or 
 complex gyrus, not only the termination of the fissure of Sylvius, 
 but also that of the parallel sulcus. Another arrangement is found. 
 The termiaation of this parallel sulcus is bifurcated, and its posterior 
 branch reaches the external perpendicular fissure, which it leaps 
 over to become one of the transverse sulci of the occipital lobe. 
 In this case, the gyrus which the curved fold forms is persistent ; 
 but it goes to form what we shall presently caU the second 
 transition convolution, without anastomosing with the second 
 temporo-sphenoidal convolution. M. Gratiolet has described on the 
 side of the inferior parietal convolution, a superior marginal fold, 
 and an inferior marginal fold, which are merely the folds bordering 
 the extremity of the fissure of Sylvius. The former, indeed, is the 
 part of the inferior parietal convolution, which extends from its 
 junction with the posterior ascending convolution, to the end of the 
 fissure, and the latter is the continuation of the first temporo- 
 sphenoidal convolution. The increased size of the flexures is of 
 httle importance, inasmuch as they constantly vary. 
 
 The occipital lobe, the smallest of aU, is formed of three storeys 
 which are bounded by two antero-posterior sulci. The external 
 
Chap, hi.] INTERNAL SURFACE OF HEMISPHERES. Ill 
 
 perpendicular fissure separates it from tlie parietal lote, and from 
 the temporo-sphenoidal lobe ; a fissure somewhat difiicult to trate 
 out in Man, because it is partly filled up, or hidden "by four folds of 
 communication with the adjoining lobes, whose study affords 
 considerable interest under the name of plis de passage, or transition 
 convolutions (a, b, c, and d). The first, or superior, of Gratiolet, 
 comes from the superior parietal convolution; the second, or in- 
 ferior, from the inferior parietal ; the third, lower down, from the 
 second temporo-sphenoidal convolution ; and the fourth, concealed 
 at the inferior border of the brain by the third temporo-sphenoidal 
 convolution. 
 
 We shall say but little as to the internal surface of the hemi- 
 sphere, which is in apposition with the falx cerebri on the median 
 line (Fig. 17). When we harden and dry a brain by M. Broca's 
 process (nitric acid),* the organ shrinks more in the transverse 
 direction, and that which formed the concave part of the interior 
 surface behind, appears, when looking at it sideways, to form part 
 of the internal surface. We shall study in this way the two 
 surfaces united. 
 
 In the centre is seen the coipus callosum, an elongated vault 
 which covers in the ventricles, and is terminated in front by a 
 swelling called genou (knee), the most slanting point of which is 
 the hee (beak), and behind by another swelling called the hourrelet 
 (cushion). Towards its exterior extremity is then seen a slit 
 rendered gaping by the preparation, which is the internal perpen- 
 dicular fissure already described. On this surface is a triangular 
 lobule, forming a portion of the occipital lobe, looking from this 
 side, and which bounds the sulcus of the hippocampi below. All 
 the portion situated beneath, and to the left of this sulcus in the 
 figure, is the internal surface (at the lower part) of the temporo- 
 sphenoidal lobe. A primary and well-defined transverse sulcus, 
 and a smaller faint one which is parallel to it, divide this region 
 into three convolutions (6, 7, and 8) ; the superior bending round 
 
 * "Precede pour la Momifioatiou des Oerveaux," by M. Paul Broca, in 
 " BuB. Soo. d'Anthrop.," vol. i., 1865. 
 
112 
 
 INTERNAL SURFACE OF HEMISPHEEBS. [Chap. hi. 
 
 in a gyrus at its anterior extremity, to form the outline of the 
 circumpedunoular fissure, and the inferior forming one with the 
 third temporo-sphenoidal on the external surface. 
 
 A 
 
 Fia. 17.— Diagram of the internal surface of the brain, a, Genoa of the corpus callosum ; 
 b, Bourreletof the corpus callosum ; c, The crura cerebri cut across ; A. Fronto-parietal 
 fissure ; B, Internal perpendicular fissure ; S, Fissure of Sylvius : H, Sulcus of the 
 hippocampi ; 1, 2, and 3, Internal frontal convolutions ; 1, Portion in continuation 
 with the first frontal of the external surface ; 3, Its oval lobule ; 4, Quadrilateral, or 
 internal parietal lobule ; .5, Trian^lar, or internal occipital lobule ; 6 and 7, First 
 and second Internal temporo-sphenoidal convolutions ; 8, Third internal temporo- 
 sphenoidal convolution in continuation with the third on the external surface : 9, 
 Convolution of the corpus caUosum, or hem. 
 
 In front of the triangular lohule is a -well-marked quadrangular 
 lohule (FoviUe), which is simply the internal side of the superior 
 parietal lohe, lengthened out helow as far as the corpus callosum, 
 and hounded behind by the perpendicular fissure, and in front hy 
 a smaU oval lobule (Pozzi) — which we may leave for the present — 
 which is situated in front of the quadrangular lobule, close to the 
 superior border of the hemisphere. This lobule is formed by the 
 junction, looking from the internal surface, of the two anterior and 
 posterior ascending convolutions of its external surface. 
 
 The remaining portion of the internal surface is divided into two 
 parts, the one superior and anterior, which forms part of the frontal 
 
Chap, hi.] CONVOLUTIONS. 113 
 
 lo"be; the other inferior, and resting on the corpus callosum, to 
 which we must consider it as attached. A fissure, however, divides 
 them, which is called festonn&e, or calloso-marginal, ia its anterior 
 four-fifths, and fronto-parietal towards its termination. It com- 
 mences below the beak of the corpus callosum, turns round its knee, 
 passes horizontally behind, and, separating the oval from the quad- 
 rilateral lobule, reaches obliquely the superior border of the hemi- 
 sphere. A single convolution, called the convolution of the corpus 
 callosum, is concentric to it, and contiuues to follow this organ, to 
 form the base of the quadrilateral lobule, and to anastomose with the 
 first internal temporo-sphenoidal convolution. Another convolution, 
 called the iatemal frontal, is eccentric to it, and has the form of an 
 italic S. Its anterior gyrus is separated from the knee of the corpus 
 callosum by the convolution and the fissure just mentioned, and its 
 posterior gyrus forms the oval lobule. In the greater part of its 
 length it is divided by an interrupted sulcus into two storeys, of 
 which the first is in direct contiuuation with the first frontal 
 convolution on the external surface. The number and distribution 
 of the primary convolutions may be sum Tried up as follows : 
 
 External Surface. 
 
 ( Orbital region . 3 convolutions in form of a, star. 
 
 Frontal lobe \ . I 1 ascending convolution. 
 
 / Frontal region 1 „ , ° , . _ , . 
 
 I (3 antero-postenor convolutions. 
 
 1 ascending convolution. 
 
 Parietal lobe { ^ . ,. (1 superior. 
 
 2 convolutions 
 
 I 1st 
 (lin 
 
 . inferior. 
 
 Occipital lobe 3 antero-posterior convolutionB, 
 Temporo-sphe- 
 noidal lobe . 3 parallel convolutions. 
 
 Internal Sbbface. 
 
 Frontal lobe 1 convolution. 
 
 Parietal lobe 1 quadrilateral lobule. 
 
 , -Till (1 triangular lobule. 
 
 Temporo-oocipito-sphenoidal lobe | ^ ^^^^^^^ convolutions. 
 
 Lobe of the corpus callosum ... 1 convolution. 
 
 One point in reference to the convolutions upon which M. Broca 
 lays strea?, is their want of symmetry on both sides in the best 
 
 I 
 
114 TABIATIONS OF CONyOLTJTIONS IN MAMMALIA. [Chap. hi. 
 
 selected individuals. Simple convolutions, developed uninter- 
 ruptedly, and alike in both hemisplieres, are characteristic of 
 inferiority hi Man, as well as throughout the mammalian series. 
 Bichat then was wrong when, influenced by a statement of 
 Tiedemann, he attributed intelleotual aberrations to the asymmetry 
 of the brain ; his own autopsy proved the contrary.* 
 
 The difference between the encephalon of mammalia and that of 
 Man is in the relative volume of the principal parts, in certain 
 internal structural arrangements, in the absence or in the number of 
 the convolutions, and in the weight of the organ. 
 
 On viewing the whole encephalic system on its superior surface, 
 we notice that the hemispheres in the marsupialia and monotremata 
 exhibit in front certain swellings called oKactory bulbs, which, in 
 the majority of mammalia, have the importance of lobes, and behind 
 the greater portion of the tubercula quadrigemina, or optic lobes, 
 and the cerebellum. In other animals, as the ant-eater, the rat, the 
 hare, and the bat, the optic lobes cease to be visible, but the 
 olfactory lobes and the cerebellum are more exposed to view. In 
 others, and as far as monkeys exclusively, the former are concealed, 
 while a more or less considerable portion of the cerebellum is 
 visible. In lemurians, the cerebellum slightly projects beyond the 
 hemispheres ; in pithecians and cebians it is more generally on a 
 level with them. In the anthropoid apes and in Man, not only is 
 it out of sight, but the hemispheres in their turn more or less pass 
 beyond it. 
 
 * On the subject of the convolutions, see " Traite de I'Anatomie Physiolo- 
 gique et Pathologique du Syateme Nervens CeriSbro-Spinal," by Foville, lafc 
 part, Paris, 1844 ; " Memoire sur les Plis du. Oerveau," by M. Bischoff, in 
 "Bull. Soc. d'Anthrop.," 2nd series, vol. iv., 1869; "Memoire sur lea Plia 
 Cerebraux de I'Homme et des Primates," by Gratiolet, Paris, 1855, a memoir 
 already mentioned ia " Les Primates," by M. Broca, 1869 ; " The Convolution 
 of the Human Cerebrum topographically considered," by Turner, Paris, 
 1866; "Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Purchen nnd Windungen der 
 Grosshirn-Hemispharen in Potus der Menschen," by Ecker, in " Arohiv fiir 
 Anthrop.," 1868; "Etudes sur lea Circonvolutions chez I'Homme et les 
 Singes," by J. Gromier, Paris, 1874; Article "Circonvolutions," in "Diet. 
 Encycl. dea Sciencea Medicales," by S. Pozzi, 1st series, vol. xvii., 1875. 
 
Chap, hi.] DIVISIONS OF OWEN. 115 
 
 The brain is modified also as to form. In Man it is more or 
 less elongated as a whole, and ovoid at its anterior extremity ; its 
 frontal region is contracted occasionally, as though squeezed together, 
 globular, and acquires its maximum of fulness. The last traces of 
 this contraction are seen in front, at the poiat of the internal 
 anterior and inferior angle of each hemisphere. It is more or less 
 strongly marked in pithecians, less so ia the anthropoid apes, and 
 com in only not at all in Man. 
 
 In these two relations, the anthropoids more nearly approach to 
 Man than to the other monkeys. 
 
 As regards iuternal structure, the first difference is the absence 
 of the corpus caUosum in the marsupiaUa and the monotremata, 
 ■as well as in the classes of vertebrata below, whilst it exists in aU 
 the other mammalia. The aqueduct of Sylvius, a simple canal 
 perforating the corpora-quadrigemina in. Man and the majority of 
 the mammalia, is a cavity, or rather a supplementary ventricle 
 in the kangaroo. The anterior and middle comua of the lateral 
 ventricles exist in aU the mammalia ; the posterior or occipital 
 comu is peculiar to Man, to the monkey, the seal, and the porpoise. 
 Professor Owen thought that the absence in anthropoids of this 
 comu, of the hippocampus minor belonging to it, and of the 
 -occipital lobe in which it is hoUowed, constituted a distinct cha- 
 Tacteristic separating the ape from Man. On more careful examina- 
 tion, however, he altered his opinion. Man and the anthropoid ape 
 in this respect' are alike. 
 
 A characteristic of Man has also been sought for in the pre- 
 sence of the mammillary tubercles, little round bodies situated at 
 the base of the brain, and whose use is unknown. "Vain hope ! 
 The chimpanzee, the orang, the gibbon, and. the mdne possess 
 them. 
 
 The convolutions are wanting in fishes, reptiles, and birds. They 
 are absent in a considerable number of mammalia, are tolerably 
 developed in others, and very much so in many, as the porpoise 
 and the elephant. Mr. Owen has proposed to make them the basis 
 of a fourfold classification: (1) Lyencephala, having the brain 
 ismooth and the optic lobes exposed ; (2) Lissencephala, having the 
 
 I 2 
 
116 CONVOLUTIONS IN MAMMALIA. [Chap. hi. 
 
 brain smootli, but with tlie optic lobes concealed ; (3) Gyren- 
 cephala, witb but few convolutions; and (4) Archencephala, in 
 wbicb Man alone is placed. But tbe other features of the organisa- 
 tion do not move in parallelism with these characteristics, and the 
 fourth class is only hypothetical.* 
 
 Erasistratus of old wrote that the convolutions are more numerous 
 in Man, because he is supreme as the possessor of a mind and 
 reasoning power. A. Desmoulins, in 1825, maintained that the 
 number and perfection of the intellectual faculties in species as in 
 individuals, are in proportion to the extent of surface of the hemi- 
 spheres, and that this is in direct ratio to the number and depth of 
 the convolutions. M. Dareste started another proposition : that the 
 convolutions were developed in a direct ratio to the stature, and that 
 the smaller species most frequently have the brain smooth. Gratiolet 
 took upon himself to refute him. Man, and then the orang, the 
 chimpanzee, the seal, the bear, the dog, the elephant, have the most 
 complex convolutions ; whilst in the insectivora, the rodents, and 
 the marsupials, generally less intelligent, they are scarcely visible. 
 Neither the stature nor the volume of the body has anything to do 
 with the question ; the smallest dog has more convolutions than the 
 most gigantic kangaroo, the seal more than the ox. There are 
 eKceptions, but these are easily explained. The increased amount 
 of the gray cortical substance of the hemispheres is what we must 
 look for as evidence of a larger amount of activity. "We must look 
 for (1) The increase of the cerebral mass, and consequently, cmteris 
 paribus, of its surface ; (2) The increase of the number of folds and 
 windings, which allow of a much greater proportion of the gray 
 substance being deposited in a given space; (3) The increase of 
 the latter in thickness, and its improvement in quality. Unless 
 we take account of aU these elements we must not be surprised if 
 there are exceptions, but the general fact remains — the amount of 
 intelligence in mammalia is in proportion to the development of 
 the convolutions. 
 
 The consideration of the monkey tribe will now eno-ace our 
 
 * "The Anatomy of Vertebrates," vol. iii., "Mammals," by R. Owen. 
 London, 1868. 
 
Chap, hi.] 
 
 SIMIAN VARIATIONS. 
 
 117 
 
 attention. From tlie ouistiti, the lowest of the cetians, which has 
 the brain smooth and only a trace of the fissure of Sylvius, to Man, 
 every variety is to he met with. In the sagouins, some convolu- 
 tions are visible. Their number increases rapidly in the highest 
 cebians and the pithecians. In anthropoids, suddenly and almost 
 without transition, they have a similar appearance to those of Man. 
 All the principal convolutions are there, the type is the same, the 
 difference is only in parts of a subordinate character, and in the de- 
 gree of convolutions, which varies also in Man and is peculiar to him. 
 
 Fia. 18. — Brain of pithecian — the guenon or cercopithecus— seen on its external surface. 
 F, Frontal lobe ; T, Temporo-sphenoidal lobe ; O, Occipital lobe ; S, Fissure of 
 Sylvius : R, Fissure of Rolando ; V, External perpendicular fissure A A, Ascending 
 frontal convolution; ai, a^^ as. First, secotid, and third antero-poaterior frontal 
 convolutions ; B, B, Ascending parietal convolution, giving origin behind to thb 
 superior parietal and the inferior parietal or curved fold, the latter turning round 
 the fissure of Sylvius and the parallel sulcus, as in Fig,. 16 ; ci and c2, First and' 
 second external temporo-sphenoidal convolutions, separated by the parallel sulcus. 
 
 "Between the smooth brain of ouistitis and the marvellously 
 complicated brain of chimpanzees and orangs there is a gap," says 
 M. Broca, "while there are but faint shadows of difference 
 between the latter and that of Man;" and further : " The enormous 
 
 and complex mass of convolutions in Man is composed 
 
 of the same fundamental folds, united by the same connections, and 
 separated by the same sulci. These primary convolutions, these 
 essential parts, common and only common to all human brains, are 
 
118 SIMIAK VAEIATIONS. [Chap. hi. 
 
 foimd without exception in the braias of the orang and the chim- 
 panzee." That of the gorilla is hut little known.* 
 
 A few words as to the changes which are exhihited as far as 
 the inferior orders of cehians. 
 
 The orhital region of the frontal lohe, which is flat in Man, is 
 depressed in pithecians ; the sulcus of the olfactory nerve is want- 
 ing; the angle which termiuates the third frontal convolution 
 hehiad is rectUinear, which has tuterest with regard to the faculty 
 of language. The iirst frontal convolution is simple, as in the 
 Hottentot Venus of Cuvier, and the idiot studied by Gratiolet, 
 while it is double in the orang and the chimpanzee, as in Man. 
 The inferior parietal convolution should rather be called the curved 
 fold, as it commences more in front and more distinctly curves 
 round the terminations of the fissure of Sylvius and the parallel 
 sulcus. The superior parietal convolution is very much reduced, 
 particularly in the cynocephali. In the chimpanzee it forms a 
 lobule as important as in Man. The external part of the perpen- 
 dicular fissure is more open and more visible by the absence or the 
 greater depth of the pUs de passage of this region. It follows that 
 the occipital lobe throws up above it at its upper part an oper- 
 culum, whose amount of projection is less characteristic of 
 inferiority. The central lobule, very smooth in Man, slightly so 
 in the orang and chimpanzee, is smooth in the majority of pithe- 
 cians and cebians, and is wanting in lemurs, as also in the other 
 mammalia. 
 
 The occipital lobe deserves especial notice. Its volume is 
 generally in an inverse ratio to the number of the sulci and convo- 
 lutions. Almost entirely smooth in cynocephali, its uniform sur- 
 face contrasts so strongly with the rest of the cerebral surface in 
 the macacque and the guenon, that Gratiolet compared it to a cap 
 covering the posterior extremity of the brain. The contrast is less 
 in some semnopitheci ; some gashes are seen, which are well marked 
 in the gibbon, and become in the chimpanzees and the orang very 
 nearly as complex as in Man. 
 
 * Memoir already quoted, " Snr les Primates." 
 
Chap, hi.] PLIS DB PASSAGE. 119 
 
 Owen discovered a cerebral characteristic of Man in the structure 
 of his occipital lobe ; Gratiolet, in his second pK de passage, from 
 the parietal to the occipital lobe. 
 
 It is not a question of two iuf erior plis de passage, they always 
 exist. Thinner in gibbons and pithecians, they are thick ia Man and 
 the great anthropoid apes, and entirely fill up the inferior (or external) 
 portion of the external perpendicular fissure. It is otherwise as 
 regards the two superior ^Zm de passage. They are superficial, deep, 
 or altogether wanting, according to four types. (1) In Man and the 
 ateles — the highest in the order of cebians — they are both superficial, 
 hence the difficulty that students have in discovering the external 
 perpendicular fissure which they traverse. (2) The first is super- 
 ficial and the second deep in the orang, the gibbon, and the senmo- 
 pitheci. (3) The first is wanting and the second is deep in the 
 chimpanzee, the macaque, and the cynocephalus (the goriUa has not 
 been studied in this respect). (4) Both are deep in the guenons. 
 The three anthropoid apes which have been studied differ, then, 
 from Man, in that the second fold is deep. There is some doubt as 
 to the first fold being absent in the chimpanzee ; it was present in. 
 the subjects studied by Eolleston, Marshall, and Turner. Ifotably, 
 in two, the first fold was present on one side and not- on the other ;■ 
 while, by way of compensation, the second was deep on one side 
 but superficial on the other : according to M. Broca it should 
 always exist on one side or the other. Moreover, in Man, even in 
 individuals of sound mind, one of the sa^enoi plis de passage may 
 be deep on one side or wanting, and the other at the same time be 
 feebly developed. Does not all this prove that these are only 
 changes or gradations of development from the healthy man to the 
 anthropoids, the cebians, and the pithecians 1 Eelative to anthro^ 
 poids we can only come to one conclusion, namely, that they are 
 not more separated from Man by the character of their plis de pas- 
 sage than from the monkeys next in order, and that in this, as well 
 as in everything relating to the convolutions, they are found to take 
 their place with Man at the head of the series. 
 
 If the differences hitherto established in the morphology and 
 anatomy of the brain of Man, as compared with that of animals, are 
 
120 WEIGHT OF THE BRAIN. [Ciup. in. 
 
 not such as we should have desired, what avo arci about to say with 
 respect to its weight and mass, and what we have ah'eady said on 
 the subject of the cranial capacity, will be sulliciont to satisfy the 
 warmest advocates of human supremacy. 
 
 The weight of the oucephalon varies in the adult man of sound 
 mind from 1,830 grammes, which was the wniglit of Cuviuv's 
 brain, to 872, which is that of a Bosjeswonian studied in England 
 by Mr. Marshall : but these are exceptional cases. According to 
 Huschke, its mean weight, at the age of 30 or 40 years, in tho 
 white race, and when the organ has attained its full growth, is 
 about 1,410 in men, and 1,272 in women. The weight varies, 
 moreover, according to height, sex, age, intelligence, and occupa- 
 tion. Let us rapidly run over the principal results obtained on 
 these points, in order that we may not have again to recur to 
 them.* 
 
 The encephalon is heavier in taU persons than in short. In five 
 men having a mean stature of 1'74 mfetre, the brain was 96 grammes 
 heavier than in five other short men, whose mean stature was r63 
 m^tre. Tho diiference of weight was 6 per cent., and corresponded 
 exactly with the difl'erence of stature. The same result has been 
 obtained in reference to women. 
 
 The brain is lighter in the woman than in the man : tho former 
 weighing 100, cceteris paribus, the latter would weigh 111!, accord- 
 ing to Huschke. This difference is only attributable tn tho fact 
 Uiat usually she is less in height. I'archappo has shown that 
 the height of the woman is to that of the nmn as 92'7 to 100; 
 whilst the weight of her brain would be as 90-9 to 100. Tho 
 brain, then, is lighter in the woman, and we may add, that it is so 
 at all ages. 
 
 The tables constructed by Broca, with materials furnished by 
 
 * " Sur le Poids da Oerreau," by L(51ut, in " Journal dos Conn. Mddioo. 
 Ohirurg.," vol. v., Taris, 1837 j " Rooherohos sur I'Enofiphalo," by I'arcliappo, 
 Paris, 1836; " Ueber die Typischeu Vorsohiodonhoiton der WincJungeii der 
 Hemispharen nnd iiber dio Lehro vom llirngowic'lit," by Rud. Wagner, 
 Gattingen, 1860 j "Diaoassiou aur lo Oorveau," by liroca, Gratioletl 
 Dotresto, &o., in "Bull. Soo. d'Anthrop.," vol. ii., 1H61. 
 
Chap. III.] WEIGHT OF THE BRAIN. 121 
 
 Wagner, of the weiglit of 347 healthy brains, prove that this organ 
 goes on increasing up to 40 years of age, that it remains stationary 
 up to 50, and decreases afterwards. After the age of 60 years men 
 had lost from 5 to 7 per cent, of maximum weight, and women 
 from 4 to 7. Gratiolet has shown that the cranium of the infant 
 is more elongated at birth, that it enlarges subsequently in the 
 temporal regions, and that it goes on developing in front : it ought 
 to be the same with the brain. 
 
 The brain increases, eceteris paribus, in proportion to the vas- 
 cular activity of which it is the seat. This is the reason that 
 the brain of certain criminals and lunatics is so large. But of all 
 the kinds of activity, that which has reference to the special design 
 of the organ has the most influence. Such is physiological activity, 
 of which intelligence is the result. The weights taken by L^lut, 
 Parchappe, and Wagner, clearly show this. The labouring men 
 studied by Parchappe had the head longer than his " distinguished 
 men." So with the internes of the hospital of Bicetre measured by 
 M. Broca, relatively to the officers of the institution. The cranial 
 •capacity of Parisians from the twelfth to the nineteenth century, 
 has increased to such an extent that we may be allowed to attribute 
 it to the progress of civilisation. The cranial capacity is greater, 
 eceteris paribus, in the white race, less generally in the negro races, 
 less still in the lowest among them. The brains of idiots, and of the 
 insane in lunatic asylums, are smaller and hghter than those of the 
 employes and ordinary sick, or of persons suffering from acute mania. 
 The enormous weight of Cuvier's brain is in itself an argument. 'So 
 less remarkable, though less largely developed, were the brains of 
 Abercrombie, of Bruce, of Dupuytren, and other eminent persons, 
 as recorded by Wagner. The reason that the brain of the woman 
 is Hghter than that of the man is that she has less cerebral activity 
 to exercise in her sphere of duty. In former times it was relatively 
 larger in the department of Loz^re, because there the woman and 
 the man mutually shared the burden of their daily labour. The 
 truth is, that the weight of the brain increases with the use which 
 vve make of that organ, with the exercise of certaia professions ; in 
 a. word, with the degree of intelligence. The absolute mean weight 
 
122 EELATIVE "WJilGHT OF THE BRAIN. [Chap. m. 
 
 of the 1)13111 at its maximum of growth, in men, is, in round 
 numbers, about 1,400 grammes, in. women about 1,250. With 
 some few exceptions it is the heaviest of the mammalian series* 
 We will give the figures farther on. 
 
 They would, however, be of little value as regards the majority 
 of mammalia if we did not take account of the stature or weight 
 of the body. M. Sappey estimates the weight of the braiu of 
 the elephant to be from 1,500 to 1,600 grammes, and that of 
 the dolphin about 1,800; and then it would be in proportion 
 to the weight of the body as 1 to 1,500 in the former, and 
 1 to 100 in the latter; while in Man it is as 1 to 36, ac- 
 cording to Cuvier, and 1 to 52 according to Colin. This may 
 be so, but we do not think these figures are to be thoroughly 
 relied on ; for the brain of a young Asiatic elephant in M. Broca's 
 laboratory weighed double, that is to say, 3,080 grammes; the 
 greater reason why we should take into our calculation the stature 
 of the animal. In the list published by Cuvier, the weight of the 
 brain being 1, that of the body is from 48 to 105 in the ordinary 
 monkeys ; from 97 to 365 in the camivora ; from 520 to 800 m 
 marsupials ; from 750 to 800 in two oxen. In a gibbon, according 
 to M. Leuret,* it was 48, and in another, in M. Broca's laboratory,. 
 18 '7. Most fortunately, we are able to make a direct comparison 
 between Man and the three higher anthropoids. If, on the average, 
 they are a little less in stature, they are, on the other hand, stouter, 
 so that the body, taken as a whole, agrees as nearly as possible. 
 The anthropoid is generally a little more bulky, which, cmteris 
 paribus, would necessitate his having rather a larger brain. It is 
 true that we have not had an opportunity of weighing the brains 
 of the great apes in a fresh state, but we may estimate the weight 
 sufficiently accurately by the cranial capacity, f Mr. Huxley thinks 
 that the weight of the brain of the gorilla may reach 567 grammes, 
 and M. Broca found that the weight of the one the cubic measure- 
 
 * See " Anatomy of the Nervous System," by Iienret, vol. i., 1839, and 
 the table at page 124. 
 
 •|- Mr. Owen, however, weighed the fresh brain of a gorilla : it was 15 
 onnoea = 425-19 grammes. 
 
Chap, hi.] PEOPORTION OF THE BEAIN. 128 
 
 ment of whose cranium he made with M. Alix, was 540 grammes. 
 "We ourselTes should estimate that the mean, without reference to 
 sex, would he helow 475 ia the gorilla, and much lower still in. the 
 orang and chimpanzee. 
 
 Proportions of different Parts of the Eneephalon. 
 
 M. BaiUarger has attempted to estimate the absolute extent of 
 surface of the convolutions which is covered hy the gray substance. 
 He found it to he 1,700 square centimetres ia Man, and 24 ia the 
 rabbit. M. Hermann Wagner calculated the amount of superficies 
 in each lobe relatively to the total superficies of the brain. It is to 
 be feared that the result of these efibrts has not been of much im- 
 portance, though they should be encouraged. The following are 
 the mean proportions obtained by M. Wagner : 
 
 
 Man. 
 
 Orang. 
 
 Frontal lobe 
 
 43-6 
 
 36-8 
 
 Parietal lobe 
 
 16'9 
 
 25-1 
 
 Temporal lobe 
 
 21-8 
 
 19'6 
 
 Occipital lobe 
 
 17-7 
 
 18-5 
 
 Total surface 
 
 .. 1000 
 
 ... 100-0 
 
 We have more to expect from the relation of the cerebellum to 
 the hemispheres. The weight of the former in the man is about 
 179 grammes, and in the woman 147 grammes, according to Par- 
 chappe, and 176 in Man, according to Lflut. This weight being 
 expressed by 1, that of the hemispheres would be 15 '5 in the man, 
 and 13 '9 grammes in the woman, according to Paichappe, and 15 '5 
 also in the man, according to Lflut. It is the same with animals : 
 in the saimiri it is 14 j m6ne, 8 ; magot, papion, and coita, 7 ; ouistiti, 
 6-3; macauco, 4 '5; gibbon, 4 '4 grammes, among apes: and the 
 hedgehog, 12 j hare, 14 '3; ox, 9; horse, 7 j sheep, 5; mouse, 2, 
 among the mammalia (Leuret). It foUows from this that the 
 human cerebellum is Kghter in proportion to the weight of the 
 brain, and if we put aside three of the 44 examples of Leuret, 
 that Man would be found to have the advantage in this respect, as 
 
124 PROPORTION OF THE CEREBELLUM. [Chap. iii. 
 
 well as with regard to the entire weight of the encephalon. At- 
 tempts have been made to compare the weight of the encephalon 
 with that of the spinal cord = 1-10, hut the comparison has not 
 been carried out in Man. The foUowing figures, borrowed from 
 M. Colin, have been drawn up in reference to this question, and 
 to those preceding as to domestic animals : 
 
 15 stallions 
 15 mares 
 IV dogs 
 5 cats 
 
 3 oxen 
 
 4 asses 
 3 hogs 
 
 Weight of 
 
 the 
 encephalon. 
 
 ... 633 
 
 Weight of the 
 
 body. 
 Encephalon = 1. 
 
 633 
 
 Weight of the 
 two hemispheres. 
 Cerebellum = 1. 
 
 6-9 
 
 Weight of the 
 
 encephalon. 
 
 Spinal cord = 1 
 
 2-3 
 
 ... 598 
 
 583 
 
 7-4 
 
 2-3 
 
 83 
 
 212 
 
 8-5 
 
 4-7 
 
 28 
 
 106 
 
 6-1 
 
 3-4 
 
 ... 509 
 
 648 
 
 8-2 
 
 2-4 
 
 ... 368 
 
 332 
 
 7-2 
 
 2-9 
 
 ... 123 
 
 659 
 
 7-5 
 
 2-3 
 
 'One of M. CoUn's conclusions deserves to be considered side by- 
 side with that arrived at by M. Dareste. He says the smaller 
 species of animals have the braia more developed than the larger. 
 The mouse, for example, has, in proportion to his body, more brain 
 than Man, and thirteen times more than the horse, and eleven 
 times more than the elephant. M. Dareste infers that the smaller 
 species generally have the brain smooth. The two propositions 
 mutually agree. The convolutions have less tendency to be 
 developed ia the smaller species, supposing the fact proved : because 
 their braia is larger, this was superfluous. Thus the same result is 
 arrived at by different methods of proceeding. 
 
 Lastly, Soemmering has conceived the idea of comparing the 
 brain with the nerves which proceed from it. The relative volume 
 of the former would be considerably greater in Man; the apes 
 would come next. " The largest horse's brain that I have weighed," 
 says he, " was one pound and seven ounces, and the smallest man's, 
 two pounds five ounces and a quarter, notwithstanding that the 
 nerves at the base were ten times larger in the former, although the 
 difference in weight between the two brains was at least fourteen 
 ounces and a quarter." 
 
Chap, hi.] MEASTJEEMENT OE THE BRAIN. 125 
 
 Measurement of the Brain. 
 
 This has iiot yet been practised to any extent except on animals. 
 Soemmering and Ebel have compared the width of the medulla 
 oblongata, at its union with the protuberantia annidaris, with the 
 maximum width of the brain. Leuret has taken the relative 
 dimensions and situation of the corpus callosum and the cerebellum. 
 Cuvier has given the width, the height, and the maximum length 
 of the brain in 38 mammals. Leuret applied himself to the width 
 in relation to the length, taking his measiu'ements, not on the 
 brain, but on the interior of the cranial cavity. We can speak 
 highly of this method, when we employ the special instruments 
 invented by M. Eroca, which allow of all the details being measured 
 without injuring the skull by making a section. In a first group, 
 including the kangaroo, the guinea-pig, and the beaver, the two 
 diameters are equal ; in a second, consisting of the majority of 
 the rodents, the elephant, the porpoise, and the whale, the trans- 
 verse diameter is greater than the antero-posterior ; in a third, 
 embracing the monkey tribe, the carnivora, the solipeds, and the 
 ruminants, the antero-posterior diameter is the longer, as in Man. 
 
 The relation of these two diameters, the transverse and the 
 antero-posterior, is worthy, in our opinion, to have a place assigned 
 to it in Zoological Anthropology, under the name of cerebral index. 
 A few calculations from Leuret's tables are subjoined. 
 
 Papio (mandril) ... 
 
 75-8 
 
 Macaoqne ... 
 
 
 80-3 
 
 Mandril ... 
 
 ... 
 
 83-2 
 
 Macauco (maki) ... 
 
 86-3 
 
 Horse 
 
 ... 
 
 84-5 
 
 White bear 
 
 
 84-5 
 
 Gninea-pig 
 
 
 ... 100-0 
 
 Phascolomya 
 
 (wombat) 
 
 ... 102-5 
 
 Porcupine... 
 
 
 ... 128-1 
 
 Whale 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 146-7 
 
 3 dogs 
 
 
 75-0 to 99-9 
 
 3 kangaroos 
 
 
 86-2 „ 100-0 
 
 2 seals 
 
 
 97-5 „ 112-5 
 
 Stats 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 122-2 „ 125-0 
 
 2 elephants 
 
 
 136-9 „ 146-7 
 
126 EUDIMENTAEY OKGAHS. [Chap. ii. 
 
 Three forms of train, then, would find place in the mammalian 
 series, as there are three sorts of human crania — viz. the long, the 
 intermediate, and the broad. But here the lines of demarcation 
 between each form would be changed. Those which we should 
 caU doUchocephalL (long heads) would be below 90, the mesati- 
 cephaU (middle heads), from 90 to 110, and the brachycephali 
 (short heads), above 110. 
 
 Rudimentary Organs and Reverdve Anomalies. 
 
 In the necessarily rapid examination which we have just made 
 of the characters by which Man differs from or approaches to 
 animals, we have only taken iato consideration those which are 
 constant and exist in aU individuals. But there are others which 
 unexpectedly make their appearance in aU the races of Man, and 
 more frequently in those reputed inferior, concerning which we 
 ought to say a few words. "We refer to what are called the rudimen- 
 tary organs, and anomalies. In the hypothesis of a transformation 
 by a certain process from forms relatively inferior into those of a 
 higher and m.ore perfect character, they take the name of reversions, 
 which is meant to convey the idea of a relationship in the past 
 between organisms now divergent, and bearing upon the question 
 of the af&nity of Man with the other mammalia. 
 
 As examples of rudimentary organs in animals we may mention 
 the germs of teeth in the foetus of the whale, and those of the upper 
 incisors in ruminants, although these organs are never developed, 
 and appear to be useless ; the teats of all male quadrupeds ; the 
 eyes of sightless animals, or those species which pass their lives in 
 dark caverns, or inhabit the fathomless depths of the ocean ; the 
 two needle-like ossicles on the sides of the single metacarpal or 
 metatarsal bone of the horse, which represent the other meta- 
 carpals or metatarsals which have disappeared ; &c. 
 
 Examples are numerous in Man. The semUunar fold at the 
 internal angle of the eye, so marked in some persons, would repre- 
 sent the remains of the third eyelid of marsupials, the walrus, &c. 
 
■Chap, hi.] REYEESrVE ANOMALIES. 12V 
 
 Tte vermicular appendix of the large intestiae, whicli seems useless, 
 and is occasionally the cause of death, is the representative of an 
 organ which is enormous in herbivorous animals, and in the koala 
 attains a length three times that of the hody. The muscles of the 
 ear, equally useless, although sufficiently developed in some indi- 
 viduals to enable them to move the cartilage, are merely vestiges 
 of a very •well-marked apparatus in animals. The sub-vomerian 
 bone of Eambaud, in like manner, is the remains of the organ of 
 Jacobson, and is very much developed in the horse, as also in some 
 apes, &e. Anomalies are still more frequent in Man. We may 
 mention the bifid, and even the double uterus ; the former repeating 
 the homed uterus of the rodent, or the elongated and angular uterus 
 seen in some ordinary monkeys and lemurs ; the latter the double 
 uterus with two orifices of marsupials. We may mention the per- 
 sistence in the adult of the suture which divides the malar bones 
 into two, as in some apes and other mammaha ; that of the median 
 frontal suture, as in the majority of the lower mammalia ; the ap- 
 pearance, once in a hundred times, according to Mr. Turner, of the 
 super-condylean humeral foramen peculiar to various animals, 
 through which the principal nerve and artery of the limb pass ; 
 the altogether simian conformation of the cartilage of the ear ; &c. 
 
 In the muscles especially reversions are common. Traces of the 
 cutaneous muscle are seen in the armpits and on the scapulse, as 
 well as on the head and face ; the sternal muscle of mammaha was 
 seen in 18 out of 600 men; the ischio-pubic muscle, > constant in 
 the majority of male animals, was noticed in 19 out of 40 men, and 
 in 2 out of 30 women ; the elevator claviculse of most apes in 1 
 out of 60. M. Chadzinski, in the " Eevue d'Anthropologie," has 
 given many examples of simian arrangements in Man. Mr. J. 
 Wood found in one individual as many as seven examples of 
 muscles pecuhar to certain apes. 
 
 Whatever interpretation may be given to these facts, they estab- 
 lish a link between the type of organisation of Man and that of 
 animals. A third order of facts has been brought together, namely, 
 those which we term teratological, and of which we shall speak by- 
 and-by. 
 
128 DEVELOPMENT OP THE BODY. [Chap. it. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGIC All OHAEACTBRISTICS DEVELOPMENT OP THE BODY 
 
 BMBETOGBNT, SUTURES AND EPIPHYSES, TEETH — -DETERMINA- 
 TION OP THE AGE AND SEX OP THE SKELETON GENERAL AND 
 
 SPECIAL FUNCTIONS PSYOHICAl MANIFESTATIONS, FACULTY OP 
 
 EXPRESSION. 
 
 Hitherto we have been engaged ■with anatomical characters, that 
 is to say, with those relating to the organs as seen after death. 
 We shall now consider the physiological, or those exhihited in the 
 living subject, the result of the growth and development of those 
 organs. Their history commences from the period when the first 
 lineaments of organisation were planned, continues through the 
 various phases of existence, and exhibits to us Man moving and 
 thinking, up to the period when motion and thought cease. 
 
 Development — A ge. 
 
 Our first entrance into life is unostentatious, and in no way 
 differs from that of animals. Enclosed in an ovum of the same 
 character as that of all the oviparous or viviparous mammalia, 
 nothing then distinguishes the future monarch from the humblest 
 pariah— the lord of creation from the ape or the kangaroo. The 
 researches of WoM in 1759, of Oken in 1806, of Baer in 1819, 
 of Coste, &c., have put this beyond contradiction. 
 
 The ovum at first is a simple cell, a microscopic point, which is 
 composed of an albuminous substance, or vitellus, and of a nucleus, 
 or germinal vesicle, enclosing within it a nucleolus, or germinal 
 spot. Under this form it is throvm off from the ovaries, traverses 
 the oviduct, passes into the uterus, and, if it becomes fecundated, 
 is there developed. The cell then becomes divided into two, into 
 four, and gradually into an infinite number of cells, which increase 
 at the periphery and assume the form of a hollow sphere. At one 
 
Chap. iv.J DEVELOPMENT OF THE BODY. J 29 
 
 point there afterwards appears an opacity, whiclL becomes elongated 
 and divided into three leaflets. This is the rudiment of the future 
 being, whether man or dog. The external leaflet wiU become the 
 skin and cerebro-spinal axis, the internal the digestive mucous 
 membrane, the middle the parenchyma from which the various 
 organs are formed. The multiplication of cells continuing, a 
 primitive line is drawn, which has at one of its extremities an en- 
 largement, upon which before long are seen five ampullse. The 
 line is the spinal cord, the enlargement is the brain, the anterior 
 ampidla will be the hemispheres, the second the optic thalamus, the 
 third the tubercida quadrigemina, the fourth the cerebellum, and 
 the fifth the medulla oblongata. 
 
 According to the variable development of these rudiments, 
 results, by degrees, the special genus or species. At the fourth 
 week the difference between the Man and the dog is inappreciable. 
 The divergence only commences in earnest at the eighth week. In 
 the human foetus the anterior ampulla becomes larger, in the foetus 
 of the dog the caudal extremity elongates. 
 
 At birth the infant weighs from 3 to 4 kilogrammes, and is 
 50 centimtoes .in length; his pulse is 140 in the minute; a 
 fine down covers his body; his pupils are generally open as 
 soon as respiration becomes fully established ; the thymus gland, 
 an organ exclusively foetal, atrophies. He takes the breast up 
 to the second or third year, or rather until the sixteen or 
 twenty m\U]r teeth have appeared. During the period of infancy 
 the pulsfr ranges from 100 to 110, the respiration becomes propor- 
 tionately slower, its movements being in relation to the heart's 
 pulsations as 1 to 3. At about 14 years, in our climates, puberty takes 
 place in the boy ; his features become altered, the voice changes, the 
 beard developes, and most important modifications take place in the 
 genital organs. At the same time, in the girl, the breasts increase 
 in size, the menses make their appearance. At 20 years adult age 
 is attained ; growth still goes on ; the brain continues to be 
 developed in proportion to its exercise, and attains its maximum of 
 activity at or before 35 years. Soon decadence commences ; the 
 faculty oi reproduction in the man becomes diminished. In womau 
 
 K 
 
ISO GROWTH OF THE BRAIN. [Chap. it. 
 
 the hair turns white and falls off ; the teeth hecome loosened from 
 their sockets ; the crjstaUine lens is flattened, causing the eye to 
 become presbyopic ; the senses become dull ; the lung is emphy- 
 sematous, the heart hypertrophied j the arteries become ossified; 
 fat is infiltrated through the tissues, and death takes place naturally, 
 ■without any struggle, from the moment that one of the three prin- 
 cipal organs of organic life — the heart, the lung, or the digestive 
 tube — loses the power to perform its function.* 
 
 Except ia some trifling particulars, this is the same as regards all 
 mammalia. The organisation of Man, of the anthropoid ape, or of 
 the carnivora, obeys the same physiological laws, and passes through 
 three similar periods : one of growth, one of full development — 
 during which the process of reproduction goes on — and one of 
 decay. These periods are of longer or shorter duration — that is the 
 only difference. Of all these phenomena, those which are exhibited 
 on the skeleton have the greatest amount of interest for the anthro- 
 pologist. It is by a thorough acquaintance with them that we 
 determine with accuracy the age of bones, a problem not less im- 
 portant for the anthropologist in his laboratory than for the 
 archseologist who is desirous of ascertaining the date of his fossils. 
 
 A few words, however, as to the head. Its proportions relatively 
 to the body during the earliest periods of embryonic existence, or 
 even at birth, are not what they are at a later period. At the 
 second month of intra-uterine life the head forms one-haK, at 
 birth one-quarter, and at adult age one-eighth part of the entire 
 body. The same may be said as regards the contents of the brain- 
 case. 
 
 Qrowfh of the Brain. 
 
 Throughout the whole of the mammalian series this organ is 
 
 * M. Brooa dividea the periods of Imman life as follows : First infancy 
 from birth, to the end of the sixth year, when the first large permanent 
 molar is cut ; second infancy, from 7 to 14 years, on the eruption of the 
 second molars ; youth, from 14 to 25 years, when the basilar suture is 
 ossified, or the wisdom tooth is out ; adult age, from 25 to 40, when the 
 cerebral sutures begin to ossify ; ripe age, from 40 to 60 ; old age, beyond 
 60 years. In oraniomrtry, we designate, in a general way, under the name 
 of adult, crania in which the basilar suture is closed. 
 
Chap, it.] OSSIFICATION OF THE CEANIAL SUTURES. 131 
 
 smaller relatively to the rest of the body at hirth than at the period 
 of its complete development. In the newly-born marsupial, Mr. 
 Owen says it is less large in proportion than in the upper classes 
 of mammalia. 
 
 The following figures of M. Welcker exhibit the cranial capacity 
 in Man at different ages, and conser[uently the progressive volume 
 of his brain : 
 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 
 Centimfetres. 
 
 Centimetres 
 
 New-bom infant 
 
 ... 400 ... 
 
 ... 360 
 
 At 2 months 
 
 ... 540 ... 
 
 ... 610 
 
 At 1 yeax 
 
 ... 900 ... 
 
 ... 850 
 
 At 3 years 
 
 ... 1080 ... 
 
 ... 1010 
 
 At 10 years 
 
 ... 1360 ... 
 
 ... 1250 
 
 From 20 to 60 years ... 
 
 ... 1450 ... 
 
 ... 1300 
 
 In anthropoids the development is less rapid : we are ignorant 
 as to their cranial capacity at birth, but during the first dentition, 
 in eight orangs, it was found to be 322 cubic centimfetres, while ia 
 15 adults of the same species it was 413. Supposing, then, that 
 their first dentition takes place at the mean age of two years, the 
 cranial capacity would iacrease 31 per cent, in Man from this period 
 to adult age, and 22 per cent, only iu the orang. 
 
 To obviate the numerous disorders to which so considerable a 
 •development of the brain would give rise, owing to the resistance 
 •of the walls of the cranium, the sutures which unite the bones 
 preserve their softness a much longer time in Man, and do not 
 begin to ossify until a late period, when there is no longer any 
 probability of the iucrease of the contents, and when cerebral 
 acti-dty is becoming less. This leads us to speak of the action of 
 the sutures, and of the chief means of ascertairiing the age of a 
 cranium. 
 
 Ossification of the Cranial Sutures. 
 
 The bones pass through three phases, corresponding to the three 
 periods of life. In the first, the bone is soft, then cartilaginous ; 
 m the second, it is osseous, and continues so in every part ; in the 
 
 K 2 
 
132 OSSIFICATION OF THE CBA:ffIAL SUTURES [Chap. it. 
 
 tHrd, or senile period, it becomes more dense, although lighter and 
 more fragile, the diploe in the flat bones is more spongy, the 
 medullary canal in the long bones is of greater diameter, and the 
 ceUs at their extremities are larger. Between the first and second 
 period there is one of transition, during which points or centres of 
 ossification appear in the middle of the cartilage, which gradually 
 become larger and larger, and at last occupy the entire bone. These 
 points are of two descriptions — ^the principal ones for the body, or 
 diaphysis ; the secondary for the extremities, or epiphyses, and the 
 prominences or processes. 
 
 In the skuU, the points of ossification first appear in the centres 
 which correspond with the bodies of the three cranial vertebrae — the 
 basilar process of the occipital, the posterior sphenoid and the 
 anterior sphenoid, then in the lateral bones and in those of the- 
 vault. It is well to know the period at which the secondary 
 portions become united, so as to be enabled to judge, in certain 
 circumstances, if the development has proceeded regularly. Thus : 
 At the third month of foetal life the two superior points of the 
 occipital shell become united to the two inferior. "What we caU 
 the interparietal suture is closed. 
 
 At the eighth or ninth month of foetal Kfe the body of the 
 anterior sphenoid is united to the body of the posterior sphenoid. 
 
 About two months after birth, the false suture which separates 
 the basilar portion of the occipital from the two condylean portions 
 is closed. 
 
 About the fifth or sixth months the body of the posterior- 
 sphenoid is united to the greater wings. 
 
 About a year, the three portions of the temporal — ^the petrous,, 
 the mastoid, and the squamous — beeome anchylosed. The two^ 
 halves cif the frontal also. The suture which they form whem 
 they are persistent in the adult, is called the medio-frontal, or- 
 metopic. We have noticed this abnormal persistence in 58 out of 
 611 Parisian skulls which we Jiave examined = 1 in 9-65. 
 
 About the third or fourth year, the styloid process becomes 
 united to the temporal, unless it continues separated from it during, 
 the remainder of life. 
 
Chap, it.] OSSIFICATION OF THE CRANIAL SUTURES. 133 
 
 About tlie fifth or sixth year, the suture which separates the 
 external occipital portion of the occipital sheU is closed. 
 
 The true sutures are the coronal, the sagittal, the lamhdoidal, 
 the temporal, and the spheno-parietal, spaces heing formed at their 
 junction, which are designated hy the name of fontaneUes. The 
 exact period at which the process of ossification is completed at 
 theii edges is douhtful. The sagittal and coronal sutures close 
 ¥ery soon after hirth, and before those of the base. The bregmatic 
 fontanelle, except in cases of disease, is always closed before two- 
 and-a-haM years of age according to M. Bouvier, and sooner 
 according to M. Broea. 
 
 The suture which unites the occipital to the sphenoid is 
 sometimes wanting in animals, sometimes it remains persistent 
 through the whole of life : in Man it passes immediately from 
 the oaxtUaginous to the osseous state at from 18 to 22 years of 
 age. 
 
 All these data serve to determine the age, but it is at their third 
 phase, when other parts of the body fail to give us any information, 
 that the examination of the sutures becomes valuable. 
 
 At this moment the serratures become obliterated, the bones 
 which are in contact become anchylosed, the suture is synostosed. 
 This synostosis, one of the first signs of age in the skeleton, may in 
 some cases be produced more quickly by disease. There is, then, 
 no adult or stationary condition of the suture, and the younger the 
 individual the more serious the disorders which result from it as 
 regards the development of the cranium and the brain. We shall 
 consider this subject further when speaking as to pathological 
 characters. The spot where synostosis first appears during the 
 progress of age varies. The most frequent is at a point on the 
 sagittal, at the union of its posterior fifth with its anterior three- 
 fifths, where the suture is clearly marked, oMlion. At other times 
 it is at the extremities of the coronal> near the temporal ridge, or 
 lower down, at the junction of the four sutures, in the form of the 
 letter H. The second or third spot is on the lambdoidal suture, 
 the synostosis appearing at first in the middle of one of its 
 branches, or as an extension of the sagittal ossification. The fourth 
 
134 OSSIFICATION OF THE CRANIAL SUTURES. [Chap. it. 
 
 point is the coronal suture, close to the bregma. The fifth is on 
 the squamous suture of the temporal.* 
 
 In a word, if the suture is entire, the indiridual is about 35 
 years of age or less. If the posterior sagittal point is commencing 
 to close he is about 40 years. The ossification of the coronal 
 suture close to the bregma would show that he was 50 or more. 
 If the temporal suture is closed he would be 66 or more. As 
 regards intermediate and subsequent ages we examine as to the 
 extent to which complete closure has taken place at each spot, and 
 also as to other matters, of which we are about to speak. 
 
 The definite period of ossification of the sutures moreover varies 
 very considerably. It sometimes takes place partially and very 
 early in life ; at others it is retarded. The more the brain is 
 exercised the more it is postponed, according to M. Broca. In 
 idiots it takes place early. It varies according to race. In the 
 white races the ossification generally proceeds from behind for- 
 wards. In the negro races it is the reverse, according to Gratiolet, 
 that is to say from before backwards. This latter statement is 
 somewhat hasty ; and without going so far as to deny it, we should 
 say it cannot be looked upon as universally the case. 
 
 If the brain-case at the period of birth is very large, the face, on 
 the other hand, is small, and makes increase, especially in the 
 maxillary region, as is shown by the enlargement of the facial angle 
 and of the angle of prothagnism, from infancy to adult age. The 
 development for the most part takes place in the alveolar arches, at 
 the part corresponding with the molars of the second dentition ; 
 they become elongated from behind forwards, and increase in height 
 and thickness. 
 
 A phenomenon the reverse of this takes place when the teeth 
 fall out naturally in the progress of age ; the edges of the alveoU 
 come nearer together and become absorbed, and the alveolar border 
 loses its height and thickness. Two anatomical results are the 
 consequence : (1) The mental foramen, situated in the adult at an 
 
 * See "Reoherohes box I'l^tat Senile du Crane," by E. Sauvage. Paris, 
 1870. 
 
Chap, iv.] EVOLUTION OF THE TEETH. 135 
 
 equal distance from, or a little nearer to, the two borders of the 
 hone, appears ia the old man gradually to come nearer to the 
 superior, a circumstance of which M. Broca has taken particular 
 notice ia his interesting memoir, published ia 1848, on the bones 
 of Celestines. (2) The angle which the horizontal makes with the 
 posterior branch of the lower jaw becomes widened, and has a 
 tendency to return to that which it was in iafancy. This angle at 
 birth is from 170 to 160 degrees; it descends to 150 and 130 
 during the first dentition; then to 115 degrees duriag the second 
 dentition ; approaches a right angle during the adult period, and 
 returns to 130 and 140 degrees ia old age {Humphry). Thence a 
 series of characteristics which, even in solitary maxillse, enables us 
 to ascertain approximately the age of the individual. Besides 
 those furnished by the cranial sutures, there are others drawn from 
 the ebumification, or the unequal atrophy of the malformed 
 cranium, as weU as those from the teeth : aU appearances on the 
 head, so probably indicative of the same fact as regards age, as to 
 be looked upon as certaiaties. 
 
 The maxillary apparatus is not the only portion of the face which 
 assumes various alterations of phase during life. The brain cavities 
 do the same in a less degree. Thus the frontal siauses connected 
 "vvith the olfactory apparatus are rudimentary in the infant, very 
 largely developed in the adult, and become atrophied ia old age. 
 All the siauses of the face, moreover, iacludiag the mastoid cells, 
 obey the same law — they do not arrive at their full development 
 untU after puberty. 
 
 Evolution of the Teeth. 
 
 Of aU the methods ia use for the purpose of determining the age 
 of a cranium, particularly before the adult period, those derived 
 from the examination of the teeth are the most satisfactory. Their 
 evolution is divided iato two periods, the more important to define, 
 in that we have no other data from which to form an idea as to the 
 relative age of the monkeys imported into Europe. The duration 
 of the first period in Man is about 24 months, when the whole of 
 the milk or temporary teeth are cut; that of the second ia sis 
 
136 
 
 ERUPTION OF THE TEETH. 
 
 [Chap. iv. 
 
 years, when the permanent teeth appear. The wisdom teeth we do 
 not take into consideration, as often they are not cut at all. The 
 following table shows the mean period of the eruption of each 
 tooth. It thus appears that from three to five years Man has the 
 minimum number of 20 teeth; from seven to twelve, 24; from 
 fourteen to sixteen, 28 ; and later on, the maximum number, 32, 
 not reckoning anomalies in the shape of supernumerary teeth. 
 
 Eruption of the Teeth in Man. 
 Tempoeakt oe Deciduous Teeth = 20. 
 
 
 CruToahier. 
 
 Magitot. 
 
 
 Incisors, middle lower 
 
 4tli to lOtli month . 
 
 6 months 
 
 „ „ upper ... 
 
 A little after ... 
 
 10 , 
 
 „ lateral lower 
 
 8th to 16th month 
 
 ... 16 
 
 
 „ „ upper ... 
 
 A little after ... 
 
 ... ,20 
 
 J 
 
 Molars, first small, lower... 
 
 15th to 24th month . 
 
 ... 24 
 
 ) 
 
 „ „ „ upper... 
 
 — — 
 
 ... 26 
 
 
 Canine 
 
 20th to 30th month . 
 
 30 to 32 
 
 
 Molars, second small, lower 
 
 28th to 40th month . 
 
 ... 28 
 
 » 
 
 „ „ „ Tipper 
 
 — — 
 
 ... 30 
 
 
 Peemanent Teeth = 32. 
 
 
 
 Craveilhier. 
 
 Magitot. 
 
 Molars, first large ... 
 
 7 years ,.. 
 
 5 to 6 years. 
 
 Incisors, middle, lower ... 
 
 6to 8 „ ... 
 
 ■ - 7 „ 
 
 „ „ upper ... 
 
 7 „ 9 „ ... 
 
 
 „ lateral ... 
 
 8 „ 10 „ ... 
 
 8i „ 
 
 Molars, first small. . . 
 
 9 „ 11 „ ... 
 
 9 „ 11 „ 
 
 „ second small 
 
 11 „ 13 „ ... . 
 
 ... 11 „ 
 
 Canine ... 
 
 10 „ 11 „ ... 
 
 11 ,, 12 „ 
 
 Molars, second large 
 
 12 „ 14 „ ... 
 
 12 „ 13 „ 
 
 „ third large, or denies 
 
 
 
 
 18 „ 30 
 
 18 „ 25 
 
 "With the skull before ns it is generally easy to determine the 
 age before 18 years. Sometimes, in the interval between the two 
 periods of eruption, search must be made at the bottom of the 
 alveolus, or we must judge from the projection of the anterior sur- 
 face of the alveolar border, as to the time when the tooth is about 
 to make its appearance. In old age, when the teeth naturally fall 
 
■ Chap, it.] CHARACTERS OF THE TEETH. 137 
 
 out, we shoidd look to see how far tlie alveolus is closed or fiUed 
 up. The molars fall out first. "We may guess the prohable age on 
 the iuferior maxilla hy the number of empty alveoli, hy the 
 amount of absorption of the alveolar arches, and by the senile 
 indications already mentioned. 
 
 There is another method of ascertaining the age, namely, by 
 examining the amount of wear and tear of the teeth. The 
 deciduous as well as the permanent teeth wear out, but the latter 
 more so, on account of their much greater length of use. The 
 molars and canines are generally the most worn, but in the inferior 
 or prehistoric races the incisors axe frequently worn down one-half 
 or four-fifths of their height. M. Broca lays down four degrees of 
 wear : in the first, the enamel is alone worn ; in the second, the 
 tubercles of the crown have disappeared and the ivory is exposed ; 
 in the third, some portion of the height of the tooth is reduced ; in 
 the fourth, the wear has extended to the neck. The last is seen in 
 old age, but it is more often the result of particular habits, as that 
 of chewing the betel-nut, among the Malays, or working with the 
 teeth on skias, among the Esquimaux. The tubercles of the first 
 molar are soon worn down, occasionally by the commencement of 
 adult age ; those of the second molar are more persistent. 
 
 In a word, the determination of the age of a cranium is reduced 
 to a balancing of probabilities : the condition of the sutures deciding 
 the question in one way, the wearing away of the teeth or the 
 ■character of the jaw in another : we should take the mean. At two 
 or five years one can scarcely be deceived ; taking the period from 
 22 to 38 years it is more difficult to decide. 
 
 Distinctive Characters of the Teeth. 
 
 We cannot conclude this chapter without statiug the principles 
 by the guidance of which the archaeologist or the anthropologist 
 may discover the alveolus to which any isolated tooth belongs. 
 The teeth of the second dentition interest us most in this respect. 
 The four kinds may be recognised as follows ; the incisors are sharp 
 at the edges, the canines have a single and conical point, the small 
 
138 DISTINCTIVE CHAEACTERS OF THE TEETH. [Chap. it. 
 
 and large molars a flat and tuberculated crown. The difficulty is 
 to know to wMoh jaw and to which side of the jaw they belong. 
 
 In a general way, the teeth of the upper jaw are larger than 
 those of the lower, with the exception of the large molars, where it 
 is often the reverse. The incisors may be recognised in the same 
 way ; the middle incisors of the upper jaw, and the lateral of the 
 lower, are the largest. The upper canines are not only larger but 
 longer. 
 
 The second character has a certain value. The curve which the 
 superior dental arch describes is wider than the inferior, and its 
 posterior branches are turned outwards, whUe those of the inferior 
 arch are turned inwards. It follows from this that the two arches 
 do not exactly agree, the upper incisors passing a little in front of 
 the lower, and the crown of the upper molars overlapping, on the 
 outside, the crown of the lower. The wearing away, then, of any 
 one or more molars begins on the inner side on the upper jaw, and 
 on the outer on the lower. Hence, also, the plane of this wearing 
 down is considerably oblique inwardly as regards the upper teeth, 
 and oblique outwardly as regards the lower. For the same reason 
 the sharp border of the lower incisors is worn slopingly on the 
 anterior surface, which causes them to be easily recognised. 
 
 The third character has reference to aU the teeth, but especi- 
 ally to the incisors and canines, and then to the small molars. 
 Of the two lateral surfaces of the tooth, the internal — when we are 
 speaking of the front teeth — or anterior, when speaking of the 
 side teeth — is relatively plane and vertical ; the other, external or 
 posterior, is swollen and convex, and sKghtly mammillated close to 
 the crown. — (Colignon). 
 
 The fourth character has sole reference to the molars, and is 
 derived from the tubercles on their crowns — two on the small and 
 four on the large molars. The largest tubercle on the smaE. molars 
 is on the outside ; the groove which separates them is somewhat 
 deep in the upper, and is occasionally interrupted by the vestige of 
 a third tubercle in the lower. The four tubercles of the large 
 molars are separated by a cross-shaped sulcus, and sometimes a 
 fifth tubercle is noticed. The wisdom tooth has usually only three 
 
Chap, iv.] DISTINOTrVB CHAEACTERS OF THE TEETH. 139 
 
 tubercles — two external and one internal ; or its crown presents tlie 
 form of the letter S, the posterior branch of -which commences on 
 the inside, and the anterior branch terminates on the outside by 
 doubling upon itself. In reality, its tubercles exhibit the same 
 arrangement as the adjoining great molar, but are less definite, and, 
 as it were, rudimentary. 
 
 The fangs furnish the last characters of ■which we shall speak. 
 The small molars have usually but one, except the second upper, 
 which has frequently two. The large lower molars have two fangs, 
 an anterior and a posterior, which are curved shghtly the one 
 towards the other, and converge at the point. The upper have 
 three fangs, one internal and two external, which diverge, because 
 the inferior border of the maxOlary siuus passes between them 
 (Broca). In the large lower molars, the fang which is behind is 
 by far the larger ; in the upper, the intermediate one is the largest. 
 The wisdom tooth has the same number of fangs as the adjoining 
 molars, but they are generally consolidated into one or two. 
 Lastly, the fangs of aU the teeth, but especially those of the 
 incisors, the canines, and the small molars, have their points curved 
 outwards or backwards in the direction crossing the arch. — ■ 
 (CoUgnon). 
 
 We may add that the crown of the first large molar bears some- 
 times a resemblance to that of a small molar, and the first smaU 
 molar to a canine. The first large molar is the strongest, the third 
 has the lowest crown. The milk teeth may be recognised by the 
 following marks : they are bluish-white in colour, and not of the 
 yeUowish-blue tint of those of the second dentition. The incisors 
 and canines are smaller, and have shorter fangs. The two milk 
 molars are larger than the two small permanent molars ; they are 
 multicuspidate, and not bicuspidate, having three tubercles on the 
 outside and two on the inside. They have more the appearance of 
 large molars than of the smaU. molars which succeed them. If we 
 take, then, the head alone, it is easy to determine the age ; if the 
 rest of the skeleton, with the exception of one or two bones, we 
 arrive at the same result. The indications are still derived from the 
 evolution of certain parts. 
 
140 OSSIFICATION OP THE LONG BONES. [Chap. it. 
 
 Ossification of the Long Bones. 
 
 At tte end of the fourth week of intra-uterine life, the points 
 of ossification of the clavicle make their appearance ; then those of 
 the lower jaw ; from the thirty-fifth to the fortieth day those of 
 the femur, the humerus, the tibia, the superior maxilla, the 
 vertebrae, and the ribs ; about the fiftieth day those of the cranium ; 
 and then — of which there is some doubt — of the scapula, &c. 
 Ossification continues to go on ; the points of the extremities, 
 or epiphyses of the long bones, become united to one another, and 
 then to the body or diaphysis. Of course the length of the bone 
 furnishes some evidence of the age, but the following data are 
 preferable. The periods indicated represent the mean of the 
 variations observed and recorded by authors : 
 
 About 5 years, the scaphoid, the latest formed cf the bones of the tarsus, is 
 ossified. 
 „ 12 „ the pisiform, the latest formed of the bones of the carpus, is 
 ossified. 
 14 „ the three portions of the iliac bone are united. 
 
 14 „ the inferior extremity of the radins is united to the body of 
 the bone. 
 
 15 „ the superior extremity of the ulna is united to the body of 
 the bone. 
 
 15 „ the lesser trochanter of the femur is united' to- the greater. 
 
 15 „ the coraooid process is united to the scapula. 
 
 16 ,, the caloaneum is ossified throughout. 
 
 17 „ the greater trochanter is united to the head of the femur. 
 17 „ all the points of the inferior extremity of the humerus are 
 
 united. 
 
 17 „ the epiphyses of the phalanges of the fingers^ are united to 
 the body of the bone. 
 
 18 „ the super' ir extremity of the femur is united in its entirety 
 to the shaft. 
 
 18 „ the inferior extremity of the humerus is united to the body 
 
 of the bone. 
 18 „ the inferior extremity of the tibia is united to the body. 
 
 18 „ the inferior extremity of the fibula is united to the body. 
 
 19 „ the epiphyses of the metatarsal bones are united to the 
 body. 
 
Chap, it.] DEyELOPMBNT OP THE EOEB-AEM. 141 
 
 About 19 years, the superior extremity of the humerus ia united to the 
 
 body. 
 „ 20 „ the epiphyses of the metacarpal bones are united to the 
 
 body. 
 „ 20 „ the inferior extremity of the femur is united to the body. 
 „ 20 „ the inferior extremity of the radius is united to the body. 
 „ 20 „ the inferior extremity of the fibula is united to the body. 
 „ 20 „ the inferior extremity of the ulna is united to the body. 
 „ 20 „ the body of the sphenoid is united to the body of the 
 
 occipital. 
 „ 20 ,, the patella is completely ossified. 
 „ 20 „ the sacral vertebrae are auohylosed together. 
 „ 45 „ the xiphoid cartilage is anchylosed to the sternum. 
 „ 50 „ the coccyx is anchylosed to the saornin. 
 
 It is said that dining foetal life the body is developed more 
 rapidly than, the head. The extremities, M. Sappey says, are 
 formed from their free extremity to their root ; the greater part of 
 the hand and foot appears in the form of huds attached to the 
 trunk ; then the fore-arm and the leg, the arm and the thigh, 
 successively m.ake their appearance ; the divisions into fingers and 
 toes appear the last. When first fully formed the various segments 
 have not the proportions -which they have at a later period. The 
 femurs, smaU at first in. proportion to the body, afterwards become 
 relatively large. The same with the humerus. M. Hamy, taking 
 the measurements of Sue, G-unz, Liharzic, and others, has shown 
 that about the fourteenth day of intrar-nteriae hfe, the fore-arm of 
 the European is longer than the humerus ; while from about two 
 months and a half it gradually becomes smaller. At this period the 
 length of the fore-arm, in proportion to that of the humerus, is 
 as 88 to 100; at birth this relation is 77; and from 5 to 13 
 years reaches 72, which it henceforth preserves. In the adult 
 Negro this relation is higher ; from which M. Hamy concludes that 
 the proportions of the fore-arm, relatively to the arm, are at first 
 of the Negro character in the European, and assume their true 
 character at a later period. 
 
 Other modifications, some connected with evolution, others with 
 the biped attitude, are exhibited ia the inferior extremities. 
 
 The pelvis at birth is relatively narrow, and, as a consequence. 
 
142 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE EEMUE. 
 
 [Chap. it. 
 
 tlie great troclianters appear more projecting. The angle ■whicli the 
 neck of the femur makes with the body of the bone is very mde, 
 and the two femiors fall almost perpendicularly. At adult age the 
 pelvis enlarges ; the trochanter femoris is less projecting ; the angle 
 of the neck is less open — from 125 to 130 degrees in the man, and 
 approaching a right angle in the woman (Humphry) ; the shaft of 
 the hone is very oblique, owing to the inferior extremity making 
 an angle with the perpendicular, looking from above, of about 15 
 degrees. In old age the angle of the neck is still diminished, and 
 in the man reaches about 110 degrees ; the pelvis appears larger, 
 and the great trochanters are less prominent; lastly, the curve, with 
 its concavity looking backwards, is increased. 
 
 We may add, incidentally, that the angle of the neck is smaller, 
 and the obliquity of the femur more pronounced in short men : it 
 is the same in woman, according to Humphry. These two 
 anatomical conditions of the femur — the obliquity estimated by 
 the angle which its extremity makes with the vertical, and the 
 angle of its neck with the diaphysis — have been the Subject of 
 special study by our colleague. Dr. Kuhff. His researches have 
 been carried out upon twenty-four femurs, and the following are the 
 mean results obtained in reference to these two points : 
 
 
 
 Angle of 
 
 Angle of 
 
 
 Number. 
 
 obliquity. 
 
 neck. 
 
 Cavern of La Lozfere 
 
 8 . 
 
 .. 9°-7 .. 
 
 125° 
 
 Dolmens of La Lozfere 
 
 5 . 
 
 11 
 
 122 
 
 Grottoes of La MB-me 
 
 ... 19 
 
 .. 11 .. 
 
 . 129 
 
 Gallo-Romans 
 
 6 . 
 
 .. 12 .. 
 
 . 122 
 
 CarloTingians 
 
 4 
 
 .. 12 .. 
 
 119 
 
 His maximum and minimum degrees of obliquity are 14 and 8 
 respectively, and of the angle of the neck, 140 and 117 degrees. 
 The results agree very closely with those of Mr. Humphry. 
 
 One of the causes of the diminution of the stature at an advanced 
 age is the sinking of the neck. Another, stiU more important, is 
 the subsidence of the intervertebral discs, which takes place for the 
 most part anteriorly, whereby the whole of the trunk is bent 
 forwards. Osseous vegetations are thrown out between the body 
 
Chap. IV.] DIFFERENCES IN THE SKELETON. 143 
 
 of one vertelDra and that of another, wMch tend to strengthen the 
 column and to limit the incurvation. 
 
 If the first task of the anthropologist, Trhen called upon to give 
 his opinion upon human remains, is to determine their age, his 
 second is to ascertain the sex. Both studies concern Man in his 
 ensemble, and not Man in his ethnic varieties. It is of the latter 
 therefore that we shall speak ia this place. 
 
 Sexual Differences in the Skeleton. 
 
 There is no appreciahle difference in the skeleton in infancy, and 
 up to puberty ; its features are rather of a feminine character. At 
 puberty, the line of demarcation commences, but the characters 
 are not thoroughly defined until 20 years of age and upwards. At 
 about 45, or upwards, the distinctions of sex become less marked, 
 and at advanced age are but trifling, though the general character 
 of the skeleton is rather masculine. 
 
 The principles which govern the sexual differences in adult age 
 may be summed up ia a few words. All the parts of the female 
 skeleton are lighter and more frail; the general contour is more 
 soft and graceful; the eminences, processes, or tubercules, are 
 smaller and less marked. If there is one well-established physio- 
 logical fact, it is this : that the asperities which serve for the 
 insertion of muscles are developed in proportion to the . activity of 
 those muscles. Less marked in the studious man than in the 
 labourer, these asperities are still less so iu the woman, especially 
 in women residing in towns. This law is so exact that we can 
 tell by the degree of prominence of the crests and processes, what 
 muscles the individual was most in the habit of using, and hence 
 judge as to his profession or calling. As a sequence of these 
 prominences, the depressions, grooves, and marks are more distinct 
 in the man. So the temporal ridge, which serves superiorly for the 
 insertion of the temporal muscle, and the transverse ridges, which 
 divide the internal surface of the scapula, and serve for the insertion 
 of the subscapularis muscle, are more marked in the male ; the 
 
144 SEXUAL CHARACTBES OF THE SKELETON. [Chap. iv. 
 
 groove of torsion of the humerus is more visible, and the two S-like 
 curvatures of the ciaviole are stronger. In the woman, on the 
 contrary, the external protuberance of the occipital, and the two 
 subjacent curved lines which serve for the insertion of the muscles 
 of the nucha— the anterior tubercle of the tibia to which the triceps 
 femoris is attached — ^the tuberosity of the radius which gives 
 insertion to the biceps of the humeriis, are less prominent — the 
 curved alveolar borders are more regular — the borders of the malar 
 bone are less thick — the canine fossa is less deep. In a word, it is 
 tolerably easy to determiue the sex by the appearance of a bone ; in 
 the case of a long bone, we are rarely in doubt ; in a short bone, as 
 the calcaneum, it is stiU possible to do so. But we must not be 
 surprised if we are occasionally at fault ; by making a comparison 
 between one bone and another, the difGiculty will be cleared up. 
 Suppose we took the clean-shaved head of any individual, the beard 
 being removed, or the hand, or foot, the rest of the body being 
 concealed, anyone, particularly after a little practice, would be able 
 to tell whether the part belonged to a man or a woman, though it 
 might be sometimes difficult to do so. Both, whether spontaneously 
 or by reason of the work in which they had been engaged, or owing 
 to exposure to the air, would have aU the appearances of the 
 opposite sex. On the skeleton, a woman who had worked hard all 
 her life would have the bony prominences and the processes for the 
 articulations of muscles more developed, probably, than a man who 
 had not worked at aU. 
 
 Let us consider two organs only. The woman has the crests of 
 the ilia larger and wider, in other words, the lips more prominent ; 
 the subpubic foramen is of a triangular shape, while in the man it 
 is irregularly oval ; the symphysis pubis is shorter, the subjacent 
 arch is broad-pointed, while in the man it forms a very acute angle, 
 and the cotyloid cavities are more expanded. In a word, all the 
 transverse diameters of her pelvis are increased, while in the man 
 the vertical are the more so. In 113 male pelves, the maximum 
 width to the length, or maximum height, was as 125-5 to 1000, 
 and in the woman, as 135 to 1000. The mean relative width to 
 the height of the individual in each sex, is as 160 to 1000 in the 
 
Chap, iv.] SEXUAL CHARACTERS OF THE SKULL. 145 
 
 man, and as 174 in th.e -woman ; that is to say, fourteen-tliousandtlis 
 more in tlie latter. 
 
 Tlie head of the ■woman is smaller and lighter, its contours more 
 delicate, the surfaces smoother, the ridges and processes not so 
 marked. The superciliary arches are hut little prominent; the 
 external half of the superior orbital border is thin and sharp 
 {Broca). The forehead is vertical below, projecting ahoYe. The 
 occipital condyles are small, as also the mastoid and styloid pro- 
 cesses. The zygomatic arches are slender. The cranium in its 
 ensemble is less high and longer. The subnasal portion of the face 
 is more prognathous in the -white races, less so in the black. The 
 inferior maxilla is smaller, its posterior angles ha-ving no projecting 
 roughnesses. The frontal siuuses are less developed, &c. 
 
 Of aU these characters the most important and the only ones 
 easy to measure are the smallness of the head, the less capacity 
 of the cranial ca-vity, and the relative hghtness of the brain. Then 
 the obliteration of the glabella, the thro-wing out-wards of the 
 superior orbital border, the smallness of the inion, the slight pro- 
 jection of the occipital curved lines, and, lastly, the more abrupt 
 angle, more nearly approaching a right angle, of the forehead at 
 the level of the frontal protuberances. Five times out of sis 
 ■we may decide the question -with certainty ; M. Mantegazza 
 says nine times out of ten.* It may be asked, What skulls 
 should be preferred upon ■which to study the races of Man ? With 
 Van der Hoeven, we reply, those of men. No one -would be so 
 bold as to say that ethnic characters are best exhibited in 
 the cranium of the infant; but the skeleton of the -woman 
 is intermediate between that of the infant and the adult man. 
 Ha^ving considered the skeleton, we must take a brief glance 
 at other questions in relation to age and function in Man and 
 animals.t 
 
 * P. Mantegazza, " Dei Caraterri Sesauali del Cranio Umano," in "Arcliio 
 per I'Anthrop.," vol. ii., 1372; A. Dnrean, "Des Caraotferes Sexuels da 
 CrSne Humain," in " Revue d'Anthrop.," vol. ii., 1873. 
 
 + See Colin, " Traite de Physiologie Comparee des Animaux." Two vols. 
 Paris, 1871. 
 
 L 
 
14.6 
 
 PHENOMENA OF REPEODUCTION. 
 
 [Chap. iv. 
 
 The Temperature of the Body, 
 
 Some degrees above zero (centigrade) in most animals termed 
 cold blooded, as reptiles and fisbes, is some degrees higher in birds 
 and mammalia, which are both warm blooded. Moreover, it varies 
 but little in the latter. The temperature of Man (in the axilla) is 
 37"8 centigrade ; that of the hare and squirrel is the same ; that 
 of the horse is 38 ; of the ox, 38 '5 ; of the bat and the whale, 
 38'8 ; of the tiger and panther, 39 ; of the ordinary monkeys, 39'7 
 {Nogii}^); of the wolf, 40 'S. 
 
 The Pulse 
 
 Varies considerably. It is from 70 to 80 iu the minute in the 
 adult man ; from 25 to 28 in the elephant ; from 36 to 40 in the 
 horse ; from 45 to 50 in the ox ; from 70 to 80 in the pig, the 
 sheep, and the goat ; from 90 to 100 in the dog ; from 120 to 140 
 in the cat ; 175 in the dormouse ; 200 in the mouse. 
 
 Phenomena of Reproduction. 
 
 These exhibit still more marked differences. Three points here 
 demand our attention, viz. the duration of gestation, the number 
 of young, and menstruation. Generally speaking, in the mammahan 
 series, the circumstances which are favourable to reproduction are 
 in direct ratio to the shortness of life. The smaller species carry 
 their young a shorter period than the larger, and have a greater 
 number of young at a birth. In the following list we see the place 
 occupied by Man. He has two at a birth more frequently than the 
 monkey tribe,. and exceptionally he has three or four. 
 
 
 Period of Gestation. 
 
 Number of 
 
 
 Weeks. 
 
 young. 
 
 MoTiae .. 
 
 3 
 
 .. 10 to 15 
 
 Hare "',. 
 
 4 ■ 
 
 3 or 4 
 
 Ferret .. 
 
 6 
 
 .. 6 to 8 
 
 Dog- .. 
 
 9 ... 
 
 5 or 6 
 
 Liou 
 
 14 
 
 .. 4„ 5 
 
Chap, it.] 
 
 DURATION OF LIFE. 
 
 Period of Gestation. 
 Weeks. 
 
 Number of 
 yoxmg. 
 
 Koebuck.., 
 
 .. 24 
 
 .. 2 
 
 Maoauco... 
 
 .. 15 
 
 
 Macaous Ehoeens 
 
 .. 26 
 
 
 Maoaous Maimon 
 
 .. 34 
 
 
 Stag 
 
 .. 36 
 
 
 Seal 
 
 .. 39 
 
 
 Woman ... 
 
 .. 39 
 
 
 Cow 
 
 .. 41 
 
 
 Mare 
 
 .. 43 
 
 
 Camel 
 
 .. 45 
 
 
 Giraffe 
 
 .. 61 
 
 
 Elephant 
 
 .. 100 
 
 
 147 
 
 Menstruation is not confined to women, nor to the pithecian 
 moiikeys. The phenomenon is identical with that called " rut " in 
 animals. 
 
 Duration of lAfe. 
 
 The mean duration of Ufe in Man is at the present time, ia 
 France, about 40 years,* and the ordinary duration from 70 to 80. 
 Some individuals, exceptionally, live beyond 100 years. Beraud 
 says, one in 3100 ia England. Prichard mentions that in the year 
 1799, Eastron had collected together 1712 cases of centenarians : of 
 this numher, 277 had attained from 110 to 120 years; 117 from 
 120 to 150; and eight from 150 to 180. He also gives a great 
 number of other equally well-authenticated and not less extra^ 
 ordinary cases. With some exceptions, Man is the most highly 
 favoured of the mammalia as regards longevity ; the reproductive 
 faculty continues longer, and he enjoys a long old age. But is not 
 this due to the care which he takes of himself? The average 
 duration of Ufe in Europe is increasing, while in countries where 
 the people go about naked it is decreasing. 
 
 Among animals, longevity is generally less in the smaller species. 
 The pig lives to the age of 9 years, the dog from 15 to 18, the 
 
 * " Sur le Pretendue Degen&eaoenoe de la Popnlation Prangaise," by 
 M. Broca, in " Bull. Acad. Med." 1867. 
 
 L 2 
 
148 GENERAL PtnSTCTIONS. [OhaI?. iv. 
 
 bear from 20 to 25,* the horse and the ox to 20, the camel to 45, 
 the elephant from 150 to 200 years. As regards the three higher 
 anthropoids, the average duration of life is from 40 to 50 years. 
 
 General Functions and Psychical ManifeMations. 
 
 Man inhabits every region of the globe, and inures himself to all 
 climates and to aU conditions of Ufe. Whether at the pole or the 
 equator, on the highest mountains or in the deepest valleys, in arid 
 deserts or unhealthy swamps, nothing seems to -daunt him. The- 
 Esquimaux are to be met -with up to 80 degrees north. There are- 
 those who live and thrive in the Andes and the Himalayas, at an 
 altitude of 4000 or 5000 mtoes and upwards ; and we find in- 
 habitants even in those vast regions in which Livingstone travelled 
 up to his middle in water. From 47 degrees cent. ( = 116-6 Fahi.) 
 in the shade, as observed in Senegal, to 56 below zero ( = 100 degrees 
 Fahrenheit below freezing-point) at the poles, are the extremes of 
 temperature which he is able to support. Some animals readily 
 adapt themselves to the most opposite conditions of climate, as the- 
 dog ; others are unable to bear such changes, as the reindeer, the- 
 bear, the lion, the whale. This is how the disappearance of certain- 
 geological species, as the megatherium, the mastodon, and th& 
 mammoth, is to be accounted for. The anthropoid apes live in 
 communities in certain circumscribed regions ; the goriUa and the 
 chimpanzee on the west coast of Africa, at about 15 degrees north 
 and south of the equator ; the orang in Borneo and Sumatra ; the 
 gibbons in India, bordering on China and Malacca. M. Schwein- 
 furth has discovered a new species of chimpanzee on the banks of 
 the Upper White JSTile. Other species have been described,, 
 belonging to the tertiary epochs, in different parts of the globe, 
 especially in France. We may remark that the anthropoids are 
 only to be met -with in hot countries. This power which Man 
 possesses, of more or less readily accustoming himself to any climate, 
 is to be accounted for from the fact (1) That he is omnivorous; 
 
 * A bear cubbed in one of the pits in Berne, is said to tave reached the: 
 age of 47 years. 
 
Chap. IV.] GBNEEAL FUNCTIONS. ,149 
 
 and (2) that he knows how to clothe himself and to manufactuie 
 weapons and implements. The Esquimaux suhsists on oil and the 
 flesh of seals; the Todas of the Wilghemes on milk and pulse. 
 Some tribes live on fish and shell-fish, and take sea water as a 
 beverage. Others miK clay with theic food, while civilised nations 
 obtain their supplies from all sources. Man cooks his food, but he 
 does not despise the raw mpHusk, or undressed fish, or the raw 
 flesh of the mammalia. Unlike any other animal, he rears cattle 
 and devotes himself to agriculture. He makes use of various 
 animals, as the dog, the cat, the camel, and the reindeer, to sub- 
 serve his own purposes ; and even his feUow-creatures, be they 
 black or white, are equally under his dominion. In this respect 
 some animals imitate him — as the red ants in their treatment of 
 the black ants. 
 
 The majority of animals possess natural means of protection and 
 defeiice. The goriUa has a fur peculiar to himself, powerful canine 
 teeth, and a muscular system of extraordinary strength. Other 
 mammalia possess agility and swiftness in runnihg, which enables 
 them to escape from enemies. Man has nothing of the kind. 
 " leaked and without weapons," such is Linnseus's definition of 
 him. All his various methods of operation he owes to his industry. 
 Prom the remotest period he has made use of fire, and has manu- 
 factured flint implements. The anthropoid ape has never known 
 how to make use of a stafi', to put up a fence, to make a fire, nor 
 to construct a habitation which can be dignified by a higher title 
 than that of a nest.* The negroes of the islands in the Indian 
 Ocean, who live in trees, or sleep under bundles of sticks laid 
 against a rock, do so from indolence or indifierence, rather than 
 from incapacity. The lowest savages known have some notion of 
 drawing ; they know at least how to make a cross or a round in 
 imitation of objects which they see around them; and, for our 
 part, we attach but little credence to the statement made by Old- 
 field, that the aborigines of Western Australia are unable to 
 
 * Livingstone saw one of these enormous nests oonstmoted by tlie soko, 
 one of the ohimpanzeea. M. du ChaiUn saw a sort of circular roofing in 
 trEes, constructed by another chimpanzee, the troglodytes calvus. 
 
150 FAMILY BELATIONS. [Chap. it. 
 
 distinguish. th.e figure of a tree from that of a ship. In the same 
 region, other travellers hare observed, on the contrary, that they 
 possess a certain amount of intellectual capacity. It would have 
 been ■well if Oldfield had given some case in verification of his 
 stat6m.ent. 
 
 Among aU races of mankind there exists the desire to please, or 
 the love of dress. In civilised countries it is more developed in 
 the woman, among barbarous tribes it is more so in the man. Some 
 tattoo themselves, or suspend various ornaments to their ears, or to 
 the septum of the nose, while others dye their hair, or sharpen their 
 front teeth iato poiuts. Something analogous has been observed 
 iu domestic monkeys. Many tribes cannot count above two, 
 and are less favoured in this respect than the magpie, which 
 ean count up to three, some say up to twelve. But aU have 
 some notion of number. A Bosjesman, however, although in- 
 telligent in other respects, was incapable of adding one and one 
 together. 
 
 Man is not to be distinguished from animals as regards his family 
 relations. He is monogamous or polygamous, and the woman is 
 similarly polyandrous. The gorilla and the chimpanzee are mono- 
 gamous, very jealous of the fidelity of their partners, and very 
 devoted in their attentions to them. Man, likewise, attaches him- 
 self without hesitation to those of his own kindred. He lavishes 
 his care and love on his offspring beyond the period of lactation, 
 and up to that when they are able to look after themselves. If 
 this period should be prolonged beyond puberty it is owing to the 
 customs of society. The ceremonies which among all savage tribes 
 mark the progress from infancy to manhood also mark the period 
 at which Man acquires his independence. Maternal affection, 
 with aU its evidences of blind devotion, is, with rarest exceptions, 
 universal The father exercises authority over the life of his 
 children ; he practises infanticide openly at his will and pleasure, 
 in the same way as the son, at a later period, disencumbers him- 
 self from his parents who have become a burden to him. The 
 Todas destroy in the cradle aU their female children beyond a 
 certain number, as being useless, in the same way as they kill 
 
Ohap.it.] sociability. 151 
 
 all their male buffaloes but one, because tbey do not give milk. 
 In a state of nature Man considers utility first, and refers every- 
 tbing to his wants, his family, and so on. It must be confessed 
 that in the social condition there is much of this sort of thing 
 under a less rough exterior. Selfishness is well known to be the 
 moving principle almost universally, and is only limited in its 
 action by a fear of the law, or by education. 
 
 Man lives in society because he is compelled to do so, like many 
 other animals. Being endowed with the faculty of language, and 
 with exalted intellectual powers, he wants to exercise them, having 
 in view also the more ready satisfying of his material wants, and 
 the realisation of a larger amoimt of comfort. Emulation, which 
 results from this, is the most powerful cause of progress in the 
 physical, moral, and intellectual world. The larger the community, 
 the greater the amount of rivalry ; and the more fierce the contest, 
 the" more rapid the progress. 
 
 A great number of animals also seek the society of their fellow- 
 creatures, and work in company, as the beaver, the buffalo, the 
 Austrahan dog, the horse, the swallow, the bee, the ant. The 
 soko, an anthropoid ape, lives in a troop of ten individuals on the 
 banks of the river Lualaba. Many species of monkeys, like 
 Man, select a chief, who directs their operations and to whom they 
 submit. The howlers, or mycetes, belonging to the cebian family, 
 hold meetings in which one of them speaks for hours at a time in 
 the midst of general silence, succeeded by great excitement, which 
 ceases as soon as the speaker gives the word of command. Other 
 monkeys combine together to plan an incursion; divided into 
 detachments, some plunder and tear up roots, others make a chain 
 for the purpose of carrying them from hand to hand ; others are 
 placed as sentinels to keep watch. In unexpected danger, the 
 sentinel gives the alarm and all decamp. It has been remarked 
 that if it happens that the troop is surprised, owing to the fault of 
 the sentinel, there is a grand hubbub in the neighbouring forest 
 during the night, and on the morrow the body of one of the 
 plunderers is found, to aU appearance having been put to death by 
 his companions. 
 
152 RELIGIOUSNESS. [Chap, it, 
 
 It has been said that one of the characteristics of man is religious- 
 ness, that is to say, "the faculty of belief in something above 
 human understandiag." Would it not be better to define it as an 
 iuternal impulse, which prompts us to individualise the unknown 
 and to make him. the object of adoration 1 * 
 
 Be it as it may, many, even among the most civilised, have 
 neither this belief nor this impulse, and are satisfied to Kve without 
 troubling themselves as to that which they do not comprehend ; 
 they have neither fear, nor reverence, nor gratitude — ^the three 
 causes of religious conceptions. There are nations and tribes with- 
 out religion and without any mode of worship, and who believe 
 only in wizards or fetich. It is true they make every form of 
 superstition to subserve their religiousness. But some African or 
 Melanesian tribes have not even superstitions.t 
 
 ISTeither good luck nor misfortune affects them ia any way. If, 
 
 * It is impossible to take religion in its strict sense as the faculty of 
 beHeving in a god ; if so, half of the population of the globe would be 
 destitute of it. Taking Buddhism alone, there are three or four hundred 
 million votaries of this " religion without God, founded on charity amount- 
 ing to madness." — Laboula/ye. 
 
 t Nothing requires such calm and impartial judgment as the inquiry 
 into the moral and religious condition of savage tribes. Burchell, through 
 his interpreter, addressed two or three questions to Bosjesmans, and im- 
 mediately came to the conclusion that " they were brutes, because they did 
 not answer the simple question : What is the difference between a good and 
 a bad action ? " Oases of this kind are very common. Other travellers, 
 less impulsive, perseveringly inquired into their beliefs and superstitions, 
 and came to the conclusion that they had no conception of anything outside 
 themselves, and were persuaded that they die in the same condition. Which 
 are we to believe ? Such a thing is rare as a rule. All missionaries, to 
 whatever church they belong, are impressed with the conviction that 
 savages believe in a god, in the existence of a soul, and in the deluge ; while 
 independent travellers arrive at altogether different conclusions. The fact 
 is, the savage endeavours to please those from whom he is Ukely to gain 
 something. He understands the wishes of the missionaries and satisfies 
 them. It is absolutely undeniable that the absence of all abstract ideas is 
 a very common characteristic of savage tribes ; terror causes them to see 
 evil spirits everywhere, and to create for themselves fetich, but the opposite 
 feeling, the recognition of that which does them good, induces them to con- 
 ceive of beneficent spirits. 
 
Chap, iv.] MORALITY. 153 
 
 after long abstinence, they get a windfall, they eat and think of 
 nothing further. In this respect Man is iaferior to the dog, which 
 maintairis a devoted attachment to the hand that brings him his 
 daily food, to the master, who is to him as a God. Assiiredly this 
 animal has a belief in. something above him. Say if those birds 
 which warble their songs at the rising of the sun are not moved 
 by an internal impulse to praise nature for the infinite pleasure 
 which she bestows upon them ? This is but little removed from 
 adoration. 
 
 Man alone has an idea of duty — a morale. Is this certain? 
 And of what kind of morality are we to speak first — of that of the 
 peasant or of the noble — of the morality of the laws or of natural 
 morality? A very remarkable English work* mentions that 
 moraKty is essentially variable, progressive, and perfectible; that 
 it is a reflex of wants, of usages, and of circumstances ; what is 
 good here, is bad elsewhere — as to take care of one's infirm parent, 
 or to bury biTn aUve.Y Its radius, he says, has gone on enlarging 
 for ages, from the inferior to the superior races ; at first consisting 
 only of the family, it has since extended to the whole tribe ; that 
 which was evil in one was good in other tribes. Thence it has 
 spread far and wide and has become international. " Morality or 
 ethics," says Mr. Tylor, "signifies the act of conforming to the 
 manners (mores, fjdri) of the society to which we belong. There 
 are not two races in the world which have exactly the same 
 code of morality, but each has its own, which is sanctioned by 
 pubhc opinion." At the present moment throughout Europe do 
 not the rules of morality change in the event of war? Tylor's 
 most approved criterion, " Do not to another that which you would 
 not have done to yourself," applies to animals as well as to man. 
 The dog knows that in order not to be bitten he must not bite, 
 and acts accordingly : he has also his morahty. 
 
 Man possesses consciousness of that which philosophers call 
 le moi, that is to say of himself, of his personality. It would be 
 
 * " Primitive Culture," by E. B. Tylor. Second edition. London, 1873. 
 Translated into French; Eeiswald and Co.'s edition. Paris, 1876. 
 
154 MENTAL FACULTIES. [Chap. it. 
 
 strange if animals had it not also. Man lias the sense of the 
 nohle, of the just, though he has many ways of expressing it. He 
 grasps the relations of cause to effect ; the animal does the same. 
 He possesses spontaneity, ■will, the power of balancing probabilities : 
 but is it not so with animals'! Madness even is not peculiar to 
 man.* 
 
 M. Houzeau has worked out this subject in a masterly manner 
 in his two volumes on " The Mental Faculties of Animals." But 
 Prichard, the most orthodox of anthropologists, had previously 
 devoted a long chapter to the consideration of their psychical en- 
 dowments {facultes psycMques). There is also a work in the 
 " BibUothfeque des Sciences Contemporaines," which treats of aU 
 these questions.+ 
 
 But to the anthropologist, or the unprejudiced naturalist, the 
 inference is obvious. Between Man and most animals there is no 
 absolute radical difiference in intellectual arrangement. All the 
 faculties of Man are to be found, without exception, in animals, 
 but in a rudimentary state ; some are very highly developed, others 
 more so even than in ourselves. It is not the exclusive possession 
 of special faculties which gives us our supremacy, our judgment, 
 our intelligence, our correctness of observation ; but the measure of 
 these, and, bettor still, our holding them in perfect equilibrium. In 
 a madman we continually notice a faculty of rising to a higher 
 state than that which the sane man possesses. Keep this well in 
 view, and the madman would appear to you to be a genius ; but at 
 the same time other faculties are debased, there is a loss of balance, 
 and consequently a less amount of reason. The intellectual 
 characteristic of Man in general, and especially of the man of 
 wisdom, is the exact equilibrium of aU. his faculties, and not the 
 increase or exaltation of any. 
 
 Another physiological character connected with the function of 
 the brain, which anthropologists look upon as peculiar to man, is 
 
 * See " Traite de la Folie des Animaux et de sea Bapports aveo oelle de 
 I'Homme," by Pierquin. Two vols. Paris, 1839. 
 
 t See also " L'Anatomie Comparfe du Syet&me Nerveux," by Lenret and 
 Gratiolet, vol. i,, chap. " Facultes des Mammiftres." Paris, 1839. 
 
Chap, iv.] FACULTY OF EXPRESSION. 155 
 
 the faculty of language, or that of uttering articulate sounds. Ac- 
 cording to the doctriae of the derivation of Man from less perfect 
 animal forms, Man -would have taken his origin from the moment 
 that he was put in possession of this faculty. 
 
 Faculty of Language. 
 
 Many, if not all, animals communicate to one another their 
 thoughts relating to their usual life ; they have intonations and 
 modulations of voice, each of which has a distinct and definite 
 meaning. They variously express fear, joy, suffering, and 
 hunger. They make themselves understood by those of their 
 own species, of their own family, of their own young ; they warn 
 them of the approach, of the nature, and of the amount of danger. 
 But, as a general rule, they do not articulate. Some of them join 
 together a few consonants to vowels, hut they repeat them without 
 change. In this respect the notes of birds would better deserve 
 the name of language. 
 
 Let lis explain. There exists in Man and animals, and common 
 to them both, a general faculty called that of expression (Gaussin), 
 or the faculty of connecting an idea with a sign. Its various 
 manifestations are the faculties of mimicry and of speech ; pro- 
 bably also music and drawing. The mimic faculty evidently exists 
 in animals. The dog which stands at game, and runs back to see 
 if his master is in pursuit, or which scratches at the door to be let 
 in, is a proof of this. It is not surprising that the animal does not 
 possess the faculty of delineation, seeing that it has not the perfect 
 hand of Man, nor has it been instructed. We can simply allude to 
 the hum of insects produced by the friction of their elytra, and 
 pass on to the vocal faculty. There is not the slightest doubt that 
 animals express their ideas in this way. M. Coudereau has taken 
 great pains to analyse the language of the hen, and the numerous 
 intonations corresponding to each order of ideas, which are pro- 
 voked by the small number of feelings and wants in connection 
 with its humble existence. But in this, and probably in that 
 which is uttered by the howling monkey, are there not articulate 
 
156 FACULTY OF LANGUAGE. [Chap. iv. 
 
 sounds, or syllables, more or less jumbled together, wHob deserve 
 the title of language ? "We must remember that the primitive 
 languages spoken by Man were monosyllabic. All philologists tell 
 us so, and that very few elementary syllables were sufficient at 
 iirst to constitute an articulate language. The question then 
 resolves itseK iuto this : How many articulate sounds or simple 
 syllables would be required to constitute a language, and where is 
 the lias to be drawn between the relatively perfect language of 
 some species of animals, and the primitive language of the 
 lowest type of our own progenitors ? Of course we are not referring 
 to the parrot, which attaches no meaning to its utterances, but to 
 monkeys, which make use of different syllables, each having a 
 distinct meaning. 
 
 We win now analyse the mechanism of human speech. The 
 air expired from the lungs enters into vibration in the larynx, 
 where the voice is formed, and passes through the mouth, where 
 articulation takes place. The muscles of the larynx modify the 
 former, the muscles of the vault of the palate, of the tongue, of the 
 cheeks and Hps, have to do with the latter. But these also contract 
 for other purposes, and are supplied by different nerves. The 
 stimulation of these nerves at their origin would only produce 
 irregular contractions having no definite object. There are then 
 besides special centres, having distinct functions, in which the 
 appropriate movements are co-ordinated, and to which the mental 
 impressions are conveyed. Thanks to the experience with which 
 nature favours us in the living body, the centre, in relation not 
 only with articulation in general, but vsdth each particular system, 
 is well known. When the quadrilateral* indicated by M. Broca, 
 at the posterior extremity of his third frontal convolution, especi- 
 ally on the left side, is affected by an acute lesion, the faculty of 
 articulating is disturbed or altogether suppressed, f 
 
 * See page 109 on the Seat of the Faculty of Language. 
 
 t In microcephales, who have never teen able to learn to speak, the 
 third frontal convolution has been found atrophied. It has been asked why 
 the faculty of language should appear to be looaUsed, or rather is the more 
 
Ghap. IV.] . FACULTY OF LANGUAGE. 157 
 
 The phenomenon reduced to its most simple expression is termed 
 aphemia. The individual preserves his intellect, expresses his 
 ideas by gestures or by writing, moves his tongue and lips, and 
 has power of voice, but is unable to articulate ; his general faculty 
 of expression remains, but he has lost the power of speech. At 
 other times the lesion is more extensive ; he has stdl ideas, but is 
 incapable of committing them to writiag or otherwise. Sometimes 
 the lesion is stiU more considerable, and the intellect itself is 
 affected. 
 
 "We see then the series of operations which language requires, 
 and to which so many more or less distiact organs lend their aid : 
 (1) Thought and wiU ; (2) The general faculty of expression ; 
 (3) The particular faculty of articulating ; (4) The transmission by 
 nerves; (5) The execution by muscles. These functions are 
 thoroughly in accord, and largely developed in Man, but is it not 
 so in the animal 1 The animal has ideas, he possesses the faculty 
 of expression and of articulating sounds, but aU this is in a rudi- 
 mentary state. In Man, on the contrary, aU have assumed gigantic 
 proportions ; his ideas have become multiplied ia the course of 
 ages; his faculty of articulating has become perfected by use ; his 
 nerves and muscles have learnt to obey him absolutely. And in 
 the same way as an instrument gives out more harmonious sounds 
 according as the fingers which play upon it acquire greater expert- 
 ness, and the musical power which directs them greater force, so 
 human language is the result of progressive development iu the 
 
 often exercised from tte left side. Two explanations have been given ; 
 that of M. Broca is tlie one generally admitted. We are not right-handed, 
 he says, by accident, bnt beoanae the left hemisphere, which presides over 
 the movements of the right side by the decussation of the nerves near their 
 origin, has from the first a greater amount of activity. This excess of 
 activity extends to all the fonotions of which this hemisphere is the seat, 
 and notably of that of articulation. There are exceptions, nevertheless; 
 that is to say, there are persons who originally, or after a lesion in the left 
 hemisphere, speak with their right ; in the same way as there are some people 
 originally left-handed, and others who have become left-handed in conse- 
 quence of having lost their right hand. 
 
158 PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTEES. [Chap. v. 
 
 course of ages from efforts at first weak and unpretending. But is 
 it tlie multiplication of ideas wMcli originally gave birth to 
 language, or language whicli has given development to ideas'! 
 This is the question.* 
 
 CHAPTEE V. 
 
 PATHOLOGICAL CHABACTBRS DISEASES FACTS 0¥ TERATOLOGY — 
 
 MICEOCEPHALUS HTDBOCEPHALITS— PBEMATUBB STN0ST0S3S — 
 
 ABTIPICIAIi DBFOBMATIONS OP THE SKULL CONCLUSION AS TO 
 
 man's place IN THE GLASS OP MAMMALIA. 
 
 Pathological conditions are merely deviations from the physio- 
 logical state. They affect living organs, and have reference also 
 to man's life generally. The chapter on pathological characters, 
 although important, is only a sequel of our general division on 
 physiological characters. The points on this horizon which inte- 
 rest the anthropologist, only looking at the comparison of Man 
 with the other mammalia, are of three orders : (1) The numher 
 of diseases common to Man and animals, and the few peculiar to 
 the one or the other ; (2) The disturbances in the regular de- 
 velopment of the body, when they can throw any light on the 
 problem of the origins of organisation ; (3) Particular alterations in 
 the skeleton being capable of being confounded with the normal 
 condition. 
 
 The laws of pathology are the same throiighout the whole 
 mammalian series as those of physiology, upon which they depend ; 
 their effects, too, are generally identical. Animals, like Man, are 
 subject to accidents, to faults of development, to diseases of an 
 acute and transient nature, and to those which are chronic and of 
 long duration. They have the troubles of youth as well as those 
 
 * See " La Linguistique," by M. Abel Hovelaoque, 2nd edition, Paris, 18V6, 
 " BibliotlatSqne des Sciences Contemporaines." 
 
Chap, v.] PATHOLOaiCAL CHARACTERS. 159 
 
 of old age. In both are observed inflammatory and rheumatic 
 affections, eruptive fevers, typhus, the neuroses ; the only difference 
 is in the country in which these diseases manifest themselves, 
 and in the symptoms resulting from this. There is as great a 
 difference between the diseases which attack Europeans and those 
 seen in Negroes, as between the diseases of Man and those of 
 animals.* 
 
 Thus the eaux auxjambes (grease) in the horse is the same disease 
 as the cow-pox of the cow and the small-pox of Man. Experiments 
 by inoculation have clearly proved this. The scab of sheep is 
 doubtless something of the same kind ; the pig, too, is subject to a 
 form of small-pox. The congestion of the spleen of the sheep 
 species becomes the eharhon in horned cattle, and the malignant 
 pustule in Man. It is unnecessary to say that affections of the 
 skin are not the same on the thick skin of the horse and on the 
 delicate skin of the European. Between the latter and that of the 
 K"egro there are also differences in this respect. So the nervous 
 system being less impressionable in animals, the reaction is less 
 strong, and the fever less apparent. Like ourselves, the animal is 
 dyspeptic, asthmatic, tuberculous, scrofulous, or cancerous. Like 
 ourselves, the constituent elements of his blood — the globule, the 
 albumen, and the fibrin — increase or diminish, producing anaemia, 
 dropsy, or scurvy. Eood other than the milk provided for their 
 use, produces in their young diarrhoea, as in Man. They have the 
 same swelling of the glands during the eruption of the teeth. A 
 young orang died under our own observation owing to disorders of 
 dentition, which arose while we were treating it as we should have 
 done a human being. The acarus which produces the itch may 
 differ in kind, but its effects are identical. Parasites in general, 
 such as entozoa, vary, as in Man, according to cHmate,, but in the 
 same way as those which infest vegetables. Hydrophobia is met 
 with in the dog, the cat, the woH, the fox, the cow, and the horse, 
 as ia Man (Trousseau). SyphiKs exists among apes. A macaeus 
 sinicus which was the subject of a communication to the Anthropo- 
 
 * "Diotionnaire de Medeoine Teterinaire," by Bouley and Reyiial. Two 
 vols. 1859. 
 
160 ANOMALIES OF DEVELOPMENT. [Chap. v. 
 
 logical Society of London, in 1865, presented the three series of 
 phenomena — ^the -ulceration of the sexual organs, the falling off of 
 the hair, and the affection of the bones. The diseases of the brain 
 themselves are not peculiar to Man. Animals exhibit many forms 
 of delirium ; but they are more frequent in Man, owing to the im- 
 portance of the organ ■which is their seat, as well as to the activity 
 and delicacy of its manifestations. 
 
 In a word, the pathological types are the same throughout the 
 whole mammalian series, and are only modified according to species. 
 The diseases peculiar to one or many species are rare, as glanders, 
 which appears peculiar to Man and solipeds. Moreover, animal 
 pathology has advanced but little, and has scarcely reached beyond 
 that of our domestic species. 
 
 Anomalies of development are, according to our idea, of four 
 kinds. Some exhibit themselves physiologically during life : for 
 example, giants and those afflicted with polysarcia ; others are con- 
 genital, but can be modified or removed after birth ; a third kind 
 are congenital and irremediable, except occasionally by surgical 
 means, and are called monstrosities, or teratological phenomena ; a 
 fourth are the organic anomalies described at page 126, under the 
 name of Reversions. 
 
 Among giants we may mention a Finlander, who was 2'83 mfetres 
 in height, and a Kalmuck, whose skeleton is in the Museum Orfila, 
 2 '5 3 metres. Then we have dwarfs, but these are for the most 
 part affected with rickets. The height of the celebrated B&M 
 of King Stanislas of Poland was 89 centimetres ; another, 25 
 years of age and 56 centimtoes in height, was presented to 
 Henrietta of France in a pie. 
 
 The ordinary weight of the man is 63 kilogrammes, accord- 
 ing to Qu^telet, and that of the woman, 54. We have seen 
 dwarfs who only weighed from 4 to 8 kilogrammes. In 
 polysarcia, or obesity, the weight is often more than 150 kilo- 
 grammes. Two Englishmen, brothers, weighed, the one 233 
 kHogrammes, the other 240 (Sappey). Another Englishman, in 
 1724, measured 1 mfetre 72 centimtoes round the body, and was 
 1 m^tre 86 centimetres in height. Barrow mentions a half-caste 
 
Chap, v.] ALBINISM. 161 
 
 from the Cape of Good Hope, who lived twelve years in hia "bed,- 
 and was burnt alive in it ; the house having taken fire, neither the 
 door nor the window was found large enough to enable him to get 
 out. 
 
 Albinos are iudividuals iu whom the pigmentary matter is so 
 far deficient that the skin and hair are colourless, the iris is trans- 
 parent, and the choroid coat destitute of the dark pigment for the 
 absorption of redundant rays of light. In consequence of this, 
 they are unable to bear bright sunlight, and see better at night than 
 during the day. Their eyeballs are affected with a perpetual 
 oscUlating movement, their skin and hair are colourless, or of a 
 duU white, the eyes reddish, the transparency of the tissues show- 
 ing the blood circulating through the capillaries. They are often 
 indolent; and without muscular vigour. There are partial albinos, 
 in whom all the above symptoms are observed, but in a less degree. 
 They may easily pass unnoticed among the white races, but are 
 very observable among the black ; their hair is flaxen or red, their 
 skin coffee-coloured or speckled, their eyes are light blue or 
 reddish. 
 
 Both are met with among aU. races and under all chmates. In 
 some of the native courts on the west coast of Africa, especially in 
 Congo, they are an object of veneration, and go by the name of 
 " dondos." Dr. Schweinfurth has seen a great number of them with 
 the king of the Monbouttous on the banks of the Bahr-el-Ghazel. 
 Prom their presence among the blackest populations, Prichard 
 framed an important argument in favour of the influence of 
 external circumstances, and of the derivation of the human race 
 from one primitive pair. He delighted to reiterate it, and more- 
 over he was the first to establish the fact that their hair was as 
 woolly and tlfeir features were as negro as those of their fellow- 
 countrymen of the same tribe. "We say again, albinism is only a 
 monstrosity, a pathological condition which has been cured, and 
 we must take care how we place implicit reliance on the confused 
 accounts given of it by travellers. A cutaneous affection called 
 jntyriads versicolor is seen in whites, as a partial loss of colour of 
 some portions of the skin, while the accumulation of pigment upon 
 
162 
 
 MONSTROSITIES. [Chap. v. 
 
 other portions causes them to appear of a deeper colour. The eyes- 
 are not at all affected in these cases. 
 
 Our opinion is that what has heen called in negroes piehald, 
 and described as an example of partial albinism, is the same thing. 
 The scaly affection called ichthyosis, often of a marked hereditary . 
 character, to which Mr. Darwin frequently aUudes, and the subjects 
 of which deserve the title of porcupine men, has no interest for the 
 anthropologist. 
 
 Two individuals, Eussians by birth, were recently exhibited in- 
 Paris, called dog-men, whoso bodies were covered with a quantity of 
 lon^ coarse hair ; they were also said to have exhibited a defective 
 development of the teeth. Similar cases in Bnrmah and India have 
 been described, which were hereditary through three generations. 
 
 Monstrosities, of which there are many varieties,* are produced 
 during embryonic or foetal life, either in consequence of hereditary- 
 predisposition, of some accident to the mother, or from some disease 
 of the f cetus. They arise either from arrest, excess, or perversion 
 of development. Some are incompatible with Hfe, others do not 
 interfere with it. "We are not about to give an explanation 
 respecting the two theories — either the one as to the pre-existenee 
 of germs, as maintained by Winslow, but now abandoned, and 
 which means that the embryo represents from the very first the 
 future beiog in his entirety ; or the other, that of Serres and Isidore 
 Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire, called epigenesis, which we have described 
 at page 128, and which admits progressive development. Among 
 these monstrosities, we may mention polydactyHsm, or the existence 
 of from four to seven fuigers, which has been noticed as having 
 occurred through many generations ; inversion of the viscera, in 
 which the heart is found only on the right side, or where' all the 
 viscera are inverted ; the absence of one or more limbs ; herma- 
 phroditism ; hypospadias ; imperforate anus ; hare-lip ; spina bifida ;. 
 microcephalus, &c. One of the most curious of the teratological 
 groups is diplogenesis, ia which the whole body is more or less 
 double, as if there had been a fusion of two germs, or a duplication 
 of a single one. The Siamese twins, and the two Zambo girls. 
 
 * Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, " Traite de Teratologie." Paris, 1832. 
 
CSAP. T] MENTAL ALIENATION. 163 
 
 exhibited in 1874 in Paris were of this kind. Perhaps we ought 
 to speak of them as examples of supplementary limbs, as that of a 
 girl of 14 or 15 years of age, exhibited the same year before the 
 Anthropological Society by Dr. Ball. 
 
 Monstrosities are not peculiar to Man ; they are freqvient also 
 among animals. We shall only speak of those which are specially 
 interesting to us as taking place ia the head, as microcephalus and 
 hydrocephalus. Under the name of mental alienation we include 
 all the various functional disorders of the brain. These may be 
 reduced to three ^l) Mania properly so called, which breaks out 
 in individuals hitherto sane, has t*o forms — the one of excitement, 
 the other of depression — and is general or partial ; (2) Dementia, 
 which is a general and progressive feebleness of all the faculties, 
 and is of two kinds — accidental, or senile ; (3) Idiotcy, in which 
 , the faculties have never attained their full development. In the 
 three forms, the volume of the brain is increased or diminished 
 according to the amount of disease, and according to the greater or 
 less amount of blood which it contains. In ordinary mania there 
 is rather an increase, and in dementia, sooner or later, a decrease. 
 The lesion affects the entire organ, its central portions, its convolu- 
 tions, and sometimes solely the gray substance covering them, and 
 the functional disorder becomes permanent. It is impossible to be 
 deceived, and true human superiority consists in knowing how to 
 look the truth in the face. The most beautiful of our intellectual 
 manifestations — ^those of which we are so justly proud — are the 
 product of a material organ, in the same way as bile is the 
 product of the liver, and the circulation is the product of the con- 
 tractions of the heart. A sound and healthy brain produces sound 
 judgment and understanding ; a diseased, bloodless, and impaired 
 brain produces the reverse. That which distinguishes Man from 
 the brute is the quality and quantity of the organ — ^the quaUty and 
 quantity of the product. 
 
 If mania and dementia only concern medicine, idiotcy has an 
 interest for anthropology; it exhibits the brain sometimes less 
 developed, more simple, more or less stunted ia growth, and 
 approaching more to that of animals. 
 
 M 2 
 
164 IDIOTCY. [Chap. Y, 
 
 There are many direct causes of idiotcy. Sometimes the volume 
 of the brain is normal, but its convolutions are very large, generally 
 less flexuous, or decidedly imperfect at some particular point. 
 Sometimes it is hypertrophied, and its convolutions, though simple, 
 are, as it ■were, piled upon one another, and tend to produce im- 
 pressions on the internal surface of the cranium. Sometimes it is 
 altogether atrophied, or only so on one side, in its frontal, parietal, 
 or occipital lobes, in its central portions, or in a group of convolu- 
 tions -which we have seen replaced by cellular tissue, or trans- 
 formed into a serous cyst. In a case shown to us by Dr. Mierze- 
 jewski, the parietal and occipital lobes were so shrunken, that the 
 cerebellum was completely uncovered, as in the kangaroo. These 
 apparently contradictory lesions explain why the weight of the 
 brain of lunatics generally has not uniformly exhibited the dimi- 
 nution which we might have expected, as compared with the 
 brains of men of sound mind. It is the same with the cubic 
 measurements of the cranial capacity. The cranium, at the termi- 
 nation of infancy, may remain small, but at adult age and later it 
 is unable to foUow the retraction of its contents, and to become less 
 in size. After inspecting 520 crania of insane persons, collected by 
 Esquirol, which form part of the museum of the Anthropological 
 Institute of Paris, and setting aside the probable cases of hydro- 
 cephalus, we may safely say that their mean cranial capacity is 
 below the mean in men of sound mind. If one could obtain those 
 of idiots — that is to say, those who have been insane from birth — 
 there cannot be a doubt that we should find it the same in them. 
 Cretins, which are to be found under various names in almost all 
 mountainous parts of the globe, may be placed in the same category 
 as idiots. The immediate cause of cretinism is by no means certain. 
 But how singular that this widespread malady should take place under 
 the influence of external circumstances acting upon the brain of the 
 infant even during intra-uterme life ! The head is generally large, the 
 figure that of an aged person, and the nose deeply sunk at the root, 
 which has given rise to a theory of which we shaU speak presently.* 
 
 * See " Treatise on Mental Diseases," by Greisenger. Translated into 
 French by M. Baillarger. Paris, 1864. 
 
Chap, v.] MICEOCEPHALUS. 165 
 
 Microcephalus. 
 
 All in wtom the brain has not attained a certain degree of 
 development, or the cranial cavity a given capacity at adult age, are 
 termed microcephales, whether such be really idiots or have only a 
 general di mi nution of intellect similar to that of young infants. 
 M. Broca divides them into demi-microcephales and microcephales 
 proper. 
 
 He says all the non-deformed crania of adult Europeans whose 
 capacity is below 1150 cubic centimetres, and the horizontal cir- 
 cumference less than 480 millimetres, if a man, and 475 if a 
 woman, are demi-microcephales. The length and width are less 
 positive ; moreover, we may consider crania to be demi-microcephales 
 whose length is 163 millimetres and under, in the man, or 160 and 
 under, ia the woman, and whose width is 133 in the man and 127 
 in the woman.* But the diminution continues still further, which 
 brings us to the consideration of the true microcephales. 
 
 Microcephalus is owing to a general or partial arrest or perversion 
 of development ia one part of the brain, which manifests itself at 
 various periods of intra-uterine life. It is ^merely an anatomical 
 variety of idiotcy. The organ, in the absence of complication, con- 
 ■tinues to grow, but irregularly and slowly. Its weight, at puberty, 
 reaches from 400 to 500 grammes, according to M. Delasiauve ; it 
 has been known to be 360 and even 240 grammes (Marshall). 
 The cerebellum, Gratiolet states, is larger in proportion to the braia 
 proper, and the convolutions are those of a foetus of five months. 
 Atrophy is most frequently seen on the anterior lobes, and some- 
 times on the posterior. The cranium has a capacity of from 300 
 to 600 cubic centimetres, a circumference of from 320 to 370 milli- 
 metres, and a length of from 100 to 118. Two microcephales, of 
 the ages of 10 and 15 years, mentioned by Vogt, had a mean of 
 333 cubic centimetres, and seven adults, a mean of 433. The mean, 
 in six cases of all ages, from M. Broca's museum and laboratory, 
 measured by M. Montane, was 440, and that of three of them 
 
 * See Chapters II. and III. for the measurements of normal crania. 
 
166 
 
 MIOROCBPHALTJS. 
 
 [Chap, t 
 
 of from 20 to 30 years of age, measured by M. Broca him- 
 self, 414.* 
 
 The body remains dwarfed or continues to be developed; it 
 reaches puberty, and presents aU the characteristics of that period 
 without the power of procreation ; such was the case in the micro- 
 cephales exhibited twice in Paris under the name of Aztecs, on 
 account of their supposed origin. The man, who was 32 years of 
 age, was r35 mfetre in height, the woman, who was 29, 1'32 mfetre. 
 Their intellectual capacity was scarcely that of a child of three years 
 of age ; their language consisted of about fifteen words, which they 
 uttered in jerks. (Fig. 19.) 
 
 As a result of the defective development of the brain, there is 
 A. B. 
 
 1 
 
 Fig. 19. — A, Maximo; B, Bartola: two microcepbales from Central America, the hair 
 growing Ulce a mop {en vadrouille), as the Cafueos, a variety of mixed breed hetween 
 the Indian and the Negro. 
 
 smallness of the cranium, especially in the frontal region, as seeai 
 in the above figures of two Aztecs. The facial region, which 
 grows regularly, at least more so than the cranium, appears large. 
 The eyeballs, in consequence of the atrophy of the forehead, project 
 above, and are slightly hidden under the lower lid ; the nose, at 
 least in these two cases, is very projecting. They are very prog- 
 nathous, their lower jaw is smaller than the upper, so that the 
 alveolar arch recedes about 25 millimetres, t 
 
 * "Instructions Craniologiques de la Society d'Anttropologie," drawn np 
 by M. Brooa, p. 147 — a pamphlet of 200 pages, with plates, Paris, 1876; 
 " Sur les Mioroc^plialee," by Carl Vogt Geneva, 1867 ; " fitnde Anatomique 
 dn Crano chez les Microoephalee," by L. Montane, Paris, 1874i. 
 
 t See the discussion on the microoephales on the occasion of our introducing 
 these two Aztecs to the Anttropologioal Society in " Bull. Soe. d'Anthrop.," 
 2nd series, vol. ix. 1874, vol. x. 1875. 
 
-Chap, v.] RICKETS OF THE LONG BONES. 167 
 
 The third series of pathological characters has reference to 
 morbid deformities, or those following upon morbid conditions. 
 They affect especially the skeleton, bones deformed by disease being 
 mistaken for sound bones. These morbid conditions either affect 
 all the bones or only those of the cranium; the former include 
 Tickets, inflammations of the bones, syphilis, old sores, and fractures. 
 We refer the reader to works on pathology for the majority of 
 these, and shall confine ourselves principally to rickets, and to some 
 diseases peculiar to the cranium. 
 
 Rickets. 
 
 Eickets is a disorder of nutrition, in which the process of ossifi- 
 «ation is arrested at the period when the osseous tissue is about to 
 become thoroughly organised (Broca). It is less a disease than a 
 state of suffering, symptomatic of an impoverished condition of the 
 system. It exhibits itself from the third month of intra-uterine 
 life, up to 18 or 2-5 years of age, when the skeleton has done 
 growing {L. Tripier), but it is more frequent about two years of 
 age. The softened bones become deformed and incurved, in con- 
 sequence of the weight of the body, of the contraction of the 
 muscles, and of accidental pressure. It is at the weakest point of 
 the natui'al incurvations that the bending usually takes place. 
 A character common to all these deformities is the following : 
 By making a section of an old rickety long bone, the compact 
 osseus tissue is thicker on the diaphysis at the concavity of the 
 curve, and thinner at the convexity. Another effect of the disease 
 is this : the epiphyses, owing to the stage of ossification being 
 accelerated, are found anchylosed to the diaphysis before the bone 
 has arrived at its full size, so that the child ceases to grow, and 
 remains a dwarf and deformed ever afterwards. "We cannot there- 
 fore depend upon any important measurement if made upon bones 
 affected with rickets. The following are certain indications by 
 which they may be recognised : 
 
 In the clavicle the two curvatures are increased, especially the 
 internal, which makes an abrupt bend. 
 
 In the ribs the flatness and thinness are increased. 
 
168 EICKETS OP THE CBANITTM. [Chap. y. 
 
 In the humeras the curve takes place below the middle portion, 
 its convexity looking forwards, forwards and outwards, or outwards. 
 
 In the fore-arm .the bend is in both bones, or in one only, about 
 the middle, and is from behind forwards, being accompanied by a 
 certain amount of torsion. 
 
 In the femur the angle of the neck is diminished, and the natural 
 torsion of the bone is increased, the lower half becoming arched 
 forwards or outwards. 
 
 In the leg both bones are affected. The deformity never occurs 
 in the upper part of the tibia, but at its middle and inferior portion. 
 The most common is the curvature internally, which M. Broca 
 compares to a yataghan ; the bone is flattened from before back- 
 wards, its anterior border is more or less sunk in; its external 
 concave border is sharp ; the internal, to which is attached the 
 interosseous aponeurosis, is thick. The next form is that of an 
 antero-posterior curvature, the section of which is triangular, and the 
 anterior border is convex from above downwards, and sharper than 
 usual ; it has the appearance of a sabre, but in an opposite direction. 
 The curvature outwards or backwards is also met with, but less 
 frequently. Ifumbers 2 and 3, Kg. 20, copied from the memoir 
 in which M. Broca had to contradict M. Pruner-Bey relative to the 
 pretended rickety deformities in the bones of the Eyzies, exhibit the 
 two most common forms. 
 
 Eickets exhibits its effect on the cranium in a very decided way. 
 It causes the process of ossification to be suspended, and at a later 
 period it accelerates and perverts it. Two absolutely opposite results 
 are produced, the one retarding the evolution of the sutures, the 
 other hastening it. It is evident that rickets sometimes exists during 
 the period of intra-uterine life. All do not allow this, but it is 
 certain that some analogous disorder passes at this period into the 
 bones, traces of which remain during the whole of life. If this 
 condition is cured spontaneously by an acceleration of the process 
 of ossification, like true rickets, we should have in it a simple 
 explanation of a series of cranial deformities depending on the 
 development of the bones, for which the usual theories would not 
 account. The effects of rickets when it unexpectedly comes on 
 
Chap, v.] 
 
 RICKETS OF THE CRANIUM. 
 
 169 
 
 after tirtli are better understood. Giving warning of its approach 
 before tbe fontanelles and the fibro-cartilaginous laminas -wbich give 
 form to me bones during tbe process of ossification are sufficiently- 
 consolidated, rickets- causes tbem to become soft, lessens their 
 resistance, leaving the cranium to struggle against the continual 
 growth of its contents. Here and there the osseous parietes become 
 thinned and even perforated ; bulgings are formed from the moment 
 that the work has a tendency to begin again, new and independent 
 points of ossification make their appearance, which later on produce 
 the ossa Wormiana. M. Bouvier says, " when the bregmatic fon- 
 tanelle is not closed at two-and-a-half years of age, it is caused by 
 rickets." Should the disease unexpectedly make its appearance at 
 
 Fig, 20. — Section of tlie tibia at the union of the upper fourth with the lower three-fourths. 
 No. 1, Normal triangular tibia ; 2, Rickety tibia at its lateral curvature ; 3, Rickety 
 tibia at ita antero-posterior curvature : I, Internal border ; E, External border ; A, 
 Anterior border or crest of the tibia ; A' E T, No. 2, shows the way in which the 
 deformity is produced. 
 
 a later period, when the sutures are more advanced, the effects are 
 difierent. Subsequently a cure takes place by a kind of porous or 
 condensed callus, ossification proceeds with undue energy, especially 
 in the serratures, and a condition of things is broiight about in one 
 or several of the sutures which ought only to exist naturally at or 
 beyond 40 years of age — premature synostosis. 
 
 A loss of balance between the resistance of the parietes of the 
 cranium and the increasing development of its contents is the prin- 
 cipal cause of its pathological deformities. It is sufficient that one 
 of these causes should be at work for the bones and even for the 
 brain to become diseased. The parietes become softened, or at a 
 later period prematurely consolidated, whereas the brain remains 
 sound and goes on increasing naturally; deformity is making its 
 
170 HYDROCEPHALUS. [Chap. T. 
 
 appearance. If the parietes are passing through, their regular phases 
 of development while hydrocephalus or hypertrophy of the brain is 
 going on, the same result may he produced. The causes of the 
 phenomena are simple while their results are complex. 
 
 Hydrocephalus, 
 
 Hydrocephalus is dropsy, or an increased secretion of fluid, in the 
 cranial cavity, whether this fluid has its source in the ventricles or 
 between the membranes. 
 
 It is acute or chronic, the chronic form being either very serious 
 in amount, moderate, or slight. If the acute form exists to any 
 considerable extent it is speedily fatal. A certain Cardinal, how- 
 ever, lived to be twenty-three {V) years of age ; his head resembled a 
 large ball, and from the base of the forehead to the occiput 
 measured 87 centimetres in circumference. In its moderate and- 
 chronic form it is interesting to the anthropologist in two ways ; 
 either the hydrocephalus comes on shortly after birth, when the 
 sutures offer no obstacle to the distention of the head, and the 
 skull on recovery is easily distinguished by its generally spherical 
 shape ; or it makes its appearance at a later period, when the 
 membranous spaces between the sutures are more or less ossified or 
 serrated, and then the arched projections are more limited in extent, 
 and only appear at certain points. We may also mention, hut 
 with some reserve, a condition of partial hydrocephalus, in which, 
 owing to adhesions between the membranes, the fluid accumulates 
 at particular spots in the form of cysts, or the bones give way, or 
 become altered, as in the preceding case, at some special point. 
 
 The principal causes of hydrocephalus are the bad constitution 
 of the parents, or hereditary predisposition. Franck mentions the 
 fact of seven infants following, and Goelis of six, being attacked 
 with this disease. Its symptoms are easily recognised : the sutures 
 are wide and very slow in closing; the bones become thinned, 
 ossification is arrested, and a species of local rickets, confined to the 
 cranium, comes on as a complication. 
 
 General hydrocephalus, which 'comes on after birth, and is sub- 
 
Chap, v.] CEREBRAL HTPERTKOPHT. 171 
 
 sequently amenable to treatment, is recognised at once by tlie 
 globular form of the cranium. That of the second or third kind 
 is more difficult to diagnose, owing to the existence in both of the 
 following characters : The frontal protuberances are projecting, 
 or rather the whole forehead is so ; the temporal shells present at 
 their centre a rounded arching, or the superior border is detached 
 from the parietal. The supra-occipital region forms an ovoid pro- 
 jection, which communicates with the parietal surfaces by an abrupt 
 inclined plane, in the thick portion of which we see a number of 
 ossa "Wormiana. The retro-mastoid sutures are complicated ; the 
 sagittal and coronal, as well as the union of the greater wings of the 
 sphenoid with the parietal, are thickened, or raised, or interrupted 
 by ossa Wormiana. Frequently a transverse channel, from one 
 surface of the greater wing of the sphenoid to the other, and which 
 is not readily found, passes across the bregma, and seems to divide 
 the cranium into two parts, each of which is increased in size ; the 
 orbital vault is pressed downwards. M. Broca mentions as 
 important signs — when they exist — a primary circumscribed arch- 
 ing at the anterior border of the temporal shell, encroaching upon 
 the adjacent portion of the pterion, and another arching at a point 
 which he calls the dacrion, that is to say at the internal surface 
 of the orbit at the union of the frontal, the ascending process of 
 the maxillary and the os unguis. 
 
 Hypertrophy. 
 
 Hypertrophy as well as atrophy of the brain are disorders of 
 development of the substance of that organ, which generally 
 produce their effects upon the parietes of the brain-case. It assumes 
 the form of an acute or chronic, disease, or of a sub-physiological 
 condition, and is frequently induced by excessive work which 
 parents exact from their children before they are fully developed. 
 That which comes on during life or at its close does not concern us 
 here ; that which appears during intra-uterine Hfe, or soon after 
 birth, has a most important influence on the evolution of the 
 cranium. M. BaUlarger has seen a case of hypertrophy in which. 
 
172 PBEMATUEE SYNOSTOSES. [Chap. t. 
 
 the body weigh.mg 23 kilogrammes, the brain weighed 1160 
 grammes ; and another in which at four years of age this organ 
 weighed 1305 grammes. Hypertrophy is general, or partial; it 
 affects the whole encephalon, the brain, a single hemisphere, a 
 single lobe, the corpus callosum, or a group of convolutions. The 
 causes which produce it are such as produce hydrocephalus or 
 rickets, and the effects of the three diseases are similar. The 
 inflammation which more particularly causes hypertrophy or hydro- 
 cephalus sometimes passes to the parietes of the cranium through 
 the membranes, producing porous or condensed callus, and an 
 arrest in the ossification of the sutures or their premature oblitera- 
 tion, although the natural effect of each of these maladies is 
 distention of the cranium. 
 
 Premature Synostoses. 
 
 Deformities of the most varied description result from all the 
 above-mentioned causes, and from the unequal method in which 
 they exercise their influence upon the sutures. The arrest of the 
 ossification of the sutures is, however, less serious than then pre- 
 mature obliteration. The temporary sutures of intraruterine life, as 
 the interparietal and metopic, persist for an indefinite period with- 
 out resultiug ia any appreciable deformity ; and moreover this per- 
 sistence is regarded by some persons as the probable indication of 
 some disorder in. the new-bom infant. Stahl has seen the- breg- 
 matic fontanelle open in a man of 50 years of age, "but he does not 
 say whether he presented any other peculiarity. The result of an 
 arrest of the ordinary ossification at the edges of the sutures is that 
 there is an increase of the volume of the cranium, which is not 
 sensibly deformed. The effects of premature synostoses are more 
 serious, but they vary according to the period at which they are- 
 produced. Of a gi'ave character when the synostosis takes place in 
 early infancy, their gravity diminishes subsequently, and gradually 
 disappears when the brain has arrived at or near its full term of 
 development. 
 
Chap, v.] PREMATURE SYNOSTOSES. 173 
 
 M. Vireliow* has attempted to formulate a general law : " At 
 ±lie end of the synostosis of a suture," he says, " the development 
 of the cranium stops short in a direction perpendicular to that of 
 the closed suture " — that is to say, the sagittal suture being closed, 
 the cranium remains narrower and developes in length. His 
 second proposition is that " of aU the parts of the cranium, the 
 hase, and notably the basilar vertebrae, attain the largest amount of 
 development." 
 
 ; Two other statements of the same author ought to be recorded. 
 Cretinism, according to him, is due to the synostosis of the tri- 
 basilar bone — that is to say, of the spheno-basUar suture and the 
 suture of the body of the anterior sphenoid and the posterior 
 sphenoid. This is why cretins have the occipital shortened, and 
 the base of the nose sunk in. Neither the one nor the other is 
 proved to demonstration. Cruveilhier has refuted by anticipation 
 the explanation given as to microcephalus ; the facts collected by 
 M. Vogt do not establish it, and the specimens in the laboratory 
 of M. Broca contradict it. 
 
 Let us give some examples of our own. 
 
 Should the spheno-frontal suture be synostosed, the forehead 
 not having the power to become further enlarged, wiU remain 
 contracted while the rest of the cranium continues to increase. 
 Should the sagittal and coronal sutures be ossified, the lambdoidal 
 and inferior lateral remaining free, the vault at the cranium will 
 become lifted up en masse (acrocephalus), and the increased 
 development wUl be at the expense of the occipital portion. We 
 are acquainted with two examples of this kind. In another 
 cranium we witness the contrary : the sagittal and the lambdoidal 
 are synostosed, and it is the frontal which is driven forwards, the 
 vault of the cranium being at the same time raised. Another 
 cranium exhibits better still what is taking place : all the lateral, 
 posterior, and anterior sutures are welded together, with the 
 exception of the anterior two-thirds of the sagittal, and the internal 
 two-thirds of the coronal on the left side. "What is the result J 
 
 * 'Virchow, " Geaammelte Abhandlnngen," Frankfort, 1856 ; and " Unter. 
 suchnn^en fiber die Entwiokelung der Sohoedelgrundes," Berlin, 1857. 
 
174 
 
 SCAPHOCEPHALTJS. 
 
 [Chap. t. 
 
 The anterior and internal half of the left parietal is lifted up ahove 
 •the level of the neighbouring surfaces. It is unnecessary to pro- 
 ceed farther. What we always notice is an iuternal pressure at 
 one point, exerting its influence at the part in the immediate 
 vicinity where it meets with the least resistance, and producing at 
 the flist point an arrest of development, and at others one or more 
 compensatory archings [voussures de compensation). What fre- 
 quently surprises us is to notice a similar synostosis in two different 
 skulls, and one only to he deformed. This depends on the age at 
 
 Fig, 21. — Scaphocephalic cranium of a Negreas from Senegal. 
 
 which the lesion is produced. Dr. Thuli6 has presented to the 
 Soci4t6 d'Anthropologie a cranium which possesses considerahle 
 interest in this respect. An accidental hony callus was present on 
 one of the parietals, and had synostosed the sagittal and coronal 
 suture on one side only, notwithstanding which the cranium was 
 perfectly uniform; this, as weU. as other indications, showed that 
 the welding had taken place at 15 or 20 years of age. We 
 must also remember that we are only looking at the external 
 surface of the cranium, and that in certain unaccountable 
 deformities there may exist on %& internal surface incomptete 
 
Chap, t.] SCAPHOCEPHALtrS. 176 
 
 synostose which escape observation. We will conclude hy giving 
 a classical example of synostosis. 
 
 Seaphocephalus signifies a deformity peculiar to the cranium, 
 and is characterised by its contraction transversely, its antero- 
 posterior elongation, and its increase in height. The skull turned 
 upside down has the form of a boat, from which its name is 
 derived; the forehead is straight, bulging, and narrow; the 
 occipital is globular and conical, and projects backwards from the 
 lambdoidal suture. An horizontal crest reaches from one to the 
 other on the anterior haK, the sides shelving Uke the roof of a 
 house, which the obliteration of the parietal protuberances renders 
 stiU more prominent. In two specimens presented to the Soci6t6 
 d'Anthropologie, the length was to the width as 56 : 100 in one, 
 and as 60 : 100 in. the other. These are the faintest cephalic 
 indices hitherto observed on the human cranium. 
 
 Four opinions are put forward in explanation of this pheno- 
 menon :* (1) According to M. Virchow, it is due to synostosis, 
 during infancy, of the sagittal suture, the other sutures remaining 
 open. (2) According to MM. Minchin and Von Baer, it proceeds 
 from there being but one point of ossification for both parietals — 
 an hypothesis which has but few supporters. (3) According to 
 M. Morselli, there are two distinct parietals, but their two points 
 of ossification are so near together that their fusion quickly 
 takes place. (4) M. Calori thinks that it is the result of an 
 original elongation and narrowness of the cranium. The four may 
 be reduced to two, namely, the fusion of the two parietals and 
 peculiar formation from the first. Mr. Barnard Davis is opposed 
 tO' the former from the fact that in his collection, out of 27 crania 
 with the sagittal suture closed, there are only four scaphocephali. 
 In the laboratory of M. Broca there are many examples of pre- 
 mature obliteration of the sagittal suture, without seaphocephalus. 
 In a Tartar skuU belonging to Mr. Huxley, which is one of the 
 largest known, the sagittal suture is closed, and the others are 
 open. But there is an easy reply to objections : the synostosis of 
 
 * See " Eevne d'Anthropologife," vol. iii., p. 709 ; " Bnll. Soc. d'Anthrop.," 
 meeting of May 7, 187*; and " Instruotiona Craniologiqaes." 
 
176 PATHOLOGICAL DEFORMITIES. [Chap. v. 
 
 the sagittal only produces an arrest of development of the vault in 
 a transverse direction and compensatory increase in length, that is 
 to say scaphocephalus, hefore the age of from 8 to 12 years {Br oca). 
 At two years of age its effects are almost inevitable. A case is 
 mentioned in which the deformity existed even at birth. 'So case 
 of scaphocephalus has been published up to the present time in 
 which obliteration of the sagittal had not taken place. 
 
 Pathological Deformities. 
 
 Various terms, chiefly of foreign origin, have been employed to 
 designate the principal cranial forms produced by the causes just 
 mentioned. Similar names are given to certain physiological 
 forms which are met with as characteristic of certain races. Here, 
 from the physiological to the morbid condition, as with respect to 
 so many disorders and other affections of the brain, the transition 
 is scarcely perceptible. In how many skulls, looked upon as 
 sound, is there not present this globular supra-iniac projection of 
 the occipital, which is sometimes a characteristic of race, and at 
 others an evidence of hydrocephalus or of premature synostosis] 
 One of the Esquimaux skulls in the museum, regular otherwise, at 
 least in appearance, deserves the epithet of scaphocephalus. The 
 term has been similarly applied to the normal skulls of Austrahans, 
 Polynesians, and African negroes. The following are some of the 
 terms just referred to, with their signification : 
 
 Aorooephalic, oxycephalic, hypsooephalic, pyrgooephalio, elevated skull. 
 
 Platyceplialio, tapinocephalio, with tte vault of the skuU flattenecl, 
 elliptical. 
 
 Eviryoephalic, large skull. 
 
 Stenocephalic, narrow skull. 
 
 Trochocephalic, very round skull. 
 
 Trigonocephalic, skull triangular at the top anteriorly, supposed to be 
 owing to the medio-frontal synostosis. 
 
 Megalocephalio, skull of very large capacity. 
 
 Kephalon, large skull, great {Yirchow). 
 . Septocephalic, microcephalic, small skull. 
 
 Macrocephalio, elongated skull. 
 
Chap, v.] POSTHTJMOTJS DEFOEMITIES. Vjl 
 
 Plagioceplialto, an obliquely- oval deformity (yirchow), large akuU -with 
 forehead flattened (Linnceus, Busk) . 
 
 CyUndrocepiialic, elongated cylmdrioal skull. 
 
 Klinoeephalio, skull with vault in form of a saddle. 
 
 Cymbooephalio, kumbeceplialie,^n exaggeration, of the preceding, or skull 
 en hesace. 
 
 Soapbooephalio, sphenoceplialic, boat-shaped skull. 
 
 Paohyoephalic, skull with thick hypertrophied parietes. 
 
 Many of these are frequently associated together. Van der HcBven, 
 for example, says that the skulls from the Caroline Archipelago, 
 certaia of the Hebrides, and New Caledonia, are hypsistenocephalic ; 
 Barlow, that a certaia deformed skull found in Silesia is oxykliao- 
 cephalic. As we proceed we shall find other names, equally 
 derived from the Greek, which are more generally in use. 
 
 There are not only pathological deformities ; there are others 
 with which the anthropologist ought to be acquainted, which he 
 frequently meets with in certain skulls in the course of his cranio- 
 metrical studies, and which he is obliged to put aside. 
 
 Posthumous, Platylasic, and Plagiocephalic Deformities. 
 
 The first, or posthumous, is easily recognised. It is produced in 
 more or less moist argillaceous soils by the pressure of the earth 
 which has been exerted upon the softened skull at intervals for 
 ages. The skull is said to have the consistence of soft wax, being 
 variously shaped according to the nature of the soil in which it 
 is enveloped.* One wall might be more or less depressed or 
 sheered round, while the opposite wall might be exactly the 
 reverse. Or the pressure might be local. Sometimes an entire 
 Tjone might be irregularly furrowed. Its principal characteristic is 
 the absence of regularity and symmetry. 
 
 The second has been called plastic by Mr. B. Davis, a term more 
 conformable mth the preceding, and platybasic by M. Broca. It 
 makes its appearance unexpectedly at aU periods of hfe, but princi- 
 
 * "Fouillea d'un Cimetiere Bonrgniguon du Cinqui&me Si&cle," by Paul 
 Topinard, in " Bull. Soc. d'Smnlation de I'Ain." Burgundy, 1874 
 
 N 
 
178 ARTIFICIAL DBFOEMATIONS. [Ouap. ▼. 
 
 pally during infancy and old age, owing to a defective, consistence 
 of the bones at the circumference of the occipital foramen. The 
 weight of the head is the immediate cause of it; the articular 
 condyles, the circumference of the occipital foramen, and the 
 adjoining portion of the basilar apophysis becomo Lent, and 
 penetrate into tlic. cranial cavity about one centimiitrc or leas. 
 M. Jdroca considers that it is shown to fixist in white races when 
 the negative angle of Daubenton is more than eight degrees. 
 
 Tlio third takes place during infancy, but accidentally, cither 
 owing to the infant being constantly carried on the same arm, 
 or by the pressure which the weight of the head fixorts ujjon tho 
 Dutire occipital or upon one side of it when tho infant is lying on 
 its back. In the one case a median flattening, in the other a 
 lateral depression of the whole of the nucha, is prodiiond ; tho skull 
 continuing to dovelope, a compensatory ai'ching (vouamtre d<: com- 
 pensation) is formed on the opposite side, and tlio maximum 
 antero-posterior length of the skull becomes oblique or diagonal. 
 This is termed the obliquely oval or plajfionophalic d(:forraity. 
 Other results also follow. Thus tho synostosis of ono-half of the 
 sagittal and lambdoidal suture, certain chronic forms of torticollis, 
 rickets, partial hydrocephalus, (fee. 
 
 Artificial Defovmations. 
 
 These are also due to pressure exerted during life. Sometimes 
 thoy are produced involuntarily by badly - constructed head- 
 dresses, sometirniiH voluntarily in order to conform t(j accustomed 
 usage or to suljmit to certain rites. M,an is an intelligent animal, 
 but also a very whimsical one. The structure of his brain incites 
 him to the noblest deeds as well as to the most ridiculous practices, 
 such as cutting oil' tho little finger, scorching the soles of tho feet, 
 extracting the front tooth, or deforming tho head, because othcsrs 
 have done so before him. 
 
 Artificial deformations of this kind are simply customs, and con- 
 sequently in iff]] t have been treated of in our second part when con- 
 sidering ethnic characters; but it is difficult to separate them 
 
OiiAP. v.] ARTIFICIAL DEFOaMATIONS. 179 
 
 from defonuitios produooil by other causos, and wo ought to bo 
 iiocpiiiintcd with (hoin boforo coBiiuoiu'iug to practise criuiiomotry 
 on nornuil skulls. 
 
 Thoy nro mot with in both homisplunvs. Uipj)ocrates and 
 IIovchIoIus worotho tirst to dosovibo thorn iuuong tlio JMauroe.ophalos, 
 a pooplo to iho oust, of tho Paliis-Moiotis, to whioli custom they 
 owo tlioir iiaiuo. .Vristotle, Strabo, imd Pliny ivlso make mention 
 of thoui. Within tho last fow yoars thoro havo boen disoororod 
 in tlio Caucasus, in tho Crimoa, in Hungary, in Silosia, in liolgiuui, 
 and in viu'ious parts of Franco, ancient imd contempoiniueous 
 deformed skulls, agreeing in typo with tluise whicli have been 
 raontioned. AVo conclude, tlierofore, in oonipai'ing tliese data witli 
 those with whicli history furnislies us, that tho ^Vryan nations 
 witli one of tlioir tribes having this custom have passed over the 
 \'olsl;es-'rectosages of the Caucasus under tlic name of Ciinuiei-ii, 
 tlirougli iMU'opo into Fmiuco, whciv the processes of distigurenient 
 have bt'como modilied in tlie way we have mentioned. Other 
 skulls, however, liave been met with in Europe, as tho llelveto- 
 Burgundiau skull of A'oiteur in tlio Jura, in the form of a sugar- 
 loaf ; and perhaps that of Bel-.Vir, near Lausanne, in Swil/crland, 
 the nature of whose deformity is diflereut, which loads us to 
 believi> that idl the European peoples distiguring their heads ha\'e 
 not had the same origin. Deformations of the skull Iiave been 
 disco\erod in Polynesia , especially in Taliiti, in Malacca, and in 
 ditl'erent parts of Asia as far as Syria. 
 
 But the classic country in which those deformations are found is 
 America. .Fnim a period prior to the Cliristian ent, we see a nation, 
 the Xd/iiiih-': leaving Florida, according to Prasseur do Bourbomg. 
 to settle in Jlexico, and quitting it in the year 17-1 to disperse, 
 some to tho north, along tho Mississippi, othei-s to the south, across 
 the Isthmus of Panama, and there dissemuiating the custom of 
 ilat toning the liead from behind forwards. Other deformations of a 
 diiioivnt typo aiv met with in the same country. ^\hich it seems 
 reasonable to ii^fer to another primitive people. Emm these de\ia- 
 tions from one and tho same custom, we may infer that its origin 
 dales back to a very remote period. They pniolisod it during 
 
 N 2 
 
ISa ARTIFICIAL DEFORMA.TIONS. [Chap. tt. 
 
 infancy on 130111 sexes, and sometimes on the male only, by very 
 different methods. Sometimes the infant was fastened on a plank, 
 or a sort of cradle with leather straps ; or they applied pieces of clay, 
 pressing them down with small boards on the forehead, the vertex, 
 and the occiput, according to the particular object they had in view. 
 Sometimes the head was kneaded with the hands or the knees, or, 
 the infant being laid on the back, the elbow was pressed on the 
 forehead. Circular bands were sometimes employed to support the 
 sides of the head. Sometimes they had recourse to some other 
 method, which they carried out in another way. Each people, 
 each tribe, each family had its various methods by which they 
 might be recognised. In Vancouver's Island and the neighbour- 
 ing islands, three very different types have been noticed side 
 by side. 
 
 The infant sometimes dies during the process, and when it sur- 
 vives, it does so to the detriment of the intellectual faculties. The- 
 intellect, however, does not seem generally to be so much affected 
 as we might have supposed. Even the cranial cajjacity is nob 
 diminished, because the brain, if it does not accommodate itself 
 when pressure is forcibly exerted on it, is capable of resisting slow, 
 partial, and progressive pressure. It has been asked whether in 
 the course of time these deformations become hereditary. The ques- 
 tion has generally been answered in the negative, notwithstanding 
 which we would not assert that certain brachycephales did not 
 originate in this way. 
 
 M. Gosse has described sixteen species of artificial deformation, 
 ten of which were in American skulls, which he afterwards reduces 
 to five. M. Lunier admits seven species.* 
 
 We shall reduce the most interesting and the most common of 
 them to two, the one dresse, the other eouche, comprising each of 
 the species and the varieties. Moreover, there are but few of these 
 which can be taken apart from the rest ; all of them seem to have 
 
 * Gosse, " Essai sur les Deformations Artificielles da CrAne," Paris, 1855 ; 
 and "Presentation d'un CrS,ue Deforme de Nahua," in "Bull. Soo. d'Anthrop.," 
 vol. ii., 1871 ; Lunier, Article " Deformations Artifioiellea du Crane," in. 
 "NouT. Diet, de Med. et Chirurg. Pratiques," 1869. 
 
Chap, v.] ARTIFICIAL DEFORMATIONS. 181 
 
 gradations of form of the most opposite character, and it would be 
 difficult to determine what name to give to them. 
 
 It is, however, from their being so characteristic, and of forms 
 with which we have become so familiar, that they enable us to 
 recognise the people to which the skull belongs. 
 
 In the first kind, more or less forcible pressure and counter- 
 pressure, varying also in height and in extent, have been exerted 
 at the two extremities of the skull, thus shortening the antero- 
 posterior and lengthening the vertical and frec^uently the transverse 
 diameter. 
 
 In the second kind, the length is, on the contrary, increased. 
 Whether the deformations be symmetrical or asymmetrical is imma- 
 terial; sometimes we should expect the latter, but most frequently this 
 would be involuntary and the result of a badly-conducted operation. 
 
 When in the first kind, the dresse, the most continuous pressure 
 was exerted on a great extent of the occipital, while at the forehead 
 there was only slight counter-pressure, the result was simple occipital 
 deformation, or a vertical occiput. This is observed on the coasts of 
 Peru, among some Puelchas, in one of the tribes of the Vancouver 
 Archipelago, in Malacca, and even in France. If the sides of the 
 skull were at the same time compressed or supported, we should 
 get the quadrangular deformation met with in South America, and 
 among the Paws mentioned by Morton. The pressure on the 
 occipital being increased, and that of the forehead being continued, 
 we should arrive at the raised cuneiform deformation (deformation 
 cuneifonne relevee) of Gosse, which is characteristic of the Nahuas, 
 their descendants the Natchez, certaia of the Chinooks, and, in 
 another part of the world, the Tahitians. The most celebrated 
 variety is the deformation trilohee, iu the form of a trefoU, of the 
 Island of Sacrificios, in the Gulf of Mexico, which is produced by 
 a supplementary band beginning at the occiput, passing up over 
 the median line, and bifurcating in the middle of the sagittal suture 
 to reach the temporal fossae. Things remaining thus, if the frontal 
 pressure is made higher the middle lobe disappears, and we have 
 the cordiform deformity and not the bilobed, because it would 
 become amalgamated with another of which we shall speak presently. 
 
182 ARTIFICIAL DEFORMATIONS. [Chap. v. 
 
 In the laboratory of M. Brooa there are sixteen beautiful speoimens 
 of this from Ancona, Peru, &c. 
 
 In the second kind, or couche, the frontal pressure was greater, 
 it being exerted over the whole surface of the bone, while the 
 occipital counter-pressure was exerted lower, was very slight, or none 
 at all (the j)oint d'appui then passed through the vertebral column) ; 
 the skull therefore became elongated behind without obstruction. 
 In the generality of cases, however, a supplementary pressure was 
 made on the vertex. Hence we find on the upper surface of these 
 skulls, from before backwards; (1) a frontal depression or flattening; 
 
 (2) a bregmatic projection; (3) a post-bregmatic depression; (4) a swel- 
 ling formed by the whole mass of the receding skull. The flattening 
 of the forehead — which is sometimes immoderately receding, as in 
 Fig. 19, representing the Aztecs — took the name, among certain 
 peoples, of deformation of courage (deformation du courage). In the 
 kind termed dresse, the forehead was more frequently widened and 
 more elevated ; in this, it is usually narrower, longer, and lower. 
 One of the consequences of this is that the roof of the orbits is 
 depressed, and that the eyeballs are raised by being made to project 
 There are three species of this deformation or distortion : (1) The 
 cuneiform deformation (deformation cuneiforms coucMe) of Gosse,. 
 which is very marked in the Caribs of the Antilles, the northern 
 Guaranis, and some ]S"orth American tribes near Vancouver's 
 Island. The majority of Chlnooks and other ilat-heads (tetes plates) 
 from the Columbia river, described by Morton, are in the same 
 category. (2) The elongated symmetrical deformation (deformation 
 symetrique allongee) of Morton, in use among the ancient Aymaras. 
 
 (3) The macrooephalic deformation (deformation mucrocephale) of 
 Europe, which in France has given origin to the annular (annulaire) 
 variety of Foville,* and the bilobed (bilolee) of Lunier — observed 
 in the departments of the Lower Seine and the two Sevres — and 
 to the simple frontal or Toulousian (Toulousaine) variety, so named 
 from the country in which it has been specially noticed. (Fig. 22.) 
 In the annular, the band extends from a point behind the bregma, 
 
 * See also " La Deformation allongee et cylindrique " of Foville, of which 
 the annular is a variety, in " Anat. Syst. Nerveux " of Foville. Paris, 1844. 
 
Chap, v.] 
 
 DEFORMATION OF THE AYMAEAS. 
 
 183 
 
 vertically below the chin, by crossing a circular furrow which 
 divides the head into two portions ; these being less decided in the 
 annular than in the bilobed variety. In the Toulousian^ the line 
 starts from the occiput, reaches the forehead obliquely, and there 
 exerts its principal pressure.* The macrocephaUc unites the two 
 systems, so that the frontal depression of the Toulousian and the 
 post-bregmatie depression of the annular exist there, the two being 
 separated by a bregmatic projection. 
 
 "We must say it is often difficult to distinguish certain macro- 
 eephalic skulls of the Crimea from certain elongated crania from 
 
 viex 
 Fig. 22. — Artificial deformation of tlie skuil, called Toulousaine. 
 
 the country of the ancient Aymaras. Among the deformations not 
 included with the two preceding kinds, and which Gosse describes, 
 we may mention the nasal deioTmsAion^diformation nasdle) or flatten- 
 ing of the bones of the nose, practised by the Botocudos of America, 
 and the naso-parietal [deformation naso-parietale) or Mongolian, 
 peculiar to the ancient Huns and to certain Kirghis. 
 
 "We have said that the types of ethnic deformations of the skull 
 present gradations, whereby they are at times insensibly trans- 
 formed into other types, although their general character remains. 
 
 * " Snr la Deformation Toulousaine du Cr4ne," by M. Broca, in " Bull. 
 Soc. d'Authrop.," 1871. 
 
184 DEFORMATION OF THE AYMAEAS. [Chap. v. 
 
 The skulls whicli are met with in Upper Peru and Bolivia, and are 
 generally attributed to the Aymaras, are proofs of this. Their 
 varieties may be reduced to three. In the first, almost the entire 
 skull is thrown backwards, and has the appearance of being recum- 
 bent (couche) horizontally. The most striking example of this 
 which has been under our notice, and which belonged to M. Broca's 
 laboratory, projects 89 millimetres backwards behind the opisthion, 
 while in 20 Europeans', taken at random, the same projection is 
 68 millimtoes ; but the skull in this species is not always so eoiiche, 
 and we have noticed in others that the sub-occipital region is better 
 supported. In the second species, the most common and most classic 
 among the Aymaras, the sub-occipital counter-pressure is a little 
 higher, and is more perceptible, and the more compact lateral bands, 
 which are readily recognised by their impression, prevent the skull 
 from spreading at the sides. Thus the extremity of the skull which 
 corresponds to the obehon, or to the interval which separates it from 
 the lambda, is conical, and constricted at the base by a circular 
 furrow which starts from the occiput and bifurcates on each side, 
 one portion tending towards the region of the frontal protuberances 
 and the other to the vertex. The varieties of this species differ in 
 the degi-ee of obliquity, above and behind, of the great posterior 
 axis of the skull and of the cone in question. In the most oblique 
 form the recumbent deformation (decoicchee) has become raised. In 
 the example which we have seen lately, the projection behind the 
 opisthion is not more than 58 millimetres, that is to say, it is as 
 much diminished as in the preceding case it was increased. In 
 order to account for the difference in these two cases, we must com- 
 pare together the following measiurements, viz. : their post-opisthiac 
 projection, their maximum vertical projection, and their maximum 
 antero-posterior diameter. The first, which shows the elongation, 
 and the second, the straight character of the skull, are expressed in 
 hundredths of the antero-posterior diameter. In the first example, 
 the index of the projection backwards is ii'Q and that of the 
 height 77-6; and in the second, the one is 34 '3 and the other 
 92'9. This proves that the deformation gains in horizontal projection 
 in the former case what it loses in vertical in the latter. In the 
 
jChap. v.] deformation OF THE NAHUAS. 185 
 
 tliird species, which varies as to inclination, all the bands which 
 compressed the sides have disappeared, or at least are scarcely per- 
 ceptible. The lateral furrows are wanting, traces of the frontal 
 pressure alone remain ; the skull is swollen above and behind the 
 auditory foramina, and the whole deformation has the appearance of 
 ■an egg with its larger extremity posteriorly. This most resembles 
 the macrocephalic deformity of the Caucasian skulls. Notwith- 
 standing these varieties, we discover in the three species that a 
 similar method of proceeding has been employed, and for a similar 
 object, which is characteristic of the Aymara race, and which 
 distinguishes it at once from the race of Ancona and also from 
 that of Peru, in which the head is plainly raised up by a flattening 
 from behind forwards. Prom this fact alone we should conclude 
 that the peoples of Ancona belonged to the conquering race, which 
 in Plorida bore the name of Nahuas, and of which the Toltees of 
 Mexico, the Natchez of the Mississippi, and the Totonacks of 
 Sacrificios are other representatives. 
 
 Conclusion. 
 
 Our first part being completed thus far, in which we have con- 
 sidered Man zoologically in his ensemble, and having taken special 
 notice of his varieties, it remains for us to give an answer to the 
 question propounded at the close of our preliminary remarks : 
 What place does Man occupy in the class of mammalia 1 Is he to 
 be classified in an order or in a family 1 "We cannot too frequently 
 reiterate that Man, owing to his intellectual powers, occupies the 
 first place in creation, and is its culminating point as a marvel of 
 •organisation ; he therefore exercises upon the planet of which he is 
 an inhabitant a rightful dominion over all living beings. But we 
 must also remember that there does not seem any radical difference 
 between him and those most nearly related to him — the anthropoid 
 apes, Anatomically, they possess the same organs, constructed and 
 arranged in the same way, there being only secondary shades of 
 difference between them. The feet, the hands, the vertebral 
 column, the thorax, the pelvis, the organs of sense — all have the 
 
186 CONCLUSION. [Chap. T. 
 
 same configuration. The brain also in its structure and its- 
 convolutions is identical. Physiologically, the various functions 
 are exercised in a similar manner ; even their diseases are alike. AH 
 the important differences between them reside in the volume of the 
 brain, which is three times more developed in. Man, and in his 
 faculties, the due adjustment and co-ordination of which give him 
 the judgment, the reason, and the understanding, which are the 
 noblest if not the brightest gems in his crown. An Emeritus 
 professor relates that one day finding himself alone on Mont Blanc, 
 at the halting-place of the Grands Mulcts, he cast his eye over th& 
 depth of the abys& which separated him from Chamounix, and 
 which the Glacier des Bossons rendered impassable. Some intelli- 
 gent guides, however, had discovered a number of invisible paths, 
 which connected these two points, and so assured their communica- 
 tion. Such, said he, is the nature of the abyss which separates 
 Man from animals. 
 
 The comparison is ingenious, but scarcely correct. The characters 
 which Man and animals possess in common are manifest to all, 
 and no one would have had any doubt on the subject if their serenity 
 had not been disturbed by biblical legends or by philosophical specu- 
 lations. The modes of transition, the anomalies which produce in 
 one that which is normal, in others a strict identity in the majority 
 of the organs, only slightly differing as to form, all indicate that 
 unity of arrangement of which Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire speaks. What 
 should we say if, instead of their being reduced to the human and 
 simian forms which time had bequeathed to us, we had to arrange 
 those which were intermediate, and which had escaped us 1 
 
 Whatever his past may have been, Man now appears before us 
 as forming a circumscribed zoological group, to which it is proper 
 to give a name in. our classification. What is it to be ■? 
 
 In the preceding pages, we have been led to recognise the exist- 
 ence of particular types in each zoological division or subdivision. 
 Eirst, we found a general type proper to all mammalia, that is to 
 say, an ensemble of character common to men and animals, which, 
 whilst distinguishing them collectively, unites them with birds and 
 leptUes, as if all had been formed in one and the same mould, and 
 
Chap, t.] CONCLUSIOIf. 187 
 
 diversity had supervened subsequently. Then, laying aside that 
 "which is foreigjn to our purpose, a general type common to all the 
 monkey trihe, and to which Man assimilates infinitely more than to 
 that of the camivori or ruminants. Lastly, in this simian group we 
 found a succession of dissimilar types : first, that of lemurs, but 
 slightly homogeneous, ill-defined, and showing a preference on the 
 one side to certain cheiroptera and insectivora, and on the other to 
 some species of cebians, or monkeys of the new continent ; a second 
 type, better defined and brought to greater perfection ; then a third 
 type, that of pithecians, or monkeys of the old continent, divorcing 
 itself from the second, and in which the particular traces of 
 resemblance to Man are more apparent. 
 
 Up to this point, the three simian types follow each other in a 
 regular gradation of succession. But after the third there is a 
 bound ; the pithecians have less resemblance to the anthropoid 
 apes than to the cebians. The general type of the anthropoids is 
 indeed altogether difierent and very marked, but it bears the closest 
 resemblance to that of Man. The conclusions we formed at each 
 step were, that many a characteristic so similar in monkeys of the 
 three inferior groups, and iu quadrupeds, is different ia the anthro- 
 poid ; and the physiognomy assumes a resemblance to that which it 
 presents in Man. In a word, the type of character changes as we 
 pass from the pithecians to the anthropoids ; their degree or their 
 quantity alone varying as we pass from the anthropoids to Man. 
 The real differences between these last may be reduced to two, 
 which are not of equal value : (1) Man always stands erect. The 
 anthropoid ape sometimes holds himself erect and sometimes goes on 
 all-fours ; and in the latter case he makes use of his anterior 
 extremities as hands — as we should do in that attitude — and hot as 
 feet. The variations in their respective skeletons, muscles, viscera, 
 as well as their direction of vision, depend on it. (2) The brain 
 of Man is three times as large ; hence the development of his 
 intellectual faculties, of his faculty of language, and of his facial 
 angle. 
 
 Apart from these two points, and from everything which they 
 involve, we can only discover resemblances between Man and the 
 
188 CONCLUSION, [Chap. t. 
 
 anthropoids, and the following question naturally arises : Among 
 the four classes of anthropoids, is there one more than another 
 which approaches to Man t 
 
 The gibhon may be set aside. In respect to his cerebral con- 
 volutions and the vertebral column, taken as a whole he is really 
 superior ; but as regards the proportions of his extremities, the 
 narrowness of his pelvis, the arrangement of his muscles, the 
 callosities on his buttocks, and his habits of living, he establishes 
 the, transition to the pithecians. 
 
 The orang occupies an equally unfavourable position, by reason 
 of certain anatomical characteristics which are proper to him, by 
 the proportions of his skeleton, and by his defective feet and hands; 
 but he recovers it owing to his cerebral convolutions, his facial 
 angle, the number of his ribs, his teeth, and perhaps also his 
 intelligence. 
 
 The chimpanzee is remarkable for the richness of his cerebral 
 convolutions, the proportions of his skeleton, the disposition of his 
 femurs, and the general physiognomy of his skull. 
 
 Lastly, the gorilla has the volume of his braiu in his favour ; 
 the direction of his vision, his height, the general proportion of his 
 limbs, the arrangement of his muscles, his hand, his foot, and his 
 pelvis ; but he has thirteen pairs of ribs, a defective vertebral 
 column, laryngeal sacs, a diastema, and very large canines. For our 
 part we rather decide in favour of the chimpanzee, and particularly 
 of certain of his species ; but it is necessary that these should be 
 better known. 
 
 The elements upon which the leading arrangement of the 
 zoological divisions should be based are: (1) a general type, common 
 to all the mammalia; (2) a general sub-type, common to all monkeys 
 proper, to the anthropoid, and to Man; (3) a particular type, common 
 to these last two ; (4) the human type. The most strilting fact in 
 relation to this was brought forward at a remarkable discussion 
 which took place in 1869, at a meeting of the Society d' Anthro- 
 pologic. The question of doctrine having been carefully avoided, 
 the conclusion was arrived at that the anthropoid apes mare nearly 
 approach Man anatomically than the monkeys next in order to tliem. 
 
Chap, t.] CONCLUSION. 189 
 
 Consequently the separation to be made at the extreme of the 
 series, hetween the inferior monkeys and Man, cannot be logically 
 placed between the anthropoid and the so-called common monkeys. 
 This leads us to Mr. Huxley's classification: (1) Man and the 
 anthropoid apes ; (2) the monkeys of the old and new continents ; 
 (3) lemurs. 
 
 But we must necessarily draw a strong line of demarcation 
 between Man and the anthropoids. Although the type common to 
 both differs only in degree, that which concerns the brain has so 
 considerable a range that division becomes inevitable. But, to be 
 logical^ we must in the same way separate the monkeys of the old 
 continent from those of the new, which have an equal claim to differ 
 by reason of other characteristics ; and this leads us definitely to 
 adopt the classification of M. Broca : (1) Man ; (2) the anthropoid 
 apes; (3) pithecians ; (4) cebians; (5) lemurs. 
 
 J^ow these five groups have nearly the same zoological value, 
 and are separated from each other by equal intervals. United, they 
 present an ensemile of common features, which separates them en 
 masse from the camivora as much as these are separated from the 
 marsupialia or the cetaoea. We must then give to each of them 
 equivalent leading titles, and to the whole collectively a title similar 
 to that of camivora, of marsupialia, or cetacea. They thus form five 
 families in one and the same order — that of Primates. Consequently, 
 Man forms one FAMILY ; the first in the OEDEE of Primates, the 
 first iu the CLASS of MammaKa. 
 
 It remains for us to inquire whether the divisions of this family 
 are to be arranged as genera, as species, or as varieties. We shall 
 decide this question after having examined the elements of the 
 problem in our second part. 
 
PAET II. 
 
 ■OF THE EACES OF MANKIND. 
 
CHAPTEK I. 
 
 SPECIES VARIETY RACE CLASSIFICATION OF RACES PHYSICAL 
 
 CHARACTERISTICS ANATOMICAL DESCRIPTION CEANIOLOGY — 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE CHAEACTEEISTICS — PROCESSES OP BLUMENBACH, OF 
 
 OWEN, OP PRICHAED CEANIOMETRICAL CHARACTERISTICS 
 
 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OP EMPLOYING CRANIOMETRY. 
 
 The divisions and subdivisions of the iiuman family are designated 
 in current language by the name of races ; and as such their study 
 would not present greater difficulties than that of aU other analo- 
 gous divisions of natural history, but for the intrusion of questions 
 of doctrine. Have these races the value of species, of varieties, or 
 even of genera ? This is the question. Before giving a reply we 
 must pass in review: (1) the accepted definitions of all these terms ; 
 (2) the classification of races ; (3) the particular characteristics upon 
 which they rest ; (4) the principal physical types which we may 
 take for granted exist among mankind in general 
 
 Of Species. 
 
 The main point of the dispute lies in the sense attached to 
 this word, and to its exact limitation; which necessitates our 
 bringing in a certain number of definitions, and these have the 
 advantage of drawing the questions closer together. In determining 
 the first series of defijiitions we shall be met at the very threshold 
 mth inherent difficulties. In the second is sketched out a principle 
 pregnant with consequences — species are variable, without any 
 
 
 
194 SPECIES. [Chap. i. 
 
 precise limits, and become transformed in the course of time. In 
 the last the contrary principle is maintained, namely, that species 
 are immutable, and changes in them never pass beyond certain 
 boundaries. 
 
 "Under the denomination of species," Eobinet -writes ia 1768, 
 " naturaUsts embrace the aggregate of individuals which possess an 
 amount of appreciable difference." 
 
 " Species," says Agassiz, " is the last division of classification 
 at which naturalists pause ; and this division is based upon the 
 least important characteristics, such as form, c olour , and propor- 
 tions." 
 
 " Species," according to Lamarck, " is the aggregate of iudi- 
 viduals Kke each other, whose offspring is perpetuated in the same 
 condition, as long as circumstances of situation are not changed to 
 such a degree as to alter their habits, their disposition, and their 
 forms." 
 
 "Species," says Geoffroy Saint -Hilaire subsequently, "is an 
 aggregation or succession of individuals characterised by a uniformity 
 of distinctive features, whose transmission is natural, regular, and 
 unlimited in the present state of things." 
 
 " Species," says Cuvier, " is the aggregate of all organised beings, 
 descended from one original parentage, or from those which resemble 
 them as far as they resemble each other." 
 
 In the following definition of Prichard, in which especial refer- 
 ence is made to the position assigned to Man, we perceive the 
 dominance of orthodox ideas, and, at the same time, some amount 
 of vagueness attributable to the influence of Lamarck. " Species," 
 he remarks, " is an aggregate of individuals resembling each other, 
 whose slight differences are explained by the influence of physical 
 agencies, and who are descended from a primitive pair." This is 
 the ancient monogenestie creed. 
 
 M. de Quatrefages considers that the elements of the definition 
 may be reduced to two, viz. : " the resemblance of individuals to 
 each other, and their uninterrupted descent from a primitive 
 group." It is not until subsequently that he admits, as a practical 
 criterion of species, the result of inbreeding. " Individuals of the 
 
Chap, i.] SPECIES. 195 
 
 same species," he remarks, " are alone capable of producing prolific 
 offspring." This idea is precisely that of the old botanists Eay and 
 De Candolle. What are we to think of these divergences ? That 
 species might really he nothing more than one of those " products 
 of art " of -which Lamarck speaks, and not a definite and absolute 
 zoological association. Its most zealous partisans declare that it has 
 but one criterion by which it may be recognised— the fecundity of 
 individuals inter se, and their sterility with those of contiguous 
 species. But this criterion has undergone many assaults of late 
 years. Many species, admitted incontestably to be diverse from 
 one another, have produced prolific offspring, unquestionably very 
 proHfic. Naturalists generally denied it at first, and held to the 
 denial with pertinacious grasp, declaring that they were deceived, 
 and that the pretended species were simply varieties. Be it so. 
 The hare and the rabbit, the dog and the wolf, the camel and the 
 dromedary are of the same species. But the distance between the 
 goat and the sheep is greater ; they are genera, and by descending 
 only one step they would only become species. Now their cross- 
 breeds succeed weU. in Chili. The wild goat and the domestic 
 goat are also different genera ; nevertheless, in the Pyrenees they 
 produce mixed breeds, which have been described by Count de 
 Bouill^ It appears that even the union of a heifer and a stag 
 produced a hybrid, which was exhibited at an agricultural meeting 
 in the department of Aisne. 
 
 But it is not suf&cient that there should be a cross-breed and 
 progeny ; the criterion of species is that this progeny itself and its 
 descendants should be fertile, and that the mongrels left to them- 
 selves should never revert either to the paternal or maternal type. 
 However, this is only one step in the mode of manifestation of an 
 organic property, which we shall describe later on under the name 
 of homogenesis, and which is the faculty that two germs of 
 opposite sexes possess in different individuals of becoming reciprocally 
 prolific, however great their zoological distance may be. Simple 
 fecundity is the first step. The union of the hare and the rabbit 
 furnishes an example of the most advanced step. The different 
 species produce offspring of an intermediate character, termed 
 
 o 2 
 
196 VABIETY. [Chap. i. 
 
 leporides, wliich. after twenty generations are still fixed, after 
 repeated experiments both in France and Germany. 
 
 The perpetuity of the type of species is secured, under these 
 circumstances, by the faculty of individuals to intercross more 
 successfully and to produce offspring, which in their turn continue 
 to propagate those resembling themselves. ISTo one disputes this. It 
 is equally the rule that crossings outside the species are sterile, but 
 in both cases there are exceptions which do not confirm the rule, 
 and which increase iu number the more closely we look at the 
 matter ; exceptions which, reasoning by analogy, could not be fore- 
 seen, and which are only learnt from experience. This more or less 
 potent affinity between genera and species, and the more or less 
 favoured varieties of mongrels resulting in consequence, prove at least 
 that the barriers of species are not inviolable, and that the pre- 
 tended criterion has nothing positive about it. 
 
 Later on, when we are considering the degree of homogenesis of 
 races in human cross-breeds, we must beware of gathering from 
 them an argument either for or against their quality of species or 
 variety. 
 
 Of Variety. 
 
 Under this name, devoid of all qualification, we usually under- 
 stand an assemblage of individuals presenting common character- 
 istics, and thereby distinguished from contiguous groups having 
 other common characteristics, or those of a more general type. It 
 is transient and accidental, or permanent. Teratological variety, and 
 variety the resrdt of the influence of external conditions, belong 
 to the former. Apropos of the permanent variety, aU kinds of 
 difference of doctrine are observable. In the transformation 
 schools of the present day no distinction is made between them and 
 species. In the opposite school of olden time, that of Prichard for 
 example, the two so far approach each other that their character- 
 istics are altogether hereditary ; but whilst the permanent variety 
 is merely an accidental one which is fixed and determined, species 
 had always existed, or at least had descended from a single pair. 
 
Chap, i.] EACE. 1S7 
 
 Of Race. 
 
 The word has many acceptations, according to the particular 
 doctrine embraced or the absence of doctrine. In the one case it 
 corresponds to the permanent and secondary variety of Prichard, 
 ia the other it expresses so well-marked a zoological limit, that one 
 is compelled to ask whether it is not confounded with species. Jn 
 current language indeed it has a vague meaning, leaving all. the 
 questions svh judice. 
 
 "Eaces are hereditary varieties," remarks Adrien de Jussieu; 
 and M. de Quatrefages says : "When the accidental characteristics 
 "which distinguish a vegetable or an animal variety are transmitted 
 by generation and become hereditary, then we have a race." 
 " Zoologists and botanists are imanimous on this point," he goes on 
 to say ; and further : " The race is the ensemMe of individuals like 
 each other, belonging to one and the same species, having received 
 and transmitted by generation the characteristics of a primitive 
 variety." Does M. de Quatrefages mean to say that it is quite 
 primitive ; for, the disputed criterion of fecundity being set aside, 
 how are we to distinguish primitive variety from species? The 
 accidental origin is pointed out precisely in this other definition. 
 " Eace," says Isidore Geoffroy Saint-HUaire, " is a succession of 
 individuals springing from one another, and rendered distinct by 
 undeviating characteristics."* 
 
 M. G. Pouchet gives the word another acceptation, which is that 
 of the ancient polygenists : " The word ' race ' designates the different 
 natural groups of mankind." According to him they are so many 
 species. There is q, radical difference between this and admitting 
 that certain races represent species, but that others are only per- 
 manent varieties, f 
 
 * " Eevue des Cours Soientif., 1867-68 ;" " Lemons " of M. de Quatrefages, 
 •' Hiatoire Nat. G&n. des Regions Organiques," by Isidore GeofEroy Saint- 
 Hilaire, 3 vols., Paris, 1859. 
 
 t "De la Pluralite des Races Hmnaines," by Georges Pouchet. Second 
 edition. Paris, 1864. 
 
198 CLASSIFICATION OF RACES. [Chap. i. 
 
 Another way in wliicli the word " race " is understood, or rather 
 employed, is that set forth la the following definition of Prichard : 
 " Under the name of races we include all assemblages of iadividuals 
 presentiag viore or less common characteristics, transmissible by 
 succession, the origin of these characteristics being an unsettled 
 question. " The term may thus be used iadifferently and taken in 
 its widest sense. It applies as well to more or less thoroughly- 
 defined human varieties, or sub-varieties, as to species. Under its 
 shadow every variety of opinion may recline ; negroes in general 
 may be looked upon as a race in the same way as Kaffirs or natives 
 of the Gold Coast. "We shall speak as a matter of convenience of 
 pme, cross, mixed, primary, and secondary races. There will be 
 anthropological and historical races, as well as those determined 
 according to language. Some are lost ia obscurity, and will only be 
 found by a diligent examination of every possible species of evidence; 
 others wUl be seen under our very eyes, as the living races of 
 Australia and America. At the moment when we ought to decide 
 as to the number and value of races, we shall come to an orderly 
 arrangement inspired by the teachings of our master, M. Broca, 
 who says, " The varieties of mankind have received the name of 
 races, which gives the idea of a more or less direct relationship 
 between iadividuals of the same variety, but does not decide either 
 affirmatively or negatively the question of the relationship between 
 individuals of different varieties." * 
 
 Eaces thus included, that is to say, the more or less generally 
 accepted divisions and subdivisions of the human family, are well- 
 nigh infinite ; we are compelled therefore to group them. Those of 
 the most striking character we place first ; then those which are less 
 and less determined ; and, lastly, those which we make a guess at, 
 or which are to be discovered by the help of geography, history, and 
 linguistics. 
 
 Classification of Eaces. 
 
 The first attempt at classification was made in the year 1772, 
 liy F. Bemier, a French traveller, who made out that there were 
 * Article " Anthropologie," in " Diet. Bnoyol. des Sciences Me'dicales," vol. v. 
 
Chap, i.]; CLASSIfflOATION OF BACKS. 199 
 
 four races : the -white in Europe, the yellow in Asia, the black ia 
 Africa, and Laplanders ia the north. 
 
 The second -was that of Linnseus. His genus Man iacludes three 
 species : homo sapiens, homo ferus, and homo monstruosm. His 
 savage man is dumb, covered with hair, and walks on all-fours. 
 Among his mansfrous men he iacludes the microcephales and the 
 plagiocephales. His homo sapiens includes four varieties : the 
 European, with flaxen hair, blue eyes, and light skia ; the Asiatic, 
 with blackish hair, brown eyes, and yellowish skia ; the African, 
 with black wooUy hair, black skia, flat nose, and thick lips ; and 
 the American, with tawny skia, long black hair, and beardless chia. 
 Buffon did not classify — ^he described. He recognised more 
 particularly a northern race, a Malay race, and made a distinc- 
 tion between Hottentots and other African negroes. The first 
 classification which possessed a certain amount of prestige was 
 that of Blumenbach. The Gdttiagen professor described five 
 human varieties : the Caucasian, the Mongolian, the Ethiopian, 
 the American, and the Malay. He was the origiaator of the title 
 of Caucasian, which is now ia use, and which he employed 
 because the Caucasus is near Mount Ararat, upon which the ark 
 rested after the flood. But a period soon arrived when a reaction 
 took place among a certain number of naturalists. Three pairs 
 alone having survived the universal deluge, as a matter of course 
 all the races of mankind now living upon the earth descended from 
 them. 
 
 CJuvier admits three races — the white, or Caucasian, the Mongo- 
 lian, and the negro. D&ormais divides the first into three — the 
 Indo-Pelasgian, the Armenian (Semitic), and the Scytho-Tartarian ; 
 and includes in the second the Kalmucks, the Mantchiis, the 
 Chinese, the Japanese, the Coreans, and the inhabitants of Micro- 
 nesia (the Marianne and Caroline Isles). He does not speak of 
 the divisions of the negro race ; but, not knowing where to find a 
 place in his classification for the Malays, Papuans, Lapps, Esqui- 
 maux, and Americans, he rejects them altogether from his category. 
 " The red colour of the Indians of America," however, he does 
 "not consider sufficient ground for placing them in a distiact race." 
 
200 CLASSIFICATION OF RACES. [Chap. i. 
 
 The authority of Blumenbach, however, counterbalanced that of 
 Cuvier, and classic authors, with some dissentients, divided them 
 between the five races of the one and the three races of the other, 
 liac^pfede, Prichard, Jacquinot, and Flourens were in favour of 
 three, the last-named recognising about thirty-three different types. 
 
 The first opposition came from Virey, in 1801, who gave out 
 tiiat the human family was composed of two species, the white and 
 the black, each being divided into six races, and these in their 
 turn into families. 
 
 Bory de Saint- Vincent and A. Desmoulins were of the same 
 opinion. The former, taking up the propositions of La Peyr^re, 
 declared that Adam was " the father of the Jews only, and that the 
 differences between the human races are sufficiently great to merit 
 the designation of species." He admitted fifteen, many of which 
 in their turn included many races, namely, the Japhetic or 
 European, the Arabian, the Hindoo, the Scythian (Turks), the 
 Sinican (Chinese), the Hyperborean, the Neptunian (Malays, 
 Polynesians, and Papons), the Australian, the Columbian and 
 American, the Ethiopian, the Kaffir, the Melanesian, and the 
 Hottentot. Among the secondary races a few deserve to be 
 mentioned : the Arabian species, comprising the Adamic Jews and 
 Arabians, and the Atlantic race (Berbers). 
 
 A. Desmoulins at the same time as, or rather before, Bory de 
 Saint-Vincent, raised the number of human species to sixteen. 
 He mentions two which had escaped Bory, namely, the Kurilian 
 and the Papuan. The Caucasian species is taken in a different 
 acceptation to that of Blumenbach and Cuvier; it merely desig- 
 nates a particular group of the Caucasus, including the Mingrelians, 
 the Georgians, and the Armenians. His division of the Mon<Jo- 
 lian species into the Indo-Sinican, the Mongol, and the Hyper- 
 borean race is equally worthy of attention. It is to be regretted 
 that A. Desmoulins should have brought into his Scythian or 
 European species the Finnish race. But in his arrangement are 
 found unforeseen affinities which science has not confirmed, but 
 which perhaps will deserve to be one day taken again into con- 
 sideration. It would be impossible to enumerate all the methods 
 
Chap, i.] CLASSIFICATION OF SAINT-HILAIRE AND HUXLEY. 201 
 
 of classification whicli have been proposed, from the four races of 
 Leibnitz, the four varieties of Kant, the five groups (divided 
 into twenty-six families) of Morton, or the nine centres of Agassiz, 
 to the more recent classifications of M. Fr. Miiller and M. Hoeckel. 
 Three only will engage our attention before we close this subject : 
 the method of Isidore Geofiroy Saint-ffilaire, which was the first 
 to make classification depend exclusively on the methodical arrange- 
 ment of a certain number of physical characteristics ; that of Mr. 
 Huxley, which has a certain amount of originality; and that of 
 M. de Quatrefages, which examines into the whole of nature in 
 accordance with the principles of the natural method. 
 
 The classifications of Isidore Geoffrey Saiut-Hilaire are two iu 
 number. In the first he distributes his eleven principal races 
 according to the character of the hair, the flatness or projecting 
 form of the nose, the colour of the skia, the shape of the eyes, and 
 the size of the lower extremities. In the second he admits the 
 following human types : the first, or Caucasian, with the face oval 
 and the jaws vertical (orthognathous) ; the second, or Mongolian, 
 with the face broad ia consequence of the prominence of the cheek- 
 bones (eurygnathous) ] the third, or Ethiopian, with projecting 
 jaws (prognathous) ; and the fourth, or Hottentot type, with wide 
 cheek-bones and projecting jaws (eurygnathous and prognathous). 
 This division has not been settled finally, but the bases of it are 
 excellent. 
 
 The classification of Mr. Huxley includes two primary divisions : 
 The ulotrichi, with woolly hair, and the leiostrichi, with smooth 
 hair. (1) Ulotrichi Colour varying from yellow-brown to the 
 jettest black ; the hair and eyes dark, and with only a few excep- 
 tions they are dolichocephales (elongated head). Example : the 
 negroes of Africa and the Papous. (2) Leiostrichi. These are 
 divisible into four groups : the australoid group, with dark skin, 
 hair, and eyes ; the hair long and straight, prognathous skull, 
 with well-developed superciliary ridges. Example : the blacks 
 found in Australia and in the Deccan, and perhaps the ancient 
 Egyptians. The mongoloid group : yellowish-brown or reddish- 
 brown skin, dark eyes, long, black, and straight hair, mesati- 
 
202 CLASSIFICATION OF DB QUATEEFAGES. [Chap. i. 
 
 cephalic skull. Example : the Mongols, Chinese, Polynesians, 
 Esquimaux, and Americans. The xanthochioic group : pale skin, 
 hhie eyes, and abundant fair hair, skull mesaticephalic. Example : 
 the Slavonians, Teutons, Scandinavians, and the fair Celtic-speak- 
 ing people. The melanochroid group : pale-complexioned, dark 
 eyes, hair long and black. Example : Iberians and black Celts 
 and the Berbers. 
 
 There are many objections to this classification. The form of 
 the head, for example, is not always exact. If the Chinese and 
 the Polynesians of the third group are mesaticephalic, the 
 Esquimaux are the most dolichocephalic to be found on the 
 globe, and the Mongols among the most brachycephalic. 
 
 The best classification, apart from the monogenistic principle 
 upon which it is based, is that of M. de Quatrefages. The 
 eminent professor at the Museum of Paris regards the whole of the 
 human races, "pure or regarded as such,"* as a binglo stem with 
 three trunks — the white, the yellow, and the black — which are 
 divided iato branches, and these again into boughs, upon which 
 the families divided into groups are grafted. The branches of 
 the white trunk are the Aryan, the Semitic, and the AUophyle 
 (Esthonians, Caucasians, Ainos) ; those of the yellow trunk are 
 the Mongolian or nieridional, and the Ougrian or boreal ; and those 
 of the black trunk, the Negrito, the Melanesian, the African, and 
 the Saab (Hottentots). As examples of the boughs we may 
 mention the three of the Aryan branch — the Celt, the German, and 
 the Slav ; the two of the Semitic branch — the Semitic and the 
 Libyan; the two of the MongoUan branch — the Sitiican (Chinese, 
 &c.); and the Turanian (Turks). As examples of families : the 
 
 * The monogenistio theory doea not recognise the existence of really pure 
 races. All being derived from a single individual, and being gradually 
 produced by the influence of external oonditiona, the epithet is not abso- 
 lutely appUoable to them at any period of their existence. In the ancient 
 polygenistic doctrine a definite number of races have existed from the first, 
 with characteristics such as we now find them to possess, and consequently 
 hare remained pure. In the transformation theory also races are never 
 stationary, or at least are not so as far as our finite vision can make out ; 
 their purity therefore is always relative, as in the monogenistio theory. 
 
Chap, i.] CLASSIFICATION OF DE QUATEEFAGES. 203 
 
 Chaldean, the Arabic, and the Amhara of the Semitic hough ; the 
 first furnishing the Hebrew group, the second the Hymyarite and 
 Arabian groups, and the third the Abyssinian group. M. de 
 Quatrefages admits besides, " the great races belonging more or 
 less" to one of the three trunks. So among those of the yellow 
 trunk, races " k ^l^ments juxtaposfe " (the Japanese), and the races 
 " k figments fondus " (the Malayo-Polynesians).* In fact, the 
 majority of classifications go on progressing. We see them com- 
 mencing timidly, then multiplying their divisions, and then 
 descending to details. Questions as to geographical boundaries 
 are the first to attract attention, then physical characteristics, 
 language, and subsequently records of every kind, both ethnic, 
 historical, and archaeological. The defect of many is their exclusive 
 character, as the classification of M. Fr. Miiller, which is essentially 
 linguistic. M. de Quatrefages, on the contrary, draws from all 
 sources, and well weighs every question. Perhaps, however, he 
 does not lay sufficient stress on physical characteristics, which 
 ought in his eyes as a naturahst to take precedence of every other. 
 Ethnology, which classes peoples, naturally leaves them out of 
 consideration ; anthropology, which has to do with the distribution 
 of races — like botany, which makes divisions and subdivisions of 
 the vegetable kingdom — takes them as its principal basis, t 
 
 Before resumdng this question, let us consider first the physical 
 characteristics of races, and then the physiological, which fiow 
 from them. We shall also speak of ethnic, archaeological, and 
 linguistic characteristics, but only to a limited extent, inasmuch as 
 
 * We must not allow the name of M. de Quatrefages to pass without 
 expressing onr sense of the liberality with which he has for many years 
 placed at onr disposal the magnificent anthropological collections of the 
 Mnsenin. Without endorsing aU his views, we must admire the clear and 
 forcible mode in which he expresses them in his lectures and published 
 works. His examination of the doctrine of Darwin has particularly struck 
 us, and demands very serious and thoughtful attention. 
 
 t See " Systema Naturae," by Ch. Linnaeus, Leyden, 1735 ; " Dissertatio 
 Inauguralis de Generis Humani Varietate Nativsl," by J- F. Blumenbaoh, 
 Goettingen, 1775, in 4to ; " Le Efegne Animal," by Baron Cuvier, 5 vols., 
 vol. i., Paris, 1829 ; " Species des Mammifferes Bimanes et Qnadrmnanes," by 
 R. P. Lesson, Paris, 1840, in 8vo. 
 
204 PHYSICAL CHAEACTBRISTICS. [Chap. i. 
 
 there are volumes putlislied in the " Bibliothfeque des Sciences 
 Gontempoiaines," specially devoted to these suhjects.* 
 
 Tfie Physical Gharaeteristics. 
 
 The physical characteristics which separate races are of two 
 orders : anatomical, which are to he studied in the laboratory ; and 
 external, to be observed on the living subject. 
 
 The two are far from possessing the same value in the present 
 phase of anthropological science. In the laboratory, everything is 
 done carefully and methodically, as far as can be done, with the 
 compass and the balance. Observations are conducted with calm- 
 ness, and every avaiilable source of information ife brought into 
 requisition. In a foreign land, that is to say on the living subject, 
 it is quite otherwise. The traveller has generally other objects 
 which occupy his attention. f-He sets out with certain erroneous 
 opinions, allows himself to be influenced by the events of the day 
 and his own preconceived notions ; or he ignores what he ought to 
 observe, and passes by facts which possibly might clear up questions 
 long in dispute. Thus the observations which reach us from afar, 
 sometimes from a source looked upon as a most favourable one, 
 have never the same degree of exactness about them which facts 
 
 * " Histoire Natnrelle de I'Homme," by J. J. Virey, 2 vols. , Paris, 1801 ; 
 " Dictionnaire Glassiqne d'Hisfcoire Natnrelle," arts. " Bimanes," " Homme," 
 " Orang," by Bory de Saint-Tincent, vol. viii., 1825, and vol. xii., 1827 ; 
 "Histoire Naturelle des Eaoes Humaines," by A. Desmoulins, 8vo, Paris, 
 1826; "Manuel de Physiologie," by J. Mailer, translated into French, 
 2 vols., Paris, 1845 ; " Cours de Piysiologie," by P. B&ard, vol. 1., Paris, 
 1848, &o. &o. ; "The Eaoes of Men and their Distribution," by Charles 
 Pickering, 1 vol., 4to, Boston, 1848 and 1854 ; " Types of Manlrind," by 
 Nott and Gliddon, p. 618, Philadelphia, 1 vol., 1854; table of the first 
 olassifloation of Isidore GeofEroy Saint-Hilaire in " :fitudes sur I'Histoire 
 Natnrelle," by Camille Delvaille, Paris; "Sur la Classification Anthro- 
 pologique," by Isidore Geoifroy Saint-Hilaire, in " M^moires de la Socifte 
 d'Anthropologie," vol. i., 1860 ; " Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrated 
 Animals," by T. H. Huxley, translated into French, Paris, 1875 ; " Diet. 
 Enoycl. des Sciences M^d.," article " Eaces Humaines," by De Quatrefages, 
 1873 ; " Allgemeine Bthnographie," by F. Mtiller, Vienna, 1873, &c. 
 
Chap. I.] PHYSICAL CHAEAOTEEISTIGS. 205 
 
 of a much more unpretending character possess when collated in 
 the silence of the study. 
 
 The information published by our learned societies is intended 
 to supply this want of inexpertness which we find in ordinary 
 travellers, and to make them understand the desiderata of science, 
 and how to conduct their observations. But the observation of 
 minor characteristics presents the greatest difficulty. A scholar 
 like Dr. Beddoe will draw up very iastructive tables as to the 
 colour of the hair ; an ordinary observer wUl appropriate the tables 
 drawn up by the Soci(5t6 d' Anthropologic ; another, like Qu^telet, 
 and every physician familiar with anatomy, wiU. carefully notice 
 the proportions of the body, but we cannot expect this from the 
 generality of travellers. • They fancy they have done great things 
 if they take note of a certain date when they met with a native 
 having the elongated face, the curly hair, the flat nose, or the dark 
 complexion. But such observations are generally insufficient. 
 The expeditions such as those of the Novarra in Oceania, or of 
 Petermann in the K"orth, in which certaiu men were selected to 
 make special observations, are rare. In France we may mention 
 the Perons, the Pickerings, the D'Orbignys, the Humboldts, the 
 Fritschs ; but how few these are ! It is doubtful if the travels of 
 Livingstone have helped forward in any way the science of anthro- 
 pology. In natural history what we want most particularly is to 
 have specimens of plants and animals, which those specially 
 learned in each department may arrange at their leisure. In 
 ethnology we want to note the manners and customs, and to 
 ascertain the distribution of each tribe as weU as its history. Such 
 men as Pallas, Barrow, and Eyre are not wanting; but all the 
 work of anthropology has to be done at a distance, with such 
 assistance as is to be obtained from bones, hair, and photographic 
 drawings. Hence the relatively low ebb at which we find the 
 physical study of the living subject, as compared with the flourish- 
 ing results obtained in the. laboratory. But among these there are 
 those which in the very nature of things have obtained special 
 pre-eminence. The thing of primary importance in a laboratory is 
 to have specimens, and the commonest among them are thosfe which 
 
206 CRANIOLOGT. [Chap. i. 
 
 give the least trouble and can best be preserved, as the bones, 
 and especially skuUs. For some time, however, the laboratory of 
 M. Broca has been enriched with brains, preserved in alcohol, 
 which have been sent from all parts of the world. 
 
 Bones, on the other hand, have the inestimable advantage of 
 presenting to us all that remains of ancient peoples of which there 
 are no longer any living representatives ; some extending back to 
 one and two thousand years, others to ten and twenty thousand, 
 when the various types had become less changed. 
 
 When making a comparison of races, therefore, it should not be 
 matter of STirprise that such importance is attached to the study of 
 the bones, and particularly of the skuU — that noblest part of the 
 human animal. 
 
 Craniology. 
 
 Craniology thus forms the first chapter of the anthropology of 
 the human races. 
 
 Some of the differences which skulls exhibit are slight, others 
 are considerable ; some are more readily appreciable by their general 
 appearance, others by measurement. The particular type of each 
 skull, or the general type of the group to which it belongs, is to be 
 ascertained by carefully studying their ensemble. Some of these 
 differences moreover are sufficiently striking of themselves to 
 characterise the race, and to enable us to recognise at once the 
 source from whence the specimen was derived. For example, the 
 excessive length and height of the Esquimaux skuU, or the keel- 
 shaped vertex associated with great depth of the root of the nose in 
 the Tasmanian skull. There are exceptions, however ; craniology, 
 in its present phase, is a science of analysis and of patience, and 
 not yet a science of synthesis. There are two general methods, 
 each of which claims pre-eminence, which however are equally 
 useful and mutually perfect. In one, cranioscopy, the eye, or 
 simple means which one has always at hand, are sufficient. In the 
 other, craniometry, we have recourse to proceedings requiring 
 accuracy. We shall term the characteristics ascertained by the 
 former descriptive, and those by the latter craniometricaL 
 
Chap. i.J DESCKIPTIVE OHAEACTERISTICS. 207 
 
 Descriptive Characteristics. 
 
 A skull being submitted to examination, the first thing is to 
 determine the age and the sex, and to notice whether it presents 
 any deformity, whether posthumous, platybasic, artiiicial, or 
 pathological. We should especially direct our attention, with a view 
 to after examination, to the small skulls which M. Broca has called 
 demi-microcephales, and to those manifestly affected with old 
 hydrocephalus. We should afterwards notice if the skull presents 
 any anatomical anomalies, such as a supplementary suture dividing 
 one of the parietal or malar bones ; the persistence of the inter- 
 maxillary, the metopic, or the interparietal sutures ; the welding 
 together of the bones of the nose ; the exceptionally large ossa 
 Wormiana — an epactal, for example ; the enlargement of the two 
 vascular foramina, occasionally absent, called parietal foramina, and 
 situated about two centimetres outside and on each side of the 
 sagittal suture, at the junction of its anterior four-fifths with its 
 posterior one-fifth ; an enlargement of about two centimetres in 
 diameter, to which M. Broca has drawn attention;* a third con- 
 dyle ; a jugular apophysis, &c. What we have mentioned in the 
 first part respecting all these peculiarities will suffice. One word, 
 however, with respect to the epactal bone. 
 
 It is simple or multiple, and varies in size from that of a mere 
 triangular Wormian bone enclosed within the point of the V which 
 is formed by the lambda below, to one almost having the appearance 
 of an interparietal bone. It is distinguished from this latter in that 
 the true interparietal suture leads directly from one asterion to the 
 other, passing below the inion, while the suture of the epactal is 
 always above, and ends more or less high up on the branches of 
 the lambdoidal suture. The epactal has been called os Incee by 
 Eivero and Tschudy, who improperly look upon it as an almost 
 constant characteristic of the three races of Peru. In 47 Anconian 
 skulls in M. Broea's laboratory (the others have still the skin and 
 
 * " Sur la Perforation Congenitale et Symftrique des deux Parietaiiz," by 
 P. Broca, in " BuU. Soc. d'Anthrop.," 1875. 
 
208 DESCEIPTITB CHAEACTERISTIOS. [Chap. i. 
 
 hair on them) it was present, of greater or less size, eleven times, 
 which is oftener than usual. 
 
 Among the most important characteristics to establish are : 
 
 (1) The state of the cranial sutures, the serratures of which are 
 very complex in the superior races, usually simple in the inferior. 
 
 (2) The projection of the inion or external occipital protuberance, 
 the degree of development of which M. Broca expresses by five 
 figures, the 5 corresponding to the maximum development, and 
 the to its complete obliteration. 
 
 (3) The disposition of the pterion like an H or a K. The former 
 is the more usual, in which the greater wings of the sphenoid are 
 directly articulated with the parietal to a variable extent, which 
 M. Broca measures with the compasses ; the latter is exceptional, 
 where the temporal touches the frontal to a variable extent, pushing 
 back the sphenoid and parietal above and below. 
 
 (4) The part of the face where the plane of the artificially 
 lengthened occipital foramen comes to. In the white races ,thi8 
 spot is situated at the superior haK of the skeleton of the nose ; in 
 blacks, it comes down close to the nasal spine or below it. M. Broca 
 indicates the different points thus met with by the vowels A, E, I, 
 0, U. A indicates the alveolar point ; E, the nasal spine ; I, the 
 spot corresponding to the position of the inferior turbinated bone ; 
 0, where the inferior border of the orbit ends on the median line ; 
 U, the median point situated at the top of the os rmguis.* In 
 some cases the plane reaches the root of the nose at a point 
 which he then indicates by N. A simple rule or a knitting-needle 
 placed on the plane of the occipital foramen, gives in a moment this 
 element of appreciation of the skull, which is merely the inclination 
 of the plane of the occipital foramen, the angle of which is taken 
 more accurately with the occipital goniometer. The letter If cor- 
 responds to an angle of Daubenton from — 11 to — 13 degrees; U, 
 from - 5 to - 7 ; O, to ; I, from -1-. 2 to + 5 ; E, from -i- 7 to 
 
 -I- 11; and A, from + 13 to -t- 17. For further details, see 
 p. 54, and Chapter III., Part IL 
 
 We shall see that the direction or inclination of the plane of the 
 * Memoir already quoted on the oooipital angles. 
 
Chap, i.] DESCRIPTIVE CHAEACTERISTICS. 209 
 
 occipital foramen, estimated rapidly by this proceeding or strictly 
 with the goniometer, is one of the most important characteristics by 
 which we distinguish the negro from the European. M. Broca has 
 invented for use in the laboratory, and as a good substitute for the 
 rule to which we have referred, a curved stem, the curve of which 
 passes tmderneath the superior maxillary bone, and which is termed 
 crochet occipital. (Fig. 23.) 
 
 The f oUowLQg peculiarities, which are very difficult to define, and 
 which have hitherto defied all attempts at nieasurement, assist us in 
 characterising the physiognomy of the skuU, and are occasionally 
 sufficient to enable us to recognise it. 
 
 (1) The flatness of the lateral parieties of the skuU, as well as their 
 
 FtG. 23. — Occipital crochet of M. Broca, for the purpose of determining the part of the 
 face where the prolonged plane of the occipital foramen meets. 
 
 vertical character, so remarkable ia certain negroes of Africa, and 
 especially of Oceania ; while at other times, as among the Lapps and 
 the Auvergnians, these parietes are very much bulged. 
 
 (2) The curve of the temporal liae, its height, and its prolonga- 
 tion behind as far as the mastoid region, showing the extent of the 
 temporal fossa and the importance of the temporal muscle, which is 
 inserted upon the whole of its surface. This line usually extends 
 from the median line at the base of the forehead, but sometimes, in 
 altogether inferior types, it approaches to about two centimetres of the 
 sagittal suture. This very simian character has been observed in 
 some ancient skulls from Florida, iu some from New Caledonia, in 
 an Usbeck skuU ia M. Broca's laboratory, &c. 
 
 (3) The projection of the glabella and the superciliary arches. 
 Xot visible ia children, the glabella makes its appearance at about 
 
210 DESCEIPTIVE CHARACTERISTICS, [Chap. i. 
 
 15 years of age and upwards, and, as we have said, is scarcely 
 perceptible in women ; generally faint in the negroes of Africa, the 
 Malays, and in all the yellow races, even in men, it is very much 
 developed in some prehistoric races, in Europeans, particularly in 
 Auvergnians, hut especially in Australians, Tasmanians, and New 
 Caledonians. The projection of the sides of the superciliary arches 
 follows the same law, and is less wanting in women. 
 
 (4) The form of the forehead, divided into two planes united at 
 a more or less ohtuse angle at the level of the frontal eminences. 
 These eminences are high or low, projecting, obliterated, or excep- 
 tionally united into one at the median line. When the angle is 
 very open, as in the microcephales, in the prehistoric race of the 
 Neanderthal, and in the negroes of Oceania generally, the forehead 
 is termed receding (fuyant). When it is much less — as in women, 
 in Malays and Chinese, the negroes of Africa, and particularly in 
 the beautiful series of JSTubian skuUs which M. Broca has disin- 
 terred from the banks of the ISTile — the forehead is termed straight. 
 The increased projection and height of the eminences, and a too 
 straight forehead, should make us suspect that there had been 
 hydrocephalus during infancy. 
 
 (5) The curve of the vault. In reputedly well-formed skulls, as 
 the skuU of the Arab, it gradually rises from the frontal eminences, 
 reaches its culminating point behind the bregma, and begins to 
 descend at two or three centimetres farther, as far as the line which 
 unites the two parietal eminences, where the descent becomes more 
 rapid. A too great or a too slight curve in one particular part of 
 its extent, the falling back of the culminating point, or the flatten- 
 ing of the quadrilateral space included between the frontal and 
 parietal eminences, are so many less satisfactory characteristics. 
 
 The median line is not usually in relief. Sometimes it is even 
 sHghtly hoUowed at the commencement of its descent, between the 
 parietal eminences. But at others it is bulged out, and gives 
 origin to an antero-posterior crest, which extends from the bregma, 
 from the frontal eminences, or lower down, as far as the obelion, 
 and is occasionally cleft for the lodgment of the depressed sagittal 
 suture. At the sides of the median line are then seen two out- 
 
Chap, i.] DBSOEIPTITE CHARACTERISTICS. 211 
 
 wardly-inclined planes, either straight, convex, or concave, which 
 end at the curved temporal line and the parietal eminences, at one 
 part obliterated, at another enlarged, turning round, or hy a rapid 
 fall, at the sides of the skull. Hence the three configurations of 
 the vault are called en toit, or roof-shaped; en ogive, or like a 
 sugar-loaf ; and en carbie, or keel-shaped. The first is very common 
 in Oceania, the second has been improperly said to be peculiar 
 to the skulls of Mongols, the third is very characteristic of the 
 Polynesian and especially of the Tasmanian skulls. 
 
 (6) The posterior curve of the skull from the line crossing 
 between the parietal eminences as far as the inion. It consists 
 of two portions separated by the lambda. The former commences 
 more or less in front, and is more or less inclined downwards and 
 roimded off. The latter is vertical and bulged out, and has 
 received the name of occipital protuberance, and by the English of 
 probola. Continuous with the preceding in skulls of a superior type, 
 this is frequently as if raised and separated, and forms a globular 
 projection, which when moderate in size appears to be a character- 
 istic of race, as in the tribes of Cro-Magnon and of I'Homme Mort, 
 in the Esquimaux and Patagonians, &c.; and when considerable 
 ought to be regarded as a sign of unusual cerebral pressure from 
 within, or of hydrocephalus in infancy. Many human types 
 exhibit, to a greater or less extent, a more or less marked flattening 
 of the posterior curve. Most frequently, as in the ancient 
 Tehuelches, it does not pass beyond the lambda; at other times 
 it goes beyond, as iu many Auvergnians. At other times again it 
 impinges upon the supra-iniao region, and in extreme cases surrounds 
 it entirely, as in the Malays and Americans. Morton, indeed, made 
 this falling of the skuU. backwards one of the characteristics of the 
 entire American race. 
 
 (7) The curve of the sub-iniao region or receptaculum cerebelli is 
 very variable. Its bulging out frequently passes beyond the plane 
 of the occipital foramen, and then prevents the condyles from 
 touching the table when the skull is laid on its base. 
 
 (8) Various other characteristics, such as the singular depression, 
 mentioned by M. Brocs., in the middle of the parieto-ocoipital 
 
 p 2 
 
212 DESCEIPTIVE CHARACTEEISTICS. [Chap. i. 
 
 suture in the skulls of Orrouy, at the Polished Stone epoch; the 
 size of the mastoid processes, which, allowance being made for 
 differences of sex, are large in certain races and small in others ; a 
 peculiar supra-mastoidean projection situated at the junction of the 
 posterior prolongation of the temporal liue and at the posterior root 
 of the zygomatic process, and particularly developed in Esthonian 
 skulls. 
 
 In the face, characteristics to be discovered by simple inspection 
 are not wanting. In the first Itae is to be noticed whatever has 
 reference to the malar bones, the methods for whose measurement 
 are by no means satisfactory ; the absence of marks in places where 
 we have most need of them is very much to, be regretted. These 
 bones are small and lank in European races, massive and project- 
 ing outwards in the Mongol races. In the Esquimaux, their 
 external, anterior, and inferior angle is so thrown outwards and 
 forwards that by this feature alone we are able to recognise the 
 skulls of that race. Then come the prominence of the extremity 
 of the bones proper of the nose and their projection at a very acute 
 angle, two characteristics belonging to human races ; their flattening,. 
 or the contrary, in the negro races of Africa and especially the 
 yellow races ; the depth of the hoUow at the root of the nose, 
 slight in Arabians, less still in the negroes of Africa and in all thfe 
 yellow species ; well marked in Europeans generally, but especially 
 so in Australians, New Caledonians, and Tasmanians. We have 
 already mentioned in the Tasmanian race a see-saw motion of the 
 superior maxiUa, by virtue of which its upper part plunges, 
 beneath the cranium, while its lower projects forwards. "VVe have 
 also described the differences, five in number, which the inferior 
 border of the nares presents on the skeleton. Thus in Europeans 
 it has the form of a heart, such as we see on playing-cards, the 
 nasal spine of which represents the median point and presents only 
 a sharp Hp. In the negroes of Africa the border is blunt, spread 
 out, and becomes horizontal by the progressive obliteration of the 
 nasal spine. In the Chinese and some other yeUow races it is 
 replaced by two digital depressions, which in Melanesians are 
 transformed into two channels. It has been observed in rara 
 
Chap, i.] DESCRIPTIVE CHARACTBEISTICS. 213 
 
 instances, especially in New Caledonians, that the whole line of 
 demarcation between the nasal fossae and the anterior surface of 
 the alveolar arch has disappeared. In this latter respect certain 
 negroes resemhle the anthropoid apes. In the general configuration 
 there are other characteristics of a similar kind. M. Pruner-Bey 
 has laid much stress on the various harmonious relations or other- 
 wise of the cranium to the face. A cranium elongated from before 
 backwards, and at the same time elevated, is abeady in harmony 
 by itself ; but if the face, on the other hand, is elongated from 
 above downwards, and narrows, the harmony is complete. Such 
 are the Esquimaux and Kymri skulls. The Lapp and Auvergnian 
 skulls, on the contrary, are short from before backwards and from 
 above downwards, and wide both ia the cranium and face. Among 
 skulls of an opposite character we find the celebrated Cro-Magnon 
 skull of the Stone period, which is elongated from before back- 
 wards, while the face is contracted from above downwards. The 
 same with the Tasmanian skull. There are other characteristics 
 which run parallel with these j for example, the arch of the 
 palate is somewhat elongated in long skulls, and widened in wide 
 skulls ; the occipital foramen in the same way. 
 / All craniologists, or, rather, cranioscopists, have spoken of grace- 
 fuUy-formed skulls, with smooth contours and regular outlines, 
 and of those with " heurtes " features, of sombre, stern aspect, and of 
 brutish appearance. Between the two are to be seen soft, undefined 
 forms, destitute of eharacter. Those of Europeans, New Caledonians, 
 and Chinese are of these descriptions. But we ought not to set too high 
 a value upon such appearances. These forms, whether pleasing or 
 brute-Uke, are to be met with in aU. races, in the European as well as 
 in the negro. In what respect, for example, is the prominent and 
 naiTow-shaped nose of the European handsomer than the small but 
 broader nose of the Chinese'? Let different persons compare the 
 skull of the man and the woman, those of Cro-Magnon and of the 
 Cavern de THomme Mort, opinions will be divided respecting them ; 
 it is simply a matter of custom, of education, or of prejudice. 
 
 The best example of erroneous views resulting from the abuse of 
 cranioscopy is to be seen in a memoir of last year. 
 
214 BLUMENBACH'S NORMA TEETICALIS. [Chap. i. 
 
 M. Mantegazza and two friends placed two hundred skulls in a 
 series, according to the ideas which they had formed of the beautiful. 
 They took as their model the Jupiter Olympus, in which the pro- 
 portions are conventional, and which has a facial angle such as is 
 only met with among hydrocephaly They brought together, con- 
 fusedly, the skulls of both sexes and of all ages, and found that 
 the measurements as given with the craniometer did not accord 
 with their aesthetic notions. That M. Mantegazza was discouraged 
 by the unsatisfactory result obtained by certain measurements, 
 notably Camper's facial angle, we can easily believe, but this is no 
 reason why the scientific method should be abandoned. Before we 
 can obtain one satisfactory measurement we must be prepared to 
 sacrifice several of them. The illustrious anthropologist regrets 
 that craniometry does not exhibit the relative superiority of races 
 in the way in which he conceived it. But does craniometry reject 
 this superiority 1 No, it is content that each one should stand on 
 its own merits. Let us relegate sentiment to artists, it is an essential 
 part of their nature, and let us take care that our observations are 
 made with rigid strictness, without which there would be an end 
 to science ; we shall move less quickly, but surely. 
 
 The method of studying the aspect of skulls from different points 
 of view originated abnost simultaneously with craniometry, but was 
 the one generally in use until lately. It is convenient, inasmuch as 
 one forms a judgment at once, in the same way as one would form 
 one of a picture — -certain lines, certain colour, by such a master. 
 Blumenbach was the originator of this method, which was termed 
 the vertical view (norma vertiealis). He placed a series of skulls 
 with the malar bones in the same horizontal line as they would 
 have taken had the lower jaws been attached, and then viewed them 
 in succession, fixing the eye above the vertex of each. In this way 
 he estimated the breadth or narrowness of the contour of the vault, 
 its length, its general form, and the projection of the frontal bone. 
 He noticed whether the zygomatic arches and the jaws were visible 
 and to what degree. In white races these parts are generally out 
 of view, in the black they more or less project. He also gives the 
 skulls of a Georgian, a Tungusian, and a negro of Guinea as specimens 
 
Chap, i.] 
 
 OWEN'S METHOD. 
 
 215 
 
 of the three varieties of form. The norma verticalis has continued 
 to be the method usually employed -when we wish to make a rapid 
 estimate of the general form of the skuU, as well as the cephalic 
 index, without the assistance of an instrument. But instead of the 
 skull being placed on its base, after Blumenbach's fashion, it should 
 be held at a distance, so that the eye can take into view the 
 extremities of its antero-posterior and its maximum transverse 
 diameters. The view ought to be made perpendicularly to the 
 horizontal plane passing through the glabella and a point situated 
 
 Fig. 24. — Norma verticalis of Blumenbach, taken with the stereograph. Brachycephalic 
 skull of AuTer^nlan. Cephalic index, 85*46. 
 
 at about two centimfetres above the inion. Figs. 24 and 25 show 
 the two principal forms of the skull which we may distinguish in 
 this way. 
 
 Contemporaneously with Blumenbach, Camper adored the 
 method of studying the skull in profile ; and later on, Owen, being 
 desirous of comparing the anthropoid apes with Man, supplemented 
 it with the yiew from below. This last thus took into account the 
 position of the occipital foramen relatively to the anterior and 
 posterior extremities of the skuU, the segment described by the 
 zygomatic arches, the form of the arch of the palate, &c. 
 
216 PEICHARD'S METHOD. [Chap. :. 
 
 Prichard combined these three methods, and added that of the 
 face, hut made no reference to the view from behind. He recog- 
 nised three principal forms of the skull : the oval, the pyramidal, 
 and the prognathous, a division since adopted by M. Pruner-Bey. 
 
 The first, or oval, corresponds to our European type. The fore- 
 head is well developed, the maxillary bones and the zygomatic 
 arches being so formed as to give the face an oval shape. The 
 forehead and malar bones are nearly on a plane with these, the 
 alveolar borders and the incisor teeth are vertical. 
 
 Fig. 25. — SorrtM verticalig of Blumenbacii, taken witli the stereograph. Dolichocephalic 
 skull of Spanish Basque (pro-vince of Guipuscoa). Cephalic index, 74'19. 
 
 The second, or pyramidal, he says, is to be noticed in the 
 Mongols, and more so in the Esquimaux. Its most striking character 
 is the outward projection of the zygomatic arches. " The cheek- 
 bones project from under the middle of the orbit, and turn back- 
 wards in a large arch or segment of a circle, the lateral projection 
 of the zygomas being so considerable, that if a line drawn from one 
 to the other be taken as a base, this will form with the top of the 
 forehead a nearly triangular figure. The upper part of the face is 
 remarkably plane and flat, the nose being flat, and the nasal bones, 
 
Chap, i.] PBIGHAED'S METHOD. 217 
 
 as well as the spaces between the eyebrows, nearly on the same 
 plane with the cheek-bones. Lastly, at the point of the pyramid is 
 the fronto-sagittal crest," &c. 
 
 The third, or prognathous, corresponds to the negro type. The 
 skull is compressed laterally, the temporal muscles are inserted very 
 high up, producing the effects of lateral elongation and flattening. 
 The cheek-bones project rather forwards than outwards (prog- 
 nathism).* This is one of the most valuable portions of Prichard's 
 "work. 
 
 However striking certain characteristics furnished by the eye and 
 the forms thus recognised may be a priori, both are insufficient to 
 lay the foundation of an exact science, and craniology thus limited 
 would be of little avail The traits of character so judged of are 
 entirely iudividual in the majority of cases, and their estimate 
 depends upon the mental disposition of the observer, as well as 
 upon the accurate recollection of his latest visual impressions. 
 These can only be committed to writing in a very imperfect way. 
 According to the way in which the light falls upon the skull so do 
 appearances vary, and M. Broca is daily exhibiting to his pupils 
 the fallacies to which any one of the characteristics, looked upon by 
 craniology as of the highest importance, may be exposed. Accord- 
 ing as the skuU is looked at at a height or on the ground, so the 
 estimates vary ; so many millimetres of greater or less inclination 
 wiU give the appearance of prognathism or not. In Blumenbaeh's 
 method the skull rarely remains in the same position ; the variable 
 size of the mastoid processes, the presence or absence of the teeth ; 
 the swelling or depression behind the occipital foramen cause it to 
 fall forwards or backwards, sometimes in one way, sometimes in 
 another. It is not less important to have some fixed method of 
 holding the skuU, and Prichard himself, by relying too much upon 
 his draughtsman, has unwittingly shown what errors may be com- 
 mitted in this way. Craniology as a science would scarcely exist 
 but for the really scientific methods of examination which it 
 possesses, and the characteristics which it is capable of expressing 
 
 * " Researches into the Physical History of Mankind," by J. C. Prichard. 
 Five vols. 1836-47. 
 
218 CRANIOMETRY. [Chap. i. 
 
 with precision. The process is a long and laborious one, but the 
 results arrived at are certain ; they may need interpretation, but 
 they never deceive. This part of craniology is termed craniometry, 
 and is merely one branch of anthropometry. 
 
 Anthropometry is the study of the human body by mathematical 
 modes of procedure ; osteometry is its application to the skeleton 
 in general ; craniometry to the skull in particular ; pelvimetry to 
 the pelvis. 
 
 Graniometry. 
 
 The first attempts at measurement upon the human subject, 
 excluding those artists who up to the last century had not settled 
 any definite distraction between races, were made by Daubenton, 
 Camper, Soemmering, and White. Craniometry, however, did not 
 soar aloft uatrl the time of Morton. Since this period it has been 
 practised ia all parts of the civUised world. It has its adepts in 
 Patagonia in the person of Dr. Moreno, and in the Caucasus in that 
 of Professor Smirnow. The works, on the skull, of Thurnam, 
 B. Davis, Busk, and Carter Blake in England are well known, as 
 also in Italy those of Mantegazza, Calori, Mcolucci; in Eastern. 
 Europe, Wagner, Van der Hceven, Von Baer, Lucee, Ecker, 
 Virchow, Welcker ; in Erance, Gratiolet, Broca, De Quatrefages, 
 BertiUon, Hamy. Collections of skuUs have been made in all 
 directions. Among the most celebrated we may mention the col- 
 lection of Morton at Philadelphia, which in 1857 consisted of 1,045 
 specimens ; of Barnard Davis at Shelton, Staffordshire, which at 
 the present time amounts to about 1,700 ; and those of Paris, which 
 altogether number upwards of 7,000. 
 
 Craniometrical Characteristics. 
 
 One is necessarily compelled when practising craniometry, in 
 order to make oneself thoroughly acquainted with a race, to study 
 a number of its representatives and to take their average, in order 
 that there may be no preponderance of any special characteristic. 
 You arrive in a town and see an indiyidual of fair complexion ; do 
 you jump to the conclusion at once that all the inhabitants are fair ? 
 
Chap, i.] CRANIOMETEICAL CHAEACTBEISTICS. 219 
 
 jSTo. You pass from one quarter of the town to another, make a 
 certain number of observations, and from them draw your inferences. 
 lSo with craniometry ; a single skull may by chance exhibit the type 
 of the race, but it may also be an exception and lead to error. The 
 characteristics of the type sought can only be correctly expressed 
 in their ensemble upon different skulls. The first thing, then, 
 which is requisite for craniometrioal study is a sufficient number of 
 specimens. The type being once recognised, one, two, or more 
 skulls wiU be found necessary in order to furnish further informa- 
 tion, and we must wait. The archseologist, therefore, should collect 
 together the most likely specimens he can find, and not take any 
 he may lay hold of and bring them to the laboratory with the 
 question ; Aie these the skulls of Franks, Burgundians, Saracens, or 
 Eomans ? 
 
 Moreover, few of the series collected in one and the same place 
 are examples of an unmixed type. Most frequently they are only 
 a medley of different races more or less nearly allied to one another, 
 with quite opposite characteristics, some corresponding to one of 
 the ancient types, others to another ; they include cases of atavism, 
 and even stray examples obtained from Tarious sources. 
 
 Twenty skulls of the same sex are sufficient in general to remove 
 all questions of difficulty, but this number is necessary ; and here 
 arises a serious question : What is the extent of individual varia- 
 tions admissible in a race reputed pure, as in the Andamans for 
 example ? It is only possible to answer this question as regards each 
 particular case. First, it depends on the extent of the maximum 
 and minimum deviations observed throughout the whole human 
 series. The less considerable these deviations and the better 
 understood, the greater the value of the characteristic. There are 
 characteristics which, cceteris paribus, vary enormously when 
 expressed in one way and very slightly when in another. This is 
 so with prognathism, which is estimated sometimes by the relation 
 of the horizontal projection to the height of the region, sometimes 
 by the angle at the culminating point of the upper jaw. M. Broca 
 has recognised variations in the cephalic index in one and the same 
 race to the number of 10 per cent.; it is only when they reach 
 
220 METHOD OF INDICES. [Chap. i. 
 
 15 to 18 per cent, that we can say with certainty that they are due 
 to mixture of race. 
 
 The figures expressing each individual measurement being 
 arranged in a progressive series, the most divergent are placed at 
 the two extremities, while those which are most frequently alike 
 are grouped in the middle. Sometimes, however, there are two 
 maxima of concentration, separated by an interval in which the 
 numbers are clearly distributed. M. Bertillon attributes this to a 
 commingling of two races of opposite characters, and has deduced 
 some valuable conclusions therefrom. 
 
 The measurements taken in centimetres and millimetres are 
 added, and divided by the number of subjects measured. The 
 quotient is the mean ; it expresses the characteristic directly, such 
 as the breadth of the forehead for example, or is only valuable 
 when compared with some other measurement. A skuU is broad 
 in certain cases, not from the number of centimetres which it 
 measures, but in proportion to its volume, that is to say, its length. 
 We therefore convert its breadth into centimetres of its length. 
 It is thus an index or relation, a far superior method to that of 
 directly estimating the absolute measurements. The mode of 
 calculating this index is by no means unimportant. There are 
 three ways of proceeding : (1) "We calculate each index separately 
 and take the mean (moyenne des indices) ; (2) We add each of 
 the series of factors, we take their means, and from these we 
 calculate the index (indiee des moy&nnes) — this mode is preferable, 
 and avoids the losses arising from decimals omitted ; (3) We again 
 add the factors, and with their sum obtain the iadex directly. This 
 has the advantage of economy in working, and is that which we 
 usually adopt. 
 
 The means have reference to the straight measurements, to the 
 curves, the angles, and even to the marks whicli M. Broea expresses 
 by certain figures, as the projection of the inion from to 5. 
 
 The first condition of a good measurement is to be determined 
 by certain fixed anatomical marks, so that two observers at a 
 distance from each other may not deviate from them in the 
 slightest degree under any circumstances. In this point of view 
 
Chap, i.] CHOICE OF METHODS OF MEASUREMENT. 221 
 
 the maximum and minimum measurements are excellent. Those 
 which pass from some definite point of the hase and lead to any- 
 optional part, as the vertex, not determined by projection, are bad, 
 such as those which meet at the parietal or frontal eminences. We 
 can never succeed twice following in placing their culminating 
 point at the same spot, consequently they only furnish approxi- 
 mative dimensions. It would be better to give up any preconceived 
 notion than to deviate from certain defined marks, or at any rate 
 as little as possible ; and observers who publish measurements Avith- 
 out giving a precise description of their method of working, run 
 the risk of having little attention paid to them. 
 
 Every measurement should be made with a definite object. 
 Craniometrical characteristics under this aspect are of two kinds : 
 rational, that is to say, related to some physiological opinion ; or 
 empirical, having no apparent design. 
 
 If we take two skulls resembling each other but of different 
 capacity, we shall find the largest to be, cceteris paribus, the one 
 with the more developed frontal bone, the more rounded vault, 
 the posterior part more ample, the occipital foramen more elevated, 
 the distance of this foramen from the bregma more considerable. 
 Gratiolet has divided the human races into frontal, parietal, and 
 occipital, according as the skull is more or less developed at the 
 expense of this or that part. Hence we have one of the first series 
 of characteristics subordinate to one and the same idea, viz. the 
 variable development of the characteristic organ ia the human 
 family. 
 
 Other characteristics are looked upon, whether rightly or wrongly, 
 as dominant. They have an affinity iu negroes to those which 
 they exhibit in apes, and establish the transition between these 
 and Europeans. Thus both on the skeleton, ia the muscles and in 
 the viscera, there are certaiu arrangements having respect to a 
 sideling attitude, as that of anthropoids. The mind is then led to 
 consider these more or less considerable variations as proof of a 
 gradual approach of the organism to perfection, and that all the 
 human races sprung from one and the same inferior type. The 
 Bosjesmans, in several respects, are at the bottom of the scale; 
 
222 EMPIRICAL MODES OF MEASUKEMENT. [Chap. i. 
 
 the Melanesians, tlie negroes of Guinea, the Caffres, the yellow 
 races, &o., would be next to them. But this, although true as to 
 certain characteristics, does not hold good as regards others. Some 
 have only a negative character, such as the width between the 
 cheek-bones, the flatness of the face, the elliptical or hyperbolical 
 form of the alveolar arches, the projection of the superciliary 
 ridges, the sinking in at the root of the nose, the keel-like form of 
 the top of the head, &c. Many characteristics which we usually, 
 though wrongly, place in the series are of this kind, of which the 
 skeleton furnishes numerous examples. Their frequency does not 
 surprise us, and we may add that it is in this more than in the 
 variations of the brain-case that we discover the best marks of 
 difference between races. The nasal index of M. Broca, among 
 others, is a proof in point. 
 
 An erroneous idea has prevailed that Man being distinguished 
 from animals more particularly as regards the brain, we ought 
 to find in the skuU the fundamental characteristics whereby we 
 may separate races. It is rather the reverse. Evidently Man is 
 essentially characterised by the brain and its osseous envelope. But 
 in natural history, when a characteristic intervenes to separate one 
 group from another, the more natural, palpable, and important it is, 
 the less does it vary in the divisions and varieties. In botany, it 
 is not even in the characteristic of a family, a tribe, or a genus that 
 we must seek for shades of difference with a view to establish 
 secondary divisions, it is in other parts of the plant. One of the 
 labiatae is recognised at once by its inflorescence, as Man is by his 
 cranium. In both it is • apart from their essential characteristic 
 feature that differences are found which lay the foundation of 
 permanent varieties. 
 
 Empirical characteristics derived from craniometry are opposed 
 to the monogenestic creed, inasmuch as they witness in favour of 
 the original plurality of the principal groups. 
 
 Sometimes, when having to make choice of craniometrical measure- 
 ments, we are guided by the development and growth of the 
 skeleton. The brain and its envelope increase according to one law, 
 the cavities of the senses and the maxillary apparatus according to 
 
Chap, i.] RATIONAL MODES OP MEASUREMENT. 223 
 
 anotlier ; ■whence a possible antagonism, an influence capable of 
 giving origin to peculiarities in races which, by being often repeated, 
 may be considered as characteristic. 
 
 But throughout the entire range of craniometry we must not lose 
 sight of the subordination of characteristics. Thus the develop- 
 ment of the anterior portion of the brain cavity causes the occipital 
 foramen to be driven backwards. The increase of the maxillary bone 
 in front, whence prognathism is caused, gives rise to a similar result. 
 Cceteris paribus, an elongated and at the same time contracted 
 skull is proportionably increased in height. A round skull, on the 
 contrary, appears to be decreased vertically. It is well also to 
 consider the correlation of characteristics. An example on the 
 living subject wiU explain what we mean. Blue eyes are usually 
 accompanied by light hair. So in the skull, the flattening of the 
 entire face, including the cheek-bones, usually causes the oblitera- 
 tion of . the glabella and the superciliary arches, and the crushing 
 in of the root of the nose ; this forms part of the harmonious 
 characteristics of which we spoke just now. In reality, it is from 
 this agreement of character that the idea of type has taken its 
 origin. 
 
 Bernard de Palissy maintained that the human skull is the most 
 irregularly-formed figure in nature, and gave expression to a senti- 
 ment in which all must agree who are commencing craniometrical 
 researches. " I have a desire," he says, " to measure the head, in 
 order djrectly to know its dimensions, and it appears to me that the 
 sauterelle, the rule, and the compass would be very proper instru- 
 ments to employ for that purpose, but the fact is I can never be 
 sure of my measurements."* Bernard de Palissy used exaggerative 
 lanoTiage in reference to these matters. Separate, in thought, the 
 cranium from the face, and consider the former as an egg with its 
 larn-er extremity posteriorly, the diameters and circumferences of 
 which we want simply to measure ; and the latter as a pyramid, 
 the base of which corresponds to the face, and the point to the 
 anterior border of the occipital foramen ; and the thing becomes as 
 simple as possible. Then recollect that the cranium is the'pro- 
 * Bernard de Palissy, " CEnvres." 18mo. Paris, 185 
 
224 METHODS OF MEASUREMENT. [Chap. i. 
 
 longation of the vertebral column, the axis of which is bent at the 
 level of the anterior border of the occipital foramen, giving origin 
 to three cranial vertebras and that consequently there exists in the 
 cranium a central point — the basion — around which all the various 
 modifications of development are taking place. Lastly, remember 
 that the head possesses a natural attitude, to which, at the base of 
 the skull, there corresponds a horizontal plane which is determined 
 in a moment, and that in consequence we can always take the 
 position of any point by referring to it or to the vertical median 
 plane. Such is the basis of craniometry. The systems which 
 apply certain measurements to the auditory foramina, or to any 
 other point, and the gauging of the cavities only complicate it. 
 
 There is great danger of exaggeration in making craniometrical 
 measurements. Everyone at first is anxious to carry out his 
 own method of proceeding, without the help of a guide or some 
 manual indicating all the most approved measurements. The 
 tendency to run into minutiEe is especially predominant here ; and 
 we recollect seeing a memoir in which we counted 193 different 
 dimensions or indices, and in another as many as 200. It is 
 evident that crantology is an illimitable science, and it is the duty 
 of every inquirer to make it the subject of diligent investigation. 
 One measurement, which appears valueless, is found to have con- 
 siderable importance ; while another, which we have fought hard to 
 verify, leads to no practical result. 
 
 It happens with craniology as it does almost constantly, at the 
 dawn of every new science. We have difficulties to contend with 
 at the very onset with regard to the description of the series of 
 skulls. We take into consideration, in a word, their characteristics 
 as witnessed in their pathological, physiological, or accidental 
 variations. This is a bad method. We must set out with 
 craniometry generally. Above all, it is necessary to lay down 
 certain bases, to ascertain facts, to determine seriatim the value of 
 each characteristic, to know which to preserve and which to reject, 
 and so to arrange the plan and method of proceeding that the 
 labours accomplished on oite side of a frontier line may be available 
 on tha other. 
 
Chap, i.] TAiHETIBS OF MODES OF MEASUREMENT. 225 
 
 In America, in Italy, in England, and in France, the methods of 
 measurement in general use differ hut slightly. In Germany it is 
 not so, notwithstanding the efforts of the congress at Gottingen and 
 more recent congresses to bring the various systems into harmonious 
 action. M. Welcker, in particular, is far from heing in accord 
 with the majority of his colleagues. By his works, from which we 
 have largely drawn supplies, he has deserved well of anthropology; 
 hut his cranial net, its horizontal circumference, and its antero- 
 posterior diameter are not well expressed. The frontal and parietal 
 eminences cannot serve as marks for important measurements. We 
 are sure that we have determined the position of the former 
 thousands of times, and we declare that the results have heen most 
 unsatisfactory. 
 
 The Germans, if we may venture an opinion on the subject, do 
 not go straight to the point. Under the pretext of anatomical 
 philosophy, they take the detail for the essential, and frequently 
 even distort ideas from their simple acceptation. The methods 
 followed by M. Eeker and M. Wiesbach are probably most in 
 accordance with the French mode of proceeding. 
 
 Without too much slighting the measurements extolled by 
 foreigners^ we very much prefer those which our learned master 
 considers the best — at least those of which he has published 
 abundant records. When anyone has the advantage, such as we 
 have had, of seeing M. Broca at work in his laboratory, comparing 
 all the measurements upon thousands of skulls, rejecting those 
 upon which he appeared to set especial value, reco m mencing upon 
 and examiuing entire series which he regarded as at all doubtfid, a 
 thought crosses the mind. Is it certain that everywhere else so 
 much scrupulous care has been bestowed 1 We may be pardoned, 
 then, if we give the highest place to his instructions, whether 
 public or private* 
 
 * See especially " Memoires d'Anthropologie," by Paul Broca, vols. i. 
 and ii., published by Ch. Eeinwald & Co., Paris; "Bull. Soo. d'Anthrop.," 
 1860-75, 15 Tols.; "Memoires d'Anthrop.," 3 vols.; and "Eevue d'Anthrop.," 
 edited by M. Paul Broca, 1872-75, 4 vols. 
 
226 MEASUREMENT OF THE CRANIAL CAVITY. [Chap. ii. 
 
 CHAPTEE IL 
 
 MBASUEEMBNT OP THE CEANIAL OAVITT STRAIGHT AND CUEVED 
 
 MBASDEBMBNT8 — OEPHALIO, VBBTIOAI;, FEONTAL, NASAL, ORBITAL 
 INDICES — FACIAL TRIANGLE. 
 
 The craniuin is measured : (1) In. any position, whether as regards 
 its ensemble, its cerebral or facial portion taken separately, its 
 interior or its exterior; (2) In a position conformable with that 
 which it affects on the living subject. Hence a series of measure- 
 ments or operations may be ranged under five heads : (1) Gauging 
 and cubic measurements ; (2) Straight and curved measurements ; 
 (3) Projections; (4) Angles; (5) Special systems of measure- 
 ment. 
 
 Measurement of the Cranial Capacity. 
 
 The importance of the cerebral cavity in man, and its influence 
 on the external configuration of the skull, early engaged the 
 attention of anthropologists, with a view to determine its capacity. 
 But the substance employed was objectionable, the methods of 
 proceeding were of an irregular character, and soon feU into dis- 
 repute. Eevived by Morton, the measurement of the cranium has 
 become, in the hands of M. Broca, a mathematical operation upon 
 which we can now depend. The operation consists of two parts : 
 gauging, in which we fill the skull with some substance ; and cubic 
 measurement, by which we determine its volume. Gauging has 
 been practised with water by Soemmering, Virey, TreadweU ; with 
 mercury by M. Broca, in a skull which he made use of as a 
 standard ; with sand by Hamilton and Mr. Barnard Davis ; with 
 InUlet by M. Tiedemann and M. Mantegazza ; with white mustard 
 seed by Philipps ; with pearl barley by M. Welcker ; and with 
 shot by Morton and M. Broca. Many other things have been 
 
Chap, n.] MEASUEBMBNT OF THE CRANIAL CAVITY. 227 
 
 tried : water in a caoutcliouc Madder, an arrangement with intra- 
 cranial casts, with, a view to ascertain the quantity of water which 
 they displaced. Glass and earthenware beads have also been 
 suggested, &c. Fluids are out of the question.* Of other sub- 
 stances, some get with difficulty into the cavities, or adhere to the 
 parietes ; aU arrange themselves unequally according to the way ia 
 which the observer, whose patience is frequently put to the test, 
 manages matters. Some operators tap the parietes gently, others 
 ram down the substances employed. The method of filling the 
 •cavity may also lead to error. In taking the dimensions also 
 there are frequently mistakes made. Wyman having taken 
 the cubic measurement of the cranial cavity eight times on the 
 same skuU, with dift'erent materials, found the result varied as 
 follows : 
 
 With Peas 
 
 1193'0 
 
 „ Shot 
 
 1201-8 
 
 „ Haricot beans 
 
 ■ 1206-2 
 
 „ Eioe 
 
 1220-2 
 
 „ Linseed 
 
 1247-5 
 
 „ Coarse sand 
 
 1257-5 
 
 „ Kne sand 
 
 1313-0 
 
 It is a matter of importance, therefore, to be exact in every 
 -detail of the operation, whether of gauging or of cubic measurement. 
 Then again, certain substances answer better than others — .shot, 
 for example — which M. Broca prefers and has generally employed ; 
 or millet, or mustard seed, which he uses when the skuH is 
 fragUe. 
 
 The circumstances which most influence the result in the case 
 •of shot are the way in which it is rammed in, the rapidity with 
 which it is poured down the funnel, and the diameter of the funnel 
 employed, as well as the height from which the shot is allowed to 
 
 * We do not understand Dr. Beddoe's recommendation to travellers to 
 " measure the capacity in ounces of fine sand, or, what is better (if possible), 
 of water." — " Notes and Queries on Anthropology for the Use of Travellers 
 :and Residents in Uncivilised Lands," London, 1874. 
 
 Q 2 
 
228 METHOD 01" PEOCEEDING. [Chap. ir. 
 
 fall into the measuring vessels. If the litre is fuU, and placed 
 down on the tahle with some little force, the shot should not sink 
 lower than the original level. Consequently M. Broca has en- 
 deavoured to determine the conditions of the operation which give 
 the most constant result, and with some amount of success. The 
 following is his mode of proceeding, to the minutest details. Th» 
 orbit being fiUed with cotton wool and the vault of the cranium' 
 placed in a wooden bowl, the first litre of shot is poured into its 
 cavity ; then, the skull being grasped with both hands, is shaken 
 so as to allow the shot to pass into the anterior part of the cavity. ■ 
 It is then turned about, and at the same time a wooden spindle is- 
 used to ram down the shot, until the cavity can hold no more. 
 Then pressing hard with the thumb, the shot is rammed in untU it 
 is on a level with the occipital foramen. The contents are then 
 emptied into a vessel, and from this' turned quickly into a tin litre, 
 the surface of which is levelled with a flat rule. The remainder is 
 passed into a glass gauge, graduated in cubic centimetres, through 
 a funnel, the neck of which is fixed in a wooden disc fitted to the 
 gauge like a cover. If the quantity is beyond the 500 centimetres- 
 marked on the gauge, the surface is made level as before, and 
 the surplus is measured in the same way afterwards with the 
 gauge. 
 
 The four special instruments, then, are the rammer, the litre, the 
 gauge, and the funnel. The first is a conical piece of wood 10' 
 centimetres in length and 2 in breadth. The litre is 86 milli- 
 metres in internal diameter and 175 in height. The gauge, of a 
 cylindrical form, has a cubic capacity of 500 centimetres, is 38 to 40- 
 ceiitimetres in height and 4 in width on the inside. The funnel 
 is 10 centimetres in diameter at its base, 10 centimetres in height, 
 with a neck 1 centimetre long and 2 wide. The size of the shot 
 is that known as No. 8, each grain measuring two millimetres and 
 two-tenths in diameter.* Broken skulls, or those in which thfr 
 
 * All these instnunents are to be procured of Mathieu, Burgioal in. 
 stminent maker, manufacturer of apparatus to the lustitut Anthropolo- 
 gique. 
 
Chap, ii.] METHOD OF PROCEEDING. 229 
 
 spheno-basilar suture has not ossified, are previously 'bound together 
 Tvith leather straps.* 
 
 By scrupulously foUoving out these instructions, the results do 
 not vary in one and the same skuU more than five cuhic centimtoes, 
 although obtained by diiferent individuals. In the course of an 
 hour a person, with the help of an assistant, may easily measure 
 20 skulls. Let us see the results. 
 
 The iuferior races have a less capacity than the superior. 
 Australians are the lowest in the scale in this respect, having, 
 according to our measurements, a mean capacity of 1224 cubic 
 centimetres. The skulls of Americans, whether normal or dis- 
 torted, have also a small cranial cavity. The capacity increases 
 in the yellow races, and attains its maximum in whites. The 
 Auvergnians have 1523, and the 384 Parisians of M. Broca, 1437 
 cubic centimetres of capacity. The difierence is so great between 
 the two sexes, that it is absolutely necessary to examine them 
 separately. In races now living this difference varies from 143 to 
 220 cubic centimetres. It is a curious circumstance that it is not 
 more than 99 '5 in the only skull of the immense series which we 
 possess of prehistoric date (Troglodytes of La Lozfere). The greatest 
 cranial capacity with which we are acquainted is 1900 cubic centi- 
 metres, in a Parisian, and the smallest in a native of the Andaman 
 Islands, namely, 1093. But if this latter appears physiological, 
 we cannot say the same of the former. The highest maximum 
 limit of capacity of a cranial cavity, according to M. Welcker, is 
 1650; we think this too small. But we must beware lest we 
 exaggerate. Some of the averages of Morton and B. Davis ought 
 to be rejected, eis, for example, the Irish skull of 1992 cubic centi- 
 metres. The mean capacity of four adult hydrocephalic skulls 
 from the Museum Dupuytren, was found by M. Broca to be 3727 
 cubic centimetres, and of three adult microcephaU 414.t The 
 cranial capacity seems to vary according to intellectual endow- 
 
 * " Sur la Mensuration de la Capaeite du Criue," by M. Broca, in " Mem, 
 Soc. d'Anthrop," vol. ii., 2nd series, 1873. 
 f See page 165, on demi-miorocephali. 
 
230 EESULTS. [Chap, iu 
 
 ment. The skulls of Parisians of the 19th centuiy are more capa- 
 cious than those of the 12th ; those from the Morgue more so than 
 those from certain cemeteries. The following are some of M. Broca's 
 examples of mean capacity : 
 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 
 Cub. cent. 
 
 Cub. cent. 
 
 88 Auvergnians 
 
 1598 
 
 1445 
 
 69 Gauls from Brittany ... 
 
 1599 
 
 1426 
 
 63 Lower Brittany 
 
 1564 
 
 1366 
 
 124 Parisians 
 
 1558 
 
 1337 
 
 18 Caveme de rHonune Mort 
 
 1606 
 
 1507 
 
 20 Guanohes 
 
 1557 
 
 1353 
 
 60 Spaniards (Basques) ... 
 
 1574 
 
 1356 
 
 28 Gorsicans 
 
 1552 
 
 1367 
 
 84 Merovingians ... 
 
 1504 
 
 1361 
 
 22 Chinese 
 
 1518 
 
 1383 
 
 12 Esquimaux 
 
 1539 
 
 1428 
 
 54 New Caledonians 
 
 1460 
 
 1330 
 
 85 Negroes of Western Africa 
 
 1430 
 
 1251 
 
 7 Tasmanians 
 
 1452 
 
 1201 
 
 18 AnstraKans 
 
 1347 
 
 1181 
 
 21 Nubians ... 
 
 1329 
 
 1298 
 
 We repeat that in the present state of the science the process 
 with shot, provided the instructions are rigidly carried out, gives 
 the most tmiform results. M. Broca has been engaged in making 
 very careful experiments with millet and mustard seed, but he 
 has not yet given us an opportunity of judging of their relative 
 value. To show how important the matter is, we may mention 
 that after a skull had been measured very carefully with mOlet by 
 a foreign craniologist, on our repeating the process we discovered 
 a dififerenoe of 100 cubic centimetres. 
 
 However, we may make use of the tables already published of 
 cubic measurements with other substances, provided we do not 
 compare them with those of a similar kind. The figures of an 
 operator who follows his own particular method of working have a 
 relative value of their own. The most important are those of 
 Morton, Welcker, Barnard Davis, and Mantegazza. The following 
 are some of the principal averages of Morton : * 
 
 " Thesaurus Oraniorum ; or, Catalogue of Skulls of various Baces of 
 Men," by Barnard Davis. One vol. London, 1867. 
 
Chap, ii.] 
 
 CEPHALO-OEBITAL INDEX. 
 
 231 
 
 
 Cranl. capacity 
 
 38 Europeans 
 
 1534 
 
 18 Mongols 
 
 1421 
 
 79 Negroes of Africa 
 
 1364 
 
 10 „ of Oceania 
 
 1234 
 
 152 Peruvians 
 
 1234 
 
 25 Mexicans ... 
 
 1339 
 
 164 Americans (other) 
 
 1234 
 
 In Mr. Davis's method the sand made use of is from the seashore 
 near Calais, and thoroughly well dried. The skull is weighed 
 when empty and again when fully and the calculation made accord- 
 ingly. The actual weight of the sand, which is supposed to be 
 invariable, being 1425, we deduct from it one ounce, avoir- 
 dupois (English), representing a volume of one cubic inch and 
 215-thousandths (English), or 19 cubic centimetres and 892- 
 thousandths (French). To convert Mr. Davis's ounces and 
 tenths of ounces it is sufficient to multiply them by 19-892. 
 The following are some of his cubic measurements so converted :* 
 
 
 Cub. cent 
 
 146 Ancient Britons ... ... 
 
 .. 1524 
 
 36 Anglo-Saxons ... 
 
 .. 1412 
 
 39 Saxons 
 
 .. 1488 
 
 31 Irish 
 
 .. 1472 
 
 18 Swedes 
 
 .. 1500 
 
 23 Netherlanders 
 
 .. 1496 
 
 9 Lapps ... 
 
 .. 1440 
 
 21 Chinese 
 
 .. 1452 
 
 116 Kanakas 
 
 .. 1470 
 
 27 Marqnesan Islanders 
 
 .. 1452 
 
 7 Maoris 
 
 .. 1446 
 
 12 Dahoman Negroes 
 
 .. 1452 
 
 9 New Hebrideans 
 
 .. 1432 
 
 15 Australians 
 
 .. 1295 
 
 Oephalo- Orbital Index. 
 
 The brain-case is not the only cavity of the skull of which cubic 
 measurements have been made. The cavities and sinuses communi- 
 cating with the nasal fossse have also been measured. M. Man- 
 
 * " Crania AmeiioftJia," by S. G. Morton. EoKo. Philadelphia, 1839. 
 
232 
 
 CKANIOMETEICAL MEASITREMENTS. 
 
 [Chap. ii. 
 
 tegazza has made tlie orbits his special study in this respect. He 
 closes the orifices with wax, and fills the cavities with mercury, 
 the volume of which he afterwards measures. The sum of the 
 volumes of both orbits thus obtained he compares with the cerebral 
 capacity. This is the cephalo-orbital index. His mean upon 200 
 adult skulls from various sources was 2 7 '2, 'and the extremes 22 '7, 
 and 36 -5, not taking into account an index, evidently abnormal, of 
 5 3 '8 in an American skuU. But it is important to be able to 
 
 Fig. 26.— The Callipers (Compas d'Bpaiaseur). 
 
 distinguish between one race and another. To this end we have 
 taken from M. Mantegazza's measurements of these 200 skuUs 
 recently pubhshed, 20 Italians and 12 !N"egroes and Oceanians, and 
 the following are their cephalo-orbital indices :* 
 
 20 Italians ... 
 
 2 Australians 
 
 3 New Zealanders 
 6 Negroes ... 
 
 27-73 
 25-61 
 32-49 
 27.19 
 
 * " Dei Caratteri Geraroliia del Cranio Umano," ty Paolo Mantegazza, in 
 "Aroliivio dell' Anthropologia e la Etnologia." Florence, 1875. 
 
Chap, ii.] 
 
 CEANIOMETEICAL POINTS. 
 
 233 
 
 The number of each series, except the first, is unfortunately too 
 few for us to be able to form any conclusion respecting them. 
 The Ifew Zealanders appear to have larger orbital cavities than the 
 Australians in proportion to the cerebral cavity. 
 
 This result should be considered, according to M. Mantegazza's 
 proposal, by comparing Man with the anthropoid apes, namely, that 
 the orbital capacity is smaller relatively to the cranial capacity, 
 that the dominant place is less elevated in the organic series ; this 
 however wants confirmation. 
 
 Fig. 27.— Sliding Compass (Compas GlifisiSre). 
 
 Craniometrical Measurements. 
 
 The first to engage our attention will be the straight ones, which 
 are taken with the callipers and sliding compass (see Pigs. 26 
 and 27), and the curved with the ordinary measuring tape. "We 
 shall consider successively those of the cranium proper and those of 
 the face, first in their ensemMe and then in their separate regions. 
 
 The cranium, when separated from the face, as we see it in 
 many specimens from old graves, has the form of an ovoid, with 
 the larger extremity looking backwards and the smaller flattened 
 
234 CEANIOMBTEICAL POINTS. [Chap. ii. 
 
 slightly at the side. It is this ovoid which we have to measure by- 
 means of its three principal circumferences and diameters. Before 
 proceeding farther, however, we must briefly explain a number of 
 terms which we have already employed, having reference to the 
 principal marks (points de rephre). Some are single and median, 
 others lateral and in pairs. (See Figs. 2, 3, and 5.) 
 
 Olahella, a swelling sometimes replaced by a depression between the two 
 superciliary arches. 
 
 Swpra-orhital point, or supra-nasal, or ophryon (from o<^pvs, an eyelid), 
 is the middle of the transverse line of the frontal bone, which corresponds 
 to the prolongation of the base of the skull and to the root of the orbits. 
 
 Metopic point (from jieTomov, the forehead), a point situated on the 
 median line between the two frontal eminences. 
 
 Bregma, point of meeting of the coronal and sagittal sutures. 
 
 Vertex, the highest point of the yault of the cranium. 
 
 ObeUon (from o/3eXds, a dart ; in Latin, sagittalis, sagittal suture), the 
 region situated between the two parietal foramina, where the sagittal 
 suture becomes simple, which is generally at its fourth posterior fifth. 
 
 Lambda, plS,oe of meeting of the sagittal or biparietal suture with the 
 lambdoidal or parieto-oocipital. 
 
 Mammv/m occipital point, spot on the maximum antero-posterior 
 diameter proceeding from the glabella. 
 
 Inion (from Ivlov, the nape of the neck), the external occipital pro- 
 tuberance. 
 
 Opisthion (to owia-Biov, the posterior point), the posterior border of the 
 occipital foramen at the median hne. 
 
 Basion (from ^a.<ns, the base), anterior border of the occipital foramen at 
 the median line. 
 
 Stepha/nion (from (rTecjidvrj, a crown, the coronal suture), spot where the 
 coronal suture crosses the temporal ridge. 
 
 Pterion (from irrepov, awing; wings of the sphenoid), the region where 
 the frontal parietal, temporal, and sphenoid bones meet, in the form of an H. 
 
 Asterion (from da-TTjp, a star), point behind the mastoid process, where 
 the parietal, occipital, and temporal bones meet. 
 
 Nasal point, middle of the naso-frontal suture at the root of the nose. 
 
 Sub-nasal point, middle of the inferior border of the anterior nares, and 
 if this point cannot be found, the base of the nasal spine. 
 
 Ahieola/r point, superior alveolar border in front of the median line. 
 
 Mental point (point mentonmer), inferior border of the inferior maxillary 
 bone in front of the median line. 
 
 Auricular point, centre of the external orifice of the auditory canal. 
 
 Su/pra-auricvlair point, above the preceding at the longitudinal root of 
 the zygomatic process. 
 
Chap, ii.] 
 
 PRINCIPAL MBASUEBMBNTS. 
 
 235 
 
 Dacfryon (from SaKpv, a tear), a point on the sides of the root of the nose 
 where the frontal, the os nnguis, and the ascending process of the superior 
 maxiUary hone meet. 
 
 Jugal point, point situated at the angle which the posterior border of the 
 frontal branch of the malar bone makes with the superior border of its 
 zygomatic branch. 
 
 Mala/r j)owii,point situated on the tubercle on the external surface of the 
 malar bone ; and when this does not exist, the point at the junction of a 
 horizontal Uue going from the inferior border of the orbit to the superior 
 border of the 'zygomatic arch, and a yertical line going from the external 
 lip of the fronto-malar suture to the tubercle which is situated at the border 
 of the inferior external angle of the malar bone. 
 
 Gordon (from yavXa, an angle), the region of the angle of the lower jaw. 
 
 We shall also give a table of the principal measurements, as 
 obtaiaed by M. Brooa on 77 men and 41 women from his series of 
 contemporary Parisian skulls.* 
 
 Diameters. 
 Antero-posterior, maximum 
 Transverse, maximum.. . . 
 Vertical or basilo-bregmatic 
 Transverse frontal, Tninimnm or inferior . 
 
 „ „ Stephanie or superior. . 
 
 „ occipital, maximum 
 
 Curves. 
 Median frontal, sub-cerebral 
 „ „ cerebral 
 
 „ parietal 
 „ occipital supra-iniao 
 „ „ cerebellar... 
 
 Transverse, snpra-aurioular 
 
 „ total ... 
 
 Horizontal, anterior 
 
 „ posterior 
 
 „ total 
 
 Face. 
 
 Length 
 
 Width, bizygomatio ... ... 
 
 Length, skeleton of nose 
 
 Width 
 
 * " Memoire sur la Eaoe Celtique," by M. Broca, in " Kevue d'Anthropo- 
 logie," vol. ii., 1873. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 182-7 . 
 
 .. 174-3 
 
 145-2 . 
 
 .. 135-5 
 
 132-0 . 
 
 .. 125-1 
 
 100-0 . 
 
 .. 93-2 
 
 121-7 . 
 
 .. 113-1 
 
 112-5 . 
 
 .. 106-5 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 18-1 . 
 
 .. 16-5 
 
 110-9 , 
 
 .. 106-1 
 
 126-3 . 
 
 .. 121-4 
 
 71-5 . 
 
 .. 68-5 
 
 47-9 . 
 
 .. 46-1 
 
 312-4 . 
 
 .. 291-5 
 
 445-1 . 
 
 .. 415-6 
 
 251-2 . 
 
 .. 233-6 
 
 274-4 . 
 
 .. 264-4 
 
 525-6 . 
 
 .. 498-0 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 87-7 . 
 
 .. 80-8 
 
 133-0 . 
 
 .. 122-5 
 
 51-3 . 
 
 .. 48-3 
 
 24-1 . 
 
 .. 22-7 
 
236 
 
 CEPHALIC INDEX. 
 
 [Chap. ii. 
 
 
 Indices. 
 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 Cephalic 
 
 
 
 .. 79-5 . 
 
 77-7 
 
 Frontal 
 
 
 
 .. 68-8 . 
 
 . 68-8 
 
 Stephanie 
 
 
 
 .. 82-4 . 
 
 82-0 
 
 Vertical 
 
 
 
 .. 72-2 . 
 
 . 71-2 
 
 Facial 
 
 
 
 .. 65-9 . 
 
 . 65-9 
 
 Orbital 
 
 
 
 .. 85-7 . 
 
 . 88-2 
 
 Nasal ... 
 
 
 
 .. 4.6-8 . 
 
 47-0 
 
 Occipital 
 
 foramen . . 
 
 Geplialic Index. 
 
 .. 84-9 . 
 
 . 84-5 
 
 The first measurements on the skull ■which, should he taken, 
 when we have no time to take more, are its greatest length, or 
 maximum antero-posterior diameter, and its greatest hreadth, or 
 maximum transverse diameter. They are of the greater value from 
 the fact that, with one or two exceptions, the same methods of pro- 
 ceeding are usually followed, and the same marks {points de repere) 
 made use of hy all craniologists. The relation of one cephalic 
 index to another is the same for all, an index which M. Gaussin 
 calls the horizontal, in contradistinction from another less important 
 — the vertical. He expresses the general form of the skull very 
 much according to Blumenbach's norma verticalis. 
 
 The antero-posterior diameter extends from the glabella to the 
 farthest point of the skull behind, at that point which we have 
 called maximum occipital, and which we mark with a pencil for 
 ulterior proceedings. Morton, Eetzius, Thurnam, and Davis, Von 
 Baer, Broca, Virchow, Ecker, and Wiesbach, are unanimous on 
 this matter. M. Welcker alone dissents ; his corresponding dia- 
 meter extends from the interval between the frontal eminences to 
 the same maximum occipital point. This is the diameter which 
 M. Broca selects, with another object in view, under the name of 
 antero-posterior metopic. The maximum transverse diameter is 
 taken, as its name indicates, transversely and maximum, whatever 
 the spot may be where it falls, by Morton, Eetzius, Von Baer, 
 Broca, Ecker, Wiesbach. We must avoid going too low, where we 
 sometimes meet -nith the supra-mastoidean projection mentioned at 
 
Chap. II.] CEPHAIIO INDEX. 237 
 
 page 212. Precaution must be taken to hold the two legs of the 
 compass perfectly horizontally, in order that the diameter may not 
 he ohHque in the slightest degree. The method of Welcker slightly 
 differs from this: he places the points of the instrument at the 
 junction of the two vertical and horizontal circumferences, about 
 which we shall have more to say presently. M. Virchow at one 
 time had also his particular mode of proceeding ; his mark {point 
 de rephre) was situated a little above the middle portion of the 
 superior border of the temporal. But neither of the transverse 
 diameters of these observers was the maximum. 
 
 M. Virchow, however, ia his " Memoir on the Skulls of Copen- 
 hagen," in 1872, appears decidedly to have come round to the 
 Prench method. It appears from the " Crania Britannica," that 
 the authors of that work have not recognised the maximum trans- 
 verse diameter, but on referring to the " Thesaurus Craniorum," by 
 Mr. Barnard Davis, it is evident that in this respect they are at 
 one with most craniologists. 
 
 It follows that the cephalic index, that is to say the relation 
 of the maximum transverse diameter to the maximum antero- 
 posterior diameter, of which the formula is j^t/'^^i diam ' presents 
 itself under precisely the same conditions to Morton, Eetzius, 
 Thurnam, Von Baer, Broca, Davis, Ecker, "Wiesbach, Pruner- 
 Bey, as well as to the Italian anthropologists, that it was 
 diminished at ■ the expense of the transverse diameter by the 
 original method of Virchow, and that it only differs from that 
 of M. "Welcker. 
 
 This index varies in the human races from 71 '40 in Greenlanders 
 to 85 '63 in Lapps, in the averages of the series ; and from 62 '62 in 
 a New Caledonian to 92'77 in a Slav (Wend) in particular instances. 
 The difference is greater if we include the distorted skuUs. A 
 scaphocephalus in the Laboratory of Anthropology has an index of 
 56 '33, and a Peruvian skidl of an Inca, one of 103. The extreme 
 indices are found in the long or dolichocephalic skulls of Eetzius, 
 and in his round or brachy cephalic* Between the two a term 
 was wanted to designate the medium skulls, and M. Broca has 
 * " Efchnologisohe Schriften," hj A, Eetzius. Stockholm, 1864. 
 
238 
 
 CEPHALIC INDEX. 
 
 [Chap. ii. 
 
 called them mesatieephali. But from the fact that in practice there 
 exists a vast variety between the extremes of the groups, M. Broca 
 gave the name of sub-doliohocephali to the skulls which were less 
 long, and sub-hrachycephali to those which were less round. Hence 
 he makes five divisions, as follows : 
 
 CEPHALIC INDICES. 
 
 Doliohooephali . . . 
 Sub-dolichocephali 
 Mesatioephali . . . 
 Snb-braohyoepliaH 
 Brachycepliali . . . 
 
 V500 and nnder 
 75-01 to 11-11 
 11-18 „ 80-00 
 80-01 „ 83-33 
 83-34 and above 
 
 This nomenclature is universally adopted in the present day, 
 as heittg most generally useful, except by Thumam, Huxley, and 
 Welcker. 
 
 In Thumam's system the dolichooephali are 71 and under; the 
 sub-dohchocephah from 72 to 73 ; the orthocephali, which replace 
 M. Broca's mesatieephali, from 74 to 76; the sub-brachycephaU 
 from 77 to 79 ; and the brachycephali 80 and above. The 
 system of M. Welcker differs slightly from this. His orthocephali 
 are from 74 to 78 ; his sub-brachycephali from 79 to 80 ; and his 
 brachycephali 81 and above. In Mr. Huxley's system the terms 
 themselves are altered. His mecistocephali are 69 and under; the 
 mesocephali 71 to 74 ; the orthocephali 74 to 77 ; the sub-brachy- 
 cephali from 77 to 80; the euryoephali from 80 to 85; and the 
 brachystocephaU 86 and above. The term " orthocephalus " iu the 
 three systems is given from the belief that such an average is more 
 satisfactory and more suitable than others. These differences of 
 terms and limits of groups, moreover, lose aU their interest to the 
 foreigner, inasmuch as we are in the habit of expressing the form 
 of a skuU simply by the index figure. 
 
 In the course of this work we confine ourselves to M. Broca's 
 nomenclatui'e. 
 
 The cephalic index of "Welcker being the only one which 
 fundamentally differs from ours, that is to say in the method of 
 taking the two diameters, we have endeavoured to determine in 
 what that difference consists. The folio-wing is a resume of the 
 
Chap, ii.] CEPHALIC INDEX. 
 
 239 
 
 comparative results of our own and M. Welcker's measurements of 
 25 Auvergnians and 25 negroes; they express the difference in 
 plus or mitius by M. Welcker's method : 
 
 Auvergnians. Negroes. 
 
 Individual variations, from + 122 to - 539 Prom + 1-39 to - 6-39 
 Mean „ „ -1-38 „ +093 
 
 The t-wo means are contradictory, which is not surprising, con- 
 sidering the like variations ia plus and minus. On the one hand 
 the transverse diameter of "Welcker is always smaller, and his 
 antero-posterior sometimes longer, sometimes shorter, according as 
 the frontal eminences are projecting or not. On the other, our 
 antero-posterior diameter varies with the projection of the glabella. 
 It is admitted, however, that the indices of Welcker are weaker 
 by two units, and his averages are really smaller than those of other 
 observers. But two units would be too much, and for our part 
 we have come to the conclusion that there is no possible advantage 
 in makiQg a comparison between the results of the two systems. 
 
 One of the first effects of the methodical arrangement of the form 
 of the skull, on an examination of a large number of specimens, was 
 the reversal of a celebrated doctriae of Eetzius. He stated that 
 the aboriginal races of Europe, which were then represented by the 
 Fins and the Basques, are brachycephalic, while the races next 
 in order are dolichocephalic. The discovery that the Basques are 
 dolichocephalic gave the first blow to this belief ; that of the 
 ancient fossil skulls, all of which were dolichocephalic, completed it. 
 It was subsequently established that the negro races are generally 
 very dolichocephalic, and the greater number of the Mongol races 
 brachycephalic. It is only lately that a brachycephalic race has 
 been discovered among the blacks of Oceania. The Hyperborean 
 race, indeed, was separated as soon as it was ascertained that in 
 point of number the Lapps and Esquimaux, which were both in- 
 cluded under this title, are, the former the most brachycephalic, 
 and the latter the most doUohocephalic in the world. Considering 
 the importance of the cephalic index, which however is one of 
 those empirical characters to which we have already alluded, we 
 shall give tables of it derived from various sources. 
 
240 CEPHALIC INDEX. 
 
 The first is that of M. Broca.* 
 
 [Chap. ii. 
 
 (1) DOHOHOOEPHAUC, 
 
 27 Anstralians ... 
 
 21 Esquimaux of Greenland . . . 
 54 New Caledonians 
 
 18 Hottentots and Bushmen . . . 
 8 Kaffirs 
 
 85 Negroes o£ Western Africa 
 6 Cro -Magnon and Paris diluvium (Stone period) 
 
 19 Troglodytes of La Lozere (Polished Stone epoch) 
 
 22 Nubians of the Elephantine Isle ... 
 19 Arabians of Algeria... 
 
 12 Pariahs of Calcutta... 
 11 Berbers 
 
 71-49 
 71-71 
 71-78 
 72-42 
 72-54 
 73-40 
 73-34 
 73-22 
 
 73-72 
 
 74-06 
 74-17 
 74-63 
 
 (2) SUB-DOLICHOCEPHALIC. 
 
 54 Dolmens at the north of Paris (Polished Stone epoch)... 75-01 
 
 ... 75-35 
 
 ... 75-53 
 
 ... 75-58 
 
 ... 75-86 
 
 ... 76-11 
 
 ... 76-30 
 
 ... 76-36 
 
 ... 76-39 
 
 ... 77-62 
 
 ... 77-60 
 
 28 Corsicans of Avapessa (18th century) 
 
 20 Gnanohes of the Canaries ... 
 
 81 Ancient Egyptians ... 
 
 26 Dolmens of La Lozere (Polished Stone epoch) 
 
 10 Taamanians ... 
 
 41 Polynesians ... 
 
 81 Merovingians 
 
 12 Modern Egyptians, Copts ... 
 
 60 Spanish Basques (Guipuzcoa) 
 
 28 Chinese 
 
 (3) MESATICEPHAHC. 
 
 44 Troglodytes de la Mame (Baye, Polished Stone epoch) . . . 
 
 36 Gauls 
 
 25 Mexicans (not distorted) ... 
 
 53 Normands of the 17th century (St. Amould, Calvados) 
 
 49 Hollanders 
 
 16 Troglodytes of L'Oise j(Orrouy) (Polished Stone epoch) 
 384 Parisians from the 12th to the 19th century 
 
 27 South Americans (not distorted) 
 
 36 North Americans „ 
 
 78-09 
 78-09 
 78-12 
 78-77 
 78-89 
 79-50 
 79-45 
 79-16 
 79-25 
 
 * " Snr la Classification et la Nomenclature d'aprfes les Indices Cepha. 
 iiques," by Paul Broca, in " Eevue d'Anthrop.," vol. i. p. 385, 1872. 
 
Chap, ii.] 
 
 CEPHALIC INDEX. 
 
 241 
 
 (4) STJB-ERACHYCKPHALIC. 
 
 57 Erenoh Basques (St. Jean-de-Luz) 80-25 
 
 4 Esthonians ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 90-39 
 
 63 Bretons (Low) from the north coast (Cantons Bretonuats) 81-25 
 
 11 Mongols, irariouB ... ... ... ... ... ... 81-40 
 
 11 Turks 81-49 
 
 29 Javanese (Vrolii collection) 81-61 
 
 73 Bretons (Low) from the north coast (Cantons Gallots) 8205 
 
 11 Alsatians and Lorrainians .. . ... ... ... ... 82-93 
 
 (5) 
 
 BKACHYCBPHAMC. 
 
 10 Indo-Chinese 
 22 Savoyards ... 
 
 5 Fins 
 
 88 Auvergnians (St. Neotaire-le-Haut) 
 
 11 Croats 
 
 6 Bavarians and Suabians ... 
 
 11 Lappa 
 
 12 Syrians of Gebel-Cheikh (slightly distorted) 
 
 83-51 
 83-63 
 83-69 
 
 84-07 
 84-83 
 81.-87 
 85-07 
 85-95 
 
 The folio-wing table is taken from the " Ttesaurus Craniomm " 
 •of Mr. Barnard Davis, and from the supplement to the same 
 ■work. We -wish especially to direct attention to the three series 
 of Esquimaux, and the four of the savage tribes of India : 
 
 146 Ancient Britons 
 
 .. 77-0 
 
 36 Anglo-Saxons 
 
 .. 76-0 
 
 39 English 
 
 .. 77-0 
 
 31 Irish 
 
 .. 75-0 
 
 12 S-tvedea 
 
 .. 75-0 
 
 14 Prussians ... 
 
 .. 78-9 
 
 10 Fins 
 
 .. 82-0 
 
 14 Esquimaux of Greenland, or Eastern . . . 
 
 .. 71-3 
 
 6 , „ „ Central ... 
 
 .. 75-1 
 
 6 . „ „ Western... 
 
 .. 75-3 
 
 116 Kanakas of the Sandwich Islands 
 
 .. 80-0 
 
 34 Marquesan Islanders 
 
 .. 77-6 
 
 7 Maoris of New Zealand ... 
 
 .. 75-0 
 
 17 Tasmanians 
 
 .. 75-6 
 
 28 Australians 
 
 .. 71-8 
 
 7 Kashgars and Tarkandians 
 
 .. 76-4 
 
 10 Affghans 
 
 .. 79-0 
 
 11 Birmese ... 
 
 .. 86-6 
 
242 VERTICAL INDEX. [Chap, ii, 
 
 8 Assam tribes ... ... 76'4 
 
 45 Tribes of Southem Himalaya ... ... ... 76-0 
 
 12 „ Central India 73-3 
 
 8 „ the coast of Coromandel (India) ... 73 '5 
 
 The following list of M. Wiesbacli relates entirely to one 
 special group of peoples : 
 
 30 Euthenians (Slavs of tbe North) 82-3 
 
 40 Poles „ „ 82-9 
 
 20 Slovacians „ „ ... ... 83-5 
 
 40 Tehees „ „ 83-1 
 
 72 Croats (Slavs of the South) 84-4 
 
 19 Slovenans „ „ ... ... 81'3 
 
 41 Boumanians ... ... ... ... ... 82-8 
 
 40 Magyars 82-3 
 
 130 Austriaus (German) 82-0 
 
 40 ItaKans (North) 81-8 
 
 The following is a series collected from various sources. The 
 Veddahs ought to be included with those of India in the pre- 
 ceding tables, and the Aleutians with the "Western Esquimaux of 
 Mr. Davis's list : 
 
 101 Esquimaux (Bessels) ... ... ... ... 71'37 
 
 12 Teddahs of Ceylon (various authors) ... ... 7l"75 
 
 5 Tehuelches of Patagonia (Topinard) ... ... 72*22 
 
 5 A'inos (various authors) ... ... ... ... 76'00 
 
 12 Bulgarians (Koperni5ki) ... ... ... 76'60 
 
 9 Tsiganians (Hovelacque) ... ... ... 77"45 
 
 20 „ (Koperni9ki) 77"40 
 
 15 Aleutians (Bessels) 78-00 
 
 9 Andamans (various authors) ... ... ... 81'87 
 
 12 Magyars (Lenhossek) 82-90 
 
 100 Germans, Southern (Ecker) 83-00 
 
 10 Roumanians (Hovelacque) ... ... ... 84-06 
 
 30 Lapps from Scandinavian museums (Hamy) . . . 84-93 
 
 The Vertical Index. 
 
 The vertical index, or iudex of height, is less important. It gives 
 
 I the form of the skull according to an antero-posterior section, which 
 
 divides the cranial ovoid iato two lateral halves, ia the same way 
 
 as the cephalic iudex, or the index of breadth gives the form of 
 
Chap, ii.] 
 
 veeticaij index. 
 
 243 
 
 the skull such as is shown by the norma verticaKs of Blumenhach. 
 It is the relation of the vertical diameter to the before-mentioned 
 maximum antero-posterior diameter. Its formula is ATtt p'oat ' diam"' 
 
 But there is a "want of unanimity here j in France there is only 
 one way of taking the vertical diameter ; in other countries there 
 are several different ways. There is not the slightest doubt that 
 its inferior extremity should commence at the occipital foramen, 
 and, for greater precision, at the basion. But where are we to 
 make its superior extremity meet 1 What we look for first is the 
 
 Fig. 28. — APQ, Alveolo-condylean plane ; K V, True vertical diameter in relation to this 
 plane ; K C, Plane of the occipital foramen ; K V, Vertical diameter of Mr. B. Davis 
 in relation to this plane ; K B, Vertical or basilo-bregmatic diameter of M. Broca ; 
 K N, Naso-basilar line ; K A, Alveolo-basilar line ; A N, Naao-alveolar line ; K N A, 
 Facial triangle of Vogt ; K E, Baeilo-sub-nasal line ; N E, Naao-sub-nasal line j K N E, 
 Facial triangle of Welcker, For the other lines, &c., see Kg, 5. 
 
 culminating point of the vertex. How are we to determine if? 
 Some guess it j others make it have relation to one of the natural 
 planes at the base of the skull. If ow, if, following the example of 
 Mr. B. Davis, we make it have relation to the plane of the occipital 
 foramen, it falls generally about three or four centimetres behind 
 the bregma, whUe if it has relation to the real plane of the base, 
 the alveolo-condylean, it corresponds as nearly as possible to the 
 bregma. The following shows the situation of the vertex in front 
 
 R 2 
 
244 
 
 VERTICAL INDEX. 
 
 [Chap. ii. 
 
 ( + ) or behind ( - ) the bregma in either case. V when it is 
 determined by the plane of the occipital foramen, K C, as in 
 Fig. 28; V, when by the alveolo-condylean plane A P Q.* 
 
 
 v. 
 
 V. 
 
 
 MiU. 
 
 MiU. 
 
 12 Caveme de I'Homme Moit .. 
 
 . -42 
 
 
 
 21 Anvergnians ... 
 
 . - 41 
 
 - 1 
 
 21 Bretons (Low) 
 
 . - 40 
 
 - 1 
 
 16 MoDgols and Chinese 
 
 -33 
 
 + 3 
 
 21 Nubians 
 
 . - 26 
 
 - 9 
 
 31 Negroes of Africa 
 
 . -32 
 
 -10 
 
 Whence does this difference arise ? In the first case, V, from the 
 angular deviation of the plane of the occipital foramen, the 
 anterior border of which is raised in white races and depressed in 
 the inferior races. In the second, V, from the vertex being 
 placed as it appears on the living subject when the individual looks 
 straight in front of him. But this vertex perceptibly corresponds to 
 the bregma. Why not then simplify the manual proceeding by 
 directly taking the basUo-bregmatic diameter as the vertical 
 diameter 1 This is what M. Broca has done. 
 
 In 250 Parisians, the vertical index, thus understood, was 71 '8. 
 
 The following are some examples borrowed from M. Broca, in 
 which sex is taken account of :t 
 
 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 63 Bretons (Low)... 
 
 ... 
 
 .. 71-6 . 
 
 . 70-8 
 
 28 Corsioans 
 
 
 .. 71-5 . 
 
 , 72-6 
 
 125 Parisians (19th century) 
 
 .. 72-2 , 
 
 . 71-7 
 
 13 Esquimaux 
 
 
 .. 72-8 . 
 
 . 73-4 
 
 88 Anvergnians ... 
 
 
 .. 73-6 . 
 
 . 73-8 
 
 85 Negroes of Africa 
 
 
 .. 73-4 . 
 
 . 73-5 
 
 54. New Caledonians 
 
 
 .. 73-7 . 
 
 . 74-6 
 
 27 Chinese 
 
 
 .. 77-2 . 
 
 . 76-8 
 
 18 Caveme de THomnie 
 
 Mort ... 
 
 .. 68-9 . 
 
 . 730 
 
 This table is rather favourable to M. Virchow's view ; his own 
 figures indeed cannot express it more strongly. He puts the 
 
 * " Examen des Meaurea Craniometriquea du ' Thesaurus Craniorum,' " by 
 Paul Topinard, in " Eevue d'Anthrop." vol. ii. p. 99. 
 
 "t* " Les Cranes Anciens d'Origine Septentrionale i, Copenhague," by Eod. 
 Virohow, in " Arch, fitr Anthrop.," vol, iv., 1871. 
 
Chap, n.] ANTEEO-POSTERIOR CIECUMFEEENCB. 245- 
 
 Tertical index ia the first line among his craniometrical measure- 
 ments. 
 
 The following are those which he pubhshed some years ago. 
 The first column gives the ordinary vertical index; the second the 
 relation of its height, not to the length, hut to the breadth of the 
 skull: 
 
 
 Height to length. 
 
 Height to breadth. 
 
 6 Lapps 
 
 760 ... 
 
 ... 80-2 
 
 5 Greenlaudera 
 
 74-0 ... 
 
 ... 1030 
 
 3 Fina 
 
 73-2 ... 
 
 ... 91-1 
 
 This table also shows the defective side. Esquimaux have one 
 of the most, if not the most, elevated skuUs ia existence ; Lapps, 
 at least those in the museum, have, on the contrary, one of the 
 least so. According to the foregoing table it is the reverse. It is 
 because in every index there are two factors. In the ordiaary 
 cephalic, the one by increasing, the other by diminishing, or the 
 reverse, contribute to the same end. In this there is nothing of 
 the kind. The vertical index of the first column is small in the 
 Esquimaux, because the length of the skuU in proportion to its 
 height is enormous ; it is large in the Lapps because this length is 
 reduced to a minimum. The second index appears more to the 
 point ; the same objection, however, is appUcable to it, except that 
 it has reference more to th.e breadth. In our opinion, by adding 
 together the two indices, and taking the mean, the result would be 
 more correct. We should thus have a mixed index of height of 
 88'5 in the Esquimau, of 82-5 in the Lapp, and of 82-1 in the 
 Ein ; which is in accordance with what we should expect from the 
 appearance of these skulls. This new index would enable one to 
 distinguish, otherwise than by the view, the acrocephalic, or 
 elevated, from the platycephalic, or low skulls. In the 384 
 Parisians of M. Broca it is 77 '2. 
 
 The three foregoing diameters, and the three circumferences of 
 which we are about to speak, are the fundamental measurements 
 by means of which the cranial ovoid is recognised in its ensemble. 
 
 The various sections of the antero-posterior circumference are 
 taken with the tape as follows: (1) The sub-cerebral, or that sub- 
 
246 TEAJSrSVEKSE OIECTTMFEEBNOB. [Chap. ii. 
 
 jacent to tlie brain, from the nasal to the supra-orbital point. (2) The 
 cerebral or frontal, from this poiat to the bregma. (3) The parietal, 
 from the bregma to the lambda. (4) The occipital, from the lambda 
 to the inion. (5) From the inion to the opisthion. The length of 
 the occipital foramen and the naso-basUar line, in a direct line from 
 the basion to the naso-frontal suture, the point de d&part of the 
 circuit, complete the circumference. Its different parts are more in 
 use, indeed, than its ensemble for the purpose of comparing the 
 development of each portion of the skull. Logically, the sub- 
 cerebral, which belongs to the face, should be excluded from it, and 
 ■we should substitute for the naso-basUar line, the ophryo-basUar 
 line ; but custom has decided otherwise. 
 
 The transverse circumference consists of two portions — one, the 
 supra-auricular, going from a point situated above the auditory 
 foramen, on the line passing from the longitudinal root of the 
 zygomatic process to the analogous point on the opposite side, 
 passing through the bregma ; the other, but little used, connecting 
 the same two points by passing beneath the skull. It is customary, 
 with a view to ulterior operations, to mark -with a pencil on the 
 sides of the skull the outline of this curve, which divides it into 
 two parts, viz. the anterior and the posterior. The horizontal 
 circumference commences at the supra-orbital point, crosses the 
 temporal ridge at the spot where the minimum frontal diameter is 
 taken, reaches the maximum occipital point, and returns to its 
 point of departure on the opposite side. The maximum antero- 
 posterior diameter represents its great axis. It naturally divides 
 itself into two parts, the one anterior the other posterior to the 
 before-mentioned transverse curve. By comparing each of these 
 parts to the whole, = 100, we at once have an idea of the relative 
 development of the anterior and posterior cranium, and determine 
 whether the subject is to be included among the frontal or occipital 
 races of Gratiolet. The following are some examples of the hori- 
 zontal ciroTimf erence : 
 
 Auvergnians 
 
 Contemporaiy Farisiang , 
 
 Men. 
 ... 43 524-6 
 .. 77 525-6 
 
 Women. 
 39 502-8 
 41 498-0 
 
 Lapps 
 
 .. 6 512-2 
 
 8 504-0 
 
Chap, ii.] 
 
 HORIZONTAL CIRCUMFERENCE. 
 
 247 
 
 Men, 
 
 Chinese 21 511-6 
 
 Negroes of Africa 54 512-0 
 
 New Caledonians 23 510-0 
 
 Hottentotsand Bosjesmans... 10 500-7 
 
 Women. 
 
 7 495-8 
 24 489-1 
 24 494-4 
 
 5 483-6 
 
 Some craniologists discard the transverse circumference, but all 
 accept the other two. M. Welcker alone deviates from the method 
 of measuring the horizontal circumference by taking it roimd the 
 frontal eminences in front, and the maximum occipital point 
 behind. The difference between the measurement made in this 
 way was three millimetres less than that by the ordinary method 
 
 Tig. 29. — MM, Minimum frontal diameter; S S, Superior frontal or bietephanic diameter 
 of Broca ; S T, Oblique lines of M. de Quatrefagea determining tlie parietal angle ; 
 G, Widtli of the nasal orifice, one of tbe factors of the nasal index : in the orbital 
 cavity are the two lines showing the orbital index ; 0, Supra-orbital point : N, Nasal 
 point; B, Sub-nasal point ; A, Alveolar point, &c. See Fig. 3. 
 
 in 25 Auvergnians, and 18 more in 25 l^egroes ; which proves that 
 the region of the frontal eminences was less developed in the 
 former, and exceptionally very projecting and very elevated in the 
 latter. 
 
 The utility of the horizontal circumference may be noticed. 
 
248 PAHTIAL MEASUREMENTS OF THE CRANIUM. [Chap. ii. 
 
 especially when "we have to determine certain extraordinary patho- 
 logical conditions, such as microcephalus and hydrocephalus. The 
 following, taken upon adidts only, show : 
 
 4 Miorocephali ... ... ... ... 349 
 
 20 Demi-microoephaK ... ... ... 432 to 480 (about) 
 
 1 Moderate hydrocephalus 556 
 
 4 Exceptional „ ... 640 
 
 The same circumference, by M. Welcker's method, was 654 in 
 the last four, the excess being owing to the projection of the 
 metopio point, and the frontal eminences in front of the supra- 
 orbital point. The cases of negroes in which the circumference of 
 M. Welcker exceeded ours, were attributable to the same cause. 
 Having measured the cranial ovoid in its ensemble, we now pro- 
 ceed to measure its details. To the parietal measurements already 
 indicated of the antero-posterior and horizontal circumferences, we 
 will add here the transverse diameters of the frontal and the 
 occipital. 
 
 Many measurements are taken on the frontal : (1) The chord of its 
 antero-posterior curve, as well as of its other curves ; (2) The 
 transverse diameters. M. Broca makes two : The superior transverse, 
 or Stephanie (S S, Fig. 29), whose two measuring points are the 
 stephanions at the union of the temporal ridge and the coronal 
 suture ; and the inferior or minimum (M M, Fig. 29). M. Ecker 
 and Mr. Davis take a maximum transverse frontal, but on the 
 coronal, wherever it may happen to be. Morton takes one oidy, 
 namely at the inferior and anterior angle of the parietals. 
 Welcker and Virchow take the distance from one frontal eminence 
 to the other. The most important, undoubtedly, is the minimum 
 frontal, and Broca, Ecker, Bogdanoff, Mantegazza, &c., are of the 
 same opinion. We say little of M. Pruner-Bey, because he has 
 never indicated exactly his method of proceeding. In his tables 
 the inferior frontal of 30 negroes is 100 millim^res ; this evidently 
 cannot be their minimum. The minimum transverse frontal, M M, 
 is measured from the two points of the temporal ridge which most 
 
Chap, ii.] 
 
 MINIMUM FEONTAL DIAMETER. 
 
 249 
 
 nearly approach eacii other, above the external orbital processes. 
 It generally corresponds, in white races, with the transverse line, 
 marking the separation of the cranium from the face ; the supra- 
 orbital point is then situated in its centre. In the inferior races it 
 has a tendency to be elevated, and in some exceptional cases it 
 ascends as high as the vertex. It is, nevertheless, usual to take 
 it above the superciliary arches, so that the epithet " inferior " would 
 be a better one. The following are some examples of this 
 measurement : 
 
 
 
 
 Millimetres 
 
 384 Parisians 95-7 
 
 88 Auvergniaus 
 
 
 
 .. 97-7 
 
 60 Basques (Spanish) 
 
 
 
 .. 96-1 
 
 58 „ (French) 
 
 
 
 .. 96-2 
 
 69 Gallo-Bretona 
 
 
 
 .. 98-0 
 
 63 Bretons (Low) 
 
 
 
 .. 97-3 
 
 18 Caverne de 1' Homme Mort 
 
 
 
 .. 920 
 
 8 Lapps 
 
 
 
 .. 100-0 
 
 28 Chinese 
 
 
 
 .. 92-5 
 
 15 Esquimaux ... 
 
 
 
 .. 94-1 
 
 82 Negroes of Africa ... 
 
 
 
 .. 94-2 
 
 22 Nubians 
 
 
 
 .. 93-2 
 
 54 New Caledonians ... 
 
 
 
 .. 93-5 
 
 8 Tasmanians... 
 
 
 
 .. 940 
 
 12 Australians 
 
 
 
 .. 92-7 
 
 To be sure there are marked differences between one sex and the 
 other. For example : In 54 negroes, the diameter was 95 milli- 
 metres, and in 24 negresses, 90; 23 'New Caledonian men, 95, 
 24 women, 91 ; 43 Auvergnians, males, 108, 39 females, 95, &o. 
 The narrowest forehead observed by M. Broca is 82 in a female 
 Parisian of the same period, and the widest, 122, in a male Parisian. 
 But what is probably of greater importance is the relation between 
 this minimum breadth and the maximiim breadths of the parts of 
 the cranial envelope, situated in front and behind. M. Broca com- 
 pares this minimum frontal diameter (1) To the superior and 
 maximum frontal, or Stephanie diameter upon the temporal ridge ; 
 (2) To the transverse maximum diameter of the skuU. Hence a 
 
250 
 
 PEONTAL INDEX. 
 
 [Chap. ii. 
 
 Stephanie index, the averages of -whicli vary in different races from 
 79 to 92, and a frontal index, of wMoli the following are some 
 examples : 
 
 384 Parisians ... 
 
 680 
 
 63 Bretons (Low) 
 
 67-7 
 
 88 Auvergnians ... 
 
 .. , ... 66-6 
 
 15 Esquimaux ... 
 
 G9-8 
 
 28 Chinese 
 
 66-5 
 
 29 Javanese ... 
 
 C4-8 
 
 82 Negroes 
 
 70-5 
 
 8 Tasmanians 
 
 67-0 
 
 12 Australians 
 
 71-2 
 
 The maximum transverse occipital diameter extends from 
 one asterion to the other. M. Ahel Hovelacque made this the 
 subject of a paper at the last meeting of the French Association for 
 the Advancement of Science, at LiUe.* The following complete the 
 series of transverse straight measurements, which are taken at 
 pleasure on the several regions, according to the object we have in 
 view : (1) The supra-auricular chord of the transverse curve, already 
 indicated ; (2) A maximum biparietal diameter, which is generally 
 confounded with the ordinary maximum transverse ; (3) A bitem- 
 poral diameter, its maximum taken at the surface of the temporal 
 shell ; (4) A bimastoidean diameter, which extends from the 
 middle of the line, passing from the summit of the mastoid process 
 to the posterior extremity of the squamous suture of the temporal 
 of the other side, according to Thurnam, Davis, and Ecker ; and 
 from the same summit of one mastoid process to the other, accord- 
 ing to Morton, Weloker, and Virchow ; (5) The distance from one 
 parietal emtaence to the other, so extolled by M. Weloker. Various 
 projections, angles, and radii contribute to our knowledge of each 
 of these several regions. 
 
 We may add that after the ordinary longitudinal diameter, 
 M. Broca usually takes the longitudinal metopic, from the metopic 
 point to the maximum occipital point, and the longitudinal iniac 
 from the glabella to the inion, which, compared to the former, 
 
 * See the Eeport of the session 1874. 
 
Chap, n.] CEPHALO-SPINAL INDEX. 251 
 
 enables us to know, the one tlie degree of projection of the forehead, 
 the other, with certaia limits, how far the cerebral region overlaps 
 the cerebellar. We may add that it measures the breadth and 
 the length of the occipital foramen also, and establishes its relation, 
 the latter being = 100. M. Broca's methods of measurement not 
 having yet been published, we shall give a summary, as to this 
 latter point, of the researches of M. Mantegazza. 
 
 This eminent anthropologist has directed his whole attention to 
 the occipital foramen. In the first place he has taken its iadex 
 according to M. Broca's method, and has concluded from it that 
 there is no relation between its form and that of the cranium. A 
 narrow cranium may have either an elongated, a moderate, or a narrow 
 occipital foramen. In the second place, he has measured its super- 
 ficies by the aid of little wooden cubes, and, in the interspaces, with 
 little metallic needles, and has compared it, expressed in square 
 millimetres, to the cranial capacity, expressed in cubic centimetres. 
 This last being taken as 100, he thus obtains the cephalo-spiaal 
 index. In 200 skulls of all kinds, his mean was 18-8, the two 
 greatest radices were 29-64 and 27'26, and the two smallest 12-50 
 and 13-07. In anthropoids the index is stiU less, the highest 
 being 8-35. In the memoir of M. Mantegazza, already mentioned, 
 the same series have given us the following mean cephalo- spinal 
 index: 
 
 20 Italians 19-9 
 
 6 Negroes 
 
 3 New Zealanders 
 
 2 Australians . . . 
 
 16-8 
 lV-9 
 17-2 
 
 These series are too limited, and moreover^ the three inferior 
 races occupy a position in them more nearly approaching the 
 anthropoids than the superior race represented by the Italians, which 
 it is well to notice. 
 
 Measurements of the Face. 
 
 They are general, or special, some having reference to the propor- 
 tions as a whole, others to details. The former concern the 
 breadth, the length, and the thickness, or median antero-posterior 
 
252 
 
 GENERAL MBASUEEMENTS OF THE FACE. [Chap. li. 
 
 section. The maximum breadth is not situated at the cheek-bones, 
 even in the yellow races, but at the zygomatic arches. It is here 
 that the maximum transverse or bizygomatic diameter of the face 
 is taken ; craniologists are unanimous on this point. A bimalar 
 diameter, however, would have been one more meriting considered 
 tion, from the fact that upon it depends the physiognomy of 
 the Esquimaux ; but the difficulty to find upon it definite marking 
 points of any value, has caused it to be looked upon with disfavour. 
 The maximum length is taken in different ways, which it is im- 
 portant to point out precisely. It must be remembered, in the 
 first place, that on the living subject the face extends from the liae 
 of the hair at the top of the forehead to the chin, while on the 
 skeleton it only commences at the line of separation of the cranium, 
 that is to say, at the supra-orbital point. In the second place, 
 and considering how rarely we find skulls with the lower jaw 
 attached, and the difficulty of replacing the latter in its articulation 
 exactly as in the living subject, it is usual to study the lower jaw 
 separately, and only to employ the word " face" for the portion above 
 the superior alveolar border, which we have elsewhere called " the 
 superior face." We have, then, three lengths, which must not be 
 confounded; namely, the length of the entire face; the total length 
 of the face from the supra-orbital point to the point of the chin; 
 and the simple length from the supra-orbital to the alveolar point. 
 The following is an extract from M. Pruner-Bey's tables; the 
 figures in the first column show the total length of the face, those 
 of the second its bizygomatic breadth : 
 
 
 Length. 
 
 Breadth. 
 
 
 MiU. 
 
 MiU. 
 
 18 Esquimaux 
 
 .. 136 
 
 135 
 
 12 Chinese 
 
 .. 134 
 
 137 
 
 10 Scandinavians 
 
 .. 129 
 
 132 
 
 6 Germans (South) 
 
 .. 127 
 
 131 
 
 30 New Caledonians 
 
 .. 125 
 
 137 
 
 30 Negroes of Africa 
 
 .. 124 
 
 130 
 
 8 Hottentots 
 
 .. 116 
 
 123 
 
 6 Lapps 
 
 .. 109 
 
 136 
 
 The part of the face, then, subjacent to the eyebrows is longest 
 in the Esquimaux and Chinese, and shortest in the Lapps. On 
 
Chap, ii.] 
 
 FACIAL INDEX. 
 
 253 
 
 the other hand, the Chinese and the New Caledonians have the 
 hroadest face, and the Hottentots the narrowest. 
 
 The simple, or ophryo-alveolar, length of the face shotild no 
 longer be confounded with the naso-alveolar line, which goes from 
 the ijasal to the alveolar point, nor with the height of the face, 
 which is the perpendicular falling from the supra-alveolar point 
 upon the alveolo-condylean plane. The first two, always oblique, 
 are taken with the compass, the last is the vertical projection of 
 the face in the normal attitude of the head, and is taken as we see 
 in Pig. 32. 
 
 M. Broca compares this length to the bizygomatic diameter, 
 under the name of facial index, with this formula ~ BiZ„^matTc diam °'' 
 
 The following are some examples : 
 
 13 Esquimaux ... 
 80 Negroes 
 
 69 Gallo-Bretous 
 
 88 Auvergnians 
 49 New Caledonians ... 
 125 Parisians 
 12 Australians ... 
 8 Tasmanians... 
 
 73-4 
 68-6 
 68-5 
 67-9 
 66-2 
 65-9 
 65-6 
 62-6 
 
 The median section of the face (Fig. 28) has the appearance of 
 a triangle, whose base is represented by a hne passing from the 
 basion, K, to the alveolar point. A, and whose two other sides are 
 the naso-basUar line, K K, extending from the basion to the nasal 
 point, and the naso-alveolar line, of which we have just spoken. 
 This last gives the anterior profile of the superior maxilla, and pro- 
 duces prognathism ; later on we shall study its inclination. The 
 first, or basio-alveolar, is interesting in so far that its elongation or 
 shortening causes the naso-alveolar line to be straightened or placed 
 iarther backwards. With regard to the third, or naso-basUar line, 
 as to which it is doubtful whether it forms a constituent part of 
 the antero-posterior circumference of the skull, the Germans have 
 laid considerable stress upon it. They consider it as the philo- 
 sophical base of the cerebral skull ; as the chord of the curve which 
 the bodies of the three cranial vertebrae describe; as the axis around 
 
254, 
 
 FACIAL TEIANGLE. 
 
 [Chap. ii. 
 
 which the skull, on the one hand, and the face, on the other, 
 reTolve. 
 
 The following are its absolute lengths, according to M. "Welcker :*■ 
 
 MiLiiafetres, 
 ... 96 
 97 
 98 
 99 
 
 3 PapuaBS, 2 Birmese ... ... ... 
 
 13 Buginese, 2 Lappa, 3 Brazilians ... ... ... ... ... 
 
 6 Jews ... ... 
 
 2 Hungarians, 5 Tsiganians, 6 Madnrans, 2 Hottentots ... 
 30 Germans, 12 Russians, 5 Cossacks, 5 Tartars, 16 Chinese, 
 
 2 Mexicans, 20 Negroes ... ... ... ... 100 
 
 3 Scotcli (Highlanders), 5 Baskirs ... ... ... ... ... 101 
 
 8 French, 6 Hollanders, 6 Malays of Sumatra ... ... ... 102 
 
 9 Fins, 7 Molnocans 103 
 
 5 Australians, 3 Ancient Greeks ... ... ... ... ... 104 
 
 11 Esquimanx ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 106 
 
 2 Kaffirs 107 
 
 We may add that the naso-basilar hne is generally shorter in the 
 hraohyoephali than in the dolichocephali, which may easily he 
 imagined. 
 
 MM. Welcker and Virohow, who have given special study to the 
 facial triangle, compare the naso-basilar line to the rest of the 
 antero-posterior circumference of the skull, of which it forms an 
 arc. In the following table, this line being = 100, the circum- 
 ference in the various races would be : 
 
 2 Hottentots 
 
 418 
 
 16 Chinese 
 
 407 
 
 30 Germans 
 
 404 
 
 9 Kalmucks 
 
 403 
 
 20 Javanese ' 
 
 403 
 
 20 Negroes 
 
 402 
 
 5 French 
 
 398 
 
 5 Australians ... 
 
 395 
 
 There is no great amount of instruction to be derived from this. 
 The same authors have since compared the naso-basilar line, not to- 
 the line proceeding from the basion to meet at the alveolar border, 
 but to that which, proceeding from the same point, crosses the- 
 
 * " Untersuohungen iiher Wachsthum Tind Bau des 
 Schxdels," by H. Welcker. Leipsio, 1862. 
 
 Menschleohen. 
 
Chap, n.] 
 
 FACIAL TBIANGLB. 
 
 255 
 
 vault of the palate, and terminates at the suh-nasal point. "We 
 are at a loss to understand theit reason for thus leaving out the 
 alveolar arch. The following are the results, the naso-hasHar liae 
 being as previously = 100, the palatine line in question would be : 
 
 4 Egyptians, 2 Ancient Greeks ... ... ... 87 
 
 3 Scotch, 6 Turks 91 
 
 8 Frenoli, 6 Jews, 5 Tsiganians, 4 Lapps, 5 Tartars, 
 
 9 Kalmncks, 16 Chinese, 7 Molnccans 92 
 
 11 Esquimaux, 6 Madurans, 12 Buginese, 2 Hot- 
 tentots ... ... ... ... ... ... 93 
 
 20 Germans, 12 Russians, 20 Javanese... ... ... 94 
 
 5 Cossacks, 6 Malays of Sumatra ... ... ... 96 
 
 2 Kaffirs 97 
 
 5 Australians, 5 Ancient Eomans ... ... ... 98 
 
 There is nothing to be deduced from this ; it would however 
 denote prognathism, accordiag to M. Virchow. The angle which 
 the naso-basilar liae makes, not with the naso-alveolar liae, as it 
 should be, and as M. Vogt makes it, but with the naso-sub-nasal 
 hne terminating at the sub-nasal poiat where the preceding palatiae 
 line meets, has been studied by MM. Welcker and Virchow, under 
 the name of naso-basal angle (K IST E, Fig. 28.) 
 
 following are some results : 
 
 
 6 Turks 
 
 64-3 
 
 8 Erencli 
 
 651 
 
 9 Kalmucks 
 
 65-8 
 
 16 Chinese ... ... 
 
 65-9 
 
 30 Germans ... ... 
 
 66-2 
 
 11 Esquimaux 
 
 66-7 
 
 2 Hottentots 
 
 67-5 
 
 20 Negroes of Africa 
 
 71-1 
 
 5 Australians 
 
 720 
 
 This angle also professes to give the measurement of prognathism, 
 but it leaves out the sub-nasal portion of the maxilla, the most 
 important ia this respect, and only concerns itself with its superior 
 or nasal portion. These figures are, ia other respects, more eloquent 
 than words. The Germans are certaioly less prognathous than the 
 Chinese, as one glance at a Chinese skull would show in a moment. 
 
256 NASAL INDEX. [Chap. ii. 
 
 The measurements yfhidh the median facial triangle gives of 
 Germans do not tend to anything of a decisive character, which 
 appears to us owing to the unfortunate selection of one of its 
 points, the suh-nasal. The true facial triangle ought to have its 
 apex at the alveolar point, as M. Vogt desires it to have. In the 
 next chapter we shall speak of another way in which M. Assezat 
 has understood the facial triangle, and of the results which he has 
 obtained. 
 
 The straight or curved measurements belonging to particular 
 regions of the face are more numerous than those of the cranium. 
 There is but one organ in the latter, while there are many very 
 distinct organs belonging to the face. Each bone, each cavity 
 varies in its configuration, and furnishes certaui elements by which 
 to distinguish races. The measurements which have been most 
 studied are those which give the nasal and the orbital indices. 
 
 TJie Nasal Index. 
 
 The nasal index is the relation of the maximum breadth of the 
 anterior orifice of the nose (G, Kg. 29) to its maximum length, 
 taken from the nasal spine, F, to the naso-frontal suture, N". This 
 character, in a certain point of view, is included in the category 
 of those establishing a transition from Man to the ape, but more 
 stiU among those the rationale of which has not as yet been 
 explained. While the negroes of Oceania are for the most part 
 inferior to the negroes of Africa, as regards this index they are 
 their superiors. It substantiates what we stated, that the most 
 rational characters in craniometry, as the facial angle, do not 
 always lead us to form a real distinction between races ; while one 
 which a priori would be looked upon as indifferent, may be of 
 the utmost importance. It shows that qualities derived from the 
 conformation of the organ characteristic of the zoological human 
 groups, are sometimes surpassed by those deduced from peculiarities 
 in the conformation of secondary parts. M. Broca has, in fact, 
 discovered that the nasal index is one of tlie best for the purpose 
 of distinguishing the various races of mankind, although he does 
 
Chap, ii.] 
 
 ORBITAL INDEX. 
 
 257 
 
 not arrange them in a regular scale conformably to the exalted idea 
 that we ourselves form of those races. The following extracts from 
 Ms tables show this : 
 
 16 Hottentots 
 
 56-38 
 
 8 Tasmaniaus 
 
 56-92 
 
 83 Negroes of Africa 
 
 54-78 
 
 28 „ Nubia 
 
 5517 
 
 14 Australians 
 
 5339 
 
 66 New Caledonians... 
 
 53-66 
 
 29 Javanese ... 
 
 51-47 
 
 11 Lapps 
 
 50-29 
 
 41 Peruvians ... 
 
 50-23 
 
 26 Polyuesiaus 
 
 49-25 
 
 11 Mongols 
 
 4S-68 
 
 27 Chinese 
 
 48-53 
 
 122 Parisians (modern) 
 
 46-81 
 
 53 Basques (French) 
 
 46-80 
 
 33 „ (Spanish) 
 
 44-71 
 
 17 Guanches ... 
 
 ... 44-25 
 
 14 Esquimaux 
 
 42-33 
 
 The individual figures in M. Broca's tables vary from 72-22 in a 
 Eosjesman, to 35-71 in a Eussian. This interval is divided into 
 three groups, the platyrrhinians, with the nasal skeleton wide, from 
 53 to 58 ; the mesorrhinians, with the nasal skeleton moderate, 
 from 48 to 52 j and the leptorrhinians, with the nasal skeleton 
 elongated, from 42 to 47. The black races are all in the first group ; 
 the Mongols and Americans, with the exception of the Esquimaux, 
 in the second ; and the white races in the third. 
 
 The orbital index is the relation of the vertical diameter of the 
 base of the orbit to its horizontal diameter ; the latter going from 
 the daoryon to the opposite point of the great axis of this base, the 
 former starting from the spot where the malo-maxiUary suture meets 
 the inferior orbital edge, and cutting perpendicularly the hori- 
 zontal diameter. The two diameters are perceptibly equal at birth ; 
 the vertical then becomes gradually shorter ; but the true relation 
 is not established until after puberty, the woman always retaining, 
 however, a less short vertical diameter, and in this, as in many 
 other particulars, resembling the infant. Indi-vidual orbital indices 
 
258 OEBITAL INDEX. [Chap. n. 
 
 Tary from 60'9 in a Tasmanian, or from 61 '3 in the old man of 
 Cro-Magnon belonging to the Ancient Stone period, to 100 in a 
 'New Caledonian, as recorded by M. Broca, 104 in a negress of the 
 Sahara, and 107 in a Chinese. In these latter cases the ordinary 
 condition is reversed ; the two diameters are equal, the orbit appears 
 circidar, especially when the angles are rounded off, or, if anything, 
 the vertical is rather greater than the horizontal. Everyone knows 
 the opposite conformation in the Cro-Magnon skull, the orbits being 
 rectangular, with the angles almost right-angles, and the vertical 
 diameter short. The averages of the series of course vary within 
 narrower limits: from 90'0 to 77"0 in white races, from 95'4 to 
 88 '2 in the yellow races, and from 85 '4 to 79 '3 in the black 
 races. M. Broca has created three general terms for all the 
 craniometrical characters, bearing reference to this index^ whose 
 variations have not as yet received other specific designations ; 
 namely, m^gasfeme when the index is large ; m&osfeme when it 
 is moderate ; and microsome when it is small ; the limits of 
 the corresponding groups varying according to each particular 
 character.* In the present case the m^gasfemes of the orbital 
 index are 89 and above, the m&osfemes from 89 to 83, and the 
 microsomes 83 and under. Among the indicatioas which the study 
 of the orbital index gives, we may mention the following : It does 
 not arrange the races in a graduated series, according to the 
 opinions which may be formed of each ; and the form of the base of 
 the orbit might be regarded as empirical, if, within certain limits, 
 it did not apply to the general structural plan of the cranium and 
 of the face. All the prehistoric races of France are microsemes, 
 the height of the orbit increases when we come to the Gauls, but 
 it is not until after the Merovingians that it assumes the present 
 mesosfeme type. The Guanches approach our prehistoric popular 
 tions by this character. The m(^gas6me, on the other hand, 
 connects all the yellow races, or those derived from the yellow 
 races, except the Esquimaux, who by this as well as by the nasal 
 index, and by so many other points, are separated from them 
 
 * Memoir of M. Broca, " Sur I'lndioe Orbitaire," in the " Eevue d'Anthro- 
 pologie," Tol. iv., 1875. 
 
Ohap. II.] 
 
 MEASUEBMBNTS OF THE ORBITS. 
 
 259 
 
 completely, in spite of certain evident features of resemblance, 
 l^egroes are removed from the yeUow races in this respect, especially 
 the negroes of Oceania, which here favour the Australians, as if 
 to repudiate all aUiance with them. 
 The following are some examples : 
 
 27 Chinese 
 
 
 93-8 
 
 30 Peruvians (not distorted) . . . 
 
 
 981 
 
 40 Polynesians... 
 
 
 920 
 
 43 Javanese 
 
 
 91-1 
 
 26 North- A merioan Indians . . . 
 
 
 90-7 
 
 17 Indo-Chinese 
 
 
 90-2 
 
 87 Auvergnians 
 
 
 86-5 
 
 10 Kymris (?) of Puiseux ... 
 
 
 86-2 
 
 122 Contemporary Parisians . . . 
 
 
 84-4 
 
 11 Croats 
 
 
 84-3 
 
 50 Basques (Spanish)... 
 
 
 83-9 
 
 84 Negroes of Africa ... 
 
 
 85-4 
 
 24 „ ■ Kordofan 
 
 
 850 
 
 16 Hottentots ... 
 
 
 83-6 
 
 14 Caverne de I'Hoimne Mort 
 
 (Polished Stone 
 
 
 period) ... 
 
 
 81-9 
 
 5 Grenelle (Ancient Stone period) 
 
 81-2 
 
 55 Merovingians of Ghelles ... 
 
 
 81-2 
 
 62 New Caledonians ... 
 
 
 80-6 
 
 12 Dolmens of the North of Prance 
 
 80-5 
 
 27 Australians... 
 
 
 80-4 
 
 8 Tasmaniaus 
 
 
 79-3 
 
 11 Guanohes ... 
 
 
 77-0 
 
 Some other useful measurements are applied to the region of the 
 •orbits, such as (a) The relative superficies of the base of the orbits, 
 which is obtained, as if it were a true rectangle, by multiplying 
 the length by the breadth before mentioned ; (b) The capacity of 
 the orbital cavity, studied by M. Mantegazza ; (c) The depth of 
 the orbits, given by a line extending from the optic foramen to the 
 inferior and external angle of the base of the orbits. In its imme- 
 diate vicinity are also taken (a) The external biorbital diameter, 
 from the external lip of the fronto-malar suture on one side to that 
 on the opposite (it is this which M. Virchow takes for the 
 
 s 2 
 
260 MEASUREMENTS OF THE SUPERIOR MAXILLA. lChap. ir. 
 
 inferior frontal) ; (b) The orbital interval, or from one dacryon to 
 tlie other ; it is broad in the most marked yellow races, rather 
 so in the negro races, and narrow in Europeans; (c) The length 
 and breadth of the bones proper of the nose, the narrowness of 
 which is of such great importance in Esquimaux ; (d) The angle 
 made by the two great axes of the orbits taken together. Under 
 aU circumstances it is very obtuse, and open below, but sometimes,, 
 as in the Chinese races, the two lines are raised so as to become 
 horizontal. !N"ever, as far as we know, does this go, in these races, 
 so far as to produce an angle open above, as we should be led to 
 suppose by the position of the palpebral apertures in the living 
 subject. With regard to the malar bones, M. Broca is satisfied 
 with two principal measurements : the bijugal and the bimalar 
 diameter, each going from one point of the same name to the 
 other. 
 
 2%e Superior Maxilla. 
 
 The superior maxUla plays a considerable part in the architec- 
 ture of the face. The part which it takes in the irregular enlarge- 
 ment of the face in Tasmanians, or in its increase in height in 
 Esquimaux, demands consideration. In order to this we measure 
 the height of the bone : (1) The maximum, from the point of its- 
 ascending process ; (2) The mean, from the inferior border of the 
 orbit ; (3) The minimum, from the nasal spine to the alveolar 
 border in each case. Then we take the breadth : (1) The 
 maximum, at the inferior part of the maxillo-malar suture ; 
 
 (2) The maximum, at the level and outside of the alveolar arch. 
 We may ascertain the form of this arch by its inner side, and con- 
 sequently that of the palate. It is presented to us under four 
 aspects : (1) Hyperbolic, when the branches of the arch go or 
 diverge in a backward direction; (2) Parabolic, when they still, 
 diverge, but somewhat less so, and in such a manner as, that if 
 prolonged they would eventually return upon themselves and meet ; 
 
 (3) In the form of the letter U when they are exactly parallel ; 
 and (4) Elliptical, when they converge, whatever the degree of 
 such convergence may be. The first two and noblest forms are 
 
7 men. 
 
 8 women. 
 
 34-2 
 
 ... 32-7 
 
 33-4 
 
 ... 31-2 
 
 20-2 
 
 ... 20-3 
 
 47-0 
 
 ... 43-7 
 
 Chap, ii.] MEASUREMENTS 0¥ THE SUPERIOR MAXILLA. 261 
 
 common in tlie white races ; the third and fourth are rare, and are 
 especially seen in black races; the form of the letter U is that 
 of anthropoid apes ; the elliptical is seen in the sagou and the 
 macaque. The following is an example of the measurements 
 which M. Broca makes use of to determine them ; they have 
 reference to his celebrated series of troglodytes of La Lozere : 
 
 Internal curve, width at ( Behind 
 
 the internal lip of the \ At the first molar 
 
 alveolar arch ... ( ,, incisor 
 
 Vault of the palate, total length 
 
 Whence it follows that in this example the breadth at the 
 posterior extremity of the arch is greater than at the level of the 
 first molar, that this extremity goes on diverging, and consequently 
 that the alveolar arch is hyperbolical. In fact it is rather the form 
 of the vault of the palate which is thus measured, and it is to be 
 noticed that the line of the teeth themselves does not always 
 convey to the eye exactly the same impression. M. Broca again 
 takes account of the relation of the maximum breadth of the vault 
 of the palate to its maximum length, in making comparison of races. 
 This is the palatine index. 
 
 The dimensions common to the cranium and to the face wiU. be 
 found in the following chapters. Here we shall merely mention, 
 among the right lines, the line of Virchow, going from the root of 
 the nose to the lambda ;, a second, going from the root of the nose 
 to the maximum occipital point; and a third, extoUed by Morton, 
 adopted by the Germans, and improperly called the alveolar line 
 by M. Vogt, which extends from the alveolar point to the maximum 
 occipital point. Compared together, tl}«se two diameters have 
 been employed for the purpose of recognising prognathism, orthog- 
 nathism, and opisthognathism. The alveolar line would be longer 
 in the first case, equal in the second, and shorter in the third. 
 This is a bad method. 
 
262 MEASUREMENTS OF THE INFERIOE MAXILLA. [Chap. ii. 
 
 The Inferior Maxilla. 
 
 The inferior maxilla is not generally studied as nnich as it 
 deserves. The form of its alveolar arch is to be examined. Then 
 the following principal measurements are to he taken : namely, the 
 ' distance across from one angle to the other ; the distance ohUquely 
 from the same angle to the point of the chin ; the height of the 
 hone at the symphysis, and its height at the level of the coronoid 
 process. Two angles are specially to he noticed : the angle of the 
 jaw, properly so called, which varies according to age (p. 135) and 
 race, and the angle which the symphysian line or profile makes with 
 the plane of the inferior border of the body of the bone; this 
 latter bears the name of the symphysian angle. The direction of 
 the front teeth, whether vertical or obhque — this latter constituting 
 inferior dental prognathism — and the projection or absence of the 
 chin are to be noticed. This projection passes beyond the per- 
 pendicular from three to five millimetres in European races. It is 
 replaced in anthropoids by a recession backwards, amounting to 
 one centimetre. In negro races the chin is still in front of the 
 perpendicular, but from time to time there have been noticed, as 
 upon some prehistoric jaws, examples which exhibit all the inter- 
 mediate gradations between Man and the anthropoid ape. In the 
 example where this recession of the chin was the most marked, 
 namely, on the ancient jaw of La IS'aulette, it reached three 
 millimetres. It is here that the symphysian angle is measured,, 
 and which must be regarded as prognathism of the body of th& 
 lower jaw.* 
 
 Before concluding this chapter, we shall reproduce a table pub- 
 lished by M. Broca in the " Instructions Craniologiques " of the 
 Society d'Anthropologie, which was prepared at the same time as 
 the first edition of this volume, and of which we had previously 
 made a resume, with the exception of Chapter I., On the Eecolte et 
 Conservation des Cranes et Ossements, and Chapter VIIL, On the 
 
 * See "Les Caraot^res Anatomiqiies de rHomme Prehistorique," by 
 M. Broca, in " Mem. d'Anthrop.," vol. ii. p. 146. 
 
Chap, hi.] 
 
 METHOD OF PBOJEOTIONS. 
 
 26» 
 
 Mise en CEuTre des S&ies. This table alone was omitted. It 
 gives for each index, other than the cephalic and the nasal (1) The 
 minimum mean and the maximum mean, that is to say the extreme 
 means presented by the series in all the races measured by 
 M. Broca ; (2) The extent of each of the three groups — the micro- 
 somes, the mesosOmes, and the m^gasfemes (see p. 258), into which 
 they are divided. The basilar index will be described in the next 
 chapter. According to our custom, we shaU omit a decimal. 
 Nomenclature of indices other than the cephalic and nasal : 
 
 Indices. Means. Microsomes. M^osOmes. 
 
 Min. Max. 
 
 Vertical 69 ... 78 to Tl-a ... 72 to 749 
 
 TransTerso-vertioal ... 86 ...104 „ 91-9 ... 92 „ 978 
 
 Frontal 62 ... 73 „ 659 ... 66 „ 689 
 
 Stephanie 79 ... 92 „ 82-9 ... 83 „ 86-9 
 
 Basilar 46 ... 54 „ 48-9 ... 49 „ 50-9 
 
 Of the occipital foramen 77 ... 90 „ 81-9 ... 82 „ 85-9 
 
 Facial 61 ... 73 „ 659 ... 66 „ 689 
 
 Orbital 77 ... 95 „ 82-9 ... 83 „ 88-9 
 
 Palatine 63 ... 84 „ 709 ... 71 „ 76-9 
 
 75 and beyond. 
 
 69 
 87 
 51 
 86 
 69 
 89 
 77 
 
 CHAPTEE IIL 
 
 PBOJBOTIONS HOBIZONTAL ALVEOLO-CONDTLBAN PLANE AURICULAE 
 
 EADII — PEOGNATHISM CEANIOMETEIOAL ANGLES OP JACQUAET, 
 
 DB QDATEEPAGBS, BEOCA, WBLOKBE. 
 
 Method of Projections. 
 
 The method of projections is daily assuming greater importance. 
 Under the name of projections, in geometry, is understood the 
 representation on a plane of a figure situated without the plane, 
 by means of the trace which is described by the intersections of 
 aU the straight lines which can be drawn from every point of the 
 
264 METHOD OF PROJECTIONS. [Chap. hi. 
 
 figure upon the plane of projection. The projection is orthogonal, 
 or geometrical, when all these lines are parallel, and central when 
 they converge towards one and the same point. The images which 
 are delineated on the retina are central projections ; it is the same 
 with photographs — in both, the objects are described according to 
 the laws of perspective. Orthogonal projections are the only ones 
 which give exact measurements applicable to craniometry. There 
 are two ways of taking them : directly, on the skull, by various 
 modes of proceeding ; and indirectly, on drawings. The latter is 
 the more ancient, and apparently the more simple. It was in this 
 way that Camper proceeded for his facial angle. Wlien Blumen- 
 baoh fixed his eye at a certain distance above the vertex, according 
 to the norma verticalis, the view which he obtained of the vault 
 of the skull was a projection in the horizontal plane, but it was a 
 central projection, consequently giving rise to an illusion. 
 
 The figure of the skull may be projected on a screen in three 
 different planes : the view from above and from below, in the 
 horizontal plane; the view from before and from behind, in the 
 transverse vertical ; and the profile view, in the antero-posterior 
 vertical. When on a drawing, or directly on the skull, we measure 
 the projection which the alveolar arch makes with relation to the 
 supra-orbital point, the two points are supposed to be in the same 
 plane, which in this case is the horizontal. But, according as the 
 head is more or less leaning forwards, the projection increases or 
 diminishes. Hence the fundamental principle of the method of 
 projections. The head ought always to be placed in one definite 
 position, agreed upon by all anthropologists anxious that their 
 results may be arranged and compared ; the slightest violation of 
 the rule occasions the most serious errors. 
 
 It is therefore absolutely necessary that all should be agreed as 
 to this we varietw position relatively to the three planes upon 
 which the skull may be placed. 
 
 As to the antero-posterior median plane, provided that the skull 
 does not incline either to the right or to the left, the orientation is 
 easy. We have only to take care that the two sides are symmetrical, 
 and that the two zygomatic arches, for example, are mathematically 
 
CaAP. III.] 
 
 HORIZONTAL PLANES. 
 
 265 
 
 at the same height. As to the transverse plane, provided the 
 whole front of the face looks exactly forwards, it is equally easy. 
 But with the horizontal plane, in order that neither the front nor 
 the back of the skull may be raised or depressed at the caprice of 
 the observer, a rule must be made use of at the measuring points, 
 a horizontal plane, or at least a horizontal line. Such indeed have 
 been the matters which have occupied the attention of anthropo- 
 logists from Camper to the present time. Tbe task was undertaken 
 
 Fig. 30.— a. Plane of the axis of the orbits ; C C, Alveolo-oondylean plane ; B B, Auriculo- 
 bregmatic line, determining the plane of Busk, which is perpendicular to it ; G L, 
 GLibello-lamhdoidean plane of Hamy ; D D, Plane of mastication; E E, Plane of 
 Camper ; K K, Plane of Baer ; G M, Ordinary Maximum antero-posterior diameter ; 
 F M, Antero-posterior diameter of Welcker. 
 
 by a congress assembled in Germany, but with little success. The 
 theory is that the skull rests, if it can be made to do so, absolutely 
 in its natural attitude, as in the living subject. Some observers 
 therefore have taken up a fixed vertico-transverse plane, the hori- 
 zontal being necessarily perpendicular to it. Thus Charles Bell 
 sought to represent the natural axis of the skull by a spindle which 
 passed through the occipital foramen, was applied to the roof of 
 he cavity beneath the vertex, and kept the skuU in equilibrium by 
 
266 HORIZONTAL PLANES. [Chap. hi. 
 
 a point. It is in this way that Mr. Busk takes the plane passing- 
 across the bregma and the auditory openings. Others have fixed 
 their attention directly on the horizontal plane, being moved by 
 physiological, artistic, or empirical considerations, or simply as a 
 matter of convenience. In short, fifteen different planes have been 
 suggested, namely : 
 
 1. The planes of Bell and Busk above aUuded to. 
 
 2. The plane of 'mastication, determined principally by the surface of the 
 molars. 
 
 3. The plane of Camper, from the centre of the auditory opening to the- 
 inferior nasal spine. 
 
 4. The palatine plane of Barclay, or the plane of the arch of the palate. 
 
 5. The plane of Blmnenbach, or plane of the table upon which the sfaill,. 
 without the lower jaw, takes its equilibrium. 
 
 6. The plane of Baer, determined by the superior border of the zygomatic- 
 arch (adopted at the Gottingen Congress in 1861). 
 
 7. The plane of Meckel, given by a line dra-wn from the centre of the 
 auditory canal to the inferior border of the orbit. 
 
 8. The plane of Daubenton, passing across the opisthion and the inferior 
 border of the orbits. 
 
 9. The glaiello-lambdoidecm plane, proposed by M. Hamy. 
 
 10. The glaiello-occipital plane, in which the antero-posterior diameter of 
 the skull is situated. 
 
 11. The plane of Bolle, determined by a hue drawn from the centre of 
 the auditory opening to the alveolar point. 
 
 12. The naso-iniac plane, from the root of the nose to the inion. 
 
 13. The plane of Aeby, passing across the root of the nose and the basion. 
 
 14. The naso-opisthiac plane, from the root of the nose to the opisthion. 
 
 15. The alveolo-condyleoM phme of M. Broca. 
 
 The last alone starts from a physiological conception. The head 
 is in its nat-ural position -when its t-wo visual axes in the living 
 subject, or its t-w-o orbital axes in the skeleton, are directed to-wards 
 the horizon, a direction -which is the result of Man's perfectly 
 upright attitude. Eor this reason this plane deserves our favour- 
 able consideration, but still more so because it has the three-fold 
 advantage (1) Of being accessible, so that without any special 
 contrivance a skull can rest or be readily suspended on the plane ; 
 (2) Of being in the middle in the different races, and sensibly 
 parallel to the plane of vision ; (3) Of exhibiting the minimum 
 
Chap, hi.] 
 
 ALVBOLO-CONDYLEAN PLANE. 
 
 267 
 
 amount of osciUatioii -whieli can be obtained. The alveolo-condylean 
 plane is determined by thiee points : namely, the inferior surface of 
 tlie two condyles of tbe occipital, and tbe median point of tbe 
 alveolar arch, and does not bear comparison with any otber for 
 convenience. "With, respect to the two other advantages, they 
 may be judged of by the following comparative table. The first 
 column indicates the degree of elevation or depression of the 
 plane relatively to the plane of vision, the second the maximum 
 divergence in individual cases. The planes are arranged in the 
 order of their importance, according as they more or less realise 
 these two indications : 
 
 Planes. 
 
 
 
 Mean. 
 
 Deviation. 
 
 Alveolo-condylean . 
 
 
 . + 0-88 .. 
 
 12-65 
 
 Hamy... 
 
 
 
 . + 0-97 .. 
 
 28-65 
 
 Bnsk 
 
 
 
 . - 1-81 .. 
 
 19-61 
 
 Mastication ... 
 
 
 
 . + 3-85 .. 
 
 20-21 
 
 Camper 
 
 
 
 . + 4-68 ., 
 
 19-68 
 
 Barclay 
 
 
 
 . + 5-18 .. 
 
 2309 
 
 Blomenbaoli ... 
 
 
 
 . + 6-09 .. 
 
 22-55 
 
 Baer 
 
 
 
 . - 6-51 .. 
 
 17-32 
 
 Meckel 
 
 
 
 . - 7-96 .. 
 
 17-49 
 
 GlabeUo-occipital 
 
 
 
 . -12-96 .. 
 
 20-81 
 
 Daubenton ... 
 
 
 
 . -15-11 .. 
 
 16-59 
 
 Eolle 
 
 
 
 . +15-81 .. 
 
 18-52 
 
 Naso-iniac 
 
 
 
 . -15-88 .. 
 
 24-84 
 
 Naso-opiathiac 
 Aeby 
 
 
 
 . -25-76 .. 
 . -31-26 .. 
 
 17-89 
 16-38 
 
 M. Broca is of opinion that, next to the alveolo-condylean plane, 
 and in default of measuring points, as in skuUs without the face or 
 occipital foramen, the best are those of Hamy and Busk. 
 
 The following table shows the maximum, the minimum, and the 
 mean which the alveolo-condylean plane has presented when taken 
 by itself, in three series subjected to examination :* 
 
 
 Maximum, 
 
 Minimum. 
 
 Mean. 
 
 12 Anvergniana... 
 
 ... + 3-29 .. 
 
 - 8-44 .. 
 
 - 0-90 
 
 12 Mongola 
 
 ... + 8-63 .. 
 
 0-00 .. 
 
 + 3-65 
 
 12 Negroea 
 
 ... + 8-44 .. 
 
 , - 4-02 .. 
 
 - 0-10 
 
 * " Sur le Plan Horizontal de la TSte," by M. Paid Broca, in " BuU. Soc. 
 d'Anthrop.," 2nd series, vol. viii., 1873. 
 
268 
 
 CRANIOMETRICAL DKAWINGS. 
 
 [Chat. iii. 
 
 Bofoi'o onti'usting a skull to a drauglitsman to doliiical-n its 
 contours geometrically with tlir aid of sjiccial instrumonts, or to 
 a(<t ott" its projections in a diroct manniT, tlio first tiling is to placo 
 it in suoli a way that all tho parts avo symmetrical, and that it 
 rests on the horizontal piano jmssing across tho inferior surface of 
 the occipital condyles and tho inferior border of tho alveolar arch. 
 Tho drawings of Blumenbach and many others ai'O almost valueless, 
 
 Fia. 31.— Storoogmph of It. llvmii. 'I liu skull in jilin'oil on tlio cniuiophoro in tho inwition 
 Bhowu in iho dmwiuflr. The siiino support, if tui-iiod, huvvuh for tlio vlows in front 
 and boliind, A spodal hiipport in suoBtitutcd -wlion wo wlwh to hiivo ilniwiiigM 
 aooording to tlio iwi'mti vcvHcalls of tho suporioi' or iiifoiior eiirfuoo of tho skull. 
 
 owing to the want of this jirecaution. Those of Trichard are fre- 
 quently ill contradiction to his text, for tho same rciison. 
 
 Among tho instruments hy the he]]) of which drawings by jiro- 
 jection are obtained, some are only capable of giving the j)riiici]ml 
 points, the operator completing tho figuii! as ^\■ell as he can. Such 
 are the apparatus of Campcu' and Leach. Others require scarcely 
 
OiiAP. ni.] PROJECTIONS OF THE CRANIUM. 269 
 
 any skill on the part of tho operator, as the diopter of Lucaj, the 
 deKtiimthiir Jwrizontal, the diagraph of Gavart, tho craniograph 
 and stereograph of Broca. 1'hc last three arc to be preferred. 
 Tho diagraph requires some amount of precision. In using the other 
 two it is only necessary to have a light hand. The craniograph 
 is very exact, but it only gives tho outlines of the profile, and tho 
 situation of the auditory meatus. The stereograph represented by 
 Fig. 31 gives, on the contrary, all the visible details, as well as some 
 inaccessible to the eye, and is applied to each of the five surfaces 
 of the skull which it is useful to reproduce. On the outlines 
 which it delineates wo moasun^ the straight linos, curves, and angles 
 to a millimfctro, more readily than on the skull itself ; tho curves 
 aloni! rcjiuire a special instrument — tho roulette millim(triquc. 
 It is ho\vcviT recommended to take the projections, as much as 
 possible, in a direct manner. Tho first which M. Broca was con- 
 corned with, were made upon tlie part situated behind the basion, 
 or i)osterior cranium, and upon that in front of it. At that time 
 ho only made use of Blumeubaoh's plane. Tho head being placed 
 on a small board graduated from before backwards and from behind 
 forwards, commencing from a pin which passes through the occipital 
 foramen, and is arrested at its anterior border, ho placed a square 
 on 11 level with the nucha on the one liiind and the alveolar border 
 on tlie (illier, and road off tho two distances indieated. He then 
 took the same two ])rojoctions on tho profiles, obtained with the 
 craniograph, but taking caro to let fall a perpendicular from the 
 supra-orbital point upon tho alveo-condylean plane or line pre- 
 viously traced, which gives the ]irojection separately from tho 
 whole of tho face in front of this point, and consequently allows of 
 its being (-ut off from tho projection of the entire head, or of that 
 portion in front of the basiim. Ho thus had three projections: one 
 posterior for the posterior cranium, a }niddle one for the anterior 
 cranium, and an anterior one for the face.* 
 
 Each portion being then compared to the total projection of 
 
 * " Sur les Projootioiia de la TAte," by Paul Broca, in " Bull. Soo. 
 d'Anthrop.," rol. iii., 1862.. 
 
270 
 
 AUEICULAE BADII. 
 
 [Chap. hi. 
 
 the head = 1000, he ohtained the following proportions (see 
 Fig. 32) : 
 
 Europeans. Negroea. Difference in + or 
 — in Negroes. 
 
 Projections of the face 64-8 ... 137-5 + 72-7 
 
 „ „ anterior cranium 409'9 ... 361'0 — 489 
 
 „ „ posterior „ 525-2 ... 5013 - 23-8 
 
 M. Broca concludes from this : (1) That the face of the negro 
 occupies the greater portion of the total length of the head — which 
 no one disputes ; (2) That his anterior cranium is less developed 
 than his posterior, relatively to that of the white ; (3) That his 
 occipital foramen is situated more backwards in relation to the total 
 projection of the head, hut more forwards in relation to the cranium 
 only. The negro, in other words, has, cceteris ;parihus, the cerebral 
 cranium less developed than the white, but its posterior portion is 
 more developed than the anterior. It comes, therefore, within the 
 occipital races of Gratiolet, and the European in his frontal races. 
 M. Broca has established, besides, a basilar index (p. 263) which is 
 the relation of the projection of the part anterior to the basion to 
 the projection of the entire skull. 
 
 The auricular radii are only projections in the antero-posterior 
 vertical plane of the skull ; their imaginary centre is situated ia 
 the middle of the line passing from one auditory meatus to the 
 other. M. Broca sets them off upon his drawings, made either -with 
 the craniograph or the stereograph (see Fig. 32). 
 
 In the following table each radius bears the name of the cranio- 
 metrical point at which it meets on the median line.* 
 
 
 355 Parisian 
 
 i. Negroes 
 
 Alveolar radius 
 
 ... 99-0 . 
 
 .. 113-7 
 
 Nasal „ 
 
 ... 89-3 . 
 
 .. 95-7 
 
 Supra-orbital „ 
 
 ... 983 . 
 
 .. 103-0 
 
 Bregmatic „ 
 
 ... 111-6 . 
 
 .. 109-8 
 
 Lambcloidal „ 
 
 ... 104-6 . 
 
 .. 101-2 
 
 Iniac „ 
 
 ... 76-9 . 
 
 .. 75-0 
 
 Opisthiac 
 
 ... 42-3 , 
 
 .. 42-6 
 
 * See an article, " Sur les CrAnes 
 let series, vol. iv. p. 61, 1863. 
 
 Basques," in '■ Bull. Soc. d'Anthrop.," 
 
■Chap, in.] 
 
 AUBICULAE RADII. 
 
 271 
 
 These radii may also "be talien in a direct manner witli the instru- 
 ment of Mr. Barnard Davis, a sort of frame 'which turns round the 
 skull, having for its centre two steel pins, which are inserted in the 
 auditory meati. The authors of " Crania Britannica" made use of 
 it more particularly to take the three maximum radii — the frontal, 
 the parietal, and the occipital, whatever the point in each bone on 
 
 Fig. 32.— Profile taken with M. Brooa's craniograph. 0, Auricular point, or centre of the 
 auditory meatus ; O A, Auriculo-alveolar radius ; O B, Auriculo-supra-orbital radius ; 
 o c, Aurinulo-bregmatic radius ; O D, Auriculo-lambdoidean radius ; O E, Auriculo- 
 iniac radius ; o F, Auriculo-opisthiac radius ; A S, Alveolo-condylean line, or plane, 
 giving the tota] projection of the skull ; B g. Perpendicular falling from the supra- 
 orbital point, and detaching the facial portion (A p) ; V r, Perpendicular passing 
 through the basion (I) and separating the cranial projection proper [s q) into two 
 parts, one (rg) projection of the anterior cranium, the other {b r) the projection of 
 the posterior; B A, Ophryo-alveolar length of the face; Bj, Height of the face. 
 
 ■which that maximum might he. By slightly modifying it we are 
 able to take the three additional radii of Mi. Busk : namely, the nasal, 
 at the nasal poiut ; the alveolar or maxillary ; and the bregmatic 
 or vertical ; and consequently all those of M. Broca, as -well as the 
 three of M. Eoker, meeting at the glabella, at the vertex, and at the 
 maximum occipital point. M. Ecker has an instrument of his own 
 for taking projections, which possesses all the advantages of that of 
 
272 AURICULAR EADII. [Chap. hf. 
 
 Mr. Davis, and allows the skuU to be more accurately fixed, in posi- 
 tion according to the plane -vvliioh. may be preferred. In Germany 
 a preference is given to Baer's or Meckel's plane. M. Eoker thus, 
 measures the projection of the anterior cranium with relation to the 
 auricular axis, and not, as we do, with relation to the basion. The- 
 following are some of the results obtained by Mr. Davis with regard 
 to his three maximum auricular radii — -the frontal, the parietal, and 
 the occipital. We must not confound them with those of M. Broca, 
 which go to particular points. AU the subjects are males : 
 
 
 Frontal 
 
 Parietal 
 
 Occipital 
 
 
 radius. 
 
 radius. 
 
 radius. 
 
 21 English 
 
 .. 119 . 
 
 . 124 
 
 .. 106 
 
 9 Fins 
 
 .. 119 . 
 
 . 122 
 
 .. 101 
 
 17 Chinese 
 
 .. 116 . 
 
 . 124 
 
 .. 106 
 
 7 Esquimaux of Greenland 
 
 .. 127 . 
 
 . 128 
 
 .. 107 
 
 50 Negroes 
 
 .. 118 . 
 
 .. 123 
 
 .. 107 
 
 18 Australians ... 
 
 .. 108 . 
 
 . 116 
 
 .. 101 
 
 9 New Hebrideans . . . 
 
 .. 116 . 
 
 . 119 
 
 .. 104 
 
 64 Kanakas (Sandwich Isles) 
 
 .. 124 . 
 
 .. 127 
 
 .. 104 
 
 The applications of the method of projections are infinite, such as : 
 (a) The height of the auditory meatus above the alveolo-condylean 
 plane, or, deducting the height of the condyles, the height above the 
 basion ; (6) The projection of the superior border of the orbit with 
 relation to its inferior border — in front in many of the Melanesians, 
 behind as a general rule ; (c) The vertical or more or less oblique 
 direction of the forehead ; (d) The total height of the head as ob- 
 served on the living subject, or only that portion above the mouth ; 
 (e) The height of the cheek-bones and their projection, whether for- 
 wards or outwards ; (/) The different kinds of prognathism ; (a) The 
 height of the inion, &c., not including the ordinary horizontal pro- 
 jections of the head, the face and the anterior and posterior cranium. 
 
 Under aU circumstances the process is the same, namely, that 
 of the double square; the methods alone vary, and are done 
 impromptu. Two squares, graduated in centimetres and milli- 
 metres, are essential : the larger consists of two pieces, one of 
 which is graduated ; the other, being heavy, rests in equilibrium on, 
 the table : the smaller is the common one. 
 
Chap, hi.] 
 
 THE CRANIOPHORB. 
 
 273 
 
 Suppose we want to take the height of a point with relation to 
 the alveolo-condylean plane. The skull being placed on this plane 
 in its natural position, the larger square is put upright on the plane 
 close to the point required. On its vertical portion, graduated so 
 that zero corresponds to the alveolo-condylean plane, we slide at a 
 right angle the second square, until the sloping side of its point 
 touches the point in question. We have then only to read off the 
 height required. But without moving, the same operation gives 
 
 Pig, 33.— Topinard's Craniophore. A, Pedestal; B, Shelf; 0, Sliding piece and steel 
 blade ; D, Small square. The other is the large square. The apparatus is in position 
 for measuring the height of the supra-orbital point, and its horizontal projection 
 behind the alveolar point. 
 
 the horizontal projection of the same point witJi relation to any 
 other spot that we desire at the periphery of the skull. The 
 vertical portion being placed upright, for example, in contact with 
 the alveolar border, the distance indicated on the smaller square 
 from the supra-orbital point to this vertical portion, will be the 
 horizontal projection of that point with relation to the alveolar 
 point. 
 
 Such is the object of the craniophore, of our own invention, and 
 which is now in common use. It consists of two pieces — a pedestal 
 
 - -■ . •■ T 
 
274 THE GENERAL INDEX OF THE HEAD. [Chap, ihl 
 
 and a shelf — the two, when adjusted, "being exactly 10 centimfetres- 
 in height ; the sheH sliding in a groove, so as to allow of its being 
 lengthened and adapted for different-sized skuUs, and at its 
 extremity there is a steel blade, which is inserted between the 
 incisor teeth at the alveolar point. The large square has its zero- 
 placed at the height of 10 centimetres, or rather it is graduated 
 from the base for other purposes, but we reckon the zero at this- 
 height instead of ten. In this way, as seen in Fig. 33, the skull is 
 isolated and placed in position, and the square may be readily 
 applied at any part. 
 
 We made use of this instrument first for the vertical* projection, 
 of the entire head, or its maximum height, included between two- 
 horizontal and parallel planes, tangent, the one to the inferior 
 border of the lower jaw with its teeth, and in place, th* other to 
 the top of the head. This projection is that which gives the im- 
 pression to the traveller when, on looking a person in the face, he 
 pronounces his head long or short. (The first column of the follow- 
 ing table gives some examples of it.) But this impression is 
 modified by the variable width of the face, of which he must take 
 account. The advantage of it is the obtaining by projection the 
 relation of the maximum height of the face to its maximum or 
 bizygomatic breadth. "We propose to call it Vindice generale de la. 
 tete osseuse : the second column expresses it. 
 
 Total projection of tlie head. Its width = 100.. 
 
 7 Esquimaux 
 
 .... 198-8 ... 
 
 ... 148-7 
 
 9 Chinese 
 
 ... 196-2 ... 
 
 ... 148-1 
 
 5 Arabs ... 
 
 ... 196-2 ... 
 
 ... 153-6 
 
 5 Kaffirs 
 
 ... 195-8 ... 
 
 ... 1441 
 
 40 Malays ... 
 
 ... 194-2 ... 
 
 ... 142-9 
 
 10 Negroes (various) 
 
 ... 190-7 ... 
 
 ... • 149-5. 
 
 13 BretoDS (Low)... 
 
 ... 1900 ... 
 
 ... 146-7 
 
 8 Australians 
 
 ... 187-5 ... 
 
 ... 1480 
 
 6 Alsatians 
 
 ... 186-0 ... 
 
 ... 134-6 
 
 10 Hottentots 
 
 ... 182-3 ... 
 
 ... 144-8 
 
 3 Tasmanians 
 
 ... 182-0 ... 
 
 ... 138-8 
 
 3 Lapps 
 
 ... 177-0 ... 
 
 ... 124-6 
 
 * " Presentation of a ne-w craniophore, an instrument for taking all tlie- 
 cranial projections," by Paul Topiuard, in " Bull. Soo. d'Authrop.," 2nd. 
 series, vol. vii. p. 862, 1872. 
 
Chap, in.] PEOJECTION OF THE FOREHEAD. 275 
 
 Tliis shows — (1) That Esquimaux, and the yellow races generally, 
 have unquestionably the longest head ; Lapps, Tasmanians, and 
 Hottentots the shortest. (2) That this length is greatest relatively 
 to its bizygomatic breadth in Arabs, and least again in Lapps. 
 All the variations in the second column are readily understood. 
 The Esquimaux have descended in the scale because their face 
 grows wide, as in all the yellow races, disproportionately to the 
 elongation of the head. The Arabs have ascended in the scale for 
 the opposite reason, narrowness of the face being characteristic of 
 the white races. In our opinion this absolute height of the head, 
 the jaw included, whether relatively to its breadth or not, is a 
 craniometrical character of the highest importance, and the more 
 
 Fio. 34.— Example of the straight forehead, with high and projecting protuberances. 
 
 useful in that it is one of the indications which travellers are most 
 inclined to note. It is not however included in the scale in the 
 series of races, and is only characteristic by itself. Thus travellers, 
 wfeen contrasting the Kaffir with the Hottentot race, speak of the 
 former as having a long and the latter a short head. So Australians 
 are distinguished from Tasmanians, the former being classed among 
 long heads, the latter among short heads. 
 
 Another purpose for which the craniophore is used, is to deter- 
 mine the degree of inclination of the forehead, or rather the 
 situation of the frontal protuberances which form its culminating 
 point. When we put aside the breadth of the forehead measured 
 by the two transverse diameters, the minimum and the Stephanie, 
 and seek to take account of its vertical development on the median 
 
276 PROJECTION OF THE FOREHEAD. [Chap. hi. 
 
 line, we are sometimes struck with the difference which it presents 
 in different races, which seem a priori at variance with prevailing 
 notions. What is termed a fine forehead— that is to say, straight 
 or projecting — seems to be met with frequently among the negro 
 races of Africa. M. Broca's series of jSTubians, so negroid when we 
 look at the skull, is specially remarkable for the projection of the 
 frontal protuberances. In this region there are many craniometrical 
 elements to be taken into consideration; but the principal one, 
 after the breadth, is the position of the tubers in relation to the 
 glabella, which is its most sloping and its most anterior point. 
 Above it, the plane becomes vertical or oblique as far as the tubers, 
 or bends round to reach the bregma, forming a more or less obtuse 
 angle. When it approaches a right angle, we have the straight 
 forehead ; and when the angle is very obtuse, we have the receding 
 forehead. It is this height of the tubers above the glabella, and 
 their position more or less behind it, which we have taken with 
 the double square. Its results are given in the foUowing table. 
 The first column indicates the height of the tubers ; the second, 
 their horizontal distance behind the glabella ; the third, the relation 
 of these two factors, the height being =100; the fourth, the same 
 converted by trigonometrical calculation into an angle, the point 
 of which is at the glabella, and which expresses the degree of 
 obliquity of the forehead as far as the tubers relatively to the 
 horizontal : 
 
 Vertical 
 
 projection. 
 
 Mill. 
 
 42 Auyergnians 56'4 
 
 20 Nubians 29-3 . 
 
 Horizontal 
 
 projection. 
 
 Mill 
 
 .. 14-2 .. 
 
 7-7 
 
 Relation. 
 Mill. 
 . 25-2 .. 
 26-3 .. 
 
 Angle. 
 
 . 75-07' 
 . 75-27 
 
 42 Negroes of Africa ... 30-7 
 
 8-5 ., 
 
 27-9 .. 
 
 . 74-41 
 
 28 Mongols and Chinese 30-6 
 
 .. 13-8 .. 
 
 . 42-8 .. 
 
 . 6683 
 
 Whence it follows that the Auvergnians have the highest and most 
 posterior frontal tubers, and the Nubians the lowest and most 
 anterior. This circumstance accounts for the conformation of the 
 forehead of the latter, which we should scarcely have expected. 
 IJ'rom the combination of these two elements, as regards the relation 
 of the horizontal to the vertical projection, the result is that the 
 frontal tubers are in a measure more conformable to the cerebral 
 
Chap, hi.] 
 
 PROGNATHISM. 
 
 277 
 
 organ ■vvMch they protect in the European than in the negro, and 
 especially the Asiatic. The Asiatic, it is true, gains in breadth 
 "vvhat he loses in projection and in height, and is in consequence 
 above the negro. Craniometry thus confirms the prevailing 
 opinion that a -well-developed forehead specially belongs to the 
 white races and is a mark of beauty. 
 
 Moreover, the angular measurement exhibits this conformation 
 stiU more strongly, showing the deficient forehead of the Mongols 
 and Chinese. The contrast would be still more striking if the 
 Auvergnians, our term of comparison, did not possess an enormous 
 -glabella, o-nring to which the inferior extremity of the frontal liue 
 is brought forward, and the angular aperture is diminished to their 
 
 Fio. 35.— Example of the receding forehead, with the bosses low and almost obliterated, 
 
 prejudice ; whUe in the yeUow races, the glabella being almost 
 obliterated, it is increased to their advantage. 
 
 The measurement of prognathism is another piu'pose to which 
 the craniophore is applied. 
 
 Prognathism. 
 
 Prognathism has always since the time of. Prichard been under- 
 stood to mean the elongation and prominence, or obliquity, 
 of the jaws, common in the black races of Africa and Oceania, 
 accidental in some Europeans. It is in profile that we at once 
 recognise it, whether in the living subject or on the skull. An 
 imaginary perpendicular is let fall from the root or anterior spine 
 
278 MEASUREMENT OF PROGNATHISM. [Chap. m. 
 
 of the nose, and according as the portion in front is more or less 
 consideraHe, so -we say the subject is, or is not, prognathous. 
 TSTnthing is more simple, and yet we meet with the term among 
 authors in various acceptations. Some speak of the prognathism 
 of the face, others of that of the jaws; others go so far as to 
 exclude aU that portion of the face helow the nares, taking in only 
 that part of the maxilla between the root of the nose and the 
 inferior nasal spine. Two expressions intended to be in opposition 
 to that of prognathism have tended to complicate the question. 
 Oblique teeth, they say, are prognathous ; teeth in an upright 
 position, orthognathous. So far so good ; but the word has been 
 transferred to the face, in which the profile line is never straight. 
 The word " opisthognathous," which has been applied to those cases 
 in which the line is incliaed backwards, is still more objectionable. 
 The various methods or processes which have been employed for 
 measuring prognathism will enable us to form an idea of the dif- 
 ference of opinion which has prevailed on the subject. We shall 
 only mention the principal ones. 
 
 1. The facial angle of Camper. It measures, indeed, the degree of elon- 
 gation of the face, bnt not very accurately. The angles of Cloqnet, Geoffrey 
 Saint-Hilaire, and Cuvier are preferable in this respect. The angle of 
 Jaoqnart does not express it at all. 
 
 2. The naso-basal angle of Welcker (see page 255). 
 
 3. The same angle modified by M. Vogt, by its anterior side being pro- 
 longed as far as the alveolar point. 
 
 4. The palatine and vomerian angles of Vogt. 
 
 5. The relation of two hnea proceeding from the basion, the one to the 
 nasal the other to the sub-nasal point. This is M. Tirchow's latest method 
 (see page 255). 
 
 6. The relation of two lines extending from the maximum occipital 
 point, one to the glabella the other to the alveolar point. This is the old 
 German, method. 
 
 7. The relation of the facial radii of Mr. Busk, proceeding from the 
 auditory meatus, or even of the auricular radii of M. Brooa. 
 
 8. The method employed by M. Broca for taking the projection of the 
 face, and which is also applied to each of its parts (see page 271). 
 
 9. The method of Lucae. In his drawing he lets fall a perpendicular 
 from the naso-frontal suture on the horizontal Kne, slightly modified, of the 
 Germans (passing straight through the imaginary axis of the zygomatic 
 arch), and on this perpendicular, ordinates proceeding from the sub-nasal 
 point, alveolar point, &o. The last two alone go directly to the mark ; they 
 
■Chap, iii.] KINDS OF PEOGNATHISM. 279 
 
 rest on the same principle — the necessity, in order to get at prognathism, oil 
 placing the head in its natural position, as it is in the living subject ; they 
 only differ as regards the horizontal plane. The tahle, page 267, will show 
 ■which is to he preferred. 
 
 10. The last is our own method. It differs from that of M. Broca only 
 from the fact that it is applied directly to the skull, and takes account of 
 the Tariations of the height of the face. It was by M. Broca's advice that 
 ■we made use of it as regards this latter. The same horizontal projection 
 •will be ■weak in a high skull, and very considerable in a low one. 
 
 The folio-vying are the various kinds of prognathism -which may 
 1)6 admitted : 
 
 ' In its entirety. 
 Superior facial ) Superior maxillary. 
 
 ] Alveolo-sub-nasal. 
 ^ Superior dental. 
 
 Inferior facial j Inferior dental. 
 
 ' „ maxillary. 
 
 The teeth, being independent organs, should be excluded. Whether 
 ■upright or obKque in both ja^ws, or only in the upper, "which is the 
 rule, their arrangement is generally conformable to that of their 
 sockets. Their special prognathism, if it reaUy exists, has yet to 
 form a subject for investigation. Of the prognathism of the body 
 of the lower ja-w we have aheady spoken. It remains for us to 
 refer to the three other kinds. 
 
 Each corresponds to the inclination, on the alveolo-condylean 
 plane, of a line extending from the alveolar point to one of the 
 special points of the face, the sub-nasal, the nasal, or the sub-orbital. 
 These liaes represent the diagonal of a quadrilateral figure, the 
 equal sides of which are the height or vertical projection of the 
 region, and its antero-posterior length or horizontal projection. 
 The relation of the latter to the former expresses this diagonal, 
 or the projection of the region. It is thus that, in 1872, we spoke 
 of the iudex of such or such prognathism ; but, acting upon 
 M. Broca's ad-vice, we have since thought that it ought to be 
 ■converted by the trigonometrical method iuto an angle at the 
 alveolar poiut, which has the advantage of exhibiting iu a direct 
 manner the angle of inclination of the profile lines on the hori- 
 .zontal plane. Let us take an example of sub-nasal prognathism. 
 "The skull is that of a Namaquan in the Museum, and is the most 
 
280 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF PROGNATHISM. [Chap. hi. 
 
 Prognathism. 
 
 racial. 
 
 Maxillary. 
 
 89-5° to 63-9° 
 
 .. 87-1° to 62-5° 
 
 83-0 „ VV-0 
 
 .. 81-5 „ 75-2 
 
 79-8 „ 74-3 
 
 .. 77-0 „ 74-3 
 
 79-7 „ 74-3 
 
 .. 77-2 „ 69-0 
 
 80-48° 
 
 79-80° 
 
 79-00 
 
 78-13 
 
 78-21 
 
 77-00 
 
 76-71 
 
 75-31 
 
 76-15 
 
 73-32 
 
 75-48 
 
 72-15 
 
 74-11 
 
 6900 
 
 prognathous kno-vm. The height of the nasal spine or suh-nasal 
 point above the horizontal plane is 20 millimetres ; the horizontal 
 projection from the same point to the perpendicular line in contact 
 with the alveolar horder is 16 mUlimfetres. The relation then of 
 the latter to the former, or index, is 80, and the angle at the alveolar 
 point according to the calculation, 51 -SS". 
 
 Extreme individual variations 
 
 ( White races. 
 Average variations \ Tello-w „ 
 ' Black „ . 
 14 Guanches 
 350 Parisians 
 76 Anverguians 
 9 Esquimaux ... 
 58 Negroes of West Africa 
 58 New Caledonians ... 
 7 Bosjesmans and Namaquans 
 
 The first table has reference to prognathism of the face (upper) 
 in its entirety, and to prognathism of the maxilla, also in its 
 entirety. The extreme variations observed in about 1500 skulls, 
 the limit of the averages in about 60 of all races, and some 
 examples of these averages, have been recorded. "We refer the 
 reader to our treatise for a separate description of prognathism of the 
 nasal region, of which M. Virchow has made measurements, though 
 it possesses but little interest.* 
 
 The results have not answered our expectations respecting these 
 two kinds of prognathism. Anthropologists have been -wrong, up 
 to the present time, in giving so much importance to the projection 
 of the whole maxilla, or of the whole face. Craniometry proves 
 that the imaginative method was an erroneous one. The variations 
 are frequently determined by anatomical considerations foreign to 
 the character sought for. There is no fixedness of result in one and 
 the same series, aiad most flagrant contradictions are met with be- 
 tween averages in contiguous races. There is, however, a certain 
 
 * "Des Diverses Esp^ces de Prognathisme," by Paul Topinard, in "Eevue 
 d'Anthrop.," vols. i. and ii., 1872 and 1873. 
 
Chap. iii.J 
 
 TEUE PEOGNATHISM. 
 
 281 
 
 conformity with iistially-received notions in the general distriliution 
 of their angles, which arises from the part which the particular 
 prognathism of the sub-nasal region hears in the general prognathism 
 of the face or of the maxilla. Prognathism of the face is to he 
 altogether discarded as an important character. That of the 
 maxilla, as a whole, occasionally gives us some information. 
 
 Tnie Prognathism. 
 "We must consider alveolo-suh-nasal prognathism in an entirely 
 different way, affecting as it does both the portion of the maxilla 
 subjacent to the nasal spine which corresponds to the palatine arch, 
 and that next to it in which the alveoli are situated. It is to it 
 that the term prognathism should be strictly coniined. It.is to this 
 sub-nasal region that we must look when endeavouring to find out 
 the source whence a skull has been derived. It furnishes of 
 itself the differential character of the various races of mankind. 
 Subjoined are examples of this. 
 
 TRUE OK SUE-NASAL PROGNATHISM. 
 
 Individual variations, maximum aud minimum ... 89° to 51 "3° 
 (White races 83 „ 76-5 
 
 Average variations j Yellow „ ... ... ... 76 ,, 68-5 
 
 (Black „ 69 „ 59-5 
 
 14 Guanciies ... ... ... ... ... 81 'Si" 
 
 15 Corsicans 81-28 
 
 22 Gauls 80-87 
 
 14 Caveme de I'Homme Mort 79-77 
 
 350 Parisians 78-13 
 
 10 Toulousiaas 78-50 
 
 76 Auvergnians ... ... ... ... 7/ '18 
 
 42 Merovingians ... ... ... ... 76"54 
 
 7 Fins and Esthoniaus ... 75-53 
 
 6 Tasmanians 76-28 
 
 10 Tahitians 75-00 
 
 14 CHnese 7200 
 
 10 Esquimaux 71-46 
 
 45 Malays ... . 69-49 
 
 56 New Caledonians 69-87 
 
 11 Australians 68-24 
 
 52 Negroes of West Africa 66-91 
 
 7 Namaquans and Bosjesmans 59-58 
 
282 TEUE PEOGNATHISM. [Chap. in. 
 
 "We gather from this — (a) That the angle of prognathism never 
 reaches a right angle; the suh-nasal line is always more or less 
 incliaed on the natural plane of the base of the skull, consequently 
 neither orthognathism nor opisthognathism has any existence. 
 (5) All races, aU individuals are prognathous, the difference be- 
 tween them being only in degree, (c) The races of Europe are 
 slightly so, the yellow races and Polynesians much more so, the 
 negro races more still, (d) The least prognathous of Europe are 
 the inhabitants of the Polished Stone period — the Gauls, Corsicans, 
 and Guanches ; the most prognathous, the Finno-Esthonians. 
 (e) At the Merovingian period prognathism increased among the 
 higher classes, and diminished subsequently. (/) Among the yellow 
 races, prognathism appears to be less in the Mongols of the West ; it 
 increases in the Chinese and Esquimaux, and attains its maximum 
 in Malays, (g) The Polynesians of purest blood, and (we hardly 
 venture to say) the Tasmanians which we have measured come 
 nearer to the white races in this respect than the yeUow races of the 
 East, or the negro races of Africa. (A) The negroes of the east 
 coast of Africa are less prognathous than those of the west ; the 
 negroes of Oceania less than the negroes of Africa : the purest 
 Hottentots reach the highest maximum of the whole human race. 
 
 Setting aside the Einno-Esthonians and some Mongols of the 
 East, the difference between the white and yellow races is very 
 great ; there is an insensible transition, on the contrary, from the 
 latter to negroes. Taking the word in its ordinary sense, we may 
 say that the white races are never prognathous, and that the yellow 
 and black races are so in various degrees. In all the races, how- 
 ever, there are exceptions. There are negroes as little prognathous 
 as whites, as shown in a Bambarra skull, and whites excessively 
 prognathous, as seen in the skuU of Lemaire the assassin ; but in 
 our opinion these are cases of atavism or of hybridity, and some- 
 times cases of disease. In fine, alveolo-sub-nasal prognathism is 
 one of the best craniological characteristics. Before concluding our 
 remarks on projections, we would say a word respecting the re- 
 searches of M. Assfeat on the general proportions of the face. He has 
 -studied — (a) The relation of its height, or rather of a perpendicular 
 
Chap, in.] OEANIOMBTEIOAL ANGLES. 283 
 
 let fall from the nasal spine, or root of the nose, on the alveolo- 
 condylean plane — its maximum or bizygomatie "breadth. (6) The 
 area of the median and anterior triangle included between the nasal 
 point, the alveolar point, and the point where the basion is projected 
 on the alveolo-condylean plane. The facial height which we 
 adopt varies, in the first place, as to its absolute measurements, 
 from 77 millimfetres iu Esquimaux to 61 in Tasmanians, which 
 justifies the impression which the skull of each of these gives. The 
 same height, compared to its maximum breadth satisfactorily shows 
 that Basques have the longest face, and Lapps the shortest. But 
 in every question of this kind there are two factors, and it is weU. 
 to observe that in Basques the diminution of the transverse 
 diameter plays the principal part. (See p. 253.) The study of 
 the area of the triangle is equally instructive : there is no need of 
 explanation, the figures speak for themselves. In Esquimaux the 
 surface is 28 per cent, larger than in Lapps, which is an additional 
 characteristic to those which already separate these two races 
 formerly included under one and the same name. In Auvergnians 
 it is 15 per cent, larger than in Merovingians, and 11 per cent, 
 more than in Basques ; which tends to distinguish our ancient 
 •Celtic race from the other indigenous races of France. 
 
 Craniometrieal Angles. 
 
 Craniometrical angles are obtained in the same way as pro- 
 jections, in two ways ; either directly with the assistance of par- 
 ticular instruments, or on geometrical drawings by means of the 
 protractor. There is a third, which is indirect — the trigonometrical 
 method, of which M. Broca has given formulas for certain cases : as 
 the biorbital angle, the parietal angle of M. de Quatrefages, the angle 
 of prognathism of which we have just spoken, the angle which is 
 formed by the prolongation of the two sides of the superior cranial 
 trapezium of M. "Welcker, which unite the parietal to the frontal 
 eminences.* The angle of Daubenton, having its point at the opis- 
 
 * " Snr le Plan Horizontal de la T6te, et sur la Methode Trigonometrique," 
 by Paul Broca. Paris, 1873. 
 
284 ANGLE OF DAUBENTON. [Chap. iii. 
 
 thion, and for its sides the plane of the prolonged occipital foramen, 
 and the line going from the opisthion to the level of the inferior 
 orhital horder, is the most ancient known. It has been descrihed at 
 page 53, as well as the two other occipital angles, the one to the 
 opisthion and the other to the hasion, which M. Broca has added 
 to it. AIL three are taken almost at one operation, with the 
 occipital goniometer, with the arc in the position as represented in 
 Kg. 6. 
 
 The centre of the dial being fixed at the opisthion by a little 
 pin, the index-needle is applied iirst on the anterior measuring 
 point {point de rephre) of the line of Daubenton, and then on 
 that of the line which M. Broca prefers — viz. the nasal point. 
 Two angles are thus indicated which can be read off. The centre 
 being then carried forward upon the basion, and the needle placed 
 at the nasal point, we get the third or basilar angle. 
 
 In the generality of cases, the angle of Daubenton is positive 
 ( + ) ; that is to say the prolongation of the occipital foramen ends 
 at the face above the line which unites the inferior border of the 
 two orbits. More rarely it is negative ( - ), which Daubenton had 
 not noticed ; that is to say the prolongation of the foramen ends 
 above the inferior border of the orbits. The second occipital angle 
 of Broca is always positive ; once only has the basilar angle been 
 found negative. 
 
 The variations observed in the races of Mankind with regard to 
 the angle of Daubenton are from - 1 6 degrees in an Auvergnian to 
 + 19 in a Hottentot ; but M. Broca has found that in the majority 
 of cases above - 1 2 degrees, the skull was affected with the plastic 
 deformation described by Mr. B. Davis, and he thinks that this 
 + 19 is a mistake of from one to two degrees, so that the physiolo- 
 gical deviation between the extremes of this angle should be about 
 29 degrees. The - 3 which Daubenton attributed to Man in 
 general is far from being settled. These variations are due to the 
 influence of race, and average from - 1'50° in Auvergnians to 
 + 9-34° in mibians. 
 
 In M. Broca's table all the races of Europe are grouped at the 
 top from - 1'52° to + 2-05°, while the last three races at the 
 
Chap, hi.] BASILAR ANGLE OF BKOCA. 285 
 
 bottom from + 7 •88"'' to + 9 '34° are negroes. Whence tlie con- 
 clusion that the lowering of the plane of the occipital foramen, 
 whicli increases the angle of Daubenton, constitutes a mark of 
 inferiority ; and this conclusion is confirmed by the angle of 
 + 11 •37'' obtaiaed in four microcephali, and these still stronger 
 than any we have described in the mammalian series. (See page 
 55.) Some races, as that of the Tasmanians, are far removed from 
 this reckoning ; but in other respects have we not already seen this 
 singular race separated from the negro group in which, from their 
 woolly hair and black skiu, they had been included 1 In reference 
 to the angle of Daubenton, the conclusion we have come to is this : 
 that the character which it expresses, in spite of its value, is out of 
 the series. Like the form of the head, the orbital index, or the 
 facial angle, it has no regular gradation, and is rather favourable to 
 the monogenistic theory. The dimensions of the occipital and 
 basilar angles of Broca similarly vary. The averages of the occi- 
 pital are from + 10'33° in Auvergnians to - 20-12° in Nubians; 
 and of the basiliar from + 14-36° in Slavs of Austria to - 26-32° 
 in Nubians also ; the minimum and maximum individual dimen- 
 sions of the basilar being from - 2 in an Auvergnian to + 37 in a 
 "West African. In order not to be tediously prolix, we shall con- 
 fine ourselves to some examples of the angle of Daubenton and of 
 the basilar angle of Broca. 
 
 
 Angle of 
 
 Basilar 
 
 
 Daubenton. 
 
 angle. 
 
 60 Basques (Spanish) 
 
 ... - 1-52° ., 
 
 . 15-29° 
 
 88 Auvergnians 
 
 ... - 1-50 .. 
 
 . 14-72 
 
 62 Bretons (Low) 
 
 ... - 0-80 .. 
 
 . 16-02 
 
 124 Parisians of the 19th century 
 
 ... - 0-17 .. 
 
 . 17-39 
 
 114 „ „ 12th „ 
 
 ... + 1-46 .. 
 
 . 17-59 
 
 6 Tasmanians 
 
 ... + 2-58 '.. 
 
 . 16-43 
 
 11 Mongols 
 
 ... + 2-72 .. 
 
 . 20-09 
 
 29 Chinese 
 
 ... + 5-86 ., 
 
 . 24-51 
 
 14 Esquimaux 
 
 ... + 8-63 , 
 
 ,. 24-42 
 
 13 Hottentots 
 
 ... + 6-54 .. 
 
 . 21-57 
 
 9 Australians 
 
 ... + 6-87 . 
 
 . 21-42 
 
 51 New Caledonians 
 
 ... -1- 7-88 . 
 
 .. 23-58 
 
 44 Negroes (Western) 
 
 ... + 8-47 . 
 
 .. 25-97 
 
 22 Nubians 
 
 ... + 9-34 . 
 
 .. 26-32 
 
286 
 
 FACIAL ANGLE OF JACQTJART. 
 
 [Chap. hi. 
 
 The facial angle had its origin subsequently to that of Daubenton. 
 We have seen (page 41 and Kg. 4) that there are four varieties of 
 It : (1) The original angle of Camper, the vertex of which varies, is 
 often vertical, and always on the prolonged horizontal line of 
 Camper ; (2) The angle of Jacquart, the vertex of which is at the 
 nasal spine ; (3) The angle of Cloquet, the vertex of which is at the 
 alveolar border; and (4) The angle of Geoffroy Saint-Hilaiie and 
 Cuvier, the vertex of which is at the centre of the incisors. "We 
 have shown that all have for their posterior point the auditory 
 meatus, or rather a virtual point in the middle of the biauricular 
 line, and for the superior the culminant point of the forehead, 
 which is almost always the glabella, or the place of convergence of 
 the two superciliary arches. We may remark that this latter point 
 is a bad one, and that the bulgings of the glabella and of the 
 arches occasioned by the development of the frontal sinuses are to 
 be avoided. For the comparison of Man with animals we prefer 
 the angle of Cloquet, modified according to circumstances. For 
 the comparison of the human races we are of the same opinion, 
 but measurements of them to any extent have not yet been 
 made. 
 
 The following table, extracted from No. 11 in our treatise upon the 
 facial angles, has reference to the angle of Jaoquart taken in two 
 ways only : the ordinary one at the glabella ; the other higher up, 
 generally at the supra-orbital point, ia order to avoid the glabella 
 or superciliary projection. M. Broca calls the latter angle the 
 ophiyo-spinal. 
 
 PACIAl ANGLE OF JACQUAET. 
 
 Men. 
 3 Anvergniana... 
 
 28 Bretons CLow) 
 36 Gallo-Bretons 
 
 29 Basques (French) ., 
 42 „ (Spanish) .. 
 13 Esquimaux ... 
 
 28 Chinese 
 
 35 Malays 
 
 136 Negroes of Africa .. 
 69 New Caledonians .. 
 
 Glabella. Sup. 
 81-25° 
 78-43 
 
 77-12 
 
 78-24 
 77-36 
 76-32 
 75-94 
 75-64 
 75-03 
 
 74-73 
 
 orb, point. 
 
 75-11° 
 
 76-81 
 
 74-42 
 
 75-41 
 
 75-18 
 
 74-43 
 
 72-37 
 
 74-12 
 
 74-81 
 
 72-39 
 
 Difference. 
 6-14° 
 1-62 
 2-70 
 2-88 
 2-18 
 1-89 
 3-47 
 1-52 
 0-22 
 2-34 
 
Ghap. III.] FACIAL ANGLES. 287 
 
 TACIAL ANGLE OF JACqUAET. 
 Women. Glabella. Sup.-orb. point. Difference. 
 
 38 Auvergnians . . , 
 
 78-00'' . 
 
 .. 7602° . 
 
 .. 1-98' 
 
 25 Bretons (Low) 
 
 74-56 . 
 
 .. 75-52 . 
 
 .. 1-04 
 
 23 Gallo-Bretons 
 
 76-08 . 
 
 .. 75-51 . 
 
 .. 0-57 
 
 19 Basques (French) ... 
 
 76-35 . 
 
 .. 74-94 . 
 
 .. 1-44 
 
 17 „ (Spanish) ... 
 
 77-89 . 
 
 .. 76-84 . 
 
 .. 1-05 
 
 4 Chinese 
 
 73-66 
 
 .. 72-36 . 
 
 .. 1-30 
 
 5 Malays 
 
 74-34 . 
 
 .. 73-96 . 
 
 .. 0-38 
 
 52 Negresses of Africa 
 
 75-73 . 
 
 .. 75-08 
 
 .. 0-65 
 
 23 New Caledonians 
 
 75-29 . 
 
 .. 74-21 . 
 
 .. 1-08 
 
 The iadrndual limits of the first angle vary in these series from: 
 87'2° to 66-2°, which leaves a certain margin for the distribution of 
 races; but their averages are not more than from. 79 '5 in the 
 Ativergnians of both sexes to 74-4 in a special series of negroes of 
 Cape de Yard. Looking only at the t-vvo great divisions, the general 
 averages fall to 77"6 in the 587 individuals of the white race, 75-6 
 in the 140 of the yellow, 75-2 in the 118 of the negro race of 
 Oceania, and 75-0 in the 90 of the negro races of Africa — the dif- 
 ference in this case not being more than two degrees. If we take 
 the second angle — that is to say making allowance for the pro- 
 jection of the glabella or the superciliary ridges — the interval is not 
 more favourable. In the averages of the series it was nine degrees 
 in men and 4-3° in women; at the present time it is 2-7° in the 
 former and 2-4° in the latter. Whence we come to the conclusion 
 that the true angle of Jacquart, as well as his modified angle, may 
 be -useful for the differentiation of individuals, but they are not so 
 for that of races. The facial angles, moreover, do not measure the 
 relation of the development of the cranium and face, as was once 
 thought, but the obliquity of the line of profile of the face ; we 
 must then prolong this line as far as the alveolar border, and not 
 conclude it at the nasal spine. We must consequently await the 
 results which the angle of Cloquet gives according to race. The 
 angle of Jacquart is taken directly with the goniometer of that 
 name, that of Camper with the goniometer of Morton, and that of 
 Jules Cloquet with the median goniometer of M. Broca; aU on. 
 plans by orthogonal projection. 
 
28S PARIETAL ANGLE. [Chap. hi. 
 
 The parietal angle, wliieh. will now engage our attention,* was 
 devised by M. de Quatrefages with a view to controvert two state- 
 ments of Blumenhaoh. and Prichard, and is taken with the instru- 
 ment represented at Fig. 36. "When we carry two lines (S Z, 
 Kg. 29) across the extremities of the transverse maximum, or 
 hizygomatio diameter of the face, and the extremities of the maxi- 
 mum transverse frontal diameter, which in that case is commonly 
 looked upon as identical with the transverse Stephanie, these lines 
 generally meet either at a variable point at a distance above the 
 head, are parallel, or meet at a point below. In the first case the 
 angle is positive : this is the pyramidal angle of Prichard ; ia the 
 second there is none ; in the third the angle is negative. When 
 the angle is positive, the zygomatic arches are called phenozygous — • 
 that is to say, visible by the norma vertieccUs method of Blnmen- 
 bach ; when negative, the arches are cryptozygous, or concealed. 
 
 The following table shows the maximum and minimum, and the 
 means in some of the human series : 
 
 
 Averages. 
 
 Variations. 
 
 26 Aiivergniana 
 
 ... + 2-5° .. 
 
 ,. - 5° 
 
 to 4- 8° 
 
 10 Roumanians 
 
 ... -1- 8-0 .. 
 
 . - 0-5 
 
 „ 4-18 
 
 10 Giianches ... 
 
 ... + 10-4 , 
 
 .. +5 
 
 „ -1-17 
 
 10 Lapps 
 
 ... + 5-5 . 
 
 - 3 
 
 „ +15 
 
 13 Esquimaux 
 
 ... -I-15-7 
 
 ..4-4 
 
 „ 4-23-5 
 
 12 Chitiese 
 
 ... 4-11-2 . 
 
 .. + i 
 
 „ 4-19 
 
 10 Mongola 
 
 ... +10-1 . 
 
 .. + 5 
 
 „ -H17 
 
 6 Usbecks 
 
 ... + 8-0 . 
 
 .. - 6 
 
 „ 4-18 
 
 4 Tchuelohas 
 
 ... +11-6 . 
 
 .. -1- 6 
 
 „ 4-16 
 
 10 Negroes of Africa... 
 
 ... + 7-0 . 
 
 ..4-2 
 
 „ +13 
 
 13 New Caledonians ... 
 
 ... -f20-3 . 
 
 .. 4-16 
 
 „ 4-30 
 
 From these data it follows — (a) That the individual limits of the 
 parietal angle vary from - 5 to 4- 30, and the means in races the 
 most divergent from 4-2-5 to 20-3; (&) That the angles from 
 35 to 39 degrees, represented in the figures which accompany 
 Priohard's description, and which led him to give the title of 
 pyramidal to the Mongolian skuU, are never seen; (c) That the 
 
 * " De I'Angle Parietal," by M. de Quatrefages ; " Comptes Eendus do 
 I'Aoademie des Sciences," laeeting of April 25, 1858. 
 
Chap, hi.] 
 
 PAEIETAL GONIOMETER. 
 
 289 
 
 most oval skull, to use his own expression, that in whicli tlio 
 zygomatic arches are the most visible by the method of Blumen- 
 bach, is met with among the negroes of Oceania, and not among 
 Mongols ; (d) That inversely, the most negative angle — viz. that in 
 which the zygomatic arches are the least projecting — is noticed 
 among Auvergnians, Lapps, and African negroes. 
 
 Fta. 36.— Parietal goniometer of M. de Quatrefages. The branches A and B ought t» 
 touch the coronal suture. They show, notwithstanding, that if prolonged they would 
 meet below the skull— the angle would be negative. 
 
 This angle is the resultant of two frequently contradictory con- 
 ditions; viz. the widening of the cheek-bones, and the degree of 
 swelling of the temples at" the fronto-parietal suture. In default 
 of an instroment, the relation of the two diameters, the bizygo- 
 jnatic and the bistephanic, might be substituted for it. Thus the 
 
290 
 
 PARIETAL ANOLE. 
 
 [Chap. hi. 
 
 Auvergnians have scarcely any parietal angle, and occasionally a 
 negative one, because their braoliyceplLalic character is associated 
 with a feeble widening of the cheek-bones and zygomatic arches. 
 The New Caledonians, on the contrary, have a very acute angle, 
 because in them a considerable doKohocephalism is accompanied by 
 a wide separation of the cheek-bones. If the true Mongols and 
 Usbecks have a less angle than the Esquimaux, the breadth of the 
 cheek-bones being the same, it is because the former are brachy- 
 eephalic and the latter dolichocephalic. Another thing we deduce 
 from this table is, that the angle in the adult is always, with but 
 few exceptions, positive. In the child, on the contrary, it is eon- . 
 stantly negative ; the younger it is, the more so. The following 
 figures show this : 
 
 2 children of 15 to 16 years of age 
 
 3 )i » 6 „ 8 „ „ 
 2 „ „ 3 „ 4, „ 
 
 4 „ „ 16 „ 18 months old 
 1 child „ 4 „ 
 
 - 7-0° 
 
 - 15-8 
 
 - 150 
 
 - 21-7 
 
 - 24-0 
 
 Prom other examples, and even from one of those which have 
 swelled the second of these averages, we are led to think that the 
 parietal angle would a£ford a means of recognising anterior hydro- 
 cephalus. The usual mean at a certain age being given, any 
 considerable deviation from it would be its index. 
 
 It has surprised us to see pathological cases ia which, while the 
 zygomatic arches stiU preserved their normal breadth, the anterior 
 cranium was prominent or depressed. It will be noticed in the" 
 subjoined table that the variations are similar to those which 
 age and the form of the head ought to produce according to the 
 foregoing opinions. We have also given some measurements taken 
 upon anthropoid apes ; here again the principle with regard to age 
 is confirmed in the case of the young orang. 
 
 4 hydrooephali, adnlts 
 
 ... - 31-9' 
 
 2 miorooephali, „ 
 
 ... -1- 330 
 
 2 „ „ (braohycephalic) ... 
 
 ... -1- 21-0 
 
 1 miorooephalus, 7 years of age . . , 
 
 ... - 2-0 
 
 2 soaphocephah ... 
 
 ... + 130 
 
51-5° ... 49-6° ... 46-2° 
 56-4 ... 54-2 ... 541 
 
 Chap. III.] AUBICULAR ANGLES. 291 
 
 lyoTmgorang +17-0 
 
 1 adult orang ... ... ... +90-5 
 
 4 „ gorillas + V7-0 
 
 1 ,, cMmpanzee ... ... ... ... + 630 
 
 In a word, the parietal angle of M. de Qnatrefages affords an excel- 
 lent character for craniometrical study, but it lias no part in the 
 series, and contradicts the views put forth by Blumenbach and 
 Prichard. The auricular angles, of which we have already spoken 
 (page 271), haying their vertex on the biauricular vertex, and crossed 
 by the radii going from this axis to particular poiats of the head, 
 as taken with the craniograph, have given rise to the following 
 airangement of M. Broca : 
 
 835 60 34 
 
 Parisians, Basques. Negroes. 
 
 Facial angle : arc passing from tKe supra- 
 orbital to the alTeolar point 
 
 I'rontal angle : arc passing from tlie 
 snpra-orbital point to the bregma 
 
 Parietal angle 60-9 ... 64.-4 ... 66-2 
 
 Total occipital angle ... 71-2 ...73-0 ...72-2 
 
 Frontal angle in hnndredths of the total ) 
 
 cranial angle: the arc from the supra- >29'9 ... 283 ... 27'9 
 orbital point to the opisthion ... ... ) 
 
 This comparison shows the share of development which each 
 portion of the head takes. We see that the frontal region is larger 
 in the Parisians than in the Basques, and less in the negroes. It 
 appears a priori that the face of Parisians is larger, but it must 
 be remembered that the face ia the negro is developed in length, 
 which, instead of increasing, diminishes the angle.* 
 
 The angle of prognathism has been already described. There are 
 besides : (a) The metafacial angle of Serres, which the pterygoid 
 processes form with the base of the skull. It seems to us to vary 
 with the prognathism, but not very much. (6) The corono-facial 
 angle of Gratiolet, formed by the meeting of the plane passing 
 across the coronal suture of both sides and the facial line of 
 •Camper, (c) The naso-basal angle, described at page 255. {d) The 
 
 * "Sur les Cranes Basques de Zaraus," in "M^m. d'Anthrop.," by Paul 
 Broca, vol. ii. p. 28. 
 
 U 2 
 
292 
 
 SPHENOIDAL A^STGLE. 
 
 [Chap. hi. 
 
 sphenoidal angle of Welcker. (e) The angle of Barclay. (/) The 
 cranio-facial angle of Huxley, which differs somewhat from the 
 c:^io-facial angle of Ecker, ifcc. It has been a matter of 
 dispute as to the naso-basUar line, as well as to the chord (N B, 
 Kg. 37), measuring the extent of inflection which the bodies of the 
 cranial vertebras describe, from the basion where they commence to 
 the naso-frontal suture looked upon as their termination. This 
 inflection is divided, in reality, into two parts ; viz. a line, B S, 
 
 Fro. 37.— Median section of the skull. lJ>B, Naso-baallar line ; N S and S B, Tile two 
 sides of tte sphenoidal angle ; S, Ephipnium, vertex of the angle where the point of ttie 
 sphenoidal croehet, which is seen in position, ought to touch. 
 
 proceeding from .the basion to the transverse ridge, which, in the 
 interior of the skull, separates the sella turcica from the optic 
 groove, and a line, S N, passing frohi this point to the naso-frontal 
 suture ; the obtuse angle which they make looking from below and 
 in front is the sphenoidal angle or ephippium. If from this point 
 a circle is described, all which is above and behind belongs to the 
 
Ohap. III.] 
 
 SPKBNOIDAL ANGLE. 
 
 293 
 
 cranium, all below and in front to the face — hence its interest. 
 Suhjoined are the measurements published by M. Welcker : 
 
 30 Germans (men) 
 30 „ (women) 
 
 10 cliildren from 10 to 
 
 6 new-born infants 
 
 6 negroes 
 
 1 chimpanzee ... 
 
 1 orang (old) ... 
 
 1 „ (adult) 
 
 1 „ (yonng) 
 
 1 maimon 
 
 1 sagouin (adult) 
 
 1 „ (new-bom) 
 
 1 „ (old) 
 
 15 years of age 
 
 134° 
 
 138 
 
 137 
 
 141 
 
 144 
 
 149 
 
 174 
 
 172 
 
 155 
 
 170 
 
 174 
 
 140 
 
 180 
 
 Looking only at the adults in this table, it appears that the angle 
 is less in the white, more open in the negro, more stiU in the orang, 
 and that it increases still more in a pithecian ; ■which means that 
 a small face, and reciprocally a large cranium, are the characteristic 
 of superiority in the scale of Primates. But ■when we take the 
 various ages into consideration matters present themselves in a 
 different light. The sphenoidal angle is relatively a little larger in 
 infancy than in adult age, and notably smaller in monkeys, which 
 is in accordance with M. Welcker's statement that in Man the 
 cerebral ca^vity at birth is less, relatively to its maximum volume, 
 than at full age,* but that this ca^Tity grows much more rapidly 
 (see page 131). 
 
 It has been asked what relation there is between the sphenoidal 
 angle, that is to say the straight and curved portion of the body 
 of the cranial vertebrse, and prognathism. M. Yirchow asserts that 
 it diminishes when the latter increases. M. Welcker says the 
 reverse. M. Lucse considers that they have no relation to each 
 other. The same comparison has been made with the naso-basal 
 angle, but improperly so, this only measuring a very small part of 
 prognathism, and that the least important part, which we have 
 called the nasal or supra-maxillary. 
 
 * " Memoire sixr les Microoephales," by Carl Vogt. Geneva, 1867. 
 
294 ANGLE OF THE CONDYLES. [Chap, hi, 
 
 Tlie sphenoidal angle is very objectionable, inasmuch, as it can 
 only be measured on a section, and necessitates the skull being 
 divided, M. Broca has, to a certaia extent, met the objection by 
 his proceeding with the sphenoidal crochet, shown at Kg. 37, and 
 one wliich he has recently successfully carried out.* Under the rather 
 inapt title of the angle of the condyles, M. Eoker understands the 
 obtuse angle, open above and behind, that the plane of the occipital 
 foramen forms with the plane of the basilar groove, or clivus.t It 
 varies from 100 to 125 degrees in negroes, and from 117 to 140 in 
 whites; the mean being 113-5 in the former, and 128-2 in the 
 latter. The difference, therefore, is so remarkable that this measure- 
 ment ought to be maintained. It arises, according to the author, 
 from the fact that the plane of the occipital foramen is lowered at 
 its anterior border, as M. Broca . has shown by the help of his 
 occipital angles. But the strange part of it is — and it is not the 
 first time that we have met with things of this kind — that this 
 angle in anthropoids more nearly approaches that of the white than 
 that of the black. It was 120 degrees in a young orang, 122 in a 
 gorilla, and 128 in an old orang. Its diminution in negroes is not 
 due, therefore, to the lowering of the occipital foramen, inasmuch 
 as the latter is lower still in anthropoids. The variations of the 
 angle of Eoker are depend i^-s-t then on the inchnation of the basilar 
 groove. 
 
 Special Systems. 
 
 Under the title of special systems several topics might be con- 
 sidered which have not been noticed in the foregoing chapters. 
 We shall only mention two of them — endometry and endoscopy. 
 
 If we attach importance to the external configuration of the 
 skull, how much more should we do so to its interior or endocrane 1 
 M. Broca, having laid down certain rules for the measurement of 
 the capacity of the cerebral cavity, proceeded without delay to- 
 
 * See " Diet. Enoycl. des Sciences Medicales," article "Angles Cephaliques," 
 by M. Bertillon, 1866. 
 
 t " Ueber die Verschiedene Kriimmung des SoMdelrohres nnd tiber die 
 Stellung des Schadela anf der Wirbelsiiulo beim Neger und beim Earopaser,"' 
 by M. A. Ecker, in "Arch, fiir Antbrop.," vol. iv. 
 
Chap, hi.] WELCKBR'S CRANIAL NET. 295 
 
 study its form and configuration ia detaU. For this purpose lie 
 invented a series of instruments for measuring its diameter, for 
 tracing its outlines, for making dra-wings, and lastly, for looking 
 directly into it. Its results kave not yet been thorougMy arrived 
 at. As an example of what we may look for, ■^e shall give the 
 measurements of the trapezium and the surface included between 
 the two optic foramina, and the two internal auditory foramiaa : 
 
 Caucasian Mongolian Ethiopian 
 
 type. type. type. 
 
 Millimetres. Millimetres. MiUimfetres. 
 
 Bioptio aistanoe 23-88 ... 23-75 ... 23-28 
 
 Biacoustic distance 5455 ... 52-00 ... 46-00 
 
 Acute angle formed by the pro. ) 
 longation of the two other sides. . . ) 
 
 Surface of the trapezium 173? ... 1356 ... 1338 
 
 Among the details, of which an impression has been taken across 
 the occipital foramen, we may note the ethmoidal fossa, the form 
 and depth of which correspond to the projection of the beak of 
 the encephalon, which is more developed in the inferior races, less 
 so in the higher. 
 
 The cranial net of M. Welcker, a system of triangulation of the 
 external surface of the cranial ovoid, exclusive of the face, has not 
 given results worthy of being recorded. It consists of — (a) A superior 
 cranial quadrilateral, included between the parietal and frontal pro- 
 tuberances ; (b) A frontal quadrilateral, smaller, included between 
 the frontal protuberances and the line uniting the external 
 orbital processes of the frontal; (c) An inferior quadrilateral, the 
 anterior side of which is formed by that line, and the posterior 
 by the line going from the point of one mastoid process to the 
 other ; (d) A triangle having this latter line for a base, and the 
 inion for its apex. A triangle with its apex stiU at the inion, but 
 its base on the line of the two parietal protuberances, terminates 
 the circle of the figures in pairs. Two quadrilateral and two 
 lateral triangles complete the entire system. It is useless to 
 proceed farther. 
 
 The system of Iheriag is applied to the method of projections. 
 
296 SYSTEMS OF ANTBLME AND KOPEENICKI. [Chap. iii. 
 
 The author seems to have had a strong feeling against the doctrine 
 of Oken on the vertebral constitution of the cranium, and in favour 
 of that of Gegenbauer, maintaining that the cranium is formed in 
 a manner independently of the vertebral column. There are no 
 anatomical points, he says, upon which one can rely ; that it is 
 useless to search for the relations of the different portions of the 
 cranium ; and that it can only be measured as a whole, with the 
 aid of maximum, and reciprocally perpendicular, lines. M. Ihering 
 has consequently invented an apparatus for taking these maxima 
 of height, breadth, and length, the skull being in its natural 
 attitude. But here M. Ihering sets the rule he has laid down at 
 defiance, and has recourse to anatomical points. In order to place 
 the skull in proper position, he adopts, as a fundamental line, 
 the line of Meckel, going from the centre of the auditory meatus 
 to the inferior border of the orbit. Now this line, by which 
 everyone is guided, is raised eight degrees in relation to the axis 
 of the orbital cavities, or to that of vision, in order to give the 
 skull the most appropriate attitude. In the norma verticalis, to 
 which it gives rise, the most prognathous skuUs become orthog- 
 nathous. Moreover, M. Ihering has partly given up his system : 
 in the table of measurements which he propounded at the Dresden 
 Congress in 1874 he becomes quite eclectic. 
 
 The system of Antelme allows, with the aid of a special 
 cephalometer, which is unfortunately very costly, of our determining 
 with great exactness the reciprocal position of all the external 
 points of the skull, and the distance from these points to the 
 centre of the biauricular axis. Designed for use on the living 
 subject, M. Bartillon has modified it so as to adapt it to the skull. 
 For his description of it we refer the reader to the first volume of 
 the " Memoires de la Society d' Anthropologic," and for examples 
 of its application to the memoir of M. Bartillon on New Cale- 
 donians, in the "Eevue d' Anthropologic," vol. i. p. 284, 1872. 
 
 The system of M. Kopernigki also requires a particular cranio- 
 graph, which must have been suggested by the physionotype of 
 Huschke, and reminds one of the circular band used by hatters. 
 Its object is, among others, to take measurements of the skull 
 
Phap. IV.] OSTEOMETBICAL CHAEACTERS. 297 
 
 which, have heeii omitted by other methods of procedure. For a 
 description of it we refer the reader to, the " Bulletins de la Sooi^td 
 d'Anthropologie," 2nd series, vol. ii., 1867 ; and for its appK- 
 eation, to the memoir on Bulgarian skulls by M. J. Kopernifki, in 
 the "Eevue d'Anthropologie," vol. iv. p. 68, 1875. 
 
 To sum up : the craniometer substitutes mathematical data for 
 the uncertain data founded on judgment and opinion. It studies 
 the skeleton of the head in its ejisemble, the cranium and the 
 face separately, and then each of its parts, by methods which take 
 the head in its natural attitude, accept certain central points of 
 more or less physiological importance, or have to do directly with 
 absolute measurements apart from all preconceived theory. One 
 of its systems is specially fertile in good results, namely, the com- 
 parison of methods under the form of indices ; but it requires a 
 l-arge number of skulls in which individual marks of variation are 
 effaced. Characteristics hitherto left to chance investigation also 
 come within its province. It shows that the eye may be deceived, 
 and analyses as far as possible those variable impressions which we 
 term the beautiful. Although at first, and even now, encumbered 
 with materials many of which ought to be eliminated, it has enabled 
 us to recognise human types which without it would have remained 
 undetermined ; and it bids fair ene day to furnish a solid basis for 
 the classification of races into genera and species. 
 
 CHAPTEE IV. 
 
 SKELETON : ITS DESCEIPTIVE AND OSTEOMETRICAL CHARACTERS — ITS 
 PEOPORTIONS THE VISCERA THE BRAIN : ITS WEIGHT. 
 
 The other parts of the skeleton have been less studied than the 
 skull : in the first place because their importance ,was not under- 
 stood; and in the second, because travellers and archiEologists 
 neglected to take account of them. The characters which they 
 furnish are of two orders, some having reference to the configuration 
 
298 
 
 PERFORATION OF THE HUMERTJS. 
 
 [Chap. iv. 
 
 of the bones themselves, and others to their respective proportions. 
 Among the former may be placed the perforation of the humerus, 
 certain forms of the femur, the tibia, the fibula, and the ulna ; the 
 torsion of the humerus and the femur ; the curvature of the latter ; 
 the angle which its body makes with the diaphysis ; the projection 
 of the calcaneum ; the breadth of the olecranon, &c. "We shall 
 only refer to some of these. 
 
 The perforation of the olecranon cavity of the humerus, first 
 noticed in some skeletons of Hottentots and Guanches, is also met 
 with in the negro and European. Its degree of frequency among 
 the races of France has been the subject of discussion of late, 
 and it is asked whether this character did not specially belong 
 to one of the most ancient. The subjoined table wlU. in a measure 
 solve this question. "We are indebted to the kindness of Dr. 
 Pruni^res de Marvejols, to whom anthropology owes so much for 
 his many valuable discoveries, for aU that we know respecting La 
 Lozfere. The results at the Pre-gallic station of Campans emanate 
 from MM. Broca and Millecamps ; those on Parisians of the fourth 
 to the tenth century, and on the mountaineers of the Ain, from 
 ourselves. The others have been specially published in a note in 
 the "M^moires" by M. Broca, vol. ii. p. 366. We shall only give 
 the cases in which the number of the humeri which have been the-- 
 subject of study has been furnished. 
 
 Number of 
 humeri. Per cent. 
 
 66 Caverne de rHomme Mort (La Lozfere)... ... 106 
 
 368 Dolmens of La Lozfere 10-6 
 
 128 Stationa of Vamreal, Orrouy, and Chamaus 1 
 
 (Polialied Stone period) \^^'^ 
 
 44 Pre-galUo station of Campans ... ... ... 12'5 
 
 42 Monntaineers of the Ain (5tli century) ... ... 27'7 
 
 69 Frenobi Basques 13-4 
 
 200 Parisians of the 4th to the 10th century ... 5'5 
 
 218 „ ■ of the Middle Ages 4-1 
 
 150 ,, anterior to the 17th century ... ... 4'6 
 
 1000 (?) Merovingians of Chelles 2-0 
 
 This shows that the perforation of the humerus as a commoit 
 character dates back to the Polished Stone period ; that it was 
 
Chap, iv.] 
 
 PLATTCNEMIA. 
 
 2'J9 
 
 frequent at that epoch ; that it has continued among peoples placed 
 in conditions favourable to the resistance of inter-hreediug ; and 
 that it has diminished iu frequency since the commencement of our 
 era. Its excessive rarity ia the hurial-places of individuals of the 
 higher ranks at Chelles seems to account for this diminution. The 
 following list of the variations at simUar stations of the same 
 epoch shows, however, that we must accept the ahove with some 
 reserve. It has reference to the dolmens separately noticed by 
 M. Prunieres de Marvejols. 
 
 Imen No. 1. — 27 humeri 
 
 . . 7 perforated 
 
 .. 25 per cent 
 
 „ 2.-65 „ 
 
 .. 11 „ 
 
 •• 17 
 
 .> i> 3. — 8 „ 
 
 .. 1 „ 
 
 •■ 12 „ 
 
 „ „ 4.-31 „ 
 
 .. 1 
 
 .. 3 „ 
 
 „ ,. 5.-16 „ 
 
 - 
 
 .. „ 
 
 Lastly, it is weU to remark — (a) That the perforation does not 
 always show itself on both sides at once, which lessens its value ; 
 (b) That it is exhibited in various degrees ; and (c) According to 
 M. Brooa, that it is more particularly to be seen in women. The 
 character which the tibia sometimes presents, and which bears the 
 name of platycnemia, or sabre-like, is much more remarkable. 
 This bone is described in aU works on anatomy as having a 
 prismatic or triangular diaphysis. Its anterior border, immediately 
 under the skin, is termed the crest of the tibia ; its internal gives 
 insertion to an aponeurosis, which is applied to the fibula, and 
 separates the muscles of the anterior region of the leg from those 
 of the posterior. Its posterior surface is traversed above by an 
 oblique rough line, which serves for the insertion of the popliteus 
 muscle ; and below by a longitudinal line, giving insertion to other 
 adjoining muscles. In platycnemia, the tibia has only two surfaces 
 in its three upper fifths, an external and an internal. The anterior 
 border is thin, the internal and external borders occupy the centre 
 of the two surfaces, and the new posterior border corresponds to 
 the above Unes of insertion of muscles. Figure 38 shows a section 
 of the two sorts of tibia. Platycnemia is noticed here and there in 
 many of our graves, but with variable frequency. The first time 
 
300 
 
 F:6muR 1 COLONNE. 
 
 [Chap. iv. 
 
 it was observed was in the tibias of the family buried at Cro- 
 Magnon, at the Ancient Stone period. It has frequently been de- 
 scribed as existing in England, both at the Pre-gallic and the 
 Polished Stone periods. In 200 Parisian tibias, which we have 
 collected from the St. Marcel and St. Germain-des-Pr& cemeteries, 
 dating from the fourth to the tenth century, 5 '25 per cent, 
 were platycnemic, and 14 per cent, were bent. This latter pecu- 
 liarity is not uncommon in old graves, as well as the channelled 
 fibula, that is to say, the fibula with enormously large longitudinal 
 grooves for the insertion of muscles, the ulna incurvated forwards 
 in its upper fourth, and the femur a colonnc. This last is worthy a 
 separate description. 
 
 H.i . 
 
 Fig. 38, — No. 1, Ordinary triangular tibia, the diaphysis divided on a level with the 
 nutritive foramen. No. 2, Platycnemic tibia divided at the same spot. 
 
 The muscles of the posterior part of the thigh are principally 
 attached to the two longitudinal lines which form the posterior 
 border of the femur, and together bear the name of linea aspera 
 {ligne dpre). These two lines are wanting in the anthropoid ape, 
 the border being round. In Man they are either blended together 
 BO as to be scarcely visible, or they project, and are .separated by a 
 rough interval. In the femur a colonna they form a still greater 
 projection ; they are wider apart, and the adjoining surfaces of the 
 bone being sunk in, make this projection appear still greater. 
 Hence their pilaster-like appearance extending along the middle 
 three-fifths of the bone. The femurs of Cro-Magnon are the most 
 striking examples of this, those of the Guanches, in the laboratory 
 of M. Broca, are very similar. Of 200 Parisian femurs obtained 
 
Chap, iv.] OSTEOMETEICAL CHARACTERS. 301 
 
 from the cemeteries before referred to, in 6-5 per cent, the column was 
 very marked, and in 36 per cent, it was so slightly. It seems, 
 therefore, that these peculiarities of the tibia, femur, and fibula be- 
 longed to one and the same race in Western Europe. The 30 
 subjects from the cave at Sordes, in the Basque territory, belonging 
 to the Polished Stone period, all exhibit them {Hamy). It is 
 very remarkable, however, that they are rarely met with having per- 
 foration of the olecranon cavity. The two races which have be- 
 queathed to us the two varieties are therefore distinct. "We have 
 observed platycnemia, the incuivated ulna, and the pillar-like 
 femur in other races, notably in skeletons from Oceania. The 
 complete obliteration of the linea aspera of the femur, one of the 
 highest simian characteristics, is rare. It is observed in the 
 skeleton of the Hottentot Venus, now in Paris. 
 
 Osteometrical Cliaracters. 
 
 At page 81 we have shown the difficulties met with in at once 
 determining the proportions of the body on the skeleton and on the 
 living subject, and the two methods which are in favour with 
 anatomists — one in which the length of the bones is compared with 
 the stature of the individual, the other in which the bones are com- 
 pared with each other. We have also given the general results 
 arrived at on a comparison of Man and the anthropoids. It now 
 remains for us to speak of the appreciable differences between races : 
 first, of those which we notice directly on the skeleton; and then of 
 those which are to be studied on the living subject. 
 
 The selection of osteometrical measurements and methods of 
 proceeding varies according to the object we have in view. When 
 we wish to calculate the proportions of the body, we are obliged to 
 measure the bones in their normal position, the individual being 
 supposed to be standing erect, and only to include that portion 
 which contributes to the total length of the limb. At other times we 
 are satisfied with their absolute length. For some, as the clavicle, 
 the fibula, and even the ulna, this is generally sulficient. The bone is 
 laid upon a graduated slab — ^the osteometrical slab of M. Broca 
 
302 OSTBOMETfllCAL CHAEACTEES. [Chap. it. 
 
 being preferred — and with a sqiiare we take the two most deviating 
 projections which it gives on this slab. Such is the usual mode of 
 proceeding. With the radius we do the same, having no choice in 
 the matter. The forearm really extends no farther than the convex 
 articular surface of the carpus, and consequently the articular cavity 
 corresponding to the inferior extremity of the radius ; but no spot 
 on the circumference of this cavity furnishes any fixed measur- 
 ing point, so that we are obliged to include the styloid process in. 
 the length of the bone, consoling ourselves that the measurement 
 becomes easier to compare with that taken on the living subject. 
 
 In the humerus the natural obliquity of the bone is so slight that 
 we may leave it out of consideration, and we have no hesitation as 
 to the measuring points, except as regards its inferior extremity. 
 White measured the humerus from the border of the acromion to 
 the point of the olecranon. M. Hamy, when engaged on the 
 subject of the development of the bone, and looking for its maxi- 
 mum, took the internal border of the trochlea. M. Broca, wishing 
 to join the humerus to the radius, makes the former terminate at 
 iheir point of contact, at the condyle. In the tibia the superior limit 
 is, without doubt, the flat articular surface ; while the inferior, if we 
 require the true length of the leg, is the cavity articulating with the 
 astragalus, and in practice one .of the borders of this cavity ; we 
 therefore do not include the internal malleolus, which is like a 
 supplementary bone. It certainly is not rational, when the propor- 
 tions of the limbs are in question, to include the internal malleolus 
 with the leg, at the same time that we discard the styloid process 
 from the forearm ; but in this latter case necessity makes the law. 
 
 The femur is the long bone, in which our methods of proceeding 
 necessarily vary according to the object we have in view. If we 
 want its length in proportion to the height of the body, we must 
 take account of its obliquity. Por this purpose the bone is placed 
 on its posterior surface, so that the two condyles are square with the 
 vertical plane. The regular position of the bone on the living 
 subject is thus obtained ; and it only remains to determine, with the 
 square, its superior maximum, whether at the top of its head or at 
 the point of the great trochanter — the former being the better for 
 
Chap, it.] PEOPOKTIONS OF THE SKELETON. 303 
 
 getting at the general proportions. If, on the contrary, the ahsolute 
 length is required, inclusively or exclusively of the great trochanter, 
 Tve begin, as with the clavicle, by laying the bone on the outer side. 
 
 Proportions of the Skeleton. 
 
 "White, as far back as the year 1794, remarked in the living 
 subject, and demonstrated both on this and on the skeleton, that 
 the forearm of the negro, compared ■with the arm, is longer than 
 that of the European ; but not going into the matter further, nothing 
 ■was done up to the time of La-wrence iu 1817. 
 
 Humphry, iu 1838, ■was more explicit. He stated that the 
 thigh and the arm of the negro are shorter than those of the ■white, 
 ■whUe his superior extremity is longer ; that there is but little differ- 
 ence bet"ween his arm and forearm ; that his leg is of the same 
 length, but longer as compared -with the thigh ; and that his hand is 
 an eighth, and his foot a t^welfth, shorter. The f ollo-wiag are his 
 measurements relatively to the stature, this being = 100 : 
 
 Difference as 
 regards the negro. 
 
 + 0-99 
 
 + 0-97 
 
 + 1-01 
 
 - 0-02 
 + 1-08 
 
 - 0-11 
 
 But the objection is (see page 82) that the correct stature can- 
 not be ascertained on the mounted skeleton. Let us then take 
 M. Brooa's figures. In the follo^wiug table the absolute lengths are 
 ■compared together and added. We dra^w attention particularly to 
 the first three relations : 
 
 Htonerns + radius : femnr + tibia = 100.. 
 Eadi-as : humemB = 100 ... 
 Radius : femur + tibia = 100 
 Humerus : femur + tibia = 100 ... 
 Cla'riole : humerus = 100 ... 
 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 
 Europeans. 
 
 Negroes. 
 
 Humerus + radius 
 
 ... 33-69 
 
 34-68 
 
 Femur 4- tibia . . . 
 
 ... 49-66 
 
 50-63 
 
 Eadius ... 
 
 ... 14-15 
 
 lS-16 
 
 Humerus ... 
 
 ... 19-54 
 
 19-52 
 
 Tibia 
 
 ... 22-15 
 
 28-23 
 
 Femur 
 
 ... 27-51 
 
 27-40 
 
 
 
 Di£E. as 
 
 Europeans. 
 
 Negroes. 
 
 reg. negro. 
 
 69-73 .. 
 
 . 68-27 
 
 .. - 1-46 
 
 73-93 . 
 
 . 79-40 
 
 .. -1- 5-47 
 
 29-54 .. 
 
 . 3038 
 
 + 0-64 
 
 40-11 .. 
 
 . 38-20 
 
 ,. - 1-91 
 
 44-63 .. 
 
 , 46-74 
 
 .. + 2-11 
 
 We gather from this — {a) That the cla-vicle in the negro is longer 
 
30d, 
 
 PEOPOETIONS OF THE SKELETON. 
 
 [Chap. it. 
 
 in proportion to the humerus. (&) That his anterior extremity, 
 from the shoulder to the -wrist, is a little shorter, which is an 
 anomaly, when we remember that it is longer in the anthropoid ; 
 however, it may probably be explained, (c) That his radius is 
 perceptibly longer in proportion to the humerus, thus approximating 
 it to that of the ape ; White, Humphry, and Broca are all agreed in 
 this respect, (d) That his tibia is longer as compared with the 
 femur, which, if our statement at page 88 is confirmed, would make 
 it less simian than the European, (e) Lastly, that his humerus is 
 shorter, and this no doubt explains the above anomaly. The upper 
 extremity of the negro is shorter than that of the European, not 
 because liis radius has been lengthened, but because his humerus 
 has been shortened. A superior character has originated from 
 the union of two inferior ones. The anomaly in M. Eroea's table 
 is perhaps accidental — Mr. Humphry's figures giving the rela- 
 tion to the height of the body, lead us to think so — it loses all its 
 importance when, considering the diversity of races, we see the un- 
 important position which the proportions of the skeleton exhibit 
 in the series. 
 
 The following are some relations calculated according to M. Broca's 
 mode after measurements made by Barnard Davis,* Humphry, Broca, 
 and ourselves : 
 
 Hum. + rad.: fera.+ tib. 
 
 Ead.: hum. 
 
 Tib.: fern. 
 
 1 Esquimau ... 
 
 . Vl-3 (100) 
 
 Vl-0 (100] 
 
 75-8 (100) 
 
 1 Aino... 
 
 . 68-4 
 
 75-2 
 
 76-8 
 
 1 Andaman ... 
 
 . 70-3 
 
 79-2 
 
 81-8 
 
 2 Javanese 
 
 . 68-9 
 
 82-0 
 
 830 
 
 4 Tasmanians 
 
 . 68-2 
 
 83-5 
 
 84-3 
 
 7 Australians... 
 
 . 68-4 
 
 75-5 
 
 84-3 
 
 8 New Caledonians .. 
 
 . 69-5 
 
 77-5 
 
 83-8 
 
 5 Bosjeamans... 
 
 . 68-4 
 
 75-5 
 
 83-5 
 
 This table, which is somewhat similar to the foregoing, shows in 
 the first column, that we must not expect to find the position of 
 a race in the scale in the proportion of the upper to the lower 
 extremity. It is true the Esquimau and the Andaman have th& 
 
 * " On the Osteology and PecuUaritiea of the Tasmanians," by J. Barnard 
 Davis. Harlem, 1874. 
 
Chap, it.] THE PELVIS. 305 
 
 longest upper extremity, and the four Tasmanians the shortest in. 
 the list, the Europeans coming between them. By far the longest 
 radius is seen in the Javanese and Tasmanians, and the shortest in 
 the Esquimau, -while the Europeans are intermediate in length. 
 The tibia appears to he decidedly the longest in the inferior races, 
 and shortest in the Esquimau and the Aino. As regards the 
 tihia, therefore, the balance is in favour of Mr. Humphry's views, 
 and contrary to the foregoing calculations. 
 
 It is clear thus far, without one's being able to account for it on 
 any definite principle, that the proportions of Man neither approxi- 
 mate to, nor are far removed from, those of the anthropoid in all 
 parts of the skeleton at once, but sometimes in one and sometimes 
 in another. ISTothing is more opposed to the monogenistic theory 
 of hierarchical gradation of races, and more conformable to that of 
 parallel formations. A type is superior in one point, inferior in 
 another. It is the same with the family of the anthropoids, there 
 is the same divergence of proportions between their genera and 
 species as between the human races.* 
 
 The proportions of the trunk, with the exception of the pelvis, 
 can hardly be studied except on the living subject. 
 
 The Pelvis. 
 
 The pelvis, formed by the two Uiac bones and the sacrum, is 
 divided into two parts — the great pelvis, or wide upper portion, and 
 the small pelvis, or pelvic cavity, through which the foetus passes 
 at birth. Camper and Soemmering observed that the pelvis of the 
 negro in its ensemble is narrower than that of the white. Cuvier, 
 in his brUliant memoir on the Hottentot Venus, insisted on the 
 evidences of inferiority which he found in it. Weber maintained 
 
 * See " Memoires," by M. Broca, already referred to, page 86 ; "A Treatise 
 on the Hmnan Skeleton," by Humphry, Cambridge, 1858 ; " Eeoherohes snr 
 les Proportions du Bras et de I'Avant-bras," by E. Hamy, in " Bevne 
 d'Anthropologie," vol. i., 1873 ; " Observations on the Skeleton of a 
 Hottentot," by Jeff. "Wyman, in "Anthropol. Review," London, vol. iii., 
 1865, &o. 
 
 X 
 
306 PROPORTIONS OF THE PELVIS. [Chap. iV.. 
 
 that the inlet, that is to say the upper opening of the cavity, 
 exhibits four forms, which are met with in aU races, hut most 
 frequently the oval form in the European, the square in the Mon- 
 golian, the round in the American, and the wedge-like in the negro. 
 In 1826 Vrolik came to the conclusion that the pelvis of the male 
 negro — from its strength and thickness: — from the want of trans- 
 parency of its iliac f ossk — from the higher projection of its superior 
 extremity, and from the spinous processes of the iliac bones being 
 less projecting and less separated from the cotyloid cavities, approxi- 
 mates to that of animals, while the pelvis of the negress maintains 
 a certain slenderness. In 1864 Joulin asserted that the transverse 
 diameter of the inlet is always greater antero-posteriorly in the 
 female, and that as to configuration, there are only two human 
 groups — the European and the Mongolian negro. In the negress, he 
 says, the iUac bones are more vertical, the transparency of the fossae, 
 the capacity and depth of the cavity less, the pubic arch, as well as 
 its angle, greater. But M. Joulin had only studied the female 
 pelvis, and M. Pruner-Bey, the year subsequently, set to work to 
 prove that ethnic differences ought rather to be looked for in the 
 male pelvis.* 
 
 The most general of aU the characters of the pelvis is the relation 
 of its breadth to its length, which has been already described, 
 page 67. In the subjoined table, where the sexes are given 
 separately, the length being equal to 100, the breadth would be : 
 
 * On the pelvis, see " Considerations sur la Diversity des Bassins des 
 differentes Races Hnmaines," by Yrolik, Amsterdam, 1826 ; " La Doctrine 
 des Formes Primitives du Crine et du Bassin Hmnains," by Weber, 1830; 
 "Des Races de rOceanie Frangaise;" "Du Bassin Neo-Caledonien," by A. 
 Bonrgarel, in "Mem. Soo. d'Anthrop.," vol. i., 1860; "Anatomie et 
 Physiologie dn Bassin des MammifSres," by Jouliu, in " Arch, de Medic," 
 6tli series, vol. iii., 1864; "Etudes sur le Bassin oonsidere dans les 
 differentes Races Hmnaines," by Pruner-Bey, in " BuU. Soo. d'Anthrop.," 
 1864; "Du Sacrum suivant le Sexe et Suivant les Races," by Baoarisse, 
 thesis, Paris, 1873 ; " Des Proportions Generales du Bassin chez I'Hoinme 
 et dans la Serie des Mammifferes," by Paul Topinard, in " Comptes Eendus 
 de I'Association pour I'Avancement des Sciences," vol. iii., 1874, Lille ; " Le 
 Bassin dans les Sexes et dans les Races," by R. Vemeau, thesis, Paris,. 
 1875. 
 
■Chap, it.] 
 
 MUSCLES Am) VISCEEA. 
 
 307 
 
 
 Men. 
 
 
 ■Women 
 
 
 WHte races... 
 
 . 25 . 
 
 . 126-2 
 
 ... 4 
 
 .. 139-1 
 
 Yellow races 
 
 . 2 . 
 
 . 125-7 
 
 ... 2 
 
 .. 138-3 
 
 African negroes 
 
 . 17 . 
 
 . 121-3 
 
 ... 8 
 
 .. 133-8 
 
 New Caledonians . 
 
 .. 14 . 
 
 . 128-9 
 
 ... 5 
 
 .. 129-9 
 
 Bosjesmans ... 
 
 . — . 
 
 — 
 
 ... 2 
 
 .. 135-6 
 
 Other less important osteometrical characters are furnished by the 
 skeleton, -v^hich -want of space prevents ns from entering upon, and 
 ■which, moreover, are still under iavestigation. For example 
 (a) The degree of curvature of the femur, that is to say the 
 height of the diaphysis when the bone is placed on a horizontal 
 plane ; (6) The angle of incHnation of the diaphysis upon the plane 
 passing across the inferior surface of the condyles, that is to say, 
 its normal obliquity in the standing position ; (c) The angle of the 
 neck -with the diaphysis ; (d) The angle of torsion of the humerus ; 
 (e) The antero-posterior and transverse diameters of the tibia, from 
 ■which an iadex is formed for estimating platycnemia; (/) The 
 breadth and thickness of the olecranon, -which give another 
 important index ; (g) The length of the calcaneum behind the 
 articular border of the tibia ; (fee. 
 
 Muscles, Viscera, Vessels, and Nerves. 
 
 Their study, equally -with that of the bones, forms part of the 
 comparative anatomy of Man ; but we can only give a brief sketch 
 of the subject. 
 
 The anatomy ia ordinary use ■with physicians has been acquired 
 in our dissecting-rooms, on white subjects, of "which there is al^ways 
 a plentiful supply. Some fe^w negroes and Mongolians have also 
 been submitted to dissection, but ■without much attention being 
 paid to the subject. It is only no-w that this branch of ' 
 anthropology is heginiung to spring into life. We begin, to find 
 that there are as many reasons -why we should search into the 
 differences ■which exist in internal organs as into the features of the 
 countenance. Some splendid ■works on the anatomy of foreign 
 races have already appeared ; anatomical variations, supposed 
 anomalies, are no longer passed by as matters of no interest ; and 
 
 X 2 
 
308 MUSCLES AND VISCEKA. [Chap. iv. 
 
 the laboratory of M. Broea is so arranged as to furnisli tlie amplest 
 materials for study, and bids fair one day to supply tbe deficiency 
 whicli bas been so long experienced. One fact bas been already 
 ascertained — namely, tbat tbe muscular system is tbe seat of 
 differences : some as to tbe nature of the characters wbioh "we 
 have termed unimportant ; others produced by arrangements which 
 are found normally in various classes of the mammalia. The 
 variations exhibited by the cutaneous muscle, the muscles of the 
 face or of the ears, the adductors of the arm, the rectus abdominis 
 muscle, the muscles of the hand and foot, the glutaai, and the triceps 
 of the calf of the leg are in this category. Some are even repeated 
 so frequently in certaiu individuals of the same race as to lead 
 us to ask if they are not the normal condition in that race, and 
 one of its characteristic features. The skeleton of itself recog- 
 nises the existence of peculiarities of the muscular system, and 
 exhibits them in default of postmortem examination. Thus the 
 development of the temporal fossa, in extent and depth, shows 
 the degree of development of the temporal muscle which was 
 inserted there ; the femur a colonne and the channelled fibula of 
 our ancestors of the Eyzies testify as to the strength and size of 
 their posterior femoral muscles, and of the external muscles of the 
 leg. AH the internal parts of the body are subject to variety in 
 different races : the peritoneum, the ileo-csecal appendix, the liver, 
 the larynx ; and if the small number of cases observed did not lead 
 us to fear pronouncing as an individual variation one of an ethnic 
 character, we might mention many examples of them. ISo doubt 
 special peculiarities in the internal generative organs wUl be dis- 
 covered. Mr. Bakewell at one time thought he had discovered 
 differences in the blood globules : they were attributable to accli- 
 mation. Nevertheless we hope he will continue to prosecute his 
 inquiries in this direction.* 
 
 * See " On the Various Forms of the Glottis," by Gibb, in " Anthrop. 
 Keriew," vol. ii., 1864 ; and " On the Larynx of the Negro," by the same 
 author, in "Anthrop. Keview," vol. iii., 1865; "Dissection of a Bosjesmau 
 Woman," by Flower and Mnrrie, in " Journ. of Anat. and Physiol.," London, 
 1867; "Observations d'Anatomie Anthropologique snr le Corps d'un 
 Nfegre," by Kopemi9ki, in "Eevue d' Anthrop,," vol. i., 1872; M. Chud- 
 
Chap, it.] NERVOUS SYSTEM. 309 
 
 The nervous system has teen the subject of closer study. 
 Soemmering, and after him Jacquart, demonstrated that the 
 nerves of the negro, particularly those of the base of the hrain, 
 are larger than those of the European. It has been ascer- 
 tained that his cerebral substance is not so white. "With regard to 
 the external structure of the brain and its convolutions, no funda- 
 mental difference between them has been as yet discovered ; which 
 was to be expected, inasmuch as there is none between Man and 
 the anthropoid. IsTevertheless there are gradations as regards the 
 richness of the secondary convolutions. The convolutions are 
 larger and less complex in the inferior races. The superior frontal 
 was not unfolded in the Hottentot Venus ; the plis de passage from 
 the parietal to the occipital lobe are exceptionally less superficial 
 on one side, so that the perpendicular fissure is more visible, and 
 the occipital lobe better marked ; there is in fact more or less want 
 of symmetry between the two sides. But these are individual 
 variations, and not characters of race. 
 
 The weight of the brain, one would suppose, ought to exhibit 
 differences of a more important character. Nothing of the kind. 
 Individual variations wholly prevail, and necessitate, more than in 
 any other character, our carrying on our investigations iipon an 
 extended basis. 
 
 'Sow, if weighing the brain immediately after death had been 
 practised on a sufficiently large scale either in Europe or America, 
 it could hardly have been so in countries inhabited by the inferior 
 races. The process of weighing requires the most minute care, and 
 should, properly, be conducted when the brain is in a fresh state, 
 and not after having been kept in spirit. Thus science has but 
 few materials to work with. These variations depend on age, sex, 
 stature, the disease which was the cause of death, the individual's 
 amount of intelligence, &c. We have referred to this at page 120 ; 
 we shall confine ourselves therefore to making an approximate 
 
 zinski's " Memoirea," already quoted ; " De la Valenr dea Anomaliea 
 Mnsculaires au Point de Vue d'Anthropologie Zoologique," \>j Samnel 
 Pozzi, in " Comptes Eendus de 1' Assoc, pour VAvano. des Soienoes," 
 vol. iii., 1874; &C. 
 
310 
 
 WEIGHT OF THE BRAIN. 
 
 [Chap. it. 
 
 estimate of tiie probable percentage in the f oim of a table similar to 
 tbat of Parcbappe. 
 
 
 Variations in the total weight 
 
 As to sez 
 
 10 per cent. 
 
 ., age 
 
 4 „ 
 
 „ heiglit ... 
 
 4 „ 
 
 „ mental disease ... 
 
 4. to 5 „ 
 
 „ idiotoy 
 
 18* „ 
 
 „ last lUness 
 
 10(?)„ 
 
 „ inteUigenoe 
 
 20 „ 
 
 This shows that we ought to take brains in precisely identical 
 conditions, that is to say healthy ones of the same age and the 
 same sex, and to take care, following Husohke's example, not to ■ 
 confound the cases of individuals who have died under ordinary 
 circumstances with those who have died suddenly in sound health, 
 such as suicides. The difference between them may be as much as 
 130 grammes, or as great as between the means of a superior and an 
 inferior race. But an entire security is afforded to the comparison 
 of the brain in different races by the individual variations, which 
 are so capricious, and are dependent on so many external circum- 
 stances of original or acquired intelligence, or more stUl on cerebral 
 activity, whatever its physiological manifestations may be. The 
 density of the cerebral substance increases probably, as well as 
 the total volume and richness of the convolutions, by intellectual 
 activity. The brain of an Australian, superior relatively to his 
 fellows around him, will be heavier and have more convolutions 
 than that of a Parisian of' mere mediocre intelligence. The 
 deviation of 20 per cent, in the weight of the brain in the white 
 race is the difference between the average weight of this race and 
 that of the brains of Cuvier and Dupuytren. Supposing that these 
 two cases are anomalies, and reducing the deviation one half, it 
 would stOl be 130 grammes. Here, therefore, more than in any 
 other anthropological character, we must make our calculations 
 upon large masses, in which individualities are lost. Bearing these 
 
 * The average weight of the brain of idiots as taken by Mr. CrooUey 
 S. Clapham is 1188 grammes in the male, and 1057 in the female. 
 
<Chap. IV.] 
 
 WEIGHT OF THE BRAIN. 
 
 311 
 
 •things in mind, we sliall reproduce the following tatle of weights 
 -of the brain in varioiis races :* 
 
 Men. 
 105 English and Sootot (Peacock) ... 
 28 French. (Parchappe) 
 40 Germans (Hnschke) 
 . 18 „ (Wagner) 
 
 50 Anstrians (Wieshaoh) 
 1 Annamite (Broca) 
 
 7 African Negroes (various authors) 
 
 8 „ „ (Broca) 
 
 1 Negro of Pondicherry (Broca) ... 
 
 1 Hottentot (Wyman)t 
 
 1 Cape Negro (Broca) 
 
 Grammes. 
 1427 
 1334 
 1382 
 1392 
 1342 
 1233 
 1238 
 1289 
 1330 
 1417 
 974 
 
 Women. 
 34 English and Scotch (Peacock) 
 
 18 French (Parchappe) 
 22 Germans (Huschke) ' ,.. 
 13 „ (Wagner) 
 
 19 Austrians (Wieshach) ... 
 2 African Negresses (Peacock) 
 2 „ „ (Broca) 
 2 Bushwomen (Marshall, Flower, and Mnrrie) 
 1 Australian (Owen) 
 
 1260 
 
 1210 
 1244 
 1209 
 1160 
 1232 
 1067 
 974 
 907 
 
 * See the " Memoire " of Parchappe, already quoted ; " Schcedel, Hirn, und 
 Seele des Menschen und der Thiere," by Huschke, Jena, 1854 ; " On the 
 Weight of the Brain, and the Circumstances affecting it," by J. Thurnam, 
 in " Journal of Med. Sciences," vol. xii. ; " Contributions towards deter- 
 mining the Weight of the Brain in different Baces of Men," by J. Barnard 
 Davis, London, 1868; "On the Weight of the Brain of the Negro," by 
 Peacock, in " Mem. Anthrop. Soc, London, vol. i., 1863-64 ; " Memoires," 
 by Wagner, Broca, Gratiolet, already quoted, in " Bull. Soc. d' Anthrop.," 
 Paris, 1862. 
 
 f This exceptional weight in a negro is surpassed by one of M. Brooa's 
 negroes, which is as much as 1500 grammes. May it not be asked whether 
 the free negro living among Europeans has not a heavier brain than if he 
 had remained in his own country, far removed from great intellectual excite- 
 ment ? With regard to Wyman's Hottentot, his stature was 169 centimetres 
 which is sufficient to show that he was not a Hottentot but a Kaffir, or at 
 least a half-caste. 
 
312 
 
 WEIGHT OF THE BRAIN. 
 
 [Chap. it. 
 
 We Lave omitted from this list a series of weights taken during 
 the American war, by Sandifort B. Hunt, which included 405 
 hraius of whites, blacks, and half-castes. Mr. B. Davis finds faidt 
 with their author for not having indicated his method of operating. 
 These weights, notwithstanding, are of considerable value for their 
 reciprocal relations. 
 
 In the first place, the mean weight of 278 European brains was 
 1430 grammes; the extremes being 963 and 1842 respectively. 
 This latter was evidently a case of disease, or belonged to some 
 obscure Cuvier. In the second place, the mean weight of 141 
 negroes was 1331, and the maximum and minimum 1507 and 
 1013 respectively. The author divides the half-castes into white 
 and black, according to the degree of mixture of breed. It is the 
 method of determining this degree to which exception may be taken.* 
 
 
 Grammes 
 
 24 Whites 
 
 1424 
 
 25 Three parts white... 
 
 1390 
 
 47 Half white, or mulattoes... 
 
 1334 
 
 51 One quarter white 
 
 1319 
 
 95 An eighth white ... 
 
 1308 
 
 22 A sixteenth white... 
 
 1280 
 
 141 Pure negroes 
 
 1331 
 
 Does not this seem to show that the white blood where it pre- 
 dominates in a mixed breed exercises a preponderating influence in. 
 favour of cerebral development, while the inverse predominance of 
 negro blood leaves the brain in a condition of inferiority approaching 
 even that of the pure negro ] This would lead us to believe that 
 the mixed breeds assimilate the bad more readily than the good. 
 
 In defatdt of being able to obtain direct weights of the brain in 
 sufficient numbers in the various races, we must address ourselves 
 to the cranial capacity. B. Davis, Wiesbach, and Welcker have 
 endeavoured in this way to ascertain the probable weight, and have 
 published long tables on the subject. Mr. Davis makes use, as wa 
 all know, of sand in making his calculations. Prom the total 
 
 * "The Negro as a Soldier," by Sandifort B. Hunt, "Anthropological 
 Eeview," vol. vii., 1869. 
 
Chap, iv.] WEIGHT OF THE BRAIN. 313 
 
 ■weight of sand lie subtracts 15 per cent, for the memhranes, the 
 hlood of the venous sinuses, and the serous fluid within the cavity 
 of the cranium. Others consider that 13 per cent, is nearer the 
 mark. As a matter of fact the waste varies extraordinarily between 
 one cranium and another.* 
 
 The specific weight of the dried sand being taken at 1425, and 
 that of the cerebral substance at 1040 (which also varies), the 
 calcidation is very simple. The following ar? some results, selected 
 by Mr. B. Davis, from a list of 133 examples : 
 
 English 21 
 
 Chinese ... ... 25 
 
 Esquimanx ... ... 5 
 
 Negroes of Dahomey 9 
 
 Axistralians 17 
 
 Men. Grammes. Women. Grammes. 
 
 1425 ... 13 ... 1222 
 1357 ... 8 ... 1298 
 
 1396 ... 5 ... 1247 
 1322 ... 3 ... 1249 
 1197 ... 7 ... 1169 
 
 M. Wiesbach has confirmed the value of this method. He 
 obtained the cubic measurement of 115 crania with sand, deducted 
 from it the probable weight of the brain, and then weighed this 
 organ. The following was the result, in grammes, in males below 
 90 years of age : 
 
 
 Age. 
 
 Weight 
 calculated. 
 
 Direct 
 weight. 
 
 Difference 
 
 5 Crania .. 
 
 . 10 to 19 . 
 
 . 1270-06 . 
 
 . 1223-85 
 
 .. 46-21 
 
 75 „ . 
 
 . 20 „ 29 . 
 
 . 1355-11 . 
 
 . 1341-43 
 
 .. 13-68 
 
 9 „ • 
 
 . 30 „ 59 . 
 
 . 1374-95 . 
 
 . 1330-12 
 
 .. 44-83 
 
 n „ . 
 
 . 60 „ 90 . 
 
 . 1349-44 . 
 
 . 1241-21 
 
 .. 108-23 
 
 This approximation ought to suffice, for why should we go on 
 ■with so complicated a proceeding when, after all, we can only 
 substitute one figure for another, the relation remainihg the same 
 in the different series? We cannot expect to compare this new 
 result -with the weight obtained directly. One of the most certain 
 elements of divergence between one race and another is precisely 
 the density of the cerebral substance, which is here supposed to be 
 uniform. The operation of Mr. Davis really gives only the relative 
 
 * In eight negroes M. Broca, fonnd a difference of from 8 to 20 per cent. 
 tetween the weight of the brain and the cranial capacity. 
 
314 PHYSICAL CHARACTERS IN LIVING SUBJECT. [Chap. t. 
 
 volume, therefore we may as well confine oiirselves to the cranial 
 capacity itself. 
 
 Provided that all the conditions for weighing the brain properly 
 are fully complied with, that the influence of the disease of which 
 the individual died is taken into consideration, as weU as the 
 hypostatic accumulation of hlood in depending parts at the time of 
 death ; that some form of wicker receiver is made use of in which 
 to place the hrain, for ^ given time, so as to allow it to diain, &c.— 
 then the difference of weight, according to race, might be ascertaiued; 
 in the same way, difi'erence iu the volume of the cavity, fluids 
 and blood included, may be ascertaiued by regular cubic measure- 
 ment. Consequently, until some better method has been suggested, 
 we must rely more upon our tables of cubic measurements (see 
 page 230). 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 PHTSICAIi CHARACTERS IN THE LIVING SUBJECT ANTHROPOMETRIOAIi 
 
 CHARACTERS — PROPORTIONS IN ART — STATURE MEASUREMENT OF 
 
 THE HEAD AND BODY. 
 
 The physical characters, deduced from the examination of the 
 internal organs, occupy the highest place in natural history, for the 
 sole reason that the field in which they are displayed is more vast. 
 But anthropologists and naturalists do not on that account neglect 
 those which the external organs manifest, and which invite a much 
 greater amount of attention. Among the latter some have reference 
 to the envelope of the body itself, and its connections ; such as the 
 colour of the skin, the character of the hair, and whatever has 
 reference to the external organs of sense and reproduction. They 
 are ascertained by inspection, and are only exceptionally expressed 
 by figures : these then will be our descriptive characters. Others are 
 only the reflex of the ratemal conformation, and are obtained by 
 systematic measurements : these are anthropometrical characters. 
 
€hap. v.] ANTHROPOMBTBICAl CHARAOTEES. 315 
 
 Such are the proportions of the hody, which we may think our- 
 selves fortunate — seeing the few opportiiaities we have of noticing 
 them on the skeleton, and stUl less on the dead hody — to he ahle 
 to verify upon the living subject, and, even to do this, we have to 
 appeal to the kindness of travellers. 
 
 Anthropometrical Gliaracters. Proportions of the Body. 
 
 The sculptors of antiquity were the first to make these their 
 study. Certain canons, that is to say, conventional rules, based no 
 doubt on observation, but more still on individual feeling, were 
 adopted by them. Three of these were recognised among the 
 Egyptians, and one among the Greeks — the famous statue of 
 Polycletus. But they deviated from them according to the concep- 
 tion which they desired to infuse into their work. If they wished 
 to represent a god, as Jupiter, for example, they developed the 
 ■subject less by a rigorous adherence to nature than by selecting 
 from those around them a form of forehead which suited them the 
 best, or by cunningly bringing the ear lower, by which the facial 
 angle was enlarged ; if they aimed at nobleness and grace, the 
 neck was bare, the limbs were made round and slim ; if at the 
 snbliQie, the head, the limbs, and especially the joints, were 
 made larger (Quetelet). "Wide shoulders denoted strength; narrow 
 shoulders youth, or effeminate character ; the trunk all of one size, 
 or drawn in at the waist, had also its signification. The pelvis was 
 •contracted when it was designed to awaken modest sentiments, or 
 widened when intended to excite feelings of an opposite character. 
 Eigorous exactness was so little sought after by the Greeks that 
 they were not afraid to commit the most egregious errors in anatomy 
 (Gerdy), and even to make the limbs unequal. In the Laocoon 
 the left leg is longer than the right, and in one of his sons it is 
 the reverse. The Pythian Apollo and the Venus de Medicis have 
 ■each one leg longer than the other (Audran). 
 
 The various schools which have succeeded the Eenaissance period 
 have been inspired with the same ideas. In Italy, height of figure 
 was expressive of dignity. In Spain, the figure was reduced in 
 
316 PROPORTIONS OF THE BODY IN ART. [Chap. T. 
 
 size with, a view to denote delicacy of form. In Holland, it 
 was made large to illustrate realism. In France, of late, the head 
 only has been exaggerated, with a view to its exciting greater 
 attention. The artistic and the anthropological conception therefore 
 are contradictory the one to the other : the one idealises the beautiful, 
 the other searches after the true. Art, then, ought to rest upon 
 anthropology, in that its whims are tolerated, though under the 
 express condition that they do not go beyond the individual varia- 
 tions which anthropometry reveals to it. If there is no art without 
 feeling, neither is there any without design and without truth. 
 
 It had not occurred to the ancients that there were differences in 
 the proportions of the various races of mankind, notwithstanding 
 which, as M. Edwards has remarked, the Greeks set before them 
 two types, the divine and the heroic. Almost involuntarily, the 
 Egyptians took as their model two indigenous types, not including 
 those of negroes and Jews, which figured more particularly among 
 their prisoners of war. But the sentiment which prevails through- 
 out antiquity, and which is perpetuated throughout the Eenaissance 
 period up to the present time, is, that unity of the human type 
 corresponds to unity of species. It was this which led Qu^telet 
 to affirm that ten individuals of the same age and of the same sex 
 were ample to exhibit the proportions of the body, and that all 
 deviations from them were only individual variations. 
 
 The opposite doctrine of the plurality of types did not begin to 
 be delineated until the time of Albert Diirer. Camper aided in 
 developing it. It is now generally admitted, and we look for the 
 negro ideal, or the Mongol ideal, as well as for the white ideal. It 
 is upon this conception that the science of the proportions of bodies, 
 as ascertained by anthropometry and by the method of averages, 
 rests. And in the first place let us give the terms of the modern 
 canon, as taught in the schools of art, where the white is the 
 standard for the anatomy of the figure, as it is in the dissecting- 
 rooms for ordinary anatomy.* 
 
 * " Les Proportions du Corps Humain mesurees sur les plus Belles Figures 
 de I'Autiquite," folio, by Gerard Audran, 1863; "Anatomie des Formes 
 Exterieures du Corps Humain," 8vo., by P. N. Gerdy, Paris, 1869; "Types 
 
Chap, y.] STATURE. 317 
 
 " The human body is equal to eight lengths of the head, divided 
 thus : from the vertex to the chin, one ; from the chin to the 
 nipples, one ; from these to the umbilicus, one ; from the umbilicus 
 to the genital organs, one ; from these to the middle of the thigh, 
 one ; from this point to the spine of the tibia. One ; from this spiue 
 to the middle of the leg, one; from this to the ground, one (Gerdy). 
 
 " The head is divided iato four equal parts : from the vertex to 
 the line of the hair ; from this point to the root of the nose ; from 
 the root to the base of the nose ; from this base to the chin (Gerdy). 
 
 " The space between the eyes, and the breadth at the base of the 
 nose, are each equal to one length of the eye. The mouth and ear 
 are each equal to two lengths of the eye. 
 
 " The length of the hand and that of the face (from the line of the 
 hair to the chin) are equal, and form the ninth part of the stature. 
 The length of the foot and the circumference of the clenched fist 
 are equal, and form the sixth part of the stature. 
 
 "But these are only approximations, and like all canons are 
 only for the purpose of refreshing the memory. Let us see what 
 the real dimensions are. As in the skeleton, there are two methods 
 of ascertaining the proportions of the body : one consists in com- 
 paring the principal parts together, as the superior extremities to 
 the inferior, the forearm to the arm; the other to reduce the 
 dimensions obtained into thousandths of the stature. The latter is 
 the better, and the readiness with which it can be had recourse to 
 is precisely that which gives the advantage of the measurements 
 on living subjects over those of the skeleton. The first thing, 
 therefore, is to ascertain the stature." 
 
 Stature. 
 
 This is arrived at with difficulty on the skeleton, as we have 
 shown at page 81. On the dead body when laid out straight it 
 
 Ethniques representes par la Sculpture efc Proportions du Corps," by 
 Cordier, in " Bull. Soc. d'Authrop." ; article " Anatomie des Beaux Arts," by 
 Deohambre, in. " Enoyol. Sc. Med., 1866 ; " Antiiropometrie," by Quetelet, 
 Brussels, 1871 ; &Q. 
 
318 STATURE, [Chap, t- 
 
 loses about 13 millimetres. The best way is to take it on the- 
 living subject, which allows of our pursuing our investigations upon 
 large numbers, in whom the individual variations are lost. 
 
 The height or stature varies, Uke all the dimensions of the 
 various parts of the human body, according to age, sex, individual 
 peculiarity, external ciiemnstances, state of previous health, and 
 race. 
 
 At birth man's height is about 50 centimetres, according to- 
 Qu^telet ; at 5 years of age, about 1 m^tre ; at 15, 1-50 m^tre; at 
 19 years of age he wants 15 millimetres to complete his full height, 
 which is reached generally at or about 30 years of age, though thia 
 varies. From 50 to 60 years of age the height always decreases, 
 according to Qu^telet, and at 90 years of age is less by 7 centimetres. 
 From our own personal observation we find that this is so almost 
 universally, and consequently, in order to get at the true stature, we 
 ought to confine ourselves to individuals beyond 30 years. The 
 woman is shorter than the man, on the average about 12 centimetres ; 
 that is to say she is 7 per cent, less in height. Consequently, when 
 we wish to compare the measurements of both directly, we must add 
 to that of the woman, or deduct from that of the man, 7 per cent. 
 But this difference varies according to race. It is greater, eceteris 
 paribus, in tall races, and less iu races of low stature. In the 
 former it reaches an average of 14 centimetres, or 8 per cent. ; and 
 iu the latter, 7 centimetres, or 5 per cent. Therefore, according as 
 we have to do with tall, medium, or short races, we add, when 
 making the comparison of the woman's with the man's height, 8, 
 7, or 5 per cent, to her measurement. Between individuals of the 
 same age, sex, and race, the height varies indefinitely. In fifty-five 
 series in which we made the comparison, the difference between the- 
 maximum and the minimum was from 9 to 39 centimetres. The 
 difficulty is to distinguish those which are normal from those which 
 ought to be looked upon as dwarfs or giants, the transition is sO' 
 imperceptible. In more than 1,000,000 American soldiers, five 
 were above 2-032 metres, and four below 1-244 metre- but the 
 averages are not affected in consequence of this, because the 
 abnormal cases have in all probability been equally distributed at 
 
■Chap, v.] ITS TAEIATIONS. 31» 
 
 the two extremities of tlie series. The only condition is that the- 
 series should he sufficiently numerous. External circumstances 
 have a certaia iofluence on the stature of the individual. ViUerme 
 brought forward evidence to show that the stature was much, 
 higher previously to the year 1813 in the airondissements of Paris, 
 in consequence of the prosperous condition of the population. 
 M. Gould also showed that the stature of American sailors is less 
 than, that of soldiers of the same race, who were better fed. 
 Drs. Bertrand, Peruy, Mouill6, and Leques point to poor countries 
 where the stature is low, while close beside them, where the 
 country is rich, it is high. D'Orbigny came to the conclusion, 
 after examining a large number of Southerners of the United States, 
 that the stature decreased with the latitude. Qu^telet found that 
 in Belgium the townspeople are taller than the countryfolk ; and 
 Dr. Beddoe proves the contrary to be the case in England : two 
 facts which may be explained dijBferently by different people. 
 M. Duiand (de Gros) states that in chalk districts the inhabitants are- 
 taller than in the districts of the primary rocks. But all these 
 matters require further consideration. Sufficient account is not 
 taken of the races which have been intermingled with the popu- 
 lation in towns, in a way sometimes the most unexpected, and 
 under a great variety of influences. One of the causes which 
 Dr. Beddoe brings forward, with a view to explain his statement 
 above referred to, is the varied influences which are at work among 
 the population of towns. "We should also consider whether the 
 acquired diminution or increase in stature is not purely individual, 
 as well as under what conditions and after how many generations 
 the change would become hereditary and permanent. To the 
 influence of external circumstances, mode of physical existence, and 
 food, may be added that of health. It is absolutely invariable, 
 provided that the morbid agencies are at work before the period 
 when the epiphyses of the long bones are entirely welded to the 
 diaphysis. This period is indicated in the table at page 140, but 
 growth ought stiU to continue slowly and within certain limits, 
 subsequently to this. The tardy term of thirty years, which we 
 have indicated as one of growth, proves it. We should moreover 
 
320 
 
 STATURE IN VARIOUS RACES. 
 
 [Chap. t. 
 
 ascertain if, when tlie ossification and growth of the skeleton have 
 heen suspended, the work does not commence with renewed activity, 
 and thus make up for lost time. The last influence which we shall 
 . notice is of more interest to us, namely, that of race. We shall confine 
 ourselves to the male sex, on which our measurements are most 
 usually made, and which furnishes us with examples in abundance. 
 The extreme limit of stature among races, or rather among peoples, 
 varies on the average from 1 -40 mhtie to ahout 1 "80, which makes 
 the general average 1'60. But tall races are the more numerous, 
 and the two or three whose stature is below the above limit are 
 isolated, and are fast dying out. We may look upon 1 '65 as the 
 average stature, taking the entire population of the globe. We in 
 France are thus exhibited in a favourable light, inasmuch as this is 
 precisely our own mean stature. 
 
 This being estabhshed, races or peoples may be divided into 
 four groups. (1) Very tail, averaging 1-70 m^tre and upwards; 
 
 (2) Those above the middle height, from 1-70 to 1-65 inclusive; 
 
 (3) Those below the middle height, from 1-65 to 1-60; (4) Those 
 of low stature, below 1'60. 
 
 The following averages of stature are extracted from oui " Etude " 
 before referred to. They are sometimes those obtained from the 
 traveller himself, sometimes from other sources, varying from 2 to 
 15. The number of individuals in each series varies from 14 to 
 30,000. 14 is certainly very few ; but in one such as the Veddahs, 
 we may consider ourselves fortunate to be able to give even this 
 number. 
 
 MEN (averages). 
 Very tall — 1-70 and above. 
 Tehnelohea of Patagonia (6 series) 
 Polynesians (15 series) 
 Iroquois Indians (Gonld) 
 Negroes of Guinea (4 series) 
 Amaxosa Kaffirs {Pritsch) 
 Australians (Topinard) 
 
 SoandinaTiana (3 series) 
 
 Scotch (2 series) 
 
 English (3 series) 
 
 Western Esquimaux (Beeohey) 
 
 1-781 
 1-762 
 1-735 
 1-724 
 1-718 
 1-718 
 1-713 
 1-710 
 1-708 
 1-703 
 
CdAP. v.] '■ STATURE IN VAEIOUS BACBS. : 321 
 
 MEN (averages). 
 
 Above the middle height — from 1-70 to 1'65 inclusive. 
 
 Irish (2 series) ... ... ... 1-697 
 
 Bombers and Vadagas of India (Shortt) ... ... 1"694 
 
 Danes (Beddoe) 1-685 
 
 Belgians (Quetelet) ... ... ... ... ... 1-684 
 
 Charruas (D'Orbigny) 1-680 
 
 Arabs (3 series) ... ... 1-679 
 
 Saghalians (La Perouse) ... ... ... ... 1-678 
 
 Germans (8 series) ... ... ... ... ... 1-677 
 
 Ne-w Caledonians (Bourgarel) ... ... ... 1-670 
 
 Peschernis of Tierra del Fuego (4 series) .. . ... 1-664 
 
 Kirghis (Prichard) ... 1-663 
 
 Eussia,ns (4 series) ... ... ... ... ... 1-660 
 
 Eonmanians (2 series) ... 1-657 
 
 Berbers (3 series) ... ... ... ... ... 1-655 
 
 Esquimaux, central (5 series) ... ... ... 1-654 
 
 Tribes of the east coast of India (3 series) ... 1-652 
 
 Aborigines of the Caucasus (Shortt) ... ... 1-650 
 
 French 1-650 
 
 Below the middle height — from 1-65 to 1'60 inclusive. 
 
 Negroes of Algeria (Gillebert d'Heroourt) ... 1-645 
 
 Dra vidians and Hindoos (2 series) .. . ... ... 1-642 
 
 Jews (Schultz) 1-637 
 
 Magyars (Bernstein)... ... ... ... ... 1-631 
 
 Nicobarians (JToKorra) ... ... 1-631 
 
 Chinese (IVb-yarra) ... ... ... ... ... 1'630 
 
 British India beyond the Ganges (4 series) ... 1-622 
 
 Araucanians and Botocudos (D'Orbigny) 1-620 
 
 Sicilians (Lombroso) ... ... 1-618 
 
 Fins 1-617 
 
 Indo-Chinese (5 series) ... ... ... ... 1615 
 
 Peruvians (4 series) ... ... ... 1600 
 
 Low stature — ^below 1-60 exclusive. 
 
 Malays (11 series) ... ... ... ... ... 1"596 
 
 Australians of Port Jackson (Lesson) ... ... 1-.575 
 
 Tribes of Orissa — Indians (3 series) ... ... 1-569 
 
 Kurumbas of the Nilgherries (Shortt) 1539 
 
 Lapps (2 series) ... ... ... ... ... 1536 
 
 Papuans (Mayer) ... ... ... ... ... 1-536 
 
 Teddahs (Bailey) 1-535 
 
 Kegritoa (4 series) ... ... ... 1-478 
 
 Bosjesmans (5 series) ... 1-404 
 
 Y 
 
322 STATURE OF VAEIOUS KACBS. [Chap v. 
 
 The extremes are thus seen to he Patagonians and Bosjesmans. 
 Two series, however, are not in the table, which might show this 
 not to he so. The first, that of Humboldt, who assigns to the 
 Caribs of the Orinoco a height of 1 -84 m^tre ; and the second, 
 that of La P&ouse, which gives the height of the Orotchys of the 
 river Amour as 1-38 mfetre. But these extremes have not been 
 oonfirmed by others, while those of the Patagonians and Bosjes- 
 mans have been so by a host of travellers. 
 
 In Africa two great negro races are distinguished by their 
 height : one, the Kaffirs scattered at the south-east, and along the 
 west coast of Congo to Senegal, and ... in America, to which they 
 have been wafted by commerce ; the other represented by the Bos- 
 jesmans to the north of the Orange Eiver, the Obongos of Du 
 Chaillu, and the Akkas of M. Schweinfiirth — the first very tall, the 
 last very short. Among those of middle height may be placed 
 Hottentots, which are nearer to the Bosjesmans, and perhaps 
 another negro race in the Sahara zone. 
 
 Oceania furnishes also some good examples of stature : on the 
 east, the Polynesians are very tall ; on the west, the Malays are 
 short, and the Negritos shorter 'still; in the centre, the New 
 Caledonians are much above the middle height. The Australians 
 are divided into two races : the one short, which has disappeared ; 
 the other tall, which is fast dying out. In Asia the general 
 character is that of low stature, or below the middle height. It 
 decreases in the north in Siberia, and in the south as we 
 approach the Malaccas ; increases in the centre, in the Japan 
 Islands, in China, and as we advance towards the Himalayas and 
 Turkistan. In Lidia, particularly, many varieties of stature are to 
 he met with : (a) TaU tribes, some wandering, others settled in the 
 plains at the foot of the Nilgherry HiUs and about the north-west 
 angle ; (6) Tribes above and about the average, on the east coast ; 
 (j) The Dra vidians, below the average ; (d) Savage tribes, decidedly 
 small ; and lastly (e) In the Nilgherries and Ceylon, tribes stUl 
 smaUer, as though the three races had become intermingled : the 
 first, of whose nature we are ignorant, and which is represented by 
 
Chap, v.] STATURE IN FRANCE. 323 
 
 the Dumbas ; the second of Mongolian origin ; the third Hack, and 
 probably aborigiaal. 
 
 In America, at the extreme north, we notice the Esqnimaiix;, 
 whose stature, we are told, is short in the east of Greenland, increases 
 as we go west, and is tall in the neighbourhood of Behiing's Straits. 
 The iuhabitants of both North and South America are generally 
 tall, which is not quite in accordance with the usually received 
 opinion as to the Asiatic origiu of Europeans. Two orders of 
 peoples may be recognised among them, however : the one — and 
 this constituting the majority — being very tall, from Patagonia to 
 the Eiver Mackenzie ; the other being below the average height and 
 thinly scattered, notably in Vancouver's Island, and among -the 
 Crees in the north, and Peru in the south. In Europe the tallest 
 men are the Norwegians, and the smallest the Lapps and — if we may 
 include mummies in our measurements — certain of the ancient 
 Guanches of the Canaries. In France two varieties of stature are 
 to be seen : the one very tall, in the north ; the other below the 
 middle height, in the south. 
 
 The stature has only been studied in a direct manner either in 
 individuals of all ages, or in those who have attained their maximum 
 of growth. The most numerous statistics in France have reference 
 to individuals under certain special circumstances, that is to say to, 
 conscripts from 20 to 21 years of age, from which we must subtract 
 all those below 1-56 mtee, and the infirm. Hence we have two 
 kinds of averages which these statistics give, namely, the proportion 
 of those annually rejected, that is to say those of low stature, and 
 the average height of those remaining. M. Broca has published 
 them for the whole of France, for each of its Departments, and for 
 each of the Arrondissements of Brittany. He has given with his 
 results — which are of the greatest interest — variously-coloured maps. 
 Boudin, on the other hand, has prepared a map — which is less 
 exact, but very interesting nevertheless — of the proportionate 
 distribution of the statures of 1-732 mfetre and upwards in the 
 various Departments. The researches of these two observers have 
 been corroborated, and show that everywhere the numbers of high 
 
 T 2 
 
324 STATURE IN FEANCE. [Chap. v. 
 
 and low statuies are in an inverse ratio, giving at the same time ■ 
 the distribution of the two races to which these extremes correspond. 
 
 In fine, the probable average stature, calculated with the greatest 
 care, has varied in France annually, from the year 1836 to 1864, 
 from 1'64:2 mfetreto 1'649 mfetre; the general average throughout the 
 twenty-eight years being 1 '646. This is somewhat under the mark, 
 however, because the individuals to whom it refers had not reached 
 their maximum. On the other hand, the proportion of conscripts 
 rejected on account of being too short has varied, in the same 
 years, from 101 to 162 per 1000 of those examined throughout 
 the whole of France ; and in the Departments, in the entire period, 
 from 24 per 1000 in the Doubs to 147 per 1000 in the Haute- 
 Vienne. The proportion of taU statures leads to the same result : 
 the tallest in France amount to 156 per 1000 conscripts in the 
 Doubs, and the shortest 31 "6 in the Haute- Vienne. Now the Doubs, 
 where there are so many tall statures and so few short, is the 
 country of the ancient Burgundians ; and the Haute- Yienne, where 
 it is just the reverse, that of the ancient Celts. 
 
 At the bottom of the maps in question two distinct zones are 
 drawn, which are separated by an oblique or curved line, going 
 from the Department of the Ain to the bay of St. Malo. On the 
 north and east are the short statures, on the south and west the 
 tail : the former inhabited by the ancient Kymris, Burgundians, 
 and Normans ; the latter by the ancient Celts. Here and there, 
 however, in the south and west, are portions of territory where 
 the statures are tall. This is so in the neighbourhood of Toulouse, 
 where the Volkian Tectosages of the race of the Kymris located 
 themselves; and along the banks of the Ehone and the shores of the 
 Mediterranean, where there was a constant interchange between the 
 Gauls on the north and the cisalpine Gauls. The map of Brittany 
 shows the tail statures predominating in the north, along the coast 
 where the Bretons, the ancient Belgian Kymris, landed from the 
 island of Albion about the fifth century of our era ; and the low 
 statures in the south and in the centre, where the Celts were 
 previously repulsed. 
 
 Similar statistics of stature have been published in other 
 
Chap, v.] MEASUREMENT OF THE HEAD. ,325 
 
 countries, as Italy, Spain, Bavaria, which have led us to the ' con- 
 clusion that the stature increases generally in Europe from the 
 north to the south, the two extreme points being represented by 
 Norway and the islands of the Mediterranean, not taking into 
 account the Lapps and the Fins, which form a distract group. 
 Apropos of stature, a particular method has been employed which 
 many prefer to that of averages generally in use in craniometry, 
 namely, the method of seriation, in which the individual figures are 
 arranged in a scale, in groups from the minimum to the maximum, 
 and the number of times noted that they are repeated in each 
 group. Generally there is a regular increase from the extremities 
 of the series towards the centre, where the character is found ex- 
 pressed, not in the form of an average, but of a " median." Some- 
 times there are two centres or two medians. M. BertiUon explains 
 them by the mingling, without the complete fusion, of two races 
 of opposite characters. Thus in the Doubs, where the position of 
 the statures in the series gives rise to two medians, one to 1'635 
 and the other to 1'7.32, the former would answer to the ancient 
 Celtic Sequanians, the latter to the ancient Burgundians. This 
 method, which indicates particularly the extent of individual 
 variations, is very much adopted in England, and has been main- 
 tained on the Continent by Qu^telet and BertUlon.* 
 
 Having now considered the stature, we may pass on to the 
 measurement of the several parts of the body. The methods 
 employed are similar to those in use for the skeleton, modified 
 according to the accessibility of the measuring points (points de 
 rephre). "We shall confine ourselves to the most important — to those 
 which travellers are recommended to adopt — and shall commence 
 with the head. 
 
 Measurement of the Head. 
 Here, as upon the skull, the measurements to be employed are 
 of three orders, namely — (a) By straight lines, which we take 
 
 * " De la Methode en Anthropolgie," in "Bull. Soo. d'Anthrop.," vol. iv., 
 1863 ; and article " Moyenne," in " Enoyolopedie des Sciences Medioales," 
 by M. Bertillon. 
 
326 MEASUREMENT OP THE HEAD. [Chap. T. 
 
 ■with, the callipers and the sliding compass, and by curves, which 
 require the measuring-tape ; (b) By projections, which are taken 
 with the double square ; (c) By angles : cubic measurements of course 
 are not made use of. The following is a list of those measurements 
 which are absolutely necessary to be taken, and the figures are 
 those which we have recently obtained from an examination of a 
 Ctinese of 23 years of age : 
 
 Maximum auiero-posterior diameter, as on the 
 skeleton, from the glabella to the maximam 
 posterior point ... ... ... ... ... 196 mill. 
 
 Maximum transverse diameter, as on the skeleton, 
 
 above the ears ... ... ... ... ... 156 „ 
 
 Length of the face from the inter-superciliary 
 point to the superior alveolar point, between 
 the middle incisor teeth, at their neck ... 91 „ 
 
 Bizygomatio, or maximum transverse facial 
 
 diameter ... ... ... 150 „ 
 
 Height of the vertex above the ground (stature) 1-620 cent. 
 
 „ „ auditory meatus ... I'4i57 „ 
 
 „ „ chin 1-373 „ 
 
 Distance from the auditory meatus to the pos- 
 terior plane ... ... ... ... ... 97 mill. 
 
 Distance from the inter-auperoiUary point to ditto 192 „ 
 „ „ of the superior alveolar point to do. 227 „ 
 
 Frontal minimum, as on the skeleton ... ... 108 „ 
 
 The first two measurements give the cephaHc index on the 
 living subject, which we must take care not to confound with 
 that of the cranium. M. Broca found * in nineteen subjects which 
 he measured, a difference in the former varying from - 0'65 to 
 + 5-09, or an average of 1-68, which he attributes to the thickness 
 and resistance of the soft parts, by which each diameter is increased, 
 the transverse especially. He thinks that this difference ought to 
 be greater on the living subject, and comes to the conclusion that, 
 as a general rule, we should subtract two units from the index of 
 the living subject to get that of the cranium. The index in forty- 
 
 * " Comparaisou des Indices Cephaliques snr le Vivant et snr le Squelette, 
 by M. Brooa, in " Bull. Soo. d'Anthrop.," 2nd series, vol. iii., 1868. 
 
Chap, v.] MBASUKEMENT OP THE HEAD. 327 
 
 seven Basques from the neighbourliood of St. Jean de Luz, measured 
 by M. Argelli^s, being 83-1, it would be 81"1 on the cranium. 
 
 The following are examples of the cephalic index from varioua 
 authors : 
 
 20 Negritos of Lu9on (Mioklnoho-Maclay) ... 88"5 (?) 
 
 309 Auvergnians (Durand (de Gros) ) ... ... 84"6 
 
 423 Bretons of the interior (Guibert) 84-9 
 
 443 „ „ coast „ 83-0 
 
 8 Fins (Beddoe) 83-7 
 
 10 Buthenians, or Little Russians (Koperni^ki) ... 81-6 
 
 28 Danes (Beddoe) 80-5 
 
 10 Englisli „ 78-1 
 
 38 Swedes „ 78-8 
 
 180 Berbers (Tarious authors) 76"7 
 
 47 Arabs „ 76'3 
 
 7 Dravidians (Eoubaud) 75'8 
 
 6 Black Muudas of India (Eoubaud) .« ... 756 
 
 The next two measurements in the list give the facial angle of 
 M. Broca, that is to say, the relation of the simple length of the 
 face to its bizygomatic breadth ; the differences as regards this 
 index on the living subject have not yet been determined. 
 
 A third index is the relation of the vertical projection of the 
 head, expressed by the difference between the height of the vertex 
 and the height of the chin to the same bizygomatic breadth. This 
 is the general index of the head. (See p. 274.) It corresponds with 
 that which travellers express by the terms " long head," or " broad 
 head," " long face," or " broad face." If we take the length of the 
 face as = 100, it is because it has been so taken in the ordinary 
 facial index. The last six measurements are by projections in rela- 
 tion, not to the alveolo-condylean, or true horizontal plane of the 
 skull, whose measuring points are out of re&ch, but to the plane of 
 Camper, that is to say to the hue passing over the auditory meatus 
 and the base of the nares, which is the only convenient one, the 
 one most easy to determine on the living subject. With the table 
 at page 267, which gives the inclination of this plane in relation to 
 the alveolo-condylean, it will always be possible to convert the 
 projections, and even the angles relating to them, into equivalent 
 measurements on the skull. 
 
328 
 
 METHOD OF PEOCBEDESTG. 
 
 [Chap. v. 
 
 The general method of proceeding is shown in Kg. 39. The 
 individual is in an upright position against a wall, upon which 
 a measuring-tape or a graduated rule is applied, whose zero is on 
 the ground. The head looks straight forward, so that the 
 horizontal line of Camper, passing across the auditory meatus and 
 the base of the nares, is exactly perpendicular to the wall. A large 
 sUding'Square is moved up or down until the various measuring 
 
 Fir, 39. — Position for taking projections of the head on lihe living subject. The line 
 passing across the auditory meatus and the base of the nares, or Camper's line, 
 represented by the upper border of the square, is exactly horizontal ; that is to say 
 perpendicular to the posterior plane. A D, Projection of the entire head : B D'= H D, 
 The projection of the entire cranium ; U D, Projection of the posterior rranium ; G H. 
 Projection of the anterior cranium; AH, Projection of the nasal and supra-nasal 
 portions of the face. 
 
 points, such as the top of the head, auditory meatus, &c., arc 
 reached ; a second, smaller one, at right angles, is applied upon it at 
 the measuring points which are otherwise inaccessible, as the supra- 
 orbital, the alveolar, the mental points, &o. The heights above the 
 ground are read off on the wall ; and on the sliding-square, which is 
 graduated, the horizontal distances in front of the posterior plane, 
 these distances being directly visible, or indicated by the heel of the 
 
Chap, v.] 
 
 PROJECTIONS OF THE HEAD. 
 
 329 
 
 smaller square. In Pig. 39 the small square, Tvhicli is held in the 
 hand, has been left out so as not to interfere with the dra'sying. 
 Should the posterior part of the head not touch the wall, something 
 must he intervened, the thickness of which must be deducted from 
 each horizontal measurement. It is absolutely necessary that 
 during the various measurements the individual should he motion- 
 less, and that the auriculo-sub-nasal line determined by the large 
 sliding-square should be perfectly horizontal. All the principal 
 elements of the proportions of the head are then obtained : namely, 
 the vertical projection of the entire head ; the horizontal projection 
 of the skull (B D', Fig. 39) ; the particular projections of the 
 posterior cranium (C D) ; of the anterior (H C) ; and of the nasal 
 and supra-nasal portion of the face. In the same way we get the 
 elements of the facial angle of Camper : that is to say the line H C, 
 the line A H, the perpendicular B H to their intersection H, and 
 consequently the position of the point B. "We have then only to 
 draw the triangle on paper and measure the angle BAG with the 
 protractor. 
 
 It is needless to say that by this method of the double square in, 
 combination with the attitude indicated, we may take a number of 
 other projections, according to the object we have in view. (Fig. 40.) 
 
 Other measurements in connection with the face are not without 
 interest. Thus there are three for the nose, of which we shall speak 
 when giving the descriptive characters of this organ. There are 
 also several for the mouth, the eyes, and the ears. Subjoined are 
 some obtained by Qu^telet on Belgians of the male sex, from 
 25 to 30 years of age, which may be usefully compared with those 
 given at page 317. The stature is taken as = 100. 
 
 From the vertex to the line of the hair 
 
 „ line of the hair to the root of the nose 
 „ root of the nose to its base 
 „ base of the nose to the chin 
 
 Total from the vertex to the chin (head) 
 
 Length of the eye 
 
 Breadth between the eyes 
 
 ,j of the nose at the base 
 
 Length of the mouth 
 
 2-5 
 4-3 
 30 
 ' 3-9 
 13-7 
 1-8 
 2-1 
 2-1 
 3-2 
 3-7 
 
330 
 
 PROPORTIONS OF THE FACE. 
 
 [Chap. v. 
 
 These are manifestly at variance with those laid down by Art, 
 and we have been obliged to give them approximately only. But 
 they refer exclusively to Belgians, and it would be necessary that 
 the same proportions should be established with reference to aU 
 races as well as to their individual variations. Then artists should 
 know the physiological limits beyond which they ought not to go. 
 
 Fig. 40. — Median facial goniometer of M. Broca, in position for taking tlie facial angle of 
 Jacq^uart, whose apex is at the sub-nasal point. The two auricular pins, O, being in 
 place, the point A being on the superior alveolar poiot, and the branc^i KB being 
 placed in its proper position, the instrument also gives the angle of Cloquet. 
 
 To speak only of the head : Gerdy asserts that its measurement is 
 commonly limited to I'll and 1'33 per cent, of the stature : but he 
 made his measurements in Paris, where there is a mixture of long 
 and short heads ; while Quetelet made them upon individuals of 
 the Kymri race, that is to say on the long heads, proving the 
 numerous types of proportions. 
 
Chap, v.] MEAS0EEMBNT OF THE BODY. 331 
 
 Measurement of tlie Body. 
 
 Measurements of tlie head and 'body so nearly correspond ttat, 
 subject to certain corrections, we may generally make a direct com- 
 parison between them. It is not so with those of the body alone, 
 which often differ altogether from those of the skeleton. Owing to 
 the necessity there is to appeal to the kindness of travellers, and 
 these sometimes not the most experienced, the Instructions generally 
 prescribe, not the most logical measuring points, but those which are 
 most easily found. 
 
 Thus in the wrist, in default of the articular line, the exact posi- 
 tion of which requires some surgical knowledge, we require the point 
 of the styloid process. At the inferior extremity of the humerus, 
 in default stiU of the line of separation between it and the radius, we 
 take the epicondyle. At the knee, in default of the same liue of 
 separation between the tibia and femur, most people are satisfied 
 with the centre of the patella. 
 
 In order, therefore, that anthropometry on the living subject may 
 be as practically useful as possible, it is necessary to have rules for 
 converting the simple measurements recommended, into strictly 
 anatomical ones. For example, by adding seven millimetres to the 
 length of the hand, we should have its true length on the skeleton ; 
 by subtracting twelve miUini^tres from the length of the leg, 
 stretched out in obedience to the Indrudions, we get the length of 
 the tibia without the malleolus ; that is to say such as we make 
 it in our calculations for determining the proportions of the 
 skeleton. Again, one of the priucipal objections to the measure- 
 ment of the thigh, or of the entire lower limb, is our inability to 
 take its true upper extremity, that is to say the head of the 
 femur, which lies out of reach in its cavity. In default of this we 
 have occasionally taken the anterior superior spiae of the Uium, 
 the great trochanter, the pubis, and the periuseum; but it would 
 not be difficult to correct these measurements. A series of iavestiga- 
 tions — -which we do not put forward as being strictly accurate — have 
 led us to think that in the adult European of the male sex and of 
 
332 METHOD OF PROCEEDING. ■ [Chap. v. 
 
 middle height, these various points and the head of the femur may- 
 be arranged in the following order : From the spine of the ilium to 
 the head of the femur, 6 centimetres; from this to the great 
 trochanter, 2-3 ; from the great trochanter to the pubis, 2-0; from 
 the pubis to the perinseum, 4-7. The following are the rules for 
 converting each of the measurements of the thigh, or of the 
 entire limb, into anatomical measurements of the femur : , 
 
 MilllmHres. 
 Commencing from the spine of the ilium, suhtraot ... 60 
 „ „ great trochanter, add... ... 23 
 
 „ „ pubis, add ... ... ... 45 
 
 „ „ perinaeum, add... ... ... 90 
 
 These dimensions answer for statures of 1'650 mUlimfetre. When 
 the individual or the race is taller or shorter, by a simple rule-of- 
 three sum we get the proportionate amount which should be added 
 or subtracted. Independently of the measuring points, which it is 
 recommended to look for, and to mark with coloured chalk before 
 commencing our operations, the calculation of the anthropometrical 
 measurements is simple enough. The individual is placed with his 
 back against a wall, iji the same way as for the measurement of the 
 head, in the attitude of a soldier standing at attention, the feet 
 together, the arms hanging down, with the hands extended on the 
 thigh. By the double square we then take the height of each point 
 above the ground. The least asymmetry of the body, the slightest 
 separation of the limbs or unevenness of the hips would give rise to 
 considerable mistakes. The difference between the length of the arm 
 in the above attitude, and of the same in complete abduction, may be 
 as much as two or three centimetres, which arises from the head 
 of the humerus sinking deep into the armpit, and shortening the 
 limb that much. In the lower extremity, when the superior point 
 is taken from the pelvis, the difference is stiU greater. The em- 
 ployment of a tape for directly measuring the exact distance from 
 one point to another, by following the contour of the limb, is inexact ; 
 the line is not only oblique, but also convex, owing to the projection 
 of the muscles : two causes which contribute to elongate it. The 
 following are the most important measurements recommended in the 
 
Chap, v.] PEINCIPAL MEASUREMENTS. 333 
 
 '■■ Instructions de la Soci^t^ d'Anthropologie," and tlie corresponding 
 dimensions obtained byM. Gillebert d'Hercourt on eighteen Arabs and 
 ten negroes of Algeria. To obtain the length of a part, one measure 
 must be subtracted from another. The height of the epicondyle 
 being_1057 millimetres in the negro, and that of the styloid process 
 of the radius 795, the forearm will be 262 millimetres ; which rela- 
 tively to the total height will be expressed by 189 -2, and would 
 then be compared with the same value in the Arab. 
 
 Height above the ground. 
 From the vertex (stature) 
 
 ,, acromion (scapula)... 
 
 „ epicondyle (external tuberosity of the 
 
 humerus at its inferior border) 
 „ styloid process of the radius 
 „ inferior extremity of the middle finger . . . 
 „ great trochanter (superior border) 
 „ articular interspace of the knee (outside) 
 „ internal malleolus (point) .. . 
 
 Breadth. 
 Qrande envergure 
 From one acromion to the other (point) 
 
 „ the crest of one ilium to the other (maximTiTn) 
 Length of foot .. . 
 
 We may add two other measurements, on account of their sim- 
 plicity and readiness of appUoation. The first is the length of the 
 trunk, one of the most important in anthropometry to determine. I 
 We take the distance from the prominent spinous process of the 
 seventh cervical vertebra to the poiut of the sacrum or coccyx ; or 
 that of the clavicle, or the sternal fourchette, to the pubis or 
 perinseum : but these present some difficulties. By foUovving the 
 "Instructions de la Societe d'Anthropologie," this measurement is 
 indirectly obtained in many ways. The method we recommend is 
 direct, and is easy of application among savages, who are not 
 frightened by it. The second measurement was devised by the 
 Americans during the War of Secession, and was suggested by a 
 weU-known comparison (see page 85) which Mr. Huxley makes 
 between Man and the anthropoids. These measurements are : The 
 
 18 Arabs. 
 
 10 Negroes. 
 
 1-666 
 
 ... 1-645 
 
 1-374 , 
 
 ,., 1-852 
 
 1-067 , 
 
 ... 1-057 
 
 0-804 , 
 
 ... 0-795 
 
 0-619 
 
 ... 0-601 
 
 0-877 
 
 ... 0-875 
 
 0-464 
 
 ... 0-458 
 
 0-780 
 
 ... 0-740 
 
 1-757 
 
 ... 1-704 
 
 0-372 
 
 ... 0-372 
 
 0-281 
 
 ... 0-255 
 
 0-259 
 
 ... 0-253 
 
334 
 
 GEANDE ENVEBGURE. 
 
 [Chap. y. 
 
 height of the fourchette of the stermim ahove the ground, the 
 individual being seated on the ground with the trunk upright, and 
 breathing quietly : 
 
 The distance of the extremity of the middle finger in the 
 ordinary vertical attitude from the upper border of the patella, the 
 muscles of the thigh being flaccid. Ifow let us proceed to the 
 application : 
 
 The relative height of the head, of the length of the neck, and 
 the height of the trunk, to the stature, are the three primary 
 elements of the proportions of the body which we have to determine. 
 Setting aside the essential proportions of the head and the pelvis, we 
 shall presently have to speak of the dimensions of the various parts 
 of the trunk. Then come the proportions of the extremities. There 
 are two methods by which we may at once ascertain the relative 
 length of the upper extremities : namely, the grande envergure (see 
 page 84), and the distance from the middle finger to the patella. 
 
 The grande envergure is taken with two squares, the back of the 
 individual resting against a wall. The following are some of its 
 averages relatively to stature = 100 : , , 
 
 10,876 American soldiers (Gould) . 
 
 
 ... 104-3 
 
 306 English (Gonld) 
 
 
 ... 104-4 
 
 81 Scotch „ 
 
 
 ... 104-9 
 
 827 Irish „ 
 
 
 ... 104-6 
 
 562 Germans „ 
 
 
 ... 105-2 
 
 2020 Negroes „ 
 
 
 ... 108-1 
 
 863 Mnlattoes „ 
 
 
 ... 108-1 
 
 517 Iroquois Indians (Gould) 
 
 
 ... 108-9 
 
 30 Belgians (Quetelet) ... 
 
 
 ... 104-5 
 
 20 Berbers (various authors) . 
 
 
 ... 104-2 
 
 27 Arabs „ 
 
 
 ... 101-3 
 
 It foUows then that the envergure is manifestly greater than the 
 stature, except in individual cases, where it is frequently less, and 
 also that it is notably greater in negroes, mulattoes, and Iroquois 
 Indians, than in whites ; this arising from the length of their upper 
 extremities. 
 
 The distance from the middle finger to the patella is given in the 
 four following series of Mr. Gould, the stature = 100 : 
 
Chap, v.] PROPORTIONS OP THE EXTREMITIES. 335 
 
 10,876 American soldiers ... ... ... ... 7'49 
 
 517 Iroquois Indians ... ... ... ... 5-36 
 
 2020 Kegroes 4-37 
 
 863 Mulafctoes 6-13 
 
 The more the distance diminishes in these cases, the greater is 
 the length of the upper extremities. The arm then is shortest in 
 whites, longest in negroes, and iatermediate in length in mtilattoes. 
 This verifies Mr. Humphry's statement that the upper extremities 
 of the skeleton of ^the negro are longer than those of the European. 
 Now this result is clear from the ahove statistics, and does not vary 
 in any of the seventeen series of whites and the eight of negroes of 
 which they are composed. Frequently, in the latter, the extremity 
 of the middle finger touched the patella ; once it was twelve miUe- 
 mfetres helow its upper border, as in the gorilla. 
 
 With respect to the proportions of the extremities, there are three 
 relations which have specially engaged the attention of authors : 
 (1) That of the superior to the iuferior extremity apart from the 
 hand and foot ; (2) That of the forearm to the arm ; and (3) That 
 of the leg to the thigh. We shall select some examples from 
 the Novarra measurements, which were made hy very experienced 
 physicians, and on races very dissimilar to one another. There is 
 only one fault to be found with them — ^namely, that they were 
 taken with the measuring-tape : 
 
 Forearm and arm Forearm Leg to 
 
 to leg and thigh. to arm. thigh. 
 
 30 Germans ... 699 
 
 20 Slars ... 69-7 
 
 10 Ronmanians ... 68'4 
 
 26 Chinese ... 75-6 
 
 34 Nicobarians ... 76-2 
 
 9 Javanese ... 73'5 
 
 2 NewZealanders 78-0 
 
 1 Australian ... 78'3 
 
 83-5 
 86-8 
 88-3 
 
 84-5 
 83-8 
 86-4 
 82-9 
 90-3 
 
 99-4 
 
 99-8 
 
 99-4 
 
 101-1 
 
 111-1 
 
 107-0 
 
 93-5 
 
 ioy-6 
 
 This shows : (a) That in the first relation there are very decided 
 differences, the three series of whites having the upper extremity 
 relatively short, the three other series, especially the New Zealanders 
 and the Australian, relatively long; (&) That the proportion between 
 
336 
 
 PllOPORTIONS OF THE HAND AND FOOT. [Chap. v. 
 
 the forearm and the arm, contrary to what we should have expected, 
 does not show any very sensible difference, except in the Australian, 
 where 'the forearm is the longer, as in the African negro ; (c) That 
 the relation of the leg to the thigh is found to possess great im- 
 portance, the leg being short in the three series of whites and in 
 the New Zealanders, and long in the others, except the Australian. 
 We see the contrast between the New Zealanders and the Australian ; 
 the latter being simian in all the three relations, if we accept 
 Dr. Humphry's opinion as to the tibia, the former only being so 
 as regards his upper extremity, and approaching the European as 
 to his forearm and leg. 
 
 The proportions of the foot and hand wHl now engage our 
 attention. In the following averages, the stature being =100, the 
 square has been employed by M. GUlebert d'Hercourt and others, 
 and the tape by M. "Wiesbach, of the Novarra, by Qu/rtelet and 
 Eourgarel. We need not, however, take any account of the slight 
 differences in consequence. 
 
 
 
 
 Hand. 
 
 Foot. 
 
 10 Kouroaglis of Algeria (Gillebert d'Hercourt) 99 
 
 . 14-2 
 
 10 Negroes of Algeria 
 
 j» 
 
 
 10-8 . 
 
 . 15-3 
 
 27 Arabs of Algeria (Tarious 
 
 authors) 
 
 
 11-1 . 
 
 . 13-4, 
 
 86 Berbers (varioas) ... 
 
 
 
 11-1 . 
 
 . 15-4 
 
 50 Belgians (Quetelet) 
 
 
 
 11-5 
 
 . 15-4 
 
 30 Germans (Novarra) 
 
 
 
 12-2 . 
 
 . 15-1 
 
 20 Slavs 
 
 
 
 12-7 . 
 
 . 15-3 
 
 10 Roumanians „ 
 
 
 
 11-5 . 
 
 . 14-8 
 
 26 Chinese „ 
 
 
 
 12-8 . 
 
 . 15-9 
 
 53 Nicobarians „ 
 
 
 
 131 . 
 
 . 16-2 
 
 23 Todas, a superior tribe of the Nilgherries 
 
 
 
 (Shortt) 
 
 ... 
 
 
 11-8 . 
 
 . 18-1 
 
 50 Aborigines, inferior tribes of the 
 
 Nil- 
 
 
 
 gherriea (Shortt) 
 
 
 
 10-8 . 
 
 . 15-3 
 
 12 New Caledonians . , . 
 
 
 
 12-8 . 
 
 . 15-6 
 
 0,876 White soldiers (Gould) 
 
 
 
 12-8 , 
 
 . 14-9 
 
 2020 Negroes „ 
 
 
 
 12-8 . 
 
 . 160 
 
 863 Mulattoes „ 
 
 
 
 12-8 . 
 
 . 15-7 
 
 517 Iroquois Indians „ 
 
 
 
 12-8 . 
 
 . 14-8 
 
 What conclusion are we to draw from this 1 In the first place, 
 that the hand and the foot of man, although shorter than those of the 
 
Chap, v.] PROPORTIONS OF THE HAND AND FOOT. 
 
 337 
 
 anthropoid ape, do not vary among races according to their order of 
 superiority, as we should have supposed. A long hand or foot is 
 not a characteristic of inferiority. One would say that the 
 Germans and Slavs of M. Wiesbach have a hand larger and more 
 simian in character than the negroes of Algeria, and more nearly 
 resembling that of the negroes of Oceania. Of the two distinct 
 tribes inhabiting the NUgherries, in Southern India, the inferior 
 has the smaller hand. As regards the foot, it is true the negroes of 
 America are between the whites and the anthropoids in the same 
 way as mulattoes are between them and whites. We are unable to 
 form any definite opinion on this point with respect to the Bosjes- 
 man, the N"egrito, and the Australian, from lack of documentary 
 evidence. It seems that the Australian has the usual-sized hand, 
 while the foot is extraordinarily long. 
 
 In default of a general character, this measurement gives us a 
 special dififerential character between certain races. The Mcobarians 
 have both upper and lower extremities very powerfully developed. 
 The Arabs and Berbers have the same average hand, but the foot 
 of the former is small, while that of the latter is large. The hand 
 of the Kourouglis is remarkably small, and the foot of the Todas 
 monstrously large. It is curious to compare the two general 
 averages of the sajne proportions of the stature as recognised in the 
 Arts, which are expressed below in hundredths. That of Albert 
 Diirer, it appears, was the nearest in results to our own. 
 
 
 Hand. 
 
 Foot. 
 
 Our general average 
 
 11-7 . 
 
 . 15-4 
 
 Greeks 
 
 10-9 . 
 
 . 14-9 
 
 Titruvius ... 
 
 100 . 
 
 . 16-7 
 
 Albert Diirer 
 
 Ill . 
 
 . 15-2 
 
 Shadow 
 
 10-6 . 
 
 . 15-2 
 
 Cams 
 
 10-5 . 
 
 . 15-8 
 
 Gerdy 
 
 Ill . 
 
 . 16-6 
 
 We are met at the commencement of our study of the propor- 
 tions of the body with the fact that they differ considerably in 
 each race, without the superiority of rank which such race takes en- 
 abling us to guess the meaning of such differences. Each race, 
 M. Wiesbach says, has its share of characteristics of iuferiority, and 
 
338 
 
 MEASUREMENTS OF BEEADTH. 
 
 [Chap, v. 
 
 tlie resemLlance to tlie ape is not confined to any race in particular. 
 It is true that the learned anthropologist of the Novarra refers to 
 the proportions of the orang, and the question is whether some 
 races approximate in these to certain anthropoids and others to 
 others. It is certain that there are human types which differ in 
 tlie proportions of the skeleton, hut these are not yet settled. 
 
 Besides the measurements of length, there are those of breadth, 
 and those of volume as estimated by the circumference. Thus (a) The 
 relation of the breadth of the foot and hand to their length (this 
 breadth being taken, in both cases, by projection with the square 
 commencing from the head of the fifth metatarsal or metacarpal 
 bone, arid crossing the great axis of the organ at a right angle; 
 (6) The relation of the maximum breadth of the hips, at a level 
 with the great trochanter, to the maximum breadth of the pelvis 
 over the crests of the ilia ; (c) The corresponding relation, at the 
 other extremity of the trunk, of the maximum breadth of the 
 shoulders at the external surface of the deltoid muscle to the 
 biacromial breadth ; {d) The relation of these various diameters with 
 the breadth of the thorax from one armpit to the other (taken with 
 two squares). 
 
 The biacromial breadth, the measuring points of which are more 
 anatomical, has been measured with the tape, by passing it in front 
 of and behind the neck, and with the double square. Subjoined are 
 some averages obtained by the only exact method of proceeding. 
 
 18 Arabs (Gillebert d'Heroourt) 
 
 13 Kabyles „ 
 
 18 Negroes of Algeria (Gillebert d'Heroourt) 
 27 Annamites (Mondieres) ... 
 
 14 „ women (Mondi&res)... 
 
 Stature = 100, 
 21-1 
 22-7 
 22-6 
 21-0 
 20-4 
 
 In order to show the differences between them, we give the same 
 measurement by the tape. 
 
 25 Belgians (Quetelet) 
 
 25 „ women (Quetelet) 
 
 26 Chinese {Novarra)... 
 
 9 Javanese „ 
 
 8 „ women {Novarra) 
 
 Stature = 100. 
 23-4 
 220 
 25-2 
 240 
 23-8 
 
Chap, v.] CIRCUMFERENCES. 339 
 
 It will he observed that in the Belgians, the Javanese, and the 
 Annamites, the hiacromial diameter is smaller in the -woman. 
 
 The circumferences are generally had measurements, because they 
 vary according to the development of the muscles, the fat, and the 
 subjacent organs. Moreover, the relation of the maximum circum- 
 ference of certain articulations with those of the maximum enlarge- 
 ments of the parts situated above and below, shows whether the 
 articulations are large or small. The relations of the minimum 
 circumferences at the bottom of the leg, and the maximum above, 
 gives the development of the calf, which is a characteristic of 
 superiority in the white race relatively to the negro races, whose 
 spindle leg resembles that of apes. The relation of the circum- 
 ference of the hips or the chest with the circumference at the waist 
 marks aU the intermediate gradation between the wasp figure 
 {taille de guepe) of the woman, and the trunk all of a size {tronc 
 tout d'une venue) of the man in general and of the Andaman race in 
 particular {De Quatrefages). 
 
 The circumference of the chest has received a considerable 
 amount of attention, but more in reference to the capacity of the 
 pulmonary cavity according to race. It has an interest not only 
 for art and for anthropology, but also for medicine, as a diagnostic 
 of disease. "We shall again refer to this later on, when speaking 
 of physiological characters.* 
 
 * See, for the measurements on living snbjeots, "Des Races de I'Oceauie 
 Francjaise," by A. Bourgarel, in " Mem. Soo. d'Anthrop.," vol. ii., 1861 ; 
 " Reise der Oesterreichisolien Fregatte Novarra nm die Erde in den Jahren 
 1857-59," " Anthropologisclier Theil," by Drs. Scherzer, Schwartz, and 
 Wiesbach, Wien, 1867 ; " Investigation an American Soldiers," by B. Gould, 
 New York, 1869; " L' Anthropometrie," by Qu^telet, Brussels, 1870; 
 " Etudes sur Soixante-seize Indigfenea de I'Algerie," by GOlebert d'Hercourt, 
 in " Mem. Soo. d'Anthrop.," vol. iii. i " Eapport sur la Mensuration de Cent 
 Indigenes de Biskra by Dr. Seriziat," by Dr. Topinard, in " Bull. Soc. 
 d'Anthrop.," 2nd series, vol. v., 1870 ; " Snr les Kabyles du Djurjura," by 
 Duhousset, in "Mem. Soo, Ethn.," 1872; "Note sur I'Anthropologie de 
 la Race Annamite," by A. T. Mondiferes, in " Mem. Soo. d'Anthrop.," 2nd 
 series, vol. i., 1875 ; &o. 
 
340 DESCRIPTIVE CHARACTERS. [Chap. vi. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE CHARACTERS COLOUB OF THE SKIN, EYES, AND HAIR 
 
 CHARACTERS OF THE HAIR PHYSIOGNOMY FORM OP THE 
 
 FACE, NOSE, MOUTH, AND BARS — BXTEENAL GENITAL ORGANS — 
 TABLIER AND STEATOPYGA. 
 
 Descriptive Characters. 
 
 The white races personally studied by anthropologists constituting 
 only a fraction of the human family, the description of outward 
 characters comes to us principally from travellers : they furnish the 
 details which we embody. But accompanying their descriptions, 
 traced as they may be with a masterly hand, we too frequently find 
 simple detached phrases which must be explained, respecting which 
 opinions, varying according to the mood of the individual, have 
 been substituted for plain facts. A traveller arrives in the midst 
 of a savage tribe, and depicts it in colours of the most hideous 
 kind ; as he proceeds with his account, having become familiarised 
 with it, he looks at it in quite another light : the two descriptions 
 are at variance with one another. One could hardly imagine the 
 contrary impressions given by the nude, hunchbacked, shambling 
 savage, like the Australians of Port Eoyal, which Peron and 
 Dumont d'Urville met with, and the same bold and menacing 
 creature, with head erect and cambered loins, armed with his 
 shield and lance. You look at the former as a most disgusting 
 object, with his thin and lean and disproportionate limbs, and his 
 forbidding countenance ; at the latter as the very impersonification 
 of the ancient gladiator, whose figure recalls the most beautiful 
 antique marbles. This kind of contradiction, as found in the 
 traveller's diary, is not confined to individuals of the same race : 
 the Bosjesmans, the Esquimaux, the people of Tierra del Fuego. 
 come in for their share. As regards the female it is worse stiU. 
 According to the mental impression created at the time, one will 
 be represented as having hideous simian features, another, of the 
 
Chap, vi.] DESCRIPTIVE CHARACTERS. 341 
 
 same age and of the same tribe, as having a pleasing countenance. 
 The Bosjesman woman produces this kind of impression upon the 
 European. Hence the anthropologist's earnest desire to he fur- 
 nished with definite facts, and not with exaggerated descriptions. 
 
 In matters of detail it is the same, and one is deceived even as 
 regards prognathism, the form of the nose, the colour of the skin, 
 and the character of the hair. There is no doubt that the appel- 
 lation "aquiline" has been given to flat noses, which when looked at 
 in profile exhibited a slight convexity. It is thus that in Australia 
 all imaginable types, even the Caucasian, have been described. After 
 a most attentive perusal of accounts given of the hair, in which even 
 its physical characters have not been neglected, we are often obliged 
 to pause to inquire whether the hair, which has been spoken of a 
 dozen times, is straight or woolly. Humboldt mentions that to 
 those who had newly arrived in South America, all the Indians 
 seemed to be alike, but that after a certain time their diversity of 
 feature appeared as remarkable as among Europeans. In estimating 
 colour, the most egregious errors are committed. In the midst of 
 blacks the mulatto would appear white. It is not that the traveller is 
 deceived iu this matter ; but he gradually alters his opinion, and his 
 estimate from being relative becomes absolute. The French people 
 look upon the English as fair, but they consider themselves dark ; 
 this is because the French compare the English with themselves, and 
 we compare ourselves with inhabitants of the north. Dr. Beddoe has 
 especially drawn attention to this kiud of error. Dr. Livingstone, 
 referring to the negroes of the coast, continually speaks of those to 
 the west of Lake Tanganyka, and especially Cazemba, as having fair 
 skin, but slight prognathism, and a Caucasian nose ; in short, with 
 as fine heads as are to be found among Europeans. For these 
 numerous sources of error, we do not say for the practised anthro- 
 pologist, but for the ordinary traveller, there is but one remedy, 
 namely, not to trust to his own impressions, but to confine himself to 
 making use of tables for the colour of the skin as well as for the 
 hair, and as far as possible for measurements. The index of breadth 
 of the nose gives us more information on the subject than aU the 
 roundabout descriptions. We return therefore to the anthropo- 
 
342 LUMBO-SAGEAL BNSELLUEE. [Chap. vi. 
 
 logical instructions, circulated by various societies and printed in 
 many languages.* 
 
 Lumbo-Saeral Ensellure. 
 
 X Among the descriptive characters, some are only supplementary 
 to the observations of the preceding chapter on the proportions of 
 the body, (a) The development of the muscles, or of the fat, when 
 it is peculiar to the race and not to the individual ; (6) The develop- 
 ment of the region of the buttocks, of ■which we shall speak pre- 
 sently ; (c) The development of the abdomen, which may sometimes 
 be a character of race, but is most frequently caused by living 
 habitually on vegetable food, and by irregular diet : thus, savages 
 go many days without food, or nearly so, and then for twenty-four 
 or forty-eight hours gorge themselves to repletion ; (d) Lastly, the 
 degree of inflection of the two spinal curvatures, the one the lumbo- 
 sacral, to which Duohenne de Boulogne gives the name ensellure ; 
 the other dorsal, each being compensatory to the other. The former, 
 having the concavity posteriorly, is enlarged in certaiu races, and 
 diminished in others. " I have seen," says Duchenne de Boulogne, 
 " Spanish ladies whose lumbar incurvation was such, and the move- 
 ment of the lumbar muscles so extensive, that they were able to 
 throw themselves backwards so as almost to touch the ground.' 
 He has met with the same thing among the women of Lima, and 
 of Portel, near Boulogne. 
 
 Colour of Skin, Hair, and Eyes. 
 
 The colour of the skin, hair, and eyes is the result of a general 
 phenomenon in the organism, namely, the production and distribu- 
 
 * See "Instructions Generates adresaes aux Voyageurs," in "Mem. Soo. 
 Eth. de Paris," vol. i., 1841 ; " Instructions Generates de la Soo. d'Anthrop. 
 de Paris," drawn np by M. Paul Broca, Paris, 1865, 2nd edition in the press ; 
 " Notes and Queries on Anthrop.," published by the British Association for 
 the Advancement of Science, London, 18V4 ; " Anleitung zu Wissen- 
 schaftlichen. Beobachlungen auf Eeisen," Berlin, 1875, the anthropological 
 portion by E. TircKow ; " Instructions Generates aux Voyageurs " of the 
 Geographical Society of Paris, 1875, anthropological portion by M. de 
 Quatrefages. 
 
Chap, ti.] COLOUR OF THE SKIN. 343 
 
 tion of the colouring matter. The skin of the Scandinavian is 
 white, almost without colour, or rather rosy and florid, owing to the 
 transparency of the epidermis allowing the red colouring matter of 
 the blood to he seen circulating through the capillaries. After 
 hsemorrhage or in ansemia, the amount of globules, which is normally 
 rather over twelve per cent., may descend to two per cent., the 
 smallest known ; the blood has then lost five-sixths of its colouring 
 matter ; the surface of the body becomes pallid and has a waxy 
 tint. 
 
 The skin of the negro of Guinea, and especially of Yoloff, the 
 darkest of all, is, on the contrary, jet black, which is caused by the 
 presence in the minute cellules on the deep surface of the epidermis 
 of black granules, known by the name of pigment. The black 
 layer thus formed by these cellules, which used to be called the 
 rete mueosum of Malpighi, remains adherent sometimes to the 
 dermis and sometimes to the epidermis on removing the latter, after 
 previously submitting the skin to maceration. This pigment is 
 found in all races, whether black, yellow, or white, but in very 
 different quantity ; hence their various tones of colour, from the 
 lightest to the darkest. Whites, who readily become brown on 
 exposure to light, are undoubtedly provided with it. It is always 
 more abundant in the scrotum and round the nipple. It is very 
 visible on the mucous membranes of negroes, which are frequently 
 surrounded by masses of it, notably on the vault of the palate, the 
 gums, and the conjunctiva, which we have also met with in young 
 orangs. The same pigment is found in aU races on the internal 
 surface of the choroid, sometimes in the lungs, and, among negroes, in 
 the brain. The colouring matter of the hair resembles it very much. 
 The disease described at page 161, under the name of " albinism," 
 is owing to its diminished quantity in the skin, as well as in the 
 choroid and in the hair. It may be seen in all races, but it is 
 necessarily more observable in those in which the pigment is more 
 abunda^Lxt. Besides the red colouring matter of the blood, and the 
 black colouring matter of the skin and the choroid, we must mention 
 a third, biUverdin, which is secreted in the Kver, and to which the 
 yellow colout of the tissues in jaundice is due. This also gives the 
 
344 COLOUR OF THE SKIN. [Chap. vi. 
 
 yellowish colour of the cellulo-adipose tissue, of the muscles, and of 
 the blood, which is so often met with when making autopsies of 
 negroes. Is not this colouring matter a transformation, an altered 
 condition of the colouring matter of the blood, or of the pigment t 
 Chemists must answer the question. We may remark that the 
 shades of colour in the mixed breeds, between the negro and the 
 white, partake more of the yeUow than the red tint. 
 
 The last vestiges of a mixture of breed returning towards the 
 white, are the yeUow colour of the sclerotic, and the lunule of the 
 nails : the latter sign is well known among American Creoles. 
 
 There are then three fundamental elements of colour in the 
 human organism : namely, the red, the yellow, and the black, which, 
 mixed in variable quantity with the white of the tissues, give rise 
 to those numerous shades seen in the human family, which it would 
 be impossible to enumerate. "We may, however, reduce them to 
 four fundamental types, which the first anthropologists expressed in 
 these terms : namely, the white in Europe, the yellow in Asia, the 
 red in America, and the black in Africa. The white and black 
 there can be no doubt about; they correspond to two of the 
 primordial divisions of the human race. The two others are less 
 definite, the red especially. Prom their mixture and the influence 
 of external conditions issue all the shades of colour which we now 
 see. In the Avhite there is every variety of shade. The rosy com- 
 plexion of Scandinavians differs from the florid complexion of the 
 English and Danes. The dark colour of our French races to the 
 south of the Loire is not that of Spaniards, nor of the bronzed 
 Kabyles. There are at least two groups in the series : namely, those 
 whose skin easily becomes dark, sometimes enormously so, from the 
 contact of air and light, and is uniform; and those whose skin when 
 exposed to the sun becomes brick-red, or covered with freckles. 
 Among the former especially, this colour becomes less in winter, 
 and disappears on a return to temperate or cold countries, readily 
 making its appearance again in hot countries. In the latter a sort 
 of bum is produced, the skin becoming chapped and excoriated. 
 In either case, children are born white. The French in Algeria, 
 and the English in India, furnish us with abundant examples ol 
 
Chap, vi.] COLOUR OF THE SKIN. 345 
 
 this. The yellow tint of eastern Asiatics varies even more. Some- 
 times it approaches that of the white, so as to be indistinguishable 
 from it ; at others, it is oHve green, passing through aU the inter- 
 mediate shades from pale yellow to brown or gingerbread colour. 
 Among the Chinese, those of the north more particularly, it becomes 
 dark in winter, as in the first group above aUuded to, and pale in 
 summer (Lamprey). 
 
 The term "red" has been appHed to the American Indians less on 
 account of this being their ordiuary colour than of their dyeing the 
 hair and paiating the skin red. AU shades of colour are seen 
 among them, from the Ught tint of the Antisians of the Central 
 Andes to the dark olive of the Peruvians {D'OrMgny), and the 
 negro black of the ancient CaUfomians {La Perouse). They are 
 frequently, however, said to be copper or cinnamon coloured. This 
 copper colour is common in Polynesia, where very light yellow or 
 brown tints are as frequently met with. In Africa, red and yellow 
 are very common, particularly in the south, the centre, and towards 
 the Upper Nile. The Poulbas are of a rhubarb-yellow colour, 
 those of pure blood approaching to red. The Bisharis are very 
 frequently of a mahogany red. We know that the ancient 
 Egyptians were painted red on their tombs. The classiEcation of 
 olden times in which the red colour was said to be peculiar to the 
 American Indians is therefore incorrect. 
 
 If negroes are, as regards colour, so widely separated from whites, 
 they insensibly blend with the yellow or the red in many parts of 
 Africa. The most decided blacks are those of the Coast of Guinea, 
 but from the Yoloff to the Mandingo and the Ashanti there is 
 every variety of shade. In South Africa, the Hottentots, and 
 especially the Bosjesmans, are not black, but of a yellow-gray, 
 like old leather. On the Gaboon, the Obongos seen by Du Chaillu 
 were also of a dirty-yeUow colour. We speak of the red Kaffirs. 
 Among the Makololos of the Zambesi, and the Fans of Burton, 
 many were the colour of cafe au lait. The expressions "light brown," 
 " light colour," are frequently applied to the negroes of Lualaba in 
 Livingstone's " Last Journal," but are they not so relatively to the 
 surrounding peoples ? The black colour of the skin is met with in 
 
346 COLOtTR 01' THE EYES. [Chap. vi. 
 
 other countries besides Africa, as among the Australians, and the 
 straight-haired blacks of India — one of whom, of an intense black 
 slightly mixed with red, was dissected in M. Broca's laboratory — 
 also among the black Arabs of the Yemen, or Hymiarites, (fee. In 
 the same way that whites become dark by being removed into hot 
 countries, blacks become lighter in cold and temperate countries, as 
 weU as when suffering from illness. Dark colour in the negro is a 
 sign of health. 
 
 The colour of the skin is usually, we might say constantly, 
 associated, if the races are pure, with a certain colour of the eyes 
 and hair. Thus, those with white skins of a rosy hue, which 
 cannot bear the sun, have usually light eyes and hair. Those with 
 white skins, which readily tan with the sun, and those with yellow, 
 red, or black skins have on the contrary dark hair. Light hair 
 and eyes are much more rare, although they are met with to some 
 extent everywhere throughout the globe, except in Australia and 
 in Central Africa. 
 
 It is not always easy to determine the colour of the eye, or rather 
 of the iris. The iris is formed of two circles, which are occasionally 
 of different colours, the external being darker than the internal, and 
 of an intermediate zone of a lighter hue. Eadiated strire and spots 
 are sometimes seen, which add to our difficulties. It is desirable, 
 therefore, to stand at about the distance of a centimetre in order 
 to ascertain its general appearance, without going in'to minutiae. 
 We ought always to look with suspicion on an abnormally dilated 
 pupU, as weU as carefully to note the shadow projected by the 
 eyebrows and eyelashes. The " Instructions de la Soci^t6 d'Anthro- 
 pologie " recognise four shades of colour — brown, green, blue, and 
 gray ; each having five tones — the very dark, the dark, the inter- 
 niediate, the light, and the very light. The expression " brown " does 
 not mean pure brown, it is rather a reddish, a yellowish, or a 
 greenish brown, corresponding with the chestnut or auburn colour, 
 the hazel {noisette), and the sandy (roux), made use of by the 
 English. The gray, too, is not pure ; it is strictly speaking a violet 
 more or less mixed with black and white (Broca). 
 
 Dark and light blue eyes usually belong to those which we 
 
Chap. Ti.] COLOUll OF THE HAIR. 347 
 
 term fair people, and are more cliaracteristic of a particular group 
 of race than any other shade ; they are commonly associated with 
 fine, silky, and yellowish or flaxen hair ; when associated with 
 black hair, they are a sign of mixed hreed. Gray, greenish, and 
 neutral-tinted eyes is one of the characteristics of the Celtic race. 
 They are very common, in Eussia in conjunction with a skin 
 naturally marked with freckles, and appear to have been derived 
 from an ancient race now extinct or merged into other races. It is 
 nevertheless a question whether green eyes are not in certain cases a 
 transformation of the hlue hy crossing. (See Chapters X. and XL, 
 " The Fair and Fin Types.") 
 
 The colour of the hair may he classified as follows : The flaxen 
 (approaching that of Albinos), the flaxen (properly so called), 
 the golden yeUow, the sandy, the chestnut, the brown, and the 
 various shades of black up to that of jet. Dr. Beddoe does not 
 look upon sandy hair as ethnic, he considers it accidental. Have 
 we not, on the contrary, ground for considering it as a vestige of an 
 extinct race with green eyes, which might have advanced as far as 
 England and the confines of the Ehine ? 
 
 There is often an alteration in the colour of the hair on the 
 surface of the body, especially in the folds about the joints, where 
 it becomes reddish, owing to the acid which is there secreted. The 
 inquiry is often made by travellers how it is that there are 
 individuals with light or reddish hair in the midst of people with 
 black hair. It is due occasionally to a complete or incomplete 
 albinism, and more frequently still to the use of dyes. All the 
 tones and shades of colour have been arranged by M. Broca in the 
 "Instructions de la Soci^td d'Anthropologie," under the form of 
 a chromatic table, which has been reproduced by many of the 
 foreign societies, and is now universally received. "We thus get 
 fixed data, upon which discussion is scarcely possible, instead of 
 individual notions. Dr. Beddoe, in England, has given a consider- 
 able amount of attention to the colour of the eyes and hair in a 
 large number of Europeans. Ifot being able in our limited space 
 to reproduce his tables, even in part, or of giving a resume of them, 
 we shall only take into consideration one point, namely, the pro- 
 
318 
 
 FAIK AJSTD DARK HAIK. 
 
 [Chap. -vr. 
 
 portion of those commonly called fair, chestnut, and bro-wn. Con- 
 sidering that light eyes and light hair, for example, are both weU 
 understood terms in pure races, and that we have nothiag to do 
 with mixed races, we have added (a) Those with black and fair 
 hair and light eyes ; (&) Those with chestnut-coloured hair and 
 eyes of an intermediate tint ; and (c) Those with dark brown and 
 black hair and dark eyes. The sum is divided by two, and the 
 quotient expressed in hundredths of the number of individuals 
 examined. The following are our results in this most remarkable 
 series : 
 
 Brown. 
 Per cent. 
 3-5 
 25-2 
 30-9 
 31-9 
 37-6 
 41-4 
 57-3 
 67-0 
 73-6 
 73-1 
 79-3 
 
 
 Sandy and 
 
 Intermediate 
 
 
 Fair. 
 
 or Chestnut. 
 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 28 Danes 
 
 ... 78-5 
 
 .. 17-9 
 
 400 Wallachians .. 
 
 520 
 
 22-2 . 
 
 1125 Scotch Highlanders ... 45-4 
 
 .. 23-9 . 
 
 90 Irish 
 
 ... 45-3 
 
 .. 21-2 . 
 
 654 Normans 
 
 ... 331 
 
 29-2 
 
 1250 Yieunese 
 
 ... 32-8 
 
 .. 25-8 
 
 368 Bretons 
 
 ... 20-0 
 
 .. 22-7 . 
 
 518 Ligurians 
 
 ... 17-0 
 
 160 
 
 163 Northern Jews.. 
 
 ... 14-4 
 
 13-3 
 
 233 Southern Jews . . 
 
 ... 13-5 
 
 13-7 
 
 130 Maltese 
 
 8-8 
 
 .. 11-8 
 
 From this it appears — (a) That not one of these series is abso- 
 lutely pure, and that, among the Jews more particularly, there are 
 individuals with fair and chestnut hair ; no one moreover would 
 assert that this people marry exclusively with those of their own 
 religion, and do not intermix with those of other creeds. (6) That 
 the greatest number of fair people are met with among the Danes, 
 then the Wallachians, and the largest number of brown-haired 
 individuals among the Maltese, the Jews, and the Ligurians. 
 (c) That the Southern Jews and the Northern Jews are almost 
 entirely brown-haired, which is a certain argument in favour of the 
 influence of external circumstances, (d) That the Bretons are 
 essentially brown-haired. Moreover, the comparison is perhaps not 
 altogether an impartial one as to the fair-haired, inasmuch as the 
 chestnut-coloured are somewhat taken into account. The beard. 
 
Chap, vi.] 
 
 LIGHT AND DAEK EYES. 
 
 349 
 
 of which nothing is said here, is often light when the hair is 
 brown, while the converse is rare. The following table, calculated 
 in the same way as the American statistics of the War of Secession, 
 also merits our consideration on account of the prodigious number 
 of cases to which it has reference. The first five series relate to fair, 
 and the last to brown races. 
 
 English 
 
 Scotch 
 
 Irish ... 
 
 Germans 
 
 Scandinavians 
 
 Spanish and Portuguese 
 
 Sandy and 
 Fair. 
 
 48-9 
 
 50-2 
 
 50-5 
 
 480 
 
 68-4 
 
 23-7 
 
 Intermediate 
 and Chestnut 
 
 . 26-9 
 
 . 25-7 
 
 20-1 
 
 22-6 
 . 19-5 
 
 17-7 
 
 Brown. 
 
 23-4 
 230 
 23-3 
 23-8 
 11-8 
 57-8 
 
 A map of the colour of the hair and eyes, similar to that which 
 M. Broca has arranged for the stature, would be very desirable for 
 any country.* M. Bernard, an army surgeon, has commenced one, 
 but it has reference only to a few hundred soldiers. In his two most 
 striking series, and at the same time those of the most opposite 
 races — one being made up from the Kymric Departments (Nord, 
 Jura, Bas-Ehin, Moselle, Haut-Ehiu, and Meurthe), the other from 
 the Celtic Departments (Correze, Haute-Loire, Aveyron, Indre 
 Gautal, Ardkhe, Dordogne) — the percentage is made up as follows : 
 
 Hair. 
 
 Fair. 
 Per cent. 
 
 Kymrio Departments 
 Celtic Departments 
 
 Chestnut. 
 
 Per cent. 
 55-0 ... 44-9 . 
 21-8 ... 78-0 . 
 
 Eyes. 
 
 Brown. 
 Per cent. 
 560 ... 41-8 
 500 ... 500 
 
 Blue. 
 Per cent. 
 
 Unfortunately these distractions of colour are not sufficient. 
 Thus, iQ the first series, we have blue eyes, and in the second gray- 
 blue ; the altogether black-haired are not noticed at all except as 
 regards Basques. 
 
 It is common for the hair, and in a less degree for the eyes, to 
 become darker during the second period of childhood or later. The 
 light hair becomes chestnut and chestnut dark brown. In a word. 
 
 The Germans are preparing a map of this kind for their country. 
 
350 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PILOUS SYSTEM. [Chap. vi. 
 
 colour is an excellent characteristic of race, but it should not be 
 taken as a basis of classification. The division of the white races, 
 these being subdivided into the fair and the dark, is the only- 
 established one. Yellow, red, and black have too many inter- 
 mediate colours, and are not sufficiently characteristic. Taken in 
 connection with others, this character becomes very valuable. The 
 Bosjesman is distinctly separated from all the other negroes by a 
 peculiar yellow tint, and the Australian from all the other straight- 
 haired races by the black. 
 
 Tlie Pilous System, 
 
 The Ainos, the Australians, the Tasmanians, and the Todas of the 
 ITilgherries are, as regards the body generally, the most hairy. In the 
 first in particular, the front of the chest, the back Of the shoulders, 
 and the limbs are covered with a thick fur, the skin not being visible. 
 M. Eosory has met with a half-breed between the Ainos and the 
 Japanese whose hair on the chest was 17 centimetres in length. 
 We might mention, as examples of a very hairy race, the ancient 
 Assyrians, and an extinct race, well-marked vestiges of which are 
 found here and there among the brown races of southern Europe. 
 Scarcely a trace of hair is to be found on the body among the 
 negroes of Africa and the Mongolian races, in which we must 
 include the American races. The ancient Egyptians are represented 
 as beardless. The hair, both of the head and body, varies more- 
 over as to quantity. In the Chinese, the hair on the head is 
 straight, long, and moderately abundant, while their eyebrows and 
 moustaches are reduced to a narrow pencil of stiff hair, and their 
 beards and whiskers frequently to a few scattered hairs. Certain 
 races are distinguished for the regularity with which the hair of 
 the beard is implanted, while in others, as the Australians and 
 Todas, it is scattered and tangled so as to deserve the epithet of 
 bushy. The exact limit to which the beard and whiskers grow is 
 a striking feature in some Orientals. The period when the hair 
 f aUs off is taken notice of in the American statistics, to which we 
 have already referred. From this it appears, contrary to what we 
 
Chap. Ti.] CHAEACTEE OF TKE HAIR. 35I 
 
 should have anticipated, that baldness takes place earlier in the 
 white than in the negro and the mulatto. 
 
 The conformation of the hair, whether straight or spiral, is also 
 of interest. 
 
 Bory de St. Vincent was one of the first to insist upon the two 
 great differences which it presents among races, which he has 
 divided into leiotrichi, or straight-haired, and ulotriehi, or wooUy- 
 haired. His division therefore corresponded to the two species of 
 mankind of Yirey : the white and the Mack. He has also made 
 divisions of the straight-haired. 
 
 To the naked eye, the hair is straigM when the individual hairs 
 are straight throughout their entire length, wairy when they describe 
 curves, curly when at a certain distance from their extremity they 
 form large curls which are generally incomplete, frizzled when the 
 smallest of these curls occupy the whole length of the hair, and 
 ■woolly when these little curls are twisted in among those adjoining 
 them, thus forming tufts resembling wool We may remark here 
 "that the resemblance is only apparent, for the structure of human 
 woolly hair is altogether different from that of sheep's wool. 
 
 Crisp or woolly hair is fine or coarse, and presents itself in 
 various aspects. It is long, and falls down in twisted curls which 
 resemble thick fringes, as in certain Tasmanians; or long and 
 bristly, thus forming a round mass, which is as much as 30 centi- 
 metres in circumference, and which we term "mop-headed" {en iete 
 ■de vadrouille), as in Papuans and Kaffirs ; or very short, sometimes 
 looking like a fleece, sometimes being distributed in little masses 
 like peppercorns (era grains de poivre), as in. Hottentots. The way 
 in which the individual hairs are implanted tends to produce some 
 of these differences. The hairs are generally inserted obliquely. 
 In Hottentots, Papuans, and some other negroes, they are inserted 
 perpendicularly (Pruner-Bey). Generally, too, they are equally dis- 
 tributed on the surface of the head, but sometimes irregularly or 
 in straight lines or curves. In Hottentots and Papuans they grow 
 in little tufts, separated by bald patches, which, when the hair is 
 cut short, gives to the head the appearance of a brush with pencils 
 of bristles. Another character of wooUy hair but little studied is 
 
352 STEUOTURB OF THE HAIE. [Chap. vi. 
 
 tlie width of the roll, which is more or less contracted, giving the 
 appearance of a spiral tower. In a collection of Hottentots' hair 
 belonging to the Soci^t^ d'Anthropologie, the roll is not wider 
 than two millimetres. It is very narrow, and is sometimes less 
 than two millimetres. 
 
 Straight, wavy, and frizzled hair is sometimes soft and silky, 
 as in Scandinavians ; sometimes glossy, as in the Malays ; some- 
 times harsh and stiff, like horse-hair, as in Americans, and also, 
 though in a less degree, in the Mongolian races. Frizzled hair 
 is sometimes like the head of a mop, as in the Cafusos, a mixed 
 hreed between Americans and negroes. 
 
 These differences take place in all parts of the body, and 
 probably woolly hair is even more persistent in the negro cross- 
 breeds on the unexposed parts, and especially on the pubis. All 
 depends on the microscopic structure of the hair. 
 
 M. Nathusius maintained that the hair was cylindrical in aU 
 races, and that its spiral character depended on the form of the 
 secretory follicle at its root. M. Weber, and especially M. Pruner- 
 Bey, affirm that this form varies, and that its spiral appearance 
 arises from its flatness. 
 
 The hair consists of the root, including the bulb, and the stem. 
 In the centre of this is a sort of canal, transparent in Europeans 
 with light hair; more or less opaque, though still visible, in 
 Europeans with black hair, Mongols, and Americans ; and invisible 
 in negroes, Papuans, and Malays. M. Pruner-Bey does not look 
 upon these appearances as constant, or characteristic in any race. 
 The size of the stem is of more importance ; it is the cause of the 
 harshness and rigidity of the hair, or its fineness and flexibility. 
 The largest transverse sections are to be met with in Thibetans, 
 Polynesians, Santals of India, and Americans ; and the smallest in 
 Eins. The shape of the section is decidedly characteristic : it is 
 cylindrical, ovoid, elliptical, or reniform, and is estimated according 
 to its width or length. The thinnest and flattest hair is that of 
 Bosjesmans, Papuans, and negroes ; the most cylindrical being 
 that of Polynesians, Malays, Siamese, Japanese, and Americans. 
 Europeans are between the two. Half-breeds present characters 
 
Chap. Ti.] THE PHYSIOGNOMY. 353 
 
 intermediate between tlie two races from ■wMoh. ttey are derived, 
 or take the liair peculiar to either the one or the other race.* 
 
 The microscopic examination of the hair, easy enough when one 
 is satisfied with ascertaining the size, colour, or condition of the 
 medullary canal, is very difficult when we have to do with its 
 form. The smallest deviation of the instrument, the slightest 
 folding of the hair, converts a transverse section into an oblique 
 and elongated one. Then, again, the hair must be taken when it 
 is fully developed, that is to say, at about the period of the second 
 dentition ; and after examining a great many specimens from the 
 same head, we must select the average. 
 
 From what has just been said, and particularly from the observa- 
 tions of M. Pruner-Bey, it is evident that the hair presents definite 
 anatomical charactera, and that these alone might be taken as a 
 basis of classification for the races of mankind. Three groups 
 might thus be portrayed : (1) Rat or woolly hair, characteristic of 
 negroes ; (2) Large and coarse cylindrical hair, belonging to 
 Mongols, Chinese, Malays, and Americans ; (3) Hair intermediate 
 in shape and size, peculiar to European races. The first group 
 might be divided into two, according as the hairs are inserted in 
 tufts, as in Papuans and Bosjesmans, or in a contiauous layer, as 
 in other negroes. The third might be classified according as the 
 hair is brown, as in our southern races, or light, as in the northern. 
 Lastly : by comparing the character of the straight hair with the 
 pure black colour of the skin in certain races, we might have a 
 further group, comprising the Australians, Hymiarites, <fec. Thus 
 we should have six fundamental divisions bearing upon one and 
 the same organ. 
 
 Tlie Features. 
 
 The features include the general form of the face, its details, 
 and everything contributing to its expression. The expression of 
 
 * Sur la Chevelure comme Caraoteristiqne des Eaoes Humainea d'apr^s 
 des Eeoherches Microsoopiques ; " and "Deuxifeme Serie d' Observations snr 
 la Chevelure," by M. Pruner-Bey, in "Mem. Soo. d'Anthrop.," vola. ii. 
 and iii. 
 
 2 A 
 
354 SHAPE OF THE PACE. [Chap. vi. 
 
 tte face arises from various causes, of wMcli some are fixed and 
 anatomical, others changing and physiologicaL There is nothing 
 respecting which there is such diversity of opinion. The con- 
 formation of the forehead, the amount of projection of the eyebaUs, 
 the contrast between the hair and the eyes, the shape of the 
 eyelids, the nostrils, the lips, the chin, are the elements upon 
 which it is based. The injection of the capillaries of the skin, 
 winch is always more or less visible except in negroes, and the 
 action of the subjacent muscles excited by the inner feelings, are 
 still more essentially connected with it. One of the best and most 
 brilliant lectures of the lamented Gratiolet was devoted to this 
 subject. 
 
 ^. With regard to general form, we have first to distinguish the 
 two kinds of countenance as seen in profile ; one evidently oblique 
 or prognathous, in which the two jaws project in the form of a 
 muzzle, and the lips are large and upturned. This is the negro 
 type. The other, sensibly vertical or orthognathous, in which the 
 lips are fine, straight, and smalL This is the European type. 
 There are also two kinds of countenance as looked at in front, the 
 one developed and projecting in front of the median line, the 
 sides receding and becoming narrower. This is also the European 
 type. The other, in which the middle portion is flat, while the 
 sides become wide and project out. This is the Mongolian type. 
 The term " eurygnathous," applied to this by Isidore GeofEroy 
 Saint-HUaire, is in allusion to the prominence of the cheek-bones. 
 
 There are two other types, the one elongated, the other con- 
 tracted vertically. Among negroes, the pure Melanesian element, 
 which has contributed to form the New Caledonian race now in 
 existence, is in the former category ; the Tasmanians, now extinct, 
 are in the latter. The Esquimaux and Patagonians have the long 
 face, the Negritos the short face. M. Edwards was the first who 
 established this distinction as regards the people of France. The 
 men of Picardy, Champagne, and Burgundy have the long sharp 
 face, with the cheek-bones scarcely visible, like the Gauls described 
 by Eoman historians ; while those inhabiting the central districts 
 have it more or less round. In short, there are regular coun- 
 
Chap, vi.] OBLIQUE DIRECTION, OF THE EYES. 355 
 
 tenanoes, of a fine oval, like that of the Arab, as well as those 
 with irregular outlines, or angular, like that of the Australian, &c. 
 
 A straight and contracted forehead is a feature of inferiority, 
 a broad ample one, a mark of superiority. There can be no doubt 
 about this. The vertical high forehead, with the frontal bosses 
 very marked, is met with in some men of genius, as Sir Walter 
 Scott, and the same, only narrower, is commonly observed in the 
 negro. All the Nubians of M. Broca have it. l^othing was more 
 incorrect than the forehead of 90 and 100 degrees which the 
 Greek sculptors gave to their divinities ; it was by lowering the 
 level of the ear that they obtained this appearance. A high and 
 bulging forehead is an anomaly, reminding one of hydrocephalus 
 in infancy. Microcephales and idiots have the receding forehead, 
 with the frontal bosses scarcely visible, and very low. The happy 
 medium is the best. A large full forehead, very slightly receding, de- 
 scribing an ample curve at the level of the moderately high frontal 
 bosses, and from that point passing backwards, are the characters of 
 the well-formed European. Our ancestor of Cro-Magnon was in 
 this respect the very opposite of his predecessor of the Neanderthal. 
 
 The development of the superciliary arches in Man, and of the 
 eyebrows which rest upon them, is the principal cause of the 
 character which we designate by the name of "deep orbits" or 
 " sunken eyes ; " the depression of the root of ttie nose, the 
 smallness of the eyeball, and the narrowness of the palpebral 
 aperture, contribute to it. This aperture is shaped like an almond, 
 with its external extremity tapering, in Semitic women, who 
 enlarge its outline by means of sulphuret of antimony. It is wide 
 in negroes, whose eyes are even with their head {Lawrence), and 
 very small in Chinese and the majority of the yellow races, owing 
 to the shortness of the upper eyelid, which is as if pinched 
 outwards. The oblique direction of the eye, and the raising of 
 its external angle, in the Mongols are partly due to these two 
 causes, and are partly natural. However, these features are far 
 from being constant in these races, although they are those by 
 which we recognise them the best. King, in speaking of the eye 
 of the Esquimau, which, with that of the Chinese, may be con- 
 
 2 A 2 
 
356 CHAEACTEKS OF THE NOSE. [Chap. vi„ 
 
 sidered as the type of the race, says : " Its internal part is lowered, 
 while its external has an upward direction. The internal angle is 
 covered by a fold of loose integument. This fold is slightly 
 stretched over the angles of the eyelids, and covers the caruncula 
 lachrymalis, which is visible in the European, and forms as it were 
 a third eyelid, in the form of a crescent." That which tends to 
 exaggerate the impression of obliquity given by the Chinese or 
 Esquimau eye is a particular movement of the eyebrows, the two- 
 internal thirds of which are lower, and the external third higher than 
 ours (Broea). The oblique eye, so called by travellers, is met with 
 also among the American Indians, and, according to Barrow and 
 others, among Hottentots. The reverse of this too narrow or too- 
 short lid is the drooping M, as though puffed or too loose, and 
 covering a portion of the eyeball. Something of this kind has: 
 been noticed in certain Australians. So much has been said 
 respecting the malar-bones when describing the skeleton, that we 
 need not further refer to the projection of the cheek-bones, so 
 characteristic of all the native races of Eastern Asia. This pro- 
 minence is sometimes so remarkable in the Esquimaux, that when 
 associated with a sunken condition of the entire nose, it enabled 
 King to place a rule on both cheek-bones at the same time without, 
 its touching that organ.* 
 
 The morphological variations of the nose have not received that 
 attention which they deserve. Developed in an antero-posterior- 
 direction in Europeans and North Americans, it is wide and flat 
 in the majority of Mongols — in our opinion, in aU true Mongols 
 — and in negroes. Projection and width are generally in an 
 inverse ratio, and form the starting-point of a series of differences 
 with respect to the bridge and the base, which are principally 
 expressed by two indices, one of which corresponds very nearly to 
 the nasal index as taken on the skeleton. The following table 
 embraces the essential points bearing upon these differences :t 
 
 * " On the Physical Characters of the Esquimaux," by King, in " Journal 
 of the Ethnol. See," vol. i. Loudon, 1848. 
 
 t" Dela MorphologieduNez,"byP. Topinard, iu"Bull. Soc. d'Anthrop.," 
 2nd series, vol. viii., 1873. 
 
Chap, vi.] 
 
 TEANSVBESB NASAL INDEX. 
 
 357 
 
 Bridge . 
 
 Maximum height ) Transverse index. 
 
 „ breadth ... ) ) 
 
 „ projection \ Antero-posterior index. 
 
 I distinct (pinched, trilobed. varieties). 
 
 Lobnle < non-distinct. 
 
 ( extending beyond the nares. 
 ,, I near together. 
 
 ( divergent. 
 
 Base -j r I elUptical. 
 
 Shape ■< round. 
 
 ' special. 
 / downwards. 
 Their plane \ forwards, 
 l- Nostrils ... -i looking ... ) backwards. 
 
 Direction of 
 their axis 
 
 ' outwards. 
 
 I antero-posterior. 
 
 < oblique. 
 
 ' transverse. 
 
 Direction 
 
 Its angle of inclination. 
 / rectilinear. 
 \ bent or dinted. 
 y convex (aquiline variety). 
 ^ concave (retroussS variety), 
 like a roof. 
 
 Shape -j rounded off. 
 
 broad and j3at. 
 
 The height is taken with the sliding compass, Tertically from 
 the root to the hase of the nose, as on the skeleton ; the breadth 
 from the widest portions of the alse, and the projection or antero- 
 posterior diameter, from the point of the nose to the sub-nasal 
 point, with a smaU graduated rule, which is held horii;ontally on 
 the line of Camper, and at the same time pressed against the skin. 
 The transverse measurement is common to the two indices. It 
 varied from 29 to 42 millimtoes in 78 Europeans which we 
 examined, and from 40 to 52 in 18 busts of negroes and Mongols. 
 Its relation with the height = 100, or transverse nasal index, 
 averaged 68-14 in the first, 89 on a Cochin-China bust, 100 on a 
 Papuan and an Australian, and was as high as 110, 112, and 115 
 on some African negroes. The extreme deviation was 75 -00, so that 
 a considerable margin is left for the apportionment of the averages 
 
358 AJSTTEEO-POSTERIOE NASAL INDEX. [Chap. vi. 
 
 and of the individual cases. The transverse nasal index is there- 
 fore a valuable character in the living subject, as the corresponding 
 iudex of M. Broca is on the skeleton. 
 
 On looking from below upwards at the nose of the European, on 
 the one hand, and that of the negro and Mongolian on the other, 
 we are struck with the difference in the shape of the little isosceles 
 triangle formed by the septum iu the middle and the nostrils at 
 the sides, and which has hitherto escaped the attention of Anthro- 
 pologists. The difference consists ia the relation of the length 
 antero-posteriorly of the sub-septum, or rather of the entire pro- 
 jection of the nose at the above maximum breadth, otherwise 
 called the antero-posterior nasal index. In our 78 Europeans, it 
 varied from 55 to 89, the mean being 66'6. In the negroes and 
 MongoHans it was probably as low as 30. Having measured but 
 a few Uviug subjects, and principally busts, upon which no pres- 
 sure of the lip could be made, we cannot speak with certainty. 
 "We recommend this measurement to travellers as being easy to take. 
 
 Among other characters may be mentioned — (1) The depth of 
 the hoUow at the root, which is not radicated in the table. It is 
 considerable in Melanesians, who are thus distinguished from the 
 negroes of Africa. It is also tolerably marked in the majority 
 of our European races, though generally less so in the female. 
 It is less marked in the Mongolian races, as also in the Arab, 
 and in what is commonly called the ancient Greek type, represented 
 by the Venus de MUo. (2) The arching of the nose. Excep- 
 tionally, as if broken or bent, as in Bourbons, more general and 
 more projecting in Americans {Oaflin) ; it is altogether charac- 
 teristic of the aquUine nose peculiar to the Arabs, Jews, ancient 
 Assyrians, Guebres, or ancient Persian fiie-worshippers, &c. Two 
 types of this feature ought to be distinguished : the one, thick — 
 in which the nose is large, and rounded off at the back, big and 
 puffy at the point ; the other, thin — in which the lateral planes 
 are well defined, the bridge sharp, and the median lobule distinct 
 from the alse, and prolonged below the plane of the nostrils like an 
 eagle's or parrot's beak, whence its name, aquiline. (3) The two 
 kinds of flattening of the nose, which may be distinguished by 
 
Chap. \i.] SYMMETRICAL CHARACTBES. 359 
 
 the terms epate and ecrase; the former having reference to the 
 organ in its ejisemile, and heing equally applicable to the skeleton ; 
 the latter to the peculiar depression of its lower half, owing to 
 a want of consistence of its cartilages. The Chinese have the nez 
 Spate, the Malays the ecrase, negroes hoth ipate and ecrase. It is 
 true that hoth these characters are very commonly found together. 
 (4) The form of the nostrils viewed from helow. These are 
 elliptical from before, backwards in the white, more or less 
 diverging backwards, so as to become almost transverse, in the most 
 inferior races, their variations depending principally on the breadth 
 of the sub-septum behind. (5) The elevation upwards and out- 
 wards of the plane of the entire base, or of the alse separately, so that 
 the internal surface or side of the nostrils becomes more or less 
 exposed to view. The Bosjesmans, and the lowest-type negroes 
 approximate in this respect to the simian types. Among the 
 accessory features of the nose may be placed the variable develop- 
 ment of its muscular apparatus. In Europeans, the nostrils are 
 only seen to dilate exceptionally, when the breathing is oppressed. 
 In a large number of individuals, and especially in the inferior 
 races, the movements of dilatation and contraction are very marked, 
 thus giving to the countenance a ferocious expression. 
 
 We have previously spoken of the harmonious or symmetrical 
 characters of the cranium and face ; nowhere are they so striking 
 as in the nasal apparatus of the living subject and of the skeleton. 
 The width of the interval between the eyes, or rather the space 
 included between the external angles of the ascending processes 
 of the tsuperior maxillary bones, is usually accompanied by flatness 
 of the same interval, and the obliteration of the glabella. The 
 width of the base of the nose and the anterior orifice of the nasal 
 fossse in the skeleton corresponds not only with the two or three 
 preceding characters but also with the flatness of the entire nose, 
 both bone and cartilages. So with the nostrils, from being placed 
 antero-posteriorly, they become transverse. Any one of these 
 characters being given, we can at once determine the others. 
 The opposite conditions of contraction with counterbalancing pro- 
 jection of these different points are in the same category. According 
 
360 THE MOUTH, CHIN, AND EARS. [Chap. vi. 
 
 to the rules of art, the space between the eyes = the base of the 
 nose ; this is exactly so ia the two opposite types of which we 
 are speaking. But there are constant exceptions in a race, as there 
 are in the harmony between the cranium and face, which thus 
 become valuable differential characters for certain sub-races. An 
 analogous harmony exists in the mouth and ear. Both characters 
 must be preserved, the harmonious as well as the incongruous. 
 
 Delicacy of shape of the lips, and smallness of the mouth are 
 European features, except in some individuals of the lymphatic 
 temperament, in whom the upper lip is decidedly the larger. 
 Sometimes immoderately thick lips are the ordinary accompaniment 
 of prognathism, especially of alveolo-dental prognathism, and arises 
 from the development of the orbicular muscle of the lips, and stUl 
 more from hypertrophy of their ceUulo-adipose tissue. It is said 
 that Man alone has a chin. On the skeleton it is indicated almost 
 without exception by a small more or less projecting triangular 
 surface, such as that on the prehistoric Naulette jaw. On the 
 living subject it is represented by a rounded-off and weU-defined 
 projection, which is very remarkable on the busts of Nero and 
 Napoleon. It is sometimes obliterated, which often arises from the 
 lower jaw being much smaller than the upper, and shrinking in. 
 Barrow says that the Bosjesmans, although prognathous in the 
 lower jaw, have a projecting and pointed chin. 
 
 The ears have not been sufficiently studied, though furnishing 
 characters of considerable value. They are large or small. In the 
 Kabyles they project out ; in others they are close to the side of the 
 head. The lobule is wanting in certain Chaouias or Kabyles of the 
 province of Constantine, in the religious fanatics of the Pyrenees, 
 and here and there in individuals of every race. In Europeans the 
 ears are oval and well defined ; in negroes they are round or ap- 
 proaching to square. The ear without a folded margin behind or 
 above, an angle at the union of the superior with the posterior 
 border, as well as flatness, are important features, and somewhat of 
 a simian character. The varieties of configuration of this organ, 
 and of its folds and hoUows, are very commonly hereditary. 
 It is modified by certain ethnic usages, such as the elongation 
 
Chap, vi.] ODOUR OF THE SKIN. 361 
 
 of the lobule by heavy earrings until it almost touches the 
 shoulders. 
 
 But little has been determined as to the value of certain dis- 
 similarities noticed in the teeth. A more or less thick enamel, a 
 yellowish or bluish colour, variety in the number of the roots, as well 
 as certain particulars connected with the crown, have attracted 
 attention. In the negro races they are better set and more regular 
 than in the white races, in which they are small and close together. 
 ■Caries is more common in England, Ireland, and Germany than in 
 Canada, according to some American statistics, gathered from an 
 examination of a thousand soldiers. Certain ethnic customs leave 
 their traces upon them, which we sometimes utilise in craniology 
 for the purpose of ascertaining the source from which skulls are 
 derived. In Africa, as well as in Oceania, a considerable number 
 of the savage tribes extract or sharpen their front teeth at the 
 period of puberty. Malays have the front of the teeth corroded in 
 a transversely concave line, owing to their chewing the betel-nut. 
 On the anterior surface of the teeth of the Yucatan there is some- 
 times a point of enamel of a blue turquoise or greenish colour. 
 Their wear and tear, which in our races inclines inwards in the 
 upper jaw, in many foreign races inclines outwards. 
 
 There are some other physiological features to be noticed. Thus 
 the skLa of the negro is shining and velvety, and cooler than that 
 of the European, according to Prichard. Others have maiataiaed 
 the contrary. 
 
 The odoui of the cutaneous envelope, sm generis in each race, 
 would furnish important differential characters, if one could em- 
 ploy some definite re-agent as a substitute for the uncertain sense 
 of smell. The missionary Hue declared that he could recognise 
 the Negro, the Tartar, the Thibetan, the Hindoo, the Chinese, and 
 the Arab, by their efSuvium, and added that although disguised 
 the dogs of the Chinese barked at him. The Peruvian, says 
 Humboldt, has three distinct words by which to designate the 
 odour of the European, the Indian, and the Negro, respectively. 
 Euegger states that mosquitos are attracted to certain races by 
 their peculiar odour. The characteristic effluvium from the hold 
 
362 EXTERNAL GENWAL OEGANS. [Chap. vi. 
 
 of a slave-ship can never be got rid of, and it is owing to this that 
 the hlood-hounds of New Orieans were enabled to track the run- 
 away slave. 
 
 The external genital organs present very marked differences in 
 dilferent races. In the male these are but slight. In the female, 
 the differences are very considerable. In the first place, it is certain 
 that the hemispherical, conical, and pyriform mammae which 
 are now characteristic of the races which surround us, were 
 formerly peculiar to distinct races. So with the perforation of 
 the olecianon, or the platycnemic tibia. It is no less certain that 
 their exaggerated length, from the period when the female has 
 fulfilled her maternal functions, is an essential characteristic of 
 other races. We commonly meet with accounts by travellers of 
 negresses throwing their breasts over their shoulders to suckle 
 their infants hanging at their backs. A Bosjesman woman, exa- 
 miaed by Elower and Murrie, could bring the two breasts together 
 behind, above the region of the buttocks. 
 
 Under the name of " steatopyga " is understood the development 
 in the female of enormous fatty masses, shaking like jelly at the, 
 least touch, which are superposed upon the glutsei muscles. This 
 character is met with here and there ia Africa, among the Somalis, 
 Kai3Srs, and Hottentots, and is constant ia various degrees in 
 Bosjesmans. There is no evidence of it either on the skeleton or 
 on the glutaei. It is more than an hypertrophy of the adipose 
 tissue, it is almost a supplementary organ, as special as the 
 laryngeal sacs of the gorilla and the chimpanzee ; nay, more so, 
 for these are onLy a progressive increase as age advances, and 
 more particularly in the male, of a cavity at the back part of the 
 larynx common to aU the higher mammalia, while nothing in the 
 European has any resemblance in the slightest degree to steatopyga. 
 This strange organ, the particular use of which is not known, was 
 present, as well as the tabUer, in a Bosjesman virgin, of 12 years of 
 age.* The fat increases in size like the breasts. 
 
 * Review of a memoir of Flower and Murrie, on "A Dissection of a 
 Bosjesman Woman," in "Anthropological Review," vol. v., 1867. 
 
Chap, vii.] PHYSICAL CHAHACTERS. 363 
 
 Everything tends to support tlie belief that a peculiar race, 
 possessing these two characters, and of which the Bosjesmans are 
 the closest representatives, formerly lived as a scattered people from 
 the coast of Aden to the Cape of Good Hope. If we compare the 
 yellowish colour of this people with other origiaal characters which 
 separate them from the negroes of the adjoining countries, this 
 hypothesis becomes almost a matter of certainty. Hitherto we 
 have met with many opposite characters in the human groups, hut 
 few so remarkable as these. We have seen the marked difference 
 between woolly and straight hair, between the prognathous and 
 the orthognathous, the jet black of the Yoloff and the pale com- 
 plexion of the Scandinavian, between the ultra-dolichocephalic 
 Esquimau or New Caledonian, and the ultra-brachycephalic Mon- 
 golian. But the line of separation between the European and the 
 Bosjesman as regards these two characters is, in a morphological 
 point of view, stiU wider, as much so as between each of the 
 anthropoid apes, or between the dog and the wolf, the goat and 
 the sheep. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 PHYSICAL OHAEAOTEES — AGE — ^MBNSTEUATION — OEOSSBS — SUCCESSION 
 CONSANGUINEOUS UNION. 
 
 If the physical differences noticeable either on the dead body or on 
 the living subject, are of the first importance as distinguishing 
 races, the differences resulting from the function of organs have 
 also their value. It is of importance to know whether the 
 Australian Uves, breathes, propagates his species, thinks and speaks 
 like the European; whether the Hottentot is subjected to the 
 influence of external conditions, inter-erosses, satisfies his wants, and 
 is of sociable habits Uke the Chinese. AH the subjects we have 
 passed in review when comparing Man with animals, again present 
 
364 DT7RATI0N OF LIFE. [Chap. vii. 
 
 themselves to our notice ■when comparing men between themselves. 
 This part of the science whose more general questions have scarcely 
 yet heen explored, would merit the title of biology as opposed to 
 that which has been discussed in the preceding pages under the 
 name of anatomy. 
 
 Duration of Life. 
 
 The duration of life is less at the poles among the Esquimaux 
 and Lapps, and at the equator among the Negroes; hut that may 
 depend on climate and external circimistances. In Greenland, there 
 are more women than men, because the men die from accident, 
 and rarely reach 60 years of age. The women, however, attain 
 to the age of 70, 80, and even beyond. Prichard has collected 
 together cases of centenarians from every race. Nine English 
 emigrants in America from 110 to 151 years; 10 or 15 negroes 
 from 107 to 160 ; one Kaifir 109; many Hottentots of 100 {Barrow) ■ 
 two Indians of 117 and 143 respectively (SwrnSoMi) ; 35 Egyptians 
 above 100 {Larrey). Eecently Sir Duncan Gibb mentioned the 
 case of a Fin of 115 years. The mean duration of life in France, 
 which was 29 at the close of the eighteenth century — and 39 
 from 1817 to 1831, increased to 40 from 1840 to 1859, thanks 
 to the progress of sanitary science and civilisation. There are 
 some reasons, however, for believing that apart from the influence 
 of Jailmate, and the power which Man has of dealing with the 
 causes of disease, the mean normal longevity is not the same in all 
 races. 
 
 So, decrepitude shows itself sooner in some races than in others. 
 The Australians and Bosjesmans are old men at a period when the 
 European is in the full enjoyment of his faculties, both physical and 
 intellectual. The Japanese the same, according to Dr. Krishaber, 
 physician to the Japanese embassy. Unquestionably the woman 
 fades away mtich sooner in the negro races even from the first 
 pregnancy. In the negro, the development of the body is 
 generally in ad'.ance of the white. His wisdom teeth are cut 
 
Chap, vil] MENSTETJATION. 365 
 
 sooner; and in estimating tlie age of his skull, we must reckon it 
 as at least five years in advance of the white. 
 
 There are many points connected with this subject still unsettled. 
 The successive dates of the eruption of the milk and permanent 
 teeth, the period of growth of the tody generally, and of the brain 
 in particular, the period at which the epiphyses of the long bones 
 become anehylosed to the diaphyses, the period of the commence- 
 ment and cessation of menstruation, the period when the hair falls 
 off and changes colour — all this would furnish more certain data for 
 the solution of the problem than the average duration of life, 
 which is too much dependent on external circumstances. 
 
 Whites lose their teeth much sooner than negroes, but this is 
 owing to their bad quality and to their being too close together, 
 which predisposes them to caries. D'Orbigny says that the 
 Charruas never lose their teeth. They wear out however more 
 quickly in savage races, from their masticating corrosive substances, 
 as the betel-nut by the Malays or very hard matters by the 
 Patagonians. The hair becomes white more slowly in the yellow 
 races, and baldness is rarely seen among them. (See page 350.) 
 
 Menstruation. 
 
 Menstruation, and the periods at which it becomes established and 
 disappears, have not yet afforded anything conclusive with respect to 
 races. The influence of the duration of life upon the period of the 
 cessation of the catamenia is a well-established fact, thanks to a 
 work of Mr. E. Cowrie. In the Shetland Islands the period of 
 the appearance of the menses is the same as in Scotland, but that 
 of their disappearance is from 50 to 51 years of age, while in 
 Scotland they cease at the age of 45 to 46.. ISTow, in the Shetland 
 Islands, longevity is considerably greater. There are 33 per cent, 
 of old people from 70 to 80, and 20 per cent, from 80 to 90 ; 
 while in Scotland there are only 18 per cent, of the former, and 7 
 of the latter. The influence of external circumstances also exerts 
 its action. After comparing aU the published statistics, Joulin 
 
366 
 
 MENSTRUATION— FECUNDITY. 
 
 [Chap. vii. 
 
 came to the conclusion that in temperate countries the phenomenon 
 makes its appearance at the age of 15, and in hot countries at 12|. 
 In 6000 German girls, M. Meyer found that the iirst menstruation 
 took place at 15-51 among the rich, and 16-50 among the poor; at 
 15-98 in the towns, and 15-20 in the country. Food, warmth, 
 good air, and good sanitary arrangements, hring all the vital 
 functions into full play. According to M. Gu&ault, the catamenia 
 are less abundant, or are altogether suspended among the 
 Esquimaux during the winter, when food is less abundant, while 
 they are copious iu summer. In hot countries, among Europeans, 
 they readily pass into true menorrhagia. 
 
 In making statistics with respect to menstruation, the difficulty 
 is to divest the subject of that which has specially to do with the 
 race. Two opposing influences are at work, and may apparently 
 falsify the results. The following are the most important published 
 statistics as to the average period of the first appearance of the 
 catamenia in various races : 
 
 Christiania (Faye) 
 
 Copenhagen (Eawn) 
 
 North Germany (Lagnean) 
 
 Bnasia (Lieven) ... 
 
 France (Lagneau) 
 
 England „ 
 
 Madeira (Eobertson) 
 
 Jamaica, Negresses (Robertson) 
 
 SSuthem Asia (Lagnean) 
 
 ... 2691 . 
 
 . 16 years months 
 
 ... 3840 . 
 
 . 16 
 
 „ 
 
 JJ 
 
 ... 4324 . 
 
 . 16 
 
 „ 9 
 
 )) 
 
 ... 1000 . 
 
 . 16 
 
 „ 6 
 
 )1 
 
 ... 3661 , 
 
 . 15 
 
 „ 1 
 
 
 ... 3759 . 
 
 . 14 
 
 „ 11 
 
 J» 
 
 ... 242 . 
 
 . 14 
 
 „ 10 
 
 JJ 
 
 80 . 
 
 . 14 
 
 „ 10 
 
 J$ 
 
 ... 1140 . 
 
 . 12 
 
 „ 10 
 
 3i 
 
 The races which it would interest us to know the most about 
 are not in the Hst, as the Esquimaux and Lapps, Australians and 
 Bosjesmans. The records respecting the former are very contra- 
 dictory, and relate to but few exalnples ; and as regards the latter, 
 we have none.* 
 
 The duration of pregnancy, fecundity, the number of twin- 
 births, &o., are so many questions of comparative anthropology, 
 
 * See Tilt, "Monthly Journal of Medical Science," 1850, vol. Ixi.j 
 Lagnean, " Gaz. Hehd. de M^d.," 1867, 2nd series, vol. iv. p. 613, &o. 
 
Chap, til] CROSSING. 367 
 
 which come next to that of menstruation. With regard to the 
 first point, we have little information beyond the French statistics. 
 The facility with which child-bearing takes place among savage 
 peoples, in spite of the want of the smallest care, depends alto- 
 gether upon the anatomical and physiological arrangement of the 
 parts, and on the degree of resistance to pain. There are un- 
 doubtedly very decided dififerences ia these respects between one 
 European race and another. An accurate estimate of fecundity 
 is an exceedingly difficult one to determine. In France, three or 
 four children is the usual number born ia a family. In other 
 countries of Europe this number is exceeded. In Iceland, accord- 
 ing to Moser, it is as high as five. The hypoborean races are less 
 fertile, the Slavs more so. Ifegresses readily conceive, and make 
 excellent nurses. In Western Australia, 44 women beyond the 
 middle age had 188 children, or 4-3 each — three had seven each, 
 and one only was barren {G. Grey). But statements of this kind 
 are frequently erroneous. With regard to multiple births, the 
 information we possess .scarcely extends beyond the French statistics. 
 According to a table of Moser, the largest number of twin-births 
 was iu Dublin and in Eussia. In Australia the number is about 
 the same as ia France : " I am acquainted with four cases " of 
 twin-births, writes Sir G. Grey. 
 
 CrossiTig. 
 
 This is one of the most vexed questions in Anthropology. 
 Under this title is understood ia Natural History the union of 
 two individuals whatever may be their supposed or actual zoological 
 difference. Their progeny have the general name of hybrids, and 
 in Man that of mongrels. The former of these terms is usually 
 applied to the fixed or variable products of species between them- 
 selves, and the latter the products of varieties or races. 
 
 Between animals of classes differing widely we occasionally 
 witness the most singular connections, as between the dog and 
 the sow, but the generative imptdse goes for nothing. It is stated 
 
368 CROSSING. [Chap. tii. 
 
 that individuals of diiferent Orders have given birth to offspring, as 
 between the bull and the mare, whose progeny, or jumarts, inhabited 
 the Atlas mountains and the mountains of Piedmont. It is a 
 better authenticated fact that the phenomenon takes place between 
 different Genera. M. de BouiUi^ in 1873 described the offspring of 
 the cross between the ibex of the Pyrenees and the domestic goat. 
 The Pehuelhas in the Chilian Alps crossed this latter with the 
 sheep, and obtained a very vigorous breed called ehdbins (buck- 
 sheep), whose. descendants, fertile through an indefinite number of 
 generations, are of considerable commercial value on account of 
 their skins and fleeces, known by the name of " pellons." Between 
 species the crosses are common and fertile, the mongrels them- 
 selves being either sterile, as mules — the offspring of the ass and 
 the horse — or fertile, as the progeny of the hare and the rabbit, 
 the dog and the wolf, the jackal and the fox, the camel and the 
 dromedary, the alpaca and the llama or vecima, the horse and the 
 zebra or wild mule, the bison and the European ox, &c. 
 
 There is therefore no reason to suppose that we have been 
 deceived as to the reality of certain species, and that such were 
 only varieties. Two or three well-established facts out of many 
 wiU suffice. It is now certain that the limit of species is not 
 an absolute obstacle to fertility, and consequently that its circum- 
 scription has nothing decided about it, which puts us entirely at 
 our ease when discussing the question of hu.man cross-breeds. 
 Whether races anthropologically distant from each other have or 
 have not indefinitely fertile offspring, is of little importance, the 
 simple question is whether they represent species or varieties. 
 (See page 193, ei seq.) 
 
 Much mystery remains to be cleared up, however, relative to the 
 phenomena of hybridism in general. Why, for example, a male of 
 one species produces fertile hybrids with the female of another 
 species, while, inversely, a female of one with a male of another 
 is sterile (unilateral hybridism). Why a female savage in captivity 
 does not produce more fertile offspring with the male of her own 
 species, while captivity increases the fertility of other species j 
 why among dogs, or human beings, the germs being appa- 
 
Chap, vii.] CROSSING. 369 
 
 rently sound, there are some fertile unions and others not 
 so. We have only the simple facts before us from which to form 
 a judgment. 
 
 M. Broca has defined the various degrees of sexual affinity, which 
 he calls homoaenesis,* thus : 
 
 Heterogenesis. 
 
 r Abortive 
 
 Homogenesis J DysgeTsic '.■.: ! ^'^°^* "'^"P™^" 
 
 / Paragenesic. . I ■. >, » 
 
 I -^ t with offspring. 
 
 V Eugenesio . . . ) 
 
 In heterogenesis there may he intercourse without impregnation. 
 Abortive homogenesis is merely a matter of speculation; impreg- 
 nation takes place, hut the foetus does not arrive at its fuU term. 
 In agenesia homogenesis, or agenesis, there are offspring, but these 
 are absolutely sterile iwisr se, or with individuals of one or the 
 other mother-race. In dysgenesia homogenesis, or dysgenesis, these 
 mixed breeds are stiU sterile inter se, but they are fertUe with indi- 
 viduals of one or other mother-race — their offspring, called hybrids 
 of the second blood, being nevertheless sterile, so that it cannot 
 again form a new race. 
 
 In paragenesic homogenesis, or paragenesis, or collateral hybridism, 
 the direct hybrids, or those of the Jirsi blood, are stiU sterile be- 
 tween themselves, or as far as the second or third generation ; but 
 those of the second blood are indefinitely fertile, so that a race may 
 take its origin by collaterals. In eugenesic homogenesis, or 
 eugenesis, or direct hybridism, the two orders of hybrids are now 
 indefinitely fertile, so that the new race makes its way directly and 
 without hindrance. 
 
 Heterogenesis is never other than individual in Man, nor con- 
 sequently is agenesis. There was a disposition for some years to 
 believe in absolute dysgenesis between certain races. This must 
 
 * Memoire, " Sur I'Hybridite," by M. Brooa, " Jonrnal de Physiologie," 
 vol. i., 1838. 
 
 2 B 
 
370 CROSSING. [Chap. tii. 
 
 now he given up. The whole dispute concentres upon the two 
 latter kinds : Are there unions which could not give origin to a new 
 race except by collaterals, that is to say, by a reversion towards 
 the one or the other mother-race 1 
 
 There are numerous species of human mongrels. There are 
 (1) Those of the first blood, including their direct ofi'spring, and all 
 those which are derived from them by alliances with them ; (2) 
 Those of the second blood (first degree of reversion), including all 
 the offspring of the cross of the first blood with one of the two 
 mother-races ; (3) Mongrels of the third blood (second degree of 
 reversion), resulting from the cross of the second blood with one of 
 the mother-races, and so on. At the fifth or sixth reversion aU 
 trace of hybridism has generally disappeared, the features of the 
 mother-race have reverted to the origiaal type. That there is but 
 one species of mongrel of the first blood, but two species of the 
 second, of the third, of the fourth, each resembling more one of the 
 two original races, is certain ; and also that there are complex and 
 nameless cross-breeds resulting from the cross of mongrels of 
 different orders. 
 
 If we express by W, or white, and B, or black, the two races, 
 and by a fraction the amount of each according to its degree, we 
 shall have the f oUowiag series of reversion towards W : 
 
 Mongrels of first blood 
 „ second blood 
 
 „ third blood 
 
 „ f ourtli blood 
 
 „ fifth blood 
 
 = W| -1- Bi. 
 = Wfl + B^. 
 
 Homogenesis is absolute or eugenesic, and still more paragenesic, 
 between contiguous races. The peoples of Europe are a proof of 
 this. All, in various degrees, are the resultant of a series of cross- 
 iags, one of the most striking products of which is the co-existence, 
 in one and the same individual, of light or dark blue eyes with 
 jet-black hair and beard. A friend of our own who traces back 
 among his ancestors elements on the one side reaching to the 
 
Chap, vii.] CROSSING.^ 371 
 
 Western Pyrenees and on tlie other to Lorraine, is an example of this. 
 M. Broca found, when investigating the subject of stature, that 
 nineteen-twentieths of the whole population of France presented, 
 in various degrees, the characters of mixed races. The Bretons are 
 one-fourth Kymris and three-fourths Celts, without including 
 another element which is seen among them, and which dates hack 
 to a later period than the Celts. Up to the time of the French 
 Eevolution victors and vanquished lived apart; the former were 
 the aristocracy, the latter the people. But since they have been 
 brought more into immediate contact the population Jias largely 
 increased, proving how valuable that union has been. The table 
 which we have constructed with materials furnished by Dr. Beddoe, 
 shows that everywhere throughout Europe, and even among the 
 Jews, two elements must be taken into account, the fair and the 
 dark, which are promiscuously intermingled. 
 
 The prosperity of the New American race is another example of 
 eugenesis. Immigration into the United States, which has taken 
 so considerable a flight during the last thirty years, has already 
 been enormous. Every variety of cross has been going on between 
 English, Irish, Germans, Italians, French, &c., with the greatest 
 possible success. We may also mention numberless Spaniards 
 from the Peninsula among whom are found the features of the 
 Saracen invaders of the ninth century ; then that poptdation on 
 the Barbary coast, called Moors, and which is a medley of races of 
 every description, the Arab and Berber blood predominating. On 
 tracing back the yellow races we also discover a perfect eugenesis. 
 It would be difficult in the part of Asia which relates to them to 
 mention a single race, or a single people, where crossing has not 
 taken place. De Mas speaks in the highest terms of mixed breeds 
 ■of Chinese and Mongolians, and MM. Mondiferes and Morice of those 
 of Chinese and Aanamites under the name of Minuongs. Dr. Bow- 
 ring describes a race in the Philippine Islands, intermediate between 
 the Malays and Chinese, as the principal agent of civilisation in 
 these latitudes. 
 
 Their mongrels, which are said to be thriving but little in the 
 Eastern Malacca Islands (Waitz) and those of Chinese and Cam- 
 
 2 B 2 
 
372 CROSSING. [Chap. vii. 
 
 bogians but little fertile (Gutzlaff), are local exceptions, arising 
 from the difficulties attending acclimatisation in these unhealthy 
 countries. One of the first effects of the inability to become 
 acclimatised is to diminish fecundity. The Mamelukes of Egypt 
 during 560 years have had no children when married to women 
 of then- own race from Georgia, and have never established a branch 
 in the Valley of the Nile. Such are some of the singular pheno- 
 mena which everywhere present themselves when we have to deal 
 with the question of reproduction. The failure of power to become 
 acclimatised seems to attack the germ in its very earliest develop- 
 ment. It is undeniable that in Africa the negro races do not cross 
 to any great extent. The Kaffirs have carried their tall stature to 
 a great number of points ; the Bosjesmans have here and tliere loft 
 traces of their steatopyga and their small stature. On the present 
 frontiers of the two races a number of cross-breeds are to be met 
 with. Eugenesis still continues between races already somewhat 
 separated from one another. The half-breeds between Indians and 
 Europeans are very numerous both in North and South America. 
 We ourselves have seen, in the United States, numerous families, 
 the issue of the Indian and the Yankee, whose offspring were very 
 fertile. 
 
 In the official report, in 1870, upon the Aborigines, it is stated 
 that there exists in Kansas an entire nation of half-breed Osngos. 
 In Mexico the Spanish mixed breeds constitute two-thirds or 
 three-fourths of the whole population. In Brazil, La Plata, and 
 Chili, the Portuguese mongrels are also in the majority. In Lima 
 there are twenty-three different names to designate the varii'ties of 
 mixed breeds of Spaniards, Peruvians, and Negroes. 
 
 The children of the half-breed between the Chinese and the 
 Spaniard are called tornas atras, according to Dr. Bowring. The 
 facility with which the Chinese interbreed with every sort of race 
 is well known. In the Antilles and in California, they are to be 
 found everywhere, and they interbreed with the Indians and whites, 
 thus producing many varieties of mixed progeny {A. Maiirij). 
 The reason why these are not greater is that the Chinese marries 
 and returns to his own country as soon as he has amassed a com- 
 
Chap, vii.] CROSSING. 373 
 
 petency. The inferiority of the mixed breeds between the Chinese 
 and the Portuguese, so conspicuous at Macao (Castano), ought still 
 to be attributed to acclimation, in the same way as the Lippladens, 
 or half-breeds between the Malays and the Dutch, which have 
 never suoceenlod in establishing themselves in Java, and whose 
 progeny were sterile to the third generation (Ivan). In the 
 It'i'onuh colony of Ind(i-("!hina, M. Morice speaks of half-breeds of 
 Europeans and Annamites as resisting exposure to the sun better 
 than their European relations. Fitzroy describes the children and 
 infants of the English and Malay, or Polynesians, as of a bright 
 roil-brown. The half-breeds of English and New Zealanders con- 
 stitute a healthy and very muscular race, according to Waitz. 
 Prichard speaks of marriages between the progeny of Europeans 
 and aboriginal Samoans and Tongas as being as prolific as any 
 other. The success of the Polynesian mixed breeds is no longer a 
 matter of doubt. In 1789, nine English sailors, six male Tahitians, 
 and 15 Tahitian women settled in Pitcairn Island, in the Pacific. 
 In 1793 they were reduced to four white men and 10 Tahitian 
 women. In 184G the population of the island increased to 66, 
 and in 1856 to 189. Moreover, at the termination of Cook's 
 voyages, the I\ilynesian races were still unmingled with any infusion 
 of white blood. Now, their mixed breeds are so numerous that it 
 would be difficult to find among them any individuals of pure race 
 (Do Quatrefages). 
 
 In Africa, the Soudan is the great centre of mixed breeds between 
 two raees equally removed from one another. Here, in the tenth 
 century, there appeared a red race with glossy hair, commonly 
 known as that of the Foulbas (Barth), which engrafted itself as a 
 dominating race upon a previous negro stock with wooUy hair, and 
 giving origin t<i all sorts of mixed breeds, of which the Toucolors 
 of Senegal are the most celebrated. The Somalis, the Gallas, and a 
 score of other peoples of Eastern Africa, are, no doubt, mixed breeds 
 between negroes and some red race or Arabs. On the Abyssinian 
 plateau mixed breeds continue, but the Arab element is increasing. 
 On the plain of Sennaar there are no less than six denominations 
 between the more or less pure Arab and the pure negro ; (1) The 
 
376 CROSSING. [Chap. vii. 
 
 childreii, seeing that the first unions had taken place more than 40 
 years previously. Jlr. Stokes says they are excellent sailors. The 
 fact that a great number of Australian mixed breeds are to be met 
 with in the towns and plantations has lately been confirmed in a 
 letter received by us from M. de Castelnau, French consul at 
 Melbourne, as also at a personal interview with M. E. Simon, 
 French consul at Sydney. We have yet to know within what 
 limits the mulattoes are the more frequent, whether by collaterals or 
 by the first blood.* 
 
 The accounts furnished by Prichard, in 1856, respecting the 
 mixed breeds of the Melanesians of the Fiji islands, appear 
 applicable to Australians. He says the half-blood mongrels are less 
 fertile inter se than those of the original stock ; in other words, 
 their cross-breeds are eugenesic, but they thrive less than the 
 paragenesic. 
 
 From the foregoing we must conclude that the rule as regards 
 the human race is eugenesic, but that certain races are less fruitful 
 between themselves by their first-blood mongrels than by their 
 collaterals. It is only a question of degree. Consequently these 
 may always be produced either directly or indirectly, a strictly 
 intermediate race between two races as distant as any now existing 
 on the globe. Frequently the race wUl become extinct before 
 being fixed by a sufficient repetition of the laws of inheritance, or 
 because external circumstances and acclimation will not favour it. 
 Frequently, owing to the predominance of one or the other ele- 
 ment, there will be a progressive reversion towards one of the 
 mother-races, as in the case of the Griquas. But time and circum- 
 stances acting together, the product of that race wiU be inevitable. 
 Let us suppose that the cross is only paragenesic, the result wiU be 
 the same. Let there be two parallel and cross races, the one formed 
 by a reversion of the mongrels of the first blood towards the white, 
 the other by a reversion towards the black. Once established, 
 their anthropological distance will be evidently less than between 
 the two primitive mother-races. Supposing the cross inter se 
 
 * " Note surles Metis d'Anstraliens et d'Enropeens," in " Eevue d'Anthro- 
 pologie," by P. Topinard, vol. 17., 1876. 
 
374- CROSSING. [Chap. vii. 
 
 El-Asfar, or yellow ; (2) The El-Kat Patelobem, analogous to tte 
 Abyssinians ; (3) The El-Akdar, or red ; (4) The El-Azraq, or hlue ; 
 (5) The El-Ahcdar, or green; and (6) The Ahbits, or Nouhas, 
 "whose hair is not absolutely ■woolly. 
 
 The mixed breeds between races more widely separated remain 
 fertile ; but to what extent do they remain so 1 Is the inter 
 mediate race produced directly or by collaterals? easily, or with 
 difficulty, in the former case 1 
 
 The mixed breeds of negroes and Europeans have various names, 
 according to their relative proportion of blood. The first are called 
 mulattoes, the second tierceroons, the third quadroons, the fourth 
 quintroons. Sec, without mentioning a number of local terms 
 for mixed breeds of every shade. They form a peculiar race, 
 and are paragenesic. There is no doubt about this ; but are they 
 also eugenesic 1 !N"ott made a comparison of the mixed breeds of 
 Carohna, Louisiana, and Florida, and found a difference between 
 them as regards fecundity ; and came to the conclusion that the 
 hybrids of the Anglo-Saxon race with the negro are sterile for the 
 iirst or second generation, while the offspring of the brown race 
 of Europe with the negro are of better constitution and decidedly 
 fertile. 
 
 The observations of Long in the English colony of Jamaica, as 
 well as examples of an opposite description in Cuba, Hayti, and 
 Porto-Eico — French and Spanish colonies — go to strengthen this 
 view. 
 
 Jaquinot, Waitz, Van Amringe, Hamilton Smith, and Seemann, 
 on the other hand, speak of the fertility of negroes with Europeans 
 of every description. There is considerable difficulty about the 
 matter, there being no statistics establishing the distinction 
 between the first and second blood. The white woman generally 
 refusing to marry a mulatto, and the latter to marry a negress, it 
 becomes necessary, notwithstanding, that the mulatto should find a 
 wife, and this he can only do generally among his own people. 
 Once only have we any record on the subject, namely, in North 
 Carolina. There the caste of freemen was constituted entirely of 
 mulattoes freed by their white fathers. The State, dismayed at 
 
Chap, vii.] CROSSING. 375 
 
 the important position whidi they assumed, put a stop to this 
 liberation. Left to themselves their number diminished 29 per 
 cent. The fact is the question has not yet heen settled. 
 
 Now let us pass to the continent of Africa. One of the argu- 
 ments of Prichard ia favour of the unlimited fecundity of aU. the 
 human races was derived from a consideration of the Griquas, a 
 race the issue of the union, at the close of the last century, of the 
 Hottentots with the Dutch. Prichard was too dogmatical, and M. 
 Broca justly remarks that the number of bastards at first was small, 
 and was soon absorbed into the mass of Bosjesmans and Korannas, 
 with whom they became amalgamated, so that, ia 1825, the Griquas 
 might be looked upon as having reverted to the aboriginal type. 
 If the experiment failed through the excess of reversions, it never- 
 theless succeeded at first. The English author also mentioned the 
 existence of Malayo-Papuans in the Malay Archipelago, on the 
 authority of Quoy and Gaimard. We think he was right, and the 
 existence of these mixed breeds seems to us demonstrated by 
 craniology, although some are now considered to be negritos. 
 
 One of the arguments in favour of dysgenesis was drawn from 
 a consideration of the Australians. Until within, the last few years 
 only three or four instances were known of their interbreeding 
 with Europeans, and these were mentioned incidentally by 
 Freycinet, Quoy, Gaimard, and Lesson. Those mentioned by 
 Mackenzie and Eobert Dawson had been unnoticed. The frequency 
 of the intercourse between whites and the Australian Gins was, 
 however, a matter of general notoriety. But subsequently Miles, 
 Murray (of Sydney), P. Beveridge, and E. Lee have stated that 
 they have seen them, and that they are common, especially on the 
 borders of the regions occupied by the squatters, to whom they 
 were of great service. An undoubted example has been given 
 by Stokes. Erom 1800 to 1805 some English seal-fishers settled 
 in Bass's Straits had exchanged, for the seals they had taken 
 on the banks of the Strait, some Australian and Tasmanian 
 women. 
 
 In 1846 they had given birth to a numerous progeny. On 
 Preservation Island alone there were 25 children, or rather grand- 
 
Chap, til] INHERITANCE. 377 
 
 recommenoes, it will stiU. form two new races inclining in the same 
 way, the one towards the white, the other towards the black, but 
 more nearly allied the one to the other than the preceding. Their 
 establishment being produced in the same way, and the operation 
 being repeated, the distance wiU be once more lessened, so that at 
 a certain moment there will be none at all, and between the two 
 original black and white races there will spring up a definite and 
 strictly intermediate race. There is no other way of accounting 
 for the infinite number of races now in existence, which have taken 
 their origin from two neighbouring races, having all the appearance 
 of comparatively pure races. In a series of 100 New Caledonian 
 skulls, one-third represents a more or less peculiar and well-defined 
 type, resembling no other with which we are acquainted, and which 
 is the extinct Melanesian type — one-third is indistinguishable from 
 the most characteristic Polynesian skulls — and one-third is the 
 superposition, or mixture in various proportions, of the characters of 
 the two other types. 
 
 In time the average type will be that of a New Caledonian race, 
 and yet at a remote period there had been these two types pro- 
 foundly different. Formerly, when seas and forests caused man- 
 kind to be more isolated, the accidental characters in a race were 
 confirmed, their aspect remained unchanged. Now that immigration 
 has assumed such vast proportions, the characters are less distinct. 
 Crossing is the principal agent in the confusedness of races, as 
 hereditary influence and external circumstances are the principal 
 agents in their separation. The one will introduce unity in the 
 future the others must have produced plurality in the past.* 
 
 Inheritance. 
 
 In every individual, or in every generation of individuals, there 
 are two opposite tendencies : the one to divergence, or variability 
 
 * We are compelled to omit many notices of books for want of space. 
 The reader is referred especially to the article " Metis," by Dr. Dally, in 
 the " Enoycl. des Sciences Medicales," 2nd series, vol. vii. 
 
378 INHERITANCE. [Chap. vii. 
 
 of cliaraoters ; the other to concentration, or perpetuation of these 
 characters. The force presiding over the latter is inheritance, 
 which may he defined as the property of living beiags of repeating 
 themselves, or of reproducing themselves under the same forms 
 and with the same attributes. A white man removed to a hot 
 country assumes such a dark colour as to he almost taken for a 
 black. His child, however, is born white, and continues so as 
 long as he is not exposed to the same atmospheric conditions. The 
 Jews of Cochin are generally darker in colour, nevertheless they 
 are white ; their children are born white, and their wives, being 
 sheltered from exposure to the sun, are white. It is so with the 
 Berbers and Arabs, who are often very dark. The reason of this 
 is that the white colour is a fixed character of these races, that is 
 to say dating back to the remote past. Thus from inheritance 
 emanates the law of permanence of types, which show the identity 
 between the ancient Egyptian type, as represented on monuments 
 of five or six thousand years ago, and the type of Eellahs which 
 gtill inhabit the banks of the Nile ; the identity of the Jewish 
 types of that period and of the present, and the persistence of 
 character here and there of the Cro-Magnon man in the midst of 
 peoples who have succeeded them, and into which they have 
 become absorbed. 
 
 If physical characters, the existence of which is lost in the 
 obscurity of past ages, are transmitted without appreciable change, 
 is it so with characters acquired accidentally at a later period 1 If 
 we look at the custom among the Chinese of squeezing the foot, 
 which has been practised for a thousand years, without its size 
 being diminished; at the use of circumcision among the Jews, 
 as well as at the non-transmissibility of artificial deformations 
 of the skull, we should be disposed to answer in the negative. 
 But in the first two cases, and generally in the third, the defor- 
 mation has only to do with one sex. Goss maintained, indeed, 
 that the deformations of the skull practised on both sexes during 
 many generations, became hereditary. The question is stiU. an 
 open one; but we must not conceal from ourselves the fact that 
 the vertical flattening of the nucha among the Malays, the Syrians, 
 
Chap, til] INHERITANCE. 379 
 
 and many Americans, favours this opinion. The inheritance of 
 polydactylia — a deformity -which frequently takes place through 
 three or four or five generations simultaneously in many families — 
 also deserves consideration. In aU these cases, marriages take 
 place outside the families predisposed. If they had had their 
 origin from within, who knows whether a new race of polydactyls 
 might not have heen produced? It is true an objection may he 
 made to these cases, as well as to other hereditary deformities 
 mentioned by Scoutetten as hypospadias, and cleft palate, namely, 
 that the cause which at first engendered the anomaly spontaneously 
 is alone perpetuated ; in a word, that there is only an hereditary 
 predisposition. But among animals in which selection practised 
 by Man's hand favours the development of a character, an acci- 
 dental lesion has frequently become the origin of a particular race. 
 Thus the hornless oxen, or those with very rudimentary horns, of 
 Paraguay, the short-legged sheep of Massachusetts, the races of 
 tailless dogs. Wbat has been produced by selection, cannot chance 
 perpetuate ? 
 
 In a pure race all the individuals resemble each other as regards 
 their main features. The law of inheritance is that the son is the 
 reproduction of his father and mother. We are told that the 
 Andamans and the Todas are all alike. "We can hardly say so of 
 the Greenlanders. M. Brooa has in his laboratory five skulls of 
 Patagonians which are identical. But these are rarities. Among 
 the inscrutable influences which cause the child to put on such and 
 such, characters, there is a conflict of all the elements which figure 
 in his genealogy. He resembles his mother during a portion of his 
 existence, at a later period he becomes like his father, and some- 
 times like some distant relative. We have seen that in a hybrid 
 we take into account the quantity of blood belonging to one or the 
 other side. So with respect to inheritance, there is a struggle 
 between the characters; some are added, others are neutralised, 
 while others have no reciprocal influence. The most remote an- 
 cestors have their share in it as well as the nearest relatives. 
 M. de Quatrefages knew a great-grandson of the bailiff of Sufiren who 
 was a striking likeness of his ancestor after four generations, and 
 
380 INHERITANCE. [Chap. tii. 
 
 who, nevertheless, hore no resemblance either to his father or his 
 mother. It is thus that we aooount for the horse unexpectedly 
 presenting the characteristic stripes of the zebra, which might have 
 formed part of his zoological genealogy. This phenomenon is termed 
 atavism, and is common in Man. An individual presents the features 
 of a past generation which has been absolutely forgotten. The 
 appearance of such characters is therefore a matter of chance; or 
 rather, there are in the germ certain latent influences which it is 
 impossible to fathom. Certain characters retain their hold more 
 firmly than others, such as the shape of the nose or of the ear. 
 Everyone recognises the Bourbon nose. M. L. Eousselet met with 
 it at the Bhopal court in Central India, in a direct descendant of 
 Francis I. Waitz says one of the most frequently quoted examples 
 is that of the thick lip of the house of Hapsburg since its alliance 
 with the ancient house of Jagellon. 
 
 Intellectual qualities are transmitted, as well as physical characters. 
 In the family of Bach there were thirty-two musicians, It is the 
 same as regards morbid affections. In aU these there is a trans- 
 mission of anatomical forms, either original or acquired by no 
 matter what process, and by education among others. In the law 
 of inheritance, as in all the other laws of the iiniverse, there is 
 nothing of an occult kind. Here like begets like. The following 
 are the principal forms of inheritance : (a) Continuous inheritance, 
 when the son resembles the father and mother, and these resemble 
 theic parents ; (6) Interrupted inheritance, when, without resembling 
 either father or mother, he is like his grandfather : this is very 
 remarkable as regards the transmission of disease, and is frequently 
 alternating ; (c) Collateral inheritance, when the child resembles an 
 uncle or a great-uncle ; {d) Atavic inheritance, when the resemblance 
 goes back still farther. We need not say that the accounts of re- 
 semblance to a stranger who might have struck the attention of 
 the mother during pregnancy are fables. So we must only accept 
 with reservation those cases where the child might have had the 
 features of its mother's first husband. 
 
 The characters which mongrels exhibit axe only applications of the 
 law of inheritance, the consequences of which are reduced to a 
 
Chap, vn.] INHBEITANCB. 381 
 
 calculus of probability. Sometimes the mongrel of the first blood is 
 exactly intermediate between the two parents as regards the colour 
 of the skin and .the character of the hair, as M. Pruner-Bey has 
 shown, or as regards the proportions of the skeleton, as M. Broca 
 has stated. One of the varieties of Zambos, or mixed breeds of 
 negroes and Americans, is the Cafuso, in whom the hair is very 
 curly, and coarse enough to form a huge bristly wig. Sometimes 
 this mongrel embodies in himself a portion of the characters of one 
 or other parent; for example, as in the mulatto mentioned by 
 M. de Quatrefages, the intelligence of the father and the features of 
 the mother. In this group are the piebald mongrels, whose skin is 
 black in some places and white in others, or white on the whole of 
 the lateral or upper half of the body and black on the other. 
 Sometimes the child possesses altogether the character of one or 
 other parent : for example, the child of a Etu'opean father and a 
 Chinese mother. Dr. Scherzer says, is altogether a European or 
 altogether a Chinese. A Berber with blue eyes and with the lobule 
 of the ear absent, married to a dark Arab woman with a well-formed 
 ear, had two children, one like himself, the other like his wife. 
 An English officer, fair, with blue eyes and florid complexion, had 
 several children by an Indian negress. Some were the image of the 
 father, others exactly like the mother. Lucas mentions the case of 
 a negress who had three children at a birth ; one was white, one 
 black, and one fawn-coloured; that is to say of the colour of a 
 quarter-blooded hybrid between a negro and a mulatto {De Quatre- 
 fages). 
 
 Examples of interrupted, collateral, and atavic inheritance are 
 numerous among mixed breeds, and it is then in fact that they are 
 the most striking. A decided negro having had a white among his 
 ancestors has unexpectedly a child with a white skin by a negress. 
 Instances of this have been repeated regularly every second genera- 
 tion : this is alternate inheritance. 
 
 The peculiarities of one or the other race are more particularly 
 apt to be retained. The coarse hair of the American, or the woolly 
 hair of the negro, for example. The most persistent character of 
 the reversion from the negro to the white is the yeUow colour of the 
 
382 INHERITANCE. [Chap. vii. 
 
 nails, and tlie want of firmness of the cartilages of the nose. The 
 child of a negro father and a white mother wiU be more like the 
 father than the child of a white father and a negro mother will he 
 like his father {Waitz, Fitzroy). Pallas relates that the mongrel 
 produced by the aUiance of the Eussian with the Mongolian wUl 
 be more like the latter than the former. Others maintain the 
 reverse. 
 
 It is asked whether crossing produces an improvement or de- 
 terioration of races in an intellectual point of view, and whether 
 they ought to be encouraged. But the external conditions in which 
 the new race is found have been too much overlooked, as when 
 considering their degree of vitality we lose sight of their acclimation. 
 Half-casts are often excluded from the society into which they are 
 thrown. So they readily adopt its vices, and use them against it 
 by way of retaliation. The majority of the examples which we 
 have are rather favourable to them. The Griquas, if they are not 
 equal to the Dutch, are superior to the aborigines. The mongrels 
 of Java are better, aocordiug to Dr. Yvan, than the Malays. It is 
 impossible to doubt but that the Polynesians have gained by cross- 
 ing with whites. The Australian mongrels of Bass's Straits were 
 very clever, according to Stokes. The highest encomiums were 
 passed upon the boundary-riders, who were Australian half-breeds. 
 If, in America, the Zambos occupied the prisons of Lima and 
 Mexico, the Cafusos are described in most glowing terms by Spix 
 and Martins. Mulattoes in the United States are exempt from 
 yellow fever the same as negroes. Their mongrel reversions 
 towards the white have, in various degrees, a similar immunity. 
 
 M. de Gobineau attributes to crossing the disasters of empires 
 and the degradation of races. Nott maintains that if it were 
 general it would lead to the extinction of the human race. Knox 
 and P&ier did not believe that civilisation could make progress 
 except with pure races. M. Dally thinks that in an equal struggle, 
 the superiority would remain with the pure races. Bodichon, on 
 the other hand, declares that the era of universal peace and fraternity 
 will be realised by crossing; and Th^venot, Deschamps, Serres, 
 Waitz, and De Quatrefages hold a similar opinion. 
 
Chap. VII.] CONSANGUINEOUS UNIONS. 383 
 
 Dare -we say, after these authorities, that the problem is neverthe- 
 less a simple one? Two pure races mU. have a better progeny; 
 two impure races a worse. Two races, the one pure, the other 
 impure, will have an impure progeny relatively to the superior race, 
 and pure relatively to the inferior. The law of inheritance is 
 exerted with rigid exactness, but a multitude of other conditions 
 are mingled with it, which we cannot separate from it— such as the 
 action of external circumstances, acclimation, morals, education, 
 and social laws. 
 
 The number of mongrels on the face of the globe has been 
 estimated at 12 millions, of whom no fewer than 11 millions are 
 in South America, 3000 in Oceania, &c. But has a computation 
 been specially made of those of Europe 1 Gerdy states that there 
 are no pure races in Europe. Does crossing increase fecundity 1 
 This is the really important question. We reply : Certainly not 
 between races anthropologically very remote from each other, but 
 probably so between contiguous races. M. de Quatref ages, however, 
 thinks that even in the former case fecundity is increased. 
 M. Broca remarks that in France the population has increased 
 since the Eevolution, owing to the intermingling of the classes 
 which were originally constituted of victors and vanquished. 
 
 Consanguineous Unions. 
 
 Our conclusion on the subject of crossing was that the more 
 nearly aUied the races, the greater were the chances of fecundation 
 between two individuals. Carrying this out to its logical sequence, 
 the result would be that in the same tribe or in the same family 
 the most nearly related ought to be the most fertile.- But it seems 
 that in this case we must distinguish between the number and the 
 quality of the progeny. Breeders who select their subjects with a 
 definite object to breed in and in, that is to say between near 
 relations, rapidly obtain excellent results. They know, however, 
 that fertility then diminishes, and that it will cease altogether if 
 they do not have recourse from time to time to crossing, in order 
 
384 CONSANGUINEOUS UNIONS. [Chap. vii. 
 
 to strengthen tlie race. Extreme fecundity and superiority of race 
 would therefore be two contradictory terms, which may be a 
 consolation to those who maintain, though improperly, that the 
 fecundity of the French is diminishing. But is it with Man as 
 with animals? The question of consanguineous unions has been 
 discussed at the Soci(5t6 Anthropologique, by Boudin, Dally, and 
 De Eanse. It is said that blindness, pigmentary retinitis, albinism, 
 epilepsy, idiotcy, mental aberration, sterUity, scrofula, abortion, 
 hare-lip, and deaf-muteness are more frequent after unions among 
 kindred. It is necessary to produce facts in support of this statement. 
 Dr. Voisin went to pursue his studies ui the borough of Batz, in 
 the peninsula of Croisic, among an isolated population who only 
 married among themselves. As the result of 46 marriages between 
 first cousins or second cousins, he found 174 cliildren not one of 
 whom exhibited either of the above ailments. The conclusion was 
 obvious, viz. that consanguineous unions, even if closely allied, 
 were not attended with hurtful consequences. Other facts have 
 been observed by M. Ferrier at Pauillac (Gironde) ; by M. Gubler 
 at Gaust, in the Pyrenees ; by M. Dally in the island of Brehat 
 (Cdtes-du-Nord) ; by Dr. Duchenne, of Boulogne, at Portel. All 
 are agreed upon 'the matter. Beyond the seas, one example alone 
 wiU suffice. The Todas of the Nilgherries are endogamoits. They 
 all marry among themselves, and are all related to one another in 
 some way. Their wives are polyandrous, and have sometimes four 
 or five brothers for husbands ; and notwithstanding all this, the 
 race has for ages been one of the finest in India. Out of 196 
 individuals, Mr. Marshall found only two suffering from any 
 infirmity. 
 
 In conclusion, it seems clear that unions between cousins and 
 second cousins are followed by excellent results when both are 
 healthy, and that, on the contrary, morbid predispositions being 
 added, their effects are proportionately felt by the offspring. As 
 to alliances between direct kindred and blood-relations, the ques- 
 tion is yet suh judice. We may remark that the laws of civilised 
 countries have only forbidden them on moral and social grounds. 
 
Chap. VIII.] INFLUENCE OF MILIEUX. 38S 
 
 CHAPTEE VIII. 
 
 INFLDHNOE OF MILIEUX ACCLIMATION WEIGHT OF THE BODY 
 
 MUSCULAR FORCE PULSE RESPIRATION INTELLECTUAL 
 
 FUNCTIONS ^PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. 
 
 Influence of Milieux. 
 
 In antagomsm with inheritance, which preserves the characters, and 
 the crosses, which bind them together, there is, as we have said, the 
 variability which multiplies them, and tends to make them diverge. 
 Varieties are produced under two influences. (1) During intra- 
 uterine life, spontaneously and as it were by accident ; (2) In the 
 course of existence, by external circumstances, or milieux. The 
 doctrine of Darwin rests entirely on the former, that of Lamarck 
 and Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire on the latter. At present we shall 
 only examine facts respecting these latter, without reference to 
 theories. 
 
 Under the name of milieux, M. de Quatrefages includes 
 "the ensemble of conditions or influences of every kind, whether 
 physical, moral, or intellectual, which may act upon organised 
 beings;" in a word, all the external causes capable of producing, 
 either directly or indirectly, a change in living organs. We shall 
 confine ourselves to the most manifest characters, relative to which 
 there has been the greatest difference of opinion. 
 
 The colour of the skin, it is said, is variable, and results from 
 atmospheric causes. Eaces are regularly distributed from the 
 equator to the poles — the darkest in hot countries, the lightest 
 in cold. Let us see if this is so at the present time, for those 
 of the orthodox school make no allusion here to the past, it is 
 already known to them ; this is the Adamic version. 
 
 The peoples nearest to the north pole are the Esquimaux, the 
 Samoiedes, and the Lapps, with tawny complexions, black hair and 
 
 2 c 
 
386 INFLUENCE OF MILIEUX. [Chap. Tin. 
 
 eyes, and have dwelt in these icy latitudes from the most remote 
 periods. Let us rememher that there is a general harmony be- 
 tween the colour of the skin and that of the hair and iris, which 
 colour depends on the increase or diminution of pigmentary 
 matter in the organism. At a lower latitude, in a country with a 
 relatively elevated temperature, are the Scandinavians, ia Europe, 
 a race with a lighter skin, hair, and eyes than perhaps any in the 
 world, and the Eins, with fair complexion, chestnut or red hair, 
 and gray or greenish eyes. In Asia there are whole poprdations 
 with black hair and eyes, but with yeUow complexions, and ia 
 America, Indians with complexions of a reddish hue. 
 
 The doctrine is at fault from the very beginning. 
 
 At the south pole the first habitable regions that we meet with 
 are at about 34 degrees south latitude, and are peopled by the 
 Peschernis, with olive or tawny complexion, next to which are the 
 Patagonians, whose complexion is darker, and the Charruas, whose 
 complexion is analogous to that of mulattoes, if not darker. In 
 lihe other hemisphere there are the Tasmanians, with a complexion 
 as black as soot, with a slightly yellowish tinge in it, and the yellow- 
 tawny Hottentots, close to the Kaffirs, who are entirely black. 
 jS'othing is as yet favourable to the doctrine of which Prichard was 
 the interpreter. If we go to the equator we meet with facts 
 equally contradictory. In America the ancient Indians of Cali- 
 fornia were as black, at 42 degrees north latitude as the negroes of 
 Guinea, while farther south there were tribes of an olive or reddish 
 complexion, relatively light. So in Africa, the darkest negroes are 
 at 12 or 15 degrees north latitude, while their colour becomes 
 lighter the nearer they approach the equator. 
 
 " The Yoloffs," says Golberry, " are a proof that the black colour 
 does not depend entirely on solar heat, nor on the fact that they 
 are more exposed to a vertical sun, but arises from other causes, for 
 the farther we go from the iafiuence of its rays the more the black 
 colour is diminished in intensity." In the tropics, among the 
 Tawareks of the Sahara, the Affghans of India, and on the banks 
 of the Orinoco and the Amazon, in the midst of a dark population, 
 we meet with whole tribes with fair complexion, light hair, and 
 
Chap, viii.] INFLUENCE OF MILIEUS. 387 
 
 blue eyes. But it is said these irregularities are due to local cir- 
 cumstances, such as altitude. Prichard says fair complexions are 
 to be seen more in mountainous districts, and dark in the plains. 
 Thus the Swiss, in the lofty mountains of Lombardy, have brown 
 or red hair, while the Milanese, in the plain, have black hair. The 
 Berbers, of fair complexion, are seen principally in the Aurfes 
 mountains, and the dark in the plain. The negroes of the table- 
 lands are less dark than those of the low plains near the shores of 
 the Gulf of Guinea, &c. In the higher regions of Enarea and 
 Kaffas, in Abyssinia, we jBnd the natives are of a lighter com- 
 plexion than in Europe, &c. All these are examples upon which 
 we can rely, but we might mention some of an altogether opposite 
 character. M. de Quatrefages states that the Abyssinians become 
 black on leaving the plains for the heights, which he attributes to 
 the more direct action of the sun's rays. The Aatisian race of the 
 low plaius of Peru is white in comparison with the Aymaras and 
 ■the Quinchas of the high table-lands (Z''07'6ig'?i2/)- Humboldt says: 
 " The Indians of the torrid zone, who inhabit the most elevated 
 plains of the Cmrdillera of the Andes, and those who are engaged 
 in fishing at the 45th degree of south latitude, in the islands of the 
 Chonos Archipelago, have .the same copper colour as those who, 
 under a scorching climate, cultivate the banana in the deepest and 
 narrowest valleys of the equinoctial region." He adds that the 
 tribes of the Eio ITegro have a more sunburnt complexion than 
 those of the Upper Orinoco, notwithstanding that the banks of the 
 former are colder than those of the latter. 
 
 The smooth or crisp character of the hair would he equally due to 
 eKmate, according to the doctrine of the influence of external circum- 
 stances {milieux). Heat and dryness cause the hair to roll into sphals, 
 but it will not produce flattening to the same extent. Is it not 
 the reverse as regards animals ? The woolly fleece of the sheep of 
 temperate countries would be transformed into a fleece with straight 
 hair towards the equator. Moreover, there are negroes with very 
 woolly hair even in Tasmania, at a latitude of 45 degrees south, 
 and we know that in the southern hemisphere the temperature 
 is much colder than in similar latitudes in the north. On the 
 
 3 c 2 
 
388 INFLUENCE OF MILIEUX. [Chap. Tin, 
 
 contrary, in tlie tropics, there are blacks with smooth straight hair,, 
 as the Australians, the blacks of the Deccan, the Himyarites of the- 
 Yemen, <fec. How is it, according to the above hypothesis, that 
 the heat has exerted its influence on the skin and not on the 
 hair? The stature has also been attributed to the influence of 
 external circumstances, especially to food, to differences of tempera- 
 ture, and to altitude. We have referred to this at page 319. We 
 only remark that if the Peruvians are small on the most elevated 
 table-lands of the globe, the Malays, called Orangs lautts, on 
 the coast of the peninsula of Malacca, and the Andamans, at sea- 
 level, are stiU. more so ; which subverts the opinion of D'Orbigny, 
 that the taU Kafiirs and the diminutive Bosjesmans live side by 
 side in the same forests of southern Africa ; that the Todas at 
 the top of the Nilgherries are tall, and live only on pulse and 
 milk-food, while the Irulas and the Krumbas on either side of them 
 are comparatively short, and live on the flesh of the buffalo ; that 
 the Scandinavians in their cold countries, the negroes at the- 
 equator, the Eedskins in the Eocky Mountains, the Tehuelches in- 
 the sands of Patagonia, and the Polynesians in the low islands of 
 the Pacific, are all very tall imder the most opposite conditions.. 
 " I have observed," says M. Broca, " that the stature of the Prench^ 
 generally speaking, does not depend upon altitude or latitude, iS' 
 not a question of poverty or riches, of character of soil or of food, 
 nor is it the result of any other external condition; but I have been 
 led to believe it to arise solely from a general influence, that of 
 ethnic inheritance." 
 
 We have no proof, indeed, that in the present state of things, 
 and in the very short time during wluch our observations have 
 extended, there has ever been produced an important and heredi- 
 tary change of a physical character under the influence of external 
 circumstances. Wherever we meet either with Arabs or Jews,, 
 their type is the same, as we learn from Egyptian monuments. 
 At Leyden, the Jew is said to be simply a little lighter, at Algiers 
 of a yellowish tint, in India to be dark. There is no doubt as 
 to the last. At Cochin, on the coast of Malabar, there are — (1) 
 Black Jews ; these are native converts ; (2) White Jews, who> 
 
jChap. Till.] INFLUENCE OP MILIEUX. 389 
 
 «anie there at the period of the destruction of Jerusalem, and 
 ■whose history can be traced back at least six centuries. Ifow 
 ihese have remained white, or rather brown, from the climate, and 
 3,3 compared with ourselves, but white as compared with the sur- 
 rounding nations. Their children are born white, and their wives 
 -when not exposed to the sun remain white. 
 
 Notwithstanding all we have said, external circumstances have 
 An undeniable influence certainly. Vegetables become white when 
 excluded from the light, and not only on the surface but throughout 
 their entire substance, and it even affects their flavour, and extends 
 to other properties of the sap. The animals of the polar regions 
 become white on the approach of winter. The small and puny 
 x)xen of the Sologne when transported to the valleys of the Loire, 
 in one or two generations assume an entirely altered appearance as 
 regards their size and quality. Peasants and sailors become tawny 
 on exposure to the open air and in hot countries, on the uncovered 
 parts of the body. But in the last-mentioned case the influence is 
 confined to the individual, it is not hereditary ; it is also different 
 in different races. We have said that dark and fair Europeans do 
 not tan equally when exposed to the air ; the former readily become 
 black, the latter become sunburnt, and of a, brick-red hue, or 
 assume a yellowish tint, which Monrad considers as the first 
 .evidence on the coast of Guinea of having become acclimatised. 
 This yellowish colour passes into that of copper, and becomes 
 darker in each succeeding generation. The Chinese also become 
 Tjlack on exposure to the sun during the summer, and light in 
 winter. There is a vast distinction between this and the individual's 
 transmission of an acquired character to his posterity. The 
 individual becomes black as he becomes fat. If excluded from 
 exposure to the sun, and his food is scanty, he becomes pale and 
 thin. 
 
 In the Sandwich Islands an opposite phenomenon takes place 
 (Choris). The children when first born are black, the people 
 of distinction dark brown, and the labouring people of a lighter 
 tint, or orange colour. But this is a difi'erent matter; one 
 ought perhaps to look upon the two classes as two distinct races. 
 
390 INFLUENCE OF MILIEUX. [Chap. viii. 
 
 Nevertheless we admit that modifications of physical characters- 
 might he produced, if not under our very eyes, at least in the 
 course of time, and might be added to from age to age. We must, 
 admit that these things might be explaiued physiologically accordiag 
 to this hypothesis. 
 
 Stature, for example, is the result of two influences. (1) Of 
 the race, or rather of the predominance of action of such race 
 whether a paternal or maternal ; and (2) Of a concurrence of hygienic 
 circumstances. According as the nutrition of the skeleton goes on 
 properly or not, its ossification is or is not regular — the epiphyses- 
 are united to the diaphyses soon or late — so will the individual be 
 either tall or short. 
 
 Let the accident be repeated, let the phenomenon go on in the- 
 same way during many generations, it will become a habit (lq 
 mediciae we recognise pathological as well as physiological habits, 
 and their tenacity and hereditary character are truly remarkable), 
 and soon a regularly transmissible character. "We cannot there- 
 fore be surprised to see the persistence with which travellers, those 
 ia Australia for example, assert that individuals of low stature in 
 that country, are badly fed, poorly clad, and miserable, while tall 
 statures are characteristic of the natives of the interior, who are 
 strong and healthy, having every resource within their reach. 
 Individual varieties unquestionably depend partly on external 
 circumstances, and partly on the state of the health. M. Broca 
 himself allows this as regards certain differences between the sexes.. 
 Some statistics of Quetelet relative to healthy and diseased children 
 prove it. 
 
 The increase of the pigmentary matter might also be easily 
 explained in this way. The cutaneous system, excited by contact 
 with the air, heat, and light performs its functions more readily,, 
 its glandular apparatus secretes more, and the black matter is de- 
 posited in greater abundance in the cellules beneath the epidermis. 
 Trom this cause, and probably by reflex action upon the supra-renal 
 capsules or the Hver, the hypersecretion would be diffused through 
 the entire organism, and the colouring matter derived from the 
 blood, from the biliary matter, or from elsewhere, would increase. 
 
Chap, viii.] INFLUENCE OF MILIEUX. 391 
 
 Peculiarities proper to each, race ■vvould "be that one would become 
 decidedly Hack, another yellowish or olive, a third reddish. An 
 objection of this sort might arise : Why the parts exposed to the air 
 are not the only ones black? The opposite phenomenon, a want 
 of excitation, would, on the contrary, produce pallor, that is to say 
 a sort of anaemia, as in miners. The white An.tisians of Peru, says 
 D'Orbigny, live at the foot of perpendicular rocks, under enormous 
 trees, the branches of which form a vast arbour impenetrable to the 
 rays of the sun, where the atmosphere is humid, and the vegetation 
 luxuriant. Their five tribes live there enveloped in darkness, and 
 are of lighter complexion than the Moxos of the adjoining open 
 plains, and the Aymaras on the elevated plateaux. As regards the 
 increase of the volume of the skull and all the craniometrical 
 characters which result from it, the explanation would be no less 
 easy. The more the brain works the more does it continue to 
 increase beyond its ordinary term of growth, and the sutures are 
 closed later. The small size at the present day of the skull of 
 women relatively to that of men, as compared with that which it 
 was at the prehistoric period represented by the two beautiful 
 series from the cavern of L'Homme Mort and the Baye caves in the 
 department of La Marne, would arise from an opposite cause. The 
 variations of the forms and proportions of the skeleton might be all 
 explained in the same way, by virtue of the physiological law, that 
 the function makes the organ. The more work a limb, or an 
 organ, or a muscle does, the more it increases in volume ; changes 
 at the same time taking place in the parts with which it is con- 
 nected. The femur a cdlonne, the platycnemic tibia, the large chest 
 of individuals compelled to take deep inspirations, the corpulence 
 of persons who confine themselves principally to a vegetable diet, 
 and whose meals are irregular, and sometimes very large in quantity, 
 are accounted for in this way. 
 
 "So explanation can be given as to the varieties of the hair in 
 its fundamental types. For example, the straight and round, the 
 woolly and fiat hair, as seen under the microscope. In this lies the 
 most serious objection to the theory of the derivation of characters 
 'from one another. In tbe present state of science we have no 
 
392 ACCLIMATION. [Chap. vm. 
 
 ?xplaiLation to give on the subject. Individuals experience the 
 iniiuence of external conditions under our own per.sonal observation, 
 but they do not visibly transmit the changes so made — there is no 
 Buthentic instance of it. The distribution of characters according 
 to altitudes and latitudes has exclusively to do with the fortuitous 
 migration of peoples. In the present state of science, and as far as 
 our limited investigations extend, the law of permanence of types 
 remains intact. Moreover, physiology enables us to understand the 
 mechanism by virtue of which new characters might take their 
 origin. Under what exceptional conditions, at present unknown 
 to us, may not hereditary influence, that great conservative force, 
 depart from its extreme strictness ? This is the question. It is 
 quite clear that the variations of climate and conditions of life are 
 very slight now in comparison with what they necessarily were 
 formerly. The fact is that Man has not always known how to 
 guard against the preponderating influence of external agencies, 
 nor has he always been able to leave the country under every 
 change of circumstances. No new race, having characters other 
 than those of the mixed races produced from crossing, has been 
 created within our knowledge; and moreover, everything compels 
 us to believe that there was a greater tendency to change at a 
 remote period in the past than there is at present, and this belief 
 has found a support in the law of hereditary influence. 
 
 It is one of two things : either races have been created originally 
 in infinite number, and have since become diminished by natural 
 extinction or by crossing, or they have been multiplied under the 
 influence of climate and external circumstances.* 
 
 Acclimation. 
 
 There is but a step from the influence of climate and external 
 conditions to acclimation. Man, unlilce the anthropoids, is found 
 in all climates, and conforms himself to every condition of Hfe ; but 
 
 * See the articles " Altitude," by Leroy de Mericourt ; " M&ologie," by 
 Berfcillon; "Climat," by Fonssagrives ; "Atmosphere," by Gavarret, &c., 
 in " Eocyol. des Sciences Medioales." 
 
Chap, viii.] ACCLIMATION. 393 
 
 Jie owes it to his intelligence, and pays the penalty. Let us 
 examine tlie question more closely. 
 
 The words acclimation and acclimatisation are not synonymous. 
 The former is understood of the spontaneous and natural accommo- 
 dation to new climatic conditions, the latter of the intervention of 
 Man in tliis accommodation. The one is the fact, the other the 
 •knowledge of the conditions and phenomena of accommodation; 
 the one is a physiological property of Man, and concerns anthro- 
 pology, the other is in the domaia of hygiene, of medicine, and of the 
 schools. M. BertUlon has treated of them, from every point of view, 
 with his usual critical acumen, and it wiU suffice for us to analyse 
 his article, " Acclimatement," in the " Encyolop^die des Sciences 
 Medicales." M. BertUlon commences with a comparison of the 
 statistics of hirths and deaths. He finds differences hetween one 
 race and another, either in their general faculty of acclimation or in 
 their capabUity of living in some latitudes in preference to others. 
 He discovers differences even between European races. Thus the 
 English become habituated to the climate of the United States, the 
 island of St. Helena, and the Cape of Good Hope, but they fail to 
 do so in the Antilles and in India. In the same way the Germanic 
 race thrives in the United States, but dies out in the tropics, and 
 even in Algeria. The Dutch likewise. Under the name of Boers 
 they continue to live under the most favourable conditions in the 
 colony of the Cape, the climate of which is very similar to that of 
 our own country, whUe they perish under the scorching climate of 
 the Malay peninsula. The French do well in Canada, in jS'ova 
 Scotia, in the United States, in the Mauritius and the Friendly 
 Islands, but as they approach the tropics their faculty of adaptation 
 decreases. In the Antilles they succeed in making a first branch, 
 but they do not increase, and requii'e to receive fresh blood by 
 crossing with foreigners up to the third or fourth generation. In 
 Algeria the French belonging to the northern departments do not 
 thrive, whUe those of the south make progress. In Madagascar, 
 and especially in Senegal, no European race can hold out long. In 
 IsTew Caledonia the mortality among French emigrants is less than 
 in France. The Spaniards, in whose blood there is much of the 
 
394 ACCLIMATION. [Chap. Tin. 
 
 Berber, adapt themselves wonderfully to tlie climate of the southern 
 part of the United States, of Mexico, the Antilles, and South 
 America. These, with the Maltese and Jews, are the most favoured 
 of Algerian colonists. The Portuguese share with them the same 
 privileges. 
 
 The Tschinghani, Gipsies, or Bohemians, are, of aU peoples, 
 those whom we meet with most universally. In the waste lands of 
 Brazil, on the summit of the Himalayas, in Moscow, Madrid, 
 London, Stamhoul, at 30 to 35 degrees centigrade above zero, 
 in the torrid zones of India and Africa, they are to be found 
 everywhere. The IsraeHtes also possess a remarkable aptitude for 
 becoming acclimatised ; but they do not advance so much towards 
 the north, they proceed step by step, cautiously feeling their way, 
 and follow the course of civilisation. The Arabs readily become 
 accHmatised, but they remain in hot isothermal zones, and venture 
 but little into the temperate zones. M. Bertillon does not speak 
 of the Chinese, but everyone knows that they are much esteemed 
 as labourers in Malacca, Australia, California, and the Antilles. 
 Since the abohtion of slavery in America, they are gradually taking 
 the place of the negro, owing to their soon becoming accustomed 
 to the climate; but we have not seen them emigrate into cold 
 countries. 
 
 Austraha, although having the most opposite cHmates, is very 
 suitable to Europeans of every nationality, while the Malay Archi- 
 pelago, more especially the northern part, is very fatal to them/ 
 Cochin-China the same. In Java and Sumatra the Dutch do 
 not become acclimatised, and this no doubt is the cause of the 
 sterility of certaia of their mixed breeds with the aborigines for 
 a definite number of generations. India is also fatal to Europeans, 
 but the low plains situated on the sea-shore, and the banks of the 
 great rivers, must be distinguished from the elevated plateaux of 
 Central India. The English have established sanitaria in the 
 mountains, where they go to recruit their health. Egypt is no 
 less remarkable for its insalubrity. Its present population is the 
 same as it was in former days. It has never been maintained 
 without being incessantly renewed by immigration. It is very' 
 
Chap, tiii.] ACCLIMATION. 395 
 
 fatal even to the negro. The Mamelukes have had sway there for 
 660 years, and not one has been able to keep up a persistent race. 
 The rate of mortaUty among the negroes of Africa, even in their 
 own country, is considerable. The birth rate however is very 
 high; but for this they would become extinct. This mortahty 
 seems to be consequent on their indolence, and on their using 
 no exertion for their well-being. We must not therefore be 
 astonished at their success in America, where, particularly in the 
 Antilles, and in the United States previously to the war, they 
 were taken care of like valuable merchandise. In 1808, the 
 period when the importation to that country ceased, they were 
 400,000, in 1860 their number increased to 4,000,000. Since 
 the war they have been compelled to look after themselves, and 
 have returned to their natural indolence ; thus their number is 
 diminishing. So much for emigration into hot countries. In 
 cold regions, Eiwopeans do not readily become acclimatised, and 
 negroes especially die rapidly. The fair population of Iceland 
 is visibly decreasiag, which is to be attributed to the island 
 becoming progressively colder. The Esquimaux, who on their 
 first arrival in Greenland found a climate which was more sup- 
 portable than now, decreased for the same reason. At St. Peters- 
 burg the deaths exceed the births, and if the Slavs are masters 
 of the northern part of the continent, they owe it to their crossing 
 with the Fins, and perhaps, more to the west, with the Samoiedes. 
 Thus it appears that extremes of climate are not suitable to any 
 race, and that if Man transports himself from one part of the 
 globe to another, and settles down there, it is frequently at his 
 peril, notwithstanding the resources with which his inteUigence 
 furnishes him. The fair races are especially adapted to temperate 
 and cool regions, and the south is looked upon as almost forbidden 
 ground. The brown races, on the contrary, have a . remarkable 
 power of becoming acclimatised. In the north they are represented 
 by the Laplanders. They stretch away as far as the equator, 
 thfe most characteristic of them especially. But when considering 
 the question of removing from one climate to another, we must 
 (iistiucuish between shght and important changes, between those 
 
396 ACCLIMATION. [Chap. viii. 
 
 which are sudden and those which are progressive. M. BertUlon 
 divides the accidental circumstances due to sudden acclimation in a 
 new isothermal region, and are produced upon the individual and 
 Ms progeny, into four groups or phases. (1) Sudden diseases ; 
 (2) Chronic consecutive anaemias, which place the individual in an 
 unfavourable condition to resist accidental diseases, or make him 
 quickly look old ; (3) Diseases of early infancy in offspring horn 
 in the country ; (4) Physical and intellectual degeneration, and the 
 infertility of the second and third generations. (See page 372.) 
 
 Very different are the circumstances connected with acclimation 
 on a small scale. A family incapahle of heing suddenly transported 
 from Paris to Senegal is well able to bear removal to Pau. In 
 succeeding generations it will be able to go to Cadiz, many genera- 
 tions afterwards to Morocco, and so on. It is thus that the slow 
 immigrations from Central Asia have been accomplished — not the 
 invasions of the barbarous tribes which rushed down upon Europe 
 at the commencement of our era. Some of these migrations 
 bearing off to the north-west would have reached comparatively 
 cold, countries, and others going south would find India, where at 
 the present time some fair people are to be met with in a country 
 where the English could not settle. The Esquimaux, before 
 becoming acclimatised in their country of eternal snow, lived in 
 Asia, at about the 40th degree of north latitude. All parts of 
 a country are not equally unfavourable for acclimation. Without 
 speaking of a swamp here or a desert there, which increases the 
 mortahty among new-comers, there is the altitude to be taken into 
 consideration. A family wiU not be able to become acclimatised 
 at the level of the sea, and will thrive by ascending the course of 
 a river or the sides of a mountain. High table-lands are in 
 much request in all hot countries. The contradictory opinions of 
 Joui-danet and Coindet relative to the residence of Europeans in 
 elevated parts of Mexico, leave the question undecided. But in a 
 French territory the experiment has been made. Whilst Bortillon 
 and Eicoux come to the conclusion that the Germanic race, in a 
 general way, does not become acclimatised in Algeria, we find in 
 the entire province of Constantine, and on the whole line of the 
 
Chap, tiii.] ACOLIMATION. 397 
 
 Atlas, from the Aurfes mountains to Morocco, a large number of 
 fair people, who have existed there for four or five thousand years. 
 A circumstance favourable to permanent acclimation is the crossing, 
 however little, with the native race, or with other races which 
 have settled in the country at the same period with it, but with 
 a greater power of acclimation. A small quantity of negro blood 
 lessens the tendency to contract yellow fever. So at the Cape of 
 Good Hope, in the United States, in Australia, and also in Algeria, 
 the emigrant races must not be designated by their particular 
 name, but must be looked upon as new mixed races, having their 
 ovm special characters. Under these conditions the influence of 
 climate and external circumstances appears even more marked, the 
 same as in chemistry certain re-agents act more readily when 
 bodies are brought into contact in the nascent state. After the 
 greatest mortality, a few of the survivors are suificient to serva 
 as a starting-point for a new population. In a word, Man's 
 restricted faculty of acclimation may favour, within certain limits, 
 the diffusion and mixture of races on the face of the globe, and 
 even the formation of new races ; but it is also an obstacle to 
 their diffusion and transformation. It tends to allot them a place 
 at the period which is the most suitable to them. This is why 
 we see the negro races generally predominating in some zones, the 
 brown or yellow in others, and the fair races in others. Having 
 the minimum mortality in these zones, the race is kept up. The 
 fair races, for example, far from being so on account of climate, as 
 Prichard would have it, would only conform themselves to it in 
 the same way as the prehistoric animals which went northwards 
 or southwards in the course of ages, according to the changes of 
 temperature and vegetation. If we did not know that the climatic 
 conditions of all parts of the globe have radically changed over and 
 over again, we should deduce from this that the negro races took 
 their rise on the continents of the inter-tropical zone, while the fair 
 races originated in the cold or temperate regions of the north. It 
 is thus that the faculty of accommodation to climate or acclima- 
 tion, which varies according to race, furnishes an argument for 
 the polygenistic doctrine. The two questions of crossing and of 
 
398 
 
 WEIGHT OF THE BODY. 
 
 [Chap. tiii. 
 
 inheritance are connected with, the functions, so mysterious, of 
 reproduction ; those of external conditions and acclimation, to the 
 more general function of nutrition. The two characters which 
 exhibit the amount of vital energy in individuals, as well as in 
 races, are the weight of the body and muscular strengtL 
 
 The WeigM of the Body, 
 
 Studied in its relation to age, profession, and stature, by Qu6telet, 
 Hutchinson, and Gould, does not possess the iuterest which has 
 been extended to it. Its causes are various, such as hygiene, food, 
 character of occupation, temperament, and race. The probable 
 connection between these last two makes it the more difficult 
 to consider the question of race by itself. The cases of exceptional 
 obesity, due to high feeding or to indolence, are observed in aU 
 races from the Englishman to the Hottentot, and ought to be at 
 once set aside, as well as those cases of extreme emaciation, conse- 
 quent on habitually insufficient food, or continued exposure to the 
 sun. The Arab, shrivelled up in the desert, becomes fat in the 
 towns, especially his half-breeds. The Mongols, the Chinese, and 
 the Polynesians readily become obese. 
 
 The following averages of weight are only interesting as a matter 
 of curiosity : 
 
 KilogTammea. 
 V3-8 
 65-8 
 65-5 
 64-9 
 64-9 
 68-8 
 64-4 
 63-9 
 60-7 
 58-4 
 53-2 
 50 '0 
 48'7 
 44-6 
 42-7 
 
 507 Iroquois Indians (Grould) . . . 
 
 680 Mulattoes (Gould) 
 
 12,740 Bavarians (Bernstein) 
 400 Prenclimen (Bernard) 
 1775 Negroes (Gould) ... 
 
 617 Englishmen (W. S. Thomson) 
 
 9157 American soldiers of all nationalities (Gould) ... 
 150 New Zealanders (W. S. Thomson) .,, 
 
 272 Magyars (Bernstein) ... ... 
 
 356 Eoumanians (Bernstein) ... 
 
 50 Hindoos, high caste (Shortt) 
 
 60 Natives of the Caucasus (Shortt) 
 
 60 Hindoos, low caste (Shortt) 
 
 50 Natives, low caste, of the Nilgherries (Shortt) 
 
 39 „ low class, of the Madras coast (Shortt) 
 
Chap, viii.] 
 
 MUSCULAR STRENGTH. 
 
 399 
 
 Muscular Strength. 
 
 Muscular strengtli is a more important subject, altliougli we 
 must consider it ui its connection -with the individual's state of 
 health, food, age, and sex, as ■well as with the power acquired hy 
 the continued use of the muscles. The dynamometer, hy the aid 
 of which the experiments which we are ahout to mention were 
 carried on, was invented hy Eegnier, at the close of the last century, 
 at the suggestion of Buffon. Chaussier was the first to make use 
 of it, then the travellers P&on, Freycinet, Quoy, and Gaimard, 
 and lastly, Forhes, Quetelet, and the anthropologists of the Novarra 
 and of the war of American secession, who modified it. It gives, 
 at will, the force of pressure of the hands, and the force of vertical 
 traction from helow upwards, the two hands acting together in both 
 cases ; that is to say the manual strength and the strength of the 
 back or loins, of authors. 
 
 The following are some averages at five different periods to show 
 the influence of age in two very opposite races. They are borrowed 
 from Mr. Gould : 
 
 
 
 Number 
 of whites. 
 
 Strength of 
 
 the back. 
 
 Kil. 
 
 Number 
 of negroes 
 
 17 years 
 20 „ 
 
 
 . 171 
 542 
 
 .. 114 . 
 ,. 150 . 
 
 . 44 
 . 142 
 
 25 „ 
 
 
 296 
 
 .. 166 . 
 
 . 124 
 
 30 „ 
 
 
 171 
 
 .. 160 . 
 
 . 39 
 
 35 „ 
 
 
 371 
 
 .. 166 . 
 
 . 81 
 
 50 „ 
 
 and upwards.. 
 
 34 
 
 .. 146 . 
 
 . 11 
 
 Strongth of 
 
 the back, 
 
 Kil. 
 
 131 
 
 140 
 155 
 153 
 165 
 132 
 
 According to Mr. Gould, the maximum of muscular strength in 
 both cases is at 31 years, and according to Quetelet at 25. It 
 is evident that we must take the former. The following table, 
 which it would have been easy to enlarge, has reference to races. 
 It is derived from various sources, and where not specially men- 
 tioned from P^ron, Quoy, Gaimard, and the Novarra : 
 
400 
 
 MUSCULAR 
 
 STEENGTH. 
 
 [CuAr, viiE. 
 
 
 Manual strength 
 KiL 
 
 Back strength. 
 Kil. 
 
 122 French 
 
 
 61-0 
 
 160 
 
 23 Hawal Islanders 
 
 
 601 
 
 171 
 
 84 Mioronesians ... 
 
 
 56-8 
 
 150 
 
 26 Timorians 
 
 
 52-4 
 
 118 
 
 12 Tasmanians (Peron) ... 
 
 
 50-6 
 
 118 
 
 30 Australians 
 
 
 48-0 
 
 100 
 
 57 Chinese 
 
 
 46-8 
 
 111 
 
 315 French seamen (Eausonnet) 
 
 46-8 
 
 142 
 
 6381 White soldiers (Gonld) 
 
 
 46-8 
 
 155 
 
 1141 „ seamen „ 
 
 
 46-8 
 
 130 
 
 1600 Negroes „ 
 
 
 46-8 
 
 146 
 
 704 Mulattoes „ 
 
 
 46-8 
 
 158 
 
 503 Iroquois Indians „ 
 
 
 46-8 
 
 190 
 
 Peron and Freyoinet at first came to the conclusion tliat savage 
 races -were inferior in point of strength to the European races. But 
 
 Fig. 41. — Mathieu's Dynamometer. 
 
 the ahorigmes upon whom their experiments were made were not 
 in their own native forests, and were no doubt frightened during 
 the experiment. The ahove averages clearly show that the Austra- 
 lians are very defective in manual strength, but that the Chinese 
 are stiU more so. Those with the greatest amount of strength 
 in the baclc, on the other hand, are the Iroquois Indians, and after 
 them the natives of the Sandwich Archipelago. Negroes are 
 undoubtedly stronger in the back than whites, but mulattoes 
 are stronger than either. The muscular inferiority of the white 
 seamen of Eansonnet and Gould clearly proves that the physio- 
 
Chap. Till.] CIECULATION OF THE BLOOD. 401 
 
 logical condition surpasses in all cases the anthropological condition. 
 In his statistics Mr. Gould has separated the delicate from those in 
 perfect health, the difference between them being considerable. 
 Thus, in white soldiers of delicate constitution the strength of the 
 l)aok was 127 kilogrammes, and in those in health 155 kilo- 
 grammes. 
 
 Another and more portable dynamometer is recommended in 
 the " Instructions de la Soci^t^ d'Anthropologie," that of Mathieu, 
 figured in. the preceding page. It measures the force of pressure 
 •with one hand, and the force of vertical traction, as with the 
 instrument of Eegnier. In twenty-four Frenchmen, from 20 to 60 
 years of age, the mean manual strength was 51 -6 kUogrammes with 
 the right arm. But it would be better to ascertain correctly the 
 ; force of horizontal traction, as, according to M. Broca, it is this 
 T^hich gives more reliable results as between one race and another.* 
 
 To the functions of nutrition indirectly belong those of the 
 circulation, respiration, and digestion. AU have reference to 
 organic life, and cannot materially differ between one race and 
 another. 
 
 The Circulation of the Blood. 
 
 The circulation of the blood may be summed up in one single 
 phenomenon — the beating of the heart, as indicated by the pulse 
 at the radial artery. But more than any other phenomenon it is 
 subject to transient or permanent influences foreign to Anthropo- 
 logical notions. The pulse varies with age, sex, individual 
 peculiarity, stature, and also with the size of the body, before and 
 during digestion, in the morning and at night, after exercise of any 
 kind, and under the influence of emotion, even that caused by the 
 examination of the individual. We cannot therefore deduce much 
 
 * " Description et Usage du Dynamomfetre," by Eegnier, in " Journal de 
 r;fioole Polyteohnique," vol. ii., Prairialyear 6; " Voyage autour dn Monde 
 de I'TJranie et de La PfiA/sicierme, de 1817 ^ 1820," two vols., by L. de 
 Freycinet; J. Forbes, in "Proceedings of Eoyal Society of Edinburgh," 
 Jan. 16, 1837 i Qu^telet and Gould, op. cit, 
 
 2 D 
 
402 KESPIRATION. [Chap. viii. 
 
 from its study, and give the following averages for what they ar& 
 worth : 
 
 Pulse. 
 
 8284 Wiite soldiers (Gould) 74-8 
 
 1503 Negroes „ 74-0 
 
 708 Mulattoes „ 76-9 
 
 503 Iroquois Indians „ ... ... ... 76'3 
 
 1080 Englishmen (Hutchinson) 80-0 
 
 30 Belgians of 30 years of age (Quetelet) ... 71'0 
 
 230 Mexicans (Coindet) 80-2 
 
 24 Chinese (ffoDorra) ... ... ... ... 77'0 
 
 34 Nikobarians „ ... 77'0' 
 
 Tlie Respiration. 
 
 The respiration presents eonsiderahle diversities in different 
 individuals ; some of these are of a radical character, others are 
 consecutive to the action of milieux. The movements of the chest 
 concerned in inspiration are three in number — namely, an upper 
 costal, a lower costal, and an abdominal or diaphragmatic. "We 
 have yet to know whether either of them may or may not be 
 peculiar to certain races. The rhythm of the respiration may also- 
 vary, although it usually bears a definite relation to the pulse, there' 
 being one inspiration to four beats of the heart. Quetelet found 
 that in the Belgians in the above list, the inspirations were 18 in- 
 the minute, and Hutchinson that in the English there were 20. 
 According to Coindet the respiration increases the higher one 
 ascends. Supposing, in 250 Europeans, the number of inspirations 
 were 19'3, in the same number of Mexicans, at an altitude of 2277 
 mfetres, the number would be 20'3 — the correctness of which state- 
 ment M. Jourdanet questions. The difference, however, is scarcely 
 appreciable, and the number of individuals too few to enable us to 
 form a definite opinion on the matter. The capacity of the thoracic 
 cavity is a subject which has received a considerable amount of 
 attention. It is ascertained with the sphometer. The individual 
 makes a full expiration and then a full iaspiration, three times in 
 
Chap, viii.] OIROUMFEBENOB OF THE CHEST. 403 
 
 succession, wlien tke mean is taken. Of all tte physiological 
 causes which tend to make it vary, like every other animal func- 
 tion, the most important is the stature. In 1080 Englishmen 
 Mr. Hutchinson found, with a stature of 1 '52 mfetre, a capacity of 
 2-842 cubic mfetres, and with an addition of one inch in height, 
 namely, 2-54 centimetres, an increase of 131 cubic centimetres, 
 so that with a stature of 1-82 mfetre, the capacity is 4-260. 
 M. Sehreevogt finds it less in the German race — namely, 52 cubic 
 centimetres for every centimtoe of height. The following table, 
 having reference to healthy adult men, shows that there are 
 material differences between races : 
 
 
 Cubic mfetrea 
 
 8895 White soldiers (Gould) 
 
 .. 3-054 
 
 1631 Negroes „ 
 
 .. 2-700 
 
 671 Mulattoes 
 
 .. 2-629 
 
 504 Indiana „ 
 
 .. 3-022 
 
 1080 Englishmen (Hutchinson) 
 
 .. 3-602 
 
 From this it appears that the chest capacity is less in negroes 
 than in whites, and especially in the EnglisL Ifow the stature of 
 the former averages 1 -70 metre, and that of the latter about 1 -71 
 in the corresponding statistics, so that negroes maintain their 
 inferiority. With regard to mulattoes, it is with them as with 
 their brain — (see page 312) — they seem- to appropriate the worst 
 character pertaining to the two races of which they are the issue. 
 Their chest capacity is even less than in pure negroes. 
 
 The Gircumference of the Chest. 
 
 The circumference of the chest is connected with the study of the 
 respiratory functions, as well as with that of the proportions of the 
 body ; it has even to do with that of the reproductive functions in 
 the female : hence it presents differences according to race. We 
 shall only speak, however, of the measurement in the adult man. 
 The works which have been -written on the subject are numerous, 
 
 2 D 2 
 
404 
 
 CIKCUMFERENCE OF THE CHEST. 
 
 [Chap. viii. 
 
 and have an equal interest for anthropology, medicine, military 
 enlistment, and the Aits. When measuring a man's chest the tape 
 is passed round under the armpits, or, what is better, over the 
 nipples. The individual should stand upright, should be calm, his 
 respiration being carried on quietly, the mouth open, the arms 
 above the head, and the hands joined, imless we want to take the 
 mean circumference during inspiration and expiration. As the 
 capacity of the chest increases with the stature it is necessary to 
 take account of this. In the following table the first column shows 
 the absolute circumference, and the second the same circumference 
 relatively to the stature = 100 : 
 
 5738 Scotchmen (Quetelet) ... 
 
 508 Indians (Gould) 
 
 1080 Englishmen (Hutchinson) 
 
 462 Germans (Gould) 
 
 4930 Russians (Seeland) 
 
 400 Frenchmen (Bernard) ... 
 1792 Negroes (Gould) 
 
 719 Mulattoes „ 
 
 151 New Zealanders (A. S. Thompson) 
 25 Todas of the Nilgherries (Shortt) 
 50 Inferior tribes of the Nilgherries (Shortt) 76'6 
 
 Absolute 
 cii'cumference. 
 ... 100-0 
 
 Relative 
 to stature 
 
 56-7 
 
 ... 96-5 
 ... 93-9 
 
 55-5 
 540 
 
 ... 91-2 
 
 53-8 
 
 ... 88-7 
 ... 87-9 
 ... 890 
 ... 88-7 
 
 53-4 
 530 
 52-3 
 521 
 
 ... 89-8 
 
 51-4 
 
 ... 81-8 
 rtt) 76-6 
 
 50-9 
 48-8 
 
 All the European races in 'this list have the circumference of the 
 thorax decidedly greater than the inferior races. What Mr. Gould 
 calls the play of the chest, that is to say, the difference between 
 the two circumferences taken during inspiration and expiration, is 
 also much greater in them. The first column below shows this 
 difference in centimetres of length, and the second the volimie in 
 cubic centimfetres of the thoracic capacity to which it corresponds, 
 according to Mr. Gould's calculation. 
 
 9271 American soldiers 
 1792 Negroes 
 
 719 Mulattoes 
 
 508 Iroquois Indiana 
 
 Centimetres. Cubic oentimbtres. 
 ■ •• 6-9 .V 44-5 
 ... 4-1 ... 26-4 
 ... 40 ... 25-7 
 ... 4-6 ... 300 
 
Chap, vm.] VISION. 405 
 
 Digestion. 
 
 Tlie digestion also varies, if not according to race, at least so far 
 as to produce certain effects "wliich. may become permanent. It is 
 influenced by certain habits. Thus, according to the regularity or 
 irregularity of the meals, a redimdance or insufficiency of food, a 
 herbivorous or a carnivorous regimen, the stomach •will become 
 distended and deformed, as is the characteristic of many inferior 
 tribes, or be retracted. The lumbo-sacral curvature also wiU be 
 more or less hoUowed. The teeth will become worn, horizontally, 
 almost down to the gums, as in the Patagonians, or obliquely, as in 
 our prehistoric races. In truth, in anthropology we must study aU 
 the functions of the body exactly as we study the corresponding 
 organs; and these functions may exhibit differential characters 
 between races which we least expected, or throw some light on the 
 problem now under consideration with reference to the influence of 
 external conditions and habit. Next to respiration and digestion, 
 therefore, come the functions of the larynx, of the senses, &c. 
 
 The Voice. 
 
 The voice varies in its quality and tone in different races, and 
 may even be characteristic of certain human groups, according to 
 the statement of travellers. The tenor or bass voice is frequently 
 associated with a certain physical type. This subject belongs more 
 particularly to linguists, whose attention is specially directed to 
 differences of pronunciation. Much has yet to be done in this 
 direction. 
 
 Vision. 
 
 Vision may be studied with respect to its extent. According to 
 Mr. Gould, the white, the negro, and the Indian see at the 
 
406 
 
 CEREBRAL FUNCTIONS. 
 
 [Chap. viii. 
 
 greatest distance at from 17 to 28 years of age, after wliicli the 
 distance progressively diminishes. The following interesting sta^ 
 tistical table has been drawn up by this author. The first column 
 gives the distance of clear vision of type corresponding to 'No. 11 
 of Jaeger. The three following columns indicate the proportion 
 per cent, of short-sighted persons, of those of intermediate vision, 
 and of the long-sighted, the first seeing the type at less than 50 
 centimtees, the second at from 50 centimetres to 1'50 mfetre, the 
 third above 1'50 mfetre. 
 
 
 
 Proport 
 
 on per cent. 
 
 of 
 
 Mean distance. 
 
 Short-sigMed. 
 
 Intermediate. 
 
 Long-sightei. 
 
 WMte soldiers 1-59 
 
 2-7 
 
 
 
 80-9 
 
 15-4 
 
 „ sailors 0-92 
 
 9-3 
 
 
 
 87-7 
 
 4-0 
 
 Negroes ... 1'15 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 84-8 
 
 13-2 
 
 Mulattoes ... I'lS 
 
 2-4 
 
 
 
 81-0 
 
 16-6 
 
 Indians ... 1"31 
 
 0-9 
 
 
 
 88-5 
 
 10-6 
 
 It is singular that as regards the greater number of physiological 
 characters, for example weight, muscular force, vision, chest capacity, 
 and even stature, sailors are inferior to soldiers in Mr. Gould's 
 statistics, these being confirmed in many particulars by other 
 observers. 
 
 Cerebral Functions. 
 
 The cerebral functions are to be examined in the same way as all 
 the others. Intellectual phenomena are the expression of the 
 activity of. the brain, while their external manifestations are its 
 product. Both the one and the other are consequently included in 
 the category of physiological characters which we are now studying. 
 They present the greatest anomalies, because this is precisely the 
 general characteristic of the human family, but they also exhibit 
 marked differences, which doubtless were more, considerable at first 
 when races were in a condition of isolation. There are two cha- 
 racters common to the whole human race : the faculty of imitation 
 
"Chap, viii.] CEBBBEAL FUNCTIONS. 407 
 
 and tlie faculty of improvement. The ape repeats that -wMcli lie 
 sees done, and goes no farther. Man profits by what he sees, and 
 is more or less capable of heiag educated. Hence the difficulty, 
 when analysing intellectual traits, to distinguish that which apper- 
 tains to the race and to the individual from that which is the result 
 of education and of training. ISTot only a victorio\is tribe, but a 
 single individual starting up as if by chance, may so transform the 
 customs and modify the characters of a people as, after a brief 
 period, to render them unrecognisable. The ancient Peruvians owe 
 most of the intellectual traits which distiaguish them from neigh- 
 bouring races to Manco-Capac, the first of the Incas. Who knows 
 whether the AustraKans might not have become elevated in the 
 social scale, if they had met TPith a man who knew how to deal 
 with them 1 This proneness of Man to appropriate to himself that 
 which he can make subservient to his wants and desires, and to 
 , l^ransform himself intellectually, is not equally developed in all. 
 In some it is acquired rapidly, in others slowly. "We know that 
 the Andamans and Australians, brought up according to our ideas of 
 ■civilisation, cast off their clothing on the first opportunity, and 
 resume their savage mode of hfe ; notwithstanding this, these same 
 savages quickly learn to read and write, and are very observant. 
 Hence we must distinguish between the rough-and-ready education 
 of an individual, and the lengthened and progressive education of a 
 race. In spite of this tendency to intellectual uniformity in the 
 human family, certain differences persist, each corresponding to 
 certain peculiar anatomical conditions of the brain, which they 
 denote as surely as though demonstrated by the most delicate 
 microscopic examination. 
 
 Among those properties inherent in the structure of the brain, 
 the faculty of language occupies a prominent place. Linguists 
 lave come to the clearest conclusions on this point. A certain 
 number of languages irreducible from one another have had an 
 independent origin. At that remote period the corresponding 
 primitive races lived distinct in a state of nature. Has chance 
 then presided at the early development of a few articular sounds, 
 which have become the point of departure of so many root- words ? 
 
408 SOCIAL CONDITION OF YAEIOUS EACES. [Chap, viii, 
 
 or lias the brain become previously modified in order to render this- 
 development possible] "What interests us liere is tliat there are 
 languages profoundly different from one another, which require 
 organs of a special construction to pronounce them, and special 
 powers of intellect to comprehend them. In the same way we ' 
 must view the various methods of appreciating the musical gamut 
 in the several quarters of the globe. That which is harmony to 
 the auditory fibres of the brain in some races, is not so in others. 
 Education here has nothing to do with it ; the thing has been so- 
 from the first, and is, therefore, an anatomical fact. The varieties 
 of arithmetical systems are in the same category. The races termed 
 Aryan are acquainted with all of them, and have considerable 
 aptitude for mathematics. Other races, styled inferior, cannot 
 count above two, or three, or five ; any numbers above these are 
 altogether incomprehensible to them, and in spite of all our efforts 
 we can seldom give them any higher notion of number : this was 
 the case with a Damara mentioned by Lubbock. As regards draw- 
 ing, there are difi'erences in the same way. There is a race, the 
 existence of which can be undoubtedly traced back to the earliest 
 period, only capable of making circles and straight lines, and certain 
 of its representatives cannot even distinguish the difference between 
 a drawing of a head and a tree or a ship. The Chinese, after a 
 social existence probably equal to that of the ancient Egyptians, 
 and, although advanced in many other respects, have not the 
 slightest idea of perspective. 
 
 Other races, on the contrary, and these the most ancient and the 
 most savage, as our ancestors of the Eeindeer Period, have exhibited 
 almost from the first, a thoroughly artistic taste. The marvellous 
 difference in the systems of writing testifies also to the primitive 
 isolation of races and to their various degrees of aptness and impulse. 
 The perfection which some seem to have attained almost from the 
 first, whilst others have remained in statu quo, is well worthy our 
 consideration. Eaces are still more distinguished from one another 
 by their mode of life and social condition. Erom the earliest dawn 
 of tradition, and even previously, when all our information is 
 derivable only from prehistoric archteology, we see tribes settling- 
 
Chap, viii.] CHABACTBE OF THE FRENCH. 409' 
 
 down peaceably, engaged in fisMng and barter, as well as those of a 
 warlike and turbulent spirit. The former soon become amenable 
 to the softening influence of civilisation, the latter, on the contrary, 
 are proof against it, and prefer a rough and savage life. The former 
 are sceptics, or indifferent to religious forms ; the latter recognise a 
 protecting Providence, and have a settled faith. Some are naturally 
 inclined to a sedentary hfe, while others seem to be always on the 
 move, like the Tschinghani, the Jew, and the Arab. The Tschinghani 
 have no religion, and wander about in the midst of civilised peoples 
 without allowing themselves to be influenced by them in any way. 
 The Jew, now a wanderer, and then a sojourner, from the time of 
 Joshua to that of Titus, has again become a wanderer, as far as the 
 customs of the peoples among whom he dwells will permit. The Arab 
 also retains his old habits, only he does not adapt himself to them. 
 He moves away to India, into Central Africa, in search of fresh 
 moorings, but does not remain long anywhere, like the Anglo- 
 Germanic race. 
 
 No one doubts the value of intellectual characters. It would be 
 commonplace to say that they continue for ages in the same way 
 as physical characters. The Spaniards of the time of Scipio 
 jEmilianus are still those of to-day. Fighting in ambush, long 
 patient endurance, and hatred of the foreigner are always their 
 distinguishing marks. The predominating character of the French 
 race is still that of the Gauls described by Csesar. In Algiers, the 
 Berbers are distinguished from the Arabs more by their disposition, 
 their temper, and their sociability than by their features of coun- 
 tenance. The contrast between the Anglo-Germanic and the dark 
 southern race is also very striking. The impulses inherent in the 
 cerebral matter are so tenacious, in spite of education and civili- 
 aation, that they still continue after crossing and mixture of races, 
 and are of assistance to us in recognising them. Mr. Brace depicts 
 the character of the French in these terms.* "In character and 
 genius the French show the evidences of the three powerful races 
 which have constituted the nation — traits which sometimes seem 
 
 * "The Races of the Old World: a Manual of Ethnology." By C. L. 
 Brace. London, 1863. 
 
410 PRIMITIVE CEEBBRAL DIFFERENCES. [Chap. viii. 
 
 contradictory, and -which, only those familiar with the Prench 
 people can fully understand. In their hrOliant martial character, 
 their love of display and effect, their sudden enthusiasm and as easy 
 discouragement, their readiuess to he governed hy military leaders, 
 their fondness for ornament and art, and their gaiety, fickleness, 
 and amorousness, they are thorough Kelts ; but in the sober devout- 
 ness of a large mass of the people, in their seriousness, in their 
 personal sensitiveness and personal independence, in their spirit of 
 sceptical inquiry and the thoroughness of their scientific research, they 
 are Teutons ; vrhUe their marvellous talent for organisation, and 
 their tendency to centralisation, are Eoman. The French race, 
 with its genius, its science, its grandeur, its faults — which are the 
 scorn of mankind; its misfortunes — which afflict the world; its 
 magnificent past, its uncertain present [the author wrote under the 
 Empire], and mysterious future, is a unity, a new and living force 
 entering into the life of mankind, and henceforth as distinct as any 
 •of the great races of antiquity." 
 
 The points of view from which one might treat the vast subject 
 of primitive cerebral differences are infinite. Each fundamental 
 race would require to be submitted to minute analysis, and every- 
 thing eliminated from it which is due to a natural state of perfect- 
 ness, to accidental occurrences, to the influence of other races, and to 
 historical circumstances. The power of each faculty, feeling, or 
 instinct would have to be taken into account. Superstitious, 
 tendency, religion, family history, individual peculiarity, degree of 
 sociableness, aptness for civilisation, preference for this or that kind 
 of life. All these wordd have to be. examined. What the varied 
 amount of cerebral activity in the so-called higher races, as com- 
 pared with the torpid condition of those regarded as inferior, &c. 
 It seems, says Sproat, speaking of the Atnas of ]S"orth America 
 (Lubbock), that the intellect of the savage is in a half-sleepy state. 
 If we hold conversation vri.th him for however brief a period, he 
 becomes fatigued, especially when his replies require some effort of 
 thought and memory. The savages of the interior of Borneo {Dallon), 
 as well as some from Western Australia {Scott Nind) live in a state 
 of the most absolute indifference, like animals. Their sole business 
 
Chap. Tin.] INTELLECTUAL DETBLOPMENT. 411 
 
 is to eat and drink. There are numerous examples of savages, as 
 the Bosjesman described by Lichtenstein, in whom there is nothing 
 either in features of countenance or in their actions indicative of the 
 least glimmer of intellect. 
 
 A subject, almost a new one, has for some years excited much 
 attention : namely, the history, based on facts, of the steps whereby 
 the most favoured of the human races have arrived at their degree 
 of intellectual development. In our opinion it is one intimately 
 ■connected with ethnology or general ethnography. Mr. Tylor has 
 written a work under the title " Primitive Culture ; or. The early 
 History of the Human Eace," and Sir J. Lubbock one on the " Origin 
 of Civilisation." The former clearly shows, just to take one example, 
 that morality is synonymous with general conduct, that it is always 
 utilitarian, that it varies in different peoples, conformably to their 
 wants, that originally restricted within the narrow limits of the 
 family, then of the tribe, it has extended to greater confederacies ; 
 that, in a word, it is progressive. Suffice it to say that ideas of 
 morality may give ethnic characters but not differential physiolo- 
 gical characters between races, at least until a new order of such 
 should arise. The knowledge of religious beliefs advances in the 
 same way. By the comparison of the fables and allegories upon 
 which all systems of mythology are based, it traces back its inquiries, 
 as is done with regard to language, to the remote period when 
 peoples came in contact with one another, and consequently 
 separates the acquired character from that which is inherent. It 
 has a still wider range : it takes a retrospective view of the various 
 phases of those intellectual qualities of which races have mutually 
 become the possessors, as well as of that which they have acquired 
 by the simple and natural development of the faculties inherent in 
 Man generally. The problem of the differential characters of 
 human races dependent on their special cerebral organisation, will 
 be in this way simplified, and then no doubt we shall be able really 
 to say that the modes of activity of the brain furnish distinctive 
 characters, in the same way as the shape of the skuU or the 
 character of the hair. The only objection would be that their 
 varieties eould not be measured with the compass. 
 
412 PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. [Chap. vin. 
 
 The "Bibliotlieque des Sciences Contemporaines" has in the press 
 a volume by M. Girard de Eialle, which treats on Comparative 
 Mythology. We doubt not that the subject of the successive and 
 mutual phases of perfection through which the human races have 
 passed, both intellectually and socially, wUl be fully considered 
 in this volume. 
 
 PatJioIogical OJiaracters. 
 
 Pathological characters are a deviation from the physiological, 
 and, like them, have to do with the living subject. All morbid 
 peculiarities which certain races, to the exclusion of certain other 
 races, present, may be classed under this head. It is not our 
 present intention to treat of this subject, which has rather to do 
 with medicine. We should have to consider, at the outset, the 
 progress and the development of diseases, depending, on the one 
 hand, on telluric and atmospheric conditions, and, on the other, on 
 race. With respect to the former, we enunciated, some sixteen years 
 ago, a fact which was more or less confirmed by others, namely, 
 that the mortality after capital operations in the English hospitals 
 was less by one-half than in the French. We attributed it to a 
 better diet, to their better sanitary arrangements, and to their 
 superior management. There was but one serious objection offered 
 to our statement. M. Velpeau, with his wonderful acumen, made 
 reply, at the Academy of Medicine, that the flesh of the English 
 and of the Erenoh differed ; in other words, that the reaction after 
 operations was not the same in both races. It is, in effect, an 
 anthropological character. The immunity of negroes and their 
 cross-breeds from yellow fever ; the few cases of hepatitis in 
 Senegal as compared with those among Europeans ; their greater 
 predisposition, on the contrary, to plague, are other examples of the 
 same kind. According to M. Ob^d^nare, the inhabitants of Eome 
 are almost proof against malarial fever, whUe Germans residing 
 there are very sensitive to its influence. These pathological cha- 
 racters form an entirely new subject, to which we beg to direct the 
 attention of our naval surgeons. In treatises on pathology we find 
 
Chap. Till.] CAUSES OF THE EXTINCTION OF RACES. 413 
 
 much as to the influence of age, sex, and temperament on disease, 
 as well as concise descriptions of affections peculiar to certain 
 countries, but almost nothing as to the influence of race properly 
 so called. This is a gap which must be filled up.* 
 
 Apropos of the skin of the negro, discussion has arisen with 
 regard to the colour of cicatrices after wounds. The question has 
 now been settled. After deep wounds the cicatrices are whitish, 
 and when superficial they are blacker than the adjoining skin. 
 
 The causes of the extinction of races may be considered here. 
 "Whether rapid, slow, or scarcely perceptible, this progressive ex- 
 tinction in the presence of new races, relatively superior, and 
 differing in morals and civilisation, is an acknowledged fact. 
 That it should be so in tribes as truly savage as the Obongos of 
 Du Chaillu, and the Australians of Port King George, described by 
 Scott K"ind, is not surprising ; but that the phenomena should be 
 repeated among the Polynesians, who are far from being an inferior 
 race, in the North American Indians, and in the Arabs of Algeria, 
 is very remarkable. The same influences, however, are at work in 
 each case; some morbid, others physiological, aU capable of being 
 summed up in one word. Among morbid causes are included 
 diseases new to the country, and more or less contagious, which 
 Europeans bring with them in the same way as they did the dog- 
 
 * A volume might be ■written respecting the comparative pathological 
 characters of the two races, the negro and the white, as seen in the United 
 States. OiEcial documents might he furnished for the statistical part of 
 the work. Thus, as regards the relative frequency of mania and idiotcy, 
 tables like the following are full of interest : 
 
 
 Proportion 
 
 per 1000. 
 
 
 Mania. 
 
 Idiotcy. 
 
 19,555,000 Whites 
 
 0-76 
 
 0-73 
 
 434,000 Freed negroes 
 
 071 
 
 0-81 
 
 3,204,000 Negro slaves ... 
 
 010 
 
 0-37 
 
 It proves that social influence predominates over the influence of race : a 
 brain having nothing to think about is less exposed to insanity than one 
 having to battle with the necessities of the social condition. This is quite 
 natural : an organ which has much work to do is more likely to become 
 deranged than one which does not work at all. 
 
414 CAUSES OF THE EXTIKCTION OF EACBS. [Chap. Tin. 
 
 grass to La Plata, and as tlie Americans recently gave France tlie 
 phylloxera. For example, the small-pox, imported into St. Domingo 
 in 1518, into Iceland in 1707, into Greenland in 1732, into 
 the Cape of Good Hope in 1748 (Boudin), and which, when it first 
 made its appearance in Australia, in 1788, almost annihilated the 
 curious trihe of Port Jackson, now called Sydney; the measles, 
 which has just destroyed half the population of the Fiji Islands ; 
 scarlatina, syphilis, the severity of which, however, has been 
 exaggerated ; alcoholism, in aU. its forms, which is propagated by 
 imitation, and easily assumes an epidemic character. Among 
 physiological causes are a sudden change of habits, the impossibility 
 for the native, under these circumstances, to supply his necessities 
 as heretofore, and nostalgia combined with ansemia, which are the 
 results of this change. Before the arrival of Europeans, the 
 Australians were in possession of immense territories, where game 
 was, as it were, preserved, and where food was always at hand. 
 The kangaroo occupied the same place as the reindeer did formerly 
 among our own ancient populations of the P&igord, or as the horse 
 among those of Solutrd They had, moreover, vast natural pastures 
 and cultivated grounds, the harvest from which they gathered 
 regularly every year. They were agriculturists and sheep farmers, 
 without having the cares and anxieties of those occupations. All 
 at once they .were driven from their hunting-fields and pasturages, 
 the kangaroos were put to flight before the musket, and before a 
 generation had passed they were compelled altogether to change 
 their habits and mode of life {Report of the Adelaide, South 
 Australia, Commission). Their life was an easy one when thej» 
 had a vast extent of country at their command ; but when it became 
 circumscribed in extent, and they had to contend with aU the 
 obstacles of civilisation, it became insupportable. With insufficient 
 food, they in their naked state were unable to withstand the cold, 
 in addition to which, dejection and sadness at finding themselves, 
 under subjugation iu a country of which they had been the sole 
 proprietors, opened the door for the ingress of every kind of disease, 
 as well as for every sort of vice. Under these circumstances they 
 were generally carried off by phthisis. 
 
Chap, tiii.] CAUSES OF THE EXTINCTION OP BACES. 415- 
 
 Ifow, in Australia, as in so many other places, the population 
 was sparse in proportion to the extent of the country. The 
 scarcity of women, the regular practice of infanticide, and the 
 frequency of accidents which are inseparable from savage life, 
 together with ciieumstanoes we hare already mentioned, helped 
 to keep it down. 
 
 Moreover, there are two iafluences at work in producing disease : 
 an external, morhid or accidental, and an internal, caused by a 
 want of power of resistance in the system. It is this latter which 
 plays the principal part among savages. There is therefore nothing 
 mysterious in this extinction of race. An old Namaqua woman, 
 to all appearance a centenarian, when asked, hy Barrow if she 
 remembered the period prior to that when the Dutch took posses- 
 sion of the country, replied : " I have good reason to remember it, 
 for at that time we did not know what it was to have an empty 
 belly, now we can hardly get a mouthful." Under a less cruel 
 form the cause of the progressive diminution of a race is always 
 the same. That portion of the race which secures the better part 
 of the resources of the country has the advantage over the other 
 which does not follow the movement. The Arabs are long Uved 
 in Arabia, because they are in undisputed possession of the country ; 
 they decrease in Algeria, because they meet with opposition, and 
 therefore cannot enjoy their pastoral life uninterruptedly. They 
 instinctively retrograde in the Desert of Sahara, Kke the Americans 
 in the Eocky Mountains, ilie Berbers, on the contrary, with 
 whom our civilised mode of life thoroughly agrees, thrive well 
 there. In fine, it is the law of adaptation to external conditions, 
 whatever they may be, whether physical or moral, and the 
 mechanism of progress. 
 
 The regular and progressive increase of the populations, such as 
 we see now going on in Europe, is not noticed in the savage state, 
 as among the negroes of Africa, nor in the barbarous state, as it 
 was in Europe before our present era. In both these cases, the- 
 number of premature deaths by murder and accident, as well as 
 by preventable disease, has considerably increased, and the balance 
 as between births and deaths remains in reality stationary, barring. 
 
416 CAtrSES Off THE EXTINCTION OF EAOBS. [Chap. viii. 
 
 certain oscillations annually, either upwards or dotvnwards. In 
 Africa at tlie present time, where the influence of the European 
 has not yet been felt, there are negro tribes which are becoming 
 extinct without any apparent reason, without any change in their 
 external condition, and almost without having become reduced in 
 number by war. It is not surprising therefore, another unfavour- 
 able condition being added, such as the necessity of suddenly 
 changing their habits of eating, sleeping, walking, method of 
 clothing, &o., that the equilibrium should be destroyed, and that 
 death should get the upper hand. At the present rate of increase 
 of European population and of emigration, the earth will soon be 
 overcrowded, to their advantage. 
 
 There are, however, causes which tend to the rapid destruction 
 of races. The Tasmanians have been exterminated to the last man, 
 and their half-breeds alone remain. The English die out in India, 
 and the Dutch in Malacca, because they are unable to acclimate 
 in those countries. The Esquimaux in the northern part of America 
 are becoming extinct because their country is gradually becoming 
 colder, and existence in it is becoming impossible. Captain Hall 
 says the Esquimaux die more from phthisis than from aU other 
 diseases put together. Among the most celebrated races which 
 have become recently extinct from natural causes, we may mention 
 the Charruas, the Caribs (1), the blacks of California, and among 
 the first to disappear, the natives of Eastei Island, the Kamskatdales, 
 the Esquimaux, and the Makololos, &c. 
 
Chap, ix.] ETHNIC CHAEACTEES. 417 
 
 CHAPTEE IX. 
 
 ETHNIC, LINGUISTIC, HISTOEICAL, ARCH^OLOGICAL CHARAOTBRS : 
 
 THEIR VALUE — PREHISTORIC RACES OUR AI^CESTORS OP THE 
 
 ROUGH AND POLISHED STONE PERIOD. 
 
 The two series of anatomical and physiological characters which 
 we have been describing are really the only ones belonging to the 
 province of Natural History, the only ones upon which one can 
 directly rely in order to determine the number as well as the 
 nature of the principal divisions of the human family. Those of 
 which it remains for us to speak, to which we shall continue to 
 give the name of characters, are of an entirely different order. 
 They are indications derived from various sources, and may be 
 compared with those which one would seek from a breeder in 
 order to establish the genealogy of a breed of dogs or cattle. But 
 as regards Man, the sources are more varied and of a nobler 
 character. His customs, his language, his migrations, the relics of 
 his remote industry — all these are to be considered before we can 
 solve the problem of the relationship of each of his races. 
 
 In a certain point of view, the characters included under the 
 terms " ethnic " and " linguistic " should have found a place in the 
 previous chapter, under the title of simple intellectual manifesta- 
 tions of the physical organisation of the individual regarded as a 
 type of the race. But if mode of living, laws, and language are 
 inherent in the race, they depend much more on such an union as 
 the chance of events establishes. Eace and people are, in fact, 
 two terms having no relation to each other; the former is' an 
 anthropological group, the latter a social group. Hitherto we have 
 only considered races; now we shall speak of peoples, and shaU. 
 begin with ethnic characters par excellence. 
 
 JEthnie Characters. 
 
 By ethnic characters are understood all those things which result 
 from the association of men with each other, whatever their cause, 
 
 2 B 
 
418 ETHNIC CHARACTBKS. [Chap. ix. 
 
 such, as want of society, interest, caprice, or warlike passion. 
 National unity, as we see it realised in the highest degree in 
 France, and the federation of autonomous provinces, as in the 
 United States, are the highest forms of this enlightened association. 
 The small tribes of Todas, in which aU the members are united by 
 ties of kindred, and where association is synonymous with family, 
 are an example of the lowest degree of an opposite character. 
 In each case a greater or less share of liberty is left to the in- 
 dividual, and authority is confided to a chief or to an assembly of 
 delegates. 
 
 The democratic organisation of the Kabyls of Algeria, the 
 authoritative institutions of the nomad Arab, the system of the 
 Australians, who settle their disputes in assemblies ' periodically 
 called together, termed corrohories, are other examples of this. 
 Very rarely is there any trace of organisation of any kind, as 
 among the Australians of Port King George, described by Scott 
 Nind, and the Obongos of Du Chaillu. The object of association 
 is defence against the common enemy, and mutual support in the 
 battle of life. Its result is the establishment of customs, regu- 
 lations, and subsequently of laws, %vritten, or transmitted verbally 
 from generation to generation. The idea of an equal participation 
 in the expenses and pleasures of life comes at a later period, 
 tardQy followed by a notion of morality, as the term is understood 
 by Europeans, namely, the protection of the weak and the infirm, 
 and the equal right of all to the "banquet of life." It, how- 
 ever, continues everywhere among pariahs, the oppressed, the 
 down-trodden, and perhaps among civilised nations — but with 
 them more as a matter of habit. The principal object of democracy, 
 the highest conception of morality, is to dispel these inequalities. 
 As a sequel to laws and customs, and with a view to public utility, 
 there become developed — we know not how — a number of customs, 
 either of a rational or a ridiculous character, corresponding to some 
 innate weakness of the human machine. Such are the rites 
 associated with the great epochs of life, with birth, puberty, 
 marriage, parturition, and death ; the custom of tattooing, of 
 mutilating the teeth, the nose, the ears, the feet, the body, 
 
Chap, ix.] ETHNIC CHARACTEES. 419 
 
 the head, &c. ; the ceremonies pertaining to religion, to memorials, 
 whether of glory or calamity, &c. It is to the social state again 
 that all our inquiries are directed respecting implements, arms, 
 methods- of navigation, the character of dwellings, and the kind 
 of food selected by different peoples. It is here also, as well 
 as in reference to intellectual capahiUty, that we place the 
 description of the pursuits of fishing, hunting, agriculture, trade, 
 and commerce; and lastly the Uterary, artistic, and musical pro- 
 ductions characterising each nation. If races are naturally predis- 
 posed to a particular mode of life, peoples do not often adopt it 
 unless to follow the example of, and owing to their contact with, 
 -other peoples. 
 
 Such are the materials which ethnography has to employ. 
 Ethnography, then, is the description of each people, as now 
 existing, or in the successive phases of its development, of its laws 
 and customs, its language, its origin, and its relationships. Ethno- 
 logy treats of the same subject, but from a higher point of view, 
 by attaching itself to ordinary traits of character, and seeking to 
 determine the laws which preside over the relations and changes of 
 peoples, and the development of their customs and institutions. 
 Both the one and the other powerfully contribute to the progress 
 of Anthropology, but should, strictly speaking, be separated from it. 
 (See page 7, et seq.). 
 
 Among these ethnological, or, for greater brevity, ethnic cha- 
 racters, some have but httle importance when taken together, while 
 others possess an individual value, and are useful as affording us 
 a knowledge of past, and consequently of present, ties of kindred, 
 and a power of determining the anthropological elements which 
 ■enter into the composition of each people. 
 
 Cannihalism, for example, has existed almost universally among 
 races living in a savage state, sometimes as a means of subsistence, 
 as among the Monbouttons and some other African tribes — among 
 whom shambles for human flesh are openly kept ; sometimes with 
 the idea of appropriating to themselves the qualities of the 
 deceased. It is practised after a battle as a religious ceremony, 
 ■or spontaneously in time of peace. Cannibalism therefore, by 
 
 2 E 2 
 
420 ETHNIC CHAKACTEES. [Chap. ix. 
 
 itself, does not furnish us with any means of discovering the 
 pacific arrangements which have taken place at a certain moment 
 between two peoples ; but from the circumstances which have 
 occurred, and from subsequent proceedings, it may go- some way 
 towards it. 
 
 So the custom of erecting rough stone monuments as records of 
 important events, or for the purpose of receiving the remains of 
 those to whom honour has been paid when living. Stones set 
 upright, or placed one upon another, or forming chambers, have 
 been met with in almost every country. They are stiU constructed 
 in India. The present race of Kabyls of the Djurjura sometimes 
 set up stones in a circle on the spot on which they hold their 
 great federative assemblies. The marble slabs which we place in. 
 our cemeteries are a rehc of this natural disposition in Man to. 
 appropriate that material which appears to him to be the most 
 durable for the purpose of making of it a commemorative memo- 
 rial. According to the peculiar form of these constructions, so. 
 are they classed imder different groups. It is quite clear that the 
 dolmens and cromlechs of Denmark, France, England, Portugal,, 
 and Algeria have been the conception of one and the same periodi 
 of civUisation, while those of the Deccan, the Assam, and the- 
 provinces to the south of the Brahmapootra have been that of 
 another. 
 
 In all countries of the world Man made use of flint weapons- 
 for purposes of warfare, before he became acquainted with 
 metals. In Patagonia, in the Sahara, in Oceania, as well as in 
 Europe, they are found in great numbers, either on the surface 
 or embedded in the earth. Frequently even their shapes are alike 
 in countries which, as far as we know, have not been in com- 
 munication with each other from the remotest periods. Moreover, 
 from the particular way in which these flints are worked we are 
 able to form a judgment as to the relations which have existed 
 between tribes far removed from one another. Even the sub- 
 stance of the flint itself furnishes useful sources of information. 
 The use of the bow and arrow, the lance, the shield, as observed 
 in various parts of the globe, is simply a question of ordinary 
 
Chap, ix.] ETHNIC CHAEACTEBS. 421. 
 
 interest. So witli the boomerang, wHcli has been met with almost 
 identical in shape both in Australia, in the Deccan, in Egypt, and 
 in America. It is in use throughout the entire extent of the first- 
 mentioned country ; but it is not found either in ISTew Guinea or in 
 Polynesia; while the bow and arrow, so common in these latter 
 countries, have disappeared in AustraUa, proving that the natives 
 have not been in contiguity sufficiently long for the industry of 
 either one to have become influenced by that of the other. In the 
 Deccan, the bow and arrow are in use at the present moment, 
 whence we come to the conclusion that the Australians must have 
 brought it from that country, at least, that the reverse is not the 
 case. Various considerations make us lean to the former hypothesis. 
 It must be thoroughly understood that these circumstances ia no 
 way estabKsh a relationship between two races. They simply 
 indicate that two peoples, having the same custom or the same 
 industry, have probably been previously in contact. Consequently 
 they may be derived the one from the other, have descended from 
 one and the same stock, or have crossed. 
 
 The Todas of the jSTUgherries Kve an altogether exceptional life : 
 they have a special worship ; they subsist on milk and pulse ; and 
 transform their dairies into temples. It is the duty of the priest to 
 perform the operation of milking the buffaloes, and to look after 
 the apportionment of the milk ; and the little beU hung round the 
 neck of the principal cow is a sacred symbol. As far as we know 
 no similar kind of worship has been found anywhere ; but it is 
 ■evident that it might be discovered among some other solitary 
 people of India or of distant parts of Asia. It would then become 
 probable that they had lived together, and possible that they 
 might be of one and the same race. 
 
 The artificial deformation of the head shows also how much may 
 be gathered from ethnic customs. From the Caucasus to France 
 we come on the track of peoples who practised it after one particular 
 fashion. On the other hand, in America, previous to our era, we 
 see a people who also practised deformation of the head of so 
 special a character, that we are able to trace all the spots at which 
 it sojourned ia its journeyings through both ISTorth and South 
 
422 ETHNIC CHARACTERS. [Chap. ix. 
 
 Ajnerica. "We frequently discover a deformation produced in 
 anotlier way alongside of, and even among, this same people. What 
 relation is there between the two races, hoth having one and the 
 same custom, hut that custom modified ia two altogether different 
 ways 1 By supposing them to he the issue of one and the same 
 stock at a very remote period, would there be any relation between 
 this stock and the European part of the Caucasus 1 The question 
 cannot he solved ; but further researches may clear up the 
 matter. Already in Asia we see other deformations showing them- 
 selves, as if to establish another link between Europe and the 
 Americas. 
 
 The practice of scalping is one very extensively carried on in 
 Iforth America, where each tribe of Indians has its special method. 
 Duncan also found it employed in Africa in 1845. The ancient 
 Scythians {Burton), the ancient Germans, the Anglo-Saxons, and 
 even the Erench ia 879, according to the Abb6 Domenech, had 
 recourse to it. 
 
 The institution of caste, regularly established in India, and 
 found in Austraha in. a rudimentary state, as well as in some parts 
 of the Malay peninsula ; the custom of tatooing with the needle 
 in some countries, and by scarifying in others, as well as the 
 different marks adopted by each tribe; the taboo, so national 
 among the Polynesians that it makes one suspicious whence this 
 custom originated ; the universal practice of chewing the betel-nut 
 in the Malay archipelago — are so many ethnic characters for our 
 consideration. There are a number of most singular practices con- 
 nected with the period of puberty, or adopted in infancy, and 
 which axe designated by the general term ethnic mutilations. 
 
 But of all customs, the most varied have reference to the 
 method of disposing of the dead. Besides the dolmens, there 
 are the tumuli of ancient Siberia, of North America, and of the 
 Gauls of the Bronze Age ; the canoe of the Patagonians ; the 
 practice of embalming of the Peruvians, the Guanchas, and the 
 Egyptians. Sometimes the corpse is burnt, or simply smoked, or 
 eaten by the relatives. Sometimes it is allowed to putrefy on the 
 branch of a tree, or left to vultures on a lofty wicker structure or 
 
Chap, ix.] LINGUISTIC CHAKACTERS. 423 
 
 on an exposed tower, as among the Parsees, &c. Sometimes we 
 see tlie bones prepared, and hung round the necks of relatives, 
 as among the Andamans ; or the head only, with the face pre- 
 served with its usual expression (chanchas), as among the Jivaros 
 Indians. 
 
 But it is not our purpose to describe the general subject of 
 ethnic characters. This sketch, therefore, must suffice, inasmuch as 
 a treatise on ethnology about to be published iu the " Bibliothfeque 
 des Sciences Contemporaines " wiU, no doubt, treat of them in 
 detail. 
 
 Linguistic characters are one of the most valuable sources of 
 information connected with Anthropology. 
 
 Linguistics is the comparative study of the elements of each 
 language, as philology is the comparative study of the literary 
 productions of a language. The two fundamental points upon 
 which the former bears are the vocabulary and the grammar — their 
 present state, their derivation, there origin. Every language has 
 passed through three conditions, has had three phases, before its 
 arrival at completeness. 
 
 Some languages have passed through these rapidly ; others, after 
 continuing for a lengthened period, have stopped at the first or 
 second stage of their development. Hence we have three types of 
 language — monosyllabic, polysyllabic or agglutinative, and inflective 
 languages. The first are represented by the Chinese and its 
 dialects; the second by the idioms of the American, Basque, 
 Berber, MongoKan, Finnish, &c. ; the third by the Semitic and 
 Aryan languages. Our European languages belong, with about 
 two exceptions, to this last class. 
 
 By an analysis of vocabularies and especially of root-words, by a 
 comparison of grammatical forms and constructions, one of the first 
 results of linguistics has been to divide the eight hundred known 
 languages, whether dead or living, into families ; these again being 
 subdivided into genera and species according to their degree of 
 resemblance and afiinity. Some of these families include but one 
 known genus, as the Basque ; in others there are a great number of 
 genera, as in the Uralo-Altaic or Turanian, which is divided into the 
 
424 LINGUISTIC CHARACTERS. [Chap. ix. 
 
 Samdyed, the Fin, the Turk, the Mongol, and the Tungus languages, 
 and each of these into diflferent dialects. Some are so perfectly- 
 distinct in their mechanism and in their constituent elements — as 
 the Indo-European or Aryan, and the Syro-Axahic or Semitic, in 
 spite of all the attempts of specialists to find in them points of 
 contact — that they give one the idea that at the time of their 
 formation the races which spoke them lived absolutely separated, 
 without having any communication with other races. M. Eenan 
 states the fact, and goes no farther. M. Chav^e is more definite. 
 He says : " We might put Semitic children and Indo-European 
 children apart, who had been taught by deaf-mutes, and we should 
 find that the former would naturally speak a Semitic language, the 
 latter an Aryan language." "Whence the conclusion that the type of 
 language is independent of the will of Man, and the inevitable 
 product of his cerebral organisation. 
 
 The argument is considerably in favour of the polygenistic 
 doctrine. At the moment when Man acquired the dignity of Man 
 by the acquisition of language, he was dispersed in groups or 
 distinct races on the surface of the globe. N"ow the number of 
 these irreducible languages is enormous, without speaking of those 
 which have become altogether extinct. The question as to the 
 precursor of these races remains untouched, and does not belong to 
 linguistics. Another result of the distribution of languages by 
 families, is its application to the classification of races. We must 
 not lay too much stress on this. 
 
 Languages, like systems of mythology, methods of numeration, 
 and all ethnic customs, often continue in the centre whence they 
 have taken their origin, and have greater chances of being per- 
 petuated in such centre, though they frequently change it. They 
 are transmitted from one race to another, or from one people to 
 another, in whole or in part, especially when the language of the 
 invader is a more perfect one, and corresponds better with his new 
 habits. Words having relation with ideas recently acquired are 
 the first to pass away, the old ones become modified, then changes 
 in the grammar take place. 
 
 Some groups of the vanquished people resist more. Protected 
 
Chap, ix.] LINGUISTIC CHARACTERS. 425 
 
 by their customs, their spirit of independence, or by their settling 
 •down in obscure places, they retain their idiom for a long period ; 
 but foreign influence continuing, whether friendly, hostile, or 
 enlightened, their language in time yields and becomes absorbed. 
 There is in fact a struggle. The Pranks of Neustria, less civUised 
 than the Gallo-Eomans, were not able to force their language upon 
 them ; on the contrary, they lost their own. The soldiers of Eollo, 
 less than a hundred years after the cession of Normandy, spote 
 nothing but French. Their descendants were unable to commu- 
 nicate the French language to England at the time of the iuvasion 
 of William the Conqueror. The Saxons, on the contrary, five or 
 six centuries previously, not only had taken possession of England, 
 but had forced their language on its semi-barbarous inhabitants, 
 upon whom the Eomans had only made a passing impression. 
 In these cases, number was everything. With us, on the contrary, 
 as regards the influence of the Eomans, it was their civilisation 
 which decided the point. The Celtic language has been progres- 
 sively latinised throughout. We do not now find traces of it 
 except among the peasants living out of the usual path of civil- 
 isation. The Celtic language itself was not autochthonous in 
 Gaul, it had been brought from the East by a different race. That 
 which had preceded it was the Euskarian language, vestiges of 
 which are found in the geograjjhical names dispersed through 
 Spain in ancient Aquitania, and as far as into Corsica, Sardinia, 
 and Sicily, according to Humboldt; this is the present Basque 
 language. M. Broca is disposed to think that its area extended 
 at a remote period over the whole of Western Europe up to the 
 point towards the east where it meets with the Ein languages. 
 The languages now used by the peoples scattered over the globe 
 are not therefore necessarily those which they spoke originally. 
 The community of language between two peoples, or even between 
 two races, determined by their physical traits, does iiot show that 
 there was any kindred or connection between them, but simply 
 that they had participated in the same lot. The Yakuts of the 
 banks of the Lena in features pass for Mongols, and speak a Turk 
 language. The Voguls and the Hungarians both speak a Fin 
 
426 ETHNIC CHAEACTEES. [Chap. ix. 
 
 language ; the former, as to physique, are Mongols, and the latter 
 Europeans, among the upper classes. The Belgians speak Latin, 
 and have remained Kymris. Linguists include under the name 
 of Kaffirs aU the peoples speaking the Bantou languages, as the 
 Amazulus of Kaffraria, the Makololos of the Zambesi, the Mpon- 
 gwes of the Gaboon ; their types however are different. Evidently 
 a conquering people, speaking the Bantou, has become scattered 
 through the whole of these various negro tribes, and has bequeathed 
 to them their language. It is for Anthropology to separate them. 
 la short, the characters derived from linguistics furnish only 
 "indications, and not positive information," to quote M. Brooa. 
 They are not permanent, and simply teach us one of the phases 
 which the history of races has passed through. They are valuable 
 in. the same way as ethnic and archaeological characters, but are 
 not to be placed in the same category as anatomical and physio- 
 logical characters, which are perpetuated in spite of crossing and 
 the influence of external conditions. In a word, they frequently 
 concern peoples and not races. Certain of their elements more 
 or less resist absorption however. The vocabulary is the first 
 altered, grammatical forms and all that which might be called the 
 genius of the language remain to the last. Eor further detail we 
 would refer to the classification of races according to linguistics, 
 published by Ered. Miiller in kis " Ethnographie G^n&ale," and 
 especially to the volume " Linguistique " (2nd edition) of the 
 " Biblioth^que des Sciences Contemporaines," the author of which, 
 M. Hovelacque, holds similar views to those we have enunciated.* 
 
 Historical and Archceological Cliaraders, S^c. 
 
 If ethnic and linguistic characters are useful in enabling us to 
 retrace the past histories of races which have become united to 
 
 * See also "La Linguistique et rAnthropologie," by Paul Broca, in 
 " Bull. Soo. d'Anthrop.," vol. i., 1st series, 1863 ; " L'Origine et la Eepar- 
 tition de la Langue Basque," by the same author, in " Eevue d'Anthrop.," 
 vol. iv., 1874. 
 
Chap, ix.] HISTORY. 427 
 
 form present races, those of which we are ahout to speak are still 
 more so. In what way have these races been brought into close 
 contact with one another or succeeded at one particular poiuf! 
 What struggles have they had to sustain, what examples to follow, 
 how have they become commingled, and what remains of the most 
 ancient of them? Such are, in effect, the problems which are 
 incessantly presented to the anthropologist when called upon to 
 settle the physical and even the biological characters of races. 
 Direct sources of information are happily sufficiently numerous. 
 Besides those we have already examined, we have written history, 
 tradition, and all connected therewith — heroic poems, books 
 of devotion, songs, <fec., inscriptions on rocks, as in India and 
 Algeria, or buried, as at Niueveh ; and lastly, prehistoric arohseo- 
 logy, which furnishes more than mere information on the subject, 
 namely, the relics belonging to populations which have disappeared. 
 
 History. 
 
 History, as connected with our present subject, concerns peoples 
 in nearest connection with ourselves ; it teaches us their migrations, 
 their passions, their intellectual manifestations, their customs, looks 
 back some three or four thousand years, and thereby enables us to 
 trace the obstacles to which they were subjected at their origin. 
 The information indeed which we derive from the Greek and 
 Eoman historians scarcely extends beyond the sixteenth century 
 before our era. If at that period, which to some would seem 
 far distant, we were adequately enlightened, and we knew 
 exactly the races which inhabited the globe, and how they were 
 distributed — suppose we could look forward for a moment to a 
 corresponding period in the future, crossing will have diminished 
 the number of pure types ; the native race of America wiU have 
 entirely disappeared — there will be no Esquimaux, or Ainos, or 
 Australians, or Bosjesmans; and anthropologists will only have 
 whereby to recognise them, exhumed skeletons here and there, in the 
 same way as we now have those which come to us from Egypt. 
 
428 HISTORY. [Chap. k. 
 
 Imagine their situation if it were possible that there were no 
 printed records, no monuments of any kind, and we ourselves had 
 no existence. They will judge of the present period as we do that 
 of three or four thousand years ago. The question of inferior 
 races will no longer he in debate, the intermediate races between 
 Man and his nearest allies wHl have disappeared ; there will be no 
 linking threads, no beings occupying a transition state ; Man will 
 stand out alone and resplendent to the view of delighted philo- 
 sophers. Well, changes such as we are supposing must have been 
 taking place in the three or four thousand years of ancient authors. 
 History which would carry us back to that period would be of the 
 greatest assistance to us. Africa of itself alone woidd give us pro- 
 bably the key of the problem of Man, the connecting linlt which has 
 disappeared between the Bosjesman and some other zoological 
 being. Whether assisted or not by archseology, history narrates 
 that, under the twelfth dynasty, about 2300 B.C., the Egyptians 
 consisted of four races : (1) The Rot, or Egyptians, painted red, and 
 similar in feature to the peasants now living on the banlvs of the 
 Nile; (2) The Namu, painted yellow, vnth the aquUine nose, 
 corresponding to the populations of Asia to the east of Egypt; 
 (3) The Nashu, or prognathous negroes, with woolly hair ; (4) 
 The Tamaliou, whites, with blues eyes. It tells us that seventeen 
 centuries before our era, Thothmes III., of the eighteenth dynasty, 
 carried his victorious arms over a multitude of peoples, among 
 whom are recognised existing types of negroes of Central Africa, 
 and that in the year 1500 B.C., a swarm of barbarians, blonde with 
 blue eyes, came down ujion the western frontier of Egypt from the 
 north, while in Europe, at the same moment, an invasion had 
 leaped over the P5'"renees, and banished the Ligurians and Sicanians 
 into Italy, and the Iberians beyond the Ebro into Africa. 
 
 In another part of the world, in Asia, history shows us, on the 
 frontiers of Persia, two rival nations, one to the south-west, in IrSn, 
 the other to the north-east, in Tiiran (a Persian word signifying 
 " the country of enemies "). Farther off, from b.o. 1500 to a.d. 250, 
 many nomad peoples, one of which, the Hiung-Nu, encamps to the 
 north of the Celestial Empire, and obliges the Chinese to buUd 
 
Chap, ix.] HISTOET. 429 
 
 the celebrated Great "Wall. In India, a yellow people passing- 
 round the foot of the Himalayas, and coming in. contact with 
 a black people. Lastly, in Prance, a secular struggle between a 
 brown group, which resists, and a succession of invasions of 
 blondes from the extreme end of Europe — a struggle of which the 
 previous passage into the Iberian peninsula was but an episode. 
 We also learn from history that more recently 38,000 Franis 
 invaded the Gauls, substituting their own for the Eoman sway, 
 which five centuries previously had conquered the Kymris and 
 the Celts leagTied together tinder the name of Gauls ; that the 
 Hungarians came from the banks of the Obi to establish them- 
 selves, after various revolutions, in the country where we now 
 find them ; that the Parsees fled from their country during the 
 seventh century, dividing into two groups, the one going to the 
 Caucasus, where it is almost extinct, the other to Bombay, where 
 it now prospers, numbering some 49,000 souls. History speaks- 
 also of the Malays making their appearance in the island of 
 Sumatra in 1160 ; of Manco-Capac, founding during the eleventh 
 century the dynasty of the Incas of Peru ; of the ISTahuas, who- 
 emigrated from Florida before the Christian era, leaving Mexico in 
 A.D. 174, some following the Mississippi towards the north, others 
 going to the Isthmus of Panama towards the south. 
 
 But it is necessary that we should inquire as to the results of 
 the wars and migrations of p'eoples, the number of the invaders 
 and their characters, whether they consisted exclusively of warriors, 
 or whether women were associated with them. In one place, where 
 a coimtless horde like the Huns, under Attila, in Western Europe, 
 or the Gauls, under Genseric, in the Atlas mountains, passes like a 
 hurricane, without leaving a trace ; a continuous current, like that 
 of the Kymris in Gaul, the Saracens (Aiabs and Berbers) in Spain, 
 or the Portuguese in South America, modifies the physical type. 
 Elsewhere a handful of individuals makes a good deal of noise, 
 gives its language, as well as its religion and its civilisation, to the 
 vanquished, and has no other influence on their type. The 
 Phoenicians have long been in relation with the coast of Barbary, 
 as well as with the sea-coast generally, and, with the exception of 
 
430 HISTORY. [Chap. ix. 
 
 two or three colonies, have not left a particle of their hlood among 
 their dei3endents. The name by which the peoples are called is 
 no proof of their real origin. The English derive theirs from a 
 Germanic tribe, the Angles, who inhabited the country to the 
 north of the Elbe ; the French, from another Germanic tribe, the 
 Franks ; the Eussians, from Eossi, a Scandinavian whose family 
 governed for many ages at Moscow ; the Bulgarians, from a 
 Finnish tribe, who made their conquest about the seventh century. 
 Each historical datum requires, like linguistic and ethnographic 
 characters, to be carefully weighed ; and conquest, however pro- 
 longed, does not imply a fusion between the victors and the 
 vanquished. 
 
 The question is of direct interest to us, especially with reference 
 to the Aryans. Linguists, finding that all the European languages, 
 with the exception of the Basque and the Finnish, are derived 
 from the Sanskrit — that before the dispersion of these languages in 
 Central Asia, they possessed words for the metals and for the 
 various implements of husbandry — mythologists also recognising a 
 reciprocal relation between the various religious myths of the 
 peoples of the West and those of the East, came to the conclusion, 
 the former especially, that the large mass of the peoples of Europe 
 were Aryan, and had come from Central Asia. A reaction has 
 now set in against this belief. A comparison of the remains of 
 ancient races found embedded in the earth in our own country 
 with those of the populations which have succeeded them, shows a 
 continuity of type more or less persistent, which the infusion of 
 foreign blood from time to time alone interrupted, with here 
 and there a mongrel, or disappearing altogether. 
 
 But there has been no positive proof that the Aryans of the East 
 carried with them into the West any thing beyond there civUising 
 influence, their language, and their knowledge of the metals. It 
 may be questioned whether this influence has not taken place in 
 consequence either of a succession of direct emigrations, by a sort 
 of infiltration, or by commerce. In France, on the other hand, we 
 are not Aryans by blood, but by a superposition of various races, 
 the majority of which are Kymric in the north, Celtic in the 
 
Chap, ix.] TRADITION. 431 
 
 centre, and no doubt bearing the nearest analogy to tbe aborigines, 
 at least to the ancient people whose relics have been discovered in 
 the caves of the Pyrenees and the P&'igord, ia the south. 
 
 Tradition. 
 
 Tradition frequently steps in where history is at fault. History 
 at first was simply tradition committed to writing. Such were the 
 sources whence the first historians, Herodotus, Moses, &c., drew 
 their supphes. The 20,000 verses of the Fin poem, "The 
 Kalavela," were for long ages preserved oraUy, before they were 
 brou^t together and written down by E. Lonnrot in 1850. Again, 
 the various pieces which enter into this compilation axe slightly 
 anterior to the introduction of Christianity into the northern 
 countries (ninth to the twelfth century). 
 
 The " niad " was founded on some tradition respecting the connec- 
 tion of the Greek ancestry with Asia Minor, towards the close of the 
 Bronze Period. The "Eamayana," and still more the " Mahabharata," 
 rehearse the exploits of the first conquerors, when India was 
 peopled by a native race represented with heads lite an ape. The 
 migrations of the Polynesians, from the island of Boroto or Bouro 
 to the various islands of the Pacific, are only known to us by the 
 national songs and the local traditions gleaned from each island 
 and put together. Traditions ought on no account to be despised. 
 When the Ainos represent themselves as coming from the West in 
 company with a dog, and the Tehuelches of Patagonia also aifirm 
 that they sprang from the West, in spite of the enormous distance 
 which separates them from any other land in that direction, this 
 ought to make us reflect seriously on the subject. The most 
 astonishing migrations moreover are quite possible. Lyell main- 
 tained that Man, however savage, transported to any part of the 
 globe, would at last bring it entirely under his subjection. By 
 land there can be no doubt of this; rivers, mountains, forests, 
 swamps, deserts, he leaps over them all, either in masses or in 
 oTOups, whether for his own pleasure or by accident. M. de 
 
432 TRADITION. [Chap. ix. 
 
 Quatrefages, in his lectures, tells of the exodus of a horde of 
 Kalmucks, who, to the numher of 400,000, including women and 
 children, and in spite of the most incredible obstacles, made a re- 
 markable migration from the banks of the Volga to the eastern 
 confines of China. Voyages by sea, under favourable circumstances 
 of one kind and another, are no less possible. Islands frequently 
 bring into connection the most distant points, like those stepping- 
 stones which we threw into the stream to enable us to cross to the 
 opposite bank. It is thus that by Kamschatka, the Aleutian 
 Islands, and Alaskas, or directly from one side of Behring's Strait 
 to the other, the Esquimaux have easily been able to reach America. 
 In this way, from Asia to the centre of Oceania there are two 
 natural roads, the one by the island of Formosa, the Philippines, 
 and the Moluccas, leading to the Fiji Islands, by passing along the 
 chain of the Solomon Islands ; the other by the peninsula of 
 Malacca, the Sunda archipelago and Timor to Australia, and on to 
 Tasmania. Independently of the various islands scattered about, 
 the wind and currents lend their aid. The most contrary winds, 
 blowing almost constantly from one particular quarter, change at 
 certain periods of the year ; and close to the strongest current 
 running in one particular direction there is always a counter- 
 current. The Gulf Stream of Mexico, and the Equatorial Current 
 of the Pacific, are no exceptions to this. They pursue their course 
 in one direction for a great distance, but by counter-currents- 
 they absolutely return again, as we notice in some of our rivers. 
 So, however inaccessible or lost in mid-ocean a solitary island may 
 appear to be, chance as well as man's will, however inexperienced 
 he may be, may always bring visitors to it. This is how vessels 
 coming from the Marianne Islands made the Carolines, which were 
 situated at a distance of 600 kilomtoes. Tradition, even more 
 than history, furnishes a multitude of similar examples. 
 
Chap, ix.] AECH^OLOGY. 433 
 
 Archceology 
 
 Makes its appearance when Mstory and tradition are botk at 
 fault ; not the archjeology whose aim is to discover the traces of 
 known events, like tne Eetreat of the Ten Thousand in Asia Minor, 
 the sojourn of the Eomans in Great Britain, or the passage of the 
 Eed Sea by the Israelites ; but that which belongs to populations 
 of which no history has come down to us, whether written or oral, 
 and which inquires into their customs, their industry, their com- 
 merce, and even their objects of thought. This we i&cva. prehistoric 
 archceology. This science makes us acquainted with the dolmens, 
 their contents, and the sepulchral object for which they were 
 designed. It shows them to us in every direction from the north 
 and west of Europe as far as Algeria. It examines the caves which 
 are used as a substitute for them, in places where they are found 
 naturally, and in countries where, owing to the chalky nature of 
 the stone, they were easily excavated. The tumuli which are seen 
 from east to west across the middle of Europe from the Caucasus to 
 the plains of Champagne ; those of Siberia, for example, examined 
 by Meunier and Eichthal, and afterwards by M. Desor ; those of 
 the northern part of America ; the constructions called Pelasgic, 
 in the Mediterranean, KafEraria, and Arabia ; the monoliths of 
 Easter Island, representing human figures ; the refuse-heaps of 
 Italy; the kjdkken-mdddings, or kitchen-leavings, close to the 
 sea-shore, in Europe, in Patagonia, as well as in the Andaman 
 Island's ; the pUo-villages of Switzerland, &c. 
 
 To archseology in general we refer all that specially ^as reference 
 to the Metal Age, and to prehistoric archEcology that which concerns 
 the two Stone epochs, the neolithic and the paleolithic. 
 
 We were just now contemplating with wonder the changes which 
 ■vviU probably take place in three or four thousand years to come in 
 the races now existing, and we were picturing to ourself those 
 which have possibly been produced during the last three or four 
 thousand years. This lapse of time is, however, but a trifle as 
 compared with the ages which have preceded it. One of the first 
 
 2 F 
 
434 PEBHISTOEIO AECBLffiOLOGY. [Chap. ix. 
 
 dates of history fixed by Mr. Henry Martin, is about tbe year 
 1500 B.C. Tbe Egyptian annals make mention, at this period, of 
 the advent of a blonde people from the north, "whose appearance is 
 coincident -with the passage of the Celts into Spain. It, however, 
 was doubtless merely one of the last efforts of the same people to 
 spread towards the south. The dolmens of Algeria and Morocco 
 testify that at a previous period invasion after invasion of the same 
 populations had taken place. Some of these dolmens contain iron, 
 and even historic medals ; others, and these the larger number, 
 contain only polished-flint implements. It is therefore presumable 
 that the conclusion of the Polished Stone epoch in Algeria occurred 
 about the period of the last invasion of the blonde people described 
 by the Egyptians. This might be fixed in Africa about the year 
 2000 B.o. But Africa was nearer some of the commercial sources from 
 which iron came, and it is very likely that the exact termination of 
 the Polished Stone epoch in Western Europe ought to be put farther 
 back still. "Whenever it may have terminated, there is no doubt 
 that the duration of the Polished Stone, or Neolithic epoch, was a 
 very lengthened one. It was of sufficient duration to cover Europe, 
 from Scandinavia to Gibraltar, with megalithic monuments, with 
 grottoes used for purposes of burial, as well as for dweUing-places. 
 Great events, such as wars and invasions, took place during the 
 period. [N'ew races sprang up which had time to cross vsdth 
 the aboriginal races, and to form almost as many mixed races as 
 exist at the present day. The duration of this period, however, is 
 as nothing to that of the Rough Stone, or FaleoUthic period, which 
 preceded it. At the commencement of this latter, the cavern-bear, 
 the mammotji, the rhinoceros with partitioned nostril, inhabited 
 the whole of Prance. A considerable diminution of temperature 
 had favoured their emigration from the north, no doubt, and driven 
 them towards the south, or had been the means of destroying some 
 of the species which had preceded them. At one time, the glaciers 
 had become greatly extended in our country, a relative elevation 
 of temperature followed, and assisted in the development of the 
 fauna and Plora. A second cooling and a second extension of 
 glaciers then supervened. Man hunted the great animals above 
 
Chap, ix.] PREHISTORIC ARCHEOLOGY. 435 
 
 tef erred to; this was the Mammotli Age. But they began to 
 diminish in number, with the exception of one of them, the reia- 
 deer, which, on the contrary, multiplied ad infinitum. This was 
 the Eeiadeer Age. Civilisation and the taste for art became 
 developed, particularly in. the P^rigord and the Pyrenees. Man 
 was passing a sedentary life and had nothing, consequently, of the 
 Mongol race about him, aU these things betokening his physical 
 character. Then the earth became progressively warmer, the reiu- 
 deer reached the north, the ibex and the marmot were to be seen 
 on the mountains. 
 
 During this considerable phase, and especially at its commence- 
 ment, our valleys were formed. The bed of the Seiue, of which some 
 remains are still visible at Montreuil, was fifty-five mfetres in height, 
 and consisted of those deposits which are termed the ancient sea- 
 levels. Later on, the bed became about twenty-five metres lower, the 
 lowest alluvial deposits of Grenelle were formed, and then slowly 
 became filled up, forming the banks as we now see them. How 
 can we possibly determine the interval which must have elapsed 
 between these various deposits ! 
 
 At the Mammoth period, distinguished more particularly by the 
 fossil bones of animals and the rough flints left in the alluvia 
 of rivers, Man constructed only coarse stone implements, and 
 especially those of the shapes called St. Acheul, so abundant in 
 the valley of the Somme. At the following period, intermediate 
 between the Mammoth and the Eeindeer, he preferred those forms 
 termed Du Moustier. Later on, that is to say at the Eeindeer 
 epoch proper, in the valley of La Y&zkce, we find him taking 
 regular steps in the path of progress. Instead of the heavy massive 
 implements, fiakes of flint were used for javelin points, or fixed 
 in handles after the fashion of our graving tools. Man soon 
 utilised the bones and horns of the reindeer for the purpose of 
 constructing implements of every description, even needles and 
 fish-hooks. In other parts of France, as at Excideuil, at Solutr6 
 in the Pyrenees, the method of working the flint continued to 
 improve, and implements in the shape of laurel leaves, with finely 
 sharpened borders, became common. It was then that the art of 
 
 2 P 2 
 
436 
 
 PREHISTORIC ARCHEOLOGY. 
 
 [Chap. ix. 
 
 polishing the flint must have commenced, one possibly imported by- 
 some conquering nation, but probably also by the application to the 
 stone of the process which had already been practised upon bone. 
 This double epoch of the Mammoth and Eeindeer was therefore a 
 considerable one, and yet from the Mammoth period to the present 
 time the interval is almost nothing as compared with the period 
 during which Man previously existed. The temperature in Europe, 
 contrary to that of the succeeding period, was hotter than it is 
 now. Man, whose flint implements have been found in the 
 Pliocene formation of St. Prest, hunted the Elephas meridionalis, 
 the Rhinoceros etruseus, the S. Merckii, and the R. lejotorhinus. 
 
 Fig. 42. — Neanderthal akull in profile (Mammoth epoch). 
 
 At the close of the Miocene epoch, when we have the sheU 
 heaps of Pouance, Man was in conflict with the mastodon and 
 the halitherium, and he possessed a knowledge of fire. "We are 
 less acquainted with his ancestors who worked the flints found by 
 the Abb6 Bourgeois at Thenay, in the lower Miocene, below the' 
 La Beauce chalk. But his existence at that epoch — one but little 
 distant from the period at which are deposited the Meudon millstone 
 or the Fontainebleau sandstone — is a clearly revealed scientific fact. 
 We possess his implements : they indicate a tolerable amount of 
 intelligence : but his remains are wanting. Up to the present 
 moment archseologists, or rather geologists, have never found the 
 smallest fragment of a human bone. All these questions will be 
 considered in detail in the volume of the " Bibliothfeque des 
 
Chap, ix.] PEEHISTORIC EACES. 437 
 
 Sciences Contemporaines," now in the press, entitled " AicWo- 
 logie Pr^historique," by M. Gabiielle de Mortillet. 
 
 Prehistoric Races. 
 
 Human palaeontology commences -with the Post-pHocene or Mam- 
 moth epoch. Examples of it are few in number, and are not 
 readily capable of classification. De Quatrefages and Hamy, 
 however, have not flinched from this difficult task.* By joining 
 together fragments of male skulls from Canstadt, Eguisheim, 
 Brux, Denise, and the Ifeanderthal, and female skulls from 
 Straengenoes, L'Olmo, and CUchy, they succeeded in discovering in 
 them certain common characters ; that is to say, dolichocephaly, a 
 remarkable sinking of the vault of the skull, or platycephaly, a great 
 recession of the frontal bone, and a very marked development of 
 the supercOiary arches. Of all the specimens the most remarkable 
 are the calvarium of the Neanderthal and the jaw of La Naulette. 
 Anyone accustomed to handle the skulls of the anthropoid apes 
 wUl be immediately struck with the great resemblance between 
 them. The Neanderthal especially reminds one of the calvarium 
 of the female gorilla, which is similarly staved in as it were, or of 
 the skull of a hylobate. The superciliary arches are altogether 
 simian, although the skuU is clearly human. Its capacity, 
 estimated at 1200 cubic centimetres, dissipates all doubt on the 
 subject. The jaw of the Naulette is not less remarkable by the 
 obliteration of the tubercles geni, and of the projection of the chin; 
 there is complete prognathism of the body of the bone, analogous 
 cases of which are seen in races now existing, although not to the 
 same extent. We are unable to come to any decided conclusion 
 upon the matter however. 
 
 The characters of the Neanderthal are found, though in a less 
 degree, in the majority of the other specimens collected: by 
 MM. de Quatrefages and Hamy, to which the generic name of 
 Gamtadt Race has been given. It is not impossible, however^ that 
 
 * " Crania Ethnica. Les Cranes des Eaoes Humaines, deorits par MM. 
 de Quatrefages et E. T. Hamy." Palis, 1873-75. 
 
438 PKBHISTORIC RACES. [Chap. ix. 
 
 tliis type was an exceptional one, and that these were cases of 
 atavism, and rejpresented less a race belonging to the Mammoth 
 Age than one of the Pliocene or Miocene epoch. This is, no doubt, 
 the case as regards the famous Namaqua skulls in the Museum, 
 whose prognathism is most remarkable, although they came from 
 the midst of a Hottentot race. They might be the representatives 
 of a previous African race which had become extinct. From the 
 meteorological and geological changes which took place at the close 
 of the Miocene and Pliocene epochs, we can easily understand how 
 it was that the majority of the inhabitants of Thenay and Pouanc6 
 succumbed, and that only a small number, namely, those who were 
 able to escape from the destroying causes, survived. Ifow the 
 inferior races disappear, while the superior increase in num.ber. This 
 fact, however we may explain it, is one against which it is impos- 
 sible to contend. At that prodigiously remote period there were 
 necessarily inferior as well as superior races. The same law was 
 doubtless in existence then as now. It is possible, therefore, while 
 admitting that the Neanderthal was an exception, that it represents 
 one of those inferior races which has disappeared. It would be at 
 the Mammoth period, in relation to anterior races, as a tribe or an 
 individual, whether Indian or Negro, will be in three thousand 
 years in relation to ourselves. 
 
 Admitting that the Neanderthal belonged to a race of the period, 
 or to an anterior race, is it the skull of a man in the sense in which 
 we use the term ? In other words. Had he or his ancestors to answer 
 for it ? "We know that the man of the upper Miocene period was 
 acquainted with the use of fire. In point of fact, Was the 
 Neanderthal race more nearly allied to the Anthropoids, whether 
 known or unknown, or to ourselves 'i We simply ask the question. 
 
 The palseontological remains of the succeeding epoch, or Eeindeer 
 Age, in Western Europe, have been studied by the authors of the 
 " Crania Ethnica," by whom they have been termed the Cro-Magnon 
 Baee, taking as its type the subjects exhumed from the cave of that 
 name in the P&igord, by Christy and Lartet. As compared with 
 the Canstadt race, they seem but of yesterday. After an exami- 
 nation, in 1872, of several parts of the Cro-Magnon cave previously 
 
Chap, ix.] 
 
 PREHISTORIC RACES. 
 
 439 
 
 untouched, we -weie of the same opinion. Their essential characters 
 are as follows, according to De Quatrefages and Hamy : They are 
 dolichocephalic, like the skulls of the Canstadt race. They have a 
 high forehead, broad, and well developed above the superciliary 
 ridges, of average size, the vault being rather high, with a fine curve 
 continuing regularly from the forehead to the obelion, where it 
 bends down to form an oblique flat, which is continued on into the 
 
 FiG. 43.— Skull of the Old Man of Cro-Magnon, Eyzies (Reindeer epoch). 
 
 supra-occipital region. The frontal bosses, which are as though 
 flattened in the preceding race, are in this high and projecting. 
 The face is broad and short in relation to the maximum length of 
 the skull, the orbits are deep, in the form of a parallelogram, having 
 a minimum index of sixty-one, the smallest on record. There is 
 considerable prognathism at the sub-nasal portion in the old man of 
 Cro-MagnoHj namely, 62-8° according to one measurement, as much 
 as in the most prognathous negro. In looking at this last trait of 
 the corresponding prognathism presented by the other specimens of 
 
440 PEBHISTORIC RACES. [Chap. ix. 
 
 tlie same group collected by De Quatrefages and Hamy, we are 
 nevertlieless inclined to think tliat this old man was an exception. 
 One of the Grenelle skulls, on the contrary, exhibits one of the 
 weakest prognatliisms we have examined, namely, 86 '7°. The 
 projection of the mental eminence of the lower jaw is considerable, 
 and is in strong contrast with the absolute obliteration of the same 
 part in the Naulette jaw. 
 
 The Cro-Magnon race, if we may judge of it by the bones in our 
 possession, was of tall stature, robust, the skeleton presenting the 
 characters we have described above, namely, the platycnemic tibia, 
 the anteriorly-channelled fibula, the thick Knea aspera of the femur, 
 and the curve of the upper fourth of the forearm. After the Cro- 
 Magnon race, the authors of the " Crania Ethnica" describe in Western 
 Europe certain less frequent types of the Paleolithic epoch, namely, 
 the brachycephalic type, represented by the skull discovered at La 
 Truchfere, near Lyon, close to the Elephas primigenius, and by two 
 or three other skulls found at Grenelle, near Paris, in the alluvia of 
 the middle levels above the dolichocephales of the previous races , 
 the Mesaticephalic and the Sub-brachycephalic type described under 
 the name of Furfooz Race, and found in the strata posterior to those 
 of Cro-Magnon. It remains for us to make a resume of the results 
 to which the various communications of M. Broca have led with 
 regard to the region which at those epochs has greater interest foi 
 us, namely, our own country of France. 
 
 When the admirable discoveries of linguists had established 
 the kindred and relationship of the Indo-European languages, we 
 were led to believe that Europe had been peopled, as we said just 
 now, by immigrants from that region of Asia in which we might 
 discover remains nearest akin to the common linguistic stock. 
 Various considerations, moreover, led us to suppose that these 
 immigrants carried with them the use of metals, religion, &c. 
 But two languages, which two small groups of peoples spoke, 
 escaped the general law — namely, the Fins and the Basques. 
 Eetzius, ascertaining that the former were brachycephalic, thought 
 that the latter were so likewise ; and noticing that the Swedes 
 around him were dolichocephalic, formulated his celebrated pro- 
 
Chap. IX.] PREHISTORIC RACES. 441 
 
 Ijosition, tliat the autochthonous race of Europe was brachy- 
 cephalic, and that which came after dolichocephalic. Gradually, 
 however, M. Broca was enabled to proTe from abundance of facts 
 that the Basques are dolichocephalic, and that the proposition of 
 Eetzius ought to be reversed, the most ancient inhabitants of 
 Europe being dolichocephalic, and those coming afterwards brachy- 
 cephalic. Thus the most ancient race of France represented by 
 the three Cro-Magnon slnills, the two of Laugerie, the three of the 
 middle and lower levels of Grenelle, had a dolichocephaUc index 
 of from 73 to 75. So the race from the cavern of I'Homme Mort, 
 which has all the appearance of that of Cro-Magnon, has an average 
 index of 73-22°. 
 
 The precise period when the brachycephales penetrated into 
 Western Europe has not been determined. Certain little tribes 
 with round skulls have possibly made their appearance here and 
 there since the Paleolithic epoch, but they have only done 
 so in large numbers at a later period. At the close of the 
 Eough Stone epoch, at Solutr^ for example, M. Broca proves the 
 existence of two races united together, the one dolichocephalic, 
 having the appearance of the race of I'Homme Mort, the other 
 sub-brachycephalic, approaching nearer to the Furfooz race. 
 
 In England the facts are determined in a precise manner. There 
 «xist in that country two sorts of dolmens, the long, called long 
 harrows, containing only polished-stone implements, and skulls for 
 the most part thoroughly dolichocephalic ; the others round, and of 
 a different construction, the round harrows, containing metal, and a 
 great number of brachycephalic together with dohchocephalic skulls 
 of the preceding race, as well as mesaticephalic, the issue no doubt 
 of crossing between the two. 
 
 The date of their first appearance in England is therefore fixed. 
 They came in at the close of the Polished Stone period, at the 
 same time as the metals. But did they arrive directly, or by 
 passing through France ? The track left by the brachycephales 
 on the Swiss frontier, at the extreme point of Brittany, would 
 incline ns to the latter view. It must be admitted — (1) That 
 the most ancient inhabitants of France were dolichocephalic; 
 
442 ANTHROPOLOGICAL TYPES. [Chap, x.' 
 
 (2) That a small number of braohycephales afterwards crept in 
 among them, hut without changing their ethnic hasis ; (3) That the ■ 
 immigration of these latter towards the close of the Paleolithic 
 epoch was remarkable from the fact of its limiting itself to certain 
 points of territory, as the M^connais ; (4) That an iavasion must 
 then have been made from the north, bringing with it the custom 
 of burying in dolmens or grottoes, but which being dolichocephales, 
 or numerically very inferior, bequeathed to the population its 
 dolichocephalic character, though somewhat lessened (indices in the 
 dolmens in the neighbourhood of Paris 75 '01 ; in the grottoes of 
 La Marne, where it is less pure, 77'78) ; (5) That, lastly, the 
 invasion of the brachycephales already commenced in the east, and 
 probably passing by two currents, the one below, the other above 
 the Alpine range, assumed greater proportions at the close of the 
 Polished Stone period, traversed through the centre of France, and 
 there crossed with the ancient aboriginal race, giving origin to the 
 new historic race, which we shall describe farther on, under the 
 name of Celtic type. All these questions have to do with Anthro- 
 pology pure and simple, and especially with craniometry ; but the 
 inquiry as to their elements, the determination of the age and 
 circumstances of strata, the discovery of relics of industry, and 
 other memorials of that remote past, are in the domain of 
 prehistoric archaeology and geology ; for what, after all, is geology, 
 but the archsBology of the earth and its inhabitants ? 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 ANTHEOPOLOGICAL TYPES BiONDB AND BEOWN EUROPEAN TYPES — 
 
 HINDOO, TSCHINGHANIAN, IRANIAN, CELTIC, BERBER, SEMITIC, 
 ARABIAN TYPES. 
 
 The four orders of characters which we have been describiag 
 are not, as we have said, of equal value. If the races now in 
 
Chap. X.] ANTHROPOLOGICAL TYPES. 443 
 
 existence were pure and homogeneous, such as nature made them, 
 it would suffice to sum up their differences and their resemblances, 
 to take account of their individual varieties and pathological devia^ 
 tions, and to proceed to give them their most natural position. But 
 the ground is altogether different — ^unity is wanting. Eaces have been 
 dividedj dispersed, intermixed, crossed in various proportions and 
 in all directions, for thousands of ages. The greater part of them 
 have relinquished their language for that of their conquerors, or for 
 a third or even for a fourth ; the principal masses have disappeared, 
 and we find ourselves no longer in the presence of races, but of 
 peoples, the origins of which we have to trace or to make a direct 
 classification of. In other words, there are two orders of classi- 
 fication, which we must not confound, namely, the classification of 
 the masses of human beings, such as the flux and reflux of time 
 have left us; and the classification of races such as we are able 
 to arrive at after a most minute process of analysis. The former is 
 ethnological, the latter, anthropological. Theic point of departure 
 is the same, the point at which they meet, different. The most 
 important classifications of the human races have, as their basis, 
 physical characters, such as the nature of the hair and the colour 
 of the skin, and then immediately diverge in every direction. 
 They agree however in details, when they concern some tribe 
 isolated, owing to exceptional circumstances, like the Esquimaux in 
 Greenland or the Tasmanians in Van Diemen's Land. But beyond 
 that the ethnographical point of view is alone apparent, and the 
 use of the word race is most unfortunate. We speak of Anglo- 
 Germanic and Latin races, of German, English, Slav races, as 
 if these epithets had anything more than a poUtical signification, a 
 fortuitous aggregation of anthropological elements from various 
 sources. In France, where the nation is so homogeneous and 
 unity so complete, there are the French people but not the French 
 race. "We find in the north the descendants of the BelgEe, the 
 Walloons, and other Kymris; in the east, those of Germans and 
 Buigundians; in the west, Normans; in the centre, Celts, who at 
 the same epoch at which their name took its origin consisted of 
 foreigners of various origins and of the aborigines ; in the south, 
 
444 ANTHROPOLOGICAL TYPES. [Chap. x. 
 
 ancient Aquifcanians and Basques; without mentioning a host of 
 settlers like the Saracens, which are found here and there, 
 Tectosages which have left at Toulouse the custom of cranial 
 deformations, and the traders who passed through the Phocsean 
 town of Marseilles. In Asia, where the peoples have been tossed 
 about from east to west and from west to east, in so prodigious 
 a way that the most characteristic race is found perhaps on 
 the other side of the Pacific, in the polar zone; in Africa, where 
 a similar movement has taken place at different times; in America, 
 where great convulsions in historic epochs have taken place — we 
 no longer meet with primitive races, hut with the resultants of 
 repeated crossing, of close contact, of mixture of every kind. 
 Classifications with elements such as these are little more than 
 ethnographic. 
 
 Gerdy rightly afSrmed that there are no longer any pure races. 
 Our illustrious master, M. Brooa, however, allows that there are 
 some, and M. de Quatreiages a short time since published a long 
 list of those " regarded as pure." Doubtless, if we are satisfied 
 with a small number of individuals or of skulls, we may discover 
 in them, or unite them into, an identity of type. " Whoever has 
 seen one Toda," says Mr. Marshall, "has seen the whole race." 
 Be it so, we will record his statement. 
 
 Of all races, we are told, there is not a more homogeneous 
 one than that of the Esquimaux, thanks to their isolation, which 
 has been maintained in consequence of geographical and atmo- 
 spheric circumstances. There are about a dozen skulls in the 
 Museum, aU from Greenland, forming the most homogeneous 
 series in the collection. But in the Denmark collection, from 
 which some specimens were brought to the Geographical Congress 
 at Paris, this unity of type is not perfect, and we discover in 
 them indications of hybridity. In Mr. Davis's collection, from 
 the shores of Bafiin's Bay, the differences are stiU more marked. 
 Travellers speak of similar and equally important differences as 
 existing at the present time. Variations in stature are very 
 common. At Morton's Strait the stature is 1-82 mfetre • at 
 Barrow Point, 1-54. In one tribe the average stature of the men 
 
Chap, x.] ANTHEOPOLOGICAL TYPES. 445 
 
 is 1-7 14 mfetre, in another 1-584. Greenlanders are looked upon 
 as one of tlie smallest of the human races. At Hotham Harhour, 
 an Esquimau "was exactly like a negro," at Spafarrat Inlet, 
 " Kke a Jew " (Seeman). " The oval face, associated with the 
 Eoman nose," is by no means rare (King). The complexion is 
 sometimes very fair, sometimes very dark. In the series of Malay 
 skulls, one of the most homogeneous in the Museum, there are at 
 least two types. We think we have shown that there is no 
 unity among the Australians. In Patagonia, the skuUs of the 
 ancient Paraderos are of two very opposite types, one being 
 dolichocephalic, the other brachycephaHc. Among the Japanese 
 there are three distinct types noticeable in the living subject 
 (Eosny), and a fourth which we may gather from an exami- 
 nation of skulls. Among the Ainos, in the same country, 
 there are certainly two. Along the coast of Guinea the tribes 
 vary, even at short distances from one another; and travellers 
 describe altogether different characters in one and the same 
 tribe, accordiug to the particular individuals upon whom they 
 happen to have fixed their attention. Among Hottentots it is 
 even worse. 
 
 We are not aware but of one example of perfect identity of type 
 in a human group, namely, that of the Andamans. We have had 
 an opportunity of seeing twenty-two photographs of this race, and 
 in all, the heads appear as if cast in the same mould. Colonel 
 Man, however, affirms that there are two different races ia the 
 Andaman archipelago. We may remark that Mr. Owen, on 
 measuring ninety-six skuUs of negroes of the Gaboon, was 
 astonished at their remarkable resemblance to each other, which 
 was even greater than we notice among Europeans. In a word, 
 the greater number of classifications of any extent are only anthro- 
 pological as regards their basis. As soon as we enter upon 
 secondary divisions they become ethnographic, and have not so 
 much to do with races as with peoples. The true classification 
 of the divisions and subdivisions of the human family has yet to 
 be made, and cannot be entered upon until we know the real 
 component elements of peoples now in existence. Given a certain 
 
446 ANTHEOPOLOGICAL TYPES. [Chap. x. 
 
 group, tlie following questions will arise for our consideration : 
 (1) Wiat, iu a physical and physiological porut of view, is its 
 average, that is to say, the type 1 (2) Are the variations from 
 this average so slight as to enable us to look upon the type as 
 pure 1 (3) Are the variations so divergent, and are the average 
 secondary groups sufficiently definite to enable us to recognise in. 
 them one or many types 1 (4) Has there been a close fusion of 
 those types ? in other words, has the race crossed, or have the 
 types remained distinct, or is the race only a mixed one t By this 
 means we at last separate the characters of one, two, or more types 
 successively. Ethnography gives us valuable aid as regards the 
 majority of these questions ; linguistics equally so ; and more than 
 all, the study of the characters of ancient human remains found 
 embedded in the earth. It is thus that M. Broca has succeeded 
 in eliminating the Celtic element, which has contributed to form 
 the Breton group, and thus that he hopes eventually to trace 
 the original elements of which the Celtic group itself is composed. 
 A sufficient number of the most characteristic of the first, second, 
 and third order being thus determined, it will be necessary to 
 search for their kindred, and to classify them. "We should only 
 then have seriously to inquire whether they belong to genera, 
 species, or varieties. The task is a long and laborious one. 
 Science is in a transition state on this matter. Some general types 
 have been already acquired, although we cannot always affirm 
 which human group expresses them the best. Others have only 
 been accepted provisionally, while of others we have a preconceived 
 idea, and are nevertheless unable to determine them even with 
 the specimens before us. In the resume that we are about to give 
 we must therefore only look upon them as one series of land- 
 marks, indicating one of the stages at which anthropology has 
 arrived. 
 
 By human type must be understood the average of characters 
 which a human race supposed to be pure presents. In homogeneous 
 races, if such there are, it is discovered by the simple inspection of 
 individuals. In the generality of cases it must be segregated. It 
 is then a physical ideal, to which the greater number of the 
 
Chap, x.] ETJEOPEAN TYPE. 447 
 
 individuals qf the group more or less approach, but which is better 
 marked in some than in others. Frequently in one series it is 
 associated with some other type. Sometimes at its extreme 
 boundaries it is amalgamated with the type of another group. 
 Of course community of type implies a relationship of some sort. 
 There are general types, then types and sub-types of these, and in 
 •each of the latter, other divisions. When once fixed by science, 
 they will even form bases of classification. 
 
 Let us take an example : the Berber people is formed — (1) Of a 
 "brown autochthonous groundwork, that is to say of the most 
 ancient of which we can find any trace ; (2) Of blondes from the 
 north, Arabs from the east, and negroes from the south. The 
 Berber type is the ensemble of the characters which must have be- 
 longed exclusively to the autochthonous stock : its sub-types are 
 the Tawdrek, the Kabyl, &c. It is itself the offspring of some 
 other more general type of which we are stiU ignorant. 
 
 We shall now have to describe types which are altogether 
 relative, such as the Celtic. This is one of the constituent 
 elements of the ethnographic French race, and is itself composed 
 of many original types, which we ought to be thoroughly ac- 
 quainted with. The first types for our consideration correspond to 
 what anthropologists call, according to their several notions, species, 
 races, trunks, or branches. These are the European, the Mongolian, 
 the negro of Africa, the Hottentot. We shall separate the 
 American from the second, and add a red type in Africa. We shall 
 give a separate paragraph to the Fin, the Lapp, the Australoid, and 
 the two negro types of Oceania ; and then notice some others of 
 less importance, without concerning ourselves about those of a 
 subordinate character. 
 
 The European Type. 
 
 The European type is very defined, although its title is hardly 
 an exact one. Even by leaving out of consideration all the 
 emigrations posterior to the sixteenth century, we meet with it in 
 
448 EUEOPEAN TTPB. [Chap. x. 
 
 all four quarters of the globe. In Eui-ope, with the exception 
 perhaps of the Lapps and the Fin races, it is general. In Asia it 
 is largely represented by the Semites, the Persians, the Atfghans, 
 the Hindoos, and doubtless also by the Ainos, the Miaots^ the 
 Todas. In Africa it is represented by the Berbers; and in 
 America the existence of natives which are considered to belong 
 to it has been frequently noticed. Its characters may be thus 
 summed up : 
 
 The complexion is always fair among the children. The pilous 
 system is moderately developed. The beard, the moustache, and 
 the whiskers are abundant. The hair is straight, wavy, or undu- 
 lated, long and flexible. The top of the head is round. The 
 norma verticalis of the skull is oval, with a regular outline, 
 the zymotic arches being unnoticeable. The anterior cranium 
 is very developed relatively to the posterior. The capacity of the 
 cranial cavity reaches the highest amount recorded, namely, 1523 
 cubic centimetres, in the Celtic type. The cranial sutures are very 
 complicated. The greater wings of the sphenoid are articulated 
 with the parietal to a considerable extent. The curve described 
 by the temporal line is not a large one. The forehead is broad 
 below, well developed, the summit being neither receding nor 
 projecting. The frontal bosses on each side are moderately dis- 
 tinct. The superciliary arches vary, never exhibiting, in the male 
 sex, the large size which we notice in the Melanesian races, nor 
 the obliteration peculiar to the majority of Mongolian or negro 
 skulls. The face, looked at in front, describes rather a long oval, 
 the malar bones, or the maxillary apparatus, not being particularly 
 marked, as iu the Mongolian type or the Negro types. The 
 median projecting portions present, when developed in their highest 
 degree, what is familiarly termed the face like the blade of a 
 knife. The nose is highly characteristic in the European type, 
 and projects in front at the expense of its transverse diameter. 
 Its two lateral surfaces are united at an acute angle. Its point is 
 firm, and the two nostrils, situated on the same horizontal plane, are 
 elliptical, directed from before backwards, and almost parallel. 
 The skeleton of the nose is leptorrhinian or mesorrhinian, never 
 
Chap, x.'j BLONDE TYPE. 4i9 
 
 platyrrliiiiian. Its anterior aperture has the shape of an ace of 
 hearts reversed, its point being very long, its base being formed 
 by the nasal spine, frequently very long, and by a simple sharp 
 border. The ensemble of the two jaws and the teeth, in profile, 
 is almost a right lino. It is to the European type that we apply 
 the term " orthognathism," to express the minimum of prognathism 
 observed in Man. This minimum varies from 82° to 75-5°. The 
 mouth is small, the lips bright red, well formed, never thick, 
 except in individuals of a certain temperament. The teeth are 
 straight, close together, bluish white or yellowish white, and 
 subject to caries. The chin is projecting. The shape of the ear is 
 that of a long oval, with folds above and behind, the lobule being 
 well formed. Lastly, the plane of the prolonged occipital foramen 
 meets the face above the middle of the nose, and frequently at its 
 root. Beauty of form does not specially belong to the European, 
 and many savages would surpass him in this respect. Most com- 
 monly, however, he is well-proportioned, tall, or of medium 
 height; his neck is large and finely formed, his chest broad, 
 shoulders wide, the bend of the back well marked, the muscles of 
 the buttocks strong, the calf large, and reaching below the middle 
 of the leg, the foot well arched, and he seldom exhibits those 
 deformities of the abdomen and limbs noticed by the early navi- 
 gators in the inferior races. The European becomes decrepit less 
 quickly than the negro, the breasts in the woman retain their 
 firmness and proper form for a longer period, and the articulations 
 of the joints are rather small. Eor a description of the proportions 
 of the body, see pages 315, 331, et seq. 
 
 The two most natural divisions of the European type are the 
 blonde and the brown. 
 
 Tk-e Blonde Type. 
 
 The blonde type, in its highest expression, is marked by three 
 special characteristics : namely, blue eyes, fair hair, and light rosy 
 or florid complexion, which becomes of a uniform red-brick colour 
 or freckled under exposure to the sun. 
 
450 BLONDE TTPE. [Chap. x. 
 
 The eyes assume various shades of green, gray, yellowish, light 
 brown, &c., according as they are associated with one of the two 
 other characters. The reddish colour of the eyes of the albiao must 
 be considered as quite distinct. YeUow-golden hair, or reddish and 
 chestnut, are in the same category. These last, however, have less 
 value, inasmuch as on the one hand they frequently correspond with 
 a first degree of crossing of the blonde with the brown type, and on 
 the other are characteristic of other types than the^ blonde and 
 brown. Dr. Beddoe does not give any particular significance to 
 red hair. We think, however, that in the generality of cases it is 
 a form of light hair, and sometimes is characteristic of a distinct 
 type, of which we shall speak presently. With regard to the shades 
 of colour of the skin, they have less value, inasmuch as they are 
 more easily affected by crossing and external circumstances. Blue 
 eyes are after all the most certain element upon which to fix, on 
 looking at a single individual, or in the absence of a sufiicient 
 description of other characters, the actual or past existence of the 
 blonde type in the blood. 
 
 This type, whether complete or incomplete, has spread over four 
 out of the five portions of the globe. The peoples belonging to it 
 .possess in a high degree the faculty of emigration and colonisation, 
 without being indebted for it to a very highly-developed faculty of 
 acclimation. The natural centre whence it has shed its lustre 
 seems to be the north of Europe. The purest example of the 
 blonde type is in Iceland, in the Scandinavian peninsula, Lapland 
 excepted, and Denmark. Then Holland, North Germany, Saxony, 
 Belgium, and the British Isles. In France it is less pronounced, 
 and stops a,t about the position of an oblique line passing from 
 GranviUe, on the coast of the British Channel, to Lyon. Here and 
 there, however, it is found more to the south, particularly in the 
 Basque territory, and in- the south of Spain. The populations 
 belonging to it are tail, stout, and square-built, or slim ; the face is 
 long, the nose large and straight, the point extending slightly 
 beyond the nostrils. They are of lymphatic temperament, the 
 passions not very strong, and individuality very marked. The 
 shape of the head is difficult to determine, owing to the numerous 
 
■Chap. X.] BLONDE TYPE. 451 
 
 •crosses here and there wHcli have caused a change in it. The 
 Danes are hrachycephalic, the Normans mesaticephalic, the Nor- 
 wegians, Swedes, Belgians, and English dolichocephalic. With 
 regard to the Germans in the extended sense, they present every 
 form imaginable. For our part "we are convinced that the primi- 
 tive blonde type was doUchocephalic. 
 
 In another race, that of the Irish in Dublin, Dr. Beddoe 
 found in 1300 individuals 54 per cent, with fair hair, of whom 
 5 per cent, were red, 13 flaxen, and 36 chestnut — or rather 
 more than half blondes, according to the hair. Dr. Wilde, on the 
 ■other hand, found in 1200 other Irish, 24 per cent, with blue 
 eyes, 9 brown, and 66 decidedly dark. The Dutch are therefore 
 much purer as blondes than the Irish. Again, ia the Basque 
 provinces. Dr. Argellifes found light eyes in 22 out of 47 indi- 
 viduals, of whom 14 had blue and 25 brown eyes, while there 
 was not a single example among them of flaxen hair, only 2 of 
 red, some few of dark chestnut, and the rest black. It follows 
 from this that the present Basque race is formed of two elements^ 
 the brown and the blonde ; that it is decidedly brown if we 
 are to judge by the hair, at least in the locaHties observed, and 
 that the blonde type is to be traced in the colour of the eyes 
 and not in that of the hair. The Irish statistics indicate, on the 
 contrary, that of the two elements, the more persistent is that 
 of the hair. We refer the reader to page 346 for other important 
 details, and to the tables at pages 348 and 349 for the relative 
 proportion of flaxen, chestnut, and brown in difierent races, the 
 two elements, the hair and the eyes, being associated together. 
 The blonde type, with its three fundamental characters, is met 
 with in other parts of the world, but seeing the difiiculty of being 
 guided by descriptions derived from the hair and skin, we shall 
 only consider the question as regards blue eyes. 
 
 In Asia, we at once notice the blonde type on the banks of 
 the river Amour {KlaprotJt, J. Barrow, Gastren). "We saw 
 Mantshii Tartars," says Barrow, "who accompanied Macartney's 
 ■embassy to Pekin, men as well as women, who were extremely- 
 fair and of florid complexion ; some of the men had light blue 
 
 2 G 2 
 
452 BLONDE TYPE. [Chap, x, 
 
 eyes, a straight or aquiline nose, 'bro-vm hair, and a large and bushy 
 heard." Among the Miau Tsz of the south-east of China there are 
 tribes which pass for the aborigines of the Celestial Empire. "We 
 find it in India, notably among the Kattees, -who have sometimes 
 " light hair and blue eyes " {Prichard and L. Rousselet), and even 
 in Ceylon, among the Cingalese {Davy). The Bussahirs of Eham- 
 poor, not far from the sources of the Ganges, are frequently of 
 very fair complexion though tanned by the sun, with blue eyes^ 
 hair and beard curly and of light colour, or even red (Fraser). 
 (2) The Patans or Afifghan soldiers are commonly brown, and of 
 the Iranian race, but a large number have "red hair and blue- 
 eyes, and a fair and florid complexion " {Fraser). But the most 
 celebrated example is that of Siah Posh of Kaffiristan, at the- 
 junction of the Himalaya and the Hiadoo-Koosh. The majority 
 are tall, have Caucasian features, fair complexion, blue eyes, 
 and chestnut hair. According to their traditions they came from- 
 Affghanistan; they speak a language derived from the Sanskrit, and 
 have burial rites which remind one of those of the Parsees. "We 
 may add, according to Mr. G. Hayward, that light chestnut hair is-- 
 more common than black among the inhabitants of Darnistan 
 that the eyes are gray, chestnut, and occasionally blue, and that- 
 the women remind one very much of the English. Some of 
 the Kirghis of Turkestan, and the Tadzhiks of Persia have " blue- 
 or gray eyes," and among the Ossetians, the Abassians, and the- 
 Swanethians of the southern side of the Caucasus, there are 
 individuals with "flaxen hair, fair complexion, and blue eyes,"' 
 whom we must not confound with the recent German immicrrants.. 
 These examples show that the blonde type has to a certaia- 
 extent prevailed in Asia, but they are not such as to induce 
 lis to suppose that it was cradled in this part of the world. 
 It has been satisfactorily shown that the blonde type exists in 
 the north of Africa. In Tunis, in Algeria, in Morocco, in the 
 Canary Islands, and in the Sahara, it exists everywhere. It is 
 derived from a Tamahou people, who, about the year 1500 before 
 our era, made their appearance on the frontiers of Egypt, comino- 
 from til p. north. The blondes which we meet -with in the Basque 
 
Chap. X.] BSOWN EUROPEAN TYPES. 453 
 
 territory, and near tlie Strait of Gibraltar iii Spain, are prolDably 
 ■descendants of theirs. 
 
 Dr. Sch-weinfiirth remarked, in Central Africa, in the Mon- 
 bouttons' country, the frequency of light or reddish hair. The 
 greater number are complete albinos, as he has taken care to tell 
 us. Others are only so in a slight degree. Others may hold to 
 .the practice, so common ia Africa, of dyeing or colouring the hair. 
 In the present state of science, it must be allowed that in really 
 Ifegro centres blondes are never met with unassociated with 
 albinism. 
 
 The facts mentioned with respect to America should be looked 
 at differently. They arise no doubt from blondes imported from 
 Europe, to whatever remote period this importation may be referred, 
 -and whatever the course they may happen to have followed. A 
 tradition of this kind exists among the Boronos of the eastern 
 «hain of the Chilian Andes, among whom we find blue eyes, 
 associated sometimes with black, sometimes with hght or red hair, 
 and with the ordinary features of the American races. Another 
 remarkable example is that of the Mandans, mentioned by CatUn, 
 who have " hair as light as the mixed breeds, with chestnut, gray, 
 or blue eyes." The Athapascans have also been described as having 
 among them individuals with gray eyes {Mackenzie). Light hair 
 is also seen among the Lee-Pangwes {Pike), and people with 
 very fair complexion among the Antisians {D' Orbigny) and the 
 Koluches {Dixon). 
 
 Hie Brown European Types. 
 
 The hrown European types are characterised by dark eyes, 
 absolutely black hair, and fair skin, which readily becomes a warm 
 bronze tint by exposure to the sun. "Were we to leave out the 
 blonde races, which have manifestly crossed, it would be difficult to 
 separate some sub-types from the general blonde type of which we 
 have just spoken. The Scandinavian and the Dane would 
 perhaps be the only ones. The brown types, on the contrary, are 
 very numerous. It is usual to divide the fair races into two 
 
454 BROWN EUROPEAN TYPES. [Chap, x.. 
 
 brandies, the Hindoo and the European. This is a lingiiistie- 
 division only; the first term however must be retained in order that, 
 we may find in it an anthropological type. After this, we must 
 accept the Tsohinghanian type, on account of the probable hypo- 
 theses to which it has given rise. If we suppose an Aryan 
 migration from the east to the west, we must equally admit an 
 Iranian type for those remaining behind, which we stUl find on. 
 the spot. Having disposed of the blonde types seen in Europe, 
 we have yet to speak of the most remarkable brown types, namely, 
 the Circassian, the Pelasgian or Albanian, the Ligurian, the Basque, 
 &c. &c. Then, as we pass round the Mediterranean, the Berber and 
 the Semitic, which are most certainly aUied to the European typesi 
 In this enumeration no Slav or German type appears. The 
 reason is because there is no such. In Eussia in Europe, for 
 example, the populations are Finnish, or a mixed race of Fins 
 from the north, more or less Mongolian here and there, and having 
 some ill-defined brown element in the south. Among the peasants,, 
 who, as everywhere, more properly represent the primitive element, 
 we find countenances which remind us of those of the pure Ainos 
 and the Todas. Where then are we to get the Slav type 1 This- 
 name appeared in history with the Wendes, the Antes, previously 
 caUed by the Greeks Serbs, and the Sclavens {Jomandhs). In 
 552 the Sclavens are before Constantinople. From the sixth to the 
 seventh century the Wendes advance as far as the banks of the Elbe. 
 But whence has originated the Slav language, which alone justifies 
 its pretension to a corresponding type ? We know not. J^ow the 
 peoples which speak it, or its derivatives, are divided into two 
 groups : the western, including the Poles or Laechs, the Bohemians 
 or Tchechs, of which the Slovaks form a part, and the Wendes of 
 Lusatia; and the south-eastern, divided into Great Eussians or 
 Muscovites, Little Eussians, Euthenians or Eussniaks, White 
 Eussians, Bulgarians, and Serbs — these last including Croatians, 
 Dalmatians, Bosnians, and Slovenians, &o. The only character 
 which is common to them all, besides language, is brachycephaly. 
 Eoumanians and Hungarians are also brachycephalic, as well as. 
 a large number of Germans, Italians, and French. 
 
Chap, x.] BEOWN EUEOPBAN TYPES. 455 
 
 jMr. Edwards describes, in the following terms, a type wliich 
 he has noticed as predominating among Poles, Silesians, Moravians, 
 Bohemians, Hungarians, and Russians : " The outline of the head 
 looked at in front appears square, because the height somewhat 
 exceeds the breadth, and the top is sensibly flat, and the direction 
 of the jaw horizontal. The length of the nose is less than the 
 distance from its base to the chin. It is almost straight, that is to 
 say without any decided curve, but if this is at all appreciable it 
 is slightly concave, so that the end has a tendency to turn up. 
 The lower part is somewhat wide, and the extremity rounded. 
 The eyes, somewhat sunken, are exactly on the same line, and if 
 they have any peculiarity, it is that they seem smaller than they 
 should be relatively to the size of the head. The eyebrows are 
 scant, very near together, especially at the inner angle ; they are 
 frequently dii'ected obliquely outwards. An additional character 
 to the preceding,, and which is very general, is to be noticed, 
 namely, the small size of the beard, except on the upper lip." He 
 looks upon it as a Slav pecuKarity, but is it not rather that of some 
 anterior prehistoric race belonging to this region of Europe 1 
 
 In Germany it is still more difficult to get at a German type. 
 The course of all the invasions into this country has been from 
 east to west, including those which terminated in the north or 
 centre of France. Neither its prehistoric constitution nor these 
 continual surgings of invasion have ia the slightest degree succeeded 
 in constitutiag it a homogeneous type. In the south and centre 
 it is brachycephalie, in the north dolichocephalic. The primitive 
 Germans were dolichocephalic, while the Bavarians and the Badois, 
 on the other hand, were brachycephalie. The colour of the eyes 
 and hair gives evidence in the same way of the mixture of manifold 
 races, judging from the statistics of Virchow, Mayr, Sasse, &c. 
 The Germans moreover resign their pretensions to being a distinct 
 type • they have discovered that after aE they are no exception to 
 the other populations in Europe, and that if they are a il'-ederation 
 of peoples, they are not an anthropological race. 
 
 In France there is no longer the French type only : there are 
 many types, of which one is sufficiently characteristic, as to 
 
456 HINDOO AKD TSCHINGHANIAN TYPES. [Chap. x. 
 
 physique as well as historically, for us to give it a place under the 
 name of Celtic type among the brown Europeans that we are now 
 examining, without heing satisfied however that this position is its 
 true one. 
 
 Tlie Hindoo Type, 
 
 The Hindoo type is hut faintly represented in India hy the 
 Rajpoots, and especially by the most venerated Brahmans of Mattra, 
 Benares, and Tannesar, in Hindostan. The population of the Indian 
 peninsula is composed of three strata : namely, the Black, the 
 Mongolian, and the Aryan. The remnants of the first are at the 
 present time shut up in the mountains of Central India, under the 
 name of Bhills, Mahairs, Ghonds, and Khonds ; and in the south 
 under that of Yenadis, Maravers, Kurumbas, Veddahs, &c. Its 
 primitive characters, apart from its black colour and low stature, 
 are difficult to discover, but it is to be noticed that travellers do not 
 speak of woolly hair in India. The second has spread over the 
 plateaux of Central Asia by two lines of way, one to the north- 
 east, the other to the north-west. The remnants of the first 
 invasion are seen in the Dravidian or Tamul tribes, and those of the 
 second in the Jahts. The third, more recent and more important as 
 to quality than as to number, was the Aryan. 
 
 " The Brahmans of the banks of the Ganges," says M. Eousselet, 
 " have the high well-developed forehead, oval face, the eyes per- 
 fectly horizontal, the nose projecting, basque, and slightly thick at 
 the extremity, but having delicately-shaped nostrUs. They are fair, 
 but more or less bronzed by the sun. Their black pilous system 
 seems abundant.* 
 
 TJie Tschinghanian Type. 
 
 Does this type belong to the preceding 1 The terms Bohemians, 
 Gitanos, Gipsies, Zingaris, Tschinghani are applied indiscriminately 
 to one and the same nomadic population scattered over Europe and 
 
 * " Tableau des Baoes de I'lnde Centrale et de I'lnde Soptentrionale," by 
 M. L. Eousselet, in " Kevue d'Anthrop.," vols. ii. and iv., 1873 and 1875. 
 
Chap, x.] IEAJSTIAN TYPE. 457 
 
 Asia, and having a language presenting the greatest analogy to the 
 languages of Hiadostan. Some say this people must have left 
 their native land at a very remote period ; F. von Miklosich says 
 at an epoch when the modern dialects were already formed, ahout 
 the year 1100. It prohably descended from one of the numerous 
 wandering tribes that we see in India. Its type is undoubtedly 
 Caucasian. The complexion of the Tschinghanians is more or less 
 tawny, the hair jet black, the eyes a rich black, the face long, 
 narrow across the cheek-bones, the forehead narrow and receding, 
 the nose moderately projecting, its bridge sharp, never flat, the 
 space between the eyes rather narrow, slight prognathism, the 
 mouth small, and the teeth white and not subject to caries"(5ZM?nem- 
 haah). They are on the confines of mesaticephales and sub-doli- 
 chocephales, and are leptorrhinians. Their cerebral capacity is 
 feeble. . M. Kopernigki compared the Tschinghanian and Hindoo 
 skulls, and found but slight difference between them, though many 
 points of resemblance. M. Abel Hovelacque recognises two types, 
 the one refined, with the face more elongated and more oval, the 
 features more compact, the nose more aquiline. The other coarse, 
 with the features more closely set, the countenance more penetrating, 
 «yes more sparkling. He considers that both may have been existing 
 from their point of departure in Hindostan.* 
 
 The Iranian Type. 
 
 The Iranian type is represented by the Tadjicks of Persia, the 
 Parsees, the Armenians, the Kurds, the Georgians, the Ossetians, 
 and the brown Affghans. Its highest expression is met with in the 
 first of these. The Tadjicks are of medium height, with a long 
 oval face and regular features. The forehead is broad and high, 
 the eyes large and shaded with black eyebrows, the nose prominent 
 and straight, or bent round, the mouth large, and the lips thin, the 
 ■complexion fair and rosy, the pilous system over the whole body 
 abundant, the hair straight and black, the beard and moustache also 
 black, long, thick, and weU. placed. Authors, with the exception 
 
 * See " KcTue d'Anthropologie," vol. ii. p. 161, and vol. iii. p. 234. 
 
458 CELTIC TYPE. [Chap. xi. 
 
 of Chardin and Tavenier, agree in considering it a beautiful type. 
 They appear to be dolichocephalic* 
 
 The Celtic Type. 
 
 The Celtic tijpe is thoroughly recognised by the universal testi* 
 mony of ancient authors. The name Celts has been taken in four 
 different acceptations, thus causing much confusion. Linguists 
 understand by it the ancient peoples speaking the Celtic language, 
 
 Fig. 44. — Celtic type : Skull of an Auvergnian, from tlieM^zuoire of M. Broca on tlie Celtic 
 
 race. 
 
 such as we now find it in Ireland, in Cornwall, in Wales, in the 
 Isle of Man, in Scotland, and in Brittany, but which was very widely 
 diffused at one time, and was the first detached from the mother- 
 stock of Asia. Archaeologists, on their side, call by this name the 
 dolmen builders during the Polished Stone epoch, and the importers 
 of bronze iuto Europe. Both linguists and archaeologists think that 
 the Celts form the first migration of the iuvaders from the East. 
 A certain number of ancient historians again confound under this 
 name all the peoples of Western and Central Europe, iucluding those 
 of the British isles among them, the GaUi, the G aels, the ■ Gauls, 
 
 * " Btknographie de la Perse," by M. de Khauikoff. In 4to. Paris, 1866. 
 
Chap, x.] CELTIC TYPE. 459 
 
 the Galatians, the Kymris, the Belgse, the Cimbri, the Cimmerians, 
 the Caledonians, the Firbolgs, the Bretons, &c. Lastly there is the 
 precise geographical term, the only one to be preserved. " The 
 title Celts," says Diodorus Siculus, " belongs to the peoples who 
 inhabit the interior of the country above Marseilles." "Gaul," 
 says Caesar, " is divided into three parts, one part being occupied by 
 the Belgee, another by the Aquitanians, and a third by peoples who 
 call themselves Celts." This last has been called Celtica by nearly- 
 all historians, and is a circumscribed territory included between the 
 Seine, the Garonne, the sea, and the Alps. 
 
 Of what elements was this population of Central Gaul composed ? 
 In the first place, of the contemporaneous race of the Eough Stone 
 period, very few in number, and of that coming afterwards, and 
 which we find in the dolmens of La Lozfere. Both are dolicho- 
 cephalic, the latter less so than the former. In the second place, 
 of the last invaders who had come from the East in sufficient 
 number for their types in some places to become predominant. 
 The Celts, thus understood, were different to the Gauls, who had 
 become concentrated in the north, and better known to the. 
 Eomans on account of their turbulence. These were moreover the 
 people who held firmly aloft the banner of national independence 
 on the heights of Gergovia and Alesia, and it is there that its 
 descendants must be looked for. Another consideration proves it, 
 namely, that the language of the Celts is scarcely spoken anywhere 
 at the present time in France, except in Brittany, under the name 
 of Armorican, Bas-Breton, or Breyzad. "The inhabitants of 
 Celtica," says Strabo, " are distinguished from those of Aquitania 
 by their language as well as by their physical characters." Anthro- 
 pologically, therefore, there is some reason for considering the Bas- 
 Bretons as Celts. The skull has reaUy the same characters as that 
 of the Auvergnians, and the living representatives of the type are 
 similar, although somewhat modified by contact with the GaUo- 
 Bretons, who consist, for the most part, of populations who came 
 over from Great Britain about the fifth century ; and of natives of 
 Belgium, who came over some centuries previously. "We are in- 
 debted to M. Broca for this information. The name Arverne 
 
460 CELTIC TTPE. [Chap. x. 
 
 Vercingetorix is Celtic. The type of thg Aiwergnians of the 
 present day is that of the Bas-Bretons, though more pure, and may 
 he looked upon as that of the people of Celtioa at the time of 
 Csesar and Straho.* 
 
 The Auvergnians are less tall than the Belgae and other Grauls of 
 the north ; their hair is brown or dark chestnut ; the eyes gray, 
 greenish, or of a light shade. Their hrachycephaly is on the 
 average 84'07 in the series of St. l^Tectaire studied by M. Brooa. 
 Their cranial capacity is considerably greater than that of Parisians. 
 Their forehead is wide and full, although the anterior cranium is 
 less developed relatively to the posterior than in Parisians ; the 
 occiput, although well rounded, falls straight. The superciliary 
 prominences are very much developed. The zygomatic arches, 
 examined according to the norma of Blumenbach, are among the 
 least prominent to be met with, hence in a great number there is a 
 negative parietal angle. The face is large in proportion to the 
 cranium, and they are leptorrhiuian and orthognathous. In the 
 living subject the face appears decidedly flat and of rectangular 
 shape, the cheek-bones are occasionally large and wide, the lower 
 jaw square. The bridge of the nose is somewhat concave, and 
 inclined to turn up, projects but little, and is as if buried in a 
 depression in the middle of the face. Taking it as a whole, 
 the head is large, the neck being so narrow in proportion that 
 the angles of the jaw project considerably beyond it. The Au- 
 vergnians are robust, very muscular, their limbs being thick and 
 short.t 
 
 So in France we meet with — (1) In the north, a blonde type, 
 
 * It is important to distinguish here tetween the people and the chiefs. 
 These latter conducted the erpeditious to Delphos, to Rome, and into 
 Galatia, and particularly excited the attention of the Eomans. These were 
 the powerful and fair-complexion ed Gauls, the latest arrivals in the country 
 at the fifth century before our era, who hore the name of Belgse and 
 Kymris. But below them there were the people over whom they had 
 dominion, namely, the Celts proper. 
 
 + " La Race Celticjue Ancienne et Moderne : Arvernes et Armoricains, 
 Auvergnats et Bas-Bretons," by P. Broca, " Revue d'Anthrop.," vol. ii., 
 1873. 
 
Chap, x.] EEEBBK TYPE. 461 
 
 more particularly represented in Picardy, and extending itself 
 iato the Ardennes (Walloons) on the Belgian frontier, in Cham- 
 pagne and Burgundy. The Gauls represented on the Eoman 
 tomb of Jovian near the cathedral at Eheims are a good example 
 of this type. (2) In the centre, the Celtic type above mentioned. 
 (3) In the south, several types — a very brown and complex one, 
 reminding us of the ancient Phocasan colony of Marseilles; another, 
 ■which is the Basque type ; and a third, -which has however its 
 highest expression beyond our frontiers, perhaps about the Canary 
 islands. Let us follow it from this side. 
 
 Tlie Berber Type. 
 
 The Berber type is scattered throughout the whole of the north 
 of Africa, from the Gulf of Tripoli to the ocean, from the southern 
 confines of the Sahara to the Mediterranean, and is there repre- 
 sented by the Tawareks, the Kabyles, the Berbers, the M'zabites, 
 and the Shidus. It extended at one time as far as the Canaries, 
 under the name of Guancha. There is every reason to believe 
 that it intrenched upon Southern Europe, and that the oldest stock 
 of the Iberian peninsula, the basin of the Garonne, and the islands 
 of the Mediterranean is Berber. The stature of this type is 
 above the average. He is well-proportioned, but less shrivelled, 
 more muscular, and less shapely than the Arab. His skin is fair 
 in childhood, and readily bronzes on exposure to the air. His 
 hair is black and straight, and tolerably abundant. His eyes 
 are dark brown. He is dolichocephalic (74 '4°), leptorrhinian, 
 though not excessively so (44-3), and moderately orthognathous 
 (81 '8). His face is less long, and its oval outline less regular 
 than that of the Arab. His forehead is straight, and has at 
 its base a transverse depression. The superciliary ridges are 
 moderately developed. The nose, deeply sunk in at the root, is 
 frequently brusque without being aquiline, sometimes oblique 
 in front and turned up at the base, so as to allow the nostrils 
 to be plainly seen. The ears are set out from the head. His 
 moral characters are a strong feeling of equalitj', of benevolence^ 
 
462 
 
 SEMITIC TYPE. 
 
 [Chap. x. 
 
 of liis own dignity, and of his individual freedom ; a great want 
 of activity, love of work, economy, fondness for Ms home. He 
 is a Mussulman by accident. 
 
 The Moors are the result of complex crossing between the 
 
 •^''i^i.^S/i^ 
 
 Fig. 45.— Berber type : A Kabyl of the Djurjura (collection of Colonel Dnliousaet). • 
 
 Berber and every sort of ethnic element in which the Arab 
 predominates. One of their characters is a tendency to obesity. 
 
 The Semitic Type. 
 
 ■ The Semitic type is one of the most wide-spread, by a process 
 of infiltration as it were. The ancient Assyrians, Syrians, Phoeni- 
 
-Chap, x.] AHABIAN TYPE. 463 
 
 <!ians, and Carbhaginians, and the modem Arabs and Jews are 
 ranged nnder it. The language is polysyllabic, with a power 
 ■of inflection without relation either as to vocabulary or grammar 
 with the Aryan languages, its priucipal ethnic connection being 
 that of form. Eawlinson, iu the following terms, describes the 
 type represented on the Assyrian monuments : " The forehead 
 straight but not high, the full brow, the eye large and almond- 
 shaped, the aquiline nose, a little coarse at the end and, unduly 
 depressed, the strong firm mouth with lips somewhat over thick, 
 the well-formed chin, the abundant hair and ample beard, both 
 coloured and black, all these recall the chief peculiarities of the 
 Jew, more especially as he appears in southern countries." The 
 moral traits of the Semite are equally characteristic — a marvellous 
 •activity, as exemplified on the sea by the Phcsnicians, and on 
 land by the IsraeKtes j the love of gain, which engenders the 
 commercial spirit ; a disturbed nomadic life, among the Hebrews, 
 from the taking of Jericho to the destruction of Jerusalem, and 
 which is stiLL kept up, though modified by the necessities of social 
 life, egotism of sect, attachment to old institutions, the want of a 
 God peculiarly and nationally their own, of which this proverb 
 is the echo — Out of the Church, no salvation — Hors VEglise, 
 point de salut. 
 
 The Arabian Type. 
 
 The Arabian type will serve as an example of the modern 
 Semite. The Arabs made their appearance in the night of time, 
 under the name of Ariba, and more especially of Adites. The 
 Koran mentions their Cyclopean buUdings in Arabia. Later on, 
 they form two great families, Jectanides in the Yemen, and the 
 Ismaelites in the north of the peninsula. In 622 of the Hegira 
 of Mahomet their nationality is planned out, they commence a 
 movement, and either by conquest, or infiltration from time to 
 time, they at last spread over the greater part of Africa, and half, 
 at least, of Asia. They are now to be met with, in greater or less 
 number, from Egypt to Morocco, especially in -Algeria, where they 
 
464 ARABIAN TYPE. [Chap, a, 
 
 are diminislimg, froia Abyssinia to the Fellatah country, from the 
 Gulf of Aden to Kaffraria, even beyond Lake Tanganyka, where 
 they were before Livingstone ; from the Mediterranean and the 
 Eed Sea to the Bolor Mountains on the one side, to the mouths of 
 the Ganges and Cambodia on the other. "With the exception of 
 Malaisia and Madagascar, they have always kept to countries 
 bordering on the tropics. Even in Spain they have left traces of 
 their lineage. Li the south-east of France some vestiges of them 
 are described under the name of Saracens. The Arabian type is 
 one of the finest in the world, says Larrey. The skull, seen from 
 above, describes a perfectly regular oval. The face, which is long 
 and thin, forms another oval, with a no less regular outline. The 
 complexion continues perfectly fair as long as it is not exposed to 
 the action of the air, but becomes bronzed very quickly. The hair 
 and beard are glossy and jet black, the limits of their implantation 
 being very defined. The eyes are black. The palpebral apertures 
 almond-shaped, and fringed with long black eyelashes. The fore- 
 head is not very high, the curved nose and receding chin, however, 
 give to the profile rather a round than straight form. The super- 
 ciliary arches, as well as the glabella, are only slightly developed. 
 The root of the nose is somewhat sunk in, so that the forehead and 
 the bridge of the nose are almost in a direct line. The nose is 
 aquiline, and the point is separated from the alfe, and descends 
 below them, curving down like the eagle's beak. The cheek-bones 
 do not project, the mouth is small, the teeth are white and vertical, 
 the ears are well shaped, rather small, and close to the head. The 
 stature is slightly below the average in Arabia, and a little above it 
 in Algeria. The Arab is shrivelled and nervous, his neck is well 
 placed upon the shoulders. He is dolichocephalic (76-3 on the 
 living subject, 74-0 on the skull). Moderately leptorrhinian (45 'S), 
 and the orbital index mesosemic (88-6). There exists however a 
 type slightly differing from the preceding, and which we may term 
 coarse. The skin is less smooth, the nose thicker, its extremity 
 being in a round mass and somewhat depressed, as Eawlinson says. 
 The general shape of the body is rather lumbering. Were not 
 this the description of the ancient Assyrians we might suppose 
 
Chap. XI.] FINNISH TYPE. 465 
 
 that this -was a cross-breed. One of the results of crossing with the 
 Arah is the tendency to corpulence. 
 
 The moral traits of the Arab are those of the Semite in general, 
 modified by an enervating and fatalist religion.* 
 
 Our object not being to give a description of every type, but 
 simply to give a few examples of each, we shall omit the Jewish 
 type, which is well known, as well as the Etruscan and Albanian 
 types, respecting which we have but little information, and pass on 
 rapidly to another group. 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 TINNISH AND LAPP TYPES — MONGOLIAN, ESQUIMAU, AND SAMOTED 
 
 TYPES MALAY AND POLYNESIAlf TYPES AMERICAN AND PATA- 
 
 GONIAN TYPES RED-AFBIOAN TYPE. 
 
 The Finnish Type. 
 
 The Finnish type forms, as it were, the connecting link between 
 the blonde types of Europe and the braohycephalic types of Asia. 
 It extends from Lapland and the country of the Samoyedes, from 
 the confines of Sweden and the Baltic to the river Yenissei, from 
 the White Sea to the middle course of the Volga, as far as the 
 53rd degree of north latitude. It includes the Ostiaks of the Obi, 
 the Tchuvatches, the Tcheremisses, the Morduins, the Votiaks, and 
 Permians of Central Eussia, and the Finlanders, Esthonians, and 
 Livonians of the Baltic. The Eins have long hair, usually 
 jeddish or yellowish, of a flaxen or whitish hue, and more rarely 
 chestnut. The Finlanders, the Tcheremisses, the Tchuvatches, the 
 Ostiaks of the Obi, and especially the Votiaks, have red hair. 
 The fiery red colour is not as frequent among other people as 
 these last (Riilis). Their beard is moderately fuU, and is generally 
 
 * For the parallel between the Arab and the Berber, see " Anthropologie 
 ^e I'Algerie," by General Faidherbe and Dr. P. Topinard. Paris, 1874. 
 
 2h 
 
466 FINNISH TYPE. [Chap. xi. 
 
 red. The eyebrows are thick, the eyes sunken, of a blue, greenish 
 gray, or chestnut shade. The palpebral aperture is narrow. Their 
 complexion is fair and usually covered with freckles. The nose is 
 straight, the nostrils small. The cheek-bones are prominent, 
 owing to the thinness of the face, the lips small. The teeth 
 rapidly wear away; the chin is round, the ears are high, broad, 
 and flat. In eight individuals measured by Dr. Beddoe the 
 cephalic index was 8-37. The oraniology of the Finnish type has 
 only been studied on a few specimens. Five skulls of Finlanders, 
 measured by M. Broca, had an average index of 8 3 '7; and those of 
 four Esthonians an index of 80'4. Their mesorrhiuia and their sub- 
 nasal prognathism approximate them to the yellow races. It would 
 be iateresting to know if their orbital index is megasemic as ia these. 
 The stature of the Fins is below the average,* and consequently 
 higher than that of the Lapps. Their neck is small, the chest narrow 
 and flat, the arms long, the hands broad, the pelvis broad in propor- 
 tion to the trunk, the legs short, sHm, and taj)ering, the feet flat. 
 
 The Fins are of simple manners, of sedentary habits, and of 
 spiteful disposition. They are a hunting and fishing people. 
 They have a national poem, the Kalevala, fragments of which have- 
 been transmitted oraUy from generation to generation. Their name 
 appeared in history about the first century before and the second 
 after our era (Pliny, Jornandhs). 
 
 The Finnish type is clearly separated from aU the surrounding 
 types, and without being European, it is more nearly allied to it 
 than to the Mongolian type. It is this which partly gives to the 
 Eussians of the north their physical characters. When we see in 
 the blonde type fiery-red coloured hair, with freckles, we may fairly 
 attribute them to this fact. It would not be surprising if we were 
 so to regard similar cases of this kind observed both in England and 
 France. Moreover, there has hitherto been no proof that the 
 Finnish type reaUy existed in Western Eui'ope, but it is probable 
 that a certain number of Fins were among the invaders who laid it 
 waste. Neither in the description of AttUa by Priscus nor in that 
 
 * Six hundred and eigMy.two Ku soldiers, however, measured by Bons- 
 dorff, had an average stature of 1"714 mfetre (?). 
 
Chap, xi.] FINNISH TYPE. 467 
 
 of the Huns can their type be recognised ; and yet bands of Fins, 
 without a doubt, accompanied that warrior.* 
 
 Among the Fins, nevertheless, exceptional characters are to 
 be found — as low stature, black hair and eyes, flat nose, high 
 cheek-bones, &c., which must be attributed to crossing with the 
 Lapps, and more frequently with the Mongolians. The Morduins 
 in particular, the least pure of the tribes mentioned, have a con- 
 siderable mixture of Mongolian blood in them. The Voguls, who 
 speak a Finnish language, have the same ; Pallas says they 
 resemble the Kalmuks. 
 
 The Hungarians,- or Magyars, are changed in another sense by 
 their mixture with Turks, Khazars, Bulgarians, and Eoumanians. 
 Historians make them to be descended from the Ostiaks, or rather 
 to have come from a country beyond the Ural mountains, called 
 Ugria. Linguists speak of them as having a Finnish language, and 
 ethnologists take note of certain of their ethnic traits, which 
 recall their tent life and their skill in the saddle. At the present 
 day, among the upper classes, they form one of the most beautiful 
 types in Europe. Of a stature below the average, they have 
 regular features, a coarse (apre) or fair complexion, black hair and 
 eyes, a ftdl and dark beard. The slight obliquity of the eyes, and 
 rather high cheek-bones among some of them, remind one, not of the 
 Finnish type, but of a Mongolian influence. The ancient Hungarian 
 type is only met with among the lower classes. 
 
 With this Finnish question is connected that of certain mysterious 
 tribes of ancient Asia. To the west of the Hiong-nu,t whose 
 incessant incursions, from the second century before our era to 
 the second century afterwards, compelled the Chinese to build the 
 Great Wall, there existed, says Matuanlin, the Chinese historian, 
 another tall people, with green eyes and red hair, who from being 
 under subjection to the Hiong-nu became independent, namely, the 
 
 * See " Des Tribus Mongoles," by Pallas, in " Mem. du Museum d'Histoire 
 Naturelle," vol. xvii. ; and " Voyages dans I'Empire de Eussie," by the same 
 antbor ; translated into French by G. de la Peyronie, Paris, 1788-95. 
 
 + Hiong-nu, Hiong-non, Hinng-nu, Hionng-non, or Heung-noo. M. Maury 
 also writes Chiong-nou. 
 
 2h 2 
 
468 FINNISH TYPE. [Chap. xi. 
 
 Ou-sioun. Another people, tlie Ting-ling, with green eyes and 
 red hair, is mentioned at the same epoch, as existing beyond the 
 Altai mountains, in the countries of the Yenissei. A third inha- 
 hited — from 648 to 874 — the north of the Chinese Empire, near the 
 Obi or the Irtish, namely, the Kiekars, the issue of the Kiang- 
 kuans, or Kakas of Klaproth. They were tall, and also had red 
 hair, fair complexion, and green eyes; "black hair was looked upon 
 as a prodigy." Lastly, contemporaneously with Matuanlin, that is 
 to say about the twelfth century, barbarous tribes presenting these 
 characters occupied the same regions. He considered them to be 
 the descendants of the Kiang-kuans. 
 
 The existence, formerly, in the centre and in the north of Asia 
 of a race with green eyes and red hair is therefore established. 
 But whence did it come 1 That all the populations of the region 
 at the present time have black hair and eyes, and that the 
 Samoj^edes, to whom one would imagine they might belong, are 
 in this category, and are of short stature, with a smoky-yellow 
 complexion, is a fact well worthy of our attention. 
 
 Desmouluis professed to have found it in the Baskirs, many of 
 whom have red hair ; in the Kirghis ; in the Yakoutas ; in a word, 
 in the whole Turkish race. But red hair and green eyes are 
 altogether exceptional in these different groups, which are dis- 
 tinguished, on the contrary, by their black hair and eyes.* 
 
 Another solution to the question presents itself. The funda- 
 mental traits indicated, with the exception of the stature, are those 
 of the great majority of the Fins. Green eyes are less common, it 
 is true, among these than blue eyes, but we may consider that a 
 change has taken place in them by crossing. Our own opinion 
 is that the peoples of ancient Asia, with green eyes and red hair, 
 ought to be looked upon as the progenitors of the Ostiaks, 
 Tchuvatches, &c.t 
 
 "We have just spoken of the Turks ; it is necessary to say a few 
 
 * See "Histoire Naturelle des Eaces Humaines," by A. DesmouUns. 
 Paris, 1826. 
 
 f" A translation of the annals of the Hiong-nn was published last year in 
 the " Journal of the Anthrop. Institute," with annotations from " Doolittle's 
 
Chap, xi.] TURKS. 469 
 
 ■words further respecting them. They have been also designated 
 hy the name of Turanians, under the supposition that Turan, 
 ■whose struggles ■with Iran are mentioned by the Zend-Avesta, ■was 
 occupied by populations having this origin. Linguists mate thenj. 
 enter into their Tatar branch of the TJralo-Altaic family, -whose 
 other branches are the Samoyedan, the Finnish, the Mongolian, 
 and the Tungusian. In the same branch they range the Yakuts, 
 the Kirghis, divided into Bouroutes and Kaisaks, the Turcomans, 
 the Uzbeks, the Nogays, the Osmanlis, or Turks proper, &c. 
 
 The descent of the Turks has been fully established by Klap^ 
 roth. The name is derived from the Thu-kin, -who inhabited the 
 Altai about the sixth century, not far from the famous tribe of the 
 Ouigours, both being descendants of the Hiong-nu, at the time 
 of their dispersion in 263 of our era. In 1034, one of their 
 bands, the Ghazneoides, broke through into Western Turkestan., 
 At the close of the eleventh century they -were before Constanti- 
 nople. An important group under the name of White Huns had 
 made the conquest of India, and are the ancestors of the present 
 Jahts.* The Yakuts, novr between the Yenessei and the Obi, -were 
 then more to the south, and -were separated from the principal 
 mass at the time of the dismemberment of the empire of Gengis- 
 Khan. The Kirghis and the Uzbeks are looked upon as the more 
 or less changed remnants of the Ouigours, ■whose language the 
 Bouroutes still speak. The actual existence of a particular group 
 desin-nated by the name of Turks, and in subjection to that portion 
 of the Mongolian race to -which has been given that of Turanians, 
 is therefore certain. But are there any remains of them, and -what 
 is their type 1 The Tchuvatches of -whom -we thought, speak a 
 Tatar language, but as regards physique they are Fins. The 
 Yakuts are absolutely Tungooses ; the Turcomans, the Uzbeks, and 
 
 Tooabulaiy and Handbook." The tall people to the west of the Hiong-iioa 
 bear the name o£ Woo-sun, and have the same complexion as the Ting, 
 ling. We find there, also, the Keen-kwan, trhose ancestors, in the year 
 200 B.C., -were the Hakkas. 
 
 * The White Huns, or Ephthalites of M. Vi-yien, of St. Martin, must not 
 be confounded -with the Huns of Attila, -who are true Mongolians. 
 
4T0 LAPP TYPE. [Chap. xi. 
 
 the KirgHs are also Mongolians in various degrees. The Osmanlis 
 have so crossed with the Circassians and the Greeks that they have 
 become Europeans. The Tatars of Kashan and of the Crimea are 
 intermediate as regards their physiognomy. To sum up : a primi- 
 tive Turk must have existed, but it is impossible to determine at 
 what period. It is probable that it approximated to the Mongolian 
 type. 
 
 The Lapp Type. 
 
 The Lapp type is well known, but its parentage is not so. It is 
 confined to the parts of ITorway, Sweden, and Eussia which 
 border upon the North Cape, and formerly went down more to the 
 south, from whence it has been expelled by the Fins. Linnseus 
 describes it in these terms : Lappones corpore parvo ; capillis 
 nigris, irevibus, reetis ; occulorum iridibus nigrescentibus ; and thus 
 speaks of the Fias as compared with them : Fennoncs corpore 
 toroso ; capillis fiavis, prolixis ; occulorum iridibus fuscis. The 
 Lapps are very short of stature, and ill-looking. The head is 
 thick, the chest broad, the figure slim, the legs short and slender. 
 The forehead is broad and low, as well as the face. They have 
 large brown hoUow eyes ; the nose is short and flat, and very wide 
 at the root. The hair is hard, short, and of black colour, and they 
 have but little beard. The complexion is pale, according to some, 
 yellowish-brown according to others. The cheek-bones are promi- 
 nent, the chin pointed. The eyelids are oblique, according to 
 M. Vanderkindere. Their cephalic index is 85, the highest 
 average braohycephaly yet observed. They are less mesorrhinian 
 and less prognathous than the Fins. Their characters, in short, 
 separate them from the latter race, and bring them nearer to the 
 Samoyed races. Their mesosemic orbital index, however (87 '5), 
 is not that of the yeUow races. Eeduced in number to 9000 
 {Ouillard), they have continued the only nomadic European race. 
 The reindeer occupies the whole of their time and attention.* We 
 
 * See "Lapons," by Leon Gnillard and Bertillon, in "Bncycl. des Sciences 
 Med., 2nd seriea, vol. i. ; "ParallMe des Lapons et des Esquimaux," by 
 H. Gnerault, in "Mem. Soo. Anthrop.," vol. i. ; "On the Laplanders," by 
 F. Campbell, in "Trans. Soc. Ethnol.," 1866; &o. 
 
Chap. XI.] MONGOLIAN TYPE. 47I 
 
 might here be tempted to describe the Saraoyed type, but as it is 
 clearly Mongolian, we shall hold it in reserve to speak of it in its 
 proper place. 
 
 Tlie Mongolian Type. 
 
 The Mongolian type corresponds to that of the yellow races in 
 general. Its name is derived from a small tribe to the north of the 
 ■desert of Gobi, near the Kara-kara mountains, so sadly celebrated 
 by Gengis-Khan at the commencement of the thirteenth century. 
 It has not been shown that the traits of this horde, now designated 
 by the name of Mongol-Kalkas, best exhibit those of the Asiatic 
 races scattered to the east of the Obi, the Caspian Sea, and the Bay 
 of Bengal ; but custom, whether rightly or wrongly, has adopted 
 the name. The general characters of the type are the following : 
 The skin is of a pale yellowish colour, more or less tawny, not 
 mixed either with red or brown. The hair is straight, stiff, some- 
 what long and black, its transverse section being more or less 
 round and large. The beard is scanty as well as the whiskers, and 
 the hair on the upper lip consists of two delicate pencils, which are 
 sometimes long. The body is more or less bare. The head is 
 thick, sometimes high, sometimes short, its cranial capacity being 
 between that of the negro and that of the European. Its summit 
 is sometimes flat, sometimes raised into a crest antero-posteriorly, 
 corresponding to the sagittal suture. The superciliary arches and 
 the glabella are very slightly marked, the interval between the 
 orbits is considerable. The face on the whole is flat, as if crushed 
 in everywhere, and broader about the situation of the cheek-bones, 
 the external and anterior borders of which look upwards and out- 
 wards. "We shall not reiterate the description of the Mongolian 
 -skuU, as given by Prichard, nor that of Blumenbach, respecting the 
 prominence of the zygomatic arches, and shall confine ourselves to 
 stating that the characters designated some years ago by the name- 
 of Mongoloid, upon which a doctrine now settled was based, are 
 only met with exceptionally. The parietal angle in particular is 
 one half less in Mongols than ia New Caledonians. (See 
 pages 246, 247.) 
 
472 MONGOLIAN TYPE. [Chap, xr.' 
 
 The following traits have more value : Flatness of tlie skeleton 
 of the nose in its ensemble, flattening and widening of the interval 
 between the orbits, mesorrhinia, obliteration of the inferior border 
 of the anterior nasal aperture, its folding over into two lips : by 
 this mark alone we were able to recognise the upper jaw of a Chinese 
 skull. In the living subject, the nose is broad and flat (Spate), 
 concave, round at the back, and very similar to that of the negro- 
 in the disposition of the nostrils and the slight consistence of the 
 cartilages of the base ; but it is small and generally delicate, while 
 that of the negro is thick. Another series of characters is derived 
 from the eyes. The axis of the eyehds is directed obliquely up- 
 wards and outwards. At the internal angle is a vertical falciform 
 fold, at the external, a sort of transverse duplication of the upper 
 eyelid, which slightly covers the eye, and appears to be due to the 
 small size of the palpebral aperture ; the eyes with their black 
 irides thus appear smaller. The orbits give indication of this ; in 
 other types their great axes are united at an obtuse angle, open 
 below. In many of the Mongols there is scarcely any angle, or 
 rather the axes are perfectly horizontal (see page 355). 
 
 M. Broca has demonstrated quite unexpectedly that one of 
 the least variable attributes, not only of the most typical Mon- 
 golian races, but also of all those, with the exception of the 
 Esquimaux, that we usually associate with them, is megasemia of the 
 orbital index, and in the Chinese it is 93'8 (see page 259). 
 
 The yellow races are generally very prognathous (76 to 68 degrees). 
 The Esquimaux, the Chinese, and the Malays are more than this, 
 and approximate to the negro type. True Mongols and other 
 Western tribes, and undoubtedly also the Thibetans, are much less 
 so. Their stature is below the average, their neck is short, their- 
 limbs are short and thick, and they have a tendency to corpulence. 
 The ability to bring the toes together in such a way as to take hold 
 of objects is somewhat common among them. 
 
 Of the three fundamental types, the European, the ISTegro, and 
 the Mongolian, the last exhibits the least homogeneity as regards 
 details. Asia, of all parts of the world, must have been the most 
 violently convulsed as regards its populations. Its prehistoric- 
 
Chap, h.] ESQUIMAU TYPE. 473: 
 
 revolutions previously to its having any geographical communication 
 with Europe must have been very numerous. The hordes which 
 have come forth from it, as from a crater, have all been nomads 
 and warlike. We find numerous evidences at the present time 
 of these convulsions : foreign races absolutely dissimilar as to type 
 enclosed in the midst of surrounding average types. Instead of 
 the flat nose, looked upon as characteristic of the yellow races, is 
 frequently seen a prominent nose, of firm construction and arched. 
 The oblique and small eye is found replaced by a horizontal eye 
 like our own, the almost invisible superoUiary arches by prominent 
 ones, the scant and paltry pencil of hair on the upper lip, by a thick 
 bushy moustache. There is frequently no prognathism at aU, the 
 face becoming almost receding, while the head of the Kalmuck of 
 the Altai, or the Mongol of Gobi, is a combination of the two 
 characters of which we have been speaking with an external 
 brachycephaly, and a no less remarkable shortness of all the vertical 
 diameters of the cranium as well as of the face. The head of the 
 Esquimaux, with the same characters, is the most dolichocephalic 
 in the world, and has the greatest vertical diameters of the cranium 
 as weU. as of the face. These are two sub-types which are con- 
 tradictory in some respects. In describing the foregoing under the 
 name of Mongolian we had the former rather in mind — brachy- 
 cephaly ; we lay more stress now on the latter- — ^dolichocephaly. 
 Prichard, moreover, considered the face of the Esquimau as the 
 best expression of the type of the yellow races. 
 
 Tlie Esquimau Type. 
 
 The Esquimau type is found in its highest expression in Green- 
 land. Dolichocephaly and extreme height of the skull become less 
 as we approach Behring's Straits. The Aleutians and Kolushes 
 would form the passage between it and the Samoyed or Mongolian 
 type. The Esquimaux have received this name from the Mohicans 
 ISeeman), and call themselves Innuit. About the twelfth century 
 they may have reached the Potomac and the Delaware; at the 
 fourteenth they penetrated into Greenland. Previously we find 
 
474 
 
 ESQUIMAU TYPE. 
 
 [Chap. xi. 
 
 them 111 Asia. They are now rapidly decreasing in numbers {Hall, 
 Hayes). 
 
 They are of low stature, fat, squat, with wide shoulders and 
 large heads, large limbs, but with small well-made feet and hands. 
 The face is flat, and even hollowed out about the region of the 
 nose ; the cheeks are full, the cheek-bones extremely prominent ; 
 the nose is broad, small, and projecting but little ; the palpebral 
 aperture small, the eyes black and sunken; the mouth small, 
 round, with a large under lip. The teeth are regular, and are worn 
 down to the gums at an early age, owing to the custom of employ- 
 
 FiG. 46. — Esquimau type ; Skull of GreenL-inder (Copenhagen Museum). 
 
 ing them in preparing skins. The hair is jet black, long, hard, and 
 scanty, and on a transverse section is more round than elliptical. 
 The beard is almost absent. " On the upper lip of one," says 
 Hayes, " some coarse black hairs were growing like the whiskers of 
 a oat, and also on the chin." The complexion is light, or dark- 
 gray, showing the redness of the capillary vessels beneath. The 
 skull of the Esquimau, which is a pure dolichocephalic, gives an 
 index of 71-4 (Broaa), 71-8 {Virclwio), 71-3 (Bessels). It forms a 
 long parallelogram, the sides of which fall down vertically, and in 
 some skulls the sagittal crest is so marked that they seem, physio- 
 logically, scaphocephalic. They are the most leptorrhinian known 
 
Chap, xi.] SAMOTED TYPE. 475 
 
 (42-2). Their prognathism (71 4) corresponds to the average 
 degree observed in all the yellow races. The direction of the 
 occipital plane very nearly approaches that of the Chinese. The 
 hones of the nose proper are the narrowest known, the orhits are 
 round, the maxillary bones are so enormous, and the molar bones 
 so large and thick, that, out of a number of skulls, we are able to 
 identify the Esquimau skuU without hesitation.* 
 
 The nomad character of the Esquimaux in summer allies them to 
 the Lapps and Samoyedes, from which they are separated by their 
 making use of dogs for sledging. 
 
 The Samoyed Type. 
 
 The Samoyed type is scattered from the Mezen, an afluent of 
 the "White Sea, to the river Khatanga in Siberia, and from the 
 Arctic Ocean to the vicinity of the Altai and Lake Baikal. The 
 Khasovo in the north, and the Soiony in the south, are its 
 principal groups in Asia. Between them there are a number of 
 Eirmish or Mongolian tribes. The Samoyedes make their appear- 
 ance in history in 1096. The following description specially 
 applies to those of the north-west, who are the best known : 
 Their stature is below the average, if not diminutive, but greater 
 than that of the Lapps. They are fat, squat, with short legs, the 
 knees turning out ; the feet are small. Their hair is long, harsh, 
 jet black and glossy. They have very little beard. Their com- 
 plexion is of a smoky-yellow tint. The face is wide and flat ; 
 the cheek-bones are promiaent. The nose is very depressed, and 
 on a level with the cheeks ; it is broad and flat at the root ; the 
 nostrils are wide and gaping. They have black eyes, long, narrow, 
 and slightly oblique palpebral apertures, large mouths, the lips 
 being small and turned up (retroussees).f 
 
 * See " On the Esquimaux," by King, first memoir in the " Journal of the 
 Ethnological Society," London, vol. i., 1848 ; " On the Esquimaux," by 
 Sutherland, in "Journal of the Anthropological Society," London, vol. iii., 
 1865 ; &o. 
 
 ■j- See Latham's drawing of the Samoyed in his general treatise on 
 Ethnography. 
 
476 MALAY TYPE. [Chap. xr. 
 
 A drawing of the sknll of a Samoyed has iDeeii given hj 
 BlumenTDach, and the description of one by Mr. Busk. The hones 
 are narrow in the former; the latter is hrachycephalic (86 '3)* 
 and platyrrhinian : the inferior border of the malar bones and 
 zygomatic arches turns outwards, there is a slight crest at the 
 vault of the cranium, the orbital axes are almost horizontal, the 
 vertical diameter of the cranium is short and that of the face long. 
 It evidently follows from this that the Samoyed sub-type assimi- 
 lates the genei?al Mongolian type proper, and that it comes very 
 near to the Esquimau sub-type. In its norma verticalis it recalls 
 the Lapp tribe. From want of space we must pass over the 
 Tungusian type, to which the Mantshii belongs, and which differs 
 in some respects from the Mongolian sub -type proper ; the various 
 types in Japan, with which the Corean is allied ; the Kamtchadale, 
 but imperfectly known ; the Thibetan, to which the Chinese, 
 the Birmese, and the Annamites are allied, and which establish 
 the transition between the Mongol and the Malay. The Ainos 
 of Japan, the Miau Tsz and the Lolos of the province of Yuiman, 
 in our opinion belong to the European group. 
 
 The Malay Type. 
 
 The Malay type embraces the whole of the territory called 
 Malaisia, 
 
 According to M. Maury, the cradle of the Malays was the 
 mountains of Thibet, whence they passed by the rivers of Indo- 
 China. Others make them come from Borneo. Mention of them 
 is made for the first time in 1160, from which it appears that 
 they left the Palembang country in the island of Sumatra, and 
 were the founders of Singapore in the peninsula of Malacca. 
 Tlieir skin is light brown, sometimes copper coloured. The hair 
 is straight or wavy, standing on end when cut about two inches 
 from the head, long, abundant, and jet black. They have very 
 
 * Many doliolioceplialic skulls have \>een collected iu the Samoyed 
 territory, hut they may belong to other races. If the Esquimaux, so doli- 
 chocephalic, have occupied, ag it is said, the southern confines of Siberia, 
 they must necessarily have left a train of doliohocephales behind them. 
 
.Chap, xi.] MALAY TYPE. 4,'!7 
 
 little beard. The nose is short, -wide, and flat, thin, at the 
 extremity, the nostrils being dilated. They are mesorrhinians 
 (51 "47), and have an arrangement of the lower border of the nasal 
 aperture and of the vomer which is almost characteristic. The 
 cheek-bones are wide and prominent, and the face is almost as 
 biroad as it is long {Van Leent). The profile is straight, the 
 interval between the orbits wide and flattened, the superciLiary 
 arches united, and almost imperceptible. 
 
 The forehead, says Pickering, is depressed and receding in the 
 Mongols, high and well formed in the Malay. The occiput, on the 
 contrary, is flat, vertical, and does not pass beyond the Hne of the 
 neck. The mouth is large, the lips are thick, and their prognathism 
 is the greatest that has been met with in the yeUow races (69 -S). 
 The teeth are of a bluish-black colour, and corroded from chewing 
 betel, of which they make constant use. They are brachycephalic. 
 In twenty-nine Javanese examined by M. Broca, the mean index 
 was 81 'G. Lastly, they are very short of stature, slim, and 
 moderately muscular. 
 
 M. Van Leent speaks of two sorts of Malays, some similar to 
 the yellow races we have described, others being a mixture of 
 Caucasian features. The Battaks of Sumatra, from whom this 
 sub-race is named, the Macassars and Bugis of Celebes, the Dyaks 
 of Borneo, &c., are among the latter. The Battaks are better 
 buUt, more muscular, and taller than the Malays previously spoken 
 of. Their skin is of a lighter brown, the hair fine and black, some- 
 times chestnut, the beard moderately thick, the nose straight, 
 rather thin, less flat. The cheek-bones are less prominent, the face 
 long, the mouth somewhat small, the lips less thick, the occiput 
 round. It would be interesting to know whether this particular 
 "type corresponded with those dolichocephalic skulls which we find 
 labelled in our collections under the same name as the Malays 
 before spoken of. It would also be desirable to find out whether 
 it is not derived from India.* 
 
 * See " The Malay Archipelago," by A. E. Wallace, 2 vols., London, 1859 ; 
 " Geographie Medicale des Possessions Neerlandaises des Lides Orientales," 
 by Van Leent, in " Arch. Med. Nav.," Paris, 1847, &c. 
 
478 POLYNESIAN TYPE. [Chap. xi. 
 
 Polynesian Type. 
 
 The Polynesian, type approaclies the Malay, and must be sepa- 
 rated from the Micronesian type. It extends from the Tonga 
 Islands and New Zealand to Easter Island in the Pacific. The 
 Kanaka or Polynesian race originated, according to M. de Quatre- 
 fages, in the island of Booroo, situated to the west of Ceram, one 
 of the Moluccas. Its first station was the Tonga and Samoan 
 Archipelago, whence it was dispersed. It made its appearance at 
 the heginniug of the fifth century lq the Marquesas Islands — in 
 1100 at Tahiti, in 1200 at Earotonga, in 1500 ia ISTew Zealand, 
 and in 1700 in the Chatham Islands. Its first known migrations 
 took place therefore into Malaisia a thousand years before any 
 mention is made there of the Malays. The two races are looked 
 upon as one by linguists, who speak of them as the Malayo- 
 Polynesians. Moreover there is much reason for believing that the 
 South Americans have some relation to the Polynesians. 
 
 The Polynesian should be studied in the Eastern Islands, where 
 he is more detached from the Melanesian element. He is mesati- 
 cephalie. The norma verticalis of the skull exhibits an oval, 
 swelling out on a level with the parietal bosses. The vault is 
 generally occupied by a crest, the two sides of which incline like 
 the roof of a house, or are hollowed out in wide channels, after 
 which come the parietal protuberances ; this latter arrangement is 
 termed keel-shaped (en carhne). His megasemic orbits place him 
 in the same group as the Chinese, the Malays, and Americans. The 
 Kanakas of the Owhyhee Islands have the highest orbital index that 
 M. Broca has observed (95'4). He is mesorrhinian (49-3). His 
 sub-nasal prognathism of 68 degrees in New Zealand, 70 '9 in the 
 Marquesas Islands, and 75 at Tahiti, is evidence of the influence 
 of the yeUow and black populations with which he has been mingled. 
 But as these crosses would only increase his prognathism, and as we 
 cannot find any neighbouring race which could cause it to diminish, 
 we must come to the conclusion that the principle of this diminution 
 is to be found within himself. The primitive Polynesian, therefore. 
 
Chap, xi.] AMERICAN TYPE. 479' 
 
 was not prognathous ; at least the accepted minimum index of 75 
 places him on the confines of the "White type. 
 
 The nose of the Polynesian, called by some travellers short, and 
 by others projecting, is sometimes straight, sometimes aquihne, and 
 more nearly approaches the American than the Mongolian type ; it 
 is wide only at the nostrils. The ma'ar bones are large, not very 
 wide, and the face is oval, not coming within the category of those 
 decidedly flat. The superciliary arches project but little, and the 
 falling in of the root of the nose is not very deep, which clearly 
 distinguishes him from the Melanesian type. The eyes are black, 
 large, and well formed, more or less full, and not oblique. The 
 complexion is very variable. According to some it is of mahogany 
 colour, of others of a dull copper colour. M. Bourgarel says it is of 
 a yellowish-olive hue, lighter sometimes than that of the Malays, 
 especially at Tahiti Jacquiuot says it is generally tawny- yellow, 
 mixed with more or less dark bistre. The hair is black, thick, and 
 harsh occasionally, becoming beautifully curly by crossing -with the 
 European. The beard of the Polynesian is scant. He is of tall 
 stature, well bxiilt, slight, but with some tendency to obesity. 
 
 The American Type. 
 
 The American type is that which was most commonly met with 
 both in I^orth and South America previously to the arrival of 
 Europeans, the Esquimaux being put aside. "We shall describe it 
 according to the best authors, especially Morton. The average 
 colour of the skin is olive-brown, variously mixed with white and 
 red, and sometimes amounting to a cinnamon colour {Nott). The 
 hair is long, glossy, black, and stiff like horsehair. The eyebrows 
 and eyelashes are thick, but the hair in the beard, the moustaches, 
 and on the surface of the body is scant. The eyes are small and 
 sunken, and the eyelids exhibit aU. the varieties observed in Asia, 
 being sometimes contracted and oblique, at others horizontal as with 
 us. The superciliary arches are more developed than in the 
 Mongolian type. The nose, sometimes Asiatic, is more frequently 
 large, prominent, bridged, and even aquiline {Gatlin). The nostrils 
 
480 AMERICAN TYPE. [Chap. xi. 
 
 are dilated. The- oheek-TDOiies are prominent, the face is round or 
 triangular, the jaws are heavy and slightly prognathous {Nott). 
 The mouth is large, and the teeth are vertical, strong, and but little 
 liable to caries. If we are to rely on the method of cubic measure- 
 ment, followed by Morton, the American skull is one of the least 
 ■capacious of the whole human race. It is more frequently dolicho- 
 cephalic than brachycephalic, judging from the collection at 
 Philadelphia. That at the Museum, on the contrary, is mesati- 
 cephalic, being caused by the mixture of brachycephaly and 
 dolichocephaly in equal proportions. The Mexicans have an index 
 of 78'1, the Peruvians of 78'7 {Broca). Dolichocephaly is more 
 extensive in the north, according' to Morton, among the tribes that 
 originally inhabited the east of the AUeghanies, and brachycephaly 
 among those to the west of the Mississippi. The same thing 
 occurs on the coasts of South America. The Peruvian skuUs are 
 distinguished by their quadrangular form. 
 
 A common characteristic of the Mexican populations is flattening 
 of the posterior part of the skull which is vertical. The vertex is 
 often pyramidal, especially when looked at from behind. The 
 forehead is moderately broad, but low and receding, upon which 
 Humboldt laid some stress. The orbits are quadrangular and 
 megasemic, which is an important fact. The skeleton of the nose 
 is mesorrhinian. Their stature is generally very much above the 
 average of Americans, although there are some tribes in South 
 America, as the Patagonians of the south, and the Assiniboins in 
 the north, who are very tall, and others, as the Peruvians and 
 some tribes in the island of Vancouver, that are rather short, 
 proving the existence of divers elements in the American type.* 
 
 To sum up : the American in his ensemble approximates to the 
 type of the Yellow races in many important particulars. Thus : 
 his face and nose are sometimes flat, the colour of his skin, the 
 nature of his hair, the colour of his eyes, the slight development 
 
 * See "Crania Americana," l>y Morton, Philadelphia, 1839; "Types of 
 Mankind," Nott and Gliddon, Philadelphia, 1854. ; " L'Homme Amerioain," 
 "by A. d'Orbiguy, 2 vols., Paris, 1859 ; article " Amerioain," hy E. Dally, 
 in " Enoycl. des Soienoea Medic," vol. iii., 1865 j &c. 
 
Chap, xi.] AMEEICAN TYPE. 4SI 
 
 and harshness of his pilous system, his small eyes with narrow 
 palpebral apertures, his orhital megasemia, &c. Flattening of the 
 occiput is met with also in some races of Asia. But he also ex 
 hibits marked differences, such as his projecting, convex, and com- 
 paratively narrow nose, his very taU stature, the smaU capacity 
 of his cerebral cavity, and his slight prognathism. These are 
 characteristics of races which have crossed, one of the elements 
 being clearly Asiatic, and the other altogether special — dolicho- 
 cephaly, the European nose, &c. The above description applies 
 rather to Horth Americans. Nevertheless the Toltec sub-type, to 
 which Morton refers the natives of Mexico, Peru, and 'New 
 Granada, differs but little from them. The difficulty of American 
 craniology arises from the fact of the existence of such extensive 
 cranial deformations. By basing it upon them, and setting aside 
 some rare deformations, we might however, we thiak, take out 
 from the mass of Americans two ancient peoples who practised 
 deformation of the head — the one in the method employed/by the 
 Ifahuas, the other in that by the Aymaras. (See p. 183.) The 
 Tehuelche or Patagonian type should also be set aside, and then 
 we might take account of those singular differences of complexion, 
 pale in the Botocudas and in the Guarani race, almost black in the 
 ancient Cahfornians and the Charruas of Uruguay, which are now 
 extinct. 
 
 "The Calif ornians," says La P&ouse, "have a similar com- 
 plexion to that of the negro whose hair is not woolly. Judging 
 simply by their colour, one would imagine oneself amongst 
 negroes in a plantation in the island of St. Domingo." " Their 
 hair," says EoUin, " is long and very tough. Their forehead is 
 low, the eyebrows are thick and black, the eyes black and sunken, 
 the nose is short, and depressed at the root ; the mouth large, the 
 malar bones are prominent, the Ups thick, and the teeth beautiful." 
 "The Charruas," says Prichard, "belong by their colour to the 
 Black races, or those which are nearly black, with scarcely any 
 mixture of red tinge in them. They are upright, well-proportioned, 
 and active ; they are of middle stature, and about an inch taller on 
 the average than the Spaniards. They have a straight head and 
 
 2 I 
 
482 PATAGONIAN TYPE. [Chap. xi. 
 
 open foreliead, regular features, althougli the nose appears narrow 
 and as though sunien between the eyes ; the eyebrows are scant, 
 they haye no beard, and very little hair on other parts of the body. 
 The hair of the head is thick, very long, glossy, and always black. 
 Their hands and- feet are smaller than those of Europeans, and the 
 neck of the women is less full than that of the Indian." The 
 characteristics of these two races therefore partake more of the 
 American Mongol element than of the one having projecting 
 features, which we are about to describe. 
 
 The Patagonian Type. 
 
 The Patagonian type, or rather a certain ancient Patagonian type, 
 requires that we should speak of it by itself. The whole popular 
 tion being confined to one extremity of the continent, where it is 
 shut up among mountains, there is greater probability of its being 
 the remains of some primitive race. The Patagonians, or Tehuelches, 
 are exactly in these conditions. Their characters, as obtained 
 from a study of living subjects, are the following : They are very 
 tall, the limbs and the trunk being in proportion ; the head is large, 
 the face a long oval, the complexion olive brown, or a tone that 
 Fitzroy compares to old mahogany ; the nose is short, broad, and 
 flat ; the forehead bulging (fiomhe) and prominent, the superciliary 
 arches are moderately pronounced, the chin projecting, the beard 
 and moustaches scanty. Up to this point there is but httle 
 difference between it and the average American type, but it 
 specially belongs to the present race of Patagonians. Five skulls 
 procured from the ancient encampments, or prehistoric paraderos 
 of Patagonia, and brought to the Museum of the Laboratory of 
 Anthropology belonging to the Ecole des Hautes Etudes, by 
 M. Moreno, present an appearance totally distinct from aU the 
 other American skulls in the collection. At first sight one would 
 think they were the skulls of Esquimaux. The narrowness of the 
 forehead, its height, its bulging at the level of the frontal bosses, the 
 antero-posterior elongation of the cranium, its posterior part in the 
 form of an inclined plane, and then curved round; the height 
 
Chap. XI.] PATAGONIAN TYPE. 483 
 
 •of the vertical diameter or acrooephaly, the vertical direction 
 downwards of the sides, the elongation of the face, the projection 
 forwards of the malar bones, the degree of prognathism, the narrow- 
 ness of the interval between the orbits, the harmony of form 
 between the cranium and the face — all this is Esquimau. The 
 ieeth themselves are worn down horizontally as ia this race. But 
 it is wanting in many of their characters. Their malar bones, 
 looked at in profile, project forwards, and fall straight, as in the 
 Esquimau (compare Eigs. 46 and 47) ; but looked at in front they 
 4o not project outwards, and are not unusually large ; whence the 
 
 Fig. 47. — Patagonian type : Skull from the paraderos, from the collection of M. Moreno 
 (Museum of the Laboratory of Anthropology of the Ecole des Hautes Etudes), 
 
 oval shape of the face, described by Lieutenant Musters as that of 
 the present Patagonian race, while the Esquimau has a fuU face 
 and has very wide cheek-bones, and the American, barring his 
 prominent nose, generally has it both broad and flat. The cephalic 
 index of those five skulls is 72 '02, that is to say they are the most 
 decidedly dolichocephalic in the world, after those of the Esqui- 
 maux, and their prognathism is 69 '4, or less than the American, 
 and as much or more than the Esquimaux. To make up for this, they 
 are mesorrhinian, very nearly approaching to platyrrhinian, while 
 the Esquimaux are the most leptorrhinian on the face of the globe. 
 
 2 I 2 
 
4S4 RED AFRICAN TYPE. [Chap. xr. 
 
 ' There is no unity of type, it is true, among the skiills from the- 
 paraderos; there are hraohycephales to be found among them, 
 some with deformations, and some without, showing that at that 
 epoch the races of Patagonia were abeady numerous. But the type- 
 that we select from them must have predominated, for the average 
 of the twenty-seven normal skulls of M. Moreno are dolichocephalic, 
 75 '92. However this may he, this unexpected approximation to 
 the Esquimaux suggests some curious questions for consideration. 
 Are the Tehuelches the autochthonous dolichocephaKc element, 
 which, by its crossing with a race of Asia, has given origin to the 
 present American type 1 May not the craniological singularity of 
 the Esquimaux, who in certain respects resemble the Samoyedes 
 and the Mongols proper, and in others are as distinct as it is 
 possible to be, be explained in the same way? They would be 
 another form of cross of the same Asiatic brachycephalic element 
 with the same autochthonous American dolichocephalic element.* 
 
 A Bed Type. 
 
 A Bed type, it must be admitted, exists in the centre of Africa.. 
 The Americans are frequently designated by the title of Eed, not 
 on account of the colour of their skin, but because they frequently 
 paint the face in this way. It would be equally proper to call 
 certain of the Polynesian Islanders red. In Africa also this tint 
 is very common in the centre of the continent, from the Eed Sea 
 to Senegal ; but it is separated in so decided a way in the midst of 
 the surrounding black populations, that it is necessary to look upon 
 it as a particular type. 
 
 The Red African type is associated with black and glossy hair, 
 and unfortunately is found everywhere mixed, or in close contact, 
 with the negro popuktions. Here and there, however, it is suflS- 
 ciently isolated, among the Foulbas for example, for its independent 
 character to be demonstrated. Let us consider first ihs colour of 
 the skin. 
 
 * See " At Home with the Patagonians," hj G. C. Musters, London, 1871 j. 
 "Des Cimeti^res et Paraderos de Patagonie," by P. P. Moreno, jun., in, 
 " Eevne d'Anthrop.," vol. iil., 1874; &c. 
 
Chap, xi.] EBD AFBICAN TYPE. 485 
 
 Although, it is stated that the red colour adopted hy the ancient 
 Egyptians in their representations of themselves on their monu- 
 jaents was merely arbitrary, it may be asked whether they had not 
 .some motive for this. A portion of the present race of Bar4bras 
 of the vaUey of the NUe above the First Cataract are still of this 
 colour, which they themselves compare to polished mahogany. In 
 the plains of Sennaar, Caillaud has described the El Akmar, or 
 lieds, as half-breeds, or of a peculiar caste. A considerable number 
 of Danakil negroes on the banks of the Eed Sea are of a red 
 copper-colour (Bochet d'Hericourt). The ancient inhabitants of the 
 Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb are called Himyarites, which signifies red 
 (Maury). Among the southern Tawareks, and the Tibboo Indians, 
 they speak also of reds. The Eonga, Dor, Bongo, Kredj, and 
 Ifyam-Ifyams of the western affluents of the Bahr-el-Ghazal have a 
 more or less reddish complexion mixed with black. The ancient 
 Egyptians moreover were not ignorant of the existence of red 
 people in the centre of Africa. Negroid people of a reddish 
 colour are depicted on the monuments of Thebes of the 18th 
 dynasty. At the present time negro tribes are spoken of on the 
 banks of the Zambesi, and as far as the Congo, with this shade of 
 colour. But the most important consideration is the fact that the 
 Eoulba people are now flourishing in the Soudan. Known by the 
 name of Peuls in Senegal, called Eoulahs by the Mandingoes, 
 EeUani by the negroes of Howssa, Eellatahs by the Kanori of 
 Bornii, and Eoullan by the Arabs, they came from the east, accord- 
 ing to Dr. Barth, at a very remote period. They do not however 
 appear in history until about the tenth century. At that epoch 
 they constituted the " pale " element, which was predominant in 
 the Ghanata kingdom to the south-west of Timbuctoo. In 1500 
 they were powerful in the west and south of the Sonray kingdom 
 to the east of Timbuctoo; in 1600 they appeared in Howssa; in 
 1700 in Begharmi. They are shepherds and nomads, and continue 
 to spread and propagate Islamism, without forming distinct 
 nationaUties. It was only in 1803 that Othman dan Fodie, one of 
 their chiefs, on his return from a pilgrimage to Mecca, united them 
 into a community, and by force of arms imposed his authority over 
 
486 EED AFRICAN TYPE. [Chap. xi. 
 
 the greater part of Soudan. In this vast territory, which is to a, 
 certain extent oivOised, Dr. Earth met with three principal races : 
 (1) The autochthonous Negroes, constituting the majority, the 
 vanquished people of the country ; (2) The Foulahs, or Foulbas- 
 (native name), the conquerors, with red complexion and straight 
 hair ; (3) The Arabs, traders or shepherds, who, two centuries ago,, 
 came from the east into Bornii. 
 
 This close contact everywhere of the Foulah with the negro^ 
 explains why travellers describe them sometimes as slim and well- 
 proportioned, with glossy hair — (Mungo Park on two occasions 
 writes " silky hair ") — sometimes as squat and short, with wooUy 
 hair. They often indeed take wives from among the negresses, 
 while the reverse is rare (Barth). Among their half-breeds are 
 noticed the Toucolors of Senegal, the Black Peuls, the Tor6des, 
 and the Susus, these last belonging to the Mandingoes. 
 
 The colour of the purest-blood Poulahs is sometimes coppery- 
 red, sometimes of a rhubarb shade. In the country, where the 
 natives go naked, the contrast between the two types — the on& 
 reddish yellow, the other negroid — is very striking. The characters- 
 of the type may be specially gathered from the western Foulahs.. 
 The face is oval, the nose long and arched, the teeth vertical, the 
 lips somewhat thin, the figure shm and tall, the limbs well-propor- 
 tioned, the .extremities smaU. Dr. Barth thus describes those tO' 
 the east of the Niger : " They have small, sharp, and open features, 
 they are lively and intelligent ; the face is long as compared with 
 the round negro face ; the lips not thick, the complexion copper- 
 coloured, the hair black, long, reaching sometimes to the shoulders ; 
 the figure upright and shm, the extremities slender, moderate 
 corpulence." In a word, we must, in the Anthropology of Africa, 
 take into account a special Eed type with smooth hair, approxi- 
 mating to the European type. Being now closely intermingled 
 with the negro races, it is no longer represented but by the pm-e- 
 blood Eoulahs.* 
 
 * " Travels and Discoveries in North, and Central Africa," by Dr. Barth,. 
 in 1849-55. London. 
 
Chap, xii.] NEGEO TYPE. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 487 
 
 NBQEO, KAFFIR, HOTTENTOT TYPES — PAPUAIT, NEGRITO, TASMANIAN 
 TYPES — AUSTRALIAN TYPE — CONCLUSION OF THE SUBJECT OP 
 HUMAN RACES. 
 
 The Negro Type. 
 
 The Negro type, understood in its more general acceptation, is 
 met with, in Asia, near its soutii-eastem angle, in Oceania, where 
 it exhibits two distinct types, the Papuan and the Negrito, and 
 in Africa, where it is divided into the Guinean, Kaffir, and 
 Hottentot types. "We take the Guinean as hest representing the 
 most ancient and the most classical Negro type. 
 
 The northern limit of the most characteristic negro trihes ex- 
 tends from the river Senegal, inclines to the east as far as the 
 10th degree of north latitude (Maury), and is lost in the region 
 visited by Speke and Baker, where there are different tribes whose 
 parentage is not as yet thoroughly determined. Above this line, 
 however, in the Desert, we find an isolated negro tribe, the Tebous, 
 or Tibboos. On its confines we meet with a regular succession 
 of other tribes, interrupted here and there by the Eoulahs, namely : 
 The native negroes of Adamawa, Massina, Howssa, Bormi, Beg- 
 ha,rmi, and Dar-Piir; the Nubians of Kordofan; the ShiUucks, 
 Pungi, and SchangaUas, close to Abyssinia; and the Nouairs, 
 Bari, and Sere of Bahr-el-Ghazal. The western Umit of the Negro 
 type is formed by the sea. Its principal tribes are from Senegal 
 to Benguela, as if they had been driven to the coast, namely : The 
 Yoloffs, Sereres, and Mandingoes of Senegambia; the Peloupas 
 of Sierra Leone ; the Kjoumans of Liberia; the Pantis, Accras, 
 and Ashantis of the Gold Coast ; the Mahis and Dahomeys of the 
 Gulf of Benin; the Ibos, Makos, and Calabar of the mouth of 
 the Niger; the Bouliis, Bakalais, and M'pongwes of the Gaboon; 
 &c. Behind them are grouped other tribes of a better type, with 
 somewhat clearer complexion, or slightly mixed with red. Certain 
 
488 NEGRO TYPE. [Ohap. in. 
 
 Penis of Senegamtia, tlie BamlDarras of tiie Upper Niger, and 
 certain tribes of Fans, or Pahuins, of the Gaboon are of tbis 
 number. The following description' specially relates to the 
 Guinean sub-type, but may be considered as that of the Negro 
 type in general. The skin of the negro is velvety, cool to the 
 touch, glossy, varying from a reddish, yellowish, or bluish black 
 to jet black. His hair and eyes are black, the sclerotic dark or 
 yellowish, black spots are seen on the tongue, the roof of the 
 mouth, and even under the conjunctiva. The palms of the hands 
 and soles of the feet are lighter in colour than the rest of the 
 body. The beard is scant, and is developed late. The body is 
 destitute of hair, except on the pubis and in the arm-pits. The 
 skull is dolichocephalic (73'0 on the west coast of Africa), occa- 
 sionally mesaticephalic, and even sub-brachycephalic. Its capacity, 
 in eighty-five Western negroes, measured by M. Broca, was 1372 
 cubic centimetres, or 151 cubic centimetres less than in the natives 
 of Auvergne. 
 
 The norma verticalis is of an eUiptical shape. The supra-iniac 
 portion of the occipital is frequently projecting, its lateral portions 
 are flat and vertical, the curved temporal lines describe an arc 
 corresponding with the mass of temporal muscles which are inserted 
 beneath them; the temporal shell itself is larger than that of the 
 white. The frontal is articulated frequently with the temporal; 
 the greater wings of the sphenoid arc consequently not articulated 
 with the parietal. The cranial sutures are more simple than in the 
 White type, and are obliterated sooner (Oratiolet). The squamo- 
 temporal, and the spheno-parietal frequently form a horizontal 
 straight line. The forehead is narrow at the base, sometimes 
 receding and rather low, sometimes straight and bulging {homhe) at 
 the summit. The frontal bosses are often confluent, or replaced by 
 a single and median protuberance. The superciliary arches project 
 but little, and are smooth, very different from the Melanesian negro, 
 s > much so that by this the two sexes tend to resemble each other. 
 As a result of this, the orbits are less deep, which contributes, with 
 the slight depression of the root of the nose, and the less marked 
 general appearance of the face, to give to the negro of Africa a less 
 
-Chap, xil] NEGRO TYPE. 489 
 
 ferocious aspect thaii to the negro of Oceania. The orbits moreover 
 are microsomes, that is to say short from above downwards, but 
 much less so than in the Melanesian negroes, thus helping still more 
 "to distinguish them. 
 
 The eyeballs are close to the head, and the palpebral apertures 
 are nevertheless small and are on the same horizontal line. The 
 space between the eyes is less flat and less large than in the 
 Mongolian type, but more so than in the European type. The 
 nose is developed in width at the expense of its projection ; its base 
 is large and crushed in, owing to the softness of the cartilages, and 
 spreads out into two divergent alse, with elliptical nostrils more or 
 less exposed. This extremity is sometimes trUobed. The skeleton 
 of the nose is platyrrhinian (54"78) ; the two bones proper are 
 occasionally united, as in apes. The inferior border of the anterior 
 aperture is obliterated, or replaced by a sort of platform, the 
 boundary between the nasal fossse and the sub-nasal region being 
 undefined in proportion to the very slight development of the 
 median spine.* 
 
 The face as a whole is usually long, like the cranium, but it is 
 sometimes short and round, and then it is frequently flat. The 
 zygomatic arches, and the malar bones have only a sHght lateral 
 projection ; the former are more frequently cryptozygous,+ accord- 
 ing to Blumenbach's method, than in the White type, and less 
 frequently than in the Mongolian type. The prognathism of the 
 negro extends within certain limits to the entire face. AH the 
 parts of the superior maxilla contribute to it, and even the ptery- 
 goid processes, which are drawn forward by the development of the 
 jaw; but it is only reaUy characteristic and considerable in the sub- 
 nasal region, and in the teeth. It frequently exists also in the 
 lower jaw, that is to say the chin recedes, and the teeth project 
 
 * Loc. cit., in " Eevae d'Anthrop.," vol. i. p. 657. 
 
 f When making nse of the expressions " cryptozygous " and " phenozy- 
 gons," as synonymons -with, the less or greater development of the zygomatic 
 arches, it is well to remember that, with very few exceptions, when the 
 parietal angle is negative these arches are always visible, according to the 
 norma verticaUs. 
 
490 KAFFIE TYPE. [Chap. xii. 
 
 obliquely forwards. The teeth themselves are wider apart than ia 
 the white races, beautifully white, yery firm and sound. Lastly, 
 the ears are small, round, their border not well curled, the lobule 
 &hort and scarcely detached, and the auditory opening wide. The 
 neck is short. 
 
 M. Pruner-Bey speaks of two important characters which remind 
 one of the ape. The three curvatures of the spine are less pro- 
 nounced in the negro than in the white ; his thorax is relatively 
 flat from side to side, and slightly cylindrical. The shoulders, he 
 adds, are less powerful than in the European; the umbilicus is 
 nearer the pubis ; the ihac bones in the male are thicker and more 
 vertical; the neck of the femur is less oblique. With respect 
 to the proportions of the extremities, we refer the reader to 
 pages 303, 304, et seq. The femur is less obhque, the tibia more 
 curved, the calf of the leg high and but little developed, the heel 
 broad and projecting, the foot long, but slightly arched, flat, and 
 the great toe rather shorter than in the white. Negresses age very 
 rapidly, their breasts elongate after the first pregnancy, and after- 
 wards become flabby and pendulous. 
 
 The Kafir Type. 
 
 The Kaffir type, one of the highest expressions of the genera] 
 Negro type, extends from the Zambesi to the Hottentot territories, 
 and from the coast of Mozambique to the Atlantic Ocean. Its 
 principal tribes are : On the west coast, the Damaras or Ovahereros ; 
 on the east, the Amakosah; near Cape Colony, the Ama-Ziiliis 
 and the Maciias; in the interior, on the western decKvity of 
 the chain of the Maloutas, the Bechuanas, and the Bassoutos ; and 
 on the Zambesi, the Makololos. Linguists, however, relying on 
 the extension of the Bantou language, extend their boimdaries, on 
 the one side to the Congo and even beyond, and on the other 
 to the coast of Zanzibar, among the Suahihs. The raids made 
 continually by the Kaffirs against the Cape Colony, and tradi 
 tions according to which they are said to have come from the 
 
Chap. XII.] HOTTENTOT TYPE. 491 
 
 north, at a remote period, testify to their warlike spirit, and to the 
 possibility of their previous influence at some former time. But it 
 does not follow that they should have left their physical traits iu 
 their course. We confine ourselves, therefore, to the hest recog- 
 nised tribes of the south-east. The Kaffir type bears a general 
 resemblance to the Guiuean or Ethiopian, but it is a degree less 
 bestial. The face is longer and of somewhat oval figure, the out- 
 lines of the head are more decided, its muscular attachments and 
 processes more marked, the maxillary bones larger. The skin 
 exhibits various shades of blackish brown. The hair is thick, 
 harsh, and woolly. The nose is broad and flat {epate), the Hps 
 thick. The palpebral openings remind us sometimes of those of 
 the Yellow races. The odour exhaled from the skin ia all the 
 negro tribes is stronger in the Kaffir. They are very tall, slim, and 
 well made. 
 
 Seven Kaffir skulls measured by M. BertUlon showed an average 
 capacity, enormous for negroes, of 1453 cubic centimetres. " Their 
 vertical diameter is considerable," adds this author. In eight 
 similar skulls examined by M. Broca, the mean cephalic index was 
 72 '5, being slightly less than in the Guinean negroes. The 
 platyrrhiny of the two types is sensibly the same (54-99 in Kaffirs). 
 The prognathism, according to our own tables, is a little less in 
 Kaffirs, 68-21. 
 
 It would be very desirable to ascertain the type of the 
 Makololos of the Zambesi, whose language approximates them 
 to the Kaffirs, but who appear to differ from them in physique. 
 Perhaps they may be the remnants of some ancient type. Un- 
 fortimately they are rapidly decreasing.* 
 
 TJie Hottentot Type. 
 
 The Hottentot type, now confined to the extremity of Southern 
 Africa, formerly extended quite as far as the 10th degree of south 
 
 * See article, " Cafres," by Ch. Letoumeau, in " i^noycl. des So. Medic," 
 2nd series, vol. ii. ; " Die Eingeborenen Sud Africa's Ethnographish und 
 Anatomiscli Beschrieben," by G. Fritscli, Breslau, 1873. 
 
492 HOTTENTOT TYPE. [Chap. sii. 
 
 latitude. As evidence of this, tlie geographical names in Kaffraria 
 are stiU Hottentot. The type includes the Hottentots of the 
 Colony, the Korannas, the iSTamaquas, the Griquas (see page 382), 
 and the Bosjesmans. We shall specially have in view the first 
 three. The Hottentots, or Koi-Koin, have a yellow-brown or 
 gray skin. This character is almost an invariable one. Their 
 long wooUy hair, which is inserted obliquely in very small tufts, 
 approximates them to the Papuans. Their thick, broad, and 
 prominent cheek-bones, and their small and oblique palpebral 
 apertures, on the other hand remind one of the Chinese races 
 {Barrow) ; their eyes are dark chestnut or black, and very wide 
 apart. Their cranial capacity is 1290 {Broca), that is to say 
 82 cubic centimetres less than in the "Western negroes ; they are 
 more dolichocephalic than these. Their narrow forehead is com- 
 pensated for by its height, and it is frequently bulging at the 
 height of the frontal bosses. The nose is frightfully broad and 
 Hat, the nostrils are thick, very divergent, and exposed. Their 
 prognathism is generally enormous, though it varies. The mouth 
 is large, with thick projecting and turned-up lips. The chin is 
 pointed, although supported by a receding jaw. The ears are 
 large, and without lobule. The Hottentots have but little beard, 
 and the body is destitute of hau". Their stature is below the 
 average, at least in the three tribes in question, the Korannas 
 being not quite so small, which may arise from a cross with the 
 Kaffirs. Their joints are thick ; some of them have broad and 
 heavy feet, but in the majority the feet and hands are somewhat 
 small. Some are of weak frame, others squat and very muscular. 
 Steatopyga, which is somewhat common among the women, in- 
 creases with puberty. It is met with, here and there, throughout 
 the whole Hottentot group, and, as we have said, as far as the 
 regions occupied by the Somalis, where the Hottentot race is no 
 longer to be seen. In a case mentioned by Barrow, the tremulous 
 mass passed 14 centimetres beyond the line of the back (see page 
 362). This character, as well as the tablier, is only constant and 
 of any extent in the Bosjesman tribe. 
 
 The Hottentot type is, in other respects, without unity; one 
 
Chap, xii.] HOTTENTOT TYPE. 493 
 
 ■would call it an agglomeration of ancient races driven down into 
 this extremity of the globe. Thus, fifteen of their skulls in the 
 Museum have a sub-nasal prognathism of 73 -5, and yet we find 
 among them three marked as Colonial Hottentots, in which it 
 is only 80, and this one of the most favoured of the Yellow races. 
 There are two examples of Bosjesmans, where it is 63"4, and two 
 of ISTamaquas, as low as 58-2 and 51'3 respectively. Such dif- 
 ferences are certain evidences of crossing. So with platyrrhinia — 
 M. Broca found the nasal index varying from 46 to 72. 
 
 Travellers agree in considering the greater number of the 
 Bosjesmans, and some of the Namaquas, as forming a distinct 
 type. Three characters in the former seem to favour this view : (1) 
 The large steatopyga, which is the exception among the Hottentots 
 and the rule with a very large number among the Bosjesmans ; (2) 
 The tablier, in -the same way ; (3) The stature, which is much smaller 
 than that of Hottentots. Livingstone imagined that he had seen a 
 Bosjesman 1 -83 mfetre in height, but he was no doubt deceived by 
 a stray Kaffir. It is certain that the Bosjesmans are the smallest 
 race in the world, and that it is a stretch to put their mean stature 
 at more than 1 -40 mfetre. Many traits in their skeletons have also 
 attracted attention, such as the welding of the two bones proper of 
 the nose into one — the obliteration of the linea aspera of the 
 femur, as in apes. In other respects their characters and those of 
 Hottentots are alike. For example : the hair growing in tufts of 
 closely-twisted spirals, some millimetres in diameter, the skin of a 
 yeUowish colour, or Kke dirty varnished oak, &c. Their facial 
 angle varies from 64 to 70, according to Fritsch ; it is 64 in one of 
 the Namaquas in the Museum, this being the lowest known in 
 Man. The Bosjesman woman, known by the name of the Hottentot 
 Yenus, who died in Paris, and whose full-length portrait in the 
 Museum is an excellent example of this race, was considered 
 tall by her own people. Cuvier has given a good description 
 of her : " She had a way of pouting her lips," he says, " exactly 
 like that we have observed in the ourang-outang." To anyone 
 who has seen these anthropoids the simile is very expressive. 
 "Her movements had something abrupt and fantastical about 
 
494 HOTTENTOT TYPE. [Chap. xii. 
 
 them, reminding one of those of the ape. Her lips -were monstrously 
 large. Her ear was like that of many apes, being small, the tragus 
 "weak, and the external border almost obliterated behind. These," 
 he says, after having described the bones of the skeleton, " are 
 animal characters." Agaiu : " I have never seen a human head 
 more like an ape than that of this woman." What we said before 
 relative to the Hottentot type throughout the whole of Southern 
 and Eastern Africa is still more true with respect to the special 
 Bosjesman type. The Obongos, near the banks of the Gaboon, 
 have the same old yellow, jaune vieux complexion, the same 
 growth of the hair in tufts as the Hottentots, and a character 
 which is par excellence that of the Bosjesmans — smalkiess of 
 stature. From the coast of Aden, among the SomaUs, to the 
 mouth of the Ogobai on the west, we find races of the Bosjesman 
 type — the lowest of the human race. The fact escaped Cuvier 
 that this type is the most animal known, and diminishes the 
 distance which separates the European from the anthropoid ape. 
 What shoidd we say if the type were a pure one 1 
 
 In concluding our remarks concerning the Negro types of Africa* 
 it should be noticed that the several divisions we have admitted 
 among them are altogether insufficient. We have been studying 
 the Negro as compared with the White, but without taking any great 
 account of the distinctions between them, which are as palpable as 
 between White or Yellow races. Thus, a,mong the black tribes of 
 the West Coast that we have associated together under the name of 
 Guineans, there are evidently two very distinct types — one ugly, 
 diminutive, with large and squat limbs, and with a round or 
 short face ; the other comparatively handsome, tall, with slender 
 and well-proportioned limbs, and with a long face. Thus we shall 
 have to give up the Hottentot type, and after perhaps separating 
 the Namaquan type, keep to that of the Bosjesman. So among 
 the KafBrs, or rather those sprung from them, extending from the 
 
 * See " Travels in tlie Interior of Southern Africa," hj J. Barrow, 2 vols., 
 London, 1801 ; " Memoire sur la Pemme Hotteutote," by Baron Cuvier, in 
 " Hist. Nat. des Mammif&res," by G. St. Hilaire and F. Cuvier, 2 vols, in 4to, 
 Paris, 1824 ; &0. 
 
Chap, xii.] PAPTJAN AND KEW CALEDONIAN TYPES. 495 
 
 Zambesi to Balir-el-Gliazal to the west of the great lakes, there are 
 Tsry many types, •which are at the same time very characteristic 
 ones. The collection of busts of M. de Froherville is sufiicient of 
 itself to prove that the description of the K'egro races of Africa 
 must he altogether remodelled.* 
 
 The Papuan Type. 
 
 The Papuan type is distributed throughout the whole geo- 
 graphical area called Melanesia, except ia Australia. It appears 
 to be most pure in the Solomon Isles and the ISTew Hebrides. In 
 the Fiji Islands, and even in ISew Caledonia, it is mingled with 
 the Polynesian type. Its characters are the foUowing : 
 
 Ordinary stature, but relatively taller than the ]S"egrito and 
 Malay types ; the skin is black or of a chocolate colour ; the hair is 
 black, harsh, frizzled, growing in distinct tufts, which are short and 
 thick in early Hfe, and at a later period assume a bushy character, 
 or like the head of a mop {tete de vadrouille), measuring thirty 
 <5entimtoes on each side. The beard, as weU as the hair on the 
 body, grows in the same way in tufts, but these are farther apart. 
 They have a very dolichocephaHc skull, with the lateral walls 
 vertical, and frequently exhibiting a median crest commencing 
 behind the bregma, or going beyond as far as the middle of the 
 forehead. The eyes are sunk, the sclerotics dull ; the nose is thick 
 and wide at the base, but projecting and turned up, it is said, at 
 least in K'ew Guinea, with the median lobule extending beyond 
 the nostrils {Wallace). The sub-nasal prognathism is considerable, 
 the lips thick and projecting, the jaw receding, and the face, on 
 the whole, rather long.t 
 
 The New Caledonians. 
 
 The ISTew Caledonians are generally associated with the Papuan 
 type. In reality, they are a mixed race formed of three elements ; 
 
 * See " Die Nigritien," by E. Hartmann. Berlin, 1876. 
 
 + See "Indian AroHpelago— Papuang," by J. W. Earl. London, 1859. 
 
496 NEW CALEDONIAN TYPE. [Chap. xii. 
 
 a Polynesian ; one whose name, Melanesian, it would be as well to 
 allow to remain, which leaves us in no doubt as to its relationship ; 
 and an intermediate or cross race. Out of a large number of 
 skulls it is easy to select them; the half-breeds are in greatest 
 number, the Melanesians tolerably numerous, and the Polynesians 
 rare. M. Bourgarel arrives at the same result on the living 
 subject, and describes two varieties — the black and the yellow. 
 The former is characterised, he says, by the very dark colour of 
 the skin, the short hair, flocculent rather than woolly (Forsier), 
 short stature, slender limbs, flat foot, very considerable dolicho- 
 oephaly, marked prognathism, enormous superciliary arches, vertical 
 direction of the two lateral planes of the skull, &c. The latter 
 has the same characters, though attenuated ; among others, taller 
 stature, limbs better proportioned, olive-yellow complexion, longer 
 and less woolly hair, sometimes frizzled, sides of the head round, 
 (fee. However this may be, the present mixed or crossed race 
 presents the following characters on examination of skulls which 
 have been brought to Europe, and which, for the most part, are 
 those of the original inhabitants of the Island of Pines : 
 
 The cranial capacity in the adult man is 1460, and in the 
 woman 1428, and is greater than that of the Australian and the 
 negro, but much less than that of the White and Yellow races, 
 especially in the man. The cephalic index of 71 "78 is as small as 
 that of Australians, Esquimaux, and the Veddahs of Ceylon. The 
 forehead of 9 3 '5 is much narrower than in the negroes of Africa, 
 but less than in Australians. The nasal index clearly places it 
 apart from aL. the Black races ; it is 53'06, that is to say very 
 nearly mesorrhinian. The orbital index of 80 '6 approximates it ta 
 the Australians and the prehistoric races, and separates it from the 
 YeUow races. The prognathism is 69-8, and a little less than in 
 the Australians and negroes of Africa, though in all it is consider- 
 able. Simply by the arrangement of the inferior border of the 
 nasal aperture one may always distinguish a New Caledonian from 
 an African negro. In the former it is absolutely obliterated, and 
 replaced by two channels of an altogether simian character, which 
 pass down on each side in the direction of the alveolar border. In 
 
Chap, xii.] 
 
 NEW CALEDONIAN TYPE. 
 
 497 
 
 the latter it is blunt but tolerably distinct, or replaced by a sort of 
 platform. The facial angle is tbe smallest ia our tables (see 
 
 Fio. 48.— A New Caledooian half-breed : Yellow variety of M. Bourgarel, from M. de la 
 Kicherie's collection. 
 
 page 286). Daubenton's angle is that of the Black races, the 
 parietal angle the smallest known. The superciliary arches are 
 more prominent according as the individual is more Melanesian — a 
 
 'I K 
 
498 NEaEITO TYPE. [Chap. xir. 
 
 remarkable difference from the negro of Africa, in whom they are 
 small and flat. But what strikes one at a cursory glance in the 
 principal type of the Island of Pines, is the coarseness of the 
 features, and the contrast between the hoUows and prominences of 
 the face, which gives it a ferocious appearance. The integuments 
 would however modify these characters, as in the Tasmanian, to 
 judge by the very beautiful photographs forwarded by M. Simon,, 
 French consul at Sydney, and unless theyrepresent another altogether 
 contemporaneous type, the face would be, on the contrary, full,, 
 round, moderately long, the features, as it were, pasty, and without 
 animation. The hair forms a thick and continuous fleece ; the nose 
 is large, broad, and flat, the lips large and pouting, (fee. Figure 48 
 represents a half-breed, no doubt one of the Yellow variety. 
 From her tall stature, her slender limbs, and her comparatively 
 light complexion, she is Polynesian. From her deeply-sunken 
 eyes and overhanging eyebrows, her long forearm, her slender and 
 high calf of the leg, her projecting heel and flat foot, she is 
 Melariesian ; from her frizzled rather than wooUy hair, she is a 
 cross-breed.* 
 
 It must be admitted, iu short, that the present Ifew Caledonian 
 race is principally Melanesian, as the hair, as well as the features 
 generally, testify, but that the Polynesian influence has made itself 
 apparent, especially in the stature and the nasal index. It is to 
 this we have aUuded whenever we have been comparing the 
 negroes of Oceania with those of Africa. 
 
 The Negrito Type. 
 
 The Negrito type has been carefully defined by M. de Quatrefages.. 
 Its present representatives are the Mincopies of the Andaman 
 
 * "Des Eaces de rOceanie Fraii(;aise et en particulier de celles de la 
 NouTelle Caledonie," by A. Bourgarel, in "Mem. Soc. d'Anthrop. ; " first 
 Memoir, vol. i. ; second, vol. ii. ; " Etude des Cranes Neo-Caledoniens du 
 Masee de Caen," by Bertillon, in "Revne d'Anthrop.," vol. i., 1873; 
 " Presentation de PhotograpMes de Neo-Cal6doniens et d'Anstraliens," by 
 Topinard, " Bull. Soc. d'Ajathrop.," 2nd series, vol. xii., 1876. 
 
Chap, xii.] NEGRITO TYPE. 499 
 
 Islands, the Semangs of tlie interior of the peninsula of Malacca, 
 the Aigtas of the Philippines. Their fundamental characters are 
 low stature, woolly hair, black skin, and sub-brachycephaly. This 
 last character is the most prominent. The cephalic index of five of 
 their skulls is 82-54:. The stature of five individuals collected by 
 M. Hamy from various authors, is, on the average, r4:7 metre. 
 The hair of the Andaman is black, woolly, and grows iu spirally- 
 twisted tufts, like that of Papuans, Tasmanians, and Hottentots. 
 They have but little beard, and the skin, the reverse of the Tas- 
 manian, is glossy and jet black. The following characters also 
 belong to them : The forehead is full and projecting, wide as 
 compared with that of negroes, but less so than that of Tasmanians. 
 The face is round or quadrilateral, and rather short, the cheek-bones 
 broad and somewhat flat. The eyes are large and round, that is to 
 say not very well formed, and horizontal, with thick eyelashes. 
 The nose is broad at the base, but slightly crushed in, and the 
 nostrils are round. The sub-nasal prognathism of 70-2 in the two 
 specimens ia the Museum is about the average of Yellow races. 
 The lips are moderately large, and appear but little turned up for 
 negroes ; the face is round at the bottom, and not receding. The 
 Andamans are short and squat, though the Luzon girl, according 
 to the drawing of Choris, is slim and well-proportioned. They 
 have square shoulders, well-developed chest, .the trunk the 
 same all the way down, without the slightest figure, the feet and 
 hands moderately large, the fingers long, the .heels not projecting, 
 the toes spread out when standing on the ground. There is but 
 little difference in the figure between the two sexes. In fact, 
 were it not for the haic and the complexion, the negritos would, 
 on the whole, be moderately negroid. They at one time occupied 
 Malacca, and probably New Guinea, and the southern extremity of 
 Asia. But it has not been shown that the black populations of 
 India mentioned in the Mahabarrata were negritos. Up to that 
 time no positive statement has been made as to the presence of 
 woolly hair in that peninsula with regard to absolutely inferior 
 simian types. The descriptions of them given by Piddington, 
 Eousselet, and Blond are very meagre. The only argument in favour 
 
 2 K 2 
 
500 TASMANIAN TYPE. [Ohap. xii. 
 
 of tlie negrito nature of tho autochthonous stock of India is tho 
 existence, here and there, especially in Ceylon and the adjoining 
 part of India, of black tribes of very low stature.* 
 
 The Tasmanian Type. 
 
 The Tasmanian typo, now oxtinct, is separated in a most romavlc- 
 able manner from all the neighbouring tyju'P, negroes or others. 
 While the fifty-four New Caledonians in the Museum have a oephalio 
 index of 71'?, and tho twenty-seven Australians of 71 '4, that of the 
 forty-one Polynesians is 76'3, and that of ton Tasmanianw, 7G'l. 
 
 Then the norma wrUculis of Blumenbaoh leads to a siniilar 
 result ; the vault of the cranium of Tasmaniuiis is uhaT'actc.ri.stic — 
 it is of the keel-shaped type [en carene), at least in tho skulls in 
 the Museum; in other, words, it has a median sagittal projection, 
 bounded by two lateral depressions, b(!yond which are two enlargr,- 
 monts, like the sides of a ship. , The Polynesians exhibit thjs alsd, 
 especially those in the east, although loss marked, while it never 
 exists either in Australians or New Caledonians, who are tho 
 most Melanesian. Again, while the angle of alveolo-nasal prog- 
 nathism is 69"8 in Now Caledonians, C8'2 in Australians, 73'8 in 
 two Andamanesc, and 75-0 in Polynesians, it is 76'2 in six Tas- 
 manians ; in other words, they are scarcely more prognathous than 
 Europeans. With regard to the direction of tho plane of tho 
 occipital foraruon, a character of the , first importance, wc have the 
 same result; they must be grouped with Corsicans and Berbers, the 
 very opposite of tho Oceanic races, Notwithstanding this, from 
 their complexion, their hair, their platyrrhinia, their retrotissSe 
 lips, and their little cranial capacity, they are negroes. Their other 
 craniometrioal characters ^.re these : Greater development of the 
 posterior cranium, which places them among the oc9ipital races of 
 Gratiolet ; swelling out of the temporo-zygomatic regions ; forehead 
 
 * See " ]5tude sur lea Minoopiea ot la Eaoe NfSgrito on gdrUiral,'' by 
 A. de Quatrefagos, in " Revue d'Anthrop.," vol. i., 1872 ; " On tho Andaman 
 and Andamanese," by G. E. Dobson, in "Journal of tlio Anthropol. Insti. 
 tute," April, 1875, &o. ; " Lea Noirs do I'Inde," in " liovue d'Anthrop.," 
 Tcl. iv. p. 567. 
 
Chap, xii.] AUSTRALIAN TYPE. 501 
 
 broad at its lower part (94 millimetres), superciliary arclies and 
 glabella very projectiag ; orbits deep, small, microsemic ; root of 
 tbe nose considerably crusbed in ; face broad and contracted, at tbe 
 expense especially of tbe superior maxillary, tbougb also of the 
 inferior ; some flattening of tbe face otherwise ; tbe malar bones of 
 tbe usual dimensions. Witb regard to tbe characters in the living 
 subject, they are : A chooolate-blaok complexion, a little less dark 
 perhaps than that of the Australian, and less than that of the 
 negro of Guinea ; woolly hair, growing not in one continuous 
 fleece, but in spiral tufts, which faU down in long ringlets; the 
 beard and tbe hair on tbe rest of the body very abimdant, as in 
 Australians, tbe hair being flat in sections under the microscope ; 
 small eyes, sunken, with dull sclerotics; nose broad and flat {epate), 
 not projecting, thick, and pufiy at tbe base ; mouth large, lips 
 thick, tbe upper especially, and turned up; chin small and re- 
 ceding; ears oval, with a thick lobule. Their stature exhibits 
 nothing particular to remark upon, and is below tbe average. From 
 this it will be seen that tbe Tasmanian type is absolutely sui generis, 
 and exhibits anomalies which cannot be otherwise accounted for. 
 We have stated elsewhere that their skulls in tbe Museum appeared 
 to be tbe product of a cross between the Melanesian and the Poly- 
 nesian, but that they bad a special physiognomy of their own. By 
 their manners and customs, the Tasmanians have some points of 
 resemblance to tbe Andamanese.* 
 
 Tlie Australian Type. 
 
 The Australian type, geographically allied to the preceding, is 
 no less paradoxical, but in another sense. It is characterised by 
 the combination of smooth hair with negroid features. On com- 
 paring some Tasmanian and Austraban skuUs, we at first came to 
 the conclusion that tbe former race were physically superior. On 
 
 * See " Etude sur les Tasmaniens," by Dr. Paul Topinard, in "Mem. Soc. 
 d'Anthrop.," vol. iii., meeting of the ISth Not., 1869; "Examen des 
 M&ures Craniometriqnes des CrS.nes Tasmaniens " of Mr. Barnard Davis, in 
 " Eevue d'Anthrop.," vol. ii., by the same author ; " On the Osteology of 
 the Tasmanians," by Mr. Barnard Davis, Haarlem, 1874. 
 
502 ATJSTRALIASr TYPE. [Chap. xii. 
 
 making some further measurements, -which have been since published 
 hy M. Broca and ourselves, we thought the same ; but judging by 
 their characters on the living subject, it is just the reverse — the 
 Australians are superior. 
 
 But is the Australian type a pure one 1 Commissioned by the 
 Soci^t^ d' Anthropologic to deliver certain "Instructions" to travellers 
 in Australia, -we were all at once struck with the differences 
 between the Australians of the coast, of the low plains, and 
 some isolated spots in the bush, on the north-west more especially, 
 and the Australians en masse of the interior, of the high lands, 
 and especially those of the north-eastern region. We therefore 
 called the attention of travellers to this point, and, in particular, 
 as to the existence of wooUy hair here and there, as mentioned 
 by Humbron, Pickering, and Stokes. We thought that before 
 the present race of Australians there must have existed on their 
 continent a race much inferior still, of whom the individuals with 
 woolly hair and the ugly deformed tribes were the descendants. 
 Erom other considerations relating to the ethnic customs described 
 by Mr. Staniland Wake, we were confirmed in this opinion. It 
 is clear that the Australians might very well be the result of 
 the cross between one race with smooth hair from some other 
 place and a really negro and autochthonous race. The opinions 
 expressed by Mr. Huxley are in harmony with this hypothesis. 
 He says the Australians are identical with the ancient inhabitants 
 of the Deccan. The features of the present blacks of India, and 
 the characters which the Dravidian and Australian languages 
 have in common, tend to assimilate them. The existence of the 
 boomerang in the two coimtries, and some remnants of caste in 
 Australia, help to support the opinion. But the state of extreme 
 misery of the inferior Australian tribes may equally explain some 
 of the physical differences which they present. Woolly hair 
 appears to be now but seldom, seen. A few examples of it have 
 been noticed in the York peninsula and the north-west point, 
 which might be accounted for by the immigration of Papuans 
 from Rew Guinea, and in the south by the passage over to the 
 other side of Behring's Straits of some Tasmanians to the continent. 
 
Chap, xii.] 
 
 AUSTRALIAN TYPE. 
 
 503 
 
 On tlie other hand, on studying the Austrahan skull, we notice 
 tolerably-marked differences of type, and it is certain that the 
 Polynesians landed at some period or other in the north-west, and 
 the Malays in the north-east. Lastly, if the Austrahans are 
 thorough Hindoos as regards their hair, they are Melanesians, or 
 if you will, New Hebrideans, New Caledonian negroes, in every 
 other respect. The question may therefore be left. We are stUI 
 in ignorance as to whether the present Australian race took its 
 
 Fig. 49. — Australian type : One of its forms. 
 
 ■origin on the spot, with the characters that we admit as belonging 
 to it, or whether, on the contrary, it was altogether constituted 
 in Asia, or whether it is a cross race, and in that case, of what 
 elements it is composed. 
 
 However it may be, the present race of Australians have the 
 pilous system very developed over the whole body, the hair and 
 the beard long, tufted, black, and straight. Their complexion 
 is a dark-chocolate black, with sometimes a tinge of red in it. 
 They are slight, well made, and if there are travellers who have 
 only seen caricatures of them, there are sailors who describe 
 them as perfect models for the sculptor. The Australians have one 
 of the smallest cranial capacities known among mankind (1'347) ; 
 they are among the most dolichocephaUc (71-4), the most prog- 
 
504 AUSTEALIAN TYPE. [Chap, xir, 
 
 nathous (68'2), and are platyrrhinian (53'4) ; their angle of 
 Daubenton (direction of the plane of the occipital foramen) of 6 '8° 
 approximates them to the negro, and separates them, on the con- 
 trary, from the Tasmanians (2'6) and the White races. They have 
 frequently the " rafter-like " shape of the vault of the cranium,. 
 a narrow forehead, sometimes straight, sometimes receding (two 
 forms opposed to each other), the superciliary arches very project- 
 ing, the superior border of the orhit jutting out above the inferior, 
 the eyes black and sunken, the nose very hollowed out at the root, 
 thick and broad at the base, but less crushed in than the negroes 
 and Hottentots of Africa, and perhaps than the Yellow races.* 
 
 But the most important character of all, that which warrants our 
 setting them apart as a distinct type, is their smooth hair, con- 
 trasted with all the most perfect negro characters. The microscope 
 confirms this distinction. On a transverse section it holds a middle 
 place, in M. Pruner-Bey's figures, between the more or less round 
 shape peculiar to the Yellow and American types, and the some- 
 what elliptical form that we meet with in the Semitic races. It is 
 therefore far from being of the long, elliptical, and flat form 
 peculiar to the negro of Africa, the negrito, and the Papuan. 
 Their stature would be sufficient of itself to prove that the present 
 race is composed of two ancient races, whose stature might have 
 been — the one about 1-600 mfetre, the other above 1-700. The 
 maximum and minimum observed in the male have been 2-130 and 
 1-447 respectively. Those which we might consider in India as of 
 the same race are — (a) The Bhils, "black, with small horizontal 
 eyes, and with hair in long straight skeins;" (b) The Ghounds, 
 " black, with flat nose, thick Hps, and tufted, black, shining hair, 
 falling down in straight skeins ; " (c) The Khounds, more or less 
 black also ; (d) The Mahairs, " very black, superciliary arches 
 
 * See " Journal of Discoveries in Central Australia in 1840-41, with an 
 account of Aborigines," by Eyre, London, 2 vols., 1843 ; " Discoveries in 
 Australia," by Stokes, London, 2 vols., 1848 ; " Exped. in North-West and 
 West Australia," by G. Grey, London, 2 vols., 1840 ; " Voyage au Port du 
 Koi Georges," by Scott-Nind, in " Journal Eoyal Geograph. Soc," vol. i., 
 1831 ; " On the Aborigines of West Australia," by A. Oldfield, in " Trans. 
 Ethnol. Soo. London," vol. iii., 1865 ; " Etudes sur lea Races Indigenes de 
 I'Australie," by P. Topinard, in "Bull. Soc. d'Anthrop.,"1872; &c. 
 
Chap, xii.] AUSTRALIAN TYPE. 505 
 
 projecting, small eyes, and flat nose ; " (e) Tte Varalis, &c. 
 (L. Housselet) ; (/) Tlie Moundas, described by Eoubaud, wlio bave 
 the forehead low and receding, tbe nose tbick and flat, tbe iris 
 dark brown, tbe face wide and flat, tbe cbeek-bones prominent, tbe 
 incisor teetb vertical, a cepbalic index of 75 -6, and a stature of 
 1-61 mfetre; (g) Tbe Yenadis and Maravers of tbe coast of Coro- 
 mandel ; and (7i) Tbe Veddabs of Ceylon, wbose dolichocephaly of 
 71'7 is equal to that of the Australians, and wbose stature is 1'53. 
 Last year a black of this group, a native of Poudicberry, was dis- 
 sected in tbe Laboratory of Anthropology ; his black complexion, 
 slightly tinged with chocolate, and bis smooth, long, and shining- 
 hair, were very remarkable. His skeleton, as well as his bust, are now 
 in the collection of M. Broca. Among tbe Todas of tbe Nilgberries, 
 and, strangely enough, farther on towards tbe north, among certain 
 of tbe Ainos, two of tbe fundamental Australian traits are met 
 with ; namely, the very projecting superciliary arch and tbe 
 abtmdant hair over tbe whole body — characters tbe more remark- 
 able from tbe fact that the reverse is the rule through tbe whole of 
 Eastern and Southern Asia. In tbe same Nilgherry bOls, situated 
 at the junction of the western and eastern Ghauts, towards the 
 southern extremity of the Deccan, in the desired conditions for 
 concealing the remnants of ancient races, two of the above-men- 
 tioned tribes especially afford matter for reflection, namely, the 
 Korumbas and the liulas. The former have a black complexion, 
 the hair long and wavy, black, and in tufts, tbe conjunctiva often 
 injected, the iris dark brown (No. 1 in M. Broca's table of colours), 
 the root of the nose hollowed out to tbe depth of 5 millimetres, the 
 bridge of the nose depressed, the alse wide, the nostrils gaping, the 
 jaw and the teeth prognathous. Is not this an accurate portrait of 
 tbe Australian ? We may add that they are of low stature, like 
 tbe Australian of the coast. It is true the beard is scanty, but 
 exceptionally it is very abundant.* 
 
 * See John Shorfct, " Memoirs on the Savage Tribes of Southern India, 
 particularly those of the Coast and of the 3Sfilgherries," in " Transactions 
 Ethn. Soo. London," vols. i. ii. v. and vii. ; Ross King, " Sur les Tribus des 
 Nilghiris," in " ReTue d'Anthrop.," vol. ii. ; W. F. Marshall, " A Phreno- 
 logist among the Todas," 1 vol., London, 1873. 
 
^06 CONCLUSION. [Chap. xii. 
 
 Lastly, in the west, about Madagascar, and the point of Aden, 
 ill Africa, there are black tribes with smooth hair, or, at all events, 
 large numbers of individuals who have it, mingled particularly 
 among the SomaHs and the Gallas, in the region where M. Broca 
 has an idea that some dark and not negro race, now extinct, once 
 existed. The Himyarites, in common with the Australian type, 
 are black, with straight hair ; but the face is long, the nose aquiline 
 , and well shaped, and the lips thin and smaU : these are black 
 Arabs. With regard to the Charruas and the ancient CaUfornians of 
 America, Mr. Huxley himself would not wish to make Australoids 
 ■oi them.* (See pages 481, 482). 
 
 Cojiclusion. 
 
 Our task is completed. We have passed in review the differential 
 •characters of the Human Eaces, we have pointed out their most dis- 
 tinctive types ; we must now return to the question which was 
 proposed at the close of our remarks on zoological anthropology. 
 Is the human family composed of genera, of species, or of varieties 1 
 In other words, what interval separates its most natural divisions t 
 We must state, at the onset, that a classification of these divisions 
 and subdivisions would be premature. Classification supposes a 
 science completed, and anatomical anthropology is almost in its 
 infancy. A certain number of groups of races which merit the 
 title of branches, and some particular races, are thoroughly defined, 
 but this is all. Happily it is not necessary, for the solution of our 
 problem, that we should know their value and their dependence the 
 one upon the other. Some being well determined under conditions in 
 which they now present themselves to us aie amply sufiicient, and 
 we have our choice in this respect. The sole difficulty arises from 
 the confusion created by intermediate types, some due to crossing, 
 others natural, and in a state of transition, such as we meet with 
 in every degree in the animal series. Such are the Malays, the 
 Chinese, the Dravidians, the Hottentots of the Cape, the Himyarites, 
 
 * "Les Peuplea de I'Arabie M^ridionale," by Maltan, in "Zeitsohr. fiir 
 Ethnol.," 1873. 
 
Chap, xii.] CONCLUSION. 507 
 
 the Abyssinians. Let us take, then, simple general types, as the 
 White, the Yello-w, and the Black with woolly hair ; or particular 
 •ones, such as those of the Scandinavian, the Semite, the Esquimau, 
 the Mongol, the Kafiir, the Bosjesman, the Negrito. What is the 
 distance separating them 1 Let us leave the less palpable physio- 
 logical traits, forget that we have to do with Man, and proceed 
 with physical characters as a naturaHst would with a mammifer. 
 We take up a treatise on N'atural History. The genus Ursus comes 
 before us ; it belongs to the family of Plantigrades, order Carnivora, 
 and is composed of fifteen or sixteen species. But, as in Man, 
 many of these divisions are doubtful, or in a state of transition ; let 
 us put them aside in the same way, and attach ourselves to the 
 weU-recognised types. Cuvier, the great authority in such matters, 
 describes six principal species. The most common are the brown 
 bear of Europe, or Ursus arctos, the black bear of North America, 
 or Ursiis Americanus, and the white Polar bear, or Ursus maritimus. 
 We exclude the prehistoric Cavern bear, or Ursus speloeus, from our 
 consideration altogether. The first, says Cuvier, has the forehead 
 convex, the hair brown, and more or less woolly in the young 
 animal, becoming smooth with age. Its colour varies, as well as 
 the relative length of its limbs. The second has the forehead flat, 
 the hair black and smooth, the muzzle fawn-coloured. The third 
 has the head long and flat, and the hair white and smooth. Ac- 
 cording to other naturalists, the bear of Europe has the trunk 
 shorter than that of America, the soles of the fore and hind feet 
 shorter ; and the Polar bear, the hind-quarters higher, the muzzle 
 tapering, and the claws less incurvated and shorter. If we are not 
 very much mistaken, these characters neither belong to another 
 order, nor are they more defined than those which we employ to 
 distinguish the human types ; not only those the most widely 
 separated from each other, but those which approximate sufiiciently 
 to induce us at once to consider them as secondary types. The 
 long head of the white bear is our dolichocephaly. The convex, 
 flat> or concave forehead {Ursus spelceiis) corresponds with the 
 oblique forehead of the Neanderthal, the straight one of Cro- 
 Magnon and Engis, or the high and bulging forehead of the 
 
508 CONCLUSION'. [Chap. iir. 
 
 NulDian, tliree distinct races. Black, 'brown, or white hair ! Is it 
 not thus that we separate our blonde, brown, or red types 1 The 
 pointed muzzle is the analogue of our prognathism, or our small 
 and narrow jaws as compared with the large and square ones. 
 Differences of stature, and in the proportion of the body, are met 
 with in the human races as well as in the bear species. In a 
 word, there is less interval, as regards characters, between the white 
 and the brown bear than between the European and the negro. 
 
 Let us take another example : The genus Bos, in which the 
 commonest species are the ordinary ox, or JBos taurus; the aurochs, 
 or Bos ursus ; the bison, or Bos Americanus ; the buffalo, or Bog 
 hubalus, &c. The specific character of the first, says Cuvier, is 
 a flat forehead, longer than it is broad, and round horns placed 
 at the two extremities of the projecting line which separates the 
 forehead from the occiput. The second has the bulging forehead, 
 broader than it is high, the horns inserted below the occipital 
 crest, the limbs tall, a pair of supplementary ribs, a sort of crisp 
 wool which covers the head and neck of the male, and forms 
 a short beard under the throat. The third resembles the aurochs, 
 but its limbs, and especially its tail, are shorter. The fourth has the 
 forehead bulging, longer than it is broad, the horns directed side- 
 ways, and showing in front a projecting longitudinal crest, &c. 
 
 These are characters of the same order as our own : The shape of 
 the skull, the abundance of hair on such or such region, its smooth 
 or woolly nature, the mode of growth of the horns — organs similar 
 to the hair — the proportions of the skeleton. The most important' 
 difference is in there being in the aurochs and the bison a pair of 
 supplementary ribs. But steatopyga in the Bushwoman is an 
 equivalent thing. A supplementary rib is not more astonishing, 
 in an anatomical point of view, than that exaggerated mass of fat 
 on the buttocks, and which corresponds, not absolutely, but to 
 a certain extent, with the callosities of apes. Between the various 
 species of anthropoid apes, between those of the genus chimpanzee 
 for example, the differences are less pronounced than between 
 the principal human races. Between the orang and the goriUa 
 there is less distance than between the Australian and the Lap- 
 
Chap, xii.] CONCLUSION. 509 
 
 lander. "We cannot say more. The distinctive characters of the 
 jackal and the dog, the wolf and the fox, the horse and the mule, 
 the zehra and the qiiagga, the camel and the dromedary, are scarcely 
 more divergent, and are frequently less, than those of our types. 
 The blonde Swede, with fair rosy complexion, light blue eyes, 
 slender figure, orthognathous face, and large cranial capacity, is 
 at a prodigious distance from the negro, with the sooty black com- 
 plexion, the yellow sclerotic, the short and wooUy hair, the prominent 
 m.uzzle, and the projecting turned-up lips — from the Papuan, with 
 similarly woolly hair, but long, growing in tufts, sometimes 
 dishevelled, and forming a globular mass, much larger compara- 
 tively than the mane of the bison — or the Bosjesman, with the 
 yellow complexion, with lips of the orang, as Cuvier says, with 
 nymphse reaching almost to the knee, and with deformed buttocks. 
 On a single geographical point, a little island, what a difference 
 there is between the Aino, with the projecting nose and long 
 tufted hair over a great part of the body, and the Japanese, with 
 the flat nose and smooth skin ! It is from skulls that we obtain 
 the most startling evidence. Compare the skull of a New Caledonian 
 of the Island of Pines, who has been exempt from crossing, one 
 of the Namaquas of Delalande in the Museum, a certain Mongol 
 skull brought by Dr. Martin from the desest of Gobi, a certain 
 supposed Uzbek skuU presented by M. de Khanikoff to the 
 Soci^te d'Anthropologie, any Esquimau skuU you please, and 
 particularly one of those brought from Denmark to the Geo- 
 graphical Congress — compare any of these with the skulls of 
 ]!^ubians, of Guanches, of Arabs, or those from the Caverne de 
 rHomme Mort. The differences are frequently most surprising, 
 and greater than those recognised generally by naturalists between 
 simple varieties ; they are even more in number than those whieh 
 they admit between species. 
 
 If it is so in mixed types, crossed by chance in every direction, 
 and influenced by the external circumstances which have, been 
 bequeathed to us after fifty or a hundred thousand years perhaps, 
 what shall we say of the pure types, when races lived in an isolated 
 state, like the anthropoids of the Gaboon and of Borneo, and only 
 
510 CONCLUSION. [Chap. xii. 
 
 crossed in-and-in 1 The forehead of the ISTeanderthal, and the jaw 
 of La Naulette speak more eloquently than the flattening looked 
 upon hy Cuvier as a mark of separation between the hear of 
 Europe and the hear of America. The platycnemic tibia, the femur 
 a colonne, and the perforated humerus, were the appanage of pre- 
 historic races which have disappeared, swallowed up, as it were, in 
 "Western Europe. The sagittal crest, which made its appearance 
 sporadically among the primitive races of the south-west of Asia, 
 as well as steatopyga among the Somalia, is the vestige of an 
 arrangement which has been characteristic in some ancient race- 
 absorbed about the same period. The most animal-like example of 
 the skulls of the Island of Pines, so different from that which we 
 now find among the negroes of New Caledonia, and that of certain 
 Tasmanians, are a record of themselves. But enough for the- 
 present. Without the labour of analysis and reconstruction, it 
 shows us directly that the anatomical and physiological contrasts 
 between human types are greater than those admitted by naturalists 
 between varieties, and as great as between species. The interval 
 appears even to be greater in some cases, and to extend to that of 
 genera. Thus, the four characters which distinguish the goat from 
 the sheep are no other than those which separate certain great- 
 branches of the human family. 
 
 We would not deduce from this that certain human groups are 
 genera — this is for future consideration ; but we come to the con- 
 clusion that at any rate they are species. The three following are- 
 in this category : (1) BrachycephaUc, with low stature, yellowish 
 skin, broad and flat face, oblique eyes, with contracted eyelids,. 
 hair scanty, coarse, and (on section) round; (2) Dolichocephalic, 
 with tall stature, fair complexion, narrow face, projecting on the 
 median hne, hair abundant, light-coloured, soft, and of somewhat 
 elliptical form under the microscope ; (3) More doHohocephalic, 
 with black complexion, hair flat, and rolled into spirals, very 
 prognathous, the radius long, the buttocks prominent, the breasts 
 (in the female) elongated, (fee. 
 
 One objection alone arises, namely, that aU men are eugenesic, 
 and certainly paragenesic ; in a word, that they may give origin in 
 
Chap, xii.] COlTOLITSION. 511" 
 
 time to a fixed intermediate race, wLiilst ia order to answer the- 
 classical definition of species, they ought to he agenesic. (See page 
 195.) But in face of the fact that certain species of animals are also 
 eugenesio and undoubtedly paragenesic, the objection falls to the 
 ground. We confess that before coming to the conclusion that 
 there is eugenesis between certain genera we must wait,* but between 
 certain species it is beyond a doubt ; they give birth to ofispring inde- 
 finitely fertile, without the reversion towards one of the two primitive 
 races having yet been established. It is of little consequence, 
 therefore, that the K'egro and White species are more or less homo- 
 genesic ; they are no less species; for the sole reason that their 
 differential characters have the value of those upon which we 
 establish a basis in natural history for the creation of species. With 
 regard to the question of monogenism or polygenism, iu the signi- 
 fication given to it at the present day, it is absolutely foreign to the 
 subject in debate. To sum up : The HUMAN FAMILY, the first 
 of the ORDEE of Primates, is composed of SPECIES, or funda- 
 mental human races, whose number and primordial characters form 
 the subject of this the Second Portion of Anthropology. 
 
 * We have spoken, at page 195, of a case of hybridity between genera, 
 wMoh miglit have ooonrred in the Department of Aisne. We had reason to 
 speak with reserve. From positive information we have since received, we 
 find that the thing did not take place. 
 
THIRD PAET. 
 
 ON" THE OEIGIN OE MAN. 
 
 a L 
 
CHAPTEE I. 
 
 MONOGENISM OP M. DE QUATRBFAGES POLYGENISM OP AGASSIZ — 
 
 TRANSFORMISM OF LAMARCK SBLBOTION OP MR. DARWIN 
 
 THEIR APPLICATION TO MAN : HIS GENEALOGY, HIS PLACE IN 
 NATURE. 
 
 With regard to the position of Man in the Mammalian series, and 
 the dignity of his races, we come to the general conclusion that 
 they are distiact from the other problems which the knowledge of 
 that Man implies. It matters but little whether at a particular 
 moment, sooner or later, the physical types had been genera, species, 
 or varieties, and whether it is stUl so. What philosophers are 
 curious to know is how they took their origin, whether suddenly 
 and spontaneously at all points, or progressively and naturally 
 from things which had pre-existed. 
 
 At first naturalists and anthropologists took but little interest in 
 all these questions. They worked without listening to dogmas 
 taught outside their own sphere, their methods of investigation 
 were carried on in temperate regions. According as the science of 
 facts progressed, it became impossible for them any longer to be un- 
 interested in the lofty views which gave to Newton and Humboldt 
 so great a reputation, and which is not forbidden in any other 
 branch of human knowledge. 
 
 Two currents therefore are established regarding the Origin of 
 Man leading to two different doctrines — the one orthodox, 7770720- 
 genistic, affirming that all the human races are derived from one 
 and the same stock, and have been produced by the influence of 
 
 2 L 2 
 
Blfi OUUilN OK MAN. fCiiJ^"'' '• 
 
 dininio and oxt.orunl oiivmnslimoos in Ww livitif Hpuotv of liino lliixl. 
 lifts ulapsrtl siiipo t.ho cn^nlioii of tlio world, lUHMmliiij? Ui M\o liililiciil 
 vovsion ; Uio olhor vtn'()hitioni\i\Y, polj/iionl.itii', luiiiutnituug that, 
 ilii.s liiiKso of limo is iiistil1Unt>nt, timl. the t,v|u>.s im> iicriuftiioiil. iiinltM' 
 in'osoiil. oouilitious nml iis \v(i now st>o tln'iii, mul, (^ons<>t|m>nli|y, Uint 
 ihoy must oi'i^iimlly Imvo boon innilipU*. liiil. Ui(\ horizon hiiH now 
 c1iiu\jj!(h1 ; ill i.-^ no longiM' a mio,'<lioii of 5877 j'oiiw, but. of tin 
 inoaloiiliiblo iiuiubor of nji;os, iind whiil. wns fiilHo in l.ho forniov imiho 
 may bo l.nio in tho Intttu'. ili is wiUi |.ln< lioU'st<o|)(\ llml wo iniwl. 
 now soimih for (ho oi'ij»in of man. l.ol. lis llion look iil. Uio iloot.i'inOH 
 boforo us, AVo sliall bo bi'iof, Ibis work prolossing nion^ly l.o bo a 
 rAtiniLfi of faoUs and of ibo nioMiods of sjiudy rolatinj^ to Ant.liro- 
 pology, 'I'liis Tiiinl I'arl. doos not .striotly oonu\ witliin our jilan, 
 and is only supploniontavy. 
 
 \Vi\ .sbiUl say notbinn reapiM-Unj:; l.biv dissorlalions of nioia- 
 physioin,na on tlio oas(>nn(( of Man, llio pi'i\-osl.ablisliod bavnuiny 
 boiwoon tibo body and mind, or tl>(\ intollif^'ool inUM'V(>n|.ion of 
 nature ; nor as vojj;ards tlio pliiloHOidiors of a biglioi' ordnr. 'I'liO' 
 Following' (piotation will form tlin oxooiU.ion ; "In tbo nooossary 
 (lonrso of things," said li'.piourns and Linirotins, "all posMil)l(\ (loni. 
 binidiious tako ))lai'.o, soonor (U' kiticr, in tho midst of (iomplox 
 conditions, whiob siniiotinuw aro nioi'o or loss favonrablo to tlioui, 
 and soniotimos oonliradiot thoni, so that tho rosults aro as varialilir 
 aa oan bo aooordiiijj; to tho oonditions ot timoH and jilaoos, and 
 tho combination of tlioso oonditions."* 
 
 Wo would willingly iiass ovor in silonoo tlio tixi)lanationH wbiiih 
 wo Iind at tbo foundation of all voligious systoins, if ono of tboni— 
 our owii — had not) bo(wi diHjnitod by oniiiuiut authroi)ologi8ts. Tu 
 that oonoQrning i\w book oi! GeueBis, suoh m wn tind I'roni tho 
 (loinpilatiou of Msdras aFt(^r tliQ Jiabyloniau (laptivity, two opinions 
 ' present thomsolvos to our notioo. Soma, bolioving thouisolvoN 
 to bo thoroughly orthodox, nlllrni that it is monily a quustioii' 
 relating to the Semitic pooplos, and jiartioulai'ly to tbo .lows ; tlioy 
 Tovivo tbo arguments upon whiolt, iu 1608, .iHaau do la l'oyr(\ro 
 
 * " Snr lo Tranatorialimo," by Paul Uroon, In " Dull. Suo. d'Anlilirop.,"' 
 2ncl aQrles, vol. ir., 1870. 
 
<5nAi'. I,] MONOGKNISM. B17 
 
 foundod his dootrino of th(\ .rni-Adiunitna,* and Vu] us l,o i-onKim'bov, 
 for oxaniplo, thiit God " sot a moi'k upon Cain, lost any (indiii>v 
 him should kill him," and go on to roinaclc that, in ohaptov vi,, 
 the "sons of Ooil" aro ropvoaentod as vaoos of Adam, and the 
 " sons of nion " as nou-Adamici raoos, OthovH, radicid in thoir ortlui- 
 doxy, declavo, on tho oontvavy, tliat all racos originally deaoonded 
 from a single pair — A<lam and Evo — and oousooutivoly from the 
 throo pairs saved from tlie Deluge j that all tho animal species aro 
 tlovivod in the same way frma pairs saved at the same time ; that 
 tho inlluonoe of climate and oxtornal oiroumstonoos soon manifested 
 itaolf, Mul thuit subsequently wuuo the diversity of languages. 
 But Linnraua had some doubts on thi\ subjocti ; he was dissatisfied 
 Avitla regawl to tho exceptional uliaractcr of tho country whioli had 
 supplied tliQ wants of zoologioal speoios as opposed to one imother 
 as tho polar bear and tlie tropical hippo])otftanus. Vvichard replied 
 that it had to do witlx tho anpornatnral, and honoo, that a little 
 more or a little less made no difforeni'iv. This must bo repeated to 
 those who inquiro whulilun' Adan; was whito, blank {Pi^ic?Mrd), or 
 a'od {Jiiwehim do Salh'n), ov who mak(> liim a doliohoeepholo, while 
 tlio rvo-Adamitos should have been bvaoliycepholes {Staniland 
 Wake). 
 
 Wo pass on to the saiontifio dootrinea. In tlie first place, we 
 Jmvo that of M. do Qiiatvofages, who, witliout allowing himself 
 to be disturbed by influences foreign to science, strongly defends 
 tho dooti'ino of tl\o unity of tlie hviman s]UM'ios, while tliorougMy 
 ivoknowledginj,' its very great antiquity. 11 o considers tliat zoo- 
 logical .^jiooit« are mu'biviigoablQ in thinr physical type, and circum- 
 scribed by their iJioi-actor of homogenosia witliin their own area, 
 and of hetorogenosis outside it.t Human races ni'o only varieties 
 (U'ising from tho inflxiemee of climate and external circumstanoos 
 {milimtx), and of crossing, and may bo reduced to a small number, 
 
 * "' PrtDadftJiiito," by laaao cle la Poyi-iiro ! Ed. Elacviw, Amsterdam, 1656. 
 
 t " Do VUnitfi do I'Eapioo Hnmaiuo," 1 vol., T'lwia, 1860 j " Rapport sur 
 lea Progirfes do VAiitlu-opologio," IViis, 1869; "LoQona Profoas*5es nu 
 Mnadnm," in " Roviio dos Oours SaiQutiflqnea," I86I1-66, 1867-68, Ac, by 
 H. do Qnatrofsigoa. 
 
518 POLYGENISM. [^Chap. i, 
 
 all of ^vMcli come from one and the same stock. Man was created 
 in the beginning, in conditions to us unknown, by the intervention 
 of an extraneous force, or by a supreme wO. M. d^ Quatrefages, 
 therefore, recognises but one human species, and in deference to 
 man's elevated rank, and his character for religiousness, he eon- 
 cedes to him a place apart in the zoological series, under the name, 
 proposed by Isidore G. Saiat-Hilaire, of rhgne humain. 
 
 The various arguments ia favour of this doctrine have been 
 examined in the course of this work. We merely remark that 
 religiousness is not really peculiar to Man ; and that among men, 
 whether individuals or races, many do not possess it; that the 
 influence of external circumstances is but little, and does not — as 
 far as we can see, and ia the present state of things, as Geoffroy 
 Saint-HUaire said — succeed in producing a new physical character 
 indefinitely transmissible ; that fecundity exclusively taking place 
 between individuals of the same species is not the criterion of the 
 species ; and, lastly, that the interval which physically separates the 
 principal human types is equal to, if not sometimes greater than, that 
 which separates and determines zoological species. The origin of 
 species, Agassiz maintained, is lost in the obscurity of the first estab- 
 lishment of the present state of things. Species are not strictly 
 fijxed within certain limits, nor determined by the faculty of indivi- 
 duals of being fertile only inter se. Human races differ as much as 
 certain families, certain genera, or certain species. They were pro- 
 duced, in some independent way, on eight different points of the 
 globe, or centres, which are as distinct in their faujia as in their 
 flora. Agassiz admitted, nevertheless, the intervention, at every 
 phase of the history of the world, of a superior wUl, operating 
 by virtue of a preconceived plan.* 
 
 The third of these propositions, coming from a naturalist of such 
 world-wide renown, has considerable weight ; and agrees with our 
 own conclusions as anthropologists. As to his centres of creation, 
 which he calls realms {des royaumes), their particular localisation is 
 only justified, as regards some of them, by the flora and fauna 
 
 * " Sketch of the Natural Provinces of the World," by Professor Agassizj- 
 in " Types of Mankind," hy Nott and Gliddon. Philadelphia, 1854 
 
Chap. I.] TEAiTSFOEMISM. 
 
 519 
 
 generally, but not by Man : the Australian realm for example. To 
 his Arctic realm, apparently so proper, it may be objected that it is 
 aow entirely peopled by men and animals wbich have been im- 
 ported there, and that their conditions of existence were precisely 
 identical at one time iu the centre of Prance. The doctriue of 
 M. de Quatrefages is classical monogenism, which must be dis- 
 tinguished from the new monogenism of which we shall speak 
 presently : that of Agassiz is a special polygenism. Both are 
 allied to each other, ia that they search into the secret of the 
 formation of Man outside the known natural laws which regulate 
 the universe. It is otherwise with the doctrine we are now about 
 to speak of, namely — 
 
 Transformism. 
 
 This is of French origin. The entire honour of its introduc- 
 tion is due to A. Lamarck, although De MaiUet and Eobinet had 
 previously sketched out some of its traits. A species, Lamarck 
 wrote in 1809,* varies infinitely, and, considered as regards time, 
 does not exist. Species pass from one to the other by an infinity 
 of transitions, both in the animal and vegetable kingdom. They 
 originate either by transformation or divergence. By going back 
 for ages, we thus come to a small number of primordial germs, or 
 monads, the offspring of spontaneous generation. Man is no &- 
 ception to this; he is the result of the slow transformation of certain 
 apes. The ladder to which we before compared the organic king- 
 doms only exists, he says, as regards the principal masses. Species, 
 on the contrary, are, as it were, the isolated extremities of the 
 branches and boughs which form each of these masses. 
 
 This striking hypothesis was the offspring of Lamarck's brain, at 
 a time when the knowledge of natujal history, palaeontology, and 
 embryology was very imperfect, and upon which so vivid a light 
 has since been shed. Ifothing has been added to its principle : the 
 ways and methods of transformation have been discussed, facts of 
 observation have been supplied, genealogical tables of animated 
 
 * " PHlosophie Zoologique," \sj J. B. A. Lamarck, Profesaeur de Zoologie 
 au Museum, Paris ; Ist edition 1809, 2nd edition 1873, in two volumes. 
 
520 TEANSFORMISM. [Chap. i. 
 
 beings have been proposed ; but the foundation has remained 
 intact both in Prance, in Germany, and in England. Lamarck, in 
 that he -was in advance of his time, and stood forward firmly in 
 advocacy of his theory, showed himself to be a man of genius. The 
 ways and methods of Lamarck may be summed up in a single 
 sentence — the adaptation of organs to conditions of existence. 
 Change in external circumstances, he says, obliges the animal 
 placed in the presence of animals of greater strength, or in new 
 conditions of life, to contract different habits, which produce an 
 increased activity in certain organs, a diminution, or a want of 
 exercise, in others. By virtue of the physiological law inherent in 
 every organism, that the organ, or a certain part of the organ, 
 diminishes or increases in proportion to the work that it performs, 
 these organs become modified when submitted to new conditions. 
 The internal power of the organism, dependent on the general 
 function of nutrition which is called forth, is immense. The 
 wants induced by external changes brought it into play. 
 
 The doctrine in its entirety was too far in advance of the age 
 to have the success which was its due. Cuvier, the advocate of 
 the orthodox opinions of the time, had but little difficulty in 
 stifling it in the cradle — Cuvier, who ridiculed the idea of the 
 foundation of the Normal school, as well as the honorary title of 
 ilkve granted by the Convention to Lac^pfede. ^Notwithstanding 
 this, however, the doctrine had its adepts. In France — Poiret, 
 Bory de Saint- Vincent, Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire ; abroad — Treviranus, 
 Oken, Goethe. From the year 1818 Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire became 
 its champion, and laid particular stress on the immediate effects 
 on the body of external circumstances. Cuvier a second time 
 resumed the discussion, and, in opposition to him, propounded his 
 own doctrine on the periodical revolutions of the earth, of the 
 renewal each time of the Flora and Fauna, and of the incessant 
 and miraculous intervention of a creative will. The contention 
 between these two powerful geniuses had to do with the movement 
 which ended in the Eevolution of 1830. Authority at last had the 
 advantage, and in France transformism was vanquished. But the 
 number of its proselytes increased from far and wide. The last 
 
Chap, i.] DARWINISM. 521 
 
 work of Goethe was favourable to it. Botanists, especially, accepted 
 the new doctrine — W. Herbert, P. Mathews, Lecoq, Hooker, Eafi- 
 nesquc, Naudin. Then the geologists — Omalius d'Halloy, Keys- 
 serling, and other savants. L. Buch, Schaffhauser, Herbert Spencer, 
 and Lyell had abeady cleared the way, by sapping at the foundation 
 the theory of the periodical catastrophes of Cuvier, when Charles 
 Darwin made his appearance, in 1859. 
 
 This great naturalist was not vividly impressed by the views of 
 Xamarck. His own ideas passed through his mind during his 
 voyage round the world in the Beagle* On his return to 
 London, six years afterwards, he studied the results which were 
 obtained by breeders on animals, and he devoted himself to make 
 experiments, especially on pigeons. The subject of artificial selec- 
 tion most occupied him, when one day he stumbled on the work 
 " On Population," by Malthus. This was a streak of light ; the 
 word which was to make the fortune of his theory was found — 
 " the struggle for existence." 
 
 By a singular coincidence, another English savant, Pdchard 
 "Wallace, who had taken up his abode in Malaisia, forwarded to 
 him at that moment a memoir, supported by facts, in which the 
 same ideas .were set forth. But Mr. Wallace, with his task hardly 
 entered upon, recoiled before the consequences of his labom-s when 
 he perceived that they, of necessity, applied to Man. Charles 
 Darwin, on the contrary, persevered, and it is with justice that his 
 countrymen gave to his theory the name of Darwinism, a theory 
 which should be thus defined : " Natural selection, by the struggle 
 for existence, applied to the transformism of Lamarck." 
 
 "We know that breeders and horticultiuists obtain, ahnost at will, 
 the new forms which they desire, by first selecting from one and the 
 same species, then from the offspring of a first cross, then from 
 those of the next crosses, and so on, individuals possessing in the 
 highest degree the variety required. A new species is thus de- 
 veloped, and by dint of perseverance, fixed. The divergences from 
 
 * " Voyage d'un Naturalisfce aiitour tin Monde, h. bord dii Navire le 
 Beagle, de 1831 & 1836," by Charles Dai-wiu. Traduction de E. Barbier- 
 Eeinwald. 
 
522 TKANSFOEMISM. [Chap, l 
 
 the primitive type wMch are oMained are very strange. They have 
 to do with colotir, form of the head, the proportions of the skeleton, 
 the configuration of the muscles, and even with the hahits (moeurs) 
 of the animal. Sir John Sebright undertook to produce in three 
 years a certain feather in a bird, and ia six years a certain form of 
 boak or head. In this consists " artificial selection," as it is effected 
 by the intelligent hand of Man on animals in a state of domestica- 
 tion. But is not the same result sometimes produced naturally in 
 wild animals ] Mr. Darwin afiirms it, by substituting for the hand 
 of Man the chance circumstance derived from vital competition 
 (concurrence). 
 
 Competition is a general law of the universe — it is exerted 
 between physical forces, between beings of the two kingdoms, 
 between men, between peoples. Under the name of " struggle for 
 existence " it is even useful ; without that, there would soon be a 
 retardation of everything upon the face of the earth. It has been 
 calculated that a single pair of elephants — the slowest of all animals 
 to breed — would produce, barring aU. restraints, fifteen millions of 
 young in five hundred years. Derham, quoted by Boudin, speaks 
 of a woman, who died at 93 years of age, as having 1298 children, 
 grandchildren, and grea1>grandchildren. Malthus has proved that 
 population increases in a geometrical ratio, while the resources of 
 that population only augment in an arithmetical ratio. The law 
 of the stronger predominates everywhere — ^the large devour the 
 smaL. ; those the best protected by their organisation, the best pro- 
 vided with means of attack or of resistance to external agencies, 
 survive the longest ; the more numerous they are, and the longer they 
 live, the more they multiply and establish a stock in preference to 
 those who are less favoured. 
 
 Spontaneous variability is another element of the Darwinian 
 theory. Two individuals of the same species, or of the same 
 family, do not resemble each other in every respect ; they differ by 
 characters of no value, or by characters which give them an ad- 
 vantage in the struggle over those whose wants, or conditions of 
 climate, food, and external circumstances of every sort are the 
 same. The animal with a protective-coloured skin, that is one 
 
Ohap. I.] SELECTION. 523 
 
 like the ground upon which he is moving, will better escape his 
 enemies. In one of Darwin's works there is a very curious ex- 
 ample of this kind in hutterflies. The animal with the thick fur 
 will be under more favourable circumstances at the poles, the one 
 with the sleek skin at the equator. Every advantage acquired 
 from birth, and therefore more easily transmissible in consequence, 
 places the individual in a better condition for resistance to causes 
 of destruction and to sterility. It foUows, then, that certain 
 individuals are, as it were, selected, chosen by a natural process 
 which replaces the agency of Man in artificial selection ; and that 
 these individuals are precisely those who are separated the most 
 from others by some new character. The thing being repeated for 
 many generations, the divergences become marked, the tendency 
 to inheritance increases, and new types are formed, farther and 
 farther removed from the point of departure. It follows, also, 
 that wherever an ensemble of conditions exhibits itself, which 
 allows a divergence to be developed without being stifled by rival 
 divergences, it will take its place in the series of beings, and 
 possibly form one for the occupation of a zoological species. One 
 difference between artificial and natural selection is in the time 
 they require for a transformation to become confirmed. In the 
 former nothing is left to chance ; matters progress rapidly, but the 
 types are not thoroughly fixed, and readily revert to the primitive 
 type. In the latter we must reckon by ages, chance also inter- 
 vening, for the destruction of that which has commenced only to 
 be completed. The results once obtained are more stable. Be- 
 tween the methods set forth by Lamarck and those of Darwin 
 there are important differences. As regards the former, the point 
 of departure of transformation is in the external circumstance 
 which modifies the way of living and creates new habits, new 
 wants, which induce a change in the nutrition and structure of 
 organs. Por the latter, the point of departure is in the superiority 
 that procures for the individual some advantage m the daUy 
 struggle. Lamarck considers that variation is effected gradually ia 
 the course of existence. Darwin, that it appears spontaneously at 
 birth, or rather during embryonic Ufe. To the process of selection 
 
S24 TEANSFOEMISM. [Chap. i. 
 
 by vital competition, Mr. Darwin adds selection liy sexual com- 
 petition, -whicli depends, on the will, on the choice and vitality of 
 the individuals, and especially aifects the males.* 
 
 The Germans, who have vigorously espoused the cause of 
 transformism, particularly Hseokel, recognise two orders of methods. 
 They give to those of the French school, including changes of 
 life and habits, of food and climate, training, the excess or want 
 of use of organs, the name of phenumena of direct adaptation ; and 
 to those of the English school, that is to say, to congenital 
 characters, the name of phenomena of indirect adaptation. En- 
 deavours have been made to see whether there may not be other 
 processes of formation of species. According to the doctrine of 
 Darwin, the new character pre-exists in the germ, and depends 
 on the influence of the parents even before conception. According 
 to Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire, the action of climate and external circum- 
 stances is not confined to its exercise upon the individual in 
 the course of existence, it may equally make itself felt in the 
 germ in progress of development, and produce varieties, sometimes 
 monstrosities. Such would be the origin of the race of gnato 
 oxen of La Plata. In the above processes it is only a question as 
 to slow transformations. "We might also have sudden transforma- 
 tions. " An accident which it is not necessary to mention," writes 
 E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, " trifling at its origin, but of incalculable 
 importance in its effects, has been sufficient to change the inferior 
 type of oviparous vertebrata into an ornithological type. The 
 process of M. KoUiker would be equally an accident, taking for 
 his point de depari the various degrees of geneagenesis and the 
 succession of forms in the development of the embryo. He thinks 
 that beings may produce other beings separated from their parents 
 by characters of species, genus, and even of class. He bases his 
 theory on that which takes place sometimes in inferior forms, 
 and supposes, as regards the superior, that a normal egg may 
 
 * " La Descendance de I'Homme et la Selection Sexuelle," by Ch. Darwin; 
 translated into Frencli, 2nd edition, Paris, 1873. See also " L'Origine des 
 Bspfeoes et de la Variation des Animaux et des Plantes sous I'Action de la 
 Domestication," by the same. 
 
Chap, i.] GRADATION OF FORMS. 525 
 
 go past the period of its ordinary development, and give origin ta 
 a higher organisation. These theories and processes concern the 
 two organic kingdoms. The limits of this work do not allow 
 of our entering into the subject further, and we must confine 
 ourselves to Man. Do they apply to Man, as well as to animals 1 
 Evidently they do, or they are false : laws are uniform. As we 
 said in the early part of this work, the Primates form the first 
 natural group of the order of Mammalia, thanks to a certain 
 number of characters common to them and to the succeeding 
 orders. Moreover, this group presents numerous points of contact 
 with the latter, and, in the series of families of which it is 
 composed, an ascending gradation of types is observed, becoming 
 more and more perfect. Thus, at the bottom of the scale we have 
 the Lemurs, some of which are allied to the Insectivora, others 
 to the Cheiroptera, and even to the Marsupialia ; above them the 
 Cebians, many of whose genera are lemurs in a state of transition ; 
 then the Pitheoians, some species of which seem derived from 
 Cebians. Afterwards, the anthropoid apes make their appearance, 
 separated by a sensible interval, if one of them, the Gibbon, did 
 not diminish it, owing to his numerous features of resemblance to 
 the Pithecians. At the summit is Man, many of whose types 
 approximate in many of their features to the Anthropoids. 
 
 Their differences, indeed, may be thus summed up : (1) There 
 are modifications of form connected with the decidedly vertical 
 attitude of Man and the oblique attitude of the Anthropoid ; (2) 
 The more perfect adaptation of the foot and hand to their respective 
 functions of locomotion and prehension in Man ; (3) The volume 
 of the brain, which is three times as large, or more, in Man, thus 
 causincr a corresponding activity of the organ, and a proportionate 
 development of all its functions; namely, language, observation, 
 judgment, &c. The continuity, on the one hand, of the inferior 
 order of Mammalia with the superior order of Primates, and in this 
 latter of its inferior family of Lemurs with its superior famUy of 
 Man passing through the Anthropoids more nearly akin to Man 
 than to the Pithecians ; and, on the other hand, the continuity 
 of certain human races with others rising higher and higher in 
 
626 TEANSFOEMSM. [Chap. i. 
 
 the scale are clearly the result of this. Moreover, between one 
 type and another, sufficiently recognised for naturalists to make 
 them the representatives of special groups, whether of order, 
 family, genus, or species, some variation of the organ, or some 
 bastard species, almost always comes in to establish the transi- 
 tion. Natura non facit saltum. It might be said that a creative 
 force had been at work, step by step, leaving its track behind 
 it, and that groups are due to the periods of repose during which 
 that force was in operation on a certain spot, with a view the 
 better to increase the number of forms. When Lamarck supposed 
 that Man was the issue of the chimpanzee, his mind was atten- 
 tively engaged in observing both the family of Primates in 
 particular and the animal kingdom in general. The rudimentary 
 organs in Man, or vestiges of perfectly useless organs — like the 
 ilio-csecal appendix — which are well developed in other species 
 among the Mammalia, and the unusual appearance of organs, like 
 the supplementary mammae, or conformations peculiar to other 
 animal species, furnish so many arguments in favour of transfor- 
 mation. On no other hypothesis are they to be explained. They 
 may be phenomena of atavism, of remote reminiscences, of facts of 
 reversion. (See page 127.) Embryology would also be favourable 
 to the doctrine. (See page 129.) "The series of diverse forms 
 which every individual of a species passes through," says Hseckel, 
 " from the early dawn of his existence, is simply a short and rapid 
 recapitulation of the series of specific midtiple forms through which 
 his progenitors have passed, the ancestors of the existing species, 
 during the enormous duration of the geological periods."* A 
 series of teratological cases, entering into the arrests, and even into 
 the perversions of development, of the embryo, are thus explained. 
 Hare-lip, polydactilia, microcephaly, are, as it were, hesitations of 
 the principles of evolution, attempts on its part to stop at points 
 where it had rested in anterior forms, or to progress in other pre- 
 viously-followed directions. Human palaeontology does not reach 
 
 * " Histoire de la Cr&tion dea Etres Organises d'apr^s les Lois Natnrelles,'' 
 fcy E. Haeckel. French translation. Paris, 1874. 
 
Chap. I.] ADAPTATION OF ORGANS. 527 
 
 back sufficiently far for us to found any arguments upon it : it 
 should pass beyond th.e last or quaternary period. The most 
 ancient human fossU of this period, however, is favourable to the 
 idea of a derivation of man from the anthropoid. 
 
 Direct proofs as to transformism are not wanting. In so far 
 as Man is concerned, the matter is clear ; but rational proofs, as 
 Geofitoy Saiut-Hilaire said, are abundant. Transformism imposes 
 itself as a necessity : everything is as if things had thus taken 
 place ; or man was created out of nothing, by enchantment ; or he 
 proceeds from that which existed previously. But what are we 
 to think as to the mode 1 Those of direct adaptation of organs to 
 life are so rational, they are so conformable to the general laws of 
 physiology, that it would be unwise to reject them positively. Of 
 course we have never seen a White changed into a Black, nor 
 smooth hair into woolly ; but in time, by passing through inter- 
 mediate races produced by crossing, there is no proof that the 
 phenomena might not have taken place. "We are too exacting. 
 Prichard was anxious to prove that Whites might make their 
 appearance spontaneously among ISTegroes. All his arguments were 
 wrong, in that he entirely left out of sight the way in which races 
 have become removed from place to place. But we are not at all 
 sure that his aspirations, if better supported, might not now 
 triumph. The brain increases in volume, and its convolutions in- 
 crease in richness, in proportion to the degree of activity of which 
 they are the seat, bringing in their train a series of subordinate 
 craniological characters. Nutrition and external circumstances 
 may in the same way cause the stature and colour of individuals to 
 vary as well as the proportions of the body. La fonction fait 
 I'arijane of Lamarck is a demonstrative fact. When a muscle is 
 paralysed, it becomes atrophied, the osseous eminences in which it 
 is inserted disappear, the skeleton becomes deformed. In persons 
 who have lost a limb by amputation, the nerves, having become 
 useless, progressively become atrophied from their extremity to 
 their central point in the brain (Luys). The digestive tube is 
 dilated, and the beUy becomes large in those who are large eaters 
 of veo-etable food. All : the diiSculty is in the transmission of 
 
528 TRANSFOEMISM. [Chap. i. 
 
 the acquired individual character ; clearly, facts are at fault here. 
 There is no proof, however, that the tribe of Akkas is not indehted 
 for its diminutiveness to the fact of inheritance fixing accidental 
 characters. If the albinos are as common among the Monbouttous 
 as Dr. Schweinfiirth states, the question is, whether circumstances 
 being favourable, a new species may not some day start up. Sup- 
 posing in that country, through some catastrophe, the temperature 
 and radiation should be suddenly lowered, many would die, but 
 the survivors would have a better chance of thriving. In poly- 
 dactilia, supposing crossing outside the family did not counteract 
 inheritance, transmission, now limited to five generations, according 
 to the facts hitherto mentioned, would certainly go beyond. 
 
 Let us pass on to the methods of indirect adaptation of Mr. 
 Darwin. Vital competition is a thing which must not be con- 
 founded with selection. It exists, no matter how we apply it, 
 between individuals, as between societies and races. We have 
 before us the fact of races inferior in the struggle becoming extinct. 
 The Charruas, the Caribs, the ancient Californians, the Tasmanians, 
 no longer exist ; the Australians, the Negritos, the Esquimaux, are 
 fast following them. The Polynesian, the American Indians, wiU 
 soon be in their wake, if they have no chance of surviving except 
 by crossing. The superior races, on the contrary, thrive and in- 
 crease. It is easy to foretell the moment when the races which now 
 decrease the interval between the White man and the Anthropoid 
 shall have entirely disappeared. 
 
 There is nothing mysterious in this extinction ; its mechanism is 
 altogether natural (see page 413). The result will be the survivance 
 of those most adapted to benefit the superior races. But at one 
 time, in Australia, in Malaisia, in America, and in Europe it was 
 not so. These very races which now are succumbing, were superior 
 relatively to others which no longer exist. The Australians of the 
 present, whom we look upon as savages, have a civilisation con- 
 formable to their external condition, a certain social organisation — 
 in relation to the Negritos of the interior of the Philippines, for 
 example. We think we have proved that they have ejected a 
 negro race inferior to themselves, as we now eject them. The 
 
Chap, i.] APPLICATION TO MAN. S29 
 
 wandering aborigines of Western Australia, described by Scott 
 Wind, are the remnants of this race. In our own country, the 
 races of the P&igord, which have disappeared before, or become 
 absorbed into, the brachycephalic races from the East and the 
 blondes from the JSTorth, have played the same part before the races 
 anterior to the Neanderthal as these probably did to the Miocene 
 races of Thenay and Saint-Prest. In these successive extinctions, 
 which exhibit to us series of generations, strata of more and more 
 perfect races succeeding and replacing each other, do we not recog- 
 nise the selection by vital competition of Mr. Darwin ? But where 
 is the character which gives the advantage in the struggle 1 Among 
 animals, and during the first ages of the human race, the power 
 which enabled them the better to defend themselves against other 
 living beings, and against changes of climate and external con- 
 ditions, was necessarily of a physical kind, such as quick-sighted- 
 ness, more acute smell, more vigorous muscles, a constitution better 
 adapting itself to cold or heat, to marsh miasm, or to certain kinds 
 of diet. If Man acclimates tolerably well now, it must not be for- 
 gotten that he owes the power, in a great measure, to the processes 
 which he makes use of. Formerly he must have succumbed, or his 
 constitution must have been modified. "We speak here especially of 
 sudden acclimation. But from the period when societies were 
 formed, and moral force took its legitimate supremacy over brute 
 force, the advantage remained with the most skilful, the most 
 industrious — in a word, with .the most iateUigent. Selection, from 
 henceforth, was made to the advantage of a single organ. The 
 largest brains — those with the richest convolutions, and with the 
 most delicate structure, with the most appropriate histological 
 elements — were the most favoured. Hence a state of progress 
 which is undeniable. The process of Mr. Darwin has, therefore, 
 had its effect in the past, as it has now in the present. With 
 appropriate institutions we might direct it, and accelerate its already 
 so remarkable results. 
 
 The exteipal circumstances of Lamarck must, in fact, have an 
 action of whose mechanism we know nothing. The selection of 
 Mr. Darwin has one of which we are certain. With the latter we 
 
 2 u 
 
630 THE PKBCURSOE OF MAN. [Chap. i. 
 
 reckon hj strata of races, with the former we must do the same. 
 The characters which we now see permanent in a given race are 
 not the more so when we compare a succession of races. 
 
 Ahsohite immohility nowhere exists; and fixity of species is 
 only relative. May there not he other processes contrihuting to 
 gradual transformation '! Certainly not. There are three orders of 
 characters which transformism explains, says M. Broca, some of 
 evolution, others of improvement, a third serial. But there is a 
 fourth, the unimportant, the key to which he does not give. Such 
 are the presence of the as intermedium of the carpus, the absence 
 of a nail on the great toe, and the absence of a round ligament in 
 the hip-joint, peculiar to the orang-outang among Anthropoids. 
 Why, how, and when, did these characters take their origin 1 
 
 Another objection is that, in going back in the past, we do not 
 find human races differing much from the races of the present; that 
 we do not find, for example, men with half the cranial capacity of 
 those of the present. But do we discover the Pliocene Man and 
 the Miocene Man by the flint implements of Saint-Prest and 
 Thenay ? The former made use of fire, the latter did not : is not 
 this a reason for suspecting that the fact of the volume of his brain 
 being less was the cause ? If he was unacquainted with fire he 
 ought not to have the sense to bury his dead. The Anthropoids 
 are in this condition, and we have none of their remains. Probably 
 also, human bones do not last for so immeasurably prolonged a 
 period. However, on surveying the road travelled over, and the 
 discoveries made during the last fifteen years, we must not despair. 
 Is it not by chance, when making a road or a railway cutting, or 
 after a land-slip, or an earthquake, that discoveries of this kind arc 
 made 1 Here a man of intellect, and one interested in the subject, 
 should be at hand. 
 
 Now, Africa, Asia, Oceania, and even the greater part of Europe, 
 are still as it were virgin soils. Perhaps, also, the stratum in which 
 is now lying the precurseur, not possessing language, announced by 
 G. de Mortillet and Hovelacque is at present submerged ; perhaps 
 he has only existed on a very limited point of the globe. Some 
 day or other he may present himself before us under the form of a 
 
Chap. I.] THE PEECUESOE OF MAN. 531 
 
 skeleton stranded upon some tank of time, as at Grenelle; crusked 
 under a rock, as at Langerie-Haute ; or embedded in lava, as at 
 Denise. 
 
 The derivation of Man from some previously-existing form 
 being admitted, the question is what this form may have been, 
 Lamarck believed it to have been a chimpanzee. We have seen 
 that each of the three great Anthropoids approaches more or less 
 to Man in certain characters, but not one possesses them aU. So 
 in the inferior races ; no one race, not even the Bosjesman, is 
 specially marked out as descending from an anthropoid — they are 
 only made to approach more or less by such or such a character. 
 The precursor of Man, then, is only analogous to the Anthropoids. 
 The human type is an improvement upon the general type of their 
 family, but not of one of their known species in particular. 
 
 M. Hseckel does not express an opinion on this poiat. He asks 
 whether the doUchocephales of Europe and Africa are not derived 
 from the chimpanzee and the gorilla of the coasts of Guinea, both 
 of which are dohchocephales ; and whether the brachycephales of 
 Asia do not descend, on the contrary, from the brachycephahe 
 orangs of Borneo and Sumatra. Many reasons lead to the belief, 
 indeed, that all the dolichocephales are originally from Europe and 
 Africa, and the brachycephales from Eastern Asia, not to speak of 
 the old continent of Asia. M. Yogt thinks otherwise. He thinks 
 that Man is only cousin-german to the anthropoid, and that the 
 ancestor common to them both is farther off stUL Here M. Hseckel 
 speaks positively. He says that this very remote ancestor is an 
 ape of the old continent, a Pithecian, which was itself derived from 
 a Lemur, and this in its turn from a Marsupial He even gives it 
 the name of Limurien — a term borrowed from Mr. Sclater ; and, as 
 the focus of this series of transformations, a continent now sub- 
 merged, of which Madagascar, Ceylon, and the Sunda islands are 
 the remains. 
 
 But what becomes, in aU this, of the old dispute between mono- 
 genists and polygenists f It no longer has any interest, and, to be 
 brief, may be summed up as follows : As to the question of the 
 most, elementary human types to which we might go back, types 
 
 2 M 2 
 
i532 , GENEALOGY OF MAN. [Chap. i. 
 
 utterly irreducible, wliatever their value of genera or species, in the 
 sense usually applied to those words, are they the issue of many 
 Anthropoid ancestors, Pithecoids or others ; or are they derived from 
 a single stock, represented by a single individual of their genera 
 now known, or not 1 The anthropological data given in this work 
 appear to us more favourable to the former opinion, if we accept 
 the transformation theory. The most characteristic races, whether 
 living or extinct, do not form one single ascending series, such as 
 may be compared to a ladder or a tree, but, reduced to their simplest 
 expression, to a series of frequently parallel lines. 
 
 We shall conclude by giving a resume of the possible genealogy 
 of Man, according to Hteckel. Equally relying on comparative 
 anatomy, palseontology, and embryology, the learned professor of 
 zoology at the University of Jena thus gives his views on the 
 subject of evolution : - 
 
 At the commencement of what geologists call the Laurentian 
 period of the earth, and of the fortuitous union of certain elements 
 of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, under conditions which 
 probably took place only at that epoch, the first albuminoid clots 
 were formed. From them, and by spontaneous generation, the first 
 cellules or cleavage-masses took their origin. These cellules were 
 then subdivided and multiplied, and arranged themselves in the 
 form of organs, and after a series of transformations, fixed by 
 M. Hesckel at nine in number, gave origin to certain vertebrata of 
 the genus AmjpMoxiis lanceolatus. The division into sexes was 
 marked out, the spinal marrow and chorda dorsalis became visible. 
 At the tenth stage, the brain and the skull made their appearance, 
 as in the lamprey ; at the eleventh, the limbs and jaws were 
 developed, as in the dogfish : the earth was then only at the 
 Silurian period. At the sixteenth, the adaptation to terrestrial 
 life ceased. At the seventeenth, which corresponds to the Jurassic 
 phase of the history of the globe, the genealogy of Man is raised 
 to the kangaroo among the Marsupials. At the eighteenth, he 
 becomes a Lemurian : the Tertiarjr epoch commences. At the 
 nineteenth, he becomes Catarrhinian, that is to say an ape with a 
 tail, a Pithecian. At the twentieth, he becomes an Anthropoid 
 
Chap, i.] GENEALOGY OF MAK. 533. 
 
 continuing so tlirotigliout the whole of the Miocene period. At 
 the twenty-first, he is the man-ape, he does not yet possess language, 
 nor, in consequence, the corresponding brain. Lastly, at the 
 tioentxj-second, Man comes forth, as we now see him, at least 
 in his inferior forms. Here the enumeration stops. M. Hajokel 
 forgets the twenty-tliird stage, that in which the Lamarcks and 
 ]Srewtons make their appearance. Although having attained so 
 \oiif' an eminence, Man must have had a very low origin, in no 
 way differing from that of the first and most simple organic cor- 
 puscles. What he is now in the womb, he would have been, 
 permanently on making his appearance in the animal series. 
 
 This theory is painful and revolting to those who delight to 
 surround the cradle of humanity with a brilliant aureole ; and if we 
 were to boast of our genealogy and not of our actions, we might 
 indeed consider ourselves humiliatea. But what is this new- 
 restraint to our amour-propre in comparison with that which 
 astronomy has already imposed 'i When the earth was fixed in the 
 centre of the system, and it was thought that the universe was 
 created for the earth, and the earth for Man, our pride ought to have 
 been satisfied. This doctrine, called by the Germans " geocentric," as 
 applied to the earth, and " anthropocentrio," as applied to Man, was 
 perfectly co-ordinate ; but it fell to the ground the moment it was 
 demonstrated that the earth is only the humble satellite of a sun 
 which itself is but one of the luminous points in space. It was 
 then, and not now, that Man was truly recalled to humility. It was 
 no longer for him that the sun rose each morning, that the celestial 
 vault was nightly bespangled with innumerable resplendent orbs. 
 Out of all this Macrocosm there was but one lowly jjlanet left to 
 Man. Like that peasant who dreamt that he was ruler of the world, 
 and woke up to find himself in a simple cottage, it was not without 
 regret that he saw himself thus degraded. Long the remembrance 
 of his vanished dream troubled his thoughts; but he was obliged to 
 be resigned, to become accustomed to the reality; and now h& 
 consoles himself, as he is no longer this monarch of creation, with 
 the thought that he is really sovereign of the earth. This undoubted 
 royalty he has a right to be proud of. But in what way is it 
 
534. CONCLXJSIOlir. [Chap. i. 
 
 threatened or diminislied hj the transformation theory 1 Would it 
 be less real if lie had brought it under subjugation by himself or 
 inherited it from his first ancestors % Far from depreciating Man 
 and his origin, the doctrine of Lamarck dignifies and ennobles them, 
 by substituting for the theory of the supernatural the theory of the 
 mutability and natural evolution of organic forms. 
 
 But, after all, what matter to science the regret or complacency 
 of some people % Its aims and designs are beyond their compre- 
 hension. Man is not at liberty to put or not to put a curb upon 
 the functional activity of his brain; his spirit of inquiry is the 
 most noble, the most irresistible of his attributes; and as M. Gabriel 
 de MortUlet said at the meeting of the Association for the Advance- 
 ment of Science, his characteristic is here, and not in religiousness. 
 For want of knowledge the imagination muses upon the unknown, 
 and forms it to our own ideal. But to true observers the reality is 
 sufficient; they contemplate the magnificent spectacle which is 
 opening out before them ; they even worship nature ia its beauty, 
 its grandeur, its harmony, and its thousand varieties of form and 
 movement. The animal has the simple notion of cause and effect, 
 and sees that the boundary of his faculties and senses is limited. 
 Man alone investigates and wills ; his horizon is indefinite, like his 
 intellectual faculties when they are exercised without trammel. 
 
 Let us not, therefore, seek to contract the circle of knowledge. Is 
 it not knowledge which has conducted us step by step, age after age, 
 to the degree of prosperity we now enjoy % Is it not this which 
 engenders civilisation, which adds to our well-being, brings to 
 us the purest satisfaction, instructs us in philosophy, and secures 
 our supremacy over everything on our planet ? Each one has his 
 task to perform in this immense sphere. To some is given subjects 
 of study relating to the progress of Hfe ; to others its realities. Let 
 the former have for their object the development in society of 
 ideas of justice, honour, and morality, without which it cannot 
 exist. The means are within their power. Our part is to ascertain 
 facts, to deduce from them laws, and to look at them calmly, 
 without allowing ourselves to be carried away by our feelings. 
 Whatever may be his origin, whatever his future destiny, Man, 
 
Chap, i.] CONOLUSIOS. 535 
 
 to the antiiropologist, is but a Mammifer, whose organisation, 
 ■wants, and diseases are in the highest degree complex; whose 
 hraia, with its admirable functions, have reached the highest 
 ■development. As such, he is subject to the same laws as the rest 
 of the animal creation; as such, he is a participator ia their 
 destinies. 
 
 THE END. 
 

 I1N.DEX. 
 
 
 
 PACK 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 "Afcajous" 
 
 ... 96 
 
 Angle, 
 
 Basilar, of Broca 54, 285 
 
 Ahassians 
 
 ... 452 
 
 it 
 
 of condyles, Ecker ... 294 
 
 Abyssinians ... 
 
 387, 507 
 
 1) 
 
 Corono-faoial, of Gra- 
 
 Acclimation ... 
 
 ... 392 
 
 
 tiolet 291 
 
 Accras ... 
 
 ... 487 
 
 ,, 
 
 Grauio-f acial, of Ecker 
 
 Aorocephaly ... 
 
 ... 176 
 
 
 and Huxley ... 292 
 
 Adamawa negroes 
 
 ... 487 
 
 yy 
 
 Endo-cranial, of Broca 294 
 
 Adaptation of organs tc 
 
 mi- 
 
 
 Facial, of Camper 42, 286 
 
 lieux 
 
 ... 527 
 
 ,, 
 
 „ of Cloquet 41, 44 
 
 Afghans ... 241, 
 
 386, 448 
 
 ,, 
 
 ,, of Geoffrey 
 
 Agenesis 
 
 ... 369 
 
 
 Saint-Hilaire 42 
 
 Age of skeleton 
 
 ... 128 
 
 >> 
 
 ,, of Jacquart ... 43, 
 
 Agglutinative languages 
 
 . 423 
 
 
 286, 330 
 
 Algtas ... 
 
 ... 499 
 
 )y 
 
 Frontal 275 
 
 Amos 242, 304, 350, 431 
 
 476, 504 
 
 It 
 
 of inclination of cra- 
 
 Aklcas ... 
 
 ... 322 
 
 
 niometrioal planes 267 
 
 Albinos 
 
 ... 161 
 
 
 of lower iaw 135, 262 
 
 Aleutians 
 
 242, 473 
 
 ^ 
 
 Metafacial, of Serres 291 
 
 AUenatiou, Mental ... 
 
 ... 163 
 
 
 Naso-basal, of Weloker 255 
 
 AUophyle Races 
 
 ... 202 
 
 j^ 
 
 of neck of femur . . . 142 
 
 Alsatians 
 
 241, 474 
 
 )) 
 
 Occipital, of Broca 53, 285 
 
 Altai, Kalmuck of the 
 
 ... 254 
 
 )1 
 
 ,, of Dauben- 
 
 Alveolar arch ... 
 
 35, 59 
 
 
 ton 53, 284 
 
 ,, point 
 
 35, 234 
 
 It 
 
 Orbital 57 
 
 Alveolo-condylean plane 
 
 55, 267 
 
 )J 
 
 Parietal, of De Quatre- 
 
 ,, -sub-nasal prognathism 281 
 
 
 fages 288 
 
 AmoJcosah 
 
 ... 490 
 
 ,« 
 
 of prognathism 280, 282 
 
 Ama-Xosas 
 
 ... 320 
 
 ) J 
 
 of Segond 47 
 
 Ama-ZulMS 
 
 426, 490 
 
 
 Sphenoidal, of Welcker 292 
 
 Americans 211, 231, 
 
 334, 398, 
 
 ,, 
 
 of supination of radius 75, 77 
 
 
 404, 479 
 
 yj 
 
 Symphy sian . . . ... 262 
 
 Ancient Britons 
 
 231, 241 
 
 
 of torsion of humerus 75 
 
 Andamams 242, 423 
 
 445, 499 
 
 Annamites 311, 338 
 
 Angles, Craniometrioa 
 
 , in 
 
 Annnlar deformation of skull 182 
 
 general 
 
 ... 283 
 
 ,, 
 
 protuberance ... 102 
 
 Angle, Auricular 
 
 ... 291 
 
 Anomalies 126, 160 
 
INDEX. 
 
 537 
 
 PAOB 
 
 Antelme's cephalometor . . . 296 
 
 Antes ... ... ... ... 454 
 
 inteversion of processes of 
 vertebrae ... ... ... 64 
 
 Antisians ... ... 345, 391 
 
 Anthropoid apes 24, 45, 48, 50, 56, 
 64, V8, 85, 90, 117, 187, 290, 293 
 Anthropological societies, 
 
 Foundation of ... ... 17 
 
 Anthropologists ... ... 1 
 
 Anthropology, Definition of... 2 
 ,, Division of ... 18, 25 
 
 ,, Applications of ... 10 
 
 ,, Biological 364 
 
 , , History of ... ... 13 
 
 ,, Zoological ... ... 25 
 
 , , Kelations of, with art 12, 
 
 315 
 
 „ ,, ethnography 7, 419 
 
 „ ethnology 8, 25, 417 
 
 ,, history 13, 427 
 
 ,, ,, linguistics ... 423 
 
 Anthropometry ... ... 81 
 
 Aphasia ... ... ... 109 
 
 Aphemia 109, 157 
 
 Appendix, Vermicular ... 96 
 
 ,, Xyphoid 70 
 
 Aqueduct of Sylvius .. . ... 115 
 
 Aquitanians ... ... 444, 459 
 
 Arabs ... 274,394,463,486 
 
 Araucanians ... ... ... 321 
 
 Arch, Alveolar ... 35,59 
 
 „ ,, Forms of ... 260 
 
 Arches, Superciliary... 33, 210 
 
 Archencephales ... ... 116 
 
 Archffiology, Prehistoric ... 434 
 Armenians ... ... ... 457 
 
 Art, Relations of Authro. 
 pology with ... 12, 316 
 
 Aryans 424, 430 
 
 Ashantis ... ... ... 487 
 
 Aspect of skulls 214 
 
 Assiniboins ... ... ... 480 
 
 Assyrians ... ... 358, 462 
 
 "Asterion" 238 
 
 Atavism ... ... ... 380 
 
 Athahascans ... ... ... 453 
 
 Auricular angle ... 277, 299 
 
 „ foramen ... ... 33 
 
 „ point 234, 238 
 
 „ radii 270 
 
 Australiams ... 375,414,501 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Australoids ... ... 201, 447 
 
 Austrians ... ... 242, 311 
 
 Auvergniams 211, 230, 249, 285, 
 288, 327, 460 
 
 Axis, Cerehro-spinal 101 
 
 Aymaras ... 183,387,481 
 
 Aztecs, Miorocephales, called 166 
 
 Bdkalais ... ... ... 487 
 
 Sambarras ... ... ... 488 
 
 Bantou languages . . . 426, 490 
 Bardbras ... ... ... 485 
 
 Basion 32, 234, 238 
 
 Basques 230, 244, 249 257, 259, 
 
 286, 327, 444 
 
 Bassoutoa ... ... ... 490 
 
 Battaks 477 
 
 Bavariams ... ... 241, 398 
 
 Beak of the encephalon 115, 295 
 Bechuanas ... ... ... 490 
 
 Begharmi negroes ... ... 487 
 
 Belga 459 
 
 Belgians ...319,329,334,336 
 
 Berters 321, 334, 415, 447, 461 
 
 Bhils 456, 504 
 
 Birmese ... ... 241, 254 
 
 Blondes ... ... 347, 449 
 
 Blood, Circulation of... ... 401 
 
 Bluraenhach's norma verticalis 214, 
 
 264, 448 
 
 Body, Development of ... 128 
 
 „ Weight of 398 
 
 Boers 393 
 
 Bohemians ... ... ... 394 
 
 Boomerang ... ... ... 421 
 
 Bornil negroes ... ... 487 
 
 Boronos ... ... ... 453 
 
 Bosjesmans 247, 281, 304, 345, 493 
 Bosnians ... ... ... 454 
 
 Bosses, Frontal 33, 210, 275 
 
 ,, Occipital ... ... 211 
 
 „ Parietal 210 
 
 Botocudos 183, 321 
 
 BouUs 487 
 
 Boundary riders ... ... 382 
 
 Brachycephali ... ... 238 
 
 Brachystocephali 238 
 
 Brahmans ... ... ... 456 
 
 Brain ... 102, 309 
 
 „ Measurement of ... 125 
 
 Weight of ... 120,309 
 
 Breasts, The 100, 362 
 
-538 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Bregma 
 
 
 234 
 
 Bretons 230, 241, 327, 
 
 ais, 
 
 459 
 
 Breyzad language 
 
 
 459 
 
 Britons, Ancient 
 
 281, 
 
 241 
 
 Brooa's occipital crochet 
 
 
 209 
 
 „ goniometer ... 
 
 
 330 
 
 „ stereograph ... 
 
 
 268 
 
 Bronze Age 
 
 
 422 
 
 Brown Races ... 
 
 
 453 
 
 Mugis ... 
 
 254 
 
 ,4W 
 
 BulgoA-ians ... ... 
 
 242 
 
 430 
 
 Bwgv/ndians, Ancient 
 
 324 
 
 443 
 
 Bussahirs, or Bisha/ri 
 
 345, 
 
 452 
 
 Caeoiun ... ... ... 96 
 
 Cafusos ... 166,352, 381 
 
 Calabar negroes ... ... 487 
 
 Caloaneum 36, 307 
 
 Caledonians, New ... ... 495 
 
 Calf of the leg 93 
 
 Californicms ... ... 345, 481 
 
 Callipers 232 
 
 Callosities of bnttooka in 
 
 apes 94 
 
 Camper's facial angle 42, 286 
 
 Cannibalism ... ... ... 419 
 
 Cannon bone ... ... ... 40 
 
 Cansfcadt, Race of ... ... 437 
 
 „ skulls 439 
 
 Capacity of ekull ... ... 48 
 
 ,, Mode of proceeding 
 
 for measuring ... 228 
 
 ,, in Mammalia... ... 48 
 
 ,, in Anthropoids ... 50 
 
 „ in Man at different 
 
 ages 131 
 
 „ in the Human Haces 229 
 of the orbits 222 
 
 ,, of the chest ... ... 403 
 
 Carpus ... ... ... . . 36 
 
 Carthagirdcms ... ... 468 
 
 Caste 422 
 
 Catarrhinians ... ... 23, 96 
 
 Cebians 23, 46, 56, 64, 187, 525 
 
 Celts 459 
 
 Centenarians ... ... ... 147 
 
 Cephalic index ... ... 236 
 
 Cephalo-orbital index . . . 231 
 
 ,, -spinal „ ... 251 
 
 Oerebral functions . . . 148, 406 
 
 Cerebellum 102, 114 
 
 Cerebro-spinal axis ... ... 101 
 
 PIGB 
 
 "Chanchas" 423 
 
 Cliaouias ... ... ... 360 
 
 Characters in general... 18, 446 
 
 507, 529 
 
 „ Anthropometrical ... 315 
 
 ,, Archaeological ... 483 
 
 „ Craniometrical 40, 218 
 
 Descriptive, 208-213, 297, 
 
 314, 340 
 
 „ Ethnic 417 
 
 „ Historical 426 
 
 InteUectual ... 148, 407 
 ,. Linguistic ... ... 428 
 
 „ Osteometrioal ... 301 
 
 „ Pathological ... 158, 412 
 „ Physical 30, 204, 814 
 
 ,, „ on the living 
 
 subject ... ... 814 
 
 „ Physiological 127, 363 
 
 ,, Rational and empirical 222 
 
 Unimportant... 308, 530 
 
 Characteristic, General, of 
 
 Human Family ... ... 406 
 
 " Charbon" in homed cattle. .. 159 
 Charruas ... 321, 386, 481 
 
 Chestnut hair ... ... ... 348 
 
 Chiasma optic. . . ... ... 102 
 
 Chin, The 60, 360 
 
 Chinese 230, 240, 249, 257, 286, 
 
 321, 335, 361, 402, 472 
 
 CMncoliS ... ... ... 181 
 
 Choanoid muscle ... ... 95 
 
 Cicatrices in negroes . . . 413 
 
 Cinibri ... ... ... ... 459 
 
 Cirmneriam,s ... ... 179, 459 
 
 Cingalese ... ... ... 452 
 
 Circumference of the skull . . . 245 
 „ ,! in 
 
 microoephales ... 165 
 , , of the chest ... ... 403 
 
 Classification of the Human 
 
 Races 198, 448 
 ,, ,, Mammalia... 22 
 
 „ „ Primates ... 23 
 
 ,, ,, Vertebrata 21 
 
 „ „ Zoological... 18 
 
 Clavicle 36, 303 
 
 Clichy, Female skulls of ... 437 
 
 Coccyx 31, 66 
 
 Colour of the eyes ... ... 346 
 
 Colour of the hair 347 
 
 ,, ,, skin ... ... 342 
 
INDEX. 
 
 539 
 
 Colour, Influence of climate on 387 
 Column, Vertebral ... 31, 63 
 
 Conclusion tritli regard to the 
 
 Human Family . , . 185 
 ,, Human Baces ... 506 
 
 „ Man 529 
 
 Convolutions, Cerebral 104, 113 
 „ Transition ... 102, 118 
 , , Variations of, in Mam- 
 malia ... ... 114 
 
 Cord, Umbilical 101 
 
 Corpora striata ... ... 102 
 
 Corpus callosum ... 101, 112 
 Corpuscles of Paocini ... 95 
 
 Gorsicans ... 230, 244, 281 
 Cotyloid cavity ... 37, 67 
 
 Coxal bone ... ... ... 36 
 
 Coxo-femoral articulation 37, 72 
 Cranial net of Welcker . . . 295 
 
 Craniograph of Broca . . . 271 
 
 , , of Koperm9]d ... 296 
 
 Craniology ... ... ... 206 
 
 Craniometrical drawings . . . 268 
 ,, measurements ... 232 
 
 ,, points ... ... 234 
 
 Craniometry 81, 218 
 
 Craniophore of Topinard ... 273 
 Cranioscopy ... ... ... 206 
 
 Cranium 31, 40, 165, 176, 206, 223 
 
 ■drees 323 
 
 Crest, Tenaporal ... 33 57 
 
 Cretinism ... ... ... 164 
 
 Cribriform plate of ethmoid... 34 
 Cricoid caxtilage ... ... 98 
 
 Croats 241, 259, 454 
 
 Crochet, Occipital, of Broca 209 
 Cro-Magnon, Race of . . . ... 438 
 
 Cromlechs ... ... ... 420 
 
 Crossing 367-377 
 
 Cryptozygoufl zygomatic arch 
 
 288, 489 
 Cubic measurement of skull 227 
 „ „ of orbits 232 
 
 Cuneiform deformation of 
 
 skuU 182 
 
 Curved hues of skuU 210, 235, 246 
 Curvatures of vertebral co- 
 lumn ... ... ... ... 63 
 
 Cylindrocephaly ... ... 177 
 
 Cymbooephaly ... ... 177 
 
 Dahomey 8 
 Dalmaticms 
 Sama/ras 
 Daruikils 
 
 Danes 
 
 Dar-fur negroes 
 Darwinism 
 
 PAGE 
 
 487 
 
 454 
 
 490 
 
 485 
 
 321, 327, 348 
 
 487 
 
 521 
 
 Daoryon 
 
 35, 238 
 
 Deformations of skull, Artifi- 
 cial 178, 421 
 
 Deformities of skull. Patho- 
 logical ... 176 
 „ „ Posthumous 177 
 
 „ „ rickety bones 167 
 
 Denise, Prehistoric skulls of... 450 
 Denmark Museum ... ... 444 
 
 Dentition in the Anthropoid 
 
 Apes... ... ... 131 
 
 „ in Man 136 
 
 Determination of the age of a 
 
 skull 136 
 
 „ „ sex in the skeleton 143 
 
 Development of the body . . . 128 
 
 „ extremities ... ... 141 
 
 „ skeleton ... ... 140 
 
 Diagraph of Gavart ... ... 269 
 
 Diameters ... ... ... 235 
 
 „ Antero-posterior maxi- 
 mum... ... ... 236 
 
 „ Transverse maximum 240 
 
 „ Frontal 249 
 
 „ Maximum occipital . . . 250 
 
 „ Vertical 243 
 
 Diaphysis ... ... ... 36 
 
 Diastema ... ... ... 58 
 
 Digestion ... ... ... 405 
 
 Diopter of Lucto ... ... 269 
 
 Diplogenesis ... ... ... 162 
 
 Diseases ... ... 158, 413 
 
 Distance from medius to pa- 
 tella 334 
 
 Divergence of vision... ... 57 
 
 DoUchocephali 240 
 
 Dolmens ... 299,420, 433 
 
 Dombers, or Dumhas ... 321, 323 
 
 Dondos 161 
 
 Dravidians ...321,327,456,506 
 
 Duration of life 147 
 
 Dutch ... 231, 240, 254, 893, 416 
 
 Dwarfs l60 
 
 Dyaks of Borneo ... ... 477 
 
 Dynamometer, Eegnier's ... 399 
 Dysgenesis ... ... ■■• 369 
 
540 
 
 IISTDEX. 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Ear, The 96 
 
 Eguisheim, Prehistoric skulls 450 
 
 Egyptians 240, 485 
 
 Elliptical alveolar arch . . . 260 
 Embryology ... ... ... 128 
 
 Enoephalon ... ... ... 102 
 
 „ Weight of, in Mam- 
 malia ... ... 122 
 
 „ In Man ... 119, 310 
 
 „ Proportions of diffe- 
 
 I'eut parts of ... 123 
 
 Endocrane ... ... 31, 294 
 
 Endometry 295 
 
 English 272, 311, 313, 320, 327, 
 
 334, 349, 393, 398, 402 
 
 " Ensellure," Lmnbo-sacral, of 
 
 84, 
 
 342 
 334 
 ... 208 
 131, 162 
 
 Duchenne 
 "Envergure, Grande' 
 Epaotal bone ... 
 Epigenesis 
 
 Epiglottis 98 
 
 Epiphyses ... ... ... 36 
 
 Ephippinm ... 34 
 
 Epochs, Stone 433 
 
 Equilibrinm of head in verti- 
 
 cal position . 
 Esqui^naux 
 
 .230, 
 
 52, 62 
 240, 252, 313, 
 396, 444, 473 
 ... 241, 465 
 34 
 
 7, 419 
 ...8, 410, 417 
 ... 418, 422 
 
 369 
 
 ... 176, 238 
 
 201 
 
 425 
 
 Esthonians 
 
 Ethmoid bone . . . 
 
 Ethnography ... 
 
 Ethnology 
 
 Ethnic mntilations 
 
 Eugenesis 
 
 Em'ycephaly ... 
 
 Enrygnathous . . . 
 
 Euskarian language 
 
 Extinction of Paces, Causes of 413 
 
 Extremities, The ... 35,71,85 
 
 Eyes, Colour of the 346 
 
 ,, Oblique direction of 
 
 the 355 
 
 Face 212, 235 
 
 ,, Bones of 35 
 
 ,, Measurements of ... 251 
 Faculty of lauguage ... ... 155 
 
 Family relations ... ... 150 
 
 Fans 488 
 
 Fantis 487 
 
 Fecundity 366 
 
 Fellatahs 485 
 
 Feloupas 487 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Femur 36 
 
 „ Obliquity of 142 
 
 "^Colonne" ... 300, 391 
 Fever, yellow, Immunity of 
 
 blacks against ... ... 12 
 
 Fibula 36 
 
 ,, channelled ... ... 300 
 
 Finlanders ... ... ... 465 
 
 Fins ... ... 321,327, 465 
 
 Pirlolgs 459 
 
 Fissures, Cerebral ... ... 102 
 
 Fissure, Calloso-marginal ... 113 
 
 ,, Perpendicular ... 105 
 
 „ of Rolando 104 
 
 „ of Sylvius 104 
 
 Flint implements ... ... 420 
 
 "St. Acheul" ... 435 
 
 "DuMoustier" ... 435 
 
 Folds, Cerebral 102 
 
 „ Curved 110 
 
 ,, Marginal, of Gratiolet 110 
 
 ,, Palmar ... ... 95 
 
 Fontanelles 133 
 
 Foot 36, 71, 89 
 
 Foramen, Auricular ... ... 33 
 
 „ Occipital ... 32, 51 
 
 Foramina, Parietal ... ... 207 
 
 Forearm 36, 75, 87 
 
 ,, Proportions of 86, 335 
 
 Forehead ... 219, 275, 354 
 
 Fossae, Iliac ... ... ... 67 
 
 Foulahs 486 
 
 Foulhas 373, 486 
 
 French 327, 349, 393, 398, 409, 454 
 
 Frontal bone 34, 248 
 
 „ lobe 108 
 
 Functions, Cerebral ... ... 148 
 
 Fungi 487 
 
 Fiirfooz Bace ... 440 
 
 Gaboon, Negroes of the ... 445 
 
 Gaels 458 
 
 Gallas 373, 458, 506 
 
 Gallo-Bretons ... 249, 287, 459 
 
 Gauging the skull 228 
 
 Gauls 230, 240, 458 
 
 Gavart's diagraph ... ... 269 
 
 Genealogy of Man ... ... 532 
 
 " Geni tubercles " ... ... 35 
 
 Georgians ... ... ... 457 
 
 Germans 252, 254, 293, 311, 393, 
 412, 443, 451, 454 
 
INDEX. 
 
 541 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Germs, Pre-existence of ... 162 
 Germinal vesicle ... ... 128 
 
 Gestation ... ... ... 146 
 
 Ghazneo'ides ... ... ... 269 
 
 Giants ... ... ... ... 160 
 
 Gipsies 394 
 
 Oitanos... ... ... ... 456 
 
 Glabella ... 33, 209, 238 
 
 Glenoid cavity of scapula ... 36 
 
 ,, ,, of superior maxilla 58 
 
 Glottis 98 
 
 Ooniometer, Facial, of Broca 330 
 ,, I, of Jaoquarfc 43 
 
 ,, Parietal, of DeQuatre- 
 
 fages 289 
 
 Gonion 235 
 
 Ghounds ... ... 456, 504 
 
 Gradation in the animal 
 
 series 19, 525 
 
 Griquas ... 375, 382, 492 
 
 Greeks 337 
 
 Greenlanders ... 240, 245, 445 
 Grottoes of La Mame . . . 442 
 
 Growth of the body 128 
 
 ,, ,, the brain... ... 130 
 
 Gucmches 230, 240, 257, 282, 461 
 Guaranis ... ... ... 182 
 
 Guebres 358 
 
 Gyi^ncephaly . . . ... ... 116 
 
 Hair, Influence of milieux on 387 
 
 „ Colour of 347 
 
 ,, Fair and dark ... 34S 
 
 , , Character of the ... 351 
 
 Hand, The 36, 74, 89 
 
 Harmony of the cranium ... 213 
 „ of the face ... ... 354 
 
 Howssa negroes ... ... 487 
 
 Height of the face ... ... 253 
 
 „ forehead ... 273, 275 
 
 „ head 273 
 
 Hemispheres, Cerebral ... 103 
 
 Simyarites ... ... 203, 506 
 
 Hindoos 398 
 
 Eiung-Nu ... 467 
 
 Hippocampus minor ... ... 102 
 
 History, Relation of Anthro- 
 pology with. . . ... 11, 427 
 
 L'Homme-Mort, Cavern of ... 411 
 Homogenesis ... ... 195, 369 
 
 Horizontality of vision ... 55 
 
 •" Hottentot Venus " 301, 309, 493 
 
 490, 
 
 PAGE 
 
 506 
 
 
 446 
 
 lio', 
 
 298 
 
 ole- 
 
 
 
 298 
 
 H 
 
 298 
 
 425, 
 
 467 
 
 
 469 
 
 
 367 
 
 
 170 
 
 59i 
 
 260 
 
 
 200 
 
 
 171 
 
 
 176 
 
 
 487 
 
 
 162 
 
 
 163 
 
 36 
 
 , 37 
 
 
 97 
 
 
 420 
 
 Hottentots 
 Human tj'pe ... 
 Humerus ... 36, 
 
 Humerus, Perforation of 
 cranon of ... 
 ,, Torsion of 
 Hungarians . . . 254, 
 Huns ... 
 Hybrids 
 Hydrocephalus 
 Hyperbolic alveolar arch 
 Hyperborean Race . . . 
 Hypertrophy of skull. . . 
 Hypsocephaly ... 
 
 lios 
 
 Ichthyosis 
 
 Idiotcy . . . 
 
 Iliac bones 
 
 " Impar " lobule 
 
 Implements, Fhnt 
 
 ,, ,, "St. Aoheul" 435 
 
 ,, ,, "DuMoustier"435 
 
 Incas ... ... ... ... 407 
 
 Indices in general ... 220, 236 
 Index, Basilar ... 263, 270 
 
 ,, Cephalic, onthe skeleton 236 
 „ ,, on the living 
 
 subject 240 
 
 ,, Cephalo-orbital ... 231 
 ,1 ,, -spinal ... 251 
 
 ,, Cerebral 125 
 
 ,, Facial 252 
 
 ,, Frontal 250 
 
 ,, of the head ... ... 274 
 
 ,, Nasal, on the skeleton 257 
 ,, ), on the living 
 
 subject 256, 357 
 „ Orbital ... 257, 263 
 
 „ Palatine .., 261, 263 
 
 ,, Stephanie 263 
 
 ,, Transverso-vertical... 263 
 ,, Vertical (see Rela- 
 tions) ... 242, 263 
 Indo-European Race... ... 424 
 
 Inferior maxilla, Measurement 
 
 of 262 
 
 "Inion" ... 32, 208, 234 
 
 Inrmit ... ... ... ... 473 
 
 Instructions, Anthroporae- 
 
 trical ... 333, 342 
 
 „ craniological... ... 262 
 
542 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Insula of Eeil 108 
 
 Intermaxillary bones... ... 39 
 
 Intermedium ... ... ... 78 
 
 Interparietal bones ... ... 32 
 
 Irish 231, 241, 321, 334, 348, 451 
 
 Iroquois Indians 320, 334, 336 
 
 398, &o. 
 
 Irulas 388, 504 
 
 Ismaelites ... ... ... 463 
 
 Italians... 232, 242, 251, 454 
 
 Jacquart's goniometer ... 43 
 
 Jahts 456, 469 
 
 Japanese ... 199, 203, 445 
 
 Javanese 241, 250, 254, 257, 259, 
 
 304, 338, 477 
 
 Jectanides ... ... ... 463 
 
 Jews ... 254, 321, 348, 378, 388, 
 
 394, 463 
 
 Jiva/ros Indians ... ... 423 
 
 Jugal bones ... ... ... 34 
 
 Jugal point ... ... ... 235 
 
 Edbyls . . . 
 
 418, 
 240, 254, 
 
 254, 
 
 Katmvucks 
 
 Kamtchadales ... 
 
 Kanakas ...231,241, 
 
 Eattees ... 
 
 Keel- shaped skulls ... 
 
 Kephalon 
 
 Khasovo 
 
 Ehazars 
 
 Ehoimds 
 
 Kiang-Euam ... 
 
 Eirghis ...321, 330, 
 
 K] Bkken-moddings . . . 
 
 Klinocephaly ... 
 
 Eoi-Eoin, or Hottentots 
 
 Kol'Cio'hes 
 
 KoperniQki, Craniograph 
 
 Eorannas 
 
 Erouma/n 
 
 Kurabecephaly 
 
 Ewrds 
 
 Eurw/ribas ... 321, 
 Kym/ris... 
 
 420, 461 
 
 274, 320 
 
 345, 351 
 
 432, 473 
 
 ... 476 
 
 272, 478 
 
 ... 452 
 
 ... 211 
 
 ... 176 
 
 ... 475 
 
 ... 467 
 
 456, 504 
 
 ... 468 
 
 452, 468 
 ... 433 
 ... 177 
 
 490, 492 
 
 453, 473 
 of... 296 
 490, 492 
 
 ... 487 
 
 ... 177 
 
 ... 457 
 
 456, 504 
 
 259, 459 
 
 FAGS 
 
 Lapps 241, 245, 249, 321, 395, 470' 
 Laryngeal sacs ... ... 99 
 
 Larynx... ... ... ... 98 
 
 Lee-Pangwes ... ... ... 45S 
 
 LeiotricM 201, 351 
 
 "L^murien" ... ... ... 531 
 
 Lemurs ... 28, 46,77, 80, 189, 525 
 Leporides ... ... ... 196 
 
 Leptorrhinians ... ... 257 
 
 Life, Duration of ... 147,364 
 Ligament, Posterior cervical 52 
 Ligurians ... ... 348, 428 
 
 Line Facial ... ... 41 
 
 of Danbenton ... 53 
 
 Basio-alveolar ... 25S 
 
 Minimum frontal . . . 248 
 Naso-basilar . . . ... 254 
 
 Primitive 129 
 
 Linguistic characters ... 423- 
 
 Lippladins ... ... ... 373 
 
 Lissenoephales ... ... 115' 
 
 Liver 96 
 
 Livoniams ... ... ... 465- 
 
 Lobes, Cerebral ... 102, 110 
 
 Optic 114 
 
 „ Frontal 10& 
 
 „ Occipital ... 110, 118 
 
 „ Parietal 110 
 
 Lobule, Central ... ...,108 
 
 „ Impar ... ... 97 
 
 „ Oval 112 
 
 „ Quadrangular ... 112 
 
 „ Triangular ... ... Ill 
 
 Locomotion, Function of ... 72 
 Lolos ... ... ... ... 476 
 
 Long-barrowa ... .... ... 441 
 
 Loz^re, Dolmens of La 298, 459 
 Luo8b' a diopter ... ... 269 
 
 Lumbo-sacral articulation ... 342 
 Lyeuoephales... 115. 
 
 Laechs 454 
 
 "Lambda" 238 
 
 Language, Faculty of 109, 155, 424 
 
 Macassars 
 Macrooephaly . . . 
 Macuas 
 Magya/rs 
 Mahairs 
 Makalolos 
 Mahos ... 
 Malar bones 
 point 
 
 477- 
 
 176 
 
 490 
 
 242, 321, 398, 465, 467 
 
 487, 504 
 
 345,426,491 
 
 487" 
 
 34 
 
 235 
 
 Malays 
 
 274, 281, 429, 445, 472, 
 476, 506 
 
INDEX. 
 
 543- 
 
 FAQS 
 
 Malay 0-Papuans ... ... 375 
 
 Malayo-Polynesians ... 203, 478 
 
 Malleolus 36, 302 
 
 Maltese 348, 394 
 
 Mamelukes 372, 395 
 
 Ma.Tnil1a.Ty tubercles ... ... 115 
 
 Mammalia, Convolutions of 
 brain in ... ... ... 114 
 
 Mammoth Age ... ... 435 
 
 Man, Origin of ... ... 515 
 
 Mamdans ... ... ... 453 
 
 Mamdingoes ... ... ... 487 
 
 Mamtchus ... 199, 451, 475 
 
 Maoris 231, 241 
 
 Maravers ... ... 456, 504 
 
 Maxillary bones 35, 58, 260 
 
 Measurements of the cranium 40, 
 
 222, 233, 235, &c. 
 
 „ face ...251, 326, 330, &o. 
 
 body 331 
 
 „ brain ... ... ... 125 
 
 „ femur ... ... 142 
 
 „ head 328 
 
 „ nose ... ... ... 357 
 
 pelvis 68, 305 
 
 „ skeleton ... 81, 303 
 
 Meoistocephales ... ... 238 
 
 Medicine, Relation of Anthro- 
 pology to ... ... ... 6 
 
 Medulla oblongata ... ... 101 
 
 Megalocephaly ... ... 176 
 
 "Megaseme" ... ... ... 258 
 
 Melanesians ... 358, 376, 496 
 Melanoohroid group ... ... 202 
 
 Menstruation . 
 Mental point 
 Merovingians 
 
 146, 365 
 ... 238 
 
 230, 240, 
 
 Mesatioephaly . . . 
 Mesorrhinians. . . 
 " Mesoseme "... 
 Metacarpus 
 Metatarsus 
 
 Method of zoological classifi- 
 cation 
 ,, comparison of skulls, 
 &c., Blumenbaoh's 
 Camper's 
 
 Cuvier's 
 
 Daubenton's ... 
 
 Owen's 
 
 Priohard's 
 
 281, 
 298 
 238 
 257 
 258 
 36 
 36 
 
 18 
 
 214 
 
 42 
 
 46 
 
 56 
 
 215 
 
 216 
 
 Method of averages and in- 
 dices 230 
 
 „ Craniometrioal, of the 
 
 Germans 228, 244, 248, 
 252, 293, 294, 295 
 
 „ of Mantegazza 232, 251 
 Method of projections . . . 263 
 
 Method by the double square 273 
 
 ,, of seiiation ... ... 325 
 
 , , of classification of Baces 
 
 by their langilage . . . 424 
 Metopio point ... ... ... 234 
 
 „ suture 132 
 
 Mexicans ... 231, 402, 480 
 
 Miaots4, or Miaou-tse ... 448 
 
 Microcephaly ... ... ... 165 
 
 "Microsome" 258 
 
 Migrations ... ... ... 431 
 
 " Milieux," Influence of ... 385 
 Mincopies ... ... ... 498 
 
 Minuongs ... ... ... 371 
 
 Miocene strata 43 6 
 
 MonhouUons 419, 453 
 
 Mongoloid group 201, 216, 471 
 Mongol-Ealkas ... ... 471 
 
 Monogeuism 202, 517 
 
 Monosyllabic languages ... 423 
 
 Monstrosities ... 162 
 
 Monuments, Megalithic 420, 433 
 
 Moors 371, 462 
 
 Mop-heads ... ... * ... 351 
 
 Morality 153, 411 
 
 Morduins ... ... ... 465 
 
 Moundas ... ... ... 504 
 
 Moxos 391 
 
 M'Pong-wes 426, 487 
 
 Mulattoes ...312, 334, 336, 398, 
 400-406 
 
 Mundas ... 327 
 
 Muscles 63, 91, 307 
 
 Muscular strength ... ... 399 
 
 Mutilations, Ethnic ... 418,422 
 Mythologies ... ... ... 411 
 
 M'Zdbites ' ... 461 
 
 Nahuas 181, 185, 429, 4S1 
 
 Namaquas 281, 492 
 
 Nares, The - 358, 359 
 
 Nasal point ,.. 238 
 
 ,, spine ... ... ... 35 
 
 Nashu 428 
 
 Natchez 181, 185. 
 
544 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Nationality 9 
 
 Naulette, La, Jaw of... 60, 437 
 
 Neanderthal, Cranium of ... 437 
 
 Negroes ... 230, 240, 244, 249, 
 
 250-255, 267-276, 280-293, 
 
 811-313, 334-338, 366, 
 
 398-4.06, 413, 428, 445 
 
 Negritos ...321,327,487,498 
 
 Neolithic Epoch 434 
 
 Neptunian Race ... ... 200 
 
 New Caledonians . . . 230, 247, 
 257, 495 
 Neio ZeaUnders 231, 398, 404 
 
 Nose, The ... 95,256, 358 
 
 Nicobarians ... ... 321, 336 
 
 Nogays ... ... ... ... 469 
 
 " Norma TerticaUs" 214, 264, 288 
 Normans ... 348,425,44.3 
 
 Norwegians ... ... ... 323 
 
 Nouairs ... ... ... 487 
 
 Noubas 374 
 
 Nubians ...230,240,249,487 
 
 Nya/in-Nyams ... ... ... 485 
 
 "Obelion" 133, 234 
 
 Obesity 160 
 
 Obliquity of the femur . . . 142 
 
 Olongos ...322,345,413,494 
 
 Occipital bone... ... ... 31 
 
 „ lobe 110 
 
 „ maximum point . , . 238 
 „ iTaird condyle of ... 33 
 
 „ crochet 209 
 
 Odour of the skin ... ... 361 
 
 " Ogive," Configuration of the 
 
 skull, "en" 211 
 
 Olfactory bnlb 102 
 
 Olmo, Female skulls of ... 437 
 
 "Ophryon" 33 
 
 "Opisthion" 32, 238 
 
 Opisthognathous ... ... 278 
 
 Optic chiasma... ... ... 102 
 
 „ lobes 114 
 
 „ thalami 102 
 
 Orwnga-lautts ... ... ... 388 
 
 Orbits, The ... 232,259, 355 
 Organs of reproduction . . . 100 
 
 „ Rudimentary 125 
 
 Origin of Man... ... ... 515 
 
 Orotchys 322 
 
 Orrouy, Prehistoric skulls of 212 
 Orthocephaly 238 
 
 Orthognathous 
 
 PAGE 
 
 ... 201, 278 
 
 372 
 
 Osmanlis ... ... ... 469 
 
 Oasetians ... ... 452, 457 
 
 Ossification of the sutures ... 131 
 „ long bones ... ... 140 
 
 Osteological considerations ... 29 
 Osteometrioal characters ... 301 
 Osteometry ... ... ... 81 
 
 Ostiaks... ... ... ... 465 
 
 Ouigours, or TJgrians... ... 467 
 
 Ou-Sioun ... ... ... 468 
 
 Ova-heveros ... ... ... 490 
 
 Oxycephaly ... ... ... 176 
 
 Pachycephaly ... 
 
 ... 177 
 
 Pahuins 
 
 ... 486 
 
 Palate bones ... 
 
 ... 34 
 
 Paleolithic Epoch 
 
 ... 434 
 
 Palmar folds ... 
 
 ... 95 
 
 Papuans ... 321, 351, 495 
 
 Parabolic alveolar arch . . . 260 
 " Paraderos," Prehistoric 445, 4S2 
 Paragenesis ... ... ... 369 
 
 Parietal bones... ... ... 33 
 
 „ lobe 109 
 
 Parisians 240, 244-250, 291, 298 
 
 Parsees 423,429,457 
 
 Patagonians ... ... ... 482 
 
 Patans ... ... ... ... 452 
 
 Patella 31 
 
 Pathological characters 158, 412 
 
 Paws 181 
 
 Peduncles, Cerebral ... ... 101 
 
 Peliuelhas 368 
 
 Pelvis 35,68, 305 
 
 Peoples 9, 11, 419, 427, 443, 455 
 Peppercorn tufts of hair ... 851 
 Perforation of humerus ... 298 
 Pericardium ... ... ... 97 
 
 Peritoneum ... ... ... 97 
 
 Permanence of types . . . 378 
 
 Permians ... ... ... 465 
 
 Peruvicms 183, 231, 257, 321, 
 
 345, 480 
 
 Pescliernis ... ... ... 321 
 
 Peuls 486 
 
 Phtenicians ... ... ... 463 
 
 Phenozygous zygomatic arch 
 
 288, 4S9 
 
 Philology 423 
 
 Physiognomy 353 
 
INDEX. 
 
 645 
 
 
 
 PAOS 
 
 
 P.Af.E 
 
 Piebald negro ... 
 
 162, 
 
 381 
 
 Proportion of the pelvis 
 
 305 
 
 Pigment 
 
 ... 
 
 345 
 
 „ of the skeleton . . . 
 
 81 
 
 Pile villages of Switzerland 
 
 433 
 
 „ in the arts 
 
 316 
 
 Pine Islanders. .. 
 
 496, 
 
 498 
 
 Pi-otuberautia annularis 
 
 102 
 
 Pitheciaus 23, 55, 62, 96, 
 
 18V, 
 
 525 
 
 Prussians ... 
 
 241 
 
 Placenta 
 
 
 100 
 
 "Pterion" ... 60,208, 
 
 238 
 
 Plagiooephaly... 
 
 
 177 
 
 Puelches 
 
 181 
 
 Planes, Horizontal, in general 
 
 265 
 
 Pulse, The, in Mammalia 
 
 146 
 
 „ Alveolo-coudylean 55 
 
 267 
 
 The,in the Human Eaoes 401 
 
 Platvbasic deformity of 
 
 the 
 
 
 Pyramidal skull 
 
 216 
 
 "skull 
 
 
 177 
 
 Pyrgooephaly 
 
 176 
 
 Platycephaly 
 
 
 176 
 
 
 
 Platycnemia ... 
 
 299^ 
 
 391 
 
 Quadrigemina tubercula 
 
 102 
 
 Platyrrhinian ... 
 
 
 257 
 
 
 
 Pliocene of St. Prest... 
 
 
 436 
 
 Races 9, 198, 443, 
 
 511 
 
 " Plis-de-passage " ... 
 
 102. 
 
 118 
 
 ,, Prehistoric ... 
 
 437 
 
 Points, Crauiometrioal 32, 34 
 
 , 51, 
 
 Radius 36,86, 
 
 302 
 
 
 54, 
 
 234 
 
 Bajpoots 
 
 446 
 
 Point, Jugal ... 
 
 
 238 
 
 Relations in general , . . 220, 
 
 263 
 
 „ Sub-nasal 
 
 
 238 
 
 „ of the trunk to the 
 
 
 Poles 
 
 242, 
 
 454 
 
 statm-e 
 
 83 
 
 Polydactylia ... 
 
 162, 
 
 379 
 
 „ of the grande envergure 
 
 
 PolygeiiisTn ... 202 
 
 , 424 
 
 516 
 
 to the stature 
 
 84 
 
 Polynesiaiis 
 
 
 500 
 
 ,, of the clavicle to the 
 
 
 Polysarcia 
 
 
 160 
 
 humerus 
 
 303 
 
 Polysyllabic languages 
 
 
 423 
 
 „ of the radius to the 
 
 
 Pons Varolii ... 
 
 
 101 
 
 humerus ... 87, 
 
 303 
 
 Preadamites ... 
 
 
 517 
 
 „ of the tibia to the 
 
 
 Precursor of Man, The 
 
 
 530 
 
 femur ... 88, 
 
 303 
 
 Prehension, Function of 
 
 
 72 
 
 „ of the foot and hand 
 
 
 Prehistoric Saces 
 
 
 4^37 
 
 89, 
 
 335 
 
 Primates ... 23, 97, 
 
 189, 
 
 525 
 
 Relation of the humerus to the 
 
 
 '■Probola" 
 
 
 211 
 
 femur 
 
 89 
 
 Process with the double squai-e 
 
 
 „ of the superior to the 
 
 
 
 272, 
 
 323 
 
 iuferior extremities 85, 
 
 303 
 
 Processes, External orbital 
 
 33 
 
 (see Indices) 
 
 
 „ Mastoid 
 
 33 
 
 , 60 
 
 Radii, Am-icular, of Broca . . . 
 
 270 
 
 „ Pterygoid 
 
 33, 
 
 291 
 
 „ of Davis and Busk ... 
 
 271 
 
 „ Styloid of radius 
 
 
 36 
 
 Redhiiir ... 349,450, 
 
 4S0 
 
 „ of vertebKD . . . 
 
 31 
 
 , 65 
 
 Red Races 
 
 345 
 
 Prognathism ... 201, 
 
 217, 
 
 277 
 
 Reil, Insula of... 
 
 107 
 
 Projections in general 
 
 
 263 
 
 Reindeer Age, The 
 
 435 
 
 „ of the body . . . 
 
 
 333 
 
 Religiousness ... ... 152, 
 
 409 
 
 „ of the craninni 
 
 
 269 
 
 Reproduction, Organs of 100, 
 
 362 
 
 „ of the forehead 
 
 
 273 
 
 Respiration, Rhythm of the... 
 
 402 
 
 ,, of the head ... 
 
 274, 
 
 329 
 
 Rete mucosum of Malpighi ... 
 
 343 
 
 Pronation, The forearm in ... 
 
 75 
 
 Retroversion of the vertebral 
 
 
 Proportion of the cranium 
 
 and 
 
 
 processes ... 
 
 64 
 
 face ... 
 
 
 46 
 
 Reversions 126, 
 
 526 
 
 „ of the brain , . . 
 
 
 123 
 
 Ribs 
 
 35 
 
 „ of the body ... 
 
 
 31.5 
 
 Rickets 
 
 167 
 
 ,, of the face ... 
 
 
 317 1 
 
 Rolando, Fissure of . . . 
 
 107 
 
546 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Roof -shaped skulls ... 
 
 Eot 
 
 Eoumaniams 242, 288, 321, 
 
 Round-tiarrows 
 ,, Royaumes" of Agassiz 
 Rudimentar J organs ... 
 Bussicms ...321, 382, 430. 
 
 Bussnialcs, or Ruthenians 327 
 
 PA-GE 
 
 211 
 428 
 398, 
 467 
 441 
 518 
 125 
 466 
 , 454 
 
 Saab Race 
 
 Sacrum 
 
 ■Sacs, Laryngeal 
 
 Samoans 
 
 Samoyedes 
 
 ... 202 
 30, 66 
 ... 99 
 ... 373 
 395, 475 
 
 Sand, Cubic measurement by 
 
 227, 231 
 Saracens ... ... 429, 464 
 
 Savoyards ... ... ... 241 
 
 Scalping, Custom of ... ... 422 
 
 ScamdinoAiians . . . ... 320, 386 
 
 Scaphocephaly ... ... 177 
 
 Scapula ... ... ... 36 
 
 Scapulo-humeral articulation 36 
 Sclavens ... ... ... 454 
 
 Scotch ... 254,311,320,334, 
 
 348, 366, 404 
 
 Soighaliams ... ... ... 321 
 
 Schangallahs ... ... ... 487 
 
 Selection 523 
 
 Sella Turcica ... ... ... 34 
 
 Semangs ... ... ... 498 
 
 Semites 202, 448, 462 
 
 Sense, Organs of ... ... 94 
 
 Septooephaly ... ... ... 176 
 
 Serhs 454 
 
 Sereres 487 
 
 Sexual differences in the 
 
 cranium ... ,.. 145 
 
 „ skeleton ... ... 143 
 
 Shilluclcs ... ... ... 487 
 
 Shot, Cubic measurement with 227 
 
 Shuluhs 461 
 
 Siah-posh ... ... ... 452 
 
 Siciliams ... ... ... 321 
 
 Simian variations in cerebral 
 convolutions ... ... 117 
 
 Sinican Race ... ... ... 202 
 
 Skeleton, The 30, 37 
 
 Slavs 202, 242 
 
 Slovaks 242, 454 
 
 Slovenians ... ... 242, 454 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Sociability ... ... ... 151 
 
 Societies, Anthropological, 
 Foundation of ... ... 17 
 
 Soiony ... ... ... .,. 475 
 
 Somalis ... 362, 373, 506 
 
 Spanish ... 349, 394, 409 
 
 Sphenoid bone ... ... 33 
 
 Stature in Anthropoids ... 80 
 „ in the Human Races 320 
 „ Influence of external 
 
 conditions on 388, 390 
 
 Steatopyga 362, 492 
 
 Stenocephaly ... ... ... 176 
 
 "Stephaniou" 238 
 
 Stereograph of Broca . , . 268 
 
 Sternum ... ... 35, 70 
 
 Stomach, The 96 
 
 Stone Epochs 433 
 
 Stone implements, "St.Acheul" 435 
 
 „ "DuMoustier" ... 435 
 
 Straengenoes female skulls ... 437 
 
 Strength, Muscular 399 
 
 Struggle for existence ... 521 
 
 SuahUis ... ... ... 490 
 
 Sugar-loaf skulls ... ... 211 
 
 Sulci 102 
 
 Sulcus, Interparietal... ... 110 
 
 „ Parallel 108 
 
 Supination, The forearm in . . . 76 
 
 Susus... 486 
 
 Sutures, Cranial 132, 172, 208 
 
 Swamethia/ns ... ... ... 452 
 
 Swedes 231, 241 
 
 Sylvius, Fissure of ... ... 104 
 
 Synostosis 133, 172 
 
 Syphilis in apes ... ... 159 
 
 Syrians 241, 462 
 
 System of Antelme ... ... 296 
 
 „ Ihering 295 
 
 „ Koperni9ki ... ... 296 
 
 ,, Nervous ... ... 101 
 
 " Tablier" of Hottentots 362, 493 
 
 Taboo... 422 
 
 Tadjicks, or Tadzhiks . . . 452, 457 
 
 Tail, The 67 
 
 Tam.ahou 428, 452 
 
 Tapinooephaly 176 
 
 Tarsus 36 
 
 Tasmanians ...249,274,443,500 
 
 T&t&rs 470 
 
 Tatooing 422 
 

 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 
 547 
 
 
 
 PAOE 
 
 
 
 PAGB 
 
 TawdreH ...386,446, 
 
 461, 
 
 485 
 
 Twin births ... 
 
 
 360 
 
 Tehees 
 
 
 242 
 
 Types in general 
 
 
 
 39 
 
 Tcheremisses ... 
 
 
 465 
 
 „ American 
 
 
 
 479 
 
 Tcliuvatches ... 
 
 
 465 
 
 „ Anthropological 
 
 
 
 443 
 
 Teeth in Antliropoids . . . 
 
 
 58 
 
 „ Arabian 
 
 
 
 463 
 
 „ Man 
 
 
 58 
 
 „ Australian 
 
 
 
 501 
 
 „ Distinctive characters 
 
 
 „ Berber 
 
 
 
 461 
 
 of the 
 
 
 137 
 
 „ Blonde 
 
 
 
 449 
 
 Tehuelches ... 242, 320, 
 
 43lj 
 
 4S2 
 
 Celtic 
 
 
 
 458 
 
 Temperature of the body 
 
 
 146 
 
 ., Esquimau 
 
 
 
 473 
 
 Temporal bone 
 
 
 33 
 
 Type, European 
 
 
 
 447 
 
 ,, fossas... 
 
 
 57 
 
 ,, „ brown 
 
 
 
 453 
 
 Teratology 
 
 
 160 
 
 „ Finnish 
 
 
 
 463 
 
 " Thenar Eminence "... 
 
 
 95 
 
 „ Hindoo 
 
 
 
 458 
 
 Thihetans 
 
 472, 
 
 475 
 
 „ Hottentot 
 
 
 
 491 
 
 Thigh, Proportions of 
 
 
 331 
 
 ,, Iranian 
 
 
 
 457 
 
 Thoi-ax 
 
 35, 
 
 69 
 
 „ Kafar 
 
 
 
 490 
 
 Thu-Kin 
 
 
 169 
 
 !> Lapp 
 
 
 
 470 
 
 Thymus gland 
 
 
 129 
 
 ,, Malay 
 
 
 
 476 
 
 Thyroid cartilage 
 
 ... 
 
 98 
 
 ,., Mongolian 
 
 
 
 471 
 
 Tibboos 
 
 
 487 
 
 „ Negro ... 
 
 
 
 487 
 
 Tibia 36,88, 
 
 168, 
 
 303 
 
 „ Negrito 
 
 
 
 498 
 
 Timorians 
 
 
 400 
 
 ,, New Caledonian 
 
 
 
 495 
 
 Ting-Ling 
 
 
 468 
 
 „ Papuan 
 
 
 
 495 
 
 Todas 336, 384, 404, 418, 
 
 4-2l', 
 
 504 
 
 „ Patagonian 
 
 
 
 1S2 
 
 Toltecs 
 
 
 1S5 
 
 „ Polynesian 
 
 
 
 478 
 
 Tongas 
 
 
 OIO 
 
 „ Bed African ... 
 
 
 
 484 
 
 Topinard's oraniophore 
 
 
 273 
 
 „ Samoyed 
 
 
 
 475 
 
 " Tornas Atras " 
 
 
 372 
 
 „ Semitic 
 
 
 
 462 
 
 Torodis 
 
 
 486 
 
 „ Tasmanian 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 Torsion of the humerus 
 
 
 75 
 
 ,, Tschinganian ... 
 
 
 
 456 
 
 Totonaeks 
 
 
 185 
 
 
 
 
 Toucolors 
 
 373, 
 
 486 
 
 TJgrians, or Ouigours... 
 
 
 467 
 
 Tonlousian skull, Deformation 
 
 
 Ulna 
 
 36! 
 
 301 
 
 of 
 
 
 182 
 
 Ulotrichi 
 
 201, 
 
 351 
 
 Tradition 
 
 
 431 
 
 Umbilical cord 
 
 
 101 
 
 Transf ormism ... 
 
 
 519 
 
 Unions, Consanguineous 
 
 
 383 
 
 Triangle, Facial, of the Germans 
 
 Upsilon, Alveolar arch, like the 
 
 
 
 
 253 
 
 lettei- 
 
 
 260 
 
 „ „ of Assezat ... 
 
 282 
 
 Uralo-Alta'io family , . . 
 
 
 423 
 
 Trigonocephaly 
 
 
 176 
 
 Uterus 
 
 
 100 
 
 Trochanter 
 
 
 36 
 
 Usbeks, or Uzbeclcs 
 
 288, 
 
 469 
 
 Trochocephaly 
 
 
 176 
 
 
 
 
 Tschinghanians ... 242, 
 
 254^ 
 
 394, 
 
 "yadroaiUe," Hair of 
 
 head, 
 
 
 
 409, 
 
 456 
 
 "en" 
 
 
 351 
 
 Tube, Digestive 
 
 
 96 
 
 Varalis... 
 
 
 504 
 
 Tubercles "geni" 
 
 35, 
 
 437 
 
 Variability of type . . . 
 
 385^ 
 
 522 
 
 „ Mamillary 
 
 
 115 
 
 Variety 
 
 196, 
 
 509 
 
 „ Quadrigemina 
 
 
 102 
 
 Vault of cranium 
 
 
 211 
 
 Tumuli 
 
 422J 
 
 433 
 
 Veddahs ... 242 
 
 321^ 
 
 505 
 
 Turanians 
 
 
 469 
 
 Ventricles of brain . . . 
 
 
 102 
 
 Turks 241, 
 
 255^ 
 
 469 
 
 „ of larynx 
 
 
 
 96 
 
548 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 " Vousaures de compensation " 174 
 
 Walloons 443, 461 
 
 Woight of the body ... 129,398 
 
 „ brain ... 120, 309 
 
 Welcker's cranial net ... 295 
 
 „ naso-basal angle ... 255 
 
 " Venus Hottentot, 
 
 'The 
 
 PAGE 
 
 ... 301, 
 
 Wendes 
 
 PAGE 
 
 ... 454- 
 
 
 
 309, 493 
 
 Wormiana ossa 
 
 171, 207 
 
 Venus de Milo 
 
 
 ... 358 
 
 Wrinkles, Palmar 
 
 ... 9& 
 
 Vertebraa 
 
 
 ... 31 
 
 
 
 Vertex 
 
 Viscera 
 
 
 ... 242 
 ... 96 
 
 Xantbooroid group ... 
 
 ... 202 
 
 Vision, Divergence 
 
 of" 
 
 ... 57 
 
 
 
 „ Horizontality of 
 
 ... 55 
 
 Yakuts ... 
 
 425, 468 
 
 Vital competition 
 
 
 ... 522 
 
 Yellow fever, Exemption of 
 
 Yoguls 
 
 
 ... 425 
 
 negroes from 
 
 397, 412 
 
 Yolskes- Teciosages 
 
 179, 
 
 324, 444 
 
 Y&nadis 
 
 456, 504 
 
 Voice, Organ of 
 
 
 ... 98 
 
 Yoloffs 
 
 386, 487 
 
 Yotialcs... 
 
 
 ... 465 
 
 
 
 Zambos 382 
 
 " Zend-Avesta " ... ... 469 
 
 Zealanders, New 251, 398, 404 
 
 Zingaris ... ... ... 456 
 
 Zoological anthropology ... 25 
 
 Zoometry ... ... ... 81 
 
 Zygomatic arch ... ... 35- 
 
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32 
 
 BOOKS PUBLISHED BY 
 
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 ... 8 
 
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 ... 8 
 
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 ... 8 
 
 ... 4 
 
 ... 8 
 
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 .., 8 
 
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 ... 8 
 
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 ... 8 
 
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34 BOOKS PUBLISHED BY 
 
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 CHARLES DICKENS, 
 
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 OUR MUTUAL FRIEND. 2 vols. 
 
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 OLD CURIOSITY SHOP and REPRINTED PIECES. 2 vols. 
 
 BARNABY RUDGE. 2 vols. 
 
 UNCOMMERCIAL TRAVELLER. 
 
 GREAT EXPECTATIONS. 
 
 TALE OF TWO CITIES. 
 
 CHILD'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 EDWIN DROOD and MISCELLANIES. 
 
 PICTURES FROM ITALY and AMERICAN NOTES. 
 
CHAPMAN &. HALL, L'IMITED. 35 
 
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36 BOOKS PUBLISHED BY 
 
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 THE CABINET EDITION. 
 
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 OLIVER TWIST. 
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 NICHOLAS NtCKLEBY, 2 vols. 
 SKETCHES BY "DOZ." 
 CHRISTMAS STORIES. 
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 BARNABY RUDGE, 2 vols. 
 BLEAK HOUSE, 2 vols. 
 AMERICAN NOTES and PIC- 
 TURES FROM ITALY. 
 
 EDWIN DROOD ; AND OTHER 
 
 STORIES. 
 THE OLD CURIOSITY SHOP, 
 
 2 vols. 
 A CHILD'S HISTORY OF 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 DOMBEY AND SON, 2 vols. 
 A TALE OF TWO CITIES. 
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 MUTUAL FRIEND, 2 vols. 
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 UNCO.MMERCIALTRAVELLER 
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 SIXPENNY REPRINTS. 
 
 READINGS FROM the WORKS of CHARLES DICKENS. 
 
 As selected and read by himself and now published for the first time. Illjistrated. 
 
 A CHRISTMAS CAROL, and THE HAUNTED MAN. 
 
 By Charles Dickens. Illustrated. 
 THE CHIMES: A Goblin Story, and THE CRICKET 
 
 ON THE HEARTH. Illustrated. 
 
 THE BATTLE OF LIFE: A Love Story, HUNTED 
 
 DOWN, and a holiday ROMANCE. Illustrated. 
 
 The last Three Volumes as Christmas Works, 
 
 In One Volume, red cloth, 2s. 6d. 
 
CHAPMAN 6. HALL, LIMITED. 37 
 
 DICKENS'S (CHARLES) ViO^KS,.— Continued. 
 
 A NEW EDITION OF 
 
 CHARLES DICKENS'S COMPLETE WORKS, 
 
 ENTITLED 
 
 THE PICTORIAL EDITION, 
 
 Will be issued in Monthly ParYs, royal 8vo, at 
 
 ONE SHILLING EACH. 
 
 Each Part will contain 192 pages of Letterpress, handsomely 
 
 printed, and, besides full-page Plates on plate paper, about 
 
 24 Illustrations inserted in the Text. 
 
 The Edition will be completed in about Thirty-Scven Parts, and w'll 
 contain in all — 
 
 UPWARDS OF NINE HUNDRED ENGRAVINGS. 
 
 Part 2 is now ready. 
 
 PROSPBCTUSES AND SHOWCABD3 ON APPLICATION, 
 
 MR. DICKENS'S READINGS. 
 
 Fcafi. Sva, sewed. 
 
 CHRISTMAS CAROL IN PROSE, is. 
 CRICKET ON THE HEARTH, is. 
 CHIMES: A GOBLIN STORY, is. 
 STORY OF LITTLE DOMBEY. is. 
 
 POOR TRAVELLER," BOOTS AT THE HOLLY-TREE 
 INN, and MRS. GAMP. is. 
 
 A CHRISTMAS CAROL, with the Original Coloured Plates. 
 
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 CHARLES DICKENS'S CHRISTMAS BOOKS. 
 
 REPRINTED FROM THE ORIGINAL PLATES. 
 
 Illustrated by John Leech, D. Maclise, R.A.,~R. Doyle, 
 
 C. Stanfield, R.A., &-c. 
 
 Fcap. cloth, IS. each. Complete in a case, js. 
 
 A CHRISTMAS CAROL IN PROSE. 
 
 THE CHIMES : A Goblin Story. 
 
 THE CRICKET ON THE HEARTH: A Fai'ry Tale of 
 
 Home. 
 
 THE BATTLE OF LIFE. A Love Story. 
 
 THE HAUNTED MAN AND THE GHOSTS STORY. 
 
38 BOOKS PUBLISHED BY 
 
 SCIENCE AND ART. 
 
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 OF THE SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT ANTERIOR 
 
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 1. Animal Physiology ... From 1881 to 1886. 
 
 2. Hygiene ... 
 
 3. Building Construction ... 
 
 4. Machine Construction ... 
 
 5. Agriculture 
 
 6. Magnetism and Electricity 
 
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 1881 to 1886. 
 
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 39 
 
 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS, 18 87 and 1888. 
 
 Messrs. CHAPMAN &= HALL beg to announce thai Answers to the Questions 
 {Elementary and Advanced) set at the Examinations of the Science and Art 
 Department of May, 1887 and 1888, are published as under, each subject and year 
 being kept distinct, and issued in pamphlet form separately. 
 
 1. Animal Physiology ... 1887 J^yJ-^-if p^^f^^-f-^^pS (Lond,), 
 
 18881 F.R.C.S. (Eng.), D.P.H. (Univ. 
 
 2. Building Construction 1887 \ 
 
 1888, 
 
 3. Theoretical Mechanics, 1887 
 
 1888 
 
 4. Inorganic Chemistry (Theo- "l 
 
 retical) ... 1887J 
 
 Inorganic Chemistry (Theo- ( 
 retical) 1888) 
 
 5. Ditto — Alternative Course ) 
 
 1887 f 
 
 Ditto — Alternative Course ( 
 
 1S88) 
 
 6. Magnetism and Electricity \ 
 
 1887/ 
 
 Magnetism and Electricity ( 
 
 1888) 
 
 7. Physiography 1887 
 
 1888 
 
 8. Practical Plane and Solid 
 
 Geometry 1887 
 
 Practical Plane and Solid 
 Geometry 18S8 
 
 9. Art — Third Grade. Per-"! 
 
 SPECTivE 1887/ 
 
 Art — Third Grade. Per- \ 
 spective 1888/ 
 
 10. PaRE Mathematics ... 1887 
 
 ... 1888 
 
 11. Machine Construction 
 
 Drawing 
 Machine Construction and | 
 Drawing 1888 ) 
 
 12. Principles of Agriculture \ 
 
 1887 r 
 
 Principles of Agriculture \ 
 
 1888) 
 
 13. Sound,Light, and Heat, 1887 1 
 
 » 1888/ 
 
 14. Hygiene 1887 \ 
 
 of Lond. ) 
 
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 £. Pillow, M.I.M.E. 
 
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 Harnett, M.A. 
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 1887 f 
 
 J. Howard, F.C.S. 
 
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 C. A. Stevens. 
 
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 15. Inorganic Chemistry (Prac- S 
 
 tical) 1887 I 
 
 Inorganic Chemistry (Prac- j 
 tical) 1888 J 
 
 16. Applied Mechanics ... 1888 
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40 
 
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 THE FORTNIGHTLY REVIEW. 
 
 Edited by FRANK HARRIS. 
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