l*»%i'^l^;j ^\i^'r-(^;iV' • , I 'r HE' ^^■■j-^ riN PRIMER ;f, P POSTGATF BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME FROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF M^nvii W. Sage 1S91 ■A:.h..isn.ci - %A\..%.\<^':i.- The new Latin primer. oiin,an? ^^24 031 210 721 Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31 924031 21 0721 THE NEW LATIN PRIMER. EDITED BY J. P. POSTGATE, MA, Litt.D, FELLOW AND CLASSICAL LECTURER OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE ; PROFESSOR OF COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY IN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON. WITH THE CO-OPERATION OF C. A. yiNCE, M.A., HEAD MASTER OF MILL HILL GRAMMAR SCHOOL ; LATE FELLOW OF CHRIST'S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE. CASSELL & COMPANY, Limited LONDON, PARIS, NEW YORK & MELBOURNE. 1888. [all RIGHTS RESERVED.] (5 ERRATA. Pags 39> £^ftEr line beginning "Inf. Pres. essS " insert the following line : Inf. Peef. fuisse Fut. Part, futurus, -a, -um. „ 62, for " vSlimus " read "vfillmus." ,, 65 (3rd line), insert "often " before "contract." ,, 67 (line 7 from top), for "quam howl" read "quam how!" „ ,, (line 8 from bottom), for "cum when?" read "cum when." ,, 202 (footnote 2), read "B.C. 8" for "27." PREFACE. The object of this Grammar is to provide in a concise and readily comprehensible form all the information that can be required by all but advanced students of Latin. Much trouble has been expended in verifying the statements which it contains, and selecting suitable illustrations; and it is hoped that those who use it will have little afterwards to unlearn. The best foreign authorities have been consulted, and amongst Grammars in English, those of Roby and Gilder- sleeve have been found of service, while some hints, chiefly in points of arrangement, have been taken from elementary grammars in current use. Notwithstanding this, it is believed that the bobkns sufficiently original, as a whole, to justify its title of the New Latin Primer. Among special points may be mentioned the careful marking of the quantity, both in closed and open syllables, in such a way as should make false quantities impossible. The Reformed Pronunciation, as used in the University of Cambridge, has been fully explained, but the book can be used without disadvantage by all who adhere to the old. Considerable simplifications have been introduced into the Syntax, as in the treatment of the Tenses, the Subjunctive Mood, Conditional Statements, Indirect Discourse, and elsewhere. The standard of the best Classical Prose has iv Preface. been followed throughout, and deviations from it, whether in forms or usages, have been marked as such. Besides his obligations to Mr. Vince, who has con- tributed the larger part of the Accidence — his contributions including a shortening of the Gender rules and a simpler presentation of the Third Declension — the Editor is in- debted to the Rev. Dr. Moulton, Head Master of the Leys School, for some suggestions, and to Dr. Gow, Head Master of Nottingham High School, for an instructive revision of the proof sheets. Trinity College, Cambridge, August, i8tiS. CONTENTS. 3 art I. ELEMENTARY. INTRODUCTORY AND ACCIDENCE. page The Latin Language .... . i Latin Alphabet and Pronunciation . . . . 3 Parts of Speech . . .6 Inflexions ... . 7 Declension of Nouns . . 9 First Declension . . 10 Second Declension . .11 Third Declension . 12 Fourth Declension . . 16 Fifth Declension . 17 Adjectives of the First Class . . .18 Adjectives of the Second Class . . 20 Comparison of Adjectives . . 23 Adverbs formed from Adjectives 26 Numeral Adjectives . . ■ 2J Pronouns . . . . 30 Verbs ... 35 Conjugation of esse . . 38 First Conjugation, Active Voice 40 Second Conjugation, Active Voice . . 41 Third Conjugation, Active Voice 43 Fourth Conjugation, Active Voice . . 45 First Conjugation, Passive Voice . . . 47 Second Conjugation, Passive Voice 48 Third Conjugation, Passive Voice . 50 Fourth Conjugation, Passive Voice . 5 1 Paradigm of the Four Conjugations 53 Verbs in -to of the Third Conjugation . 54 Conjugation of Deponent Verbs. . "55 Remarks on the Conjugations . . . 56 Conjugation of Irregular Verbs . . ■ S8 Adverbs ...... . . 67 Prepositions, Conjunctions, Interjections . . 68 vi Contents. SYNTAX. PAGE On Sentences. .... . • 69 The Simple Sentence . 70 Construction. Agreement 73 Government . ... 75 Use of the Cases. Nominative, Vocative .... . . . 76 Accusative . . . . 77 Dative . ... . . . 78 Genitive .... . 80 Ablative ... 82 Locative . ... • . 85 Adjectives .... . . 8s Degrees of Comparison ..... 86 Pronouns .... 86 The Finite Verb. Persons . . . . . . 87 The Passive Voice . . 89 The Tenses . . ... 90 The Moods . ... . 92 Verbals ... .... 94 The Infinitive. . . . . 95 Negatives . . . 98 Questions . . .... 99 The Complex Sentence. Principal and Dependent Clauses . 100 Moods in Dependent Clauses .... 102 Tenses in Dependent Clauses . . 103 Negatives in Dependent Clauses . 106 The Conditional Statement . 107 Principles of Indirect Quotation . no fart IX. SUPPLEMENTARY. Pronunciation and Spelling of Latin Gender of Nouns .... Declension of Nouns and Adjectives Irregular Nouns Numerals . ... Pronouns and Pronominal Adverbs 112 116 120 127 130 130 Contents. vii I' AGE Principal Parts of Verbs . , • 131 Kemarks on the Conjugations . . . . 143 Derivative Verbs ... -144 Prepositions .... . 145 Supplementary Syntax. Subject and Predicate . Peculiarities of Agreement The Accusative The Dative .■ The Genitive . The Ablative . The Locative . 147 148 149 150 152 153 156 Translation of English Prepositions 156 Construction of o/mj ^j/, ««(j «/ 157 Construction of Interjections . . .158 Adjectives ..... .158 Use of the Pronouns . . . 159 Co-ordinate Conjunctions and Adverbs . 162 The Verb .165 Gerund and Gerundive ... . 165 Participles .... 167 Infinitive ..... 168 Subjunctive in Principal Sentences . 172 Dependent Sentences. The Sequence of Tenses . ... 174 The Subjunctive Mood . . .176 Subjunctive and Indicative . . 178 Construction of Certain Conjunctions 182 Notes on the Conditional Statement . 185 The Oratio Obliqua ... 188 Arrangement of Words . . 192 Prosody . 196 Miscellaneous. Verbs Governing a Dative 199 Construction of Impersonal and Quasi-Impersonal Verbs 199 Verbs Governing ut with the Subjunctive .... 200 Parsing . 200 Roman Calendar . . . 202 Roman Weights and Money ; . . . 203 Abbreviations . . . . 203 NOTE. The letter J is not used in the writing of Latin words in this book. Instead of it an italic /is used in roman type, and a roman I in italic type. See § 7. The pronunciation of Latin recommended in this book is that of the pamphlet entitled Pronunciation of Latin in the Augustan Period, issued with the authority of the Cambridge Philological Society, and published by Messrs. Trubner and Co. To it the student is referred for further information. The Quantity Marks refer to the quantity of the vowels, not to the quantity of the syllables. Long vowels are always marked. Short vowels are marked wherever it seemed desirable that this should be done. The term " Base " is used to denote the part of a word which remains unchanged when its termination varies. See § 12. The references throughout are to sections. An asterisk [thus § 156*] indicates the small print in a section. The addition of a letter or number [thus § 165 {d)'\ denotes a subdivision of a section. The addition of n. [thus § 384 «.^] denotes a footnote. THE NEW LATIN PRIMER. INTRODUCTORY AND ACCIDENCE. § I. Language. — Language is one of the means by which human beings communicate their thoughts to each other. In language this is done by means of spoken sounds. Different nations do this in different ways, and hence arise different languages. § 2. The Latin Language. — Latiii was the language spoken by the Latins, who lived in a district of ancient Italy called Latium. Of all the L'atins the most important and powerful were the Romans, or inhabitants of Rome. The Romans were a great conquering people. First they subdued their fellow-countrymen the Latins, then the other nations of Italy, and finally a very large part of Europe and Asia and some portions of Africa. They carried their language with them ; and' it has thus come about- that a great many- languages spoken at the present day are descended from Latin. Such are the French, the Italian, the Spanish, and the Portuguese. Our own English language is full of words which are taken from Latin ; but many of them have quite a different meaning from -w hat they had in Latin. ■ During the Middle Ages, though Latin had ceased 2 The New Latin Primer. to be the language of the people, it still continued to be used on public occasions all over Europe. All important books were written in Latin ; and it was the language used in making laws and treaties, and in conducting trials. Even now scholars write books and make speeches in Latin; and the Roman Catholic Church still uses it in its services. § 3. Latin differed somewhat in the different periods at which it was spoken. The Latin with which we ha-^e to do was that spoken and written in the first century B.C. and the first century a.d., and may be called "Classical Latin." § 4. The Elements of Language. — The Latin lan- guage, like all other languages, was spoken in Sentences. Sentences are made up of Words, each expressing a separate notion or idea, such as homo 7nan, niger black, ego /. Words are composed of Syllables. Syllables are the smallest portions of words which can be pronounced separately. Thus, ho-mo consists of two syllables, because we can pronounce ho separately and mo separately ; but we cannot pronounce the h without the first 0, nor the m with- out the second 0. A word of one syllable is called a Mono- syllable, one of two syllables a Dissyllable, one of three syllables a Trisyllable, and one of more than three a Poly- syllable. Syllables are composed of single Sounds. Thus, -mo consists of the sound m and the sound o. Sounds are either Vowels or Consonants. Vowels are sounds which can be pronounced by themselves ; Consonants are sounds which can be pronounced only when combined with other sounds. Thus a vowel can form a syllable, as e in e-go, a consonant cannot. When two vowels are pronounced so quickly as to be included in the same syllable, they are called a Diphthong. J'he Latin Alphabet. 3 Thus, in poe-nae punishments oe and ae are diphthongs, because we pronounce poe-nae. In poeta poet, on the other hand, oe is not a diphthong, because we pronounce po-eta. A mark called, a diceresis is sometimes used to show that two vowels do not form a diphthong, t.g. poeta. § 5. Sounds and LEXTiiRS. — It is most important to distinguish between these. Sounds are what we actually utter with our voices and hear with our ears when we are speaking a language. Letters are the signs which we use to represent the sounds when we ' are writing it down. It often happens that the letters do not represent the sounds exactly. Sometimes different sounds are represented by the same letter, sometimes the same sound is represented by different letters. § 6. The English and the Latin Alphabets.— The English alphabet was originally taken from the Latin alpha- bet, and the letters in it had the same sounds as in Latin. But the pronunciation of English has changed so much in course of time that there is very little resemblance between the sounds which the letters have now and those which they had when they were taken from the Latin alphabet. Hence, when we read or speak Latin, we must not think of how the letters are pronounced in English, but give them \!a.€\x proper Latin sounds. § 7. The Latin Alphabet. — The following were the letters of the Latin alphabet : — ABCDEFGHIKLMNOPQ R S T U X Y Z. Of these K is hardly ever used except in abbreviations, and Y and Z only in words borrowed from the Greek.^ The Latin alphabet may be classified as follows : — I. Letters standing for Vowels: A E O with Y. ' The student is recommended to call the Latin letters by their Latin names, which will be found in § 257. B 2 4 The New Latin Primer. 2. Letters standing for Consonants .-BCDFGKL M N P Q R S T. 3. Letters standing sometimes for Voivels and sometimes for Consonants : I U. Besides these there are : — 4. Letters standing for two Consonants : X Z. 5. H, which stands for a mere breathing, the EngHsh k. On comparing the Latin alphabet with the English, it will be seen that neither W, nor J, nor V was found in the Latin alphabet. The device of using J and V to distinguish the consonantal sounds of I and U from their vowel sounds, is not older than the sixteenth century a.d. And now J is no longer printed in the best editions, and in many V is given up too. In this book, the consonantal sound of I will be distinguished from the vowel sound by a difference of type ; while U u will be used for the vowel sound of U, and Vv for the consonantal sound.' Thus we shall write la-p-giitt Jupi/er, mga yokes, verba luorJs. § 8. Pronunciation of the Latin Letters : — 1. Vowels. The vowels differed in pronunciation ac- cording as they were short or long. Thus the short e (written e) in es you-are was a different vowel sound from the long e (written e) in es you-eat. There were six vowels in Latin, pronounced nearly as follows : Latin Vowel. English Sound. A a as in aha ! ' a as bah ! E ^ as in met e as French e in itat (E. state). ^ I t as in sk/t i as ee in feet. O 5 as in not as French in ch(7se (E. nt^te).'' U u as 00 in Y100& it as 00 in ww'd. Y as French u in lane. 2. Diphthongs. There were also six diphthongs : AE, AU, OE, EU, EI, UI— the last three being rarely used. ' Except after q, as quis. ^ The a in state and the in note are only approximations to the sound of Lat. e and Lat. respectively. Pronunciation of Latin. 5 They are produced by pronouncing, the separate vowels which compose them so quickly that they appear to form but one sound. 3. Consonants. To be pronounced as in English, with the following exceptions : — C always hard as k. G always hard as g in ^et. R rolled as in French. S always sharp as in \i\ss. I consonant (J) as Eng. y. U consonant (or V) as Eng. w. 4. Compound Consonants : — X always like ks. Z as dz as in ^dzt. BS, BT as ps, pt. For further details see § 251-256. The Common English Pronunciation of Latin. — The common pronunciation of Latin in England is to pronounce it as if it were English. § 9. Quantity. — Quantity is a word which is applied to vowels and to syllables, and it means the time that they take to pronounce. Every vowel has a natural quantity of its own. It is either short or long. Long vowels take twice as long to pronounce as short ones. Thus, in ama love t (Imperative) we must let our voice dwell twice as long on the second a as on the first and pronounce the vowels as in English aha ! Where a naturally short vowel is followed by two or more consonants, it is often said to be long by 'position ; as in est is, which is of the same length as i go I In such cases it is more correct to say the syllable is long. The vowel is pronounced just as short as before, but the vowel and the two consonants taken together take up the time of one long vowel. The rules for the quantity of particular vowels will be given later. But it must be observed here that all 6 The New Latin Primer. diphthongs are long, e.g. poenae punishments ; and all vowels Avhich stand immediately before another vowel or diphthong are short, as deae goddesses. This is also the case if they are only separated by //, as in veho I-carry. In what follows we shall mark the quantity of the VOWel. Vowels marked thus : a are short. Vowels marked thus : a are long. Vowels marked thus : a are sometimes short and some- times long. They are called common. Vowels left unmarked may be pronounced short. For more, see § 441 sqq. § 10. Accent. — Besides quantity, Latin possessed Accent. Accent means that one syllable of a word, called the accented syllable, is pronounced with more force and in a higher tone than the other syllables, which are called the unaccented syllables. The difference between the accented and unaccented syllables in Latin was much less than in English; and both must be pronounced clearly and dis- tinctly, and with their proper quantity. The following are the chief rules for the place of the accent : — Only Monosyllables have it on the last syllable (called the Ultimate) as mel. Dissyllables have it on the last but one (called the Penultimate) as pestis. Trisyllables and Polysyllables have it on the last but one if that syllable is long, as vulngrabunt, otherwise on the last but two as vtilnSro. § II. The Parts of Speech. — Words are divided into the following classes, called Parts of Speech : — A Noun (or Substantive) gives the name of something : liber book, aqua water, Caesar Ccesar. Names of particular persons or places are called Proper Nouns, as Caesar Ccesar, RomS Rome, to distinguish them from other Nouns which are called Common. An Adjective {Adj.) describes something, or gives its quality : aqua dulcis sweet wattr. Parts of Speech. 7 Pronouns are used for Nouns and for Adjectives. They point out something, or describe it less definitely than an Adjective : is he, quidam liber a-certain book. Verbs show what people do, or what is done to them, or in what state they are : vulnero I-wound, viilneror I-am- wounded, sto I-stand. Adverbs are used to qualify Verbs and Adjectives : celeriter venit quickly he-comes, valde bonus very good. Prepositions and Conjunctions have no meaning by themselves. A Preposition is used with a Noun or Pronoun to show its connexion with the rest of the sentence. Thus, fugiunt ad naves they-fly to the-ships. Conjunctions are mere links. They couple words or sentences. Thus, cams et vulpes the-dog and the-fox, veniam St rogabis I-will-come if you-ask-me. Interjections are cries expressing feelings or desires ; heu ! alas ! st ! hush ! There is ito Article in Latin : dies means day, a day, or Ihe day according to the context. § 1 2. Inflexions. — The changes which words undergo in order to become parts of a sentence are called Inflexions. Inflexions are found in English. Thus we cannot make a sentence out of "Caesar," "friend," "die," until we have added the proper endings, as "Caesar's friend dies." In Latin there are a great many more inflexions than in English, and they are used to express what English expresses by means of Prepositions and of Verbs like be, shall, do : dabit librum Caesari give-will-he the-book Casarto, that is, he will give the book to CcBsar. In Inflexion part of the word remains unchanged, and this we call the base; the rest of the word we call the termination or ending. Thus in regit he rides, regunt they rule, regens ruling, reg- rule is the Base, and -it, -unt, -ens, the Terminations. 8 The New Latin Primer. It is the province of the part of Grammar called Accidence to tell us what are the Inflexions of a word. It is the province of the part called SjTltax to tell us hoiv and u'hen to use them. The different inflexions that a Noun can talie are called its Declen- sions, and to give the inflexions of a Noun is to Decline it. The different inflexions that a Verb can take are called its Conjugations, and to give the inflexions of a Verb is to Conjtt^ate it. § 13. Inflp;xion of Nouns. — Nouns belong to different Genders ; and their inflexions denote differences of Number and Case. § 14. Number. — There are two Numbers, the Singular (Sing.) used in speaking of one, the Plural (Plur.) used in speaking of more than one. § 15. Gender. — Gender is the Class (genus) to which a Noun belongs. There are three Genders — Masculine (Masc. or M.), Feminine (Fem. or F.), and Neuter (Neut. or N.). The names of male persons are Masculine, the names of female persons are Feminine, the names of things may be either Masculine, Feminine, or Neuter. Words which can be used both as Masculine and as Feminine are said to be Common. The Gender of Nonns is shown by the Termination of the Adjectives which go with them. Thus in mons alius a high mountain, the -us in alt-fls shows us that mons is masc. ; in domtis alti a high house, the -a shows us domtSs is fem. § 16. Cases. — Cases are used to show the relations of Nouns to other words in the sentence. There are Seven Cases in Latin, of which one, the Locative, is rarely used. The following are their chief usages : The Nominative (Nom., N.) shows the person or thing spoken of, the subject of the sentence. Vocative (Voc, V.) shows the person or thing addressed. Declensiok. 9 Accusative (Ace, A.) shows the person or thing directly acted on, the Direct Object of the Verb. Brut-us (Nom.) Caesar-em (Ace.) interfecit Brutus killed Ccesar. Genitive (Gen., G.) denotes that to which anything belongs. Caesaris horti Ccesar^s gardens, timor hostium fear of-the-enemy. Dative (Dat., D.) denotes the person or thing indirectly affected by an action, that is, the Indirect Object. Thus, " him "in "I give him the book " would be translated by a Dative in Latin, do ei librum. The -Dat. is generally translated by using to ox for. Ablative (Abl.) has a great number of uses, for which see §§ 148 sqq. It is often translated by by, with, ox from. The above six cases are those usually given in declining a Noun. The Locative (Loc.) properly denotes the place where anything is done ; as Romae at-Rome. It is only used in the Singular, and is rare except in names of places of the First and Second Declensions. In the Plural the Abl. is always used instead. The Ace, Gen., Dat., Abl., and Loc. are called the Oblique cases. DECLENSION OF NOUNS. § 17. Nouns are distributed into Five Declensions. In Latin dictionaries the Declension to which a Noun belongs is shown by giving the inflexion of the Gen. Sing. The Gen. Sing, of the First Declension ends in ae „ „ Second . „ „ i Third „ „ is Fourth „ „ lis Fifth „ „ ei General Rules of Declension. — In Neuter Nouns the lo The New Latin Prumer. Nom., Voc, and Ace. are always alike, and the Nom., Voc, and Ace. Plur. always end in a. The Nora, and Voc. of all Genders are alike, except in the Masc. Sing, of the Second Declension. The Dat. and Abl. Plur. are always alike. First Declension. § 1 8. The Nom. Sing, ends in -a, except certain Greek nouns. See § 267. Gender. — Feminine, except a few Nouns denoting male persons, as poeta/^rf. Ex. hasta spear, base hast-. Sing. Plur. N.V. hast-a hast-a^ A. hast-a/« hast-5j G. hast-a« \iZsX-arum D. hast-«i! hast-?i' Abl. hast-i hast-zj. The Loc. Sing., when used, ends in -ae, as, Romae at-Roinc. Dea goddess has D. Abl. PI. de-abiis. See also § 266. § 19. The following is a. Noun of the First Declension declined throughout, with the ordinary translations of the cases added. Nouns of other Declensions may be declined after the same model. Singular. Plural, N. mensa A table mensae Tables V. mensa table 1 mensae tables! A. mensam a table mensas tables G. mensae of a table mensarum of tables D. mensae to or for a table mensis to or for tables Abl. mensa by, with, at from a table mensis by, with, otfrom tables The student should observe that the translation of the Nominative is distinguished from the translation of the Accusative by a capital letter : A table. Tables. The reason of this is that the Nominative is the case of the Subject, which usually begins the sentence in English. Second Declension. Second Declension. § 20. The Nom. Sing, ends in -iis, -er, or-um. Gender. — Nouns in -us and -er generally Masculine, in -um Neuter. Exx. dominus owner, master, base domin-; bell-um war, base bell-. Sing. Plur. N. d6min-??j domin-z V. domin-i? domin-/ A. domin-z/wz domin-iTj G. domin-z &am\Xi.-drum D. domin-^ domin-Jf Abl. domin-i? dotnin-J.f. Sing. Plur. N.V.A. bell-?ro^^«/. duplex, G. diiplic-is, base diiplic- double. Sing. Plur. M. F. N. M. F. , N. N.V. facil-?.r facil-tf facil-^j faciWrt A. fa.ci\-em facil-i? facil-« facil-zff G. facil-rj facil-/«OT D. facil-J ^s,c\\-ibus Abl. facil-J {a.cil-ibiis The New Latin Primer. Sing. M. F. N. N.V. pradens A. prudent-^»2 prudens G. prudent-z!r D . prudent-J Plur. M. F. N. prudent-fj prtident-iV! prudent-Zx prudent-ia prudent-z«»2 prudent-z^?/^ Abl. prudent-J (rarely priident-i?) prudent-z^z« Sing. Plur. M. F. N. N.V. duplex A. duplic-«« duplex G. duplic-zj D. diiplic-? Abl. duplic-J (rarely duplic-l) M. F. N. duplic-« duplic-ii? duplic-«- duplic-;a duplic-az« diiplic-ii^wj diiplic-ziJwj § 32. The following list gives examples of the most im- portant forms of Nom., Gen., and Abl. Sing, of Adjectives declined like prudens and duplex. Nom. Gen. AM. audax audac-is audac-i (or -e) bold atrox atroc-is atroc-i (or -S) frightful felix felic-is felic-i (or - ■e) fortunate elegans elegant-is elegant-i refined teres tergt-is teret-i rounded dives divit-is divit-e rich vigil vigil-is vigil-i wakeful memor memor-is memor-i mindful pauper pauper-is pauper-e poor inops inop-is inop-i (or -e) poor particeps particip-is particip-e sharing This list shows the impossibility of giving any rule for -i or -e in Abl. Sing. Comparison of Adjectives. 23 § 33- Adjectives in -er of the Second Class. — Most of these form N.V. Fem. by adding -is, and N.V.A. Neut. by adding -e to the base. Thus they have three terminations in N.V. Sing. only. Exx. celer, celer is, celer-6, base celgr- swift; acer, acr-is, acre, base acr- keen. Sing. Plur. M. F. N. M.F. N. N.V. acer acr-zj acr-/ acr-« acr-za A. a.cx-em &cr-em acr-/ acr-« acr-z« G. acr-zi acr-zj- acr-z'j- S.cr-mm D. acr-z acr-z acr-z a,CT-z6us Abl. acr-z acr-z acr-z a.cT-idus § 34. Comparative Adjectives (§ 35) are declined thus : Ex. raMoT greater. Sing. Plur. M. F. N. M. F. N. N.V. mazor mazus mazor-iM mazor-a A. mazor-^;« maz'iis m&iox-es maz6r-« G. mazor-zj mSdox-um D. mazor-z rx\&iox-ibus Abl. mazor-« xsx^iox-ibus Comparison of Adjectives. § 35. There are three Degrees of Comparison, the Posi- tive, the Comparative, and the Superlative. The Positive denotes simply that a thing (or person) has a certain quality, as facilis easy. The Comparative denotes that it has the quality in a higher degree than some other thing, as facilior easier. The Superlative denotes either that it has the quality in a higher degree than several other things, or 24 The Neiv Latin Primer. merely that it has it in a high degree, as facillimus easiest or very easy. To give the Comparative and Superlative of an Adjective (or Ad- verb) is often called to " Compare " it. § 36. The Comparative is formed by adding the termina- tions, M. F. -ior, N. -iiis, to the base of the Adjective. The Superlative is formed : (i) By adding -issimus (-a, -um) to the Base unless the Nom. Masc. ends in -er. (2) By adding -rimus (-a, -um) to the Nom, Masc. if it ends in -er. § 37. Exx. of regular Comparison : — Pos. Comp. Superl. tut-us safe tutior tutissimiis foEtis brave fortior fortissimus prudens prudent prudentior prudentissimus audax hold audacior audacissimiis piger slow pigrior pigerrimus celer swift celerior celerrimiis § 38. The following exceptions should be noted : 1. Six Adjectives in -ilis form the Superl. by adding -limiis to the Base ; as facil-is, Comp. facil-ior, Superl. facil- limus. They are — facilis easy siinilis like gracilis slender difficilis difficult dissimilis unlike hiimilis low Most Verbal Adjectives in -ilh have no Superlative. 2. Compound Adjectives in -dicfis, -ficiis, and -volus, have -entior, -entissimiis in the Comp. and Superl. : as malS-voliis ill-disposed, Comp. ma.le-v61enti6r, Superl. male- volentissimiis. Irregular Comparison. 25 3. Adjectives in -lus and -iiusioxTa. Comp. and Super!, by prefixing magis more and maxime most to the Positive, as industriiis industrious, Comp. magis industriiis, Superl. maxime industriiis. §39- Irregular Comparison. Fos. Comp. Superl. boniis good mSlior optimiis malus bad pe/6r pessimiis magniis great mazor maxim lis parviis small minor minimiis multus (S.) much, (PI.) many plus (§ 4c )) plurimiis dives (base divit-) rich divitior or divitissimiis or ditior ditissimiis senex old senior [natii maximus] /iivenis young junior [natii minimus] exterus outward exterior extremus inferiis lower Inferior inf imus or imiis siiperus upper siiperior 'siipremus last summiis highest posteriis coming after posterior postremiis The following have no Positive — Comp. Superl. interior inner intimus ulterior further iiltimus prior former primus first propior nearer proximus potior better (of things) potissimus best deterior worse deterrimiis worst vetus, Gen. veteris old, has Superl. veterrimiis. 26 The New Latin Primer. § 40. For the declension of Comparative Adjectives see § 34. Plus more is thus declined : Sing. Plur. Neuter only. M. F. N. N.V.A. plus plur-« plur-(? G. plur-zi- plur-zww D.A. — •^\a-ibiis The Sing, is used only as a Neuter Noun. Adverbs formed from Adjectives. § 41. Latin Adverbs are formed from Adjectives as follows : (i) By adding the termination -e to the base of Adjec- tives of the First Class ; as, tacit-us silent, tacit-e silently ; miser, base miser-, wretched, miser-e wretchedly ; piger, base pigr-, slow, pigr-e slowly. But mal-iis bad, mal-e badly ; bon-iis good, bSne well. A few Adjectives in -us form their Adverbs in -6 instead of -e : thus, tut-iis safe, tut-o safely ; fals-iisya/fe, iah-b falsely. (2) By adding the termination -iter or -ter to the base of Adjectives of the Second Class. -iter is used if the Adj . ends in -is, -er, or -x (base ending in -c). As, fort-is brave, fort-iter bravely ; acer, base acr-, keen, acr-itSr keenly ; ferox wild, base feroc-, feroc-iter wildly. But audax bold, drops the i and makes audac-ter boldly. Adverbs formed from AoyBCTivES. 27 -ter is used if the Adj. ends in -ns (base ending in -nt), one of the t's being dropped ; as decens, base decent-, becom- ing, decen-ter becomingly. The second formation is sometimes used in the case of Adjectives of the First Class ; as, larg-iis lavish, larg-itSr or larg-e lavishly. (3) The Neut. Ace. Sing, is used to form the Adverbs of some Positive Adjectives ; so facilis easy, facile easily ; dulcis sweet, dulce sweetly (also dulciter). Compare § 307(1). § 42. Degrees of Comparison. — The Comparative Adverb is the Neut. Acc. Sing, of the Comparative Ad- jective. The Superlative Adverb is usually formed by adding -e to the base of the Superlative Adjective. Thus — Fos. Comp. Superl. miser-e wretchedly miser-ius miserrim-e fort-iter bravely fort-iiis fortissim-e facil-e easily facil-uis facillim-e Note bene well meliiis better optim-e best male badly perns worse pessim-e worst miiltum much plus more plurimum most magis more maxime most rDaruml minus less minim e least BTiimeral Adjectives. § 43. These are of three kinds : 1. Cardinal; as, unus one, diio two. 2. Ordinal; as, primus yfri-/, secundus second. 3. Distributive ; as, singuli one each, bin! two each. For the complete list see the Table of Numerals § 44. 28 The New Latin Primer. ^ - ■- '!u iJi ;ji •r- ID • ID lu 4j -a "<" S H, 'B V 'u 13 'O "O w O C T3 IP 13 ^ O* c (A liU c I4J Tl r» > u nn CT* w wj 'ti II) lu f= M .S =;< 3 ID OJ t 1 I , C >o l« ,S S o, '° "O '?i c 2 a s B ID u >3 c ,a isTj^L criQ^ui w'^13 > ^ "73 tn s » . § J 3 J2 3 iS D E 3 w C o '^ '3 5 3 ,g -D -a D t! lo a c « MJ O C ^ 13 ^ 2 3 s i J ,e !2 ,5 'o 'D )3 a 3 y >D >D o '^ >D -O -O XU „ ^ '^ T3 ID 5 a- •n Mj 3 )3 2i -S a S £ 'u >D 'i' 2 ts >o o c )0 "O S "Si -o a, >g -^ -r S-S 5 s? 1— I "^ cOtJ-u-j-o t^OO 0^0 w N fO ^ "^ vO r^. 00 0^ O >-t M l-( i_ « ^ jsj Table of Numerals. •& ^ — a ui c " c c s 111 a - ;«i fir M _ .5 a '«3' 'm Tc ;ji 3, ;si ■.§■ 2 ;^ if ;s s s -s §> g a* (0 o lo 53 ,3 >a) 3 's m c _ .^ bJ3 ttj C g- tS lo w O R c :3 is 1 TJ lU ID Id l(U ■a s Cr* in ^ lO c i5 loj t) ,5 S ;S ii & & s .1 ^ = S H S " 71! « Ul ^ s 'B S g >t5 sr "" 2. -=. "J ly. M 3^ r(Li -p 5« ita o- go c |S?2 ,gi 1 X o X bd >< X 2 X X ' X X C5 "-> 1) C K Ul u S •13 3 "" OJ u c 3 itT bA ^ 9 2 o o o 2. o o o o <* lo «3 J^ 00 o o S o o o o" „ <■ Sim SuDj. Perf. essem Pluperf. esse / I Inf. Perf. Deponent Verbs (§ 75) form their Completed tenses in the same way. In place of sum, etc., these tenses are sometimes formed by fui, faeram, fu&o ; fiierim, fuissem, fuisse. See § 73. 2. The Future Participle can be used with any part of 38 The New Latin Primer. esse to express futurity or intention. It is often used to supply the want of a Fut. Perf. Subj. In the Conjugations these forms will be given as used when the Subject is Masculine. But the Participle so used is inflected according to the Gender of the subject. For the Fut. Inf. Act. and Pass., see §§ 201, 202. § 62. Conjugation of the Irregular Verb esse to be. Ind. Subj. Pres. S. I sum sim 2 es sis 3 est sit Pl. I sumus simiis 2 estis sitis 3 sunt sint Imperf. S. I eram essem or forem 2 eras esses or fores 3 erat esset or foret Pl. I eram lis essemus or foremtis 2 eratis essetis or foretis 3 erant essent or forent Fut, S. 1 ero 2 eris 3 erit Pl. 1 erimus 2 eritis 3 erunt Perf. S. I fiii fiierim 2 fuisti fiieris or fueris 3 ffiit fiierit Pl. I fiiimus fiierimus or fiierimus 2 fuistis ftiSritis or fuSritis 3 fuerunt r fuerS fiiSrint CoNyuGATioN OF Verbs. 39 Ind. SUBJ. Plup. S. I fueram fiiissem - 2 fiieras fiiisses 3 fuerat fuisset Pl. I fueramus fiiissemiis 2 fiigratis fuissetis 3 ftierant fiiissent FuT. Perf. S. 1 fiiero 2 fiieris or fueris 3 fiierit Pl. I ftierimus or fuerimiis 2 fueritis <7r fiieritis 3 fiierint Imperative. Sing. Plur. i es; esto^ este j estote^ 3 esto sunto Verbals. Inf. Pres. esse Inf. Fut. fore The other Verbals are wanting ;. But a Pres. Part, -sens is used in two Compounds ; see § 82. Conjugation of Regular Verbs. § 63. There are four Regular Conjugations. They may be distinguished by the termination of the Pres. Infin. Act. The Pres. Infin. Act. of the First Conjugation ends in -are Exx. § 64. Contracted Forms. — Many forms of the First and Fourth Conjugations, containing the consonant v, are 1 On the difference between these forms see § 186*. ?) >? Second -ere !) )) Third -ere » >1 Fourth -ire I. amare to love 3- regere to rule 2. monere to advise 4- audire to hear 40 The Nfjv Latin Pkimek. sometimes contracted by the omission of the syllable vi or ve. These contractions will be indicated by inclosing the omitted syllable in ( ). Thus a.m-d{ve)runt means that two forms, amaverunt and amarunt are used. §6S- First Conjugation. Active Voice. SUBJ. a.m-em axa-es am-et axa-emiis axa-etis axa-ent wordrem axa-dres ara-drei &m-drepius axa-dretts am-drefii Ind. Pres. S. I am-^ 2 a.m-ds 3 am.-dt Pl. I SLxa-df/ms 2 ara-diis 3 axa-ant Imper. S. I sxa-dbam 2 axa-dbds 3 wca-dbdt Pl. I a.m.-d6dmiis 2 a.m-d6dtis 3 axa-dbant FuT. S. I axa-dbo 2 axa-dbis 3 axa-dbit Pl. I axa-dbimTis 2 ara-dbitis 3 zm-dbunt Perf. S. I axa-di'l &ra-d{ve)rim 2 a.m-d{vi)sii a.m-d(ve)ns or am- d{^ve)ris 3 axordvit a.m-d{ve)rii Pl. I am-dvtmus SLm-d{ve)rimtis or&m- d{7'e)rzmiis 2 axa-dvistis w[a-d{ve)ntis or am- d(i'e)r^t'is 3 a.m-d(ve)runiora.m.-dvere a.xa-d{ve)rint Conjugation of Verbs. 4' Ind. Subj. Plup. S. I a,m-d(ve)ram a.m-d(vt)ssem 2 a.m-d{ve)rds axa.-a{vi)ssis 3 axa-d{ve)rat axs\-d{vt)sset Pl. I a.m-d(ve)rdmus sxa-d{vi)ssemiis 2 SiXa-d(ve)rdtis axa-d{vi)ssetis 3 a.m-d{ve)ranf axa-d(vi)sse?it FuT. Perf. S. I axa-d{ve)rd 2 a.m-d(ve)ns or a,m-d{ve)ns 3 axa-d(ve)ni Pl. I a.m-d{ve)rtpms or a.m.-d{ve)rtm7'is 2 a.m-d{ve)ritis or a.m-d{ve)ntis 3 a.m-d{ve)rtfif Imperative. Si'n^. Plur. 2 am-«; ^xordto axa-die; axa-diote 3 axordto axa-anto Verbals. Perf. a.m-d{m)sse Supine Acc. axn-dfum Abl. a.m-dit7 Infin. Pres. axa-are Gerund N. Acc. axa-andum G. ^xa-andz D. Abl. ^ra-ando Part. Pres. N. axa-dns G. axa-antis, &c. FuT. am-a/^rwj', -«»2, &c. -a, § 66. Second Conjugation. Active Voice. Ind. Subj. Pres. S. Pl. 1 taon-eo 2 man-es 3 xaon-et 1 mon-emiis 2 m6n-77 Pl. I mbn-vMmus or mbn-uertmiis 2 mbn-uerith or mon -iierMs 3 mbn-uerini Conjugation of Verbs. 43 Imperative. Sing. Plur. 2 mon-if; m&w-eto raxya.-ete\ ra6n-i(dfe 3 mon-e/o mon-enfo Verbals. Infin. Pres. mon-ere Perf. mon-teisse Gerund. N. Acc. mon-endum Supine Acc. xaon-ttum G. mon-endi Abl. rabu-Uu D. Abl. taon-endo Participle Pres. N. xabn-ens Fut. mbn-tturus, -a, -um, G. mon-e^/?^, &c. &c. § 67. Third Conjugation. Active Voice. Ind. Subj. Pres. S. i reg-J reg-am 2 reg-ts reg-as 3 reg-z7 reg-ai Pl. I reg-zmus reg-dmus 2 reg'/Vij reg-dtis 3 xtg'Unt rtg-anf Imperf. S. I xig-ebam reg-erem' 2 leg-ebds reg-eres 3 xtg-ebdt xeg-eret Pl. I Kg-ebdmiis leg-eremiis 2 reg-ebdtis leg-ereiis 3 x&g-ebant xeg-erent Fut. S. I reg-a»z 2 reg-w 3 reg-// Pl. I XQg-emus 2 xtg-etts 3 x&g-enf 44 The New Latin Primer. Ind. Subj. Perf. S. 1 rex-2 xex-erim 2 rsxristi rex-eris or rex-(?m 3 rex-z7 lex-erii Pl. I Tex-tmus rtx-eritnns or xhx-erimus 2 lex-isii^s Kx-eritis or rtx-eritis 3 rtx-eruni orx&x-ere xhx-erint Plup. S. I Ttx-eram rtx-issem 2 xex-erds lex-isses 3 xhx-erat lex-issei Pl. I lex-erdmus xtx-issemus 2 xhx-erdtis lex-isseiis 3 xtx-erant xhx-issent FuT. Perf. S. i xtx-ero 2 xex-erts or xex-eris 3 xex-erit Pl. I xex-erimiis or rex- erlmt'ts 2 xex-erttis or rex- 3 xk.x-erint Imperative. &■«.§•. /fen 2 reg-^; reg-z7,? xeg-zte ; x&g-itoie 3 xeg-tto xtg-unto Verbals. Infin. Pres. xeg-ere Perf. rex-zwi? Gerund. N. Acc. leg-endum Supine Acc. lec-tum G. xeg-endi Abl. rec-/« D. Abl. reg-endo Par. Pres. N. reg-,f/?j Fut. xec-turus,-d,-um G. xeg-entis, &c. &c. Conjugation of Verbs. 45 § 68. Fourth Conjugation. Active Voice. Ind. SUBJ. Pres. S. I Wi^-io • 2i\i,d-iam 2 aud-« aad-ids 3 aiid-z7 -avid-tdt Pl. I ZMidAmus and-idmus 2 a.ud-itts B.ud-Mits 3 aud-zunt axid-zant [PERF. S. I aud-z^^a;/? Siud-irem 2 aud-zVM^ SLud-ires 3 aud-z'ifM/ axid-iret Pl. I a.\id-iel>dmiis a.\id-lremus 2 a.wd-tebdtts and-tre/is 3 a.Vid-tebant and-treni FuT. S. I aud-za»z 2 aud-2(f.f 3 3Md-iet Pl. I aud-zifwzJj 2 aud-zif& 3 aud-ienf Perf. S. I nud-ivi aud-iverim 2 aud-2(OT)ji'J and-lverts or aud-lveris 3 Siad-ivtt aud-iverit Pl. I aud-Jz'lwzeJj' aud-Iverlptus or aud- iverimus 2 aud-J(w/).f/«'.y aud-iverUis or aud- tveritis 3 a.nd-tvemnt or avid-werint aAid-ivere Plup. S. I 3.\xd-iveram aud-ivissem 2 aud-fwifWJ' aud-ivisses 3 aud-Jz^i?m^ and-lvissei 46 The N'ew Latin Primer. Ind. SUBJ. Pl. I a.ud-i7ierdmtis aud-ivissefrtiis 2 aud-tverdiis 3.ud-tvisse^is 3 a.ud-tverani nMd-tvissent FuT. Perf. S. I aMd-Ivero 2 and-iveris or a.\yd-iveris 3 sxid-iverit Pl. I ZMd-iverimus or a.ud-iverimiis 2 3.wd-lveritis or SMd-iverltts 3 3Md-tverint Imperative. Sing. Plur. 2 aud-2 ; and-lto ZMd-ite; SMd-ttofe 3 dMd-ito aMd-tunto Verbals. Infin. Pres. diud-ire Perf. a.\id-l{vi)sse Gerund N. Acc. z.\xd-tendum Supine Acc. a.nd-itum G. diUd-iendi Abl. a.Vid-ltu D. Abl. aud-ie^i/J Part. Pres. N. sMd-tens FUT. axxd-tturus, -a, G. sxid-zentis, > &c. -urn, &c. Omission of v. In the forms containing v, where no contraction is marked, the v is often omitted, the preceding i being shortened. Thus ; — Sing. Plur. Perf. Ind. f a.ud-ii iaMd-umiis aud-z.f/J sxid-istts t aud-zi"/ diad-ierunt or Mid-tere But the forms marked t are rare and poetical. Perf. Subj. a.ud-terim, &c. Plup. Ind. SMd-uram, &c. FuT. Perf. Ind. sMd-uro, &c. Conjugation of Verbs. 47 §69. First Conjugation. Passive Voice. Ind. SUBJ. Pres. S. I ain-5;^ am-«»- 2 am-ar£f am-eris or am-ere 3 zxci-dtur ara-etur Pl. I am-dmur am-imur 2 zxa-dmmi am-emtni 3 axa-antur axa-entur Imperf. S. I axa-dbdr am-drer 2 am-dbdnsoram-dbdream-drerts or am-drere 3 axa-dbatiir am-dretur Pl. I am-dbdmur am-dremur 2 ara-dbdmini axa-dremtni 3 amrdbantur ava-drentur FUT..S. I axa-dbor 2 am-dberh or am-dbere 3 am-dbitiir Pl. I am-dbimiir 2 am-dbiminl 3 arordbuntur Perf. S. 1 w\-dtus sum am-dtus sim 2 avs\-dtus es am-dtus sis 3 axa-dtiis est am-dtus stt Pl.. I axa-dtl siimiis am-dtl slmiis 2 am-dtz estis am-dtl sltts 3 am-dtl sunt am-dtl sint Plup. S. I am-dtiis eram axa-dtus essem 2 am-dtus erds am-dtus esses 3 ara-dtus erdt am-dtus esset Pl. I am-dtl erdmus am-dtl essemus 2 am-dtz erdtis am-dtl essetis 3 am-dtl erant am.-dtl essent 4^ The New Latin Primer. Ind. FuT. Perf. S. I a.m-dius erb 2 2S!\-dtus erts 3 3xs\-dtus crit Pl. I 3xa.-dti crtmhs 2 axa-dti eritis 3 am-rt/J erunt Imperative. Sing. Plur. 2 s.vs\-dre ; zxa.-dtdr sxardmlnt 3 zxa-ator SLm-antor Verbals. In FIN. Pres. &m-drt Perf. Sira-dttis esse Part. Perf. 3xa-dttis, -a, -um Gerundive axa-andiis, -a, -um § 70. Second Conjugation. Passive Voice. Ind. Subj. Pres. S. i raha.-edr vaor\-ear 2 mon-^w Toxm-edris or xaon-edre 3 raon-etur mon-edtiir Pl. I mon-emiir raon-edmur 2 mbn-emmi raon-edmmi 3 mon-entiir mon-eaniur Imperf. S. I mon-ebdr mon-erer 2 vi\ox).-ebdris or mon- mon-ererts or mon- ebdre erere 3 xaororebatur laoxv-eretur Pl. I mon-ebdmur raon-eremur 2 raon-ebdmml mon-eremzm 3 mon-ebaniur mon-erentur Conjugation of Verbs. 49 SUBJ. Ind. FuT. S. I mon-. 2 xaou-ebeHs or raon-ebere 3 man-ebUur Pl. I xaon-ebtmiir 2 raon-ibimmi 3 rabn-ebunttir Perf. S, I rabn-itus sum 2 mbn-ttuses 3 mbn-itus est Pl. I m6n-z7J sumus 2 m6n-z7z w/'zi 3 m6n-z7J sunt Plup. S. I xcibn-itus eram 2 xaQi\-itus eras 3 vaon-UiiS erdt Pl. I m6n-z7J erdmus 2 m6n-z72 erdtis 3 rabn-itz erani FuT. Perf. S. i mon-zYz^ /w 2 mon-zV^j I'm 3 mbn-itus ertt Pl. I mon-tti erzmus 2 m6n-z7f m/z'j 3 mon-itt erunt Imperative. Sing. Plur. 2 mon-ere ; mon-etor mon-emim 3 mbn-etor rabn-entor Verbals. Infin. Pres. m6ii-«'z Perf. m6n-z7z^j- «wl Part. Perf. mbn-ttus, -a, -urn Gerundive mbn-endus, -a, -um e m6n-z7«5 sim mbn-itus sis mbn-zttes sit mbn-iti simus mbn-Ui sztis mbn-iti sint mbn-itus essem mbn-ttus esses mbn-ttus esset m6n-z7z essemus mon-z/z essetis m6n-z7z essent 5° The New Latin Primer. § 71- Third Conjugation. Passive Voice. Ind. Pres. S. I reg-i5r 2 reg-erts 3 xeg-itiir Pl. I Kg-tmur 2 Teg-tfmm 3 reg-untur Imperf. S. I xeg-ebar 2 reg-ibdrts or reg- ebare 3 rig-ebdtur Pl. I Ttg-ebdmiir 2 reg-ebdmtnl 3 Kg-ebantur FuT. S. I reg-ay 2 reg-erts or Ttg-ere 3 reg-eiiir Pl. I rtg-emiir 2 xtg-emini 3 Kg-entiir Perf. S. I rec-tiis sum 2 rec-tiis es 3 xtc-tiis est Pl. I rec-/J sumiis 2 rec-/J M^w 3 rec-/J .f««/ Plup. S. I rec-tiis eram 2 rtc-tHs eras 3 rec-tiis erat Pl. I rec-/z erdmiis 2 rec-/? ifra^zj 3 rec-/J mz«/ SUBJ. reg-ar reg-am or reg-dre xeg-dtUr reg-dmnr xeg-dmim reg-anttir reg-erer reg-ererts or reg-erere reg-eretUr reg-eremUr reg-ereminl reg-erentUr rec-tiis sivi rec-tiis sis rec-tiis sU rec-ti slmUs rec-ti situ rec-ti sint rec-tHs essem rec-tiis esses rec-tiis esset rec-ti essemiis rec-ti essetis rec-ti essent Conjugation op Verbs. Ind. FuT. Perf. S. I xtc-tm ero 2 rec-iiis ens 3 lec-ties ertt Pl. I xtz-fi eyinius 2 rec-^J entis 3 rec-^J erunt Imperative. Sing. Plur. 2 vt%-ere ; reg-tior leg-tmtni 3 leg-itor reg-unior Verbals. Infin. Pres. reg-« Perf. xtc-ttis esse Part. Perf. rec-tus, -a, -um Gerundive leg-endiis, -a, -um §72- Fourth Conjugation. Passive Voice. Ind. SUBJ. Pres. S. I z.ViA.-wr ssxd-idr 2 aud-zm aud-zSm or aud-tdre 3 AvA-tttir iLud-idtiir Pl. I aud-Imter SLud-idmur 2 aud-imim 2i\id-tdmini 3 aad-tuniur dMd-tantur Imperf. S. I aud-teMr aud-irer 2 dXid-iebdris or axid-tebdre and-ireris or wid-irere 3 SiUd-iebdtur wid-iretur Pl. I und-tebdmur wxd-iremur 2 a.\id-iebdmmi Biad-tremim 3 Wid-iebantur aud-irenfiir E 2 53 The New Latin Primer. Ind. SUBJ. FuT. S. 1 aud-idr 2 Siud-iens or a.ud-iere 3 wxd-ietur Pl. I ZMd-iemur 2 axid-iemmi 3 SLad-miii/r Perf. S. I a.\id-itiis sum a.ud-ttt7s sim 2 Wid-itus es and- it lis sis 3 z.wd-itus est aad-itiis sit Pl. I s.\xd-iti siimiis and-tti simus 2 a.\id-iti estis aud-J/J sltts 3 a.\id-tti sunt aud-tti sint Plop. S. i a.ud-itus eram aMd-itiis essetn 2 2Md-itus eras aud-itus esses 3 2M.d-itus erat aud-ltus esset Pl. 1 aud-Itt eramils aud-itl essemus 2 aud-J/J erdtis a,nd-tti essetis 3 z.Vid-iti erant aud-zti essent FuT. Perf. S. i dXid-itus ero 2 z.Md-itus eris 3 a-ud-itiis erit Pl. I a.\id-iti ertmiis 2 SLlid-iti erttis 3 aud-J^z erunt Imperative. Sing. Plur. 2 a,nd-ire ' ; and-itor aud-Imim 3 SLud-ttor aud-mntor Verbals. Infin. Pres. aud-iri Part. Perf. aud-itus, -a, -urn Gerundive avid-tendus, -a, -um Perf. aud-itus esse 53 !§ ^ ^^ '§1 2 2 %H :-■ !-l iH '■a _ o k5 itj ^t:! S 2 " H Si irt I'u =2 .a cd n h (^ si ID , SS l-H ^- %j *J i-, 1^ irt [■ %- nj (- Jrt § I a " 3 ^ :S a ti cS to-g 5 a § ^ s m S a S ts S5 S Q tui-g C/^ ■.<>. in 3 s -a ■c>= o Si ,s a < Ah > a o M a O a S '2 lo lo > Id lOJ it^ (t:! H ;^ irt loj 5(u 1^ %^ 13 7 Ml ri fl h ri ; lO lO r< ^ . ica ID rt.S Vs e s I "^A, nt ci cj ^2 Q M rt S R S » 3 ^ eg y h tS 0., a IV am 3 '. idj -r* S 2 ip'^ ^- > a > a S I" 3 C4 fl fH Cd kS 3 - c) 3 ^5 B.S 3.V; he's O'O cj 3 ury § 81. Conjugation of Irregular Verbs. — dare to give. Active Voice. Ind. Pres. S. I do 2 das 3 dat Pl. I damtis 2 datis 3 dant Imperf. S. dabam, &c. FuT. dabo, &c. Perf. dedi, &c. Plup. dederam, &c. Fut.Perf. dedero, &c. SUBJ. dem des det demus detis dent darem, &c. dederim, &c. dedissem, &c. Imperative. Sing. 2 da ; dato 3 dato Plur. date ; datote danto Verbals. Inf. Pres. dare Perf. dedisse Gerund, dandum, &c. Supine, datum, -u Part. Pres. dans, dantis, &c. Fut. daturiis,-a,-um,&c. Irregular Verbs. 59 Passive Voice i^ Ind. SUBJ. Pres. S. I dor — 2 dans deris 3 datiir detur PL. I damur — 2 damini demini 3 danttir dentur Imperf. dabar, &c. darer, &c. FUT. dabor, &c. Perf. datus sum, &c. datus sim, &c. Plup. datiis eram :, &c. datus essem, &c. FuT. Perf. datiis ero, &c. Verbals. Inf. Pres. dari Perf. datus esse Part. Perf. datiis, -a, -um Gerundive dandiis, -a, -um § 82. Compounds of esse to be. The following diiferences from the Simple Verb should be noted : absum am away, has Pres. Part, absens, G. absentis. So praesum be over, Pres. Part, praesens, but only in the sense oipresent. desum am wanting, contracts its «'s, as deesse pronounced desse, deeram pronounced deram. prosum am useful, has prod- where a vowel follows as prod-est. possum am able, can is a compound of pote (an old Adj. meaning able) and sum. It is conjugated in full below. 6o The New Latin Primer. § 83. posse to be able. Ind. Subj. Pres. S. I possum possim 2 potes possis 3 potest possit Pl. I possiimus possimus 2 potestis possitis 3 possunt possint Imperf. poteram, &c. {like eram) possem, &c. FuT. potero, &c. {like ero) Perf. potui, &c. potuerim, &c. Plup. potueram, &c. potiiissem, &c. FuT. Perf. potuero, &c. Inf. Pres. posse. Perf. potuisse Other parts wanting. § 84. ferre to bear. Active Voice. Ind. Subj. Pres. S. i fgro Pres. feram, &c. 2 fers Imperf. S. i ferrem 3 fert 2 ferres Pl. I ferimus 3 ferret 2 fertis Pl. I ferremiis 3 ferunt 2 ferretis Imperf. ferebam, &c. 3 ferrent FuT. feram, &c. Perf. tuli, &c. tulerim, &c. Plup. tuleram, &c. tulissem, &c. FuT. Perf. tillero, &c. Imperative. Sing. Plur. 2 fer; ferto ferte \ fertote 3 ferta fSrunto Irregular Verbs. . 6i Verbals. Infin. Pres. ferre Perf. tulisse Gerund ferendum, &c. Supine, latum Part. Pres. ferens, -entis FuT. laturiis, -a, -um Passive Voice. Ind. SUBJ. Pres. S. i feror Pres. ferar, &c. 2 ferris Imperf. S. i ferrer 3 fertur 2 ferreris or ferrere Pl. I ferimiir 3 ferretur 2 ferimini Pl. I ferremur 3 feruntur 2 ferremini Imperf. ferebar, &c. 3 ferrentur FuT. ferar, &c. Perf. latus sum, &c. latus sim, &c. Plup. latus eram, &c. latus essem, &c. FuT. Perf. latus ero, &c. Imperative. Sing. Plur. 2 ferre; fertbr ferimini 3 fertor feruntor Verbals. Inf. Pres. ferri Perf. latiis esse Part. Perf. latiis, -a, -um Gerundive ferendiis, -a, -um § 85. edere or esse to eat. This Verb has all the regular forms, but it has also the following irregular alternative forms : Active Voice. Ind. Subj. Pres. S. i edo Imperf. S. i ederem or essem 2 edis or es 2 ederes or esses 3 edit or est 3 ederet or esset 62 The New Latin Primer. Pl. I edimiis Pl. i ederemiis ^r essemiis 2 edMs or estis 2 ederetis or essetis 3 Sdunt 3 ederent or essent Imperative. Sing. Plur. 2 ede or es, Sdito or esto editS or este, editote ^r estote 3 edito or esto edunto Inf. Pres. edere or esse Passive Voice. Ind. Pres. S. 2 editiir or estur SuBj. Imperf. S. 3 gderetur or essetiir §86. velle to wish Ind. SUBJ. Pres. S. i vols velim 2 vis velis 3 vult (volt) velit Pl. I volumus velimiis 2 vultis (voltis) velitis 3 volunt velint Imperf. volebam, &c. vellem, &c. FUT. volam, &c. {like regain) Perf. volui, &c. voliierim, &c. Plup. volueram, &c. voluissem, &c. FuT. Perf. voluero, &c. Imperative wanting. Verbals. Inf. Pres. vellS Perf. voluisse Gerund volendum, &c. Part. Pres. volens, -entis, &c. The other Verbals wanting. Irregular Verbs. 63 §87. nolle to be unwilling. Ik rD. SUBJ. Pres. S. I nolo nolim 2 non vis nolis 3 non vult nolit Pl. I n5liimtts nolimils 2 non vultis nolitis 3 nolunt nolint Imperf. nolebam, &c. nollem, &c. FUT. — ^ noles, nolet, &c. Perf. nolui, &c. noliierim, &c. Plup. noliieram, &c. noliiissem, &c, ^UT. Perf. noliiero, &c. Imperative. S. 2 noli ; nolito nolite ; nolitote 3 nolito nolunto Verbals. Infin. Pres. nolle Perf. noltiisse Part. Pres. nolens, -entis Other Verbals wanting. § 88. malle to prefer. Ind. SUBJ. Pres. S. i malo malim 2 mavis mails 3 mavult malit Pl. I malumus malimus 2 mavultis malitis 3 malunt malint Imperf. malebam, &c. mallem, &c. FuT. — ^ males, malet. &c. ' S. I wanting. 64 The A^fav Latin Pr/hier. Ind. Perf. malui, &c. Plup. maltieram, &c. FuT. Perf. maliiero, &c. SUBJ. maluerim, &c. maliiissem, &c. Imperative wanting. Verbals. Infin. Pres. malle Perf. maliiissg Other Verbals wanting. § 89. ire to go. Ind. SuBj. Pres. S. i eo earn 2 is eas 3 it eat Pl. I imiis eamus 2 itis eatis 3 eunt eant Imperf. ibam, &c. irem, &c. FuT. ibo, &c. Perf. ivi, &c. iverim, &c. Plup. iveram, &c. ivissem, &c. FuT. Perf. ivero, &c. Imperative. Sing Flur. 2 i ; ito ite; itote 3 ito eunto Verbals. Infin. Pres. ire Perf. ivisse Gerund eundum, &c. Supine itum, itu Part. Pres N. lens FuT. ituriis, -a, -um G. euntis, &c. Irregular Verbs. 65 The compounds of this Verb nearly always omit z;, shortening the preceding i, in the Perf., Plup., Fut. Perf. If j- follows, the ?■ 's contract into i. Thus, from abire depart : Perf. abii, abzsti, abiit, ^ &c. Plup. Ind. abieram. SuBj. abissem. Inf. Perf. abisse, &c. § 90. quire to be able, nequire to be unable. These Verbs are conjugated like ire. The Imperative, and the Participle, Supine, Gerund, and Gerundive are wanting. The only forms occurring, except very rarely, in the Classical period are : Pres. Ind. queo ; nequeo, nequit, nequeunt Pres. Subj. queam, &c. ; nequeam, &c. § 91. fieri to become, to be made. This Verb, though Active in form (except in Inf.), is used as the Passive of facio, feci, factum, facere make. The Compound tenses are supplied by factiis, the Perf. Participle of iacio, and fore as the Fut. Inf. The Gerundive is faciendus. futuriis is used as the Fut. Part. Note that the i is long except before -er and in fit. Ind. Subj. RES. S. I fio fiam 2 fis fias 3 »t fiat PL. I — fiamiis 2 fiatis 3 fiunt fiant Imperf. fiebam, &c. fierem, &c. F'uT. fiam, fies, &c. {like regam) Imper. S. 2 fi Infin. Pres. fieri 1 See § 447*. 66 The New Latin Primer. Defective Verbs. § 92. aid I say. Pres. Ind. a/6, ais, ait' j a/'unt Imperf. Ind. a/ebam, &c. Pres. Subj. a/'at Part. Pres. a/ens § 93. inquam I say. Pres. Ind. inquam, inquis, inquit '; inquimus, inquiunt Imperf. Ind. inquibat FuT. Ind. inquies, inquiet Perf. Ind. inquii, inquisti § 94. fari to say (poetical). Pres. Ind. fatur;famur FuT. Ind. fabor, iabitur Perf. Ind. fatus est, fati sunt Plup. Ind. fatus eram, erat I:\iPERAT. S. 2 fare Infin. Pres. fari Gerund fandi, fando Part. Pres. fantem, fanti. Supine fatii Part. Perf. fatus Gerundive fandiis A few other forms are used in compounds. § 95. meminisse to remember, coepisse to begin, odisse to hate, have no Present base. The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future-Perfect forms are used in the sense of the Present, Imperfect, and Future respectively. The only other forms are : Of memini : Imper. S. 2 memento Pl. 2 mSmentote Of odi : Part. Fut. osiiius, -a, um. Of coepi : Part. Pf.rf. cocptiis, from whicli the Com- pound tenses are formed as from a Deponent Verb (§ 75). ^ ait, inquit are also used as Perfects. Adverbs. 67 ADVERBS. § 96. Adverbs may be classified according to meaning, as (i) Modal, (2) Local, (3) Temporal. § 97. Modal Adverbs denote Manner. For the ordinary Adjectival Adverbs, see §§41 sqq. Examples of other Modal Adverbs are : partira partly, parum too little, clam secretly, satis enough, invicem in turn, forte by chance, quomodo in what way, haw 1 quam how 1 tam so, ita thus, sic thus, uti, tit how 1 § 98. Under Modal Adverbs may be classed — Adverbs of Negation : non, ne not. Adverbs of Assertion or Emphasis ; as certe, sane cer- tainly, scilicet of course, quidem indeed, etc. ; tantum only, modo only. Adverbs of Interrogation (used to ask a question ') : iitrum, -ne, num, an. See § 210. Numerous words which express Inference or Cause are properly Adverbs ; but with the exception of Interrogatives such as cur, quare, quianam ? why 1 they are classed as Conjunctions. See § 103. § 99. Local Adverbs denote Place. ubi where, quo whither, hinc hence, niisquam nowhere. Temporal Adverbs denote Time. hodie to-day, cum^ when? /am already, quotiens^ how many times ? totiens ° so many times, antea before, simiil «/ the same time. § 100. Numeral Adverbs. — The Adverbs answering the question quotiens how often 1 are : — semel once, bis twice, ter three times, c;a3Xh.four times. From quinquiens^/fw titnes to miliens a thousand times, these Adverbs are formed from the Cardinal Numerals by the inflexion -tens (or -les). See § 44. 1 Serving in place of a Note of Interrogation. '' Not quum. ' Better than quoties, toties. F 2 68 The New Latin Primer. § loi. PREPOSITIONS. Prepositions in Latin have two uses : (i) As separate words used with Oblique case of Nouns or Pronouns. See §§ 135, 153. (2) As prefixes in composition with Verbs, Adjectives, and other words, see § 296. § 102. CONJUNCTIONS. Conjunctions are either Co-ordinate or Subordinate. Co-ordinate Conjunctions connect words and phrases, and similar (Co-ordinate) clauses and sentences. Subordinate Conjunctions connect Dependent or Sub- ordinate with Principal clauses. For these see the Syntax. § 103. Co-ordinate Conjunctions are : 1. Copulative, denoting Union, as Eng. and {both . . . and, also) : et, -que, atque {or ac), etiam, quoque. 2. Disjunctive, denoting Separation or Distinction, as Eng. OR {either... or) : aut, -ve, vel, sive {or seu). After a Question ; an, -ne. Combined with a Negative nSc, nSque ; nevd, neu (neither, nor, and no/). 3. Adversative, denoting Opposition, as Eng. but {how- ever, nevertheless, &c.) : sed, at, tamen, verum, autem. Add to these Conjunctions or Adverbs expressing : 4. Inference, as Eng. therefore : ideo, idcirco, propterea on that account, itaque and so, ergo, igitiir therefore. 5. Cause, as Eng. for : nam, namque, 6nim. § 104. INTERJECTIONS. Interjections are properly natural cries expressing feel- ings, as 6 oh 1 en, ecce lo ! vae, heu, eheu alas ! a, pro ah ! or expressing desires or commands, as heus hollo I eia. ho ! St hush ! But other words (often abbreviated) are used as Intcijections, as nefas monstrous ! hercle by Hercules ! SYNTAX. § 105. Accidence has shown us what are the different forms of words which are used in language. Syntax will now show us hoiv and when these are to be employed. Syntax therefore deals with the construction and arrange- ment of words in a sentence. We shall first speak of Con • struction. For Arrangement or Order see § 432. \ 106. SENTENCES. ' A Sentence is a complete thought expressed in language. Sentences are either Simple or Complex. § 107. A Simple Sentence expresses one single independ- ent thought, as'urbs antiqua fuit there-was an ancient city. When two or more simple sentences are closely united, they are often called a Compound sentence as : £5 rM6o / go and return. A Co-ordinate Conjunction is often used to show the. connexion. See § 348. § 108. A Complex Sentence expresses one leading thought with one or more dependent thoughts : donee eris felix, multos numerabis amicos so-long-as you-shall-be fortunate, you-will-count many friends. The parts of a complex sentence are called Clauses. The part which contains the leading thought is called the Principal clause. The rest are called Subordinate or Dependent clauses. In the above example, multos numerabis amicos you-will-count many friends, is the Principal clause, and donSc ^ris fellx (which only states how long -^om will do so) the Subordinate clause. § 109. The four kinds of Sentences. — All sentences are divided according to their meaning. There are four kinds of Sentences which differ essentially. I. Statements. Affirmative statement or Affirmation, 70 The New Latin Primer. timeo I am afraid ; Negative statement or Negation, non timeo / am not afraid. II. Questions {Interrogations), times ? are-you-afraid 1 quis ^vcasXl who is afraid? III. Commands. Positive Commandj i, piier ! go, boy ! Negative Command or Prohibition, noli ire ! do not go ! IV. Wishes, sis felix may-you-be fortunate ; ne sis felix may you not be fortunate. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. § no. In every complete thought there are at least two ideas (or notions) and a certain connexion between them. In the boy is going the two ideas are represented by the boy called the Subject, and going called the Predicate ; and is shows the connexion between them. The nature of the con- nexion is different in each of the four kinds of sentences. § III. The Simple Sentence in its Shortest Forms. 1. Subject, Predicate, and connexion may be all ex- pressed by one word. Thus : timeo I-am-afraid, \ go (Sing.), grandinat it-hails. 2. Subject may be expressed by one word, and Predicate and connexion by another word. Thus : avis volat the-bird is flying or flies. 3. Subject may be expressed by one word, and Predicate by another word, connexion being left to be understood from the context : victi hostes the enemy {are) conquered, rara avis the bird {is) scarce. This is almost entirely con- fined to Statements where the Verb (if inserted) would be est or sunt ; and where the Predicate is an Adjectivp "r Participle. 4. The Subject and Predicate may be expressed by separate words, and connexion by a part of the Verb sum. Thus : victi sunt hostes the enemy are (or have been) con- quered, Marcus sit felix may Marcus be happy. Sentenchs. 7 1 § 112. Subject and Predicate. — The Subject, if separ- ately expressed, must be a Noun or some word used as such, that is, a Pronoun, an Adjective used Substantivally, or a Verb in the Infinitive. The Predicate is either expressed (together with con- nexion) by a Finite Verb, or else, as in 2 and 3, by an Adjective or a Noun or words which can be used in place of them. Note that the third person Sing. & Plur. of a Verb cannot form a sentence by themselves, unless they are used in an Impersonal or an Indefinite sense (§ ^ 165, 166). Where they appear to do .so, a subject is to be supplied from the context. § 113. Expanded Forms of the Simple Sentence. — In the foregoing sentences the Subject and the Predicate have been expressed by one word. But often several words are re- quired to express them fully. In such cases the Subject or the Predicate is called Complex, and the added words are called Complements. § 1 14. Adjectival Complements or Attributes are added to Nouns to make their description complete, as vir boniis a good man, vir multarum virtutum a man of many good- qualities. Phrases consisting of a Preposition and a Noun are rarely used in Latin as Attributes. 772^ man in the ditch is homo qui in fossa est the man who is in the ditch, § 115. Substantival Complements. — Verbs often require the addition of some Noun or other word used Substant- ivally to complete their sense. Thus in Marcus Gaio librum donat Marcus presents a-book to-Gaius, librum is a Substant- ival complement to donat, showing ivhat Marcus presents, and Gaio one showing to whom he presents it. librum is called the Direct Object and Gaio the Indirect Object of donSt. Other Complements are seen in proffciscamiir domum 72 The New Latin Primer. let-US-set-out home, culpamur ab illis (Noun with Preposition) we-are-blamed by those-men, ire vult he-wishes to-go. Substantival Complements are also found after Adjectives and a few Nouns, as securus mortis careless of-deatli, legibtis obtempfratlo obedience to-the-laws. § ii6. Secondary Predicate.— h. Verb sometimes requires an Adjectival Complement referring to its Subject or to its Object in oider to complete its sense : Gaius fit sapiens Gaius beco?nes wise, appellant Gaium sapientem they-call Gains wise. This Complement is called a Secondary Pre- dicate to distinguish it from the Predicates of §§ in, 112, which are called Primary. § 1 1 7. Adverbial. Complements are added to Verbs and Adjectives to show how they are limited in respect to Time, Place, Circumstances, Manner, Degree, and the like. In the Simple sentence, Adverbs and Oblique cases of Nouns (with or without attributes and prepositions) only are so used. Examples : postridie on-the-next-day (Time) CaesS.r advenit Ccesar arrived cum multa vi armatorum with a-large force of- armed-men (Circumstance). CONSTRUCTION. § 118. It is impossible to read or write Latin without carefully attending to the Inflexions of words. If these are improperly used, the result is either that we contradict our- selves or that we convey a wrong meaning. Thus, if we say av-es v61-at, we contradict ourselves ; for the -es means that there are several birds, and the -at that there is only one. In the following sentence : — Caesar oppidum cum magna praeda capit, id a militibiis crematur CcBsar takes the-town, together with a-great {quantity of ) plunder ; it (i.e. the town) is-burnt by the-soldiers ; id is in the Neuter, because it refers to the town. If you put ts (Masc.) it would mean Agreement. 73 the soldiers burnt Cmsar, and if you put ea (Fem.), it would mean they burnt the plunder. Construction is of two kinds : Agreement' and Govern- ment. Agreement. § 1 19. A word is said to agree with the word or words to which its inflexions are conformed. Agreement of one word with one other is called Simple Agreement. Agreement of one word with more than one other word is called Composite Agreement. Rules for Simple Agreement. § 120. I. Adjectives, used as Attributes or Predicates, agree with their Nouns in Gender, Number, and Case : vir bonus est the- man is good. Under other circumstances they agree with them in Gender, or in Gender and Number, according to the sense : optime regum best of kings ! Participles and Pronouns used Adjectivally follow the same rules as Adjectives. For the Agreement of the Relative see below. II. Nouns, when used as Attributes or Predicates to other Nouns, agree with them 'xa. Number d^nA. Case. TuUus rex King Ttillus, TuUus rex erat Tullus was king. When a Noun is used as an attribute to another Noun, it is said to be in Apposition to it. III. A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject in Number and Person: terra tremit, fugere ferae the-earth quakes, the- wild-beasts have-fled; tu pulsas, ego •va.pidd jou beat, lam- beaten. § 121. Agreement OF THE Relative. — That to which the Relative is referred is called its Antecedent. ^ Also called Concord. 74 The New Latin Primer. 1. If the Relative and the Antecedent are m the same clause, they agree in Gender, Number, and Case. quam S.vem cepi rara est. 2. If the Relative and Antecedent are in differe7it clauses, they agree in Gender and Number only. avis quam cepi rara est. Both of these sentences mean the bird which I have taken is scarce. Rules for Composite Agreement. § 122. In Composite Agreement an Adjective or a Verb is referred to several Nouns, coupled by a Conjunction or Conjunctions. Then we have two alternatives : A. The Adjective or Verb may agree with the nearest Noun and be understood with the others, et vir bonus est St miilier both the-man and the-woman are good. B. The Adjective or Verb may agree with both Nouns taken together. Then the following rules are observed : Number. — Always Plural. Gender. — (a) If the Nouns refer to Persons, and are of the same gender, that gender is retained. But if they are of different genders, the Masculine gender is used. (Of the same gender) Brutiis et Cassius mortiii sunt Brutus and Cassius are dead. (Of different genders) vir et mulier boni sunt the-man and the-woman are good. {b) If the Nouns refer to Things, and are of the same gender, that gender may be retained ; but the Neuter gtridti is often used. But if they are of different genders, the Neuter gender must be used. (Of the same gender) ulmiis et quercus natura procerae sunt the-elm and the-oak are tall by-nature ; stultitia 6t Government. 75 timiditas fugiienda %\mi folly and cowardice are to-be-avoided. (Of different genders) labor voluptasque dissimillima sunt toil and pleasure are most-tinlike. Person. — If the subjects of the Verb are of the same Person, the -Verb is kept in that Person. If they are of different Persons, it is put in the- First Person rather than the Second or the Third, and in the Second Person rather than the Third. (Of the same Person) et terra et ferae tremunt both the earth and the wild-beasts quake. (Of different Persons) ego et tu vapiilamus jvi9« and I are-beaten; tu et ille vapulatis j'^m and he are-beaten. Government. § 123. When one word requires another word to follow it in a particular inflexion, it is said to govern, and the following word to be governed by it. Thus, in nocet nobis he-is-harmful to-me, nocet is said to govern nobis, or to take the Dative nobis after it, and nobis is said to be governed by nocet or to be in the Dative after nocet. The same expressions are used of phrases. Thus aptiisy?/ is said sometimes to takeSd with the Ace, as in apliis sA.s.xrni. suited for arms. Principal Rules of Government. § 124. Nouns take (that is, govern) the Genitive of other Nouns. See § 143. § 125. Adjectives and the Adverbs formed from them take the Genitive, Dative, and Ablative of Nouns. § 126. Verbs. — All Verbs which give a complete sense by themselves, as sto I-stand, do not affect the construction of other words in the sentence. Transitive Verbs in the Active take the Accusative of their Object, and often a Noun in some other oblique case as well. 76 The New Latin Primer. Intransitive Verbs which do not give a complete sense by themselves are of two kinds : (i) Those which require a Noun as Complement (§ 115) to complete their sense. These take the Dative, Ablative, and sometimes the Genitive : as nocet nemini he-hurts {js-hurtful-td) nobody, coniidit auctoritate he trusts to {in) his influence, meminit ttii he remembers you. (2) Those which require an Adjectival Complement or Secondary Predicate referring to their subject to complete their sense. These are Verbs of be- coming, appearing, etc. The Predicates agree with the Subject according to Rule I. of § 120, and thus the Verb has the same case after it as before it. Caesar fit consul Cctsar is-made consul, non licet tibi fieri consul! it is not lazvful for you to be-made consul. So also esse to be ^ 1 1 1(4). For the Accusative of Sphere or Extent see § 132. For the Con- struction of Passive Verbs § 169. § 127. Prepositions may take the Accusative or the Ablative : ad urbem to the-toT.vn, in urbe in the-town. See §§ 135. 153- § 128. SuBORDiNATK CONJUNCTIONS may take the In- dicative or the Subjunctive. Co-ordinate Conjunctions do not affect the construction. For the construction of Interjections see § 333. The Cases. § 129. Nominative. — The Subject of the sentence is put in the Nominative, as equtis currit the-horse runs. So are all its adjectival Attributes and Predicates, as nem5 ciipit esse miser no-one desires to-be wretched. § 130. Vocative. — The person addressed is put in the Vocative, often with o, as bone ! good sir ! Accusative Case. 77 Accusative. The chief uses of the Accusative are : 1. Accusative of Direct Object. 2. Accusative of Extent. 3. Accusative of Motion towards something. 4. Accusative as Subject to Infinitive. § 131. Accusative of Direct Object. — Transitive Verbs take an Accusative of the direct object of their action : video furem / see a-thief, hoc rogo I-ask this. The Accusative is also used in Exclamations when a person or thing is the object of a strong feeling, as o mifsfirum hominem O the wretched man! § 132. Accusative of Extent. — Extent of Space. The Accusative is used of the extent of Space through which anything moves or extends : multa milia passuum progress! sunt they advanced many thousands of paces (i.e. miles). Accusative of Extent of Time. — The Accusative is used, by a metaphor, of the length of time throughout which an action goes on : bestiolae quaedam linum diem vivunt certain little-creatures live (only) one day. Accusative of Sphere of Action. — The Accusative is also used to show the extent or sphere of an action or state. (a) A Neuter Adjective or Pronoun : valere to-have- poiver, multum valere to have much power, to be very powerful, hoc fallor I-am-mlstaken in- this. {b) A Noun of same meaning as the Verb, with an Adjective or other defining word : ludum insolentem ludere to-play an arrogant game. This is called the Cognate Ace. § 133. Accusative of Motion towards a Place. — Only of names of Towns and small Islands ; also domum home, rus to-the-country, foras out-of-doors. Corcyram navigavimus we sailed to-Corcyra. With other words a Preposition is re- quired. For the Accusative of Purpose from Verbal Nouns, see \ 194. 78 The New Latin Primer. § 134. Accusative WITH THE Infinitive. — The Subject of a Verb in the. Infinitive, if expressed, is put in the Accusative : nuntiatiir Gallos adesse it-is-announced that the-Gauls are-at-hand. See § 205. § 135. Accusative WITH Prepositions. — The Accusa- tive is used after the following Prepositions : ante, apiid, ad, adversus, CIS, clam, circum, ob, secundum, pone, penes, prope, per, post, trans, and all in -a, and -ter. To these, if motion you intend, siib, super, in you should append. The Prepositions in -a are circa, citra, contra, extra, infra, intra, siipra, ultra. Those in -er are praetSr, propter, subter, and circiter. For their meanings see § 296. The Accusative is sometimes used after Verbs compounded with these Prepositions. See § 305. § 136. Double Accusative. — Some Verbs take two Accusatives, one of the person and one of the thing : as hoc te rogo J ask you this. For a list of them see § 306. Dative. § 137. General Meaning of Dative. — The Dative de- notes : A. The Person Interested in an action. B. The Use or Purpose which anything serves. §138. A. Dative of Person Interested. — The person whose interests are involved in any action is put in the Dative, generally translated y»r .• bona omnia popiilo Romano precantur they pray-for all blessings for the Roman people. According as the Dative expresses something favourable or un- favourable to a person's interests, it is called the DStivus commodi (Dative of Advantage), or the DStiviis incoramodi (Dative of Dis- advantage). Dative Case. 79 Dative of Person Interested in a Statement.— Hh& Person interested in a Statement is also put in the Dative : ecce tibi, mane accepi litteras tuas look you, the-first-thing-in-the- morning I received your letter ; quid mihi Celsus agit what pray is Celsus doing 1 This is called the Ethic Dative, mtht, iibt, nobis, mbis alone are so used. Dative of Person Judging. — ^For this Dative see § 310. Dative of Person Possessing. — Generally with esse to be : est mihi frater there-is a brother for-me, that is, / have a brother. Dative of Person Concerned in an Action. — With the Gerund and Gerundive, and sometimes Adjectives in -bilis, and Past Participles : hoc mihi est metuendum this is for-me to-be-feared, that is, I have to fear this. This Dative is often most conveniently translated by, and hence it has been called the Dative of the Agent. But the real Agent is ex- pressed by a or db with the Ablative (§ 149*). § 139. Dative OF Indirect Object. — The person whose interests are involved in any action is often the Indirect Object of the action. This Dat. is generally translated to. As we have already seen (§ 115), the sense of the Verb is often incomplete without such an addition. This Dative is found with : {a) Transitive Verbs which take an Accusative of the Direct Object : gratiasagit mihi he gives thanks to me. (b) Intransitive Verbs and Adjectives : nocent aliis they areharmful to-others, amicus tibi friendly to-you. The English has only one oblique case, the Objective ; and this is used to translate both the Latin Dative and Accusative ; thus in 1 give him it, we must put htm in the Dat. in Latin, and it in the Ace. Hence many Verbs which seem to be Transitive when translated into English, are really Intransitive, and take a Dative : parSo tibi I-obey you, lit. 1 am-obedient to-you. So The New Latin Primer. § 140. Dative with Verbs compounded with a Prepo- sition. — Most Verbs compounded with a Preposition take a Dative of the Indirect Object. This is to be variously trans- lated in English ; amicis defuit he-failed {was lacking to) his- friends ; capiti subduxerat ensem she-had-removed the-sivord from my-head ; constat sibi he-agrees with-kimself (^i.t. he is consistent). § 141. B. Dative of Use or Purpose Served. 1. The Dative of Verbals is used, generally as a Comple- ment to Nouns, to express the result aimed at : signum receptiii the-signal for-retreat. 2. Predicative Dative. — The Dative of Abstract Nouns is used as a Predicate, 'generally with esse, to show what function the Subject performs or what result it effects. A Dat. of the Person is generally added : exitio est avidum mare nautis the greedy sea is destructive to sailors, lit. for a destruction, curae sunt atque labor! they cause care and toil. Genitive. § 142. The commonest use of the Genitive is to qualify Nouns. It is also used as a complement to Adjectives and Verbs. § 143. The Genitive WITH Nouns The Genitive shows that one Noun is connected with or referred to another Noun. The kind of connexion or relation is very various. Connexion in General. — Quaesti5 sapientiae an inquiry about-wisdom. Possession. — Caesaris horti Ccesar's gardens. Origin and Cause. — Labor discendi the toil of learning, semen belli the seed of the war (from which the war sprang). Partition.-^—The Genitive being used of the whole of which a part is taken : Britannorum fortissimi the-bravest of- the-Britons, nihil novi no news {nothing of news). Genitive Case. %\ Definition. — rThe Genitive showing in what a thing con- sists : honos consiilatus the office of-consul (lit. of-consulshif). Description. — Always with an Adjective accompanying : res magni laboris an affair of-great labour. § 144. The Genitive used Predicatively.— Mostof the above Genitives can be used as the Predicate of a Noun : horti sunt Caesaris the gardens are Casar's, res magni ISboris ducilur the-affair is considered one of-great labour. § 145.- Genitive of the Object. — When a Genitive de- pends on a Noun which implies an action, it often denotes the object of the action, and corresponds to the Complement after a Verb § 115. Thus amor patris the lo%>e of-a-father may mean that someone loves a-father. This is called the " Objective '' Genitive, amor patris, may, however, also mean that a father loves someone, and the Gen. in this case corresponds to the Subject of a Verb. This is called the " Sitbjective " Genitive. Subjective and Objective Genitives are often united : hostium timor Caesaris tAe enemies' fear of Cmsar. § 146. Genitive with Verbs. — Certain Verbs, chiefly Transitive, take a Complement in the Genitive. Genitive of the Charge. — Verbs of Accusing, Convicting, and Acquitting take a Genitive of the Charge : ambitus acciisare to-ac'cuse of-bribery. Genitive of the Mental Object. — Certain Verbs which denote pity, vexation, shame, disgust take a Genitive of the Object of the Feeling. These are misereri and the Imper- sonals of § 166 (b) : miserere iVLOxum pity yourfriends, piidet me fratris I-am-ashamed of-my-brother. Some Verbs ol Remembering, Forgetting, etc., take a Geni- tive of the thing remembered, etc. ; so admonere to remind, certiorem facere to inform : vivorum memini f remember the-, living, certiorem me consili fecit he informed me of his plan. For the Gen. with interest and refert see ^ 315. G 82 The New Latin Primer. § 147. Genitive with Adjectives. — Many Adjectives, especially those containing a Verbal Notion, take a Com- plement in the Genitive. See § 316. For the so-called " Genitive of Place " see § 154 ; and for the Genitive of Price see § 1 56*. Ablative. § 148. The Ablative has a great variety of usages, which may be considered under three heads : — A. Place whence (the Ablative Proper) ; B. Means or instrument (the Instru- mental Ablative) ; C. Place ivhere (the Locative Ablative). § 149. A. Ablative Proper. — Usually to be translated from. Motion from a Place. Without a Preposition, only names of Towns and small Islands, and rure, domo : fugit Corintho he Jled from- Corinth, rtire zAytxab I arrive from- the-country. With other words a Preposition must be used ; as, ex A%ia.from Asia. Origin. — /ove prognatiis descended from-Jupiter. " Alialtive of the Agent " with a or ab. — The Ablative with ab or a (Wt.from) is used with Passive Verbs of the Person who is the Source of the Action, that is the Agent ; laudamur 5b his, culpamur Sb illis we- are-praiscd by these-persons, we-are-blamed by those. AM. of Separation. — With Verbs signifying Removing, Depriving, etc., especially when compounded with the Prepositions &b and de, ex and se : pellere castris to drive from-the-camp, armis spoliare to strip of-his-armour ; urbe exire to-go-out ofthe-town. AM. of Comparison. — After Comparative Adjectives and Adverbs. We " start from " the thing with which comparison is made. This Ablative is translated than ; quid mSgis est saxo durum, quid moUitts unda ? what is more hard than stone, what softer than water 1 § 150. B. Instrumental Ablative. — This denotes that Ablative Case. 83 by means of which anything is done, and is usually trans- lated by or with. Ablative of Instrument. — apri dentibus se tutantur boars defend themselves with-their-tusks. Ablative of Caicse. — maerore consenescebat he-was- gron'ing-old with-grief. Ablative of C(?j-/.— The Ablative is used of the sum for which anything is bought or. sold : praesenti pecunia venire to-be-sold for ready money. Ablative of Amou?it of Difference. — The Difference be- tween two unequal things is expressed by the Ablative : sol multis partibus mazor est quam luna the-sun is many times larger than the-moon. Ablative of Way or Manner. — Generally with defining adjective : poUiceor hoc v5bis bona fide / promise this to-you in good faith. Ablative of Quality or Description. — Always with an Adjective or Pronoun : summa virtute adiilescens a youth of the highest virtue. Ablative Absolute. — It denotes actions, etc., which ac- company the main action : Chaonifae fiigiunt, aquila veni- ente, columbae the Chaonian doves flee when the eagle comes, or at the coming of the eagle. This Ablative is so called because it often appears to be independ- ent (absolutus set free) of the rest of the sentence. It is better called the Abl. of Attendant Circumstances. § 151. C. Locative Ablativje. — The Ablative is used to denote several meanings which originally belonged to the Locative. Place where. — Except in a few phrases such as terra et mari on land and sea, only found with an epithet or Preposition : medio oppido fluit it flows through the midst of the town. Sometimes the Place is also the Means ; scuta iimfirls gestant t/iey carry their shields on their shoulders. G 2 84 The Nfav Latin Primer. JiouU.— porta. Collina urbem intravit ^e entered the city by the Colline Gate. Part or Thing Concerned (sometimes called Ablative oj Respeci). — capti auribus et ociilis paralysed (lit. seized) in ears and eyes. Ti?ne. — Time at which anything happens : Idibus Sextilibus on tlie Ides of August. Time 7vithin which : Rosdiis multis annis Romam non vcnit for many years Roscius did not come to Rome. § 152. Ablative with Verbs and Adjectives. 1. With Deponent Verbs. — Six uncompounded De- ponent Verbs take the Ablative. fungor, iitor, and friior, vescor, nitor, potior ' The phrases opus est, usfts est, there is need of, are often found with the Abl. See § 332. 2. Verbs and Adjectives denoting Want or Fulness take the Abl. : pane egSo I-want bread, honore plenus full of- honour. 3. The following Adjectives also take the Ablative : dignus worthy (of), indignus unworthy (of), contentus contented (with), and fretUS relying {on). § 153. Ablative with Prepositions.— The following Prepositions take the Ablative : ab or a, cum, coram, de, palam, procul, ex or e, sine, siraul, pro and prae. To these if nest aX you intend, siib, siiper, in you should append. tdnus up to, is generally constructed with the Ablative, but some- times with the Gen. ' Discharge (a duty), use, get the benefit of. Feed on, lean on, get fossession of. Locative Case. 85 § 154. Locative. The LocATivK denoted the place where. In the time of the Classical Latin it had gone out of use, and its place had been to a great extent taken by other cases, chiefly by the Ablative. It is often wrongly called a Genitive. It was still used, however, in the following cases : § 155. Locative of the Place. — In names of Towns and Small Islands : Romae at Rome, Rhodi in Rhodes, Karthagini at Carthage; also humi, terrae on-the-ground, domi at home, ruri in-the-country, belli in-war, militlae in-warfare. In a metaphorical sense we find animi, as aeger animi sick at heart. § 156. Locative of the Frice. — The Amount at which a.ny- thing is valued is put in the Locative : parvi sunt foris arm^ nisi est consilium domi ar}ns are worth-little abroad unless there-is wisdom at-home. For a list of the Locatives so used, see § 326. A Genitive of Price is found in pluris worth-more, minoris worth less. It is due to the Locative forms in -t being mistaken for Genitives. Adjectives. § 157. Adjectives without Nouns. — Adjectives are found without Nouns where these can be readily supplied from the context : legates comprehendunt, noxios interficiiint they arrest the- ambassadors, they put-to-death the guilty-ones. § 158. Adjectives as Nouns. — Adjectives (and Pro- nouns) aire often used by themselves in the Masculine gender to denote Males or Persons generally, in the Femi- nine to denote Females, and in the Neuter to denote Things: quid miniis libero dignum ? what {thing) is less worthy of a free man 1 triste lupiis stabulis the wolf (is) a-grievous-thing for the sheep-folds. Several Adjectives are used so often with a particular 86 The New Latin Primer. Noun that the Adjective can stand alone : agnina (cSro) lamb, i.e. lamb's flesh, natalis (dies) birthday, dextra (mantis) t/ie right (hand). § 159. Adjective for Adverb. — Adjectives are often used in Latin where English has Adverbs. This is always the case where the real reference is to some state or con- dition of a person or thing : sciens hoc feci / did this knowingly (I was aware what I did), rem' tacitus praeteris you pass over the matter silently, i.e., saying nothing about it. The Adverb, however, must be used if the Manner is referred to : raute fief rf to act cautiously, in a cautious manner, tScite exfcrarl to curse silently, i.e. not aloud. Degrees of Comparison. § 160. Comparative. — In Comparison of two things the Comparative of Adjective or Adverb is used. (i) That with which anything is compared is put in the same case as the thing compared, quam being used to show the comparison : melior est certa pax quam sperata victoria certain peace is better than hoped-for victory. (2) Instead of quam with a Nominative or Accusative (but no other case), the Ablative of Comparison, § 149, may be used: quid moUius unda? what (is) softer than water i Where ambiguity would arise, only quam may be used : Brutum non minus Smo quam tu, paenS dixi quam te I love Brutus no less than you do, I almost said than I do you. Pronouns. § 161. The Genitives of the Personal Pronouns are not used in the sense of Possession, nor in a Subjective sense. In these senses the Possessive Adjective is used instead : tua unius voluptas the pleasure of you only (not tui), noster timor our fear (the fear we feel) (not nostri). The Finite Verb. 87 In a Partitive sense, and with omnium, nostrum, ves- trum are used : nemo nostrum no7te of-us, not nemo nostri. § 162. The Neuter of Demonstrative and Relative Pro- nouns is generally attracted so as to agree with its Subject : hoc opus, hie labor est this is the-zvork, this is the- toil (not hoc labor est). THE FINITE VERB. Persons. § 163. Insertion OF Pronouns. — The First and Second persons of the Verb do not require the insertion of the personal Pronouns as in English. They are only inserted when emphatic; tu pulsas, ego vapulo you beat, I am beaten. The Third person requires the insertion of a Pronoun where it would not be clear to what Noun it referred ; Balbus uxorem ducit, ea proximo mense morittir Balbus marries a-wife, she dies in-the-following month. If Sa were not put in, moritur would refer to Balbiis, the Nomin- ative of the preceding sentence. § 164. Translation of the Persons. — The First Per- son is often used in the Plural where in English we use the Singular : hunc librum de senectilte misimtis I-have- sentyou this book on old-age. So also the Pronouns : nostros vidisti flentis ocellos you-have-seen my eyes when weeping (lit. our eyes). The exact translation of the Second Person Singular is thou, and of the Second Person Plural ye ; and these are used in translating poetry. But in translating prose and verse of a light kind, you is used for both. The insertion of an Adjective, Noun, or Pronoun referring to the Sub- ject contained in the Verb does not change its person (as in English) ; iU6 sum qui laudor I-am he that ispraised. 88 The New Latin Primer. § 165. Indefinite Use of the Persons. — An Inde- finite Subject to a Verb, one, people, etc., is expressed by— (a) First Person Plural : quae volumus libenter cred- imus one readily believes what one wishes. (b) Third Person Plural, of Verbs of saying, etc. : hoc vulgo credunt people believe this generally. (c) The Passive Voice : rex diligitur people love the king. {d) Second Person Singular of the Subjunctive : amen- tem ilium piites one would think him a madman. § 166. Impersonal Verbs. — Impersonal Verbs are only used in the Third Person Singular of the Active. They comprise : {a) Verbs denoting natural phenomena, which cannot be assigned to a definite subject ; as, pliiit // rains, advesperascit it draws-towards-evening. ip) Verbs denoting feelings of the mind, the cause of which is obscure ; as, taedet expressing weariness or disgust. These Verbs must be translated per- sonally into English ; taedet me vitae / atn tired of life, lit. IT (something, I cannot tell what) tires me of life. See also § 454 (i). To these may be added : (c) The Impersonal use of the Third Person Singular Passive to denote the mere performance of an action ; as, luditur it-is-played, i.e., playing goes on. §167. Quasi-Impersonal Verbs. — Numerous other Verbs appear to be Impersonal, and are translated by it in English, but they are either followed by an Infinitive or Dependent clause, which serves as their subject : decet te igndscere mihi it becomes you to pardon me, you should pardon me. For the construction of these Quasi-Impersonal Verbs see § 454 (2). The Passive Voice. 89 The Passive Voice. § 168. The Passive Voice is a conversion of the Active. He is loved by me and / love him are two ways of saying the same thing. § i6g. Conversion OF Transitive Verbs. — The Direct Object of the Active becomes the Subject of the Passive Verb, and the Subject of the Active Verb is put into the Ablative (of the Agent) with a or db. Thus : Brutus Caesarem interfecit Brutus killed Casar becomes Caesar a Bruto interfectiis est Ccesar was killed by Brutus. It is the Nominative and Accusative of the Direct Object only that are changed in the conversion of a sentence to the Passive form. The other Accusatives and Oblique cases remain ; illiid Caesar te laedit in that Ccesar hurts you becomes illud a Caesird laedSris. See, how- ever, § 356*. § 170. Conversion OF Intransitive Verbs.' — -Theseare converted by means of the Third Person Singular or Imper- sonal Passive : Briitiis et Cassiiis Caesari invident Brutus and Cassius envy Ccesar becomes a Bruto et Cassio Caesari invidetiir it-is-envied Ccesar [envy is felt towards Ccesar) by Brutus and Cassius. § 171. Indefinite use of the Passive. — If the Subject of a Transitive Verb is Indefinite, it is not expressed in the Passive : Thales sapiens appellatiis est Thales was called a-sage ; hoc credittir this is believed, people believe this. The Impersonal Passive of Intransitive Verbs is very frequently used where the Subject is Indefinite ; itiir in antlquam silvam people go into an ancient forest. § 172. Passive in a Reflexive Sense, — The Passive is often used, especially in old writers and poets, to denote an action performed by the Subject on itself; exerceor I exer- cise myself, recreor I refresh myself. Many of these are to be translated by an English In- transitive Verb ; rumpor I burst, pascor I feed, volvor I roll. The same Reflexive meaning may be traced in Deponent Verbs ; epulor I feast myself, piscor I get myself fish, I fish. Comp. \ 307 (end). go The New Latin Primer. Tenses. § 173. The Tenses in Principal Sentences. — The general meaning of the Tenses has already been explained, § 57. It is most clearly seen in the leading Verbs of Princi- pal sentences. The tenses of the leading Verbs in Principal Sentences express time absolutely. The tenses of the Verbs in Dependent Sentences (§§ 224, 225), and of the Infinitive (§ 204), and the Participles (§ 364) generally express time dependent on that of their leading Verb. § 174. Tenses which refer to the present or future are called Primary Tenses ; those which refer to the past are called Secondary or Historic Tenses. Primary : Present, Perfect Proper, Future, Future-Perfect. Secondary : Perfect Aorist, Imperfect, Pluperfect. The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect, are often called the Completed Tenses, because they necessarily denote an action already finished ; as opposed to the Present, Imperfect, and Future, which are called Iiuomplde Tenses. § 175. The following table represents the correspondence of the Latin and English Tenses : — Primary Tenses. Pres. / write or a7n writing scribo Perf. / have written or have been writing scrips! FuT. I shall ivrite or shall be writing scribam FuT. Perf. / shall have written or shall liave been writing scripsero Secondary Tenses. Perf. Aorist. l wrote scrips! Imperf. I was writing scribebara Pluperf. I had written or had been ivriting scripseram § 176. Special Uses of the Tenses. Besides the general use of the tenses, as explained in § 57, they have the following special developments in Latin. The Tenses. 91 § 177. Incomplete Tenses.— I. The Present and Ira- perfect are used for actions oigetieral ox frequent occurrence : probitas laudatur et alget honesty is praised and freezes, Pausanias epulabatur more Persarum Pausanias used-to- banquet in the style of the Persians. For fs\& Perfect and Pluperfect in Dependent clauses see § 224 (2). § 178. II. The same tenses, especially the Imperfect, are also used of an action purposed or attempted, but not carried out : quid me terres ? why do-you-try-to frighten me ? sedabant tiimultus they tried-to-allay the outbreaks. This use affects the translation of many Verbs. Thus : d^di is I gave ; but do, dSbam, often mean / ojir, I offered. § 179. III. They are also used with ?am already, and similar Adverbs, of actions which have been going on for some time ; and they are then to be translated by English Com- pleted tenses : annum »am audio Cratippum l have been already hearing (i.e. attending the lectures of) Cratippus for a year, zantdudum tibi adversabar I had long been opposing you. § 180. Completed Tenses denote a sudden action : terra tremit, fugere ferae the earth quakes, the wild beasts have fled {flee at once) ; terra tremuit, fagerant ferae the earth quaked, the wild beasts at once fled ; si terra tremet (or tre- muerit), fugerint ferae if the earth quakes, the wild beasts will at once flee. § 181. Imaginative Uses of the Tenses. — Sometimes, by an effort of the imagination, the speaker transports him- self to some point in the Past or the Future, and uses the Tenses which would then be correct. § 182. Present for Past. — The Present is often used vividly in speaking of past events ; /iigurtha vallo moenia circumdat , fugurtha surrounded the-walls with-an-entrenchment. This use is called the Historic Present. It is regularly found with dum ■whilst. 92 The New Latin Primer. § 183. Present for Future. — The Present is sometimes similarly used in speaking of events in the future, especially in the immediate future : nunc ad inceptum redeo now I will return to my subject. So frequently with dum until ; see § 410*. The Perfect is sometimes similarly used for the Future Perfect : si Briitus conservatus Srit, victmus if Brutus is saved, we-shall-have- gained the victory. § 184. Past for Present — 1\\e. Imperfect z.nA Pluperfect are often used in letters (and messages) where English has the Present and Perfect, the writer of the letter putting himself in the position of the receiver, and using the tense which he would use : Rosciiis orabat sibi Messes ad Piiteal eras Roscius begs you to attend hint to-morrow at the Puteal. This is often called the Epistolary use of the Imperfect and Plu- perfect. Use of the Moods. § 185. The Indicative. — An action which is stated or which is treated as a/arf is put in the Indicative : vivo I am alive, f aciam cum potero / will do it when I can. It is not necessary that the action referred to should be a fact ; indeed, this is impossible with future actions. It is enough for the speaker to treat it as if it were. § 186. The Imperative. — An action commanded is put in the Imperative ; as, abi go away, abito let-him-go away. The heavier forms of the Second Person Imperative, as SmatS (sing.), SmatotS (plur.), give an order less bluntly and directly than the shorter forms, but more authoritatively. They are often used in rela- tion to the future, and are called by some Future Imperatives. An 3.c\.ioa forbidden is not put in the Imperative. .See § 191. The Subjunctive. § 187. The Subjunctive Mood differs essentially from the Indicative, and its uses belong to four main kinds or types. The SuBjuNCTii'E. 93 If a Verb is put in the Subjunctive, this shows either : (A) That it denotes something which is regarded as a thought or feelitig, not as a fact {Subjunctive of Thought) ; or (B) Something which, though it may be a fact, is dependent upon other facts, or cannot be separated from them {Subjunctive of Dependent Fact) ; or (0) That it denotes something which the writer does not give on his own authority, but only as a state- ment of others (Subjunctive of Dependent State- ment) ; or; lastly, (D) That it depends in grammatical construction on an Infinitive or another Subjunctive {Subjunctive of Grammatical Dependence). § 188. The Subjunctive in Simple Sentences.— The Subjunctives found in simple sentences all belong to type (A). The Subjunctive expresses either (I) Desire (the Nega- tive is ne), or (II) Imagination or Supposition (the Negative is noti). § 189. I — Subjunctive of Desire. — This is found — (i) In Wishes or Hopes: moriar may I die I iitinam ne felix sit O that he might not be happy ! (2) In Requests or Comma?ids : ne feceris hoc pray do not do this ; abeat iet him go away ; ne abeat let him not go away ; hoc ne faciamus let us not do this. § 190. II — Subjunctive of Imagination. — hoc velim I could wish this; insanum ptttes you might think him mad or he might be thought mad. See also § 383. So in the Principal Clause of a Complex sentence : respond^am si loges / should answer if you asked me ; respondissem si rogasses / should have answered if you had asked me. In both sentences it is implied that I am not asked. See § 239. For the Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses, see § 217 sqq. § 191. Commands and Prohibitions. — The Subjunctive does not express a command as strongly as the Imperative. Hence abdat is 94 The Nfav Latin Primer. less peremptory thanSbito. In Prohibitions the Imperative is not used in Classical prose, nor the Present Subjunctive in the Second person. Do not do this is therefore ne fecfrls hoc or noli hoc fScJrf . For other ways of ex.pressing Commands and Prohibitions, see §385- VERBALS. § 192. Verbal Nouns. — These include (besides the In- finitive) the Supines and Gerunds., and they take the same construction as the Verb from which they are formed. § 193. Supines. — These are the Ace. and Abl. of Verbal Nouns in -us (G. -us), the other cases of which are some- times, but not always, found. Thus from auditus hearing we get audi turn (Ace), auditu (Abl.). § 194. The Supine in -um denotes Purpose, and is used with Verbs which imply Motion : auditum e5 Ciceronem I-go to-hear {J-go a-hearing) Cicero. This Supine is used with iri, the Infinitive of itur peofk go (see § 202), to form a Future Infinitive Passive : dlcit se occisum Iri he says that he will be killed, lit. that people-are-going to-kill him. § 195. The Supine in -u is used after Adjectives: horrendum auditu fearful to-hear {in the hearing). For more see the Addendum. § 1 96. Gerunds. — This is the name given to the cases of a Neuter Noun in -du7n, corresponding to the English -ing. The Nominative is only used (in Classical Latin) from Intransitive Verbs, and with the meaning of Obligation : gundum est nobis there-is going for-us, that is, ive must go. Examples of the other cases are : aptus ad pingendum quick at painting (^Acc), via nocendi hostibiis a-way of-doing- harm to-the-enemy (Gen.), sftliitem hominibus dando by- giving safety to-men (Abl.), scribendo adfuerunt they were-pre- sent io-write, i.e. acted as secretaries (Dat.). When the Verb would govern an Ace, the Gerundive is generally used instead of the Gerund. See § 198. Verbals. 95 § 197. Verbal Adjectives. Transitive Verbs have : 1. A Present Participle Active, denoting the same time as that of the leading Verb : amans loving. 2. A Future Participle Active : amaturiis about to- love, denoting time future to that of the leading Verb. 3. A Participle Passive, denoting (generally) time prior to that of the leading Verb : amatus loved. 4. A Gerundive, as amandtis. Intransitive Verbs have only i and 2. Deponent Verbs, if Transitive, have all four; but the Past Participle of some Verbs is used sometimes in an Act- ive and sometimes in a Passive sense : comitatus having accompanied or having been accompanied. If they are In- transitive, they have all but the Gerundive. § 198. The Gerundive. -^The Nominative of the Ger- undive, like the Gerund, is used in the sense of obligation : hostes nobis vincendi sunt the enemy are for us to conquer, we must conquer the enemy. In the other Cases it is used instead of the Gerund when the latter takes a Direct Object in the Ace. The Object and the Gerundive are put in the same gender, number, and case. Thus instead of in administrando rem publicam in conducting the government {public affairs), we can say in re publica administranda. The Gerund and Gerundive, though used in a Passive sense, take the Dat., not a with the Abl. of the Agent. The Infinitive. § 199. Forms of the Infinitive. — The Latin Verb has single forms for only the Present Infinitive Active (monere), the Perfect Infinitive Active (moniiisse), and the Present Infinitive Passive (moneri). § 200. The Perfect Infinitive Passive is formed peri- 96 The New Latix Primer. phrastically, by using esse with the Past Participle : monitus esse dicitiir he is said to have been warned ; dicunt Caesarem monitum esse they say that Ccesar was ivarned. The Participle may be also used alone : dicunt CaesSrem monitum. § 201. For the Future Infinitive Active the Future Parti- ciple is used : mulierem credidit morituram he believed that the woman would die. ess£ is sometimes inserted. § 202. The Future Infinitive Passive is expressed : (i) By using irl with the Supine in -um. See § 194. This form cannot be used when the subject of the Infinitive is the same as that of the Finite Verb, as then there is nothing for the Supine lo govern ; hence, urbs captum iri videbatur {the city seemed to be going to be captured) is bad Latin. (2) By using fore (Fut. Infin. of esse), followed by ut, with the Subjunctive Present or Imperfect, according to the Sequence of Tenses (§ 226) : dicit fore ut urbs capiatur he says that (it will be that) the city will be captured ; dixit fore iit urbs capere- tiir he said that the city would be captured. (3) The Infinitive of the Future Perfect Passive is expressed by using fore with the Passive Participle : credit urbem captam fore he believes the city will have been captured. § 203. Uses of the Infinitive. The Infinitive has three mam usages : (A) As a Verbal Noun, as Subject or Complement to a Verb : vivere mcundum est living is pleasant ; cijpio discere I-desire to-learn. (B) In dependent construction, to represent a Finite Verb : dicit hostes advSnire he says that the enemy are coming, where advenire represents advSniunt. (C) As a Predicate in place of a Finite Verb : hostes The iNFimrivE. 9 fvigere, Romani sequi the enemy fly, the Romans pursue. This is called the Historical Infinitive, as it is frequent in historical descriptions. (D)" The Infinitive is also used in Exclamations : mene incepto desistere victam ! to think that I should desist from my design baffled ! § 204. Tenses of the Infinitive. The Present Infinitive expresses an action of the same time as the leading Verb ; as — dico te errdre I say that you are wrong. dixi te errdre I said that you were wrong. The Perfect Infinitive expresses an action of a time prior to the leading Verb ; as — • dico te errdsse I say that you have been wrong (or were wrong"). dixi te errdsse I said that you had been wrong. The Future Infinitive expresses an action of a time future to the leading Verb ; as — dico te errdtiirum I say that you will be wrong. dixi te errdtUrutn I said that you would be wrong. The Subject of the Infinitive. §205. 1. If the Subject of the Infinitive is fa;/«M«(^z£;2V/i the Infinitive, it is put into the Accusative : ctipio te venire / wish you to come; bovem loqui monstrum est it is a irodigy that an ox should speak. The Historical Infinitive is of course an exception, as it is equivalent to a Finite Verb. Any Adjectival Complements referring to the Subject ot the Infinitive agree with it in the Ace. : ciipio te incoliimem abire / wish you to go away unharmed. For the omission of the Subject when Indefinite, see \ 373. H gS The New Latin Primer. 2. If the Subject is not expressed with the Infinitive, an Adjectival Complement is still often introduced, agree- ing with the word from which the Subject is to be supplied ; ciipio abire incolumis / wish to go away unharmed ; licet mihi incoliimi abire / am permitted to go away unharmed. § 206. Infinitive in Dependent Statement. After Verbs and phrases of saying., thinking, and feeling, the Infinitive with the Ace. is used instead of a Dependent clause : nfmtiat Caesarem rediisse he reports that Ccesar has returned ; sensi procellara advgnire I perceived a storm was approaching ; siies v61ar§ incredibile est it is incredible that pigs should fly. For the Noni. in the Personal Passive Construction, dicor essfi fellx it is said that I am fortunate, see \ 376. Negatives. § 207. non is used — In negativing single words or phrases : et sit htimus cineri non onerosa tuo and let the-earth be not-burdensome to your ashes. In negative Statements and Questions : non respondet he does not answer \ _Viax\-ns. respondeat? would he not answer 1 haud is used with Adjectives and Adverbs : as haud mSl£ not badly. Also with scio as in the phrase haud scio an, with Subj. / rather think. § 208. ne is used — In Requests : ne respondSris do not answer. So also when we are requested to suppose something. See § 382. In Wishes : ne sis felix ! may you not be happy ! § 209. nec, neque are used to connect single Words, Statements and Questions : nec sapit nec meminit he ?inther understands nor reineinbcis. Questions. 99 neu, neve are used to connect Requests and Wishes : ne dixeris hoc neve piitaveris do not say this, nor think it. Questions. § 210. Questions may be Simple^ Alternative, or Particular. A Simple Question asks whether something is {or is not) the case : vivit Caesar ? is Casar alive ? non vivit Caesa,r ? is Ccesar not alive ? The Interrogative Particles, -ne (always appended to some word), nonne, num, are very often used in asking Simple questions. -ne implies nothing as to the nature of the answer ex- pected, audisne ? do you hear ? nonne expects the answer Yes. nonne audls ? don't you hear? num, expects the answer No. num audis ? you don't hear, do you ? § 211. An Alternative Question asks which of two statements is correct. An Interrogative Particle is required with the second statement, and most often inserted with the first statement as well, iitrum or -ne is used in the first statement, au (sometimes anne) is used with the second statement ; utrum me nosti an ignoras ? do you knotv or not know me ? Or not ? is expressed by annon (sometimes necne), credits mlhl annon ? do you believe me or not ? § 212. Particular Questions ask for further information about something or other : quis es ? who are you 1- cur rogas ? why do you ask ? H 2 The New Latin Primer. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. § 213. Principal AND Dependent Clauses. — Complex sentences consist of a Principal clause and one or more Dependent clauses. The Complex Sentence may be regarded as a Simple Sentence modified by putting clauses in the place of single words. The Dependent clauses are called Substantival, Adjec- tival, or Adverbial, according as the word which corresponds to them is a Substantive (Noun), Adjective, or Adverb. The following are examples of the three kinds : Substantival clause : qui regis sunt coluntur those •WHO are kings are courted. Simple sentence : regis coluntiir kings are courted. Adjectival clause: lociis quem siipra dixi hie est this is the place which I mentioned above. Simple sentence : locus supra .dictus hie est this is the above mentioned place. Adverbial clause : venit iit primum illuxtt he ca7ne AS soon as it was light. Simple sentence : venit mane he came in-the-early- morning. The Dependent Clauses of a Complex Sentence are often called Dependent Sentences ; and this word will also be employed in this Grammar. § 214. Substantival Clauses. — Substantival clauses or sentences are of five kinds : (i) Sentences introduced by a Relative Pronoun : qui reges sunt, coluntur those who are kings are courted. (2) Sentences introduced by quod, meaning the fact that: quod spirOjtuum est the-f act-that I breathe {my breathing) is due-to-you. Dependent Sentences. ioi (3) Dependent Questions : quid futurum sit rogo : / ask ivhat is going-to-happen. (4) Some sentences introduced by ut and «i?as Objects of Verbs of e?itreating, commanding, etc., and as Subjects to est, accidit, etc. : peto a te ut abeas (ne abeas) / ask you to go away (iiot to go away).^ (5) Sentences introduced by ne, etc., expressing the object of a Verb oi fearing: timeo ne moriar/awz afraid that I shall die. English Substantival Sentences after Verbs of saying, etc., are ex- pressed in Latin by the Inf. (§ 206). § 215. Adjectival Clauses. — These are always intro- duced by a Relative, which defines some Noun in the Principal Clause : lociis quem delegi, iibi constiti the place which T chose {and) where I stood. §216. Adverbial Clauses. — These qualify Verbs or Adjectives in the Principal Clause, and are introduced by a Conjunction. See § 102. They are of the following kinds : — (i) Local sentences, showing the Place where, whence, whither : tibi, qua, quo, unde. (2) Temporal sentences, showing the Time when, during, which, until, after, before, etc. : cum, ut when, dum, postquam, etc. (3) Modal sentences, showing the Manner in which : lit as, quasi as if, etc. (4) Causal sentences, showing the Cause, because, since : quod because, quia, etc. (5) Consecutive sentences, showing the Consequence or Result : vX so that, etc. (6) Final sentences, showing the End (Lat. finis) or Purpose : tit in order that, etc. (7) Conditional sentences, showing the Condition, if: si, etc. 1 For the sentences in (4) see §§ 396, 397, 454 (2). I02 The New Latin Primer. (8) Concessive sentences, making a Concession or Assumption, granting that, supposing that, al- though : quamquam, etsi, iit although, etc. Moods in Dependent Sentences. § 217. The only moods used in Dependent sentences are the Indicative and the Subjunctive. When the Subjunctive would be required if the sentence were a Principal one, the Subjunctive must, of course, be used if it is a Dependent one. If the Indicative would be used if the sentence were a Principal one, the Indicative is retained in a Dependent sentence or changed into the Subjunctive, according to the four principles of § 187. The Mood used often depends on the original meaning of the Con- junction which is used. Thus quamobrem since (lit. on account of 'which thing) of itself expresses Cause, and so the Subjunctive is not required with it. On the other hand, cum properly means when, and hence, when it is used for since, the idea of Cause has to be expressed by the Subjunctive. § 218. Relative Sentences. — In Substantival and Ad- jectival sentences introduced by a Relative (qui, qualis, of which kind, quantiis how great, etc., quod, the fact that, etc.)l the Indicative is used if the Verb states something as a simple independent fact : mittit Sum qui vera nuntia/ he sends the man who brings true tidings. But, frstfy, if there is any accessory idea of Purpose, Cause, etc., the Subjunctive is required (according to (B), § 187) : mittit eum qui vera niintiet he sends a man who is to bring (or to bring) true tidings. Secondly, the Subjunctive is required if what is stated is stated as the saying or thought of somebody Caccording to (0), § 187): dicit 6t credit se eummittere qui vera nuntiet.^^ says and believes that he sends a man ivho brings true tidings. Thirdly, the Subjunctive is usually required (accord- ing to (D), § 187) \i the Verb which gives the statement Moods in Dependent Sentences. 103 depends in construction on an Infinitive or Subjunctive ; euro ut eum xcCVAat qui vera nuntiet I-take-care that he sends the-man who brings true tidings. § 219. Local, Temporal, and Modal Sentences. — These have the Indicative or the Subjunctive on the same principles as Relative sentences. § 220. Causal Sentences. — These have the Indica- tive if they simply give the cause or reason ; but the Sub- junctive if that is required by the principles (0) or (D). Cum since, which is properly a Temporal Conjunction, takes the Subjunctive. § 221. Consecutive and Final Sentences. — These always take the Subjunctive : effecit ut urbs caperetur he brought about that the town was taken ; est lit vivat he eats to live. The student must be careful not to confuse Consecutive and Final Sentences. In he kept me so long that I missed my train we have a Consecutive sentence, showing the effect actually produced by his keeping me. In he kept me so lojig that I might miss my train we have a Final sentence, showing the effect which he intended to produce by his keeping me. Consecutive sentences therefore must express facts, but Final sentences need not do so. § 222. Concessive Sentences. — In these the Indicative or the Subjunctive is used according to the Conjunction em- ployed : quamviS, licet, iit, take the Subjunctive ; quam- quam the Indicative; etsi follows the construction of si if, with which it is compounded. § 223. Conditional Sentences. — These follow their Principal sentences in having the Indicative if the Conditional statement is treated as if it were a fact, the Subjunctive if it is treated as a mere imagination. (See §§239 sqq.) Tenses in Dependent Sentences. § 224. Tenses of the Indicative. — The time of the Verb in a Dependent Clause is generally dependent on that I04 The New Latin Primer. of the Principal Clause, and hence care must be taken to use the proper Tense in the Dependent Clause. Latin is much more exact in this respect than English. Thus : (i) Latin uses a Future in the Dependent Clause if the Principal Clause is Future, not a Present, as English : respondebo cum potero I will answer wlien I am able. (2) Latin uses a Completed tense if the action in the Dependent Clause is finished before the action in the Principal Clause, not an Incomplete one, as English : cum venero, te visam when I come, I will visit you. For the same reason Latin uses the Perfect and Plu- perfect iw Dependent sentences, of General or Repeated occvx- rences : quocumque aspexisti, tiiae tibi occurrunt in/uriae wherever you look, your offences 7neet you, cum rosam viderdt, turn incipere ver arbitrabatur when (whenever) ^^ saw a rose, then he thought spring was beginning. (3) Latin uses the Perfect Aorist after postquam and other Temporal Conjunctions, if one action is simply marked as that after or before which some other action occurs, while English often uses the Pluperfect : postquam cenavimus, Atticiis advenit after Wi? had dined, Atticus came. The Latin Pluperfect would have its proper force : postquam ce- navSramvis after we had iinislied dinner. § 225. Tenses of the Subjunctive. — The tense of a Verb in the Subjunctive in a Dependent Sentence is determined by the following considerations : (A) The Tense of the Verb in the Principal sentence to whfch it is referred, which usually determines whether it is to be Primary or Secondary. This is called the Sequence of Tenses. See below. (B) The nature of the action which it expresses. This Sequence of Tenses. 105 determines whether it is to be Incomplete or Completed. § 231. (C) There being no proper Future or Future Perfect of the Subjunctive, their place is generally taken by the Present and Perfect Subjunctive. See, however, § 231. In connexion with a Secondary tense the Subjunctive Future and Future Perfect are represented by an Imperfect and Pluperfect Sub- junctive respectively, according to (A). § 226. The Sequence of Tenses. — Unless the sense forbids, Primary Tenses in Principal clauses are followed by Primary Tenses in Dependent clauses, and Secondary by Secondary. Thus r — orat \ He prays "1 orabit \ te tit venias He will pray \ you to C09ne oraveriit J He will have prayed] oravit 1 He prayed ^ orabat \ te ut venires He was praying \yoic to come oraveratj He had prayed J §227. Primary tenses are put after the Present, Future, Future Perfect, Indicative and Subjunctive, and the Imperative (§ 386). § 228. Secondary tenses are put after the Imperfect, Pluperfect, Perfect Aorist, Indicative and Subjunctive, and the Perfect Infinitive (§ 387.) § 229. Primary or Secondary tenses may be put after the Perfect Proper, Indicative and Subjunctive, and the Historical Present' (§ 389). § 230. The Present and Future Infinitive, the Participles, and other Verbal Adjectives and Nouns, do not affect the Sequence of Tenses. If a Verb depends on them, it is put in the tense required by the leading Verb (§ 390). § 231. Incomplete and Completed Tenses of the Sub- ^ Including the Historical Infinitive. io6 The New Latin Primer. junctive. — If an action is marked as finished, a Completed tense must be used. u „ ., - r- ^ ■J f / fear he has run away, or vereor ne fugent i -r r i ( I fear he ran away. verebar ne fugisset I feared he had run away. vereor ne fugerit I fear he will have run away. If it is not marked as finished, an Incomplete tense must be used. vgreor ne fiigiit T fear he is running away. u -, v/ - ru « "i \ I feared he was running verebar ne fugeret \ \ away. vereor ne fugiat I fear he ivill run aivay . § 232. Periphrastic Future Subjunctive. — The Fu- ture Participle Active with sim is used in Dependent sent- ences of actions which zx^ future to the time of the Principal sentence : rogo ) T ask 1 , rogabo, [ quid facturus SIS I shall ask \ .,, J - - " - \ T T. 17 U i v\Wlll do. rogavero ; / shall have asked J After Secondary tenses essem is used : rogavi ] l asked ) rogabam ^ quid facturiis esses //%a^ «.f/^^^ \ , , , „ . „ \ ^ , . \ woulddo- rogaveram ) i was asking 1 This form is used to prevent ambiguity : r6g5 quid facias would mean / ask what you ARE DOING, rogavi quid f Scares / asked what yolt WERE DOING. Negatives in Dependent Sentences. § 233. The Negative in Dependent Sentences is non. But ne is used— (a) In Final sentences ; danda opera est ut Sa res aut prosit aut ne obsit rSi publicae we must take care that that circumstance may either be of advantage or not of disadvantage to the state ; praefinisti quo ne pluris emSreni you prescribed (a sinn)for more than which I should not buy {it). The Conditional Statement. 107 (b) After dum, dum modo, Xaa6.0 provided that ; duni ne tibi videar, non laboro / am not distressed, provided I do not seem to you {to be so). § 234. The Conditional Statement. When we state anything conditionally, we assert that the occurrence of one event is consequent on the occurrence of another event. We say that something happens if some- thing else happens, that it would have happened if some- thing else had happened, or the like. A Conditional Statement thus consists of two clauses, the one stating the Condition and called the Protasis, and the other stating the Consequence and called the Apodosis. Thus in si bonijs est, felix est if he is good, he is happy, si boniis est is the Protasis, and felix est is the Apodosis. The Protasis is most commonly introduced by si if. But see § 416. nisi except takes the same constructions as si. § 235. The Three Types of Conditional Statements. — There are three types of Conditional Statements, according to the forms of the Verb which are used in them : (A) In which the Indicative is used. (B) In which Primary tenses of the Subjunctive are used. (0) In which Secondary tenses of the Subjunctive are used. § 236. The Protasis and Apodosis must not consist of forms which are inconsistent with each other. Thus if the Indicative is used in the Protasis, the Indicative must be used in the Apodosis, and vice versa. If Primary or Secondary tenses of the Subjunctive are used in the Protasis, Primary or Secondary tenses of the Subjunctive must be used in the Apodosis. § 237. (A) — Indicative IN Conditional Statements. — If we use the Indicative in a Conditional Statement, we treat the events as if they were facts. We do not concern ourselves with the question as to whether they do actually occur or not. The Indicative never implies that the events do occur. This would be at variance with the nature of the Conditional Statement ; si bonus io8 The New Latin Primer. est, fellx est does not mean either that he IS good or that he IS happy, but only that he is happy IF he is good. § 238. Any Tense of the Indicative may be used in either Protasis or Apodosis if it gives an intelligible sense : si zubes, ibo If you are ordering me (now), I will go ; si zubebis, ibo If you order me (in the future), I ivill go; si Athenis erat, Corinthum veniet If he was at Athens, he will come to Corinth ; si peccavi, paenitet If I have done wrong, I am sorry. § 239. Subjunctive in Conditional Statements. — If we use the Subjunctive in a Conditional Statement, we treat the events as if they were mere imaginations, and we imply that they do not occur. Such imaginary suppositions are expressed by a different set of tenses according as they relate (B) to the Future or (C) to the Present and Past. § 240. (B) — Primary Tenses of the Subjunctive. — These express imaginary suppositions relating to the Future. In these we do not expect the event to occur, though, of course, as it is in the future, it may occur notwithstanding. si interroges, respondeam If you were to ask me, I should answer ; si peccaveris, paeniteat If you should do wrong (should have done wrong), you zvould be sorry. § 241. (C) — Secondary Tenses OF THE Subjunctive. — These express imaginary suppositions relating to (a) the Present or (b) the Past. Such suppositions are known to be contrary to the fact, and the events which they suppose are known not to be occurring or not to have occurred. Conditional statements of this kind always implicitly deny something. Thus in si hie esses, aliter sentires If you were here, you would think differently, we implicitly deny that you are here. We imply hie non es you are not here. § 242. (a) Imaginary Suppositions relating to the Present Time. — Here the Imperfect Subjunctive corresponds to a Present Indicative of the Implied Statement, and the Plu perfect Subjunctive to a Perfect Indicative- The Conditional Statement. log Conditional Statement. Imperfect. si viveret, regnaret If he were living, he would be Implied Statement. Present. non vivit He is not living. Pluperfect. Perfect. si vixisset, regnasset non vixit If he had lived (continued He has not lived, alive), he would have reigned. The Imperfect and Pluperfect can be combined in the same sentence, each tense carrying its proper meaning : si vixisset, regnarfit Tf he had continued alive (to the present day), he ■would (now) be reigning. § 243. 1^ Imaginary Suppositions relating to Past Time. — Here the Imperfect Subjunctive corresponds to an Imper- fect Indicative in the implied statement, and the Pluperfect Subjunctive to a Perfect-Aorist or Pluperfect Indicative. Conditional Statement. Imperfect. si viveret, regnaret If he had been living (then), he would have been reigning. Pluperfect. si vixisset, regnasset ]f he had lived (then), he would ■ have reigned. The difference of meaning in the same tense when used in sentences of the types (a) and (b) must be carefully observed : Imperfect. (a) admirareris Caesarem si hodie vivSret You woula admire Cccsar if he were alive to-day. (b) admirareris Caesarem si illo temporg vivgres You would have admired (been admiring) Caisar if you had been living then. Pluperfect. (a) si te hodie culpassem, mal6 fecissem If I had found fault with you to-day, I should have done wrong. (b) si Cicero CaesSrem culpasset, mSlfi fecisset If Cicero had found fault with Ccesar, he would have done wrong. § 244. Translation of Conditional Statements. — The forms of the EngUsh and Latin Conditional Statements by no means correspond to each other, and consequently the Implied Statement. Imperfect. non vivebat He was not living. Perfect-Aorist. non vixit He did not reign. no The New Latin Primer. ordinary English translations of the Conditional Statement do not properly represent the Latin. The following differ- ences in idiom should be carefully noticed : (A) Indicative : si peccabo, fatebor \If I do wrong, I will own si peccavero, fStebor j" it. (B) Subjunctive, Primary tenses : si peccem, fatear \V I '^^'^ wrong, I should si peccaverim, fatear j own it. (0) Subjunctive, Secondary tenses : Imferfect{referring\ - ^^ (If I did wrong, to the present) j^' peccarem,taterer| j should own it Imperfect {refer-X^^ peccarem, faterer/^ ^ ^f /'^5 ring to the ^^ast) } ^ -j ivrong,I should Pluperfect : si peccassem, fassus essem [ have owned it. Principles of Indirect Quotation. § 245. In Indirect or Oblique Quotation, what has been said, is not quoted in the words of the speaker, but in construction after a Verb of Saying, of Questioning, or of Requesting. The Indicative and Imperative are not used in Indirect Quotation. There are three kinds of Indirect Quotation : Indirect Statement, Indirect Question, and Indirect Request. § 246. Indirect Statements. — These are made in the In- finitive with the Accusative. Cloditis abiit Clodius has departed becomes in the In- direct Statement, dicit Clodium abisse he says that Clodius has departed. In Negative Statements neg5 is generally used instead of dico .... non ; Clodius non abibit Clodius will not depart becomes negat Clodium abiturum he says Clodius will not depart. Caution. — The Latin quod is never used to translate the English that in Indirect Statements. § 247. Indirect Questions. — Direct Questions are Simple, Alternative, or Particular (§ 210). When Simple Questions are made Indirect, an Inter- rogative Particle (-ne or num) must be inserted. Direct: abiit (or abiitne) Clodiiis ? has Clodius departed 1 Indirect : Indirect Quotation. tii quaerit Clodiusne (or num Clodiiis) abierit ? he asks if Clo- dius has departed i Alternative and Particular Questions are made Indirect simply by the change of the Verb into the Subjunctive. Direct : manetne Clodius an abiit ? is Clodiiis staying or has he departed t Indirect : quaerit maneatne Clodius an a,bierit ? he asks whether Clodius is staying or has departed 2 Direct : quia est Clodius ? cur abiit ? who is Clodius ? Why has he departed 1 Indirect : quaerit quis sit Clodius, cur abierit ? § 248. Indirect Requests. — Requests are put indirectly in the Infinitive with the Accusative after tubeo, but in the Sub- junctive with ut after other Verbs. Clodi, abi depart, Clodius becomes, mbet Clodium 3,bire or imperat Clodio lit abeat he orders Clodius to depart. So Negative Requests (Prohibitions) are put in the In- finitive with the Accusative after veto {forbid), but in the Subjunctive with «i? or ?5/ . . «^ after other Verbs, ne abieris, Clodi do not depart, Clodius, becomes vetat ClSdium abire or imperat Clodio ne abeat he orders Clodius not to depart. § 249. Dependent Sentences in Indirect Quotation. — The Verbs of all Dependent Sentences in Indirect Quotation must be in the Subjunctive according to (0) § 187. Clodius abiit iibi rem cognovit Clodius departed when he heard of the occurrence, becomes dicit Clodium abiisse iibi rem cognoverii. § 250. Tenses in Indirect Quotation. — Forthe tenses of the Infinitive see § 204. The tenses of the Subjunctive generally follow the rules of Sequence as laid down in § 226. Thus, after a Secondary tense, the Primary tenses of the Direct Quotation are changed to Secondary ; the Present and Future to the Imperfect, the Perfect and Future Perfect or the Pluperfect. Clodiiis abiit ubi rem cognSvit, becomes after dixit he said, dixit Clodium abiisse ilbi rem cognovisset. After a Primary tense, however, the Secondary tenses to the Direct Quotation remain unchanged: Clodius irascebatiir quod falsa ajlata erant Clodius was angry because false tidings had been brought to him, is in the Indirect Quotation dicit Clodium irasci quod falsa allata essent. In immediate consli-ucHon after a Present, an Imperfect or Perfect Aorist is generally given by a Perfect Subjunctive : laudSt Africaniim Panaetius qnod fufirit abstinens Panaetius praises Africanus because he was tnoiierate. part M, PRONUNCIATION AND SPELLING. § 251. In pronouncing Latin we must remember that in it, unlike English, (i) each letter has a sound, (2) no letter has more than one sound. The few exceptions to this rule are given below. § 252. Vowels. — All the Latin vowels are found in English except long E, long O, and V. Lat. e is the French e as in etat. The nearest English sound — that in state, stay, etc. — is a diphthong. Lat. 6 is the French o or au, as in chose, chaud. The nearest English sound — that in note, know, etc.- -is a diphthong. Lat. y is the French u in \une, or German ii in grJiJn. It is made by putting the lips in the position for Lat. ?j {00), and then pronouncing Lat. i {ee)} The vowels must be carefully pronounced at the end of words and before r. The ordinary English pronunciation reduces final -a, -ar, -er, -ir, -icr all to the same sound, the obscure vowel sound which is heard in panorama. Final -e is not to be pronounced like -y (as in ladjv), but like e in other positions. Thus the vowels in reg6re testis and regeret estis are sounded in precisely the same way. § 253. Diphthongs. — These are best learned by first pronouncing the vowels which compose them separately, and then running them together. Thus : AE as a(h)-e, AU as a(h)-oo, OE as 0-6, UI as oo-ee, and so iorth, EI is the Eng. ey as in grey. The nearest sounds in English to the other diphthongs are : to AE, ai in Is(z/ah (pronounced broadly and nearly as eye) ; to AU, ou in ho«se (pronounced broadly) ; to OE, oi in hoi\. To EU and UI there is nothing nearer than yoo and wee, which consist of a consonant followed by a vowel. ' Those who cannot do this may pronounce it like i[ee). Pronunciation of Latin. 113 § 254. Consonants. — R is to be rolled or trilled as in French, more strongly than in Eng. herring. Special attention is required when it is followed by a consonant, and when it stands at the end of a word. Both the r and the preceding vowel must be pronounced distinctly. CH, TH, PH, are to be pronounced as k, t,p, followed by h as in mk-ham, ca/-^ead, ta/S-^ouse, or if this is found too difficult, they may be pronounced as k, t, p simply. N (& M) when standing before c^ g, g, is to be pro- nounced as ng in si«^. CI, TI are to be pronounced as kee, tee, not as shie. In pronouncing doubled consonants, each should be given distincdy. Thus pennis should be pronounced pen-neece like pen(k)nife, vellet as well-let, vittis as wit-teece, like coat-tails. Thus only can we distinguish ma««us a nag from raanus a hand, mo//is soft from molis you grind. § 255. Quantity. — The quantity of yowels must always be most carefully given. Two faults are to be specially avoided : (i) A.\o\A Shortening oi Unaccented long \o-viq\s. Thus pronounce the Dative Singular of felix happy as fe-li-ci, not felici ; pronounce the Dative Plural of mola a mill as mo-lis, not as molis you grind. (2) Kvov5. Lengthening oi Accented short \o-we\s. Pro- nounce ci-biis not sigh-bus, sa-cro not sake-row, sci-6 not sigh-o. - A vowel before two consonants is generally to be pro- nounced short as in estis you are ; but sometimes long as festus festal. A vowel is always long before ns, nf and gn ; also before x, ct when they come from gs, gt, and before /j, pt, when they come from bs, bt ; as, rexi, rectus ; scrips!, scriptus. Final vowels and final -m preceded by a vowel, were very slightly pronounced if the next word began with a vowel or h. In this position they are said to be " cut off," and are not counted in verse. Thus ilia unda is scanned as if ill' unda, magnum hominem as if magn' hominem. 114 The New Latin Primer. Examples of Latin Pronunciation. § 256. In the following illustrations the nearest English representatives of the Latin sounds are chosen. If these do not represent the Latin sounds exactly, this is shown by italics, e.g., pes pace. If a Latin letter is to be pro- nounced differently from the English letter, it is printed thick, thus vir wir. In such cases the exact pronunciation is to be ascertained from the foregoing rules. Table of Eepresentatiofi. A ah 1 i or te. U do A ah I ee tJ 00 E e O o Y ii E eh, ai, ox a 5, oe, oa AE ae OE oi AU ou YX ey EU iL-So UI oo-tt C k N or M (before C, G, Q) ng '& % or c /(]) Y V w R r CH, TH, PH k'h, t'h, p'h X ks Z dz BS, BT ps, pt pes citus mi pater exercitui tiio pace kitdbs mee pahter eks-er-kit-do-ee tdb-6 incus ill(a) ingens cur hoc non vis ? ing-kooce ill' ing-gamce koor hoak noan weece ? ecce tibi mons altus ! ekke tibee m^^ance ahl-tobs ! trabs magna men(e) exire tubes ? ver sacrum tra.hps mahg-nah main' ekseere ydobase ? wair sah-krdom vivitiir hoc pactd saepe caepe cepi coepi wee-wit-dor hoak pahk-toe saepe kaepe kek-pee k^z-pee pr6ic(e) oryzam hie annus haec aniis pro-yik' oriidzahm heek a,hn-n6bs haek ah-ndbs res paucae es qui(a) es ei mihi ! race p^w-kae ess quee' ace ey meehee ! infenso Phoebo numqu(am) absis een-fain-sJ' Tp'hoi-ho'^ ndong-qu' Ahp-seece cui b6n5 ? Bacchi thyrsiis ceu scyphiis kob-ee" bon-J Bahk-k'hee t'hur-sdbs' kS-do skiip'hoos" ^ Less exactly, poiho. ^ Less well as kwee. * Less exactly, BShk-kee tir-soos. * Less exactly, kyoo skipoos. Spelling of Latin. 115 Exercises in Quantity. Pronounce in the same time as farce : fas, mas, cos, /us, sal, sol, is you go, sic, sin. Pronounce in the same time as penknife: pennis, vittas, illos, pestes, istic. Pronounce in the same time as quinine : ni§.l5s, miniis, pSdes, trS,ho, ruens, honos, deos. Pronounce in the same time as iig black dog: felices, famosos, acturis, turbari, turbassent. § 257. Roman Names for the Letters. — These were A ah, B beh, C keh, D deh, E eh, F ef, G geh, H hah, I (J) ee, K kah, L el, M em, N en, O oh, P peh, Q coo, R er, S ess, T teh, U (V) 00, X ix, Y Ypsilon, Z Zeta. § 258. Latin Spelling. — As explained above, Latin words are generally spelled as they are pronounced ; but a few words, especially Compounds and Derivatives, retain the spelling which shows their derivation most clearly ; e.g., a^jum, obt\A\, pronounced as if apsum, optuli. Sometimes the spelling varies as in a^spicio, exj-pecto, pronounced and often spelled aspicio, expecto ; quawquam, pronounced and sometimes written qua^zquam, etc. Sometimes, again, one or more separate words are pronounced as if they were one word. In this case they are sometimes written as one word and sometimes as separate words. Thus ; quamobrem or quam ob rem, siquis or si quis, verum tamen or veruntamen. In other cases, where variation of spelling occurs, one spelling has generally more authority than another. The following list gives the spelling of the best Latin authors in the most important words, exclusive of those compounded with Prepositions, for which see § 296. § 259. LIST OF CORRECT SPELLINGS. It will be seen that most of the spellings in the following list relate to certain points ; e.g., (i) writing ae for oe or e as caelum, not zoeXxan, or vice versa; (2) writing a letter twice instead of once as damma deer, not dama, or vice versa ; (3) insertion or omission of h as rae&^., not ;-^«la ; /zolus, not olus ; (4) ci for li at vice versa. Italics show correct, and square brackets [ ] incorrect spellings. I 2 ii6 The New Latin Primer. a[h]! rum or qvitfm il[l]ic6 Parnajus ab/cio ' da«/?«a .STiberus percfl«tor ad«lescens '^ dicio hiem/s prfl^lium aequipifro e^rrdeus inclatus pr5[h] ! al[l]ium [h]ei ! inco/io ^^^2M promont«rium [h]allucinor 6pist«la indu^/ae pulcher awLilus rhi^ [h]Srus infitior quaWaor ar[c]tus, etc. exim, -in intellego r[h]a«da au/'umnus frtmiitn 3 A'alendae quoti^?js batra beriy fasnus ^ ISci/ma reczpero bacc[h]ar f^cundus •' libera sa^culum ■• beirijua faidus ■' ll/us sfl«pio, etc" brac[c]ae faus ^ ma<;reG, etc' sa^ta ■■ bracfhuim fa«ilis mille, Sg. sStwra ca^Iebs ^ Caiiis milia, PI. scaena. ' caelum gafsum " mul[c]ta sicine ? cfl^num -' genstrTx m//rra myrrh sSlacium Crt^rimonia ** gla Aa ■* neJ s/iboles cfli?spes ** Gnaeus n^nia SUfUS Camnia ■* //adria nequiquam suspiirio Crtwrus hasdus ' nunrio taster * c^na' ;4arena obo«dio tempto clat[h]ri /iSrundo obscenus •' t6tie«j cowffjinus hand, haut, li.iu " obstz'pesco t[li]us CQndido /iiveo Jpilio Ulixes conju»!x ;4e/ul6 padex hjumerus conrio he//u6 paene * ^h]umor, etc. fo/'rtdie ° /;61us pa^nitet ' Wrgiiiiis Additional Notes. — (l) Till after the Augustan period instead of vu, uu, quu we find vo, tio, quo or cu, e.g., volt, equom or ecum. Compare § 270. (2) u as well as i\% found in Superlatives as max»?mus, and occasionally elsewhere. (3) « was sometimes left out before s in the Ordinals and the Numeral Adverbs as quinquies, etc., vicesimus. § 260. GENDER OF NOUNS. Oencral Rules. In names of Rivers, Months, and Males, And Winds the Masculine prevails ; The softer Feminine agrees With names of Females, Plants, and Trees." 1 Not ab/icio (or abjicio). So proicio and other compounds of «aci5. ^ Noun. ' Not with oe. * Not with e. ^ Not quotidie. ' Aau only before consonants. ' Affirmative Particle. ' Except Third Declension Nouns in -er which are Neuter, as pdpdver poppy, iclr maple. Gender of Nouns. 117 Nouns used of either sex, and hence Varying the Gender with the sense, Are Common : but of Neuter kind Whatever cannot be declined. The Gender of Nouns, if not determined by the above rules, may be known from their Declension and the Ending of the Nom. Sing, as follows : § 261. First Declension. Feminine, except names of men, and Hftdria Adriatic Sea. § 262. Second Declension. Masculine, -tis, -er. Neuter, -um. Exceptions : Feminine are these in -us, alvus, colus, carbdsus^ Arctus, humus, balanus^ With vannus^ and the names of Trees. Of Neuter Gender reckon these : virus, vulgus, peldgus.^ § 263. Third Declension. (i) Masculine endings: Nouns Masculine are all in -6, Excepting those in -do and -go, And Abstracts ending in -10 ; And Masculine are -en and -en (Excepting words that end in -men), With -OS and -or and -er and -is, If Genitive is formed -eris ; Last, Masculine are -es and -es, If Genitive increase zs, pes. Exceptions : -5.] But card " flesh " is Feminine Though sanguis " blood " is Masculine.* -en.] To Neuter gluten we assign.'* ' Paunch, distaff, linen. ^ Bear {constellation), ground, balsam. ' Winnoimng-fan. ^ Venom, populace, the open sea. ^ But sanguen Mood is Neut. ^ Gluten glue. (For meanings not giveii in these notes see list (B), § 276. ii8 The New Latin Primer. -OS.] Neuter os (pssis), also os, And Feminine are cos and dos, -or] So also arbor ; Neuter cor, With marmor, aequor, and ador -er.] Feminine only linter is, Neuter zV/ir (ttinens), Neuter cadaver, piper, uber, ver, robur, verberd, and tuber; -es.] While Feminine are cotnpes, seges, quies with merces, merges, teges} (2) Feminine endings : All Nouns that end in -as or -as Among the Feminines we class ; -us (-utis), -us (-udis) also, With Nouns that end in -do and -go And Abstracts ending in -io;^ ■is (-idis) to this gender give, -is, -es, with equal Genitive. -aus, -X, to Feminine we grant, -S with preceding consonant. Exceptions : -as.] But Masculine is one, as, assis. And Neuter also one, vas, vdsis. -do.] Next, Masculine are ordo, cardo, -go.' ligo (ligonis), also margo? -is' Add Masculines in -is, ndtalis,^ anndlls, amnis, and cdndlis,' axis, baris, callis, collis^ caulis, fascis, fiistis, follisj' ignis, pdnis, crinis, corbis,^ piscis, postis, scrbbis, orbis," sentes, casses, atque climis^" vepres, mdnes, finis, fUnis^^ ' ador spelt, linter trough, cadavgr corpse, pTpSr pepper, verbSri (PI.) blows, tSgfis mat. " Including Abstracts which have a secondary Concrete meaning, as legio, regio, portio. ' ordo rank, cardo hinge, margo edge. * birthday. ^ annual, river, conduit. * axle, plough- beam, mountain-path, hill. ' stalk, faggot, cudgel, bellows. ^ fire, bread, hair, basket. ^ fish, door-post, ditch, circle. ^'' bramble {pi.), hunting-net (pi.), haunch, i' briar (pi.), spirits of the dead (pi.), end, rope. Gender of Nouns. 119 torquis, torris, unguis, ensis^ vectis, vermis, atque mensis? -X.] And Masculine are -ax and -yx, Derived from Greek as thorax, Styx. And let the Masculine annex (Save forfex, forpex) all in -ex With Genitive in -icis, -egis, As apex (apicis\ grex (gregis). Then Masculine are fornix, calix. With spadix, phoenix, atque vdrix ; ' -ns.] And Masculine are -ons and -ens (But Feminine frons,^ lens, and gens) ; Masculine adeps (adipis), gits (gliris), lapis {lapidis). Neuter endings : To Plants in -er add -e and -c, -a, -1, -i, -men, -tir, -ar, and -t, -us (eris), with -us (oris) meeting, .. -us (uris) then the list completing. Exceptions : -ur] But Masculine are these in -ur, furfur, turtur, vultur, fUr^ And mugil with lepiis, mUs {mtiris) ; ^ But Feminine tellits {telluris). Two Masculines complete the roll Of Third Declension, sal and sol. § 264. Fourth Declension. -us we give to Masculine; To Neuter -u ; but Feminine Are dcus, porticus, and mdnus,'' With IdUs, domus, trtbus, penus.^ § 265. Fifth Declension- Feminine, except dies, which is m. or / in Sing. {fem. in sense of time), m. in Plural, and its compound meridies m. 1 necklace, firebrand, nail, knife. ^ lever, worm, mouth ; callis, clunis, cordis, finis, scrobis, are sometimes Feminine. ' thorax corselet, forfex shears, forpex tongs, Spex top-point, spadix palm-branch. ^Both frons, frontis, 3.-aifrdns,fronriis, lens lentil, gens race. ^ furfur bran, turtur dove, vultfir vulture. ^ miigil mullet, ISpfls hare, mus mouse. ' needle, arcade, hand. ^ Ides (Plur.), house, tribe, provisions. I20 The New Latin Primer. DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. First Declension. § 266. Gen. Sing. — An old form in -ai is sometimes found in poetry ; as aqu-a water, G. aqu-ai. Gen. Plur. — A form in -um instead of -arum is some- times used in poetry from words of Greek origin, especially Patronymics, as Aeneadae descendants of Aeneas, G. Aenead-um, and words ending in -gena, -cola, as caelicola, diveller in heaven, G. Plur., caelicol-um ; drachmum, amphorum, occur in prose. D. AM. Plur. — The only words in which classical authors use the inflexion -abus are dea goddess, -filia daughter, liberta freed-woman. § 267. Greek Nouns. — Proper names ending in -1? (Fern.) and -as (Masc), and many in -es (Masc), especially Patronymics in -des, belong to this declension. They often retain the Greek inflexions, thus : N. Circ-^- Ktrxl-as Alcid-« V. Circ- -^ ° (_ great sum). Quod non opus est, asse carum \ What is not wanted, is dear est \ at a penny. Quo plures hosies, eo ma/or / The more the enemy, the greater caedes^ \ the slaughter. Quinque milibus passuum ilt. is distant (by) Jive miles ab urbS distat ^ \ from the city. Biduo post moritur "• Two days after he dies. SummavipugnarS' [To fight with the greatest '^ ° y violence. Either cum or an epithet must be used with this Abl. : cum ciira scribSrS to write with care {not cvira), summa cura or summa cum cura with the greatest care. The simple Ablative is sometimes used adverbially : ritionfi fecisti you have acted reasonably, frauds by fraud, casu by chance, etc. But no Noun must be so used without direct authority. § 322. Statura f iiit hiimili '' He was of low stature. Clavi ferrei pollicis crassitu- ifron nails of the thickness of dine * \ your thumb. The Gen. of Description [§ 313(1)] is used in giving the class of any- thing, and in expressions of number and quantity. The Abl. is used when the parts of anything are spoken of ; also to express a temporary state. Both the Gen. and Abl. are used of mental qualities. § 323. The Ablative of Attendant Circumstances {Ablative Absolute) may be rendered into English in many ways : — ' The city being taken After the city was taken Saving taken the city When he had taken the city After taking the city After the taking of the city. , Caninio consiile fn the consulship of Caninius. Me mdice falsiis es (^'^,7 "f'''''''' ^^ '"'' """- y taken. ' Cost. 2 Amount of Difference. ' Manner. * Description. Urbe capta rgdiit - he returned. Ablative Case. 155 / Without choosing a place fat the camp, or taking-the-aus- pices, or offering-a-favour- able-sacrifice, they drew up , their army. Virtu tes /acent voluptate do- ^The virtues lie prostrate if Non loco castris capto nee auspicato nee litato, in- striiunt aciem minante Patre vivo (_ pleasure is mistress. While my father lived. Locative Ablative. 8 324- Carthagine Nova^ Dextro comu pugnabat^ /udicum numero habentur^ Tiberi frumentum vemt' Eadem {sc. via) reverti^ Grandis verbis est' Temporibus errasti' Prima liiee veni^ Horae moment5 cita mors venif' At New Carthage. He fought on the right wing. / They are reckoned among {in \ the number of) judges. Corn came by the Tiber. To return the same way. He has a noble style, f You have gone wrong in the \ dates. Come at the dawn of day. f Quick death comes in the short \ space of an hour. 325. Ablative with Verbs and Adjectives. The advantages which we make use of, the light which we enjoy. I He possesses himself of the \ kingdom by force. Commoda quibiis utimur, liix qua friiimur Regno vi potitur The six Deponent Verbs (§ 152) which take the Abl. were origin- ally Reflexive : utor / employ myself with, veScor I feed myself, nitor I support myself with. A city without a garrison. T neither lack nor want this. Urbs nuda praesidio Hoc neque careo nee egeo egfio, indjg^o, impleo (rarely other Verbs) sometimes take a Gen. T,- - ^,^- „ J- {Matters worthy of being Res cogmtione dignae | known{Sxi. worth knowing). Parvo contentus Content with a little. Dignus and indigniis sometimes take the Gen. ' Abl. of Place. ^ Route. ^ Thing concerned. Time. 156 The New Latin Primer. § 326. Locative. The Locatives denoting value are : tanti so much, quanti how much, inagni, permagni, maximi, plurimi a great deal, parvi, minimi a little, nihili nought ; and with Negatives, flocci, nauci a trifle, pili a hair, etc. Aequi boni facere, boni consulere to take in good part, are also Locatives. So probably cordi in hoc mihi cordi est / have this at heart. § 327. Examples of the Construction of Price. Quanti^ emptum est? {How much did it cost? A parvo ^ i little. Dimidio" minoris'' constat It costs less than half. Translation of English Prepositions. § 328. The English Prepositions are sometimes repre- sented in Latin by Prepositions and sometimes simply by the Case endings. § 329. To and from and the Dative. — In English to or frotH must often be used to translate the Dative (see § 140). But, as the Dative only indicates Relation, Prepositions must be used if actual movement to or from is meant. Thus mitto tibi auxilium / send help to you, but mitto nuntium ad te / send a messenger to you ; vestem homini detraxit he pulled the man's clothes off, but detraxit anulum de digito he 'pulled the ring off his finger , turbae me eripiait he rescued me from the crowd, but ex turba me eripiiit he rescued me out of the crowd. § 33°- To,- from, at, in,, of Place — With names of Towns and Islands small enough to be considered one place, To "j fAcc. From \ are expressed by the -! Abl. simply. At, in J \ Loc. {or Abl.) See§ § 133, 149, 155, 151. But Prepositions must be inserted with — (i) All other Proper names ; ire ad Asiam to go to ' Locative. - Abl. of Cost (the amount paid being the means). Parvl might also have been used. ' Abl. of Comparison. * Genitive of Price (by confusion with the Locative), Translation of English Fuepositions. 157 Asia ; discedere a Rhodano to depart from the Rhone ; in Niimidia esse to be in Numidia. (2) All Common names': a {mo from the Forum; in foro in the Forum. So with urbs, oppidum, when in Apposition to Proper names : in oppidum Cirtam to the town Cirta ; ex urbe Roma fro7>t the city of Rome ; Nea])61i in celeberrimo oppid5 at Naples, a most populous town. (3) A Preposition must be used if the neighbourhood of a town is meant : ad Brundisium flexit iter he bent his way towards Brundisium ; CaesS,r a Gergovia discessisse dicebatiir Ccesar was said to have gone away from (the walls of) Gergovia. § 331 With AND THE Ablative. — (i) With denoting the Instrument, is expressed by the simple Ablative, Poenos equitatu dissipat he scatters the Carthaginians with his cavalry: (2) With meaning together with, and denoting the Accompaniment, is expressed by cum (with the Abl.), cum equitatu venit he comes with his cavalry, cum febre rediit he returned with a fever. (3) With denoting the manner, is expressed by the Abl. if an epithet is added, otherwise by cum with Abl., see § 3 2 1*. But it must be often translated by an Adverb, as caute agere to act with caution. § 332. Construction of opiis est, usus est. — opus est there is need, lit. there is work, takes a Dat. of the Person needing. The construction of the thing needed is as follows : Either (A) opus is the Predicate, and what is needed the Subject : nobis dux optis est a leader is what we want (lit. the work for us). Hence with an Infin. of actions: gloriari non opiis est there is no need to boast {boasting is not the work). Or (B) opiis is the Subject, and what is needed is put in the Abl. of the Instrument : gladio opiis est there is need of the sword (lit. work to be done by the sword). So of Actions with the Perf. Part., especially the Neut. Part, used Impersonally, properato opiis est there is need to haste (lit. work to be done by hurrying). See § 368. 1 Except those mentioned in J § 133, 149, 155. iS8 The New Latin Primer. quid? in what respect 1 (Ace. of Extent) is often added, quid opiis est glMio ? in what is there need of a sioordi quid opus est facto ? in what respect is there need of doing ? i.e., what ought to be done ? USUS est has the same sense and generally the same construction as opus est, but is rare in Classical Prose. § 333- Construction of Interjections. (i) In addressing persons, 6 ! pro ! are found with the Voc. (§ 130) as pro sanctg /uppiter ! O divine Jupiter ! (2) In exclamations the Nom. is used : 6 magnS, vis veritatis ! O the great power of truth ! pro pudor ! shame I (3) But the Object of a Strong Feeling is put in the Ace. : pro deum fidem ! out on the honour of the gods ! Comp. § 131* (4) vae ! takes a Dat. of Person affected : vae victis ! woe to the conquered 1 So ei ! in ei mihi ah ?ne ! Adjectives, etc., as Nouns. § 334. Masculine Adjectives, Participles, and Pronouns denote Persons in general. Omnia tfmidum terrent Everything frightens a cotvard. Audentes fortuna ?uvat Fortune aids the bold. Docti S.lia (§ 335) censent The learned think otherwise. The Nom. Sing, of Adjectives is rarely so used. § 335- Neuter Adjectives and Pronouns can be used of everything that may be regarded as a thing. Thus the Singular may express a quantity, an abstract quality, etc., the Plural, parts, circumstances, etc. Multum frUraenti, plus vini Much corn, more wine. -^v,, 1,- !!.""■> f What is more beautiful than Quid pulchro pulchnus? 1 / / ? Adversa omnes m^nent Adversities ivait for all. ~.ir ^1 ,^>. ^^ ^ - f The heights of the mountains, Montium alta, vasta terrarum i ^i. ^ /? j-^z. ^z. (. the ivaste places of the earth. The Neut. Adj. cannot be used if it would be ambiguous. Thus we cannot say laetus in tristibus frit he was joyful in mournful cir- cumstances; for in tristiljus might mean among sorrauful men. We must say in tristibus rebiis. Pronouns. 159 The Ace. of Neuter Pronouns and Adjectives can be used when Nouns are not admissible (see §§ 132, 453, 454). § 336. Many English Nouns, however, denoting /(?«Vw» or quantity, are rendered by an Adjective in Latin. Summus mons The top of the mountain. In campo medio In the middle of the plain. Reliquiis exercitiis The rest of the army. Aversa charta The back of the paper. § 337- Comparison. — (i) Where two qualities in the same person or thing are compared the Adjectives (or Adverbs) which express them are often both put in the Comparative : contio gratior quam verier a speech more true than pleasant ; but also (as Eng.) magis grata quam vera. (2) plus, amplius more, minus less, are often used with- out quam : plus decem pedes more than ten feet. PRONOUNS. § 338. se himself herself or itself; themselves ; oneself and SUUS his, her, or its own ; their own ; one's own, are Reflexive Pronouns, and always refer to a Subject. This Subject (which is always of the Third Person) is — {a) Usually the Subject of the Sentence {or Clause) : de turri slia se' ■prbi&cit he threw himself from his 07vn tower ; scelus est mortem sibi conscire it is a crime to compass one's own death. {b) Sometimes, if there is no ambiguity, an important word in the sentence : Jlannibalem sui cives e civitate ezecerunt his own fellow-citizens expelled Hannibal from the state ; siium cuique reddamus let us give each man his own. (c) In Dependent sentences se and siiiis may refer to the subject of the Principal sentence, especially in Final sentences and in Indirect Narrative. They are then trans- lated in English by him, her, etc. orant Caesarem ut sibi subveniant they implore CcFsar to help them. In other cases he, him, his, etc., are to be rendered by is orWM {\ 340). § 339- ipse self, is used of all persons. It generally agrees with the word it emphasises : non ego ei sed sibi i6o The New Latin Primer. ipse nociiit / did not injure him but he himself ; misfiret me non vestri sed mei ipsius / do not pity you but myself ; ipsS venit he comes of himself ; homo ipse est it is the very man. § 340. Demonstrative Pronouns. — The following point out with emphasis : Mc this {near me) corresponding to the First Person, iste that {near you) „ „ Second Person, ille that {yonder) „ „ Third Person. hie is often used of what is mentioned last ; ille of what has been mentioned before it, and sometimes of what is going to be mentioned. ille often expresses approval or surprise ; iste dislike or contempt. is, he, that, is quite unemphatic, and is used to avoid repeating a Noun. w nothing of that matter ; ask him. That is the book I want. The one {this one) a rider, the other {that one) a boxer. The well-known Sophocles. Your fine son. Restore the book you took away. A great city and a famous one. A small city certainly, but very populous. § 341. Indefinite Pronouns. — The Latin Indefinite Pronouns do not correspond to the English, and their usages can only be fully learned frorn reading. aliquiS refers to a quite indefinite person or thing : someone, some ; dixerit aliquis so??ieone may say. It is only to be used in Positive expressions, and some- times expresses considerable emphasis : sese aliquem credens thinking himself somebody. quis is also quite indefinite, but entirely without emphasis : someone, anyone, sojne, any. It is frequent after si, ne, num ? etc., and can never stand first in a sentence. quispiam does not differ essentially from aliquis, but it never indicates importance. Nihil scio de ista re ; hunc / roga Ilium librum volo Hie eques, ille pijgil Sophocles ille Iste tiius natus Redde Sum librum quem abstiilisti Magna urbs eaque clara Urbs parva ilia quidem sed celeberrima Pronouns. i6i quidam, certain, a certain one, of definite persons or things that we do not mention more particularly : quidam rhetor a certain rhetorician. quidam is often used with Nouns for a kind of: timiditas quaedam ingSniia a kind of generous timidity. nescio quis expresses indifference. It is someone, T don't know who. Si quis haec dicit, mentitiir If this is said, it is a lie. Si aliquis haec dicitj mentitiir If anyone says this, he lies. Rogatfls haec a quodam When asked this by some- nihil respondit body, he made no answer. In turba ab aliquo inter- He was killed in the crowd fecttis est by somebody or other. Quidam e servis tuis me Otie of your slaves has vulneravit wounded me. Clodiiis quidam A certain Clodius. Clodius nescio quis j ^ '"'^^^ ^^"'^'''' (contempt- ^ ( uous). § 342. The following refer to Number only : aliquot several n5ll nemo (as Noun), not no-one, i.e. one or two. non nllllus (Adj.), not none, some at least. non nihil something, somewhat (generally as Adv.). Aliquot servi Several slaves. Non niilla pars militum A certain part of the troop. Non nihil timeo T am somewhat afraid. § 343. The following are only used in sentences which contain a Negative, or imply one (quasi-Negative sentences') : quisquam (Noun) anyone (at all). lillus (Adj.) any (at all). Nihil quemquam laedo I do no harm to anyone. ■KT -11" - ..^ - vv rv"^ :, f Has there been anything Numullaresatrociorfiiit? | more dreadfuH § 344. If anyone means anyone ivhatever, quivis or qullibet is used : elige quemvis choose anyone you please. ^ Such as sentences with vix scarcely and the like ; Questions im- plying the answer No, etc. L 1 62 The New Latin Primer. § 345. Latin uses different Pronouns to express one of two and one of several. Referring to tivo. Referring to several. liter ? which ? quis ? 7vAieA ? wAo ? uterquS eacA, both. quisque each of several. titercumque whichever. quicumque whoever. utervls whichever you please, quivis which you please. alter the other. alms another. neuter neither. nemo none, no one. alteruter one or the other. Horum hominum utrum lau- Which of these men do you das ? iitrumque praise ? Both. Utrum vis elige; alteram mihi Choose which you please. I habebo will have the other myself. Alter alter! invident They envy one another. Centum milites alius siiper A hundred soldiers fell, one alium corriierunt upon another. § 346. One ANOTHER. " Om another" " each other," axe. A^Q tx- pressed by intfir with se, nos, v5s, as, inter se diligunt they love one another, or sometimes by repeating the noun, as nemo hominem homo agnovit no man recognised another. § 347. quisque is each one, each. Following Superlatives and Ordinal Adjectives it makes the expression general. Optimus quisque civis The best citizens. Tertio quoque verbo At every third word. Primo quoque die On the first day possible. If each means each one taken singly, singfili must be used : singull singulorum deorum sScerdStes sunt there is 6ne priest to each god ; crescit in dies singulos hostium numfiriis the number of the enemy grows each (or euery) day. Co-ordinate Conjunctions and Adverbs. § 348. Co-ordinate Conjunctions are used to join similar (Co-ordinate) words and sentences. But very often no conjunction is^ used, and the con- nexion is only shown by the sense : ibo redibo / shall go (and) return; Achilles impiger iracundiis inexorabilis ac6r Achilles restless, passionate, implacable (and) fierce ; viviis culp6r,mortuus laudabor I-am-blamed-while-alive,(\i\i.t)I-shall- be-praised when-dead. § 349. Copulative Conjunctions introduce words or Conjunctions. 163 sentences which are to be added to what precedes, and cor- respond to the EngHsh and. They are : ■ et (the usual word) vir et muliSr a man and a ivoman. -que, always appended to a word. It couples more closely than St : vir mulierque a man and a woman too. atq,ue (ac only before consonants) emphasise the second member : vir atque miilier a man and a woman besides. § 350. Both . . and is expressed by et . . et. Some- times que . . . et (or -que . . . -que) are used to couple words, and et . . . -que to couple sentences. In coupling several words, it is usual to omit the con- junction with all or to insert it with all. But -que is some- times used with the last word like and in EngHsh. Clariis fortuna opibiis fide \ m ^ ■ x i ■ r ^ ,,,-" r .- -ilu-.u u^ \ Illustrious for hts fortune. Clarus fortuna et opibus et f , . ,,1 j i.- ^ 1 ~j- ' ) ms wealth, and his trust- fide \ .,■ ' ^,- V r ..- - " "1 " fj- "1 worthiness. Clarus fortuna opibus iideque / Homo improbus et audax A bold, bad man. Multi et potentes viri Many poiverful men. §351. Disjunctive Conjunctions introduce some word or sentence which is to be distinguished from what precedes. They correspond to the English or. aut is used where it is important to insist on the difference ; vel and -ve (always appended to a word) are used where it is not important to insist on the difference ; sive (or seu, only used before consonants) is used chiefly to correct what has preceded, and is generally followed by potius. Either ... or \s expressed by doubling the conjunc- tions : aut . . . aut, vel . . . vel, (in poetry -ve . . -ve), sIve (seu) . . . sive (seu). In poetry aut, vel, -vfi, are used with little difference. § 352. Adversative Conjunctions introduce something opposed to what precedes : {a) Opposition is ordinarily marked by sed (set) : non homo sed fera not a man but a beast. ceterum is similar, and verum (lit. in point of fact), which is somewhat stronger. (b) Emphatic opposition is marked by at : multum L 2 164 The New Latin Primer. orator prodest, it plus iniperator an orator is of great service, but a general of more, {c) Weak opposition or simple difference is marked by *ailtem^: magnes ferrum ad se trahit, rationem auteni adferre non possumiis the magnet draws iron to itself but we cannot assign a reason. *vero^ (lit. in trutK) is similar to autem, but emphasises the previous word. atqui but still, is chiefly used in argument, ast but is poetical. Other Adversative Conjunctions are tamen yet, with at tamen, sed tamen, verum tamen but yet. Note that some Conjunctions, which are generally Sub- ordinate, are sometimes used like the above. So quam- qiiam, etsi, like Eng. though in the sense of and yet. quamquam, etsi, and quamvis are also used with single words : perfida, sed quamvis perfida, cara tamen untrue, but though untrue, beloved still. § 353- Negative Conjunctions. — These are ngque or nee, and neve or neu. For their use see § 209. Sometimes a Positive expression is joined to a Negative one. In this case English generally uses an Adversative Conjunction, but Latin a Copulative one : nee criminS, pr6ba.t et radices insectatiir he does not establish the charges, but attacks the judges. § 354. The Adverb quin. — The quin in Principal sentences properly means how not 1 and is used in (1) Urgent Commands or Exhortations with the Indica- tive '' : quin is ? why don't you go ? quin equos conscendimus come, let us mount our horses. (2) Startling or Emphatic Statements, Eng. why, nay: non /am hortor te ut domum redeas ; quin hinc ipse evolare cupio / no longer urge you to return home , why, I am eager to fly hence myself I This quin is compounded of qui how ? (as in qui fit how does it happen?) and nfi not (as in nf -qu£), and is different from the quin used in Dependent Sentences. 1 Words marked thus (*) usually stand second in a sentence. ^ Sometimes the Imper. Gerund and Gerundive. 165 THE VERB. § 355. Indefinite Second Person. — This is used : (i) In Statements : putes one would think, § 165 (aT). (2) In Exhortations : fortuna si adsit ne abQtarg if fortune be present, we should not misuse it. (3} In Dependent Sentences : non tQtum est quod ames laudare it is not safe to praise what one loves. § 356. The Passive Voice. Ultimus rogor sententiam T am asked my opinion last. T--i ™ J- - -u- {I o-w annoyed by you fieofile Totum diem a vobis vexor \ ., , , j -^ -^ -^ -^ (. the whole day. Vult sibi quisque credi Each wishes to be believed. Sometimes, especially in poets, the Ace. of Extent (Space, Time, Sphere, \ 132) is made the Subject of the Passive Verb. : t5t5 mihi dormltur hiemps { = totam higmem dormio) I sleep all the winter. § 357. Verbs without Passive. — These are chiefly Deponent. The Passive is supplied either («) by phrases with Verbal Nouns, as admirari admire, admirationi (Fred. Dat.) esse be admired, sus-picaxi suspect, in suspicionem venire (come to) be suspected ; or. (S) by other Verbs of allied mean- ing, as friii use, enjoy. Pass, percipi. For the Passive of perdere, vendere, see page 139, n.' facere has Pass, fieri, except in compounds as efifici. The Gerund and Gerundive. § 358. The Gerund is a Verbal Noun governing the same case as the Verb from which it comes. Except in the meaning of obligation (§ 360) it has no Nominative, the Infinitive being used instead. Thus : currere running, G. currendi of running. [Compare § 203 (A)]. Triste est nomen ipsum The mere name of wanting carendi is odious. Audendo atque agendo res The fortunes of Rome grew Romana crevit by doing and daring. Ad indulgendum irae pro- ) ^ j.t j ■ j 1 ,. „„ ° ^5- loo apt to indulge in anger. § 359. In place of the Gerund with a Direct Ac- cusative, the Gerundive is generally used ; but a Gen. 1 66 The New Latin Primer. (sometimes an Abl.^ of the Gerund is retained if the con- struction is made clearer thereby. Consul placandis dis dat The consul turns his attention operam (=placand5 deos) to appeasing the gods. Profectus ad sepeliendos eos Having set out to bury the qui ceciderant fallen. A suum cuique tribuendo Law is so called in Greek from lex Graece dicta est assigning eachman his own. The Gerund, if in the Genitive itself, has, veiy rarely, its object in the Genitive. In CTc. Phil. V. 3, all the possible constructions are found : agitur vitrum M. Antonio fScultas detur caedzV i&aendae bonorum, igrorum sfils IStronibus condonandi, populum R5man»;« servitut^ opprim^WJ, etc. tAe qtiestion is whether Marcus Antonius should be given the opportunity of making a massacre of the respectable classes, of presenting lands to his brigands, of crushing the Roman people into slavery, etc. § 360. The Gerund of Intransitive Verbs and the Gerundive of Transitive Verbs are used in the Nominative to express Obligation. In indirect construction the Nom. becomes Ace. Audendum atque agendum We must do and dare. Praeponendaest divitiis gloria Glory must be putbeforeriches. Video praeponendam esse I see that glory must be put divitiis glSriani before riches. In old Latin the Gerund of Transitive Verbs is sometimes used with the Ace. : poenas in mortfi timendum est ive must fear punishment in (after) death. This is not to be imitated. § 361. The Subject of the Action of the Gerund or Gerundive is sometimes put in the Abl with ab instead of the Dat. Civibiis a vobis consiilendum You must consult the interests est of the citizens. If vobis had been used, it might also have meant the citizens must consult your interests. § 362. The Gerundive is often used as an attribute of what must be done or (in Negative and Quasi-Negative expressions) of what may be done. Sacra Bonae maribus non The rites of Bona Dea not adeunda Deae to be approached by males. Vix tolerandum frigiis Cold hardly to be endured. § 363. Only Transitive Verbs which take a Direct Ace. Participles. 167 have a Gerundive, utendus is found because utor once took an Ace. ; so frflendtts, potiundtis, etc. paenitendus to be regretted, piidendus to be ashamed of, are irregularities. Participles. § 364. As already said, the Participles express time relative to that of the leading Verb. The Present Participle expresses an action still going on. The Perfect expresses an action that is finished ; but it is often to be translated by an English Present Participle, the English idiom being less exact than the Latin. n^ou. ..„ .„i,^ [ He lies dying within; when he Monens intus zacet ; mor- , ,• ,*, ■„ ', • , ^uv rr^ -^^ ' A has died, he wtll be carried tuus eiieretur , ' [ out. Tutum rdttis reversiis sum Thinking // safe, I returned. RogatHs quis esset nescire Being asked who he was, he se dixit said " I don't know." § 365. There being no Present Participle Passive, its place is supplied by using a Dependent Sentence. Cum a Catone laudabar, When praised by Cato, I reprehend! me a ceteris readily submitted to being facile patiebar censured by the rest. § 366. There being no Perfect Participle Active except in Deponent Verbs, either (a) A Dependent sentence, or \b) The Perfect Participle Passive is used instead. (fi) Caesar, postquam venit, Ccesar, having arrived, de- Rhenumtransire const! tuit cided to cross the Rhine. ,r\T.»-iuu^ii r Having killed the Gaul, (b) Manhus Galium caesum ^J^^.^^ ^^^. ^^ ^.^ torque spohavit | his chain. § 367. The Participle and its Noun often go so closely together as to form one idea, which is expressed in English by means of a Verbal Noun. _ „ _ „ ,^. u r The killing of Ccesar (lit. Occisus Caesar multis pessi- I ^^^^^ %.^f^j^ ^^^^^J ^^ mum facinus videbatur "j ^^^^^^ ^ ^^^^, ^^.^^^^ ^^^^ ^ . u>.„ . uu-.v^r The fault of imposing an ex- Innisti oneris impositi tua ^/^^^.^^ /^^^^^ ./ culpa est, mea recepti | ^^^^ of taking it up is mine. 1 68 The New Latin Primer. . -„,„,-- ,,-- _ ( Fangs from the outraging of Amore dolores poUuto no-^ itve and the knowledge of P°^^'' i can do. § 368. The Neuter Participle of the Impersonal Passive [§ 1^66 (c)'] is similarly used : propgratur haste is made, or people hasten ; propgratum the fact that haste is made, or people's having hastened. ( Thefact-that no favourahle-sacri- Non perlitalum tfnu&at consules \ fice-had-been-offered had de- (. tained the consuls. The consuls advanced when-a Summoto c5nsules incesserunt , road-had-bcen-cleared. § 369. Some Adjectives and Nouns are used in the same way. _ ^ _ .-^ \ After NumcCs accession [after Post regem Numam j ' Muma {as) king.) Miniiit furorem vix unS sospSs The saving of hardly 07ie ship from navis ab Ignibus (poet.) the flames abated her madness. § 370. Participles may be used in place of Dependent sentences, and then require to be translated by such in English. Ahala Maelium regnum ap- AhalakilledMaelius, because petentem interemit hewas aiming at atyranny. Mendaci homini ne verum We do not believe a liar, even quidem dicenti credimiis if he speaks the truth. Perditis omnibus rebiistamen Although everything is lost, ipsa virtus se sustentare still virtue can support potest itself. \ 371. Future Participle. — The Future Participle is used in some authors lo denote purpose, especially after Verbs of motion. Non hoc prohlbituriis veni / did not come to prevent this. It also, sometimes, represents the Subjunctive of Imagination in the Apodosis (rarely the Protasis) of Conditional Statements, § 239. ,.....,,., ,^, . - „ . . f / have sent you the book, and I Misi tibi librum, missurus etsi I u 1. ^ -^ -s - - ■ - ' < wotud have sent it, even if you ° I had not demanded it. INFINITIVE. § 372. Infinitive as Subject. — In prose only with Intransitive Verbs and Neuter Adjectives : ' Here the Subject of the Participle is a Sentence, and notum is therefore Neut. Infinitive. 169 Quid est S,liud quam rSlega- f What else is it but suffering tionem p^ti ? 1 banishment 2 Aliis displicet totum hoc {All this philosophising dis- phiflosophari 1 pleases others. Inusitatum est regem reum \A king's being tried on a capitis esse 1, capital charge is unusual. The Infinitive with Quasi-impersonal Verbs like licSt, was origin- ally a Complement : licfit mihi irfi was it is permitted to me to go, rather than going is permitted to me. Hence, Adjectives, etc., which refer to the subject of the Infinitive are usually in the Dat. [according to § 205 (2)], though the Ace. is found by \ 205 (l) : bSatotibi ess^ licSt zV is permitted to you to be happy ; te bgatiim ess£ licSt yotir being happy is permitted. § 373. If the Subject of the Infinitive is Indefinite, it is generally omitted. An Adjective, etc., referring to it is put in the Ace. Singular. Faciniis est mortem sibi 1 ,■, ■ - ^ z.v/ jj: _ . u -\ It IS a crime to kill oneself. conscire ) •' Incolumem redire licet One may return unhurt. § 374. Infinitive as Complement. — Several Verbs whose sense is incomplete have a Complement in the Infinitive referring to the action of the subject. To Verbs of habit,, inclination, Intention, power, and obligation. Beginning, end, and so forth, give Construction with Infinitive. Cupio loqui sed non audeo / wish to speak, but dare not. Et potSs loqui et debes You can and ought to speak. Vincere scit ■ He knows how to conquer. So Quasi-Impersonal Verbs and phrases, § 167. Flet quod ire necesse est She weeps because she must go. Licet antestari ? May I call (you) to witness ? ,,>, _UTT-- -,uw-rvv^ ( Religious scruples were felt Migrare Vems religio f uit | J^^^ ^^^^J^^ ^^ ^^ .. § 375. Certain Transitive Verbs, chiefly of instructing and compelling, take an Infinitive of the action prescribed. This Infinitive is retained in the Passive. Ltipos uliilare doceto Teach wolves to howl. „,„„„. ^ f They were forbidden to ap- Portas adire vetiti sunt | p^^^.f, f^, ^^tes. 170 The New Latin Primer. § 376. Nominative with Infinitive in Dependent Statement. — When a Quasi-Impersonal Verb such as it is said, it is thought, would have an Inf. with Ace. after it, the construction is generally made personal, the Accusative and everything agreeing with it being put in the Nominative. So also with ziibetiir it is ordered, vetatiir it is forbidden. Dicor esse felix / am said to he fortunate. Doliis afuisse demonstra- {It will be shown that trickery bitur I was absent. /ussus es refluntiari consiil [Orders are given for you to be ( proclaimed consul. But Participles and Gerunds are rarely made personal. Nggandum est esse deos { ^^^_"^' '^^'^ ^^"^ *^"'' '''' Theopotnpum vicisse mdi- /// was decided that Theo- catum est ( pompus had won. \ 377' -A'ar^ or Poetical Uses of the Infinitive. (1) As a Complement taAdjectives,\m\.esA of other Verbal Nouns : cupTdus mori eager to die (for morientli) ; dignum 16gi worthy to be read (for lectu). (2) As a Complement to Verbs / ^ (. ever he saw his son. T-,v -, - ^u J - ■ "1 r Ife says " The messengerhas Dicit nuntium advenisse^ i „ / j - "..\ L come (advenit). r\- "i /-■ 11- ^- ■ "1 t r -^« ■f3J''f " ^'^^ Gauls fled Dicit Gallos fueisse^ ut ,r- - ^\ ^ ° - , (fugerunt) as soon as primum Caesar signum i V, ° ' ,, . , proelii dederit' Ccesar gave the signal for battle:' T^- ".„,,_ ,_ .. u, „ ,( He says "The Gauls had Uicit Gallos fueisse prms- (1 „ j ic- ^ i\ 1 ^ ^ °„ .^ > fled (fufirerant) before quam Caesar signum -^ ^ j? ■ 7 1"- j"j" -'-.^ Ccesar gave the signal proeiu dederit'' j: 1 nf '■> ' l^ for battle. Future. T~v- u^ I u V. ^ «,_ , f He says "The man will die Dicit hominem moriturum ^ I 7 jz. j ^ i uju ., „ u^j ( unless the doctor makes msi medicus properet* i If" After mSminl, mfimoria tSnSo, etc., / remember, the Present In- finitive is used to represent the Imperfect and sometimes the Perfect Indicative if the event has happened within the actual knowledge of the person referred to ; mSministis turn, zudices, corporibtis civium TibSritn compleri you remember^ judges^ that then the Tiber was filled with the corpses of citizens. § 379. Verbs of Hoping and Promising. — These take a Future Infinitive in Latin. Sperat se cito venturam She hopes to come soon. /uravi me haec facturum / swore to do this. § 380. Might, ought, could, etc., with Infinitive. — IsFotice the difference between the English and Latin idioms with these Verbs. Parerg debiiisti You ought to have obeyed. Poteramiis cogi We could have been forced. Hoc dixisse potest He may have said this. In order to see what is the proper tense to use in Latin, the English Defective Verbs may, might, etc., should be replaced by other Verbs which have all their tenses : parere debiiisti you were bound to obey ; hoc dixisse potest it is possible that he said this. • After a Secondary tense, e.g., dixit he said, no change in the Infinitive. ^ aspexisset, after a Secondary tense. ^ dedisset, after a Secondary tense. ■• propfirarSt, after a Secondary tense. 172 The New Latin Primer. § 381. The Perfect Infinitive is sometimes used where Eng. has a Pres., especially after Verbs of wishing with a Negative, and in the Pass., often without essfi. The action is usually regarded as com- plete, quis te nolit pSrisse ? who would not wish you to die ? {to he dead), monitos eos volo / wish to want them. Subjunctive in Principal Sentences. § 382. The Subjunctive of Desire (Negative ne) is used of events which it is desired should happen. It is used — (i^ In Wishes and Hopes (§ 189), (2) In Request zxvA Command (§ 189). Also — (3) In requesting a Supposition to be made ; in English grant that, allow that : ne sit sane summum ma- lum dolor, malum certe est allow that pain is not the greatest evil, an evil it certainly is. § 383. The Subjunctive of Imagination (Negative non) is used of events which it is thought might happen or might have happened} The Primary Tenses refer to the Future, and are to be translated by can, might, should, or would. The Secondary Tenses generally refer to the Past, and are to be translated by should have or would have. Some- times they refer to the Present, and are to be translated by should or would : 1. Quis te dubitet sequi ? who can hesitate to follow you ? quis diibitassSt Caesarem sSqui ? who could have hesitated to follow Casar 2 Vglim hoc mihi igndscas / could wish you would forgive me this; mallem Romae essS I should prefer to be in Rome. So in Questions and Exclamations : quidni meminerim? why should I not reme7nber'i (meaning, of course, I can), egone ut te interpellem ? / interrupt you 1 (lit. how should I inter- rupt you T). 2. Suaserim tibi tit taceas I should advise you to be silent; facile persuasissem tibi lit taceres / could easily have per- suaded you to be silent. Ita pulchra est, deara piites so beautiful is she, you would think her a goddess ; itS, pulchra erat Helena, deam putares ' The Subjunctives under this head are hence sometimes called Potential. SuByuNcrivE in Principal Sentences. 173 so beautiful was Helen, you would have thought her a goddess. (For the Indefinite Second Person, see § 355.) 3. The Subjunctive in the Apodosis of Conditional State- ments belongs here. It denotes what it is thought would happen, or would have happened, subject to certain circum- stances : pulchram earn putes you would think her beautiful, si videas if you were to see her. See § 239. The Subjunctives in this Section are sometimes supposed to be incomplete Conditional statements : suasSrim I would advise you (if you were to ask my advice), v6Um / should wish (if it were any use doing so), and so forth. The Subjunctives of the next section have been explained similarly : hoc facias j/oj^ would do this (if you were asked). § 384. By a slight change of meaning the Subjunctive is used of events which it is thought should happen or should have happened} It is thus found : (i) In Recommendations or mild commands : hoc facias you should do this ; hoc non fecisses you ought- not to have done this.^ (2) In Questions:, quid enumerem artium multitu- dinem ? ivhy should I enumerate the multitude of the arts ? cum haec viderem, quid facerem ? what was I to do when I saw this 1 Ques. non argentum redderem ? ought I not to have returned the money (silver) ? Ans. non redderes you ought not. § 385. Commands AND Requests.— In Positive Requests besides(i) the Imperative § i86and(2) the Subjunctive of Desire § 189, Latin writers also use forms which are properly Statements, viz. (3) the Fut. Ind., which puts the Request as something which will happen, and is thus a strong Command, as hoc f acies you will do this ; and (4) the Sub- junctive of Imagination which puts it as a Recommendation only (see above). Sometimes also (S) the Request is put as a Question : quin is why don't you go ? (§ 3S4). Lastly (5) certain periphrases are used, as fac vSnias be sure and come. In Negative Requests (Prohibitions) (l) the Imper. is not used in Prose, nor (2) the ink Person Pres. Suhj. with ne except as in § 208. But (3) the Fut. Ind. with non is used in all persons, as h5c non fades _j'oa shall {ot will) not do this. So also (4) the Subj. of Imagination in Recommendations (see above). Lastly, periphrases are found, as noli irfi do not go, cSve Sas beware of going, and (in the poets) desinS cease, parcfi spare, etc., with Infinitives. ^ The Subjunctive in this use is often called "Jussive." In Ques- tions it is also called " Deliberative " or " Dubitative," 174 The New Latin Primer. DEPENDENT SENTENCES. The Sequence of Tenses. § 386. Primary Sequence. — Or&t me tit sibi parcam He entreats me to spare him. ( I fear you have done wrong Timeo ne peccaveris < (also / fear you did wrong). Video quid facturus sis(§ 232) I see what you ivill do. Non efficiet ut veniam He will not induce me to come. Edamus ut vivamiis Let us eat to live. T-v v;,.^ J- uj u,v^ f / could easily say what he i'acile dicam quid velit \ , -^ -^ ^ ( wants. Roga quid vere sentiat Ask what he really thinks. § 38;. Secondary Sequence. — Oravit me ut sibi parcerem He entreated me to spare him. T^. -, - - f L was afraid you had done limebam ne peccasses ■ -^ -^ '^ ( 2vrong. Vidiquid facturus esses (§232) / saw what you would do. Non effecerJit ut vSnirem He had not induced me to come. Facile dixissem quid vellet j ^ ^^f '^ ^''^^ easily said what he wanted. Dicis te rogasse quid vere You say that you asked what sentiret he really thought. § 388. Note the following differences from English : {a) The Imperfect Subjunctive in Conditional statements, even when it refers to present time [§ 242(a)], takes Second- ary tenses. x7« " " ,. „ u._ _ .- _ f Jf I did not think it out of Nisi ineptum putarem, mra- -' ^, , u ^ 1. ^\^- -j^ _i- - place, I would take an rem me ea sentire quae \ -^ ,, ,, ^ r 1 i- 1 ^ J- - . , oath that I believe what y I say. (b) The Present in General Statements (§ 177) is usually changed to the Imperfect after Secondary tenses. De philosophia quant5 opere We discussed in another exp6tenda esset in alio treatise how greatly phil- libro disseriiimus osophy is to be sought after. (c) The Perfect Subjunctive, when it refers to the Future (§§ 225 (C), 240), of course takes Primary tenses. The Sequence of Tenses. 175 Si scieris velle aliquetn im- prudentem super aspi- dem assidere, improbe feceris nisi moniieris ne assidat If you knew that someone zvas going to sit down on an asp without knowing it, you would act wickedly if you did not warn him not to sit down. § 389. Primary or Secondary Sequence. — {a) Perfect Proper. With Primary Sequence. ry, - _.-_j,^. ,. ^^ [ Bulls have been given the Tauris natura datum est ut , , ■ ^- \ x r , ^ - u^u,- ^ J -. { natural instinct of nght- pro vitulis contendant. . r ^, ■ J J ^ I mgjor their calves. Oblitiis es quid initio dix- Have you forgotten what I erim ? said at the beginning^ With Secondary Sequence. Haec non ut vos excitarem / have not said this to rouse locutus sum you. Hodie expertus sum quam T have found out to-day how ' caduca esset felicitas perishable happiness is. (b) Historic Present. With Secondary Sequence. Persuadet Castico ut regnum He persuades Casticus to occiiparet seize the kingly power. With Primary Sequence. '■ ,,. V- - ^ ^^ "L" i. C The Ubii implore him to Ubu orant ut sibi parcat | ^^^^^ ^^^J § 390. After the Present and Future Infinitive, the Participles and other Verbals, the Sequence is determined by the leading Verb. SperJ fore lit continga/ / hope it will happen. SperflM fore iit conting»-/^ / hoped it would happen. •r." - v/ V," - "J r If you were asked where you Rogatus ubi sis, quid re- '\ ^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^ spondeas? | ««,z„,r? T,^-v.^,v- - ^j ( If you had been asked where Rogatus ubi_ esses, quid re- I ^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ spondisses ? | ^^^ ^^^^ answered ? ' Primary Tenses make the narrative more vivid. 176 The New Latin Primer. § 39 T. The Perfect Subjunctive is sometimes found in Secondary Sequence instead of the Imperfect. It is hardly ever so used except in Consecutive sentences, and where a single definite act is meant. T^«^ - M^ ^- c t" - j"!^"* ( Dionysius was so much Dionysius eo facto sic doluit I / ■ j j. ^i. t i.u, ^^ „ u„ »"iv >.^ ■ I pained at that occurrence nihil ut gravius tulerit in < H. ^ u j. i. ^i.- ° J that he took nothing more ^^ ^ [to heart in his life. 'For another use of the Perf. Subj. in Secondary Sequence, see § 420. § 392. Apparent exceptions to the Sequence of Tenses. — These occur when it is important to denote the exact time of an action, and a false impression would be conveyed if it were referred to the time of the leading Verb. Vidgocausasessepermultas \ ^ ''l^haj there were (at quae istum impellerent *^' """^) ^'^^^ ^«^^^^ "> ^ -^ \ urge him on. I wish I had learned from experience hoiv much iveight these things have in a province. Verres so persecuted Sicily for three years that it cannot possibly now be restored to its original condition. Haec quantum in provincia valeant vellem expertus essem Siciliam Verres per trien- nium ita vexavit tit ea restitiii in antiquum statum nuUo uxbdopossit The Subjunctive Mood. § 393. Consecutive Sentences. — These denote the consequence or result of an action. This may be either — [a) An Action Caused, or (1!') An Action Prevented. (a) An Action caused is expressed by ut : sol efficit tit omnia floreant the sun makes all things bloom ; quis tam demens lit stia voluntate maereat ? who is so senseless as to grieve of his own choice 1 (b) An Action Prevented is expressed : By ut . . non, after a Positive sentence : ita miser est ut mortem non timeat he is so wretched that he does not fear death. Consecutive and Final Sentences. itj By Qt . . n5ll or quin, after a Negative or quasi-Nega- tive one : nemo adSo ferus est iit non mitescerg possit no one is so wild that he cannot be civilised , facere non possum quin cottidie ad te litteras mittam / catmot help sending you a letter every day (lit. / cannot act so as not to, etc.). ne and iit ne are sometimes used in Consecutive as well as in Final sentences. § 394. Verbs OF Preventing. — Verbs of Preventing and Declining take ne ; Verbs of Preventing also quo miniis. irapedior ne {also quo minus) plura dicam / am hindered from saying more (so that I should say no more) ; ne sententiam diceret recusavit he refused to pronounce an opinion ; cave ne titubes take care that you do not stumble. After Negative or quasi-Negative sentences, quin may be used ; n5n recuso quin ciiminibus respondeam I do not refuse to answer the charges. § 395. Final Sentences. — These denote thtpurpose of an action. The purpose may be either — {a) An Action to be Caused, or (b) An Action to be Prevented. {a) An Action to be caused is introduced by ut : esse oportet iit vivas one ought to eat to live. {b) An Action to be_ prevented is introduced by ne, or sometimes by lit . . ne : propera ne vapiiles make haste that you may not be thrashed ; quid vis nobis dare ut scyphi isti abs te ne auferantur ? whiit are you willing to gii>e me that your cups may not be taken from you 1 § 396. Verbs of Requesting. — Verbs of Ordering, Entreating, and Advising are followed — By ut of what it, is requested should happen : peto a te Lit aurum reddas / ask you to return the gold. By ne (sometimes ut . . ne) of what it is requested should not happen : moniii te ne uxorem duceres / 'warned you not to marry, impetrant ut ne mrent they obtain their request not to take the oath. nibeo order, usually, and yiXo order not, forbid, take the Inf. § 397- Verbs of Fearing. — Verbs of fearing are followed — By ne that (or lest), of what it is feared may happen. By ne . . . non that (or lest) . . not, of what it is feared ma,y'not happen. M 178 The New Latin Primer. r™ ^. - - u, ,. . - - V. r / fear that you will be rimeo lie mihi irascaris | \^^^y ^^, .^//^^^^_ Timui ne mihi non ignos- I feared that you would not ceres pardon me. After Positive sentences vereor (and sometimes mettio, timeo) is found with ut instead of ne . . . non : vereor tit me diligas I am afraid 'Cm.i you do not love me. § 398. Subjunctive vcithout a Conjunction. — -The Simple Subjunctive is found after some Verbs of Requesting (or expressing a Wish), especially in the ist Pers. Sing, as suadeo cenemus / suggest we have dinner; censeo desistat / think he should stop ; volo respondeas T wish you would answer ; and also after some Quasi-Impersonals as oportet abeam it is right I should go. See § 452 (2). In this use the Subjunctive originally formed a separate sentence, censeo desistat meaning / think ; let him stop. So in the periphrastic Imperatives fac. vSnias mind, you come, cSv^ fias beware, you may go (i.e. of going). See § 385. § 399. Subjunctive of Dependent Statement. — For examples of this see under Indirect Quotation (§ 249, also § 42 2). Two special cases of it require attention. (i) It is used after Verbs which imply saying or thinking, such as laudo 1 praise, culpo I blame, etc.; culpavit te quod hoc fecisses he blamed you because (as he said) you did this. (2) It is sometimes, though rarely, used when an idea of saying or thinking is involved in the context : Fusctis Aristiiis occurrit, mihi carus et ilium qui pulchrenosset Fuscus Aristius runs up, a dear friend of mine, and one who (I was sure) knew that man well. Subjunctive and Indicative. The following sections show what difference the use of the Subjunctive or the Indicative makes in the meaning of each kind of Dependent Sentence. From § 400 to § 412 " Subjunctive usages are printed in italics, and Indicative usages in ordinary type. § 400. Relative Sentences.— 77^« Subjunctive is used in the following kinds of Relative Sentences: (a) When the Relative involves an idea of purpose (Eng. " to" with Infinitive) : scribebat ordtiones quas Subjunctive and Indicative. 179 dlii dicerent "He wrote speeches for other people to deliver {which other people were to deliver)." (d) Where an idea of result is involved {Eng. " such that" "such as to") : non is est qui his rebits iitdtur " He is not such a person as would use these things " {not a person to use these things), The Indicative would show the fact without any such notion of result : scribebat orationes quas alii dicebant " He wrote speeches which other persons delivered," or "and other persons delivered them " ; non is est qui his rebus utitur " He is not the man who uses these things." {c) The Subjunctive is used when a notion of character or class is involved: maibrd deligue- 7-unt quam quibus ignoscam " They have committed offences greater than I pardon" {too great for me to pardon) . Hence the Subjunctive is also used with quippe qui. So with est qui, sunt qui : there is a person to — j there are persons to — ; sunt qui dicant " some people say ; " and with Negatives : nemo est qui dicat " there is no one to say" nemo est qui non dicat, " there is no one not to say " {who does not say). The Indicative may be used if definite particular things are referred to. So Horace says of riches : sunt qui non habeant, est qui non ciirat habere " Some people have them not, there is one person" (meaning himself) "who does not care to have them." The Subjunctive is also used — {d) With qui quidem, qui modo, when the class or character of anything limits a previous assertion : omnium ordtorum quos quidem ego cognbverim dcittissimUs est Sertorius " Of all the speakers — of such, that is to say, as I know — Sertorius is the sharpest;" nemo serviis qui modo tolerdbili condicione sit servitutis " No slave who is" {that is to say, ' no slave provided he be ') in a tolerable state of slavery." The Indicative is used in limitations where the refer- ence is to definite particular persons or things : omnium oratorum qui quidem nunc sunt " Of all the orators, that is to say, of the present day." M 2 i8o The New Latin Primer. The Subjunctive is used— {e) When the Relative involves an idea oj cause : fiitt m'lrtfkd vtgtlantid qui sud toto consulatu som- num non vlderit "He has shown 7)iarvellous wakeful- ness, since he has not seen sleep (i.e., slept a wink) in his entire consulship." So, ut qui, qi^iPPC qui, utpote qui. The Indicative is used whenever we do not wish to imply that one event ig the cause of the other, but simply to state them side by side : stulte feci qui amicum araisi " I have acted foolishly — I who have lost my friend." The Indicative is also used in parenthetical sentences with qui " such " : qua prudentia 6s, nihil te fiigiet " Such is your sagacity, nothing will escape you." In these parenthetical sentences, we might have is for qui. § 401. Temporal Sentences. — The Subjunctive is tesed with Temporal Conjunctions of events expected and intended to occur. With dum " until: " exspectdte dum dictator fiat " Wait till a dictator can be appointed ;" reiis, dum cdnsiilerenttir pdtres, in ford retentiis est "The accused was detained in the Forum to allow time for the Senators to be consulted." With ante quam, priiis quam ' before that,' ' before : ' collem prills quam sentidtur commumt " ffe fortifies the hill before he can be perceived ;" ante quam venidt litterds mlttet " Before comifig, he will write." The Subjunctive is sometimes used to express Purpose: (l) with donee, guodd until, (2) with dum while: rex dum recens terror esset, exercituin ad urbem mistt * * The king sent an army to the city zuhile the panic was {should be') fresh." Soniet ivies the Subjunctive is used after donee, ante quavi, prtus quam, without affecting the sense. (Roby, Lat. Gram., Vol. II., §§ 1670, 1674.) § 402. Causal Sentences. — The Indicative is used with quod, quia ' because,' quoniam, quando ' since,' si quidem ' if,' ' as is the case,' ' since,' quatenus ' inasmuch as,' if they simply give the real cause : dolet mihi quod stomacharis " I am pained because you are angry." But the Subjunctive is us§d with them if they give the alleged reason^ (§ 216): Socrates accusdtiis est quod ' The alleged reason is not lucessarily a false one. Subjunctive and Indicative. i8i iuventutem corrumperet " Socrates was -accused of corrupting {on the alleged ground that he corrupted) the youth." Hence it is used after non : noii idcirco dimisl quod eis suscenserem sed guM eorum me suppudebat '■' I did not send them away because I was annoyed with them (supposed reason, Subj.), but because I was somewhat ashamed of them " (real reason, Ind.). § 403. Concessive Sentences. — The Indicative or Subjunctive is used according to the meaning of the con- junction. 1. quamquam takes the Indicative in the best Latin : quamquam festinas, non est mora longa " Though you are in haste, it is not a long delay." Quamquam properly means howsoever, as quisquis means who- soever, and follows the rule of J 405, If however it refers to an imagined case, the Sub- junctive is used according to (A) § 187 : quamquam epUlis careat senecties ^'Although old age may be without its feasts." 2. etsi "even if," "although," takes the Indicative of facts : gaudeo etsi nihil scio quod gaudSam " I am glad, though I know no reason why I should be glad." But it takes the Subjunctive of imaginations : etsi aliquid adiectum nUmero sit, magna certe caedes fUU " Though something may have been added to the number, it was cer- tainly a great slaughter." 3. quamviS, licet, and iit 'supposing that' take the Subjunctive : quamvls sint sub aqua, sUb aqua male dlcere temptant "Although they are under the water, under the water they try to revile," lit desint vires, tamen est laudanda voluntas " Though strength fail, yet good will is to be praised." The Subjunctive is required to give the Concessive sense : quamvis dicas is properly "you may say how you like," licet dlcds is "it is allowed, you may say." \ 404. The poets sometimes use quamvls with the Ind. Conversely quamquam sometimes appears in later writers with the Subj. where we expect the Ind. § 405. Indicative of Indefinite Frequency. — The best Latin writers use the Indicative of events frequently occurring, corresponding to the English ever. So with quis- quis, quicumque ' whoever,' qui ( = quisquis) ; non bene olet qui bene semper olet " He does not smell well who always 1 82 The New Latin Primer. smells well." With si ' if ever ' ; stomachabatur senex si quid asperius dixeram " The old man used to get angry if I (had) said anything, rather harsh." Some writej-s, licnveva; nse the Subj. : quenicumqivl lictor prindissit, trXbuir&s until iuhebat " Whotnever the lictor (had) arrested, the tribune ordered to be let go." Construction of certain Conjunctions. § 406. Ut with the Indicative. — ut takes the In- dicative when it means — (a) As : lit sementem feceris (Fut. Perf.), itS. mgtes "As you have sowed, so will you reap." Hence idiomatically (of facts) : (b) Considering that, taking into account : hi ut populi Romarii aetas est, sSnes sunt " Con- sidering the age of the Roman people, these are ancients." (c) While, when followed by sic, itS. : lit quies certaminum erat, itS, non ab appa,ratu opSrum cessatum est "Though there was a cessation of hostilities, still they did not relax the prosecution of the (siege) works." (d) As SOON as : ut veni surrexit " He rose when I came." § 407. Ut with the Subjunctive. — It takes the %yj!a- junctive when used — (a) In a Consecutive sense, 'so that^ § 393. (B) In a Final sense, 'in order that J § 395. {c) In a Concessive sense, 'granting that,' § 403 (3). \d) After vereor ' I fear,' etc., § 397. \e) In indignant surprise, see example in § 383 (i). § 408. Cum with the Indicative.— Oum (quom) takes the Indicative when it means — (a) When (in the sense of " at the time when ") ; longum illud tempus cum non er5 "That long time when I shall be no more," pariait cum nScesse erat " He obeyed when it was necessary." (b) Since (= "since the time when") ; centum anni sunt cum dictator fiiit "It is one hundred years since he was dictator." (c) Whenever (in the best Latin, compare § 405): Subjunctive and Indicative. 183 cum ad villam veni, nihil agere me delectat "When- ever I come to my country house, it pleases me to do nothing." § 409. Cum with the Subjunctive. — // takes the Subjunctive when it means — (a) When, and is used zvith the Imperfect and Plu- perfect to mark the time of an action : Zenonem cum Athenis essem, audiebam frequenter '■'■I frequently heard Zeno (lecture) when I was at Athens." The use of the Subjunctive often implies a Causal connexion between the Principal and Dependent clause ; so the example above might meati "Being at Athens I went to Zeno's lectures." The Subj. is rarely used when all idea of Cause ^ Consequence y or Opposition is out of the question. (b) At a time when (Consecutive) : id saeculum cum iam plena Graectd poetdrum esset "A?i age wheti Greece %vas already full of poets." (c) Since : quae cum ltd sint, perge "Since these things are so, proceed." (d) Notwithstanding that, although: Phdcidn semper fmt pauper, cum divitissimiis esse pjosset " Fhocion remained always poor, though he could have been very rich." Note. — The original sense of cum was purely Temporal, when ; and it took the Indicative. Its use with the Subjunctive is due to the growth of a closer connexion between the two clauses, and so the Subjunctive belongs to the type (B) § 187. § 410. DuM WITH THE ■ Indicative. — Dum takes the Indicative if its meaning is purely Temporal. (a) While, usually with the Present, whatever the time of the Principal Clause : incidit in Scyllam dum vult vitare Charybdim " He fell into Scylla while desiring to avoid Charybdis." (b) So LONG AS, with the Present, the Imperfect (some- times the Perfect), and the Future, according to ' the time of the Principal Clause : dum anima est, spes est " So long as there is life there is hope." (c) Until, with the Perfect of Past time and the Future Perfect of Future time : mansit in consilio dum senatus dimissus est "He persisted in his plan until the senate broke up," 184 The New Latin Primer. Dum (while) is used with the Present (loosely) of events which will happen soon : mSnebo dum exit " I will wait till he comes out " (lit. "while he is coming out"). § 411. Dum with the Subjunctive.— "Qyaa. is used with the Subjunctive : (a) In sense of ^ until' ivhen purpose is implied, § 40 1 . {d) Sometimes in sense of ^ while' when purpose is implied, § 401*. (c) When it means ^ so long as' in a Concessive sense, ^provided that' : oderint dum metiiant "Let them hate so long as they fear." So dum modo. § 412. quin IN Dependent Sentences' takes the Subjunctive. // is properly Consecutive, ' so that . . . not,' and is only to be used when the Principal Sentence is Negative or quasi-Negative. (a) After Nega live Pronouns and Adverbs and Nega- tive expressions generally : nemo fiJit militum quin VulnerdretUr " There was not one of the soldiers but was wounded" ; numqtiam tarn male est Sicidts quin aliquid fdcete dicant " The Sicilians are 7iever in such trouble but they can say something witty." {b) Especially after expressions of Not Preventing and the like, § 394. {c) After expressions of Not Doubting or Not Question- ing = Eng. that: quis dubttat quin in virtute divttiae sint 1 " Who doubts that there are riches in virtue V As a Negative Pronmm can supply a Stchject to the Dependent Sent- ence, C{mn may be used instead of o^iA, quae, quod (Nam.) . . . non, § 400 ie), nemo est qmn ddl^di " There is no one but grieves (=:z: qui non ddl^iit). Bttt an Object cannot be so supplied. So 7ue must have fie mo est guera non dSlSat " There is no one but he grieves for." § 413. Translation of That. — The English that must be differently translated into Latin according to its sense : (i) After words of saying and thinking by Infinitive and Accusative, § 206. 2) If it means the fact that, by quod, § 214 (2). 3) If it denotes consequence, by ut, etc., § 393. 1 For the quin in Principal Sentences, see \ 354. The Conditional Statement. 185 4^ If it Atv^QAAi, purpose, by tit, etc., § 395. S) If it denotes the object of fear, by ne, § 397. (6) After Negatives, often by quin, § 412. (7) Oh that! is expressed by utinam, compare § 189(1). § 414. Translation of To. — The Enghsh to with Verbs is translated : (i) By the Simple Infinitive, §§ 372 — 376. (2) After Verbs of hoping and promising by the Future Infinitive and Accusative, § 379. (3) For the to of purpose see next section. § 415. To OF Purpose. — This may be variously ex- pressed in Latin. For he sent soldiers to burn the town we may have — / (i) tit urbem cremarent. (2) qui urbem cremarent, § 400 (a), misit milites -( (3) ad urbem cremandam. ■(4) urbis cremandae causa (or gratia). (5) urbem crematum, § 194. Misit milites urbem cr^maturos {\ 371) is very rare, and the Infinitive [§ 377 (2)] only poetical. Notes on the Conditional Statement. § 416. A condition is generally expressed by si, but it may also be expressed in other ways. (a) A relative may be used': qui for si quis if anyone. I A man who had seen {if a Qui videret equum Tro/a- num introductum, urbem captam diceret man had seen) the Trojan horse brought in, he would have said the city was cap- tured. {b) The condition may be shown hy wxr^\y placing the two clauses together. Poscit rex, dandum est: v6- T The king asks — weynustgive: cat, veniendum (. he calls — we must come. -r,^ - -ui"! jy ( Were you to ask me, I should Roges me, nihil respondeam \ / ' ° ' ^ (^ make no answer. [c) The condition may be contained in a participle (or some other word). Si latet ars, prodest : affert If art is concealed, it does good: deprensa ptidorem (if) detected, it brings shcime. 1 86 The New Latin Primer. All these forms are subject to the general rules of the Conditional Statement §§ 234 sqq. § 417. Mixture of Types of Conditional State- ment. — The general rule for the formation of the Con- ditional Statement, that the Protasis and Apodosis must not consist of forms inconsistent with each other, is subject to some exceptions. (a) There being no Indicative of the Indefinite Second, Person (§355) the Subjunctive is used instead: standum est in lecto si quid de summo petas one must stand on the sofa if one wants anything from the top. If any other person is used, the Iiid. is necessary. Hence : si quid petimus or si quid pgtitiir. (p) The Indicative is used regularly in phrases like longwm. est it would be lo7ig. Longum est si omnia nar- // would be a long affair if rem / told everything. M^1^n.«/. X&ViAamus. ) (2) Quare ne coimmseris ut Quare ne coramltteret tit is 15ciis ex calami tate popilli Romani nomen ca^perei. hic lociis ex calamitate popiili Romani nomen ckpiat. (3) Quid de praeda facien- dum censif/zj 1 {Real question.) (4) Quid fiet si legem per- tulero? (Real question.) (5) Quid enim per popiilum tgistis ? (Rhetorical question.y (6) Quid tiM VIS? cm in meds possessiones vents 1 (Rhetorical question, no satisfactory answer. Y ' The difference betv/een questions of the form of (5) and (6) is that questions like (5) are really disguised statements. " What have you done by means of the people ?" implies j/t)?* have done nothing. But What do you ivant ? only implies you cannot give a satisfactory account of yourself. Quid de praeda faciendum censerent ? Quid fiitHrum si legem per- tuMsset ? Quid enim eosper populum egisse? Quid Slit vellet 1 ciir in siids possessiones \eniret 1 192 The New Latin Primer. (7) Waxiar potuis quam ne- Mdlle se morl quam nequam quam vlvam ! \\vere. (8) Nisi te audire vellem, Negdvit se, nisi eum audire non haec dixissem. velk/, ///« dicturum ftiisse. / \ XT" - - .•- J- /-- " ^ /'Nisi nuntii de Caesaris vic- (9) Nisi nuntii de Caesaris _ ._ , „.,. ,.,- ^ ' ■..-''- 1 11-.- tonsL esseat a.l\a.ti, mtierum victoria essent allati, < ,-. ^ „, -, '■' - -, -J - - -'I fuisse lit oppidiim amit- oppidum amissum esset ' '\- .^ » ^ ' ' '^ \_ teretur. (10) Aggresj-«j esset me in (After nuntiai^zJr) Aggress^^- concilio ; dilate xts est um fuisse se in concilio ; quod auctor consili dilataw rew esse quod afu«> quam maxime auctor consili a.i\ierit quam peteddt.^ maxime peteret. § 431. Observations on the Oratio Obliqua. (i) The Oratio obliqua is sometimes introduced by Verbs which only imply saying ; sometimes the idea of saying is only to be gathered from the context. Compare § 399. {2) The Imperative is never used in Or. Obi. The Indicative is an irregularity very rarely found, and chiefly after dum whilst. (3) The usage of the Pronouns se, is, illfi, in Or. Obi. can only be fully learned from reading. It must not be forgotten that se retains its usual reference to the subject of a sentence in Or. Obi. {4) In graphic reports of speeches by historians, etc., the Primary Tenses are often not changed to Secondary Tenses, though the speech is a thing of the past. Compare the sequence of the Historic Present, § 389 (/'). Sometimes Primary and Secondary Tenses are found side by side, e.g., Caes. B. G. I. 14, admiraretur sint. (5) More examples of the Oratid Obliqua may be found in Caes. B. G. I. 40, 44, 45 ; IV. 16 ; Livy, I. 9, 47, 50, 53 ; XXI. 30, 53, 63. ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS. § 432. Owing to its greater wealth of inflexions, the order of words in Latin is not as rigidly fixed as it is in English, but it is never arbitrary. Some kinds of words are limited to certain positions, and other kinds of words are generally found in certain positions. But beyond this, tha arrangement of the words in a Latin sentence is determined first by the requirements ' He would have attacked me at the meeting, (but) his scheme was postponed because the promoter of the plan, at whom he chiefly aimed, was absent. Arrangement of Words. 193 of Clearness, the relation of the words to each other being made as plain as possible ; secondly by those of Emphasis, the words being placed in the positions which their com- parative importance demands; and lastly by those of Rhythm, the words being arranged so as to please the ear as much as possible. § 433. Words which cannot stand First in a Sentence. 1. The Enclitics, which are always appended to a word. These are -que, -ve, -nej and the Prep, cum when it governs Personal, and usually when it governs Relative Pronouns, as secum, quibuscum. 2. The Indefinite Pronoun quis anyone, and the Adverbs quo anywhither, qua anywhere, derived from it. 3. The Adverbs or Conjunctions vero, autem but, igitiir therefore, enim for, usually stand second in a sentence. 4. Quoque too, quidem indeed, follow the word they emphasise. T3men usually stands first in a sentence ; but if it emphasises a particular word, it follows that word. § 434. Words which stand First in a Sentence. 1. Co-ordinate and Subordinate Conjunctions. 2. Relative Pronouns.' 3. Interrogative Pronouns ' and Adverbs. § 435. General Rules of Order. The two most important positions in the sentence are the beginning and the end. Subject to the requirements of Emphasis, the sentence either begins with the Subject or with the word which most clearly shows the connexion with what precedes. The sentence must end with some word which is essential to the construction or important to the sense. In the middle of the sentence the words are arranged so that the words which are most closely connected stand nearest together. § 436. Special Rules. 1. The Subject stands first, the Finite Verb last. 2. Ordinary Adjectives, Genitives, and other Attributes generally follow the Nouns to which they belong. 3. Adjectives of Number and Quantity and Demonstra- 1 Except when governed by a Preposition. N 194 The New Latin Primer. live Pronouns precede the Verbs or Adjectives to which they belong. 4. Adverbs (including non) and Oblique Cases precede the Verbs or Adjectives to which they belong. 5. Prepositions s\}sz}j& precede \!a€\x Cases ^ 6. In phrases consisting of a Noun with an Adjective and other Complements, the Adjective is generally put first, the Noun last, and the other Complements in between. These rules are illustrated by the following sentence : — Livius, imperator fortissimus, 2 quamquam adventiis hostium i ^ 1 . non tibi oportiiit nuntiatiis 1 3 6 5 est, periciilum ilia siia in 6 4 rebus dubifis audacia facile Livius^ a most excellent commander, although the enemy' s arrival was not reported when it should have been, easily escaped the danger by his 7vell- known daring in perilous evasit. ; f"''*'"'''- § 437. Notice that the order of words in a sentence is not affected if its form is changed through its becoming part of another sentence. Hence we have Liviiis . . . periciilum ilia sua in rebus diibiis audacia facile evdsisse dicitur (is said to have escaped) ; Liviiis . . . periciilum ilia siia in rebus diibiis audacia facile evadendb laudem meriiit (jvon credit by escaping), etc. § 438. Order and Emphasis. — Emphasis is often ex- pressed by Order in Latin when in English we have to express it by laying stress on a word in pronouncing, or by underlining it in writing. Emphasis is expressed : (i) By placing a word in an unusual position, espe- cially if that is also a prominent one. Thus the sentence Clodiiis senatum irridSt may have any of its parts made emphatic as follows : Senatum Clodiiis irridet It is the Senate that Clodius is mocking. Irridet Clodiiis senatum Clodius is mocking the Senate. Senatum irridet Clodiiis The Senate is being mocked by Clodius. ^ Except cum (see above), tfinus and versus. Arrangement of Words. 195 (2) By separating words which would ordinarily come together : consilium excogitavit immdne He de- vised a horrible scheme. (3) By putting together words which would ordinarily be separated : homines humdnd carne vesci ! Men to eat human flesh ! (4) When pairs of words are contrasted, the order of the words in one pair is often the reverse of that in the other. Thus in the line ; Vilitis argentum b b a est auro, virtutibiis aurum Silver is cheapet than gold, gold than virtues, argentum is contrasted with aurum, and auro with virtutibus. This is called chiasmus from the arrangement of the words resembling the Greek letter chi : argentum «/ auro virtutibus '^ auriim § 439. Order and Rhythm. — The Latin writers take great care that their sentences shall be so arranged that they shall be easy to read and pleasant to hear. But no rules can be given here for securing this. The student's own observation must be his guide. But it must be observed that no arrangement of words, however rhythmical, is admissible if it is obtained by sacri- ficing Clearness or Emphasis. Note that words must not be so arranged in Prose as to form a verse or a considerable part of a verse. § 440. Order in Poetry. — The order of words in Poetry is largely determined by the metre, and often differs widely-from that of prose, e.g., soltis avem caelS de/ecit ab alto He alone brought down the bird from the high skies, would be in prose : solus a caelo alto avem dezecit. But the requirements of metre never justify any arrangement which obscures the sense. In poetry, not only the beginning and end of the sentence, but the beginning and especially the end of the verse, are important positions, and must not consist of unetnphatic words. N 2 196 The New Latin Primer. PROSODY. § 441. Latin Verse differs from Prose by a certain regular arrangement of long and short syllables : not as English verse by a regular arrangement of accented and unaccented syllables. There is no rhyme. § 442. Metrical quantity is quantity of syllables. Thus the quantity of este is metrically - u, for though the first e is short like the second, the time occupied by the two con- sonants st makes the first syllable long. It is wrong to say the vowel is long in such cases. See § 9. General Rules of Metrical Quantity. § 443. Syllables containing a vowel or diphthong 'pro- nounced long are long. Syllables containing a vowel pro- nounced short are short, unless they are lengthened by Position. h counts for nothing in determining quantity. § 444. Position.- — 1. Syllables containing a short vowel are long by Position if it is followed in the same word by x or or any combination of consonants except pr, br, cr, gr, dr, tr, fr : pi, cl, f 1. Thus este counts as - u. Before these combinations the syllable may be either short or long (Common), provided the vowel is short. Thus agros may count either as u - or as — . 2. Final syllables ending in a short vowel followed by a consonant are long by " Position," if the word ends and the next word begins with any consonant. Thus ab re counts as — . Final syllables ending in a short vowel only, remain short, although the next word begins with two consonants. Thus pete tres counts as u u -. The poets, however, avoid placing a short vowel before a word beginning with x ox zox sc, sq, sp, st. § 445. Elision. — When a word ending in a vowel, or diphthong, or a vowel followed by m, stands before another word beginning with a vowel or h, its last syllable is not counted in the verse, as ill(e) agit, ill(um) agit. See § 255. Non-elision is called Hiatus. Interjections are not elided. Prosody. 197 Quantity or Final Syllables.^ § 446. Monosyllables. — Monosyllables are long. Except (a) Enclitics as -quS, {b) words ending in b, d, and t, (c) fSc and nSc, sometimes hie ; ftl, mjl, vSl ; an and in ; ihx, pfir, t€r, vir, cor ; IS and quTs (Nom. ), bis and cis j os &»£■, & /'.i^'w art. § 447. Dissyllables and Polysyllables. I. Vowel endings all are long, excepting y and e. II. Consonantal all are short, save as, es, OS, and C. Exceptions to I. — A is short in N. Voc. Sing., in Neut. PI., and ita, quia, ei&. ' I is short in nisi and quasi ; common in mihl, tibi, sibi, ubi, ibi. ,0 is short in cito, duo, ego, modo, quomodo ; sometimes in homS and nemo, in Lat. Proper Names as Scipio, and in scio, nescio, puto V0I6 used parenthetically. E is long in (a) 5th Decl. as die, [b) Adverbs from Adjectives of the First Class except_^ben6, malS, inferng, supernS ; [c) Imperatives of 2nd Conj. except cave. Exceptions to II. — The Perfect forms iit (and compounds), petilt and compounds of par are long. AS is short in anSs. ES is short in (a) penSs and compounds of Ss thou art ; (b) N« Sing„ 3rd Decl. , with Gen. in -6tis, -itis, -idis, except aries, abies, paries, OS is short in exos, compos, impos. EC is short in donfic. US is long in (a) Gen. S. and Ace. PI. 4th Decl., (*) Nom. 3rd Decl. if Gen. has a long penultimate as virt-5s, G. -litis. IS is long in (a) D. Abl. PI., (b) Ace. PI. 3rd Decl., [c) Samnis, Quiris, and some Greek names as Salamis, [d) 2 Sg. Pres. Ind. Act. 4th Conj. as audis, («) veils, malis, noils, and compounds of sis ; (/) it is common in the Fut. Perf, and Perf. Subj. as amaverls.- Greek Words. — These often show exceptions : To I. as -i (Voc, sometimes D. 3rd Decl.), -e (ist Decl.). To II. as : -er (N. 3rd Decl.), -en, sometimes -an (Ace. Ist Decl., Nom. 3rd Decl.), -lis (G. Sing.), -5s (Ace. PI. 3rd Decl.), -& ('N. PI. 3rd Decl.), -OS (N. Sing, ist Decl., G. Sing. 3rd Decl.). § 448. Quantity in other Syllables. I. Syllables containing a vowel or diphthong imme- diately followed by another vowel or h are short as via, trahis, priest. Except {a) G. Sing, in -ai (ist Decl.), -ei (Sth Decl.) ; (b) Gen. of Pronouns, etc., in -lus; alius, solius, neutrlus always ; -lus in the rest as ipsius, but usually alterius ; {c) dius, Diana, Gaius, eheu. She ; many Greek words as aer, Cous ; (rf) I in flo except before 6r as fieri. 1 The student should observe that in § § 447, 44S, the marks of quantity are only placed on those syllables to which the rules of quantity refer. N* 198 The New Latin Primer. 2. Vowels followed by i (consonant) are long, as eza; bWugus, quadri-mgus are exceptions. 3. Syllables in which contraction has taken place are long : as cogo for coago. 4. Compounds and derived words usually keep the quan- tity of theit simples, as cado, accido, caducus. But there are many exceptions. Verses. § 449. Verses are divided into Feet, each containing two or more syllables. The foot - u u is called a Dactyl ; the foot — a Spondee. The foot may be compared to a bar of music : the Dactyl being the metrical equivalent of the bar | d J J | the Spondee of the bar | 0' J | These feet are equal in quantity. The other feet most usually employed are the Iambus u -, the Trochee — u, the Anapaest u u — , the Choriambus - u u - . § 450. The kinds of verses most used are the Dactylic Hexameter and the Dactylic Pentameter. The Hexameter consists of Six Feet ; of which the last is a Spondee, the fifth a Dactyl (rarely a Spondee). The rest may be either Dactyls or Spondees. Thus : u u I- u u I- u The Pentameter is constructed thus : u u - u u The metrical pause |{ always coincides with the end of a word. The last syllable of a verse may be short, the pause at the end completing the quantity. § 451. Caesura. — When a foot contains the end of one word and the beginning of another, the division is called the Caesura. The division - 1 u u or - 1 - is the Strong Caesura, - u ] u the Weak Caesura. In a Hexameter either the third or the fourth foot must have a strong caesura. The fifth foot of a Hexameter has a weak caesura or none at all, and the last dactyl of a Pentameter must have the weak caesura. § 452. The Pentameter is only used alternately with the Hexameter forming the Elegiac metre, appropriate to Reflective poems. The Hexameter used alone constitutes the Heroic metre, appropriate to Narrative poems. Construction of Particular Verbs. 199 MISCELLANEOUS. § 453. Verbs Governing a Dative. — The following is a further list of the Verbs referred to in § 308 (2) and not covered by (i) and (3) of that section, which take a Dative of the Indirect Object. Those marked A may also take an Ace. of the Direct Object (a thing) : impfrat victTs pScuniam he orders the conquered {to pay) money ; imp^rat hoc victis he orders the conquered {to do) this. Those marked N. P. may, in addition to the Dative, also take the Ace. of a Neuter Pronoun. adversari oppose ign5scere/arai!i«{N.P.)obtrectare disparage assentari flatter imp^rare ordet- (A) officere be in way of auxfliari assist indulgere indulge opitulari assist blandiri flatter insidiari plot against parcere spare cedere yield^ invidere envy persuadere persuade comitari accompany^ Irasci be angry with (N.P.) concedere yield mSlS dicere abuse plScere please confidere trust^ mfideri treat medically prodesse advantage consulere consult for^ minari threaten (A) rgfragari oppose credere believe (N.P. ) modSrari restrain ^ sJttis facSre satisfy deesse fail minitari threaten (A) servire serve diffidere distrust nocere harm stiidere be devoted to displicere displease nubere marry (a hus' suadere advise (A) fSvere support band)- suffragarl support f idere trust ' obesse be injurious supplicare supplicate gratificari oblige (N-P.) oboedire obey suscensere be angry gratulari congratulate obsSqui be compliant tempSrare restrain ^ (N.P.) obtempSrare obey ^ cedere, concedere, take Ace. in sense of granting anything. " Also with Ace. ' confidere, fidere, take the Dat. of persons (and sometimes of things) := "trust to": the AM. of things =^ " ix\^\. in." * Takes Ace. in sense of consulting a person. ^ modSrari and tem- perare take an Ace. in the sense of governing or controlling. \ 454. Construction of Impersonal and Quasi-Impersonal Verbs. 1. The Five Impersonals \_\ 166 (*)] : o ^ „j ^ "1 i. ) ( Genitive of Person. f^fl P"? ' P^-^f ! f take \ Accusative of Mental Object, taeda, atque mis&et J \ Infinitive of Verb. as paenitet me fact! / am sorry for what has been done; piidet dicere / am ashamed to say. Note. — misSret does not take the Infinitive ; paenitet may also take a Neuter Pronoun, as hoc me paenitet / am dissatisfled with this. 2. The following list gives the construction of Nouns and Verbs with the chief Quasi-Impersonals : — accidit happens, D. Pers. : ut convtoit is agreed, iit Subj. w. Subj. is suitable. Inf. apparet is plain, as liquet dgcet is becoming, N. Pron., Ace. constat is established. Inf. w. Ace. Pers. : Inf. contingit comes about, as accidit dedScet is unbecoming, as dScet 200 The New Latin Primer. evfnit happens, as accidit est happens, is possible, ut Subj. expf dit is useful, D. Pers. : ut Subj, fit happens, as est «uvat delights. Ace. Pers. : Inf. lifbet pleases, N. Pron. : Inf. licet is allowed, N. Pron., D. Pers. Inf., ut Subj., Subj. liquet if ^/a8«, N. Pron., D. Pers. Inf. ' plScet it is my opinion always takes Inf. fit with the Subjunctive is also found with certain phrases with Nouns : dire opSram bestow pains, id 3g£re make one's object, nfigotium dare intrust with the task. So mos est, consuetudo est it is customary (also with the Inf. ), non veri simile est it is improbable. nScesse est is necessary, N. Pron. , D. Pers. :Inf., iit Subj., Subj. oportet is right, N. Pron., Ace. Pers. : Inf., Subj. placet pleases, D. Pers. ; Inf. , tit Subj.i restat remains, D. Pers. : ut Subj. sfiquitur /o/Zowj, ut Subj. § 4SS. Verbs Taking ut with Subjunctive. The following list includes the more common Verbs which take ut with Subjunctive in the best Classical Prose, exclusive of Verbs of Requesting. ne that . . . not is added to those Verbs which take it in accordance with § 393* sqq. The Verbs marked (I) take an Infinitive (as comple- ment) if their Subject and the Subject of the Dependent Verb are the same, as decrevit ire he determined to go. addiicere induce assequi secure cSvere take care : ne censere recommend^ (cogere compel^) committere permit concedere allow^ consSquI secure : ne constitiiere determine contendere strive ciirare take care decernere determine (I) about : optare wish ■* pScisci engage: ne perficere bring about : ne permittere allow (I) perpellere force f Scere bring about : ne providere take care : ne efficere bring ne eniti strive exspectare await evincere carry a ne impellere urge indiicere induce instare press moliri endeavour (I) obtinere secure sancire enact : ne statuere resolve (I) : i temptare try tfinere secure : ne videre take care : ne 1 Also with Accusative and Gerundive ; in simple sense of thinking Infinitive and Accusative. * cogere usually takes Infinitive with Ac- cusative. ' But Infinitive with Accusative in sense of granting that something is the case. * vellfi wish rarely takes iit with Subjunctive. Parsing. § 456. By Parsing a word is meant describing it so as to show 1. What class of words it belongs to, 2. What word it comes from, 3. What part of that word it is, and (usually) 4. Why that part is used in a sentence. The different kinds of words may be Parsed by answering the questions which refer to each below. Parsing. 201 § 457- Declinable Words — Nouns and Substantival Pronouns. — I. Kind of Noun or Pronoun? 2. Gender? [Declension ? '] Nom. and Gen. Sing.? 3. Number ? Case ? 4. Account for Case by reference to the Syntax. Adjectives and Adjectival Pronouns. — I. Kind of Adjective or Pro- noun? 2. [Class of Adj.? 1] Nom. Sing, (all genders) ? (If the Adj. is in the Comparative or Superlative, state which and give Positive). 3. Gender ? Number ? Case ? 4. Agreeing with ? If Verbal Adjective, instead of 1, 2, state whether Gerundive or Participle ? If Participle, Tense ? Voice ? Mention the Verb it comes from, and give its Principal Parts. Finite Verbs. — i. Kind of Verb? 2. [Conjugation?^] Principal Parts ? 3. Person ? Number ? Tense ? Mood ? Voice ? 4. Agreeing with ? Account also for Mood and Tense if necessary. Infinitive. — I. Kind of Verb? 2. [Conjugation?'] Principal Parts ? 3. Tense ? Voice ? 4. Account for Construction. § 458. Indeclinable Words. — Adverb. ^-Yi^md.! Qualifying? (If in Comparative or Superlative, state which and give the Positive). Preposition. — State what it governs and in what case ? Conjunction. — Kind ? State what it connects ? Interjection. — State what, if anything, it governs, and in what case ? § 459. Illustrative Example. — Apud HypSnim iiuvium Aris- totfiles ait bestiolas quasdam nasci quae unum diem vivant Aristotle says that on the river Hypanis certain little creatures are born which only live one day. (Parsed with abbreviations.) apud, Prep., Governs Ace. Hypanim. HypSnim, Prop. Noun, Masc. (3rd Decl.), from Hypanis, -is. Sing. Ace, gov. by apud. fliivium, (Common) Noun, Masc. (2nd Decl. ), from fluvius, -I, Sing. Ace. in Appos. to Hypanim. AristotSles, Prop. Noun, Masc. (3rd Dec!.), Sing. Nom., Gen. Aristotelis, Subj. to ait. ait, Intrans. Verb, from am Defective, 3rd Sing. Pres. Ind. Act., agreeing with AristotSles. bestiolas, Noun, Fem. (ist Decl.), from bestiola -ae, Ace. PI., Sub- ject to Inf. nasci. quasdam, Indef. Adjectival Pron. from quidam, quaedam, quoddam, Fem. PI. Ace, agreeing with bestiolas. nasci, Intr. Deponent Verb fr. nascor natus sum, Pres. Inf. after ait, verb of saying. quae, Rel. Pron., fr. qui, quae, quod ; Fem. PI. agr. w. antecedent bestiolas, Nom. as Subj. to vivant. unum, Numeral Adj., fr. iinus, -a, -um, Masc. Sing. Ace, agr. w. diem. diem, Noun, Masc (sth Decl.), fr. dies -ei, Ace. Sing., Ace. of Extent of Time. vivant, Intr. Verb (3rd Conj.), fr. vivo, vixi, victum, vivere, 3rd PI. Pres. Subj. Act., agr. w. quae. Subj. of Dependent Statement. ' Sometimes omitted if the other particulars are given. The New Latin Primer. THE ROMAN CALENDAR. § 460. The Romans had the same months, and the same number of days in each as we have. But their reckoning was backward and inclusive, that is, they counted in the day reckoned from as well as the day reckoned to. Thus they reckoned the 29th of April as the third day before the 1st of May. The days from which they reckoned were called — Kaiendae (Kal.) / Calends, the 1st of the month. Nonae (Non.) f. Nones, usually the 5th. Idiis (Id.) / Ides, usunlly the 13th. But — In March, July, October, May, The Ides fell on the fifteenth day, and consequently the Nones on the 7th day of the month. The Nonae were so called because, in Roman reckoning, they were the ninth day before the Ides. The months were called — /anuarius, Februarius, Martius, Aprllius, Maz'us, /unius, Quinctjlis July,^ Sextilis August,'^ September, October, November, December : used either as Masc. Nouns, mensis month being understood, or as Adjectives agreeing with Kaiendae, etc. The Romans indicated the days of the months as follows : I. The days on which the Calends, Nones, and Ides fell, by the Ablatives Kalendis, N5nis, Idibus, and the name of the month agreeing with them, £is Nonis Martiis on the Nones of March, i.e., March 7. II. The days preceding the Calends, etc., by prefixing pridie the day before to the Accusatives K,alendas, etc., and the name of the month agreeing with them, as pridie Nonas Martias the day before the Nones of March, i.e., March 6. III. All other days by prefixing antS diem tertium, quartum, etc., to the Accusatives Kalendas, etc., and the name of the month agreeing with them, as under II. : ante diem tertium Nonas Martias the second day {third in inclusive reckoning) before the Nones of March, i.e., March 5. Abbreviations and Numerals were generally used in expressing the date, thus : a. d. Ill Non. Mart., March 5. prid. Kal. /an., December 31. a. d. VIII Id. Quinct.,/«/)/ 8. In leap year a day was inserted after February 24 (a. d. sextum Kal. Mart.), and called a. d. bis sextum Kal. Mart., whence leap year was called bissextilis. This day was not taken account of in reckoning the other days of the month. The Year. — The Romans named the year after the Consuls, as : — B.C. 44 Antonio Dolabella Cos. (consulibus). Later the supposed date of the founding of Rome, B.C. 753, was used to reckon from. Thus, " 78 A.D." may be expressed as A{nno) U(rbis) C(onditae) octingen- ^ Called /ulius after B.C. 45. ^ Called Augustus after B.C. 27. Roman Weights and Money. 203 tensimo triceusimo primo or A.n.c. Dcccxxxi., 253 B.c. as A.U.C. DI. •Note. — A year A.D. may be turned into the corresponding year A.U.C. by adding 753 to its number, a year B.C. by subtracting its number from 754. ROMAN WEIGHTS AND MONEY. § 461. The basis of the Roman system of weights was the libra or pound, and of the coinage the as or pound of copper. Each contained 12 unciae ounces or twelfths, and there were separate names for the different fractions of a pound as follows (arranged, with the exception of quincunx, in ascending order) : uncia, turn sextans, quincunx, quadransjf^^ triensf««, semis, septunx, bes, dodrans dextansy«« dSunxj«e. uncia -f^, sextans J or -j^, quadrans \ or .f^, triens \ or -^, quincunx ^, semis \ or -j\, septunx -j-'^, bes f or -j^, dodrans (forde-quadransa/tfa^-M off) } or -jSj, dextans (for de-sextans a sixth off) \ or -^, d^unx (lit. an uncia off) W. These words were not limited to the divisions of the pound or the as, but were used to express fractions generally. Thus heres ex tr'entS heir to a third (of the estate). Two asses and a half (semis), generally abbreviated IIS (HS), made a sestertius sesterce (also called nummus) ; and this was used in reckoning sums of money as follows : 1. Up to 2,000, Cardinal Numbers were used, as centum sestertii 100 sesterces. 2. Above 2,000 and up to a million, the Neuter Plural sestertia was used to give the thousands, as triginta quinque sestertia 35,000 sesterces. 3. For a million and above. Numeral Adverbs were used. Thus 4,000,000 sesterces is expressed by quadragiens centena milia sestertiura (or 40 times 100,000 sesterces), more shortly quadragiens sestertium, or, if the sense is clear, even quadragiens. If the sum was written in figures, thousands were denoted by a line over the figure, and hundreds of thousands by top and side lines. For example, 2,235,417 sesterces is IIS I XXn I XXX VCCCCXVII viciens ducenta triginta quinque milia quadringenti decem at septem numml. A sesterce was worth about 2d., and 1,000 sesterces may be reckoned as £% los. So the above sum is about ;^r9,ooo. For further information on the Roman Calendar, coins, weights, and measures, etc., see Roby, Lat. Gr., Vol. I., Appendix D ; or Gow's Companion to School Classics, § \ 86 — 97. §462. ABBREVIATIONS. I. Fraenomina. A. Aulus M. Marcus S. or Sex. Sextus C. Gaius' M. Manlius Ser. Servius Cn. Gnaeus^ Mam. Mgmercus Sp. Spurius D. Decimus N. ('yNuM. Niimgrius T. Titus K. Kaeso P. Piiblius Ti. TibSrius L. I.ucius Q. Quintus 1 Not Caius. ^ Not Cnaeus. 204 The New Latin Primer^ The praenomen was the first name of a Roman (answering to our Christian name) as distinguished from his second name, nomen, which showed his gens, and his third name, cognomen, which showed the branch ox family of the gens to which he belonged. II. Other Abbreviations. A. U. C. Ann5 urbis conditae Pro Pr. Pro praetSre ^ Cos. C5nsul, Consule or CSnsules, Pro Q. Pro quaestore ' Consulibus Q. Quaestor D. D. Dono dedit S. Salutem F. Fllius S. C. Senatus consultum HS. (better IIS.) Sestertius, -a S. D. Salutem dicit ^ Imp. ImpSrator S.P. D. Salutem plutimam dicit N. N^pos S. P. Q. R. Senatus Populusque N. L. Non liquet Romanus P.C. Patres conscript! S.V. B.E. E^V. Si vSles, b«neest, pR. Praetor or Praetores Sgo valeo Pro C. Pro consule ^ V. R. Uti rogas ' The compound words Proconsul, Propraetor, Proquaestor are not found in the best Latin. Addendum on the Supine in -u. — In its form, the Supine in -u may be either an Ablative or a contracted Dative (§ 277) ; and a form in -m is occasionally found, as potui eucundum pleasant for drinking [Dat. of the Use Served, § 141 (r)]. Compare also facilis concoctionl and facilis concoctii, both meaning easily digestible. But in most instances it is an Ablative ; so with dignus as dictu d^num worth telling, and with other Adjectives of the Thing Concerned (§ 151) as non tam re quam dictu mirabile not so wonderful in the fact as in the telling. Printed, bv Cassell & Company, Limited, La Beli.e Sauvage, London, E.C. Selections from Cassell ^ Company's PuhHcations. ailtotrafcir, JFine-^rt, antt 0tlr£r 3ffolum£B. 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