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By this we not only- mean that our descriptions apply to facts observed in that hospital, but also that our personal observations were made in accordance with the method inaugurated by M. Charcot, the chief of the school of the Salp^trifere, that is, in accordance with the experimental method which is illustrated by clinical science. While relying on the observation of spontaneous facts, we have strengthened these facts by experiments. It would at present be premature to write a didactic treatise on animal magnetism and hypnotism. This work only aims at giving an account of special researches which, notwithstanding their number and variety, will not justify general conclusions on the question. After receiving this warning, the reader will not be surprised VX PREFACE. to meet with occasional breaches of continuity, which are, however, more apparent than real, and which are due to our resolution not to speak of experiments which we have not verified for ourselves. Completeness is good, but it is stiU better to assert nothing of which we are not assured. B. AND F. CONTENTS. CBAPTBR PAGE I. Animal Magnetism in its Beginnings— Mesmee and PUYSEGUK... ... ... ... ... ... 1 II. HrsTOBY OP Animal Magnetism — the Academic Period 33 m. History op Animal Magnetism.— Bbaid : Hypnotism — Gkimes, Azam, Dueand de GrKOS, Demakqcay, and Gikacd-Teulon, Liebault, Ch. Bichet, Charcot, and P. ElCHEB ... ... ... ... ... 67 IV. The Modes op peoduoinq Hypnosis ... ... 88 V. Symptoms of Hypnosis ... ... ... ... 104 VI. The Hypnotic States ... ... ... ... 154 VII. Imperfect Forms of Hypnosis ... ... ... 164 Vin. General Stddy op Suggestion ... ... ... 171 IX. Hallucinations ... ... ... ... ... 211 X. Suggestions of Movements and op Acts ... ... 277 XI. Paralysis by Suggestion^: Anesthesia ... ... 304 XII. Paralysis by Suggestion: Motor Paealysis ... 323 XIII. The Application of Hypnotism to Therapeutics and Education ... ... ... ..• ••• 352 XIV. Hypnotism and Responsibility ... ... ... 361 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. CHAPTER I. ANIMAL MAGNETISM IN ITS BEGINNINGS — MESMER AND PUYSEGUE. We propose to discuss a question as old as the world itself; which about a century ago was admitted into the sphere of scientific discussion; which, although con- stantly rejected and disclaimed by learned bodies, has always reappeared, and is still in process of evolution, notwithstanding the importance of the results already achieved. In retracing the history of animal magnetism we shall endeavour to explain the causes of these vicissi- tudes of fortune, and to indicate what instruction may be derived from them. As we proceed with our subject, the truth will become more evident that it was owing to a lack of method that animal magnetism was not admitted at an earlier date to take its place in science. It concerns scholars to trace the course of animal magnetism through the ages, and to seek for its remote beginnings in the customs of ancient peoples. We refrain from such historic studies, for which we are incompetent, and propose merely to sum up the conclusions of science 2 ANIBIAL MAGNETISM. •with respect to animal magnetism, and consequently only to speak of its history so far as this history has left its traces on the present state of the question.* From this point of view, it is unnecessary to go back to an earlier period than that of Mesmer and of his immediate predecessora Mesmerism is connected with a tradition which had its origin towards the middle of the sixteenth century, a tradition which, as the name of animal magnetism implies, not invented by Mesmer, ascribed to man the power of exercising on his fellows an action analogous to that of the magnet. It seems to be established that a profound impression had been produced upon the human mind by the natural magnet and its physical pro- perties, the existence of two poles, endowed with opposite properties, and a remote action without direct contact. Even in ancient times it had been observed, or assumed, that the magnet possessed a curative power, and it had been employed as a remedy. This belief still subsisted in the middle ages.f In a work by Cardan, dated 1 584, J there is an account of an experiment in anaesthesia, produced by the magnet. It was then customary to magnetize rings which were worn round the neck or on the arm, in order to cure nervous diseases. The idea gradually dawned that there are magnetic properties in the human body. The first trace of this belief appears in the works of Paracelsus. This remarkable thinker maintained that * Many authors have written the history of animal magnetism : Dubois, Deohambre, Beisot, Figuier, etc. The only study of the subject entitled to be called eritical is that of Paul Eioher, in the Nouvelle Bemte August 1, 1882. + Eichet, Bulletin de la Societe de Biologie, May 30, 1884. X Cardan's Works, book vii., on Precious Stones. ANIMAL MAGNETISM IN ITS BEGINNINGS. 3 the human body was endowed with a double magnetism; that one portion attracted to itself the planets, and was nourished by them, whence came wisdom, thought, and the senses ; that the other portion attracted to itself the elements and disintegrated them, whence came flesh and blood; that the attractive and hidden virtue of man resembles that of amber and of the magnet ; that by this virtue the magnetic virtue of healthy persons attracts the enfeebled magnetism of those who are sick.* After Para- celsus, many learned men of the sixteenth and seven- teenth centuries — Glocenius, Burgrave, Helinotius, Robert Fludd, Kircher, and Maxwell — believed that in the magnet they could recognize the properties of that universal principle by which minds addicted to generali- sation thought that all natural phenomena might be explained. These men wrote voluminous books, filled with sterile discussions, with unproved assertions, and with contemptible arguments. Mesmer drew largely from these sources ; it cannot be disputed that he had read some of these many books, devoted by early authors to the study of magnetism, although such study was forbidden. Where he showed his originality was in taking hold of the so-called uni- versal principle of the world, and in applying it to the sick by means of contact and of passes. His predecessors do not appear to have been addicted to such practices ; they believed that in order to infuse the vital spirit, it was enough to make use of talismans and of magic boxes, (^ Anthony Mesmer was born in Germany, in 1734. He was received as doctor of medicine by the Faculty in • See Sprengel, Sistoire de la Medecine, vol. iii. pp. 230 et seq. ; and Figuier, Histoire du Merveilleux, vol. iii. chap. v. 4 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. Vienna, and took for the subject of his thesis, The Influence of the Planets in the Cure of Diseases (1766). He undertook to prove that the sun, moon, and heavenly bodies act upon living beings by means of a subtle fluid, which he called animal magnetism, in order to point out the properties which it has in common with the magnet. After the publication of this whimsical and mystical work, Mesmer made acquaintance with the Jesuit Father Hell, professor of astronomy, who in 1774 settled in Vienna, and cured the sick by means of magnetic steel tractors. Mesmer discovered some analogy between Hell's experiments and his own astronomical theories, and tried what effect the magnet would produce in the treatment of diseases. An account of his cures filled the Vienna newspapers. Several people of importance gave evidence that they had been cured, among whom was Osterwald, director of the Munich Academy of Science, who had been afiected by paralysis; and Bauer, a professor of mathematics, who had suffered from an obstinate attack of ophthalmia. On the other hand, the learned bodies of his native country did not accept his experiments, and the letters which he wrote to most of the academies of Europe remained unanswered. He soon abandoned the use of the magnet and of Hell's instruments, and restricted himself to passes with the hand, declaring animal mag- netism to be distinct from the magnet. Obliged to quit Vienna, in consequence of s(pme ad- venture not clearly explained,' Mesmer came to Paris. He first established himself in a humble quarter of the town. Place Vend6me, and began to expound his theory of the magnetic fluid. In 1779 he published a paper ANIMAL MAGNETISM IN ITS BEGINNINGS. 5 on the discovery cf magnetism, in which he announced to the world that he had discovered a principle capable of curing all diseases. He summed up his theory in twenty-seven propositions, or rather assertions, most of which only reproduce the cloudy conceptions of magnetic medicine. Propositions. 1. A responsive influence exists between the heavenly bodies, the earth, and animated bodies. 2. A fluid universally diffused, so continuous as not to admit of a vacuum, incomparably subtle, and naturally susceptible of receiving, propagating, and communicating all motor disturbances, is the means of this influence. 3. This reciprocal action is subject to mechanical laws, with which we are not as yet acquainted. 4. Alternative effects result from this action, which may be considered to be a flux and reflux. 5. This reflux is more or less general, more or less special, more or less compound, according to the nature of the causes which determine it. 6. It is by this action, the most universal which occurs in nature, that the exercise of active relations takes place between the heavenly bodies, the earth, and its constituent parts. 7. The properties of matter and of organic substance depend on this action. 8. The animal body experiences the alternative effects of this agent, and is directly affected by its in- sinuation into the substance of the nerves. 9. Properties are displayed, analogous to those of the magnet, particularly in the human body, in which diverse 6 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. and opposite poles are likewise to be distinguished, and these may be communicated, changed, destroyed, and reinforced. Even the phenomenon of declination may be observed. 10. This property of the human body which renders it susceptible of the influence of the heavenly bodies, and of the reciprocal action of those which environ it, manifests its analogy with the magnet, and this has decided me to adopt the term of animal magnetism. 11. The action and virtue of animal magnetism, thus characterized, may be communicated to other animate or inanimate bodies. Both these classes of bodies, however, vary in their susceptibility. 12. This action and virtue may be strengthened and diffused by such bodies. 13. Experiments show that there is a diffusion of matter, subtle enough to penetrate all bodies without any considerable loss of energy. 14. Its action takes place at a remote distance, with- out the aid of any intermediary substance. 15. It is, like light, increased and reflected by mirrors. 16. It is communicated, propagated, and increased by sound. 17. This magnetic virtue may be accumulated, concentrated, and transported. 18. I have said that animated bodies are not aU equally susceptible ; in a few instances they have such an opposite property that their presence is enough to destroy all the effects of magnetism upon other bodies. 19. This opposite virtue likewise penetrates all bodies: it also may be communicated, propagated. ANIMAL MAGNETISM IN ITS BEGINNINGS. 7 accumulated, concentrated, and transported, reflected by- mirrors, and propagated by sound. This does not merely constitute a negative, but a positive opposite virtue. 20. The magnet, whether natural or artificial, is like other bodies susceptible of animal magnetism, and even of the opposite virtue : in neither case does its action on fire and on the needle sufier any change, and this shows that the principle of animal magnetism essentially differs from that of mineral magnetism. 21. This system sheds new light upon the nature of fire and of light, as well as on the theory of attrac- tion, of flux and reflux, of the magnet and of electricity. 22. It teaches us that the magnet and artificial electricity have, with respect to diseases, properties common to a host of other agents presented to us by nature, and that if the use of these has been attended by some useful results, they are due to animal magnetism. 23. These facts show, in accordance with the practical rules I am about to establish, that this principle will cure nervous diseases directly, and other diseases indirectly. 24. By its aid the physician is enlightened as to the use of medicine, and may render its action more perfect, and he can provoke and direct salutary crises, so as completely to control them. 25. In communicating my method, I shall, by a new theory of matter, demonstrate the universal utility of the principle I seek to establish. 26. Possessed of this knowledge, the physician may judge with certainty of the origin, nature, and progress of diseases, however complicated they may be ; he may hinder their development and accomplish their cure without exposing the patient to dangerous and trouble- 8 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. some consequences, irrespective of age, temperament, and sex. Even women in a state of pregnancy, and during parturition, may reap the same advantage. 27. This doctrine will, finally, enable the physician to decide upon the health of every individual, and of the presence of the diseases to which he may be exposed. In this way the art of healing may be brought to absolute perfection. Mesmer's doctrines obtained success. In the outset he was fortunate enough to convert one of the leading physicians of the faculty of medicine, Deslon, the Comte d'Artois's first physician. Pupils and patients flowed in. The moment appeared to be favourable ; men's minds had been stirred by recent discoveries, and were open to any science which afforded a new horizon. Franklin had invented the lightning conductor, and the Montgolfier brothers were inventing balloons. Some scientific discoveries excite popular superstition by rendering the marvellous probable. All the world wished to ' be magnetized, and the crowd was so great that Mesmer employed a valet toucheur to magnetize in his place. This did not suffice ; he invented the famous baquet, or trough, round which more than thirty persons could be magnetized simultaneously. A circular, oaken case, about a foot high, was placed in the middle of a large hall, hung with thick curtains, through which only a soft and subdued light was allowed to penetrate; this was the baquet. At the bottom of the case, on a layer of powdered glass and iron filings, there lay full bottles, symmetrically arranged, so that the necks of all converged towards the centre; other bottles were arranged in the opposite ANIMAL MAGNETISM IN ITS BEGINNINGS. 9 direction, with their necks towards the circumference. All these objects were immersed in water, but this condition was not absolutely necessary, and the baquet might be dry. The lid was pierced with a certain number of holes, whence there issued jointed and mov- able iron branches, which were to be held by the patients. Absolute silence was maintained. The patients were ranged in several rows round the baquet, connected with each other by cords passed round their bodies, and by a second chain, formed by joining hands. As they waited a melodious air was heard, proceeding from a pianoforte, or harmonicon, placed in the adjoining room, and to this the human voice was sometimes added. Then, influenced by the magnetic effluvia issuing from the baquet, curious phenomena were produced. These are well described by an eye-witness named Bailly : " Some patients remain calm, and experience nothing ; others cough, spit, feel slight pain, a local or general heat, and fall into sweats ; others are agitated and tormented by convulsions. These convulsions are remarkable for their number, duration, and force, and have been known to persist for more than three hours. They are charac- terized by involuntary, jerking movements in all the limbs, and in the whole body, by contraction of the throat, by twitchings in the hypochondriac and epigastric regions, by dimness and rolling of the eyes, by piercing cries, tears, hiccough, and immoderate laughter. They are preceded or followed by a state of languor or dreaminess, by a species of depression, and even by stupor. "The slightest sudden noise causes the patient to start, and it has been observed that he is affected by a change of time or tune in the airs performed on the 10 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. pianoforte; that his agitation is increased by a more lively movement, and that his convulsions then become more violent. Patients are seen to be absorbed in the search for one another, rushing together, smiling, talking affectionately, and endeavouring to modify their crises. They are all so submissive to the magnetizer that even when they appear to be in a stupor, his voice, a glance, or sign will rouse them from- it. It is impossible not to admit, from all these results, that some great force acts upon and masters the patients, and that this force appears to reside in the magnetizer. This convulsive state is termed the crisis. It has been observed that many women and few men are subject to such crises; that they are only established after the lapse of two or three hours, and that when one is established, others soon and successively begin. "When the agitation exceeds certain limits, the patients are transported into a padded room ; the women's corsets are unlaced, and they may then strike their heads against the padded walls without doing themselves any injury." Mesmer, wearing a coat of lilac silk, walked up and down amid this palpitating crowd, together with Deslon and his associates, whom he chose for their youth and comeliness. Mesmer carried a long iron wand, with which he touched the bodies of the patients, and especi- ally those parts which were diseased ; often, laying aside the wand, he magnetized them with his eyes, fixing his gaze on theirs, or applying his hands to the hypochondriac region and to the lower part of the abdomen. This appli- cation was often continued for hours, and at other times the master made use of passes. He began by placing ANIMAL MAGNETISM IN ITS BEGINNINGS. 11 himself en rapport with his subject. Seated opposite to him, foot against foot, knee against knee, he laid his fingers on the hypochondriac region, and moved them to and fro, lightly touching the ribs. Magnetization with strong currents was substituted for these manipulations when more energetic results were to be produced. " The master, erecting his fingers in a pyramid, passed bis hands all over the patient's body, beginning with the head, and going down over the shoulders to the feet. He then returned again, to the head, both back and front, to the belly and the back; he renewed the pro- cess again and again, until the magnetized person was saturated with the healing fluid, and was transported with pain or pleasure, both sensations being equally salutary." * Young women were so much gratified by the crisis, that they begged to be thrown into it anew ; they followed Mesmer' through the hall, and confessed that it was impossible not to be warmly attached to the magnetizer's person. ^^ It must have been curious to witness such scenes. So far as we are now able to judge, Mesmer excited in his patients nervous crises in which we may trace the principal signs of the severe hysteric attacks which may be observed daily. i* Silence, darkness, and the emotional expectation of some extraordinary phenomenon, when several persons are collected in one place, are conditions known to encourage convulsive crises in predisposed subjects. It must be remembered that women were in tlie majority, that the first crisis which occurred was * Louis Figuier, Jlistoire du Merveilleux, vol. ii. p. 20. Paris, 1860. t See Bourreville and Eegnard, IconograpMe photographique de Id Salpetriere; Paul Eicher, Etudes cliniques aurl'Systero-epilepsia. 12 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. contagious, and we shall fully understand the hysterical character of these manifestations. We must again draw attention to some of the characteristics of these convulsive crises. The movements of all the limbs and of the whole body, the contraction of the throat, the twitchings of the hypochondriac and of the epigastric regions, are manifest signs of hysteria, and may be referred to the nervous antecedents of the elegant and frivolous crowd which was the subject of Mesmer's experiments. There is, however, still considerable un- certainty as to the nature of many of the phenomena which took place round the baquet. The desire to submit to Mesmer's treatment soon became more general. The house in Place Vend6me became too small, and Mesmer purchased the B[6tel Bullion, in which he established four haquets, one of them for the gratuitous use of the poor. Since the latter did not suffice, Mesmer undertook to magnetize a tree at the end of Rue Bondy, and thousands of sick people might be seen attaching themselves to it with cords, in hopes of a cure. But this rage for Mesmer's treatment could not last long, and difficulties of all kinds assailed him. On his arrival in Paris, he had requested the Academy of Science, and subsequently the Royal Society of Medicine, to institute an inquiry into his experiments ; they were unable to agree as to the conditions of this inquiry, and the meeting dissolved in anger. Deslon, a professor of the Faculty of Medicine, asked his colleagues to sum- mon a general meeting to examine his observations and Mesmer's propositions. This meeting, incited by M. de Vauzesmes, was extremely hostile to him. He was ANIMAL MAGNETISM IN ITS BEGINNINGS. 13 condemned without any examination of the facts, and, moreover, was threatened with the penalty of having his name removed from the list of licensed physicians unless he amended his ways. In consequence of this, Mesmer left France, although the government offered him a life-pension of 20,000 francs if he would remain. Mesmer's absence was short. He was soon recalled by his disciples, who were aware of their master's avarice, and opened a subscription of 10,000 louis, in order to induce him to give a course of lectures in which he was to reveal his discoveries. This course was, how- ever, the point of departure for dissensions between the master and his disciples. Since the latter had bought his secret, they thought themselves entitled to publish it in lectures to the public. Mesmer claimed the monopoly of his discovery. Moreover, in spite of his promises, he had never made a complete explanation, doubtless because he had nothing to tell. He had nothing definite to add to the twenty-seven propositions published in 1779. Several of Mesmer's disciples, who had paid a high price for his secret, accused him of having enunciated a theory which was merely a collection of obscure principles, and in fact they were justified in this asser- tion. One of Deslon's hearers said : " Those who know the secret are more doubtful than those who are ignorant of it." It was a period of disputes, dissensions, epigrams, invectives, vaudevilles, and songs. Finally the government intervened, and in 1784 a commission was nominated to inquire into magnetism. This commission consisted of members taken from the Faculty of Medicine, and from the Academy of Sciences. Bailly, the celebrated astronomer, was chosen as its 2 14 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. reporter, and it included other illustrious men, such as FranklLQ and Lavoisier. Another commission, composed of members of the Royal Society of Medicine, was charged to make a distinct report on the same subject; Laurent de Jussieu was included in this second com- mission. We find it interesting at the present day to read the reports of these commissions, since they contain a disquisition on an obscure matter, of which time has revealed part of the secret. The line of conduct pursued by the commissioners in their inquiry was irreproach- able. The question concerned the existence of a mag- netic fluid of the nature which Mesmer and Deslon claimed to have discovered. Deslon proposed to prove the existence of the fluid by the observation of the cures which he effected. But the commissioners rightly con- sidered that this method was too doubtful; they decided to observe in the first instance " the instantaneous eSects of the fluid on the animal body, while depriving these efiects of all the illusions which might be allied with them, and ascertaining that they could be due to no other cause than animal magnetism." The immediate efiects of magnetism, as they occurred at this period, were crises, and these were the special object of research. Some really magnetic efiects might be combined with them, but Mesmer and his disciples only ascribed curative virtue to the manifestation of these convulsive movements. Deslon asserted that it was only by means of these crises, which were produced and directed by the will of the magnetizer, that he was able to assist or excite the efforts of nature, and thus efiect a cure. We are now aware that these crises are real ANIMAL MAGNETISM IN ITS BEGINNINGS. 15 phenomena, of which the cause is generally admitted to be hysterical neurosis. Moreover, a considerable number of facts demonstrate that, under the influence of such crises, certain forms of paralysis, which have persisted for months, and even for years, may suddenly disappear. There was, therefore, a certain truth in the curative virtue of these convulsive phenonema. The commissioners placed themselves under treatment once a week, and experienced nothing, except from time to time, after the seance had been protracted for several hours, a slight nervous irritability or pain in the hollow of the abdomen, to which Deslon applied his hand. We can understand this negative experience since we are aware that such crises, as well as magnetism, can only be produced in a favourable soil. In the case of susceptible subjects, the commissioners observed an extreme difference between those who were treated in public and in private, and this can be still more readily explained by the well- known contagious effect of example in all hysterical manifestations. The commissioners were particularly struck with the fact that the crises did not occur unless the subjects were aware that they were being magnetized. For instance, in the experiments performed by Jumelin, they observed the following fact. A woman who appeared to be a very sensitive subject, was sensible of heat as soon as Jumelin's hand approached her body. Her eyes were bandaged, she was informed that she was being magnetized, and she experienced the same sensation, but when she was magnetized without being informed of it, she experienced nothing. Several other patients were likewise strongly affected when no operation was taking place, and experienced nothing when the operation was 16 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. going on. But the most curious experience of this kind was made in Deslon's presence, much to his confusion. According to the theory, when a tree was magnetized, every person who approached it was affected by its influence. The experiment was made at Passy when Franklin was present. Deslon magnetized one tree in an orchard, and a boy of twelve years old, very sensitive to magnetism, was brought towards it with his eyes bandaged. At the first, second, and third tree, he turned giddy; at the fourth, when he was still at a distance of twenty-four feet from the magnetized tree, the crisis occurred, his limbs became rigid, and it was necessary to carry him to an adjoining grass-plat before Deslon could recall him to consciousness. All that these experiments show is that the preconceived idea may produce the same magnetic efieets as purely physical means. This truth is well known to the performers, of experiments. It is now an established fact that a subject may be thrown into a magnetic sleep, simply by assuring him that this will' occur, and by the same process he may even be magnetized from a distance, if it is asserted that he will fall into somnambidism on a given day and hour, in any place which has been selected. The commissioners, ignorant of all these phenomena, which are now thoroughly established, thought that all which they had observed might be explained by three chief causes — imitation, imagination, and contact. This is the conclusion of their report : — " The commissioners have ascertained that the animal magnetic fluid is not perceptible by any of the senses ; that it has no action, either on themselves or on the patients subjected to it. They are convinced that AKIMAL MAGNETISM IN ITS BEGINNINGS. 17 pressure and contact effect changes which are rarely favourable to the animal system, and which injuriously affect the imagination. Finally, they have demonstrated by decisive experiments that imagination apart from magnetism, produces convulsions, and that magnetism without imagination produces nothing. They have come to the unanimous conclusion with respect to the existence and utility of magnetism, that there is nothing to prove the existence of the animal magnetic fluid; that this fluid, since it is non-existent, has no beneficial effect ; that the violent effects observed in patients under public treatment are due to contact, to the excitement of the imagination, and to the mechanical imitation which involuntarily impels us to repeat that which strikes our senses. At the same time, they are compelled to add, since it is an important observation, that the contact and repeated excitement of the imagination which produce the crises may become hurtful ; that the spectacle of these crises is likewise dangerous, on ac- count of the imitative faculty which is a law of nature; and consequently that all treatment in public in which magnetism is employed must in the end be productive of evil results. " (Signed) B. Franklin, Majault, Lb Roy, Sallin, Bailly, D'Aecet, De Boey, Guillotin, Lavoisier. "Palis, August 11,1784." The commissioners therefore merely regarded mag- netism as an effect of the imagination. Deslon appears to have come to the same conclusion, since he says, not unreasonably, " If the medicine of the imagination is the most efficient, why should we not make use of it ? " In 18 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. our day this would appear to be an insufficient explana- tion. We might as well say that hysteria is due to the imagination. ^ At the same time, the commissioners presented a secret report which expressed their final estimate of magnetism. It is the object of this curious document to point out the dangers of magnetism with respect to morality. We think it well to reproduce it in extenso. " The commissioners entrusted by the king with the examination of animal magnetism have drawn up a report to be presented to his Majesty which ought perhaps to be published. It seemed prudent to suppress an observation not adapted for general publication, but they did not conceal it from the king's minister. This minister has charged them to draw up a note designed only for the eyes of the king. " This important observation concerns morality. The commissioners have ascertained that the chief causes of the effects ascribed to animal magnetism are contact, imagination, and imitation. They have observed that the crisis occurs more frequently in women than in men. The first cause of this fact consists in the differ- ent organizations of the two sexes. Women have, as a rule, more mobile nerves; their imagination is more lively and more easily excited ; it is readily impressed and aroused. This great mobility of the nerves, since it gives a more exquisite delicacy to the senses, renders them more susceptible to the impressions of touch. In touching any given part, it may be said that they are touched all over the body, and the mobility of their nerves also inclines them more readily to imitation. It has been observed that women are like musical strings ANIMAL MAGNETISM IN ITS BEGINNINGS. 19 stretched in perfect unison ; when one is moved, all the others are instantly affected. Thus the commissioners have repeatedly observed that when the crisis occurs in one woman, it occurs almost at once in others also. " This organization explains why the crises in women are more frequent, more violent, and of longer duration than in men ; it is nearly always due to their sensitive nerves. Some crises are due to a hidden, but natural cause, to an emotional cause to which women are more or less susceptible, and which, by a remote influence, accumulates these emotions and raises them to their highest pitch, thus producing a convulsive state which may be confounded with the ordinary crises. This is due to the empire which nature has caused one sex to exert over the other, so as to arouse feelings of attachment and emotion. Women are always magnetized by men ; the established relations are doubtless those of a patient to the physician, but this physician is a man, and whatever the illness may be, it does not deprive us of our sex, it does not entirely withdraw us from the power of the other sex; illness may weaken impressions without destroying them. Moreover, most of the women who present themselves to be magnetized are not really ill ; many come out of idleness, or for amusement ; others, if not perfectly well, retain their freshness and their force, their senses are unimpaired and they have all the sensitiveness of youth ; their charms are such as to affect the physician, and their health is such as to make them liable to be affected by him, so that the danger is reciprocal. The long-continued proximity, the necessary contact, the communication of individual heat, the inter- chanf'e of looks, are ways and means by which it is well 20 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. known that nature ever effects tlie communication of the sensations and the affections. " The magnetizer generally keeps the patient's knees enclosed within his own, and consequently the knees and all the lower parts of the body are in close contact. The hand is applied to the hypochondriac region, and some- times to that of the ovarium, so that the touch is exerted at once on many parts, and these the most sensitive parts of the body. "The experimenter, after applying his left hand in this manner, passes his right hand behind the woman's body, and they incline towards each other so as to favour this twofold contact. This causes the closest proximity ; the two faces almost touch, the breath is intermingled, all physical impressions are felt in common, and the re- ciprocal attraction of the sexes must consequently be ex- cited in all its force. It is not surprising that the senses are inflamed. The action of the imagination at the same time produces a certain disorder throughout the machine ; it obscures the judgment, distracts the attention; the women in question are unable to take account of their sensations, and are not aware of their condition. "The medical members of the commission were present to watch the treatment, and carefully observed what passed. When this kind of crisis is approaching, the countenance becomes gradually inflamed, the eye brightens, and this is the sign of natural desire. The woman droops her head, lifts her hand to her forehead and eyes in order to cover them ; her habitual modesty is unconsciously aroused, and inspires the desire of concealment. The crisis continues, however, and the eye is obscured, an unequivocal sign of the complete disorder of the senses. ANIMAL MAGNETISM IN ITS BEGINNINGS. 21 This disorder may be WitoUy unperceived by the woman who experiences it, but it cannot escape the observant eye of the physician. As soon as this sign has been displayed, the eyelids become moist, the respiration is short and interrupted, the chest heaves rapidly, con- vulsions set in, and either the limbs or the whole body is agitated by sudden movements. In lively and sensitive women this last stage, which terminates the sweetest emotion, is often a convulsion ; to this condition there succeed languor, prostration, and a sort of slumber of the senses, which is a repose necessary after strong agitation. " This convulsive state, however e^ctraordinary it may appear to the observers, is shown to have nothing painful or contrary to nature in it, from the fact that, as soon as it is. over, it leaves no unpleasant traces in its subjects. There is nothing disagreeable in the recollection, but, on the contrary, the subjects feel the better for it, and have no repugnance to enter anew into the same state. Since the emotions they experience are the germs of the affec- tions and inclinations, we can understand why the magnetizer inspires such attachment, an attachment likely to be stronger and more marked in women than in men, so long as men are entrusted with the task of magnetism. Undoubtedly many women have not ex- perienced these effects, and others have not understood the cause of the effects they experienced; the more modest they are, the less they would be likely to suspect it. But it is said that several have perceived the truth, and have withdrawn from the magnetic treatment, and those who have not perceived it ought to be deterred from its pursuit. 22 AHIMAL MAGNETISM. "The magnetic treatment must necessarily be danger- ous to morality. While proposing to cure diseases which require prolonged treatment, pleasing and precious emo- tions are excited, emotions to which we look back with regi-et and seek to revive, since they possess a natural charm for us, and contribute to our physical happiness. But morally they must be condemned, and they are the more dangerous as it becomes more easy for them to become habitual. A condition into which a woman enters in public, amid other women who apparently have the same experience, does not seem to offer any danger ; she continues in it, she returns to it, and discovers her peril when it is too late. Strong women flee from this danger when they find themselves exposed to it; the morals and health of the weak may be impaired. " Of this danger M. Deslon is aware. On the 9th of last May, at a meeting held at M. Deslon's own house, the lieutenant of police asked him several questions on this point in the presence of the commissioners. M. Lenoir said to him, ' In my capacity as lieutenant-general of police, I wish to know whether, when a woman is mag- netized and passing through the crisis, it would not be easy to outrage her.' M. Deslon replied in the affirmative, and it is only just to this physician to state that he has always maintained that he and his colleagues, pledged by their position to act with probity, were alone entitled and privileged to practise magnetism. It must be added that although his house contains a private room origin- ally intended for these crises, he does not allow it to be used. The danger exists, however, notwithstanding this observance of decency, since the physician can, if he will, take advantage of his patient. Such occasions may occur ANIMAL MAGNETISM IN ITS BEGINNINGS. 23 daily and at any moment; he is sometimes exposed to the danger for two or three hours at a time, and no one can rely on being always master of his will. Even if we ascribe to him superhuman virtue, since he is exposed to emotions which awaken such desires, the imperious law of nature will affect his patient, and he is responsible, not merely for his own wrong-doing, but for that he may have excited in another. "There is another mode of producing convulsions, a mode of which the commissioners have obtained no direct and positive proof, but which they cannot but suspect ; namely, a simulated crisis, which is a signal for, or produces many others, out of imitation. This expedient is, at any rate, needed to hasten or maintain the crises which are an advantage to magnetism, since without them it could not be .carried on. " There are no real cures, and the treatment is tedious and unprofitable. There are patients who have been under treatment for eighteen months or two years with- out deriving any benefit from it ; at length their patience is exhausted, and they cease to come. The crises serve as a spectacle; they are an occupation and interest, and, moreover, they are to the unobservant the result of mag- netism, a proof of the existence of that agent, although they are really due to the power of the imagination. "When the commissioners began their report, they only stated the result of their examination of the mag- netism practised by M. Deslon, to which the order of the king had restricted them, butat is evident that their experiments, observations, and opinions apply to mag- netism in general. M. Mesmer will certainly declare that the commissioners have not examined his method, 24 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. proceedings, and the effects they have produced. The commissioners are undoubtedly too cautious to pro- nounce on that which they have not examined, and with which they are not acquainted, yet they must observe that M. Deslon's principles are those of the twenty-seven propositions printed by M. Mesmer in 1779. " If M. Mesmer has enlarged his theory, it thereby becomes more absurd: the heavenly influences are only a chimsera, of which the fallacy has long been recognized. The whole theory may be condemned beforehand, since it is based upon magnetism ; and it has no reality, since the animal magnetic fluid has no existence. Like magnetism, this brilliant theory exists only in the imagination. M. Deslon's mode of magnetizing is the same as that of M. Mesmer, of whom he is the disciple. When we place them together, we see that they have treated the same patients, and, consequently, have pursued the same process : the method now in use by M. Dsslon is that of M. Mesmer. "The results also correspond; the crises are as violent and frequent, and the same symptoms are displayed under, the treatment of M. Deslon and of M. Mesmer. Although the latter may ascribe an obscure and inappreciable dif- ference to his method, the principles, practice, and results are the same. Even if there were any real difference, no benefit from such treatment can be inferred, after the details given in our report and in this note, intended for the king. " Public report declares that M. Mesmer's cures are not more numerous than those of M. Deslon. There is nothing to prevent the convulsions in this case also from becoming habitual, from producing an epidemic, and from being ANIMAL MAGNETISM IN ITS BEGINNINGS. 25 transmitted to future generations : such practices and assemblies may also have an injurious effect upon morality. "The commissioners' experiments, showing that all these results are due to contact, to imagination and imitation, while explaining the effects produced by M. Deslon, equally explain those of M. Mesmer. It may, therefore, reasonably be concluded that, whatever be the mystery of M. Mesmer's magnetism, it has no more real existence than that of M. Deslon, and that the proceed- ings of the one are not more useful nor less dangerous than those of the other. "(Signed) Franklin, Boey, Lavoisier, Bailly, Majault, Sallin, D'Aecet, Guil- LOTiN, Le Roy. "Paris, August 11, 1784." The Royal Society of Medicine presented their report five days later, and came to the same conclusions. But one member of the commission, Laurent de Jussieu, dissented from his colleagues, and, with scientific courage, published a separate report, containing his convictions on the subject. De Jussieu had performed some experiments which could not, as he thought, be explained by the imagination. These facts demonstrated, in his opinion, that man pro- duced a sensible action upon his fellow by friction, by contact, and, more rarely, by simple proximity. This action, ascribed to an universal fluid not yet demon- strated, was, he said, certainly due to animal heat, which he elsewhere terms animalized electric fluid. With respect to the theory of animal magnetism, he did not reject it as absolutely as Bailly, who said, "Everything is done by 26 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. the imagination; magnetism has nothing to do with it. He was content with saying, much more wisely, that the theory of magnetism could only be accepted when it was developed and supported by substantial proofs. In short, as Dechambre remarks, the idea pervades this report that Mesmer is on the track of a fruitful truth. This presentiment of the illustrious naturalist was soon to be confirmed ; and, moreover, it is worth while to consider some of tha assertions in de Jussieu's paper, since they contain an element of truth. The efficacy of the action of contact and friction is proved by the existence in certain subjects of hypnogenic zones, of which the slightest stimulation produces som- nambulism. M. Charcot has shown that the irritation of hysterogenic zones produces convulsions, and these zones are generally seated in the hypochondriac, or in the ovarian regions, on which Mesmer preferred to exercise his manipulations. After Bailly's report, Mesmer left France, and returned to Germany. His part was played out, and we shall not recur to it. His friends have represented him as a man desirous of fame, but at the same time full of love for suffering humanity. Public opinion, more severe in its judgment, regards him as the type of the scientific charlatan. Up to this time, animal magnetism had not been dis- covered ; it probably had something to do with most of the mesmeric phenomena, with the haquet, etc.; but it was not recognized amid the nervous crises excited by Mesmer. It is to one of his disciples, to the Marquis Armand Jacques Marc Chastenet de Puys^gur, that the discovery must be ascribed of animal magnetism, or of artificial som- ANIMAL MAGNETISM IN ITS BEGINNINGS. 27 nambulism, which ought, therefore, to bear the name of Puysegurian somnambulism.* In May, 1784, M. de Puys^gur, living in retirement on his estate of Buzancy, near Soissons, employed his leisure in magnetizing peasants, after the manner of his master, and on one occasion he chanced to observe the production of an entirely new phenomenon.! A young peasant named Victor, twenty-three years of age, who had been suffering for four days from inflammation of the lungs, was thrown by magnetism into a peaceful sleep, unaccompanied by convulsions or suffering. He spoke aloud, and was busied about his private affairs. It was easy to change the direction of his thoughts, to in- spire him with cheerful sentiments, and he then became happy, and imagined that he was firing at a mark or dancing at a village fete. In his waking state he was simple and foolish, but during the crisis his intelligence was remarkable ; there was no need of speaking to him, since he could understand and reply to the thoughts of those present. He himself indicated the treatment necessary in his illness, and he was soon cured. This is a brief account of the peasant Victor's case. The news of his cure was rapidly spread abroad, and from all sides there was a concourse of sick people demanding relief The phenomenon was repeated, to de * The following are the works of Puysegur : — Mgmoirea pour servir a VBisioire du Magngtisme animal, 1784 ; Suite aux Memoires, 180.5 ; Du Magngtisme animal, etc., 1807 ; lieclierches, Experiences et Observations physiologiques sur I'Tiomme, dans I Mat de eomnambulisme vaturel, et dans le somnambulisme provoqugparl'acle magiKftique, 1811; etc. t Puyse'gur asserts that Mesmer must have been acquainted ■witli somnambulism, but tliat he did not choose to mention his discovery to liis disciples. 28 - ANIMAL MAGNETISM. Puysegur's great joy, and he wrote : " My head is turned with joy, now that I see what good I am doing." Since he was unable to minister to the continually increasing number of patients, the marquis pursued Mesmer's plan of magnetizing an elm which grevr on the village green at Buzancy. The patients were seated on stone benches round this tree, with cords connecting its branches with the affected parts of their bodies, and they formed a chain by linking their thumbs together. Meanwhile de Puys^gur chose from among his patients several subjects who, through contact with his hands or on the presenta- tion of a metallic tractor, fell into the ordinary crisis, and this soon passed into a sleep in which all physical faculties appeared to be suspended, while the mental faculties were enlarged. Cloquet, an eye-witness,* has given us some valuable information on the subject. He says that the patient's eyes were closed, and there was no sense of hearing, unless it was awakened by the master's voice. Care was taken not to touch the patient during his crisis, nor even the chair on which he was seated, as this would produce suffering and convulsions, which could only be subdued by the master. To rouse them from the trance, the master touched the patient's eyes, or said, " Go and embrace the tree." Then they arose, still asleep, went straight to the tree, and soon afterwards opened their eyes. As soon as they returned to a normal condition, the patients retained no recollection of what had occurred during the three or four hours' crisis. But it was the cure of diseases at which de Puysdo-ur • D^aih des cures opfi-gde a Buzancy, prcs Suissons par le magnAisme animal. Soiseons: 1781. ANIMAL MAGNETISM IN ITS BEGINNINGS. 29 aimed : therapeutics were his object, as it had been that of Mesmer. He observed, or thought that he observed, that during the crisis, the patients possessed a supernatural power which entitled them to be called physicians ; it was, in fact, enough for them to touch through his clothes the sick person presented to them, in order to feel the part affected, and to indicate fitting remedies. Since they were solely occupied with this question, de Puys^gur and the other magnetizers who followed his example in Lyons, Bordeaux, Bayonne, Marseilles, etc., did not study the natural history of this artificial sleep. De Puys^gur, like Mesmer, was a healer. But in the case of de Puyse- gur's treatment we agree with Dechambre that if his faith was robust, so likewise was his honesty. There was no public exhibition, nothing was done to strike the imagination; there was no selection of subjects from among silly or melancholic women. His patients of both sexes were of the peasant class, and were often suffering from severe and obstinate diseases. De Puys^gur's honesty and disinterestedness contrast well with Mesmer's avarice. As far as de Puysegur's theoretic views are concerned, they are slight modifications of those of Mesmer. As little versed in physical science as his master, he always maintains the existence of an universal fiuid, of which he recognizes the electric nature ; this fluid saturates all bodies, and especially the human body, which has a perfect electric organization, and is an animated electric machine. Man can display this electric fluid at pleasure, and diffuse it externally by his movements, in order to produce somnambulism. It is curious that de Puysegur should have strongly condemned the use of magnets in the treatment of disease, and of all electricity foreign 30 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. to our organism. This dogma has been falsified, and, as we are aware, electro^therapeutics has come into use. In this way de Puysegur modified the tradition he had received from Mesmer, and simple contact or spoken orders were substituted for the use of the baquet. There were no more violent crises, accompanied by cries, sobs, and the contortions of an attack of hysteria ; instead of these, there was a calm, peaceful, healthy, and composed slumber. This was not a transformed phase of mag- netism, but the actual discovery of this state, of which the honour is due to de Puysegur. It is easy to disentangle the portion of truth which exists in the descriptions of the magnetic sleep left by de Puysdgur, He has carefully observed the obedience of the magnetized subjects to the magnetizer's orders, who directs their thoughts and acts at his pleasure. We shall presently study this symptom under the name of suggestion. He has also observed the patient's uncon- sciousness, and that he retains no recollection of what has occurred during sleep. We shall see that this uncon- sciousness is a frequent and almost constant phenomenon during profound hypnotism. Finally, the descriptions show the singular affinity which seems to exist between the magnetizer and his subject; a phenomenon which is shown in some curious ways : the magnetizer alone must touch the sleeping subject, for fear of producing suffering and even convulsions. AH this is accurate, established by science, and now admitted by every one. But it is not yet admitted that the subject is able to divine the thoughts of the magnetizer without any material communication, nor that the patient is acquainted with the nature of his disease, and can indicate effectual ANIMAL MAGNETISM IN ITS BEGINNINGS. 31 remedies and foresee future events. De Puys^gur tried to give this faculty an air of probability by naming it pressentation. Mesmer's theory had been condemned by the judg- ment of scientific bodies, and this judgment was not reversed by de Puys^gur's experiments, in which there was too much of the supernatural. Professional magne- tizers adopted his experiments as the theme of their discourses. We can also understand the favour with which his assertion of the clairvoyance of somnam- bulists was received, since this was a new form of the gift of divination which had always obtained credence. Numerous magnetic societies were formed in different parts of France, especially, as Thouret states, in those towns which possessed no university, and which were therefore less under control. The Harmonic Society, however, founded at Strasburg, consisted of more than one hundred and fifty members. We must mention in passing Pete tin's experiments in catalepsy, since he had the good fortune to be the first, or one of the first, to observe the phenomena of the transposition of the senses. Petetin was a Lyons physician, President of the Medical Societj'^ in that city, and opposed to the new theories of magnetism. He observed and exhibited to his colleagues a cataleptic woman who saw, heard, felt, smelled, and tasted by means of the epigastric region and of the finger-tips. This occurred in 1787. After P^t^tin's death a paper by him appeared, containing seven observations of the same kind. He ascribed these strange p^ienomena to the accumulation of the animal electric fluid in certain parts of the body. The magnetizers seized upon this fact, 32 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. aud we shall see that for some time to come the question of the transposition of the senses was predominant. Up to the year 1820, we find no work to quote, except that of the naturalist Deleuze, on the history of magnetism. His book is entitled Histoire critique du Magnetisme animal (1813); it is a crude work, which has been estimated much above its real value, and while it displays the honesty and sincerity of its author, it adds nothing to the sum of our knowledge on the subject. Deleuze, like his predecessors, was chiefly concerned with the curative virtues of magnetism; and in order to prove their reality, he found no better expedient than to advise the incredulous to make use of it in various diseases. He said, moreover, that faith was essential to success, thus dispensing with any legitimate demonstration. Magnetism was held to be applicable to all diseases, and constituted, as in the days of de Puysegur and of Mesmer, an universal panacea. At about the same period, in 1813, a thaumaturgist named Faria, who came from the Indies, gave public representa- tions, for money, of the wonders which could be effected by means of magnetism. The process by which he induced sleep was curious. He seated the subject in an armchair, with closed eyes, and then cried out in a loud and imperious voice, " Go to sleep ! " After a slight movement, the subject sometimes fell into a condition which Faria termed a lucid slumber. This charlatan had rightly observed that the cause of somnambulism rests in the subject himself. He truly said that sleep mi^ht be induced at the will of the subject, or when such will was absent, or even when it was exerted in the contrary sense. ^ ( S3 ) CHAPTER II. HISTORY OF ANIMAL MAGNETISM — THE ACADEMIC PEEIOD. In 1820 it might have been supposed that animal magnetism was about to enter upon a scientific era. Dr. Bertrand, a former pupil of the Polytechnic School, had just brought the subject before the public in a course of lectures. General Noizet, about the same time, drew up a paper for the Royal Academy of Berlin on somnam- bulism and animal magnetism. Experiments were per- formed in the hospitals, directed at the H6tel-Dieu by Du Potet, pupil of Husson, and at the Salp^trifere by Georget and Rostan. The experiments made on hysterical patients were not such as to modify the scepticism of the scientific world, and it was thought probable that the experimenters had been deceived by their patients. Indeed P^tronille, one of Georget's well-known somnam- bulists, afterwards' confessed that she had imposed on the observers. But Richer justly observes that such confidences are the common boasts of hysterical patients, and that those who believe them incur ihe same reproach of credulity as their opponents are charged with. The general council of the hospitals put an end to these operations, on the ground that the patients should 34 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. not be subjected to such experiment, but on all sides the need of some definite proof was felt. In 1825 Foissac induced the Academy of Medicine, which had succeeded to the Royal Society of Medicine, to take part in the controversy. He drew up a paper, in which he undertook to show that simple contact enabled his somnambulists to diagnose their diseases, with an intuition worthy of the genius of Hippocrates. Although such language did not seem to be adapted to convince the Academy, its members nominated a com- mission charged to decide whether it was expedient to undertake a fresh examination into the question of animal magnetism. The report presented by Husson was in favour of such an examination, and the Academy, by a majority of thirty-five votes against twenty-five, nominated a commission of inquiry, consisting of Bourdois, Double, Fouquier, Itard, Gu^neau de Mussy, Guersant, Leroux, Magendie, Marc, Thillaye, and Husson. Magendie and Double, finding that the experiments were not very carefully performed, took no part in the labours of the commission. At the end of five years' patient research, in June, 1831, Husson presented a report in which the exist- ence of animal magnetism was affirmed. "The results are negative or insufficient in the majority of cases," the report declares; "in others they are produced by weariness, monotony, or by the imagination. It appears, however, that some results depend solely on magnetism, and cannot be produced without it. These are physio- logical phenomena, and well established therapeutically." The importance of this work decides us to reproduce its principal conclusions in extenso. "The contact of the thumbs and hands, friction, or HISTOEY OF ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 35 the employment of certain gestures within a short distance of the body, which are called passes, are the means employed to place the patient en rappo'ii, or, in other words, to transmit the action of the magnetizer to his subject. "The time necessary for transmitting and effecting this magnetic action varies from half an hour to one minute. "When once a person has been thrown into the magnetic sleep, it is not always necessary to have recourse to contact and passes in order to magnetize him afresh. A glance from the magnetizer, or his will alone, may have the same influence. " The effects produced by magnetism are extremely varied ; it agitates some people and calms others ; it generally causes a momentary quickening of the respira- tion and of the circulation ; this is followed by fibrillary, convulsive movements like those produced by electric shocks ; by a more or less profound torpor ; by stupor and somnolence; and, in a few instances, by what masnetizers term somnambulism. " The perceptions and faculties of individuals who are thrown by magnetism into a state of somnambulism are modified in various ways. " Some, amid the noise of general conversation, only hear the voice of their magnetizer ; many make a direct reply to the questions which he or the persons with whom they are placed en rapport address to them ; others converse with all those who surround them; in few instances are they aware of what is passing. They are generally completely unconscious of any sudden external noise made close to their ears, such as the 36 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. striking of copper vessels, the fall of a piece of furni- ture, etc. " The eyes are closed, and the lids yield with difficulty to any eifort made with the hand to open them. This operation causes pain, and the pupil of the eye is then seen to be contracted and turned upwards, or sometimes towards the base of the orbit. " Sometimes the sense of smell is altogether absent, and they may be made to breathe nitric acid or am- monia without being incommoded, or even without their becoming aware of it. But this is not always the case, and some subjects retain the sense of smell. " Most of the somnambulists whom we have observed were completely insensible. The feet might be tickled, the nostrils and the corner of the eyelid might be touched with a feather, the skin might be pinched until it was discoloured, pins might suddenly be driven to some depth under the nails, and the subjects would betray no sign of pain, nor even a consciousness of the fact. Finally, a somnambulist has been rendered insensible to one of the most painful surgical operations, and neither the counte- nance, the pulse, nor the respiration betrayed the slightest emotion. "We have only observed one individual who was thrown into the state of somnambulism when magnetized for the first time. Sometimes somnambulism only occurs after the eighth or tenth sSance. "We have constantly observed that natural sleep, which is the repose of the organs of the senses, of the intellectual faculties, and of voluntary movements, precedes and terminates the state of somnambulism. "The magnetized subjects whom we have observed HISTORY OF ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 37 under somnambulism retain the faculties of the wakino- state. The memory even appears to be more retentive and of wider range, since they recollect all that occurred on each previous occasion when they were under som- nambulism. "We have observed two somnambulists who were able, with closed eyes, to distinguish the objects placed before them ; who could declare, without touching them ; the suit and value of playing cards; who could read words traced with the hand, or some lines from a book opened at random. This phenomenon has even occurred when the fingers are firmly pressed upon the closed eyelids.* ^ * "On January 12 there wa3 a meeting of the oommisBion at the house of M. Foissao. This physician announced that he should put Paul to sleep ; that when he was in this state of somnambulism, a fiuger would be applied to each closed eyelid, and that in spite of this he would distinguish the colour of cards, he would read the title of a book, or some words or lines indicated at random in the book itself. After the magnetic passes had been made for two minutes, Paul was thrown into sleep. The eyelids were kept constantly closed, in turn by Fouquier, Itard, Marc, and the reporter, and a new pack of cards was presented to him, from which the royal stamp was freshly removed. When these were shuffled together, Paul named them successively without effort : the king of spades, the ace of clubs, the queen of spades, the nine of clubs, the seven, the queen, and the eight of diamonds. " When the eyelids were kept closed by Segalas, a volume with which the reporter was provided was presented to him. He read from the title- page, Histoire de France, was unable to read the.two intermediate lines, and could read only the name of Anquetil on the fifth line, where it is preceded by the preposition par. The book was then opened at page 88, and he read tlie first line : ' le nomhre de ses . . .' He missed the word troupes, and went on, 'Au moment ou on le croyait le plus occupy del plainin du carnaval.' He likewise read the running title Louis, but was unable to read the Eoman figures which followed it. A paper was presented him on which were written the words agglutination and magnAisme animal. He spelled the first word, and pronounced the two others. Finally, the report of this sdiince was presented to him ; he read the date 3 38 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. "In two somnambulists we observed the power of foreseeing the more or less remote or complicated acts of the organism. One of them announced, several days, ^ and even months, in advance, the day, hour, and minute on which an epileptic attack would occur ; the other indicated the epoch of his cure. Their previsions were verified with remarkable accuracy. These appear only to apply to the acts and lesions of their own organisms. " We only observed one somnambulist who indicated the symptoms of the diseases of three persons with whom he was placed en rapport, although we inquired into a considerable number of cases.* with some distinctness, and some of the words which were more legibly written than the rest. In all these experiments tlie fingers were applied to the whole surface of each eye, by pressing the upper on the lower lid from above in a downward direction, and we observed that there was a constant rotatory movement of the eyeball, as if it were directed towards the object presented to the vision." — Text of the Report. * " M. Marc, a member of the commission, consented to undergo ex- amination by a somnambulist, and Mile. Celine was requested to consider attentively the state of our colleague's health. She applied her hand to his forehead and to the region of the heart, and at the end of three minutes she said that there was a determination of blood to the head, and that on its left side M. Marc was now suffering from pain; that he was often oppressed, especially after eating ; that he was subject to a hacking cough; that the lower part of the chest was congested with blood; that there was obstruction to the passage of food; that there was a contraction in the region of the ensiform appendix ; and that in order to effect a cure, M. Marc should be frequently bled, that hemlock plasters should be applied, that he should be rubbed with laudanum on the lower part of the chest. that he should drink lemonade prepared with gum Arabic, that he should cat little and often, and not go out walking immediately after meals. " We were anxious to hear whether M. Marc's experience agreed with the somnambulist's assertions. He said that he really suffered from oppression after eating, that he was subject to a cough, and had pain on the right side of the head, but that he was not conscious of any uneasiness in the digestive canal. " We were struck by the analogy between M. Marc's sensations and the HISTORY OF ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 39 "Some of the magnetized patients experienced no benefit. Others derived more or less relief from the treatment ; in one case habitual suffering was suspended, in another strength returned, in a third epileptic attacks ' "were averted for several months, and in a fourth serious paralysis of long standing was completely cured. " Considered as the agent of physiological phenomena, or as a therapeutic expedient, magnetism must take its place in the scheme of medical science, and consequently it should be practised or superintended by physicians only, which is the rule in northern countries. "The commission has had no opportunity of verifying the other faculties which are said by magnetizers to be possessed by somnambulists. But the facts collected and now set down, are of sufficient importance to justify the belief that the Academy ought to encourage researches into magnetism, since it is an interesting branch of psychology and of natural history. " (Signed) Bourdois de la Motte, Foitquier, Gu]6neait de Mussy, Gueesant, Itaed, J. Leroux, Marc, Thil- LAYE, HussoN (reporter)." Such was the celebrated report, of which the mag- netizers made so much that the Academy did not venture to print it. It must be admitted that the commissioners did not pursue in their researches a rigorously scientific method. Since they were chiefly desirous to prove the existence assertions of the somnambulist : we noted it carefully, and await a future opportunity of confirming the existence of this singular faculty." — Text of Beport. 40 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. or non-existence of animal magnetism, they applied themselves almost exclusively to the study of extra- ordinary facts. They thought that if the results of a given experiment exceeded the limits of the possible, animal magnetism would thereby be proved. In this way the question was wrongly stated, since it was possible that magnetism might be at once a natural fact, and a fact which agreed with known physio- logical laws. The commissioners did not understand this elementary truth. Impelled by curiosity with re- spect to the marvellous and the supernatural, they directed their attention to those phenomena which were the most disputed and the most open to dispute, such as the transposition of the senses, the power of reading with bandaged eyes or vision by means of the internal organs, by the epigastrium or the occiput, together with the diagnosis of diseases and an acquaint- ance with their remedies. It appears that on all these points the conduct of the inquiry was unsatisfactory, and that the commissioners neglected to take any sufficient precautions. Some of the experiments were really futile. The report states that a somnambulist named Petit, whose eyes were so firmly closed that the eyelashes were interlaced, and who was constantly watched by commissioners who "held the light," was able to read what was presented to him, and played several games of piquet with great spirit. It does not appear that any precautions were taken to prevent this individual from reading through his eyelashes. The commissioners were content to watch his eyes, and it did not occur to them that there is nothing more easy than to read with the eyes apparently closed- HISTOEY OP ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 41 At another seance, Paul, a young law-student, over whose eyes a commissioner placed his hand, displayed a marvellous clairvoyance; he divined the cards in a pack and could read almost fluently. The reporter ohserved, however, that the eyeball was constantly rolling, and appeared to be directed towards the object presented to the vision. When we add that the young man read slowly, before a large circle, and that he made mistakes, we shall agree with S^galas, a member of the Academy, who had himself on one occasion kept the eyes of the subject closed, that it was probably possible to move the eyelids, to catch a glimpse of some of the words, and to guess the rest. At any rate, more careful experiments were needed before admitting that it is possible to see and read with closed eyes. We do not speak of internal vision, of the prevision of crises, and the instinctive knowledge of remedies, since the experi- ments were all of the same stamp. Together with these unsatisfactory statements, we- find some good descriptions of somnambulism. The commissioners observed that when the subjects were put to sleep they presented "an acceleration of the pulse and of the breathing, fibrillary movements like those produced by electric shocks, stupor, and somno- lence. . . . The subject sometimes made a direct replj'^ to the question addressed to him, but in general he was quite unconscious of any sudden noise made at his ear. . . . The eyes were closed, and on raising the eyelid, the pupil was seen to be contracted and turned upwards. . . . The surface of the body was generally insensible to pain; . . . the skin might be pinched until it was discoloured, pins might be driven 42 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. under the nails witliout disturbing the subject's im- passibility." All this description is excellent: it is unfortunate that the commissioners, who observed the natural phenomenon with such accuracy, were unable to detach it from the phantasmagoria by which it was surrounded. Finally, the commissioners were mistaken in two points. First, in confounding the question of animal magnetism with the extraordinary and supernatural phenomena described by the magnetizers ; secondly, in not bringing to a study of these phenomena, which required the utmost caution, the rigorous care which we have a right to demand from an academical commission. The Academy, which did not include among its members many partisans of magnetism, was somewhat astonished by Husson's report. It was read in the meetings held on the 21st and 28th of June, 1831. But there was no public debate, nor was the question put to the vote. The report was not even printed, only committed to writing. The Academy shrank from deciding such burning questions. In 1837 the brooding discussion burst forth, on account of the painless extraction of a tooth during the magnetic sleep, which was related by M. Oudet. Bema, a young magnetizer, implored the attention of the Academy of Medicine, and a fresh commission was nominated. It consisted of Roux, Bouillaud, Cloquet, Emery, Pelletier, Caventou, Cornac, Oudet, and Dubois, the last-named acting as reporter. The Academy was again drawn in the wrong direction. Berna urged them to examine extraordinary phenomena, such as vision without using the eyes, and the communication of the HISTORY OP ANIMAL MAGXETISM. 43 magnetizer's thoughts to his subject, phenomena which he boasted of producing in two of his somnambulist subjects. The results of this inquiry, -which was conducted with greater care than that of the previous commis- sion, were negative. We give the conclusions of this report, as we have already given those of Husson's report. "Isf Conclusion. — Dubois, in terminating his report, states that it appears from all the facts and incidents witnessed by us that, in the first place, no special proof has been given to us as to the existence of a special state, called the state of magnetic somnambulism; that it is only by way of assertion, and not by way of de- monstration, that the magnetizer has affirmed at each seance, before undertaking any experiments, that his subjects were in a state of somnambulism. " It is true that, according to the magnetizer's pro- gramme, we might be assured that tlie subject, before he was thrown into a state of somnambulism, was in perfect possession of all his senses, that for this purpose we were to prick him, and that he would then be put to sleep in the presence of the commissioners. But it appeared from our experiments at the seance of the 3rd of March, and before any magnetizing process had taken place, that the subject of experiment was as insensible to pin-pricks before the supposed sleep as he was when it had occurred; that his countenance and replies varied little before and after the so-called mag- netic sleep. Your commissioners are unable to decide whether this was from inadvertence, from a natural or acquired insensibility to pain, or from an unreasonable 44 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. desire to attract attention. It is true that we were told on each occasion that the subjects were asleep, but this was purely a matter of assertion. " If, however, experiments made upon subjects pre- sumed to be in a state of somnambulism should ulti- mately prove the existence of such a state, the conclusions we are about to draw from their experiments will show whether such proofs have any value or not. "2nd Conclusion. — According to the terms of the programme, the second experiment is intended to estab- lish that the subjects are insensible to pain. " We must, however, recall the restrictions imposed on your commissioners. The face was not to be subjected to such experiments, nor yet those parts of the body which are usually covered, so that they could only be performed on the hands and the neck. These parts were not to be pinched nor twitched, nor placed in contact with any burning substance, nor exposed to any high temperature ; the only thing permitted was to insert the points of needles to the depth of half a line, and at the same time the face was half covered by a bandage which did not allow us to observe the expression of the countenance, when the attempt was made to inflict pain. When we recall all these restrictions, we deduce from them the following facts: — (1) that the sensations of pain we were permitted to excite were extremely slight and of limited extent; (2) that they could only be excited on a small portion of the body, which was perhaps accus- tomed to receive such impressions ; (3) that since these impressions were always of the same kind, they were of the nature of tattooing ; (4) that the face, and particu- larly the eyes, in which the expression of pain is most HISTOEY OF ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 45 apparent, were concealed from the commissioners; (5) that under these circumstances, impassibility, however absolute and complete, could not be accepted by us as a conclusive proof that the subject in question was devoid of sensibility. " Srd Conclusion. — The magnetizer undertook to prove to the commissioners that, by the mere exercise of the will, he had the power of making his subject either locally or generally sensible to pain, which he terms the redituiion of sensibility. " As, however, he had been unable to give us any ex- perimental proof that he had taken away and destroyed this girl's sensibility, this experiment was correlative with the other, and it was consequently impossible to prove such a restitution ; moreover, the facts observed by us showed that all the attempts made in this direction had completely failed. You must remember, gentlemen, that the only verification consisted in the somnambulist's assertions. When, for instance, she assured the com- missioners that she was unable to move her left leg, this was no proof that the lirab was magnetically paralyzed ; even in this case her words were not in accordance with her magnetizer's pretensions, so that we only obtain assertions without proof, opposed to other assertions, equally without proof. " Ath Conclusion. — "What we have just ^aid with reference to the abolition and restitution of sensibility, is applicable in every respect to the so-called abolition and restitution of the power of movement, of which your commissioners did not obtain the slightest proof "5th Conclusion. — One paragraph of the programme is entitled, ' Obedience to the mental order to cease, in 46 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. the midst of a conversation, to reply verbally and by signs to a given person.' "In the seance of March 5, the magnetizer attempted to prove to the commissioners that the power of his will went so far as to produce this effect : but it resulted from the facts which occurred during this seance that, on the contrary, the somnambulist was still unable to hear when the experimenter no longer wished to prevent her from hearing, and that she appeared to possess the power of hearing when he distinctly desired her to hear nothing. So that, according to the somnambulist's assertions, the faculty of hearing, or of ceasing to hear, was in this instance in absolute revolt against the will of the mag- netizer. "But well-considered facts lead the commissioners to the conclusion that there was neither a revolt nor a submission of the will ; only an absolute independence. " Qtk Conclusion. — Transposition of the sense of sight. — The magnetizer, as you are aware, complied with the commissioners' request in turning from the study of the abolition and restitution of sensibility and the power of movement, in order to consider more important facts; namely, the facts of vision without the aid of the eyes. All the incidents in connection with these facts have been shown to you ; they occurred in the stance of April 3, 1837. * "Berna undertook to show the commissioners that a woman, influenced by his magnetic manipulations, could decipher words, distinguish playing cards, and follow the hands of a watch, not by means of her eyes, but by her occiput— a fact which would imply either the transposition or the inutility of the organs of sight HISTORY OF ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 47 during the magnetic state. These experiments were made, and, as you are aware, were a complete failure. "All which the somnambulist knew, all which she was able to infer from what was said in her immediate vicinity, all which she could naturally surmise, she uttered with bandaged eyes ; from which we at once concluded that she was not without ingenuity. Thus, when the magnetizer invited one of the commissioners to write a word on a card, and to present it to the woman's occiput, she said that she saw a card, and even the writing on the card. If she was asked how many persons were present, she could, since she had seen them enter, approximately declare their number. If she was asked whether she saw a commissioner sitting near her, engaged in writing with a scratching pen, she raised her head, tried to see under the bandage, and said that this gentleman held something white in his hand. When asked whether she saw the mouth of the same indi- vidual, who had left off writing and placed himself behind her, she said that he had something white in his mouth. Hence we concluded that this somnambulist, more experienced and adroit than the former one, was able to make more plausible surmises. " But with respect to facts really adapted to establish vision by means of the occiput, decisive, absolute, and peremptory facts, they were not only altogether absent, but those which we observed were of a nature to give rise to strange suspicions as to this woman's honesty, as we shall presently observe. "7th Conclusion. — Clairvoyance. — When the mag- netizer despaired of proving to the commissioners the transposition of the sense of sight, the nullity and super- 48 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. fluity of the eyes during the magnetic state, he sought to take refuge in the fact of clairvoyance, or of vision through opaque bodies. " You are acquainted with the experiments made on this subject. The main conclusion deduced from these facts -was that a man, placed before a woman in a given attitude, is unable to give her the power of distinguish- ing the objects presented to her when her eyes are bandaged. "Here your commissioners were occupied with a more serious reflection. Admitting for a moment an hypothesis which is very convenient for magnetizers, that in many cases somnambulists lose all lucidity, and are as unable as ordinary mortals to see by means of the occiput, of the stomach, or through a bandage, what are we to conclude with respect to the woman who gave minute description of objects quite diflferent from those presented to her ? We are at a loss what to think of a somnambulist who described the knave of clubs on a blank card, who transformed the ticket of an academician into a gold watch with a white dial-plate inscribed with black figures, and who, if she had been pressed, would perhaps have gone on to tell us the hour marked by this watch. . . . "If, gentlemen, you now ask what is the ultimate and general- conclusion to be inferred from all these experiments, made in our presence, we declare that M. Berna undoubtedly deceived himself when, on February 12 of this year, he wrote to the Royal Academy of Medicine that he .could boast of affording us the personal experience of which we were in need (these are his words) ; when he oflfered to show to your delegates con- HISTORY OF ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 49 dusive facts ; when lie affirmed that these facts were of a nature to throw light upon physiology and upon thera- peutics. You have now been acquainted with these facts; you agree with us that they are by no means conclusive as to the doctrine of animal magnetism, and that they have nothing in common either with physi- ology or with therapeutics. "We do not attempt to decide whether the more numerous and varied facts supplied by other magnetizers would lead to a different conclusion, but it is certain that if other magnetizers exist, they do not openly appear, and they have not ventured to challenge the sanction or reprobation of the Academy. " (Signed) M, M. Eoux (President), Boxjillaud, H. Cloquet, iSmery, Pelletiee, Caventou, Cornat, Oudet, Du- bois (Reporter). "Paris, July 17, 1837." When this report, taking such a decided part against aiiimal magnetism, was read, Husson felt him- self to be directly attacked, and replied. The Academy, however, accepted the conclusions of the report by an immense majority. In our opinion this report did not prove much, since general" conclusions could not be drawn from the negative experiments performed on only two somnambulists. In order to settle the question of animal magnetism, the younger Burdin, a member of the Academy, proposed to award fjrom his private fortune a prize of 3,000 francs to any person who could read a given writing without the aid of his eyes, and in the dark. The Academy accepted the proposal. In this way the field of ex- 50 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. periment was restricted, and it seemed that by limiting the point at issue, it was rendered more decisive. This was a defiance hurled by the Academy at the mag- netizers, and at the first glance it might appear that Burdin went straight to the heart of the question. He, speaking for the Academy, seemed to say, " If there is a single somnambulist capable of reading without using his eyes, we will admit the existence of animal magnet- ism, and go into the question. If no somnambulist can stand the test, animal magnetism has no existence." But as Kicher has observed, the dilemma is false. Somnam- bulists might easily be admitted to be incapable of reading without using their eyes, and yet be genuine somnambulists. In fact, the Academy demanded that a miracle should be wrought before they would believe in animal magnetism. At this time Pigeaire, a Montpellier doctor, had a daughter, ten or eleven years of age, who, in a state of somnambulism, did many wonderful things, and especially could read writing when her eyes were covered by a bandage of black silk. This was attested by Lordat, the Professor of Physiology at Montpellier. Pigeaire brought his daughter to Paris, in hopes of gaining the Burdin prize. He began with giving private stances, which were completely successful; and, indeed, the private seance generally succeeds. A very favourable report, signed by Bousquet, Orfila, Ribes, R^veill^-Parise, etc., is still extant. But the scene changed when it was necessary to appear before the commission nominated by the Academy. The commissioners suspected that the bandage used by Pigeaire did not serve as a complete obstacle to the normal vision. In fact, there is nothing HISTOKY OF ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 51 apparently so simple, and in reality so difiScult, as to find a bandage which is absolutely opaque; any one may see perfectly through an extremely minute hole, such as may, for instance, be perforated in a card, and especially if there are more holes than one, placed at intervals of one or two millimetres from each other. If our readers wish for further information on this interest- ing question, we must refer them to D^chambre's article on Mesmerism {Dictionnaire encyclopedique des Sciences Tnedicales).* D^chambre took the pains to try for him- self the arrangements made by magnetizers for covering the eyes of their somnambulists ; and he was satisfied that none of these arrangements, although apparently very complex, would after a while prevent them from reading the writing placed under their eyes. We may add that errors become more probable from the excessive keenness of sight common in somnambulists, from the time which elapses before the reading begins, and from the contor- tions by which the subject tries to displace or loosen the bandage. The Academicians were, therefore, justified in rejecting the bandage used by Pigeaire. They suggested a mask or headpiece of black silk, very light and stretched on two iron wires, so that it might be held at the distance of six inches from the girl's face, so as not to interfere with her breathing, nor with her freedom of action. Pigeaire, on his side, objected to this, and they were unable to come to an agreement, in spite of the concessions made by the commissioners, so that the experiments did not take place. In fact, Pigeaire's stipu- * Gerdy's paper on the same subject may also be read with interest : Histoire acad^migue du magn^tisme animal, par Burdin jeune et DuboU d' Amiens, p. 633. 52 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. lations would, as it was said at the time, have degraded the experiment into a mere game of blind-man's-buff. Pigeaire was succeeded by another magnetizer, Teste, who presented himself before the Academy : he boasted of the possession of a somnambulist who could read writing which was enclosed in a box. This experiment was easily performed, and the magnetizer and the commissioners soon agreed upon the conditions. But the failure was complete, since the subject was unable to divine a single word of the writing. The Burdin prize was not awarded. In conclusion, Double proposed that the Academy should henceforward refuse to pay any attention to the proposals of magnetizers, and that animal magnetism should be treated as the Academy of Sciences treats the propositions which refer to perpetual motion, or to the squaring of the circle. Such was the result of so many efforts, of such patient research, of so many discussions and reports : an absolute and complete negation of the existence of animal magnetism. This failure of the long labours of the Academy of Medicine was, as we have already said, primarily the fault of the magnetizers. Instead of contenting them- selves with the study of the simplest and most ordinary phenomena, they were bent on establishing the exist- ence of complex psychical phenomena, such as vision by means of the occiput, or an acquaintance with future events. The Academy was also mistaken in beino- seduced by them into this research into the marvellous. It may be said that at the outset of the Academic history of animal magnetism, the problem was wrongly HISTORY OF ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 53 stated. It seems to us that the Academy ought to have clearly stated a question which the magnetizers were allowed to obscure ; it should have been seen that among the phenomena proclaimed by the magnetizers, there might be some which were connected with known physical laws, and which might become the object of serious and fruitful study. At any rate, the Academy ought not to have accepted Double's trenchant proposition, declaring that the ques- tion as to animal magnetism was definitively closed, as if no new facts might subsequently arise to compel the Academy to reverse its summary judgment. These new facts consist, as we are aware, in hypnotism, formerly regarded as an illusion, and now accepted as a truth of which no one can doubt the reality. In fact, the history of animal magnetism is of all histories the most instructive and philosophic : we must be indeed incorrigible if it does not disgust us with cb priori negations. It was a matter of course that after the Academy had pronounced its sentence, somnambulists continued to see through opaque- bodies, to predict future events, and to prescribe remedies, just as if the Academy had not spoken at all. Du Potet, the celebrated inventor of the magic mirror, was at this period the chief representa- tive of magnetic science. This famous mirror, which had the eflTect of throwing people into convulsions, was made as follows: — The performer of the experiment described a circle on the parquet with a piece of charcoal, taking care to blacken the whole circle, and he then withdrew to a distance. The subject approached the magic circle, regarded it at first with confidence, raised 54 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. his head to look at the assembly, and again looked down to his feet. " Then/' says Du Potet, " the first effect might be observed. The subject drooped his head still lower with an unquiet movement of his whole person, and he revolved round the circle without losing sight of it for an instant; again he stooped lower, drew himself up, retreated a few paces, advanced anew, frowned, became gloomy, and breathed hard. The most singular and curious spectacle followed ; the subject undoubtedly beheld images reflected in the mirror ; his agitation and extraordinary gestures, his sobs and tears, his anger, despair, and fury — everything, in short, revealed the trouble and emotion of his mind. It was no dream nor nightmare ; the apparitions were actually present. A series of events was unrolled before him, represented by signs and figures which he could understand and gloat over, sometimes joyful, sometimes gloomy, just as these representations of the future passed before his eyes. Very soon he was overcome by delirium, he wished to seize the image, and darted a ferocious glance towards it ; he finally started forward to trample on the charcoal circle, the dust from it arose, and the operator approached to put an end to a drama so full of emotion and of terror." Du Potet, a sincere enthusiast, incapable of any scientific research, explained the effects of his mirror by the intervention, of magic. Gigot-Suard subsequently performed similar experiments on hypnotized subjects. This was at the time when table-turning, spirit-rapping, Home's apparitions, and other eccentricities of spiritual- ism were carried on. Lacordaire, in a sermon preached at Notre Dame in 1846, gave his adhesion to magnetism, which he regarded as the last flash of the old power, HISTORY OF AMIMAL MAGNETISM. 55 destined to confound human reason, and abase it before God ; it was a phenomenon of the prophetic order.* He went on to say, "Thrown into an artificial sleep, man can see through opaque bodies, he indicates healing remedies, and appears to know things of which he was previously ignorant.'' Other members of the clergy went further, and practised magnetism with the avowed object of obtaining revelations from on high. The Court of Rome intervened on several occasions, and in 1856 an encyclical letter from the Holy Roman Inquisition was sent to all bishops to oppose the abuses of magnetism. The following is a translation of the Latin text : — f "July 30, 1856 " At the general assembly of the Holy Roman Inqui- sition, held at the convent of Santa Maria Minerva, the cardinals and inquisitors-general against heresy throughout the Christian world, after a careful examina- tion of all which has been reported to them by trust- worthy men, touching the practice of magnetism, have resolved to address the present encyclical letter to all bishops, in order that its abuses may be repressed. " For it is clearly established that a new species of superstition has arisen respecting magnetic phenomena, with which many persons are now concerned, not with the legitimate object of throwing light on the physical sciences, but in order to mislead men, under the belief that things hidden, remote, or still in the future may be brought to light through magnetism, and especially by the intervention of certain women who are completely under the magnetizer's control. * (Euvres de Laem-daire, vol. iii. p. 246. Paris, 1861. t Quoted by Mabiu, Les MagnifUseurs. Paris, 1858. 56 ANIMAL MAGKBTISM. " The Holy See, when consulted in special cases, has repeatedly replied by condemning as unlawful all ex- periments made to obtain a result which is foreign to the natural order and rules of morality, and which does not make use of lawful means. It was in such cases that it was decided, on the 21st of April, 1841, that vnagnetism as set forth in this petition is not permitted. So likewise the holy congregation thought fit to forbid the use of certain books which systematically diffuse error on this subject. But since, exclusive of special cases, it became necessary to pronounce on the practice of magnetism in general, the following rule was established on July 18, 1847: — Tor the avoiding of error, of all sorcery, and of all invocation of evil spirits, whether implicit or explicit, the use of magnetism — that is, the simple act of employing physical means, not otherwise prohibited — is not morally unlawful, so long as it is for no illicit or evil object. With respect to the application of purely physical principles and means to things or results which are in reality supernatural, so as to give them a physical explanation, this is an illusion, and an heretical practice worthy of condemnation.' "Although this decree sufficiently explains what is lawful or unlawful in the use or abuse of magnetism, human perversity is such that men who have devoted themselves to the discovery of whatever ministers to curiosity, greatly to the detriment of the salvation of souls, and even to that of civil society, boast that they have found the means of predicting and divining. Hence it follows that weak-minded women, thrown by gestures which are not always modest into a state of .somnambulism, and of what is called clairvoyance, pro- HISTORY OF ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 57 fess to see those things which are invisible, and claim with rash audacity the power of speaking on religious matters, of calling up the spirits of the dead, of receiving answers to their inquiries, and of discovering what is unknown or remote. They practise other superstitions of like nature, in order by this gift of divination to procure considerable gains for themselves and their masters. Whatever be the arts or illusions employed in these acts, since physical means are used to obtain unnatural results, the imposture is worthy of condem- nation, since it is heretical and a scandal against the purity of morals. In order, therefore, effectually to re- press so great an evil, which is most fatal to religion and to civil society, the pastoral care, vigilance, and zeal of all the bishops cannot be too earnestly invoked. Aided by divine grace, the ordinary of each diocese must do all in his power, both by the admonitions of paternal love, by severe reproaches, and, finally, by legal means, using these according to his judgment before the Lord, and taking account of the circumstances of place, of time, and persons ; — he must do his utmost to avert the abuses of magnetism, and to bring it to an end, so that the Lord's flock may be preserved from the attacks of the enemy, that the faith may be maintained in its integrity, and that the faithful committed to their care may be saved from the corruption of morals. " Given at Rome, at the Chancery of the Sacred Office of the Vatican. "V. Cakd. Macchi. "August 4, 1856." It will be seen from this document that the Court of Rome appealed to a singular motive in their condem- 58 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. nation of magnetism. " With respect to the application of purely physical principles and means to things or results which are in reality supernatural, so as to give them a physical explanation, this is an illusion, and an heretical practice worthy "of condemnation." The encyclical letter goes on to define this idea, and speaks of "weak-minded women . . . who profess to see those things which are invisible, and claim with rash audacity the power of speaking on religious matters, of calling up the spirits of the dead, of receiving answers to their inquiries, and of discovering what is unknown or re- mote." It would be impossible to declare more plainly that the Holy See proposes to maintain a monopoly of the supernatural. Condemned by the Court of Rome, as it had been condemned by the Academy of Medicine, animal mag- netism did not perish, but took refuge in the popular imagination. To this day we possess clairvoyant, and even excessively clairvoyant somnambulists who find the trade profitable. They are to be found in the drawing- rooms of private houses, as well as at public fairs, It is certain that animal magnetism will not perish, since it is one of the thousand forms assumed by that belief in the marvellous which is eternal. As we here conclude the history of the wonders of animal magnetism, which must give place to the positive facts of hypnotism, we ought to say that it would be an error to suppose that all the phenomena of this species of legend are absolutely false. There are degrees in the marvellous. The transmission of thought, or mental suggestion, which constitutes the first stage in this domain, has been recently the subject of an article by HISTOKY OF ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 59 Ch. Richet, in the Revue Philosophique of December, 188-t. He has attempted to show " the influence exerted in a definite direction by the thought of one individual on another in his vicinity, without any external phe- nomenon, appreciable by the senses." Although these phenomena are not logically connected with hypnotism, since they could be produced in Eichet's friends when they were in normal health, awake, and in no sense hypnotized, yet it is true that public opinion has confounded together, under the name of animal magnetism, the nervous dis- turbance termed hypnotism, somnambulism, etc., and the phenomena which appear to be supernatural, such as the communication of thought, vision through an cpaque body, prevision of the future, etc. For this reason we propose to say a few words on mental suggestion. The facts in question are not absolutely new. Richet observes that we may perhaps trace the first accounts of mental suggestion to the well-known case of possession at Loudun. According to the story, Gaston d'OrMans found the Ursuline nuns agitated by frightful demoniac attacks, and he declared that they obeyed orders trans- mitted mentally. This was regarded as one of the chief signs of demoniac possession. De Puys^gur also men- tions facts of mental suggestion. In the course of this centilty, many magnetizers have asserted that they could transmit their thoughts to somnambulist subjects ; but they have been unable to prove this faculty to the satisfaction of learned bodies, which throws some doubt on their sincerity, or at any rate leads to the supposition that they unconsciously placed themselves en rapport with the subject by some external sign. It is now known that the slightest contact suffices to 60 ANIMAL MAGXETISM. establish a communication between the one who divines and the one who suggests. Cumberland's recent experi- ments must not be forgotten, of which the wonderful results were shown to be explicable by very simple causes. Cumberland held the hand of an individual who had hidden, or who was thinking of, some particular object, and, with his eyes bound, went directly towards the object in question. Kichet has ascertained that when the experiment succeeds, the subject, who is generally impressionable, unwittingly and involuntarily makes slight movements with his hand. This involun- tary action betrays his thought, and puts the seeker on the right track in a way which no one who has not tried the experiment for himself would suspect.* Gley has thrown further light on Cumberland's method by his tracing of the muscular movements which explain the so-called thought-reading. The tracings clearly show that throughout the experiment there occurs in the subject's hand fibrillary contractions, slight move- ments of pressure, and in some cases a traction movement of the hand and whole arm. These movements increase in intensity when the object is approached, and when it is reached they suddenly cease.f Positive results were obtained from sixteen out of twenty-five persons. We now come to Richet's experiments, and to the three orders of proof by which he sought to demonstrate mental suggestion. 1. In naming at a venture a card taken from a pack * Ch. Eichet, A propos de la suggestion mentale iSocUU de Biohgie, May, 1884.) t Gley, Sur les mouvements musculaires incomclents en rapport avec let images (Society de Biologie, July, 1884). HISTORY OP ANIMAL MAGXETISM. 61 of playing-cards, or a picture from picture-cards, the repetition of the experiment for a given number of times will show an average more or less in agreement with the calculus of probabilities. For instance, in a hand con- taining six cards, the probability of guessing aright is one-sixth ; that is, one time in six. This is not the case when the card taken at random has been seen by another person ; the average, varying with the sensitiveness of the subject, is then somewhat higher than that which would have been afforded by the calculus of probabilities. In 218 experiments, it would be 67 instead of 42. 2. With the aid of a rod which reveals the un- conscious' action of the diviner's muscles, the average is still higher than that indicated by the calculus of pro- babilities. The probable number in 98 experiments would be 18 ; the actual number was 44. 3. If the subject be placed in what are call spiritist conditions, which only serve to reveal the slight, un- conscious movements of a sensitive person, the average obtained is very much higher than that of the calculus of probabilities. The author considers that these latter experiments prove more than all the others. Three persons are seated at a table, engaged in conversation; the middle one, termed the medium, unconsciously moves the table, and this movement, by means of a simple arrangement, causes an electric bell to ring. Two other persons are seated at a second table, placed behind the former one, and concealed from the other three persons: one siJently runs through the alphabet with a pencil; the other notes on which letter the pencil rests when the bell 4 62 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. rings. Finally, there is a sixth person in the room, who has thought of a given word. On consulting the letters dictated by the table, it will be seen that there is & singular correspondence between these letters and the word thought of by the sixth person, who is neither seated at the spiritist table nor before the alphabet. We give instances — Words thought of. Words dictated by table. 1. Jean Racine. 1. Igard. 2. Legros. 2. Neghn. 3. Esther. 3. Foqdem. 4. Henrietta. 4. Higiegmsd. 5. Cheuvreux. 5. Dievoreq. 6. Doremond, 6. Epjerod. 7. Chevalon. _7. Cheval. 8. AUouand. 8. Iko. On a first inspection our readers will doubtless find these results very unsatisfactory. Richet has, however, deduced some curious results from them, after submitting them to mathematical analysis. Thus, in experiment three, where the word Esther was thought of, and the medium replied through the table Foqdem, the exactly corre- sponding number of letters counts as ^ in the calculation of chances, since the alphabet consists of twenty-four letters, and the word of six letters, so that it represents six attempts to guess right. The actual number is, however, much higher than the probable number; it is one out of six, namely— the letter e, which is in its right place. On applying this analysis to all the other cases cited, Richet finds that the total probable number is equal to ff = 2, a calculation our readers may make for HISTORY OF ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 63 themselves. The actual number obtained was fourteen, which is very high. Richet comes to the definitive conclusion that the pro- bability in favour of mental suggestion may be estimated at two-thirds. He, therefore, admits it to be probable that intellectual force is projected from the brain and echoed in the thought of another individual. He likewise admits that this re-echo acts chiefly on the unconscious intelligence of the individual who perceives and of the individual who transmits. This accounts for the success obtained with the spiritist table. Under these condi- tions the thought of the transmitting individual acts on the unconscious thought of the medium: the latter is endowed with a faculty of semi-somnambulism, in which one portion of the brain effects certain operations without giving notice to the ego. Finally, it should be said that this transmission of thought occurs in a degree which varies with the individual, since some are much more sensitive than others. While we heartily applaud the step taken by Richet, who has had the courage to declare at his own risk what he believes to be the truth, we cannot accept his theory without reserve. It wiU generally be found that the facts prove less than he asserts, and that his inter- pretation of them is too favourable. One main objection consists in the fact that the calculation of chances is not adapted to decide questions of this nature : the mental transmission of thought is one of the phenomena which can only be accepted when demonstrated by proofs which should be strong in proportion as they are remote from established knowledge. The calculation of chances is, however, for the most part incapable of affording a 64 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. peremptory proof; it produces uncertainty, disquietude, and doubt. Yet something is gained by substituting doubt for systematic denial. Riehet has obtained this important result, that henceforth the possibiUtj'- of mental sugges- tion cannot be met with contemptuous rejection. While Riehet, followed by Pierre Janet and others, has been trying experiments in France, a Society has been formed in England, called the Society for Psychical Research, which likewise makes the transmission of thought the object of study. This coincidence shows that the question is " in the air." The results obtained in England are surprising, and much higher than those of Riehet. The least we can infer from them is that research should be continued in this direction, and that we should not be justified in an d priori denial of the possibility of these phenomena because they appear to be improbable or supernatural. Moreover, if we consider the question of mental suggestion in its simplest aspect, if we stud}' thought- reading in the absence of any deliberately expressed movement, we shall soon see that we touch upon phenomena which physiologists do not disdain to consider.* Of late years Strieker has strongly insisted on the fact that a mental representation of a word or letter cannot occur without a corresponding movement in the muscles which serve for the articulation of this word or letter. This movement, constituting external speech, is * Ch. Fere, La question de la suggestion mentale est une question de physiologie. (Bull. Soc. Biologie, 1-886, p. 429; Bevue Fhilcsopkique, March, 1886, p. 201.) HISTOEY OF ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 65 not generally considered as such, since it may remain un- perceived by the individual in whom it occurs. Yet such a movement is visible enough to be rapidly understood by certain subjects, as we have observed for ourselves ; nor will the fact apjfear surprising to those who understand the process by which the deaf are able to understand what is spoken. This can only be regarded as mental suggestion, since it is the reading of unexpressed ideas. But it is not only the muscles concerned in articu- lation which undergo modifications of tension under the influence of external excitement, or of mental repre- sentations : all the muscles of the organism take part in this modification.* There is no paradox in the state- ment that certain subjects are endowed with a peculiar sensitiveness which enables them to seize these changes of form. The experiments in graphology undertaken by Richet, Ferrari, and Hericourt constitute another and no less interesting process, which shows that each psychi- cal state corresponds to a dynamic state, characterized by objective phenomena which come within the depart- ment of physiology. If it is true that every psychical phenomenon is accom- panied by vascular modifications,! and consequently by modifications of colour, of temperature, of secretion, etc., we shall not push the hypothesis too far if we admit that excessively sensitive subjects are capable of feeling these thermic or secretory modifications. Nothing occurs in the mind without a modification * Ch. Fere, Sensation et wouoement (Bevue PhilosopMque, October, 1885 ; March, July, 1886). t Ch. Feie, Changements de volume de» membres sous I'influence des excitations peripheriques et des representations mentaleg {Bull. Soc. Biol., 1S86, p. 399). 66 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. of matter, and it is impossible to say at what point these modifications of matter may become perceptible. The study of mental suggestion is thus reduced to the reading of involuntary signs, and includes research into our most subtle reactions, and the measurement of the differential sensitiveness of various subjects, and especially of those who in their several states are hyper-excitable. This study should not be relegated to the occult sciences, to. the unknowable; it is a most interesting physiological question. ( 67 ) CHAPTER III. HISTORY OF ANIMAL MAGNETISM.— BEAID : HYPNOTISM — GRIMES, AZAM, DURAND DE GROS, DEMAEQUAY, AND GIRAUD-TEULON, LIEBAULT, CH. RICHET, CHARCOT, AND P. RICHER. At the time when the Paris Academy of Medicine was condemning animal magnetism, Dr. James Braid, a Manchester surgeon, directed the question into its proper field — that of observation and experiment. Braid must be regarded as the initiator of the scientific study of animal magnetism. For this reason, since it expresses the change of method which he effected, it is usual to sub- stitute for that of animal magnetism the word hypTiotism, by which he designated the artificial nervous sleep. Magnetism and hypnotism are fundamentally synony- mous terms, but the first connotes a certain number of complex and extraordinary phenomena, which have always compromised the cause of these fruitful studies. The term hypnotism is exclusively applied to a definite nervous state, observable under certain conditions, subject to general rules, produced by known and in no sense mysterious processes, and based on modifica- tions of the functions of the patient's nervous system. Thus it appears that hypnotism has arisen from animal 68 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. magnetism, just as the physico-medical sciences arose from the occult sciences of the Middle Ages. Braid began to observe the results of magnetism merely as an inquirer, and even as a sceptic. In November, 1841, he was present for the first time at some public experiments performed by Lafontaine, a Swiss magnetizer. Convinced that the phenomena which he saw were only due to an adroit imposture, he was anxious to discover by what means the operator was able to dupe his audience. He was soon satisfied that these phenomena, however strange, were quite genuine. But he saw no reason for admitting with Lafontaine that they were the consequence of the operator's personal action on his subject, by means of a magnetic fluid ; he rather considered them to be due to a subjective state, independent of all external influence. This was the first result of Braid's researches ; he showed that the theoretic fluid was not required to explain hypnotic phenomena. Braid gives the following account of the way in which he arrived at this discovery. All which he saw at the first magnetic seance left him incredulous. At a second seance, six days later, his attention was struck by the fact that it was not possible for the patient to open his eyes. He regarded this incapacity as a real phenomenon, for which he sought the physical cause ; it occurred to him that this cause might be found in the fixed gaze, which has the efi"ect of exhausting and paralyzing the nervou^ centres of the eyes and their appendages. It signifies little whether this explanation is true or false — it is only a matter of detail ; but it is important that Braid should have regarded this first symptom of hypnotism, the spasm of the orbicularis HISTOEY OP ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 69 palpebrarum, as due to a modification of the state of the nervous system. Two days later he began, in the presence of his family and friends, a series of experiments, in- tended to justify his theory. He tells us that he requested his friend Walker to sit down and look fixedly at the neck of a wine-bottle, which was placed at such a height as to cause considerable fatigue to his eyes and eyelids when he looked at it attentively. In three minutes the eyelids closed, tears flowed down his cheeks, his head drooped, his countenance was slightly contracted, a sigh escaped from him, and at the same moment he fell into a deep sleep. Mrs. Braid was much astonished by the patient's fear and agitation when he awoke, for which she could see no cause, since she had not ceased to watch her husband, and she had seen that he did not approach Walker, nor touch him in any way. Braid proposed that she should herself submit to the operation, to which she readily assented, assuring those present that she should be less easily frightened than the first subject. Braid made his wife sit down and fix her eyes on the ornaments of a porcelain sugar-basin, which was placed at about the same angle with the eyes as that formed by the bottle in the previous experiment. In two minutes the expression of her features was changed ; in two and a half minutes the eyelids closed with a convulsive movement, the mouth was distorted, the patient sighed deeply, the chest heaved, she fell back. It was evident that she had passed through a paroxysm of hysteria, and Braid then awoke her. This account shows that there was nothing complex nor mysterious in the process which caused sleep ; it was only necessary for the subject to concentrate his attention 70 AMIMAL MAGNETISM. and his gaze for a few minutes on a given object. A brilliant object was sometimes employed, but this was not an indispensable condition. From this time the reality of somnamlDulism was established; it became a state subject to observation, which any one could produce at pleasure. Numerous observers since Braid have repeated the experiment of the fixity of gaze, and have reproduced precisely the same phenomena. The simultaneous fixing of the attention appears to be necessary as a rule, and Braid considers that this explains why idiots cannot be hypnotized. This important discovery throws a vivid light on religious practices which up to that time had been inexplicable. We know that Indian devotees are thrown into an ecstasy of union with God, by contemplating for hours an imaginary point in space. The monks of Mount Athos were addicted to the same practice, fixing their gaze on their navels. These are evidently hypnotic states, produced by the fixity of gaze. Since he showed that hypnotism could be produced by fixing the eyes on an inanimate object, such as the stopper of a bottle or the blade of a lancet. Braid proved that this nervous state did not necessarily result from the transmission, of a fluid by the operator. He had therefore simplified the study of hypnotism by getting rid of all the marvellous phenomena which had discredited it for such a length of time. But Braid's conclusions were too absolute. The first conceptions of things are always simpler than the reality. It would be a mistake to suppose that the personality of the operator never has anything to do with the phenomena displayed niSTOEY OF ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 71 before him. Broca's assertion must not be taken literally, "The subject is not put to sleep; he goes to sleep." The sleep produced by fixing the eyes on a brilliant object sometimes differs in certain points from the sleep produced by personal intervention. We shall soon have occasion to show that in some cases the patient displays a sort of afiinity for the person who puts him to sleep, and who touches his bare hands. Braid pursued his investigations further. His most important discovery relates to the effect produced by a given attitude on the subject's sentiments. When placed in the attitude of anger, with clenched fists, his counte- nance assumes a menacing expression, and he begins to box ; if he is made to imitate the action of sending a kiss, his mouth smiles. So, again, the action of climbing or swimming is produced when the body is placed in the position required for executing the several acts. These were Braid's two chief discoveries ; he also made several observations of which the justice has now been admitted. He ascertained that the character of the sleep was not always the same, but that it consisted of a series of states, varying from a light slumber up to the most profound sleep. He observed that breathing on the face had the singular effect of changing the hypnotic state, and breathing on it for the second time caused the subject to awake. He also observed that the senses, espe- cially those of touch, smell, and hearing, might suddenly become excessively acute in hypnotized subjects, and it appeared to him that this sensorial modification might afford a rational explanation of some of the marvellous effects obtained by professional magnetizers.. Finally, he observed that verbal suggestion might produce hallucina- 72 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. tions, emotions, paralysis, etc. Suggestion during the waking state, -which has latterly been asserted by some writers to be possible, did not escape his notice. Although so many of his observations were just, Braid's descriptions of hypnotism are not definite ; they contain an indiscriminate account of all the symptoms of hypnotism, anaesthesia, hypersesthesia, hallucinations, paralysis, suggestions of theft and other criminal acts, unilateral hypnosis, duplication of the consciousness, etc., as if all these phenomena had not their peculiar con- ditions, and did not belong to distinct states. Braid's imperfect work has been completed by the Salp^tri^re ' school, which shows that hypnotism is a nervous ^ condition, presenting characteristics which vary in in- tensity, if not in their nature, so that it is possible to distinguish the several phases or states in which the action of the subject varies. In addition to the want of classification betrayed by this disorderly exposition of facts. Braid has erred in putting in one category the unproved and the uncertain, the uncertain and the purely imaginative. A few pages of his book suffice to show that we have to do with a believer rather than with an observer. Braid has also been blamed for his unsatisfactory experiments in phreno-hyfTiotism, intended to prove the possibility of exciting special sentiments, ideas, and acts, by pressing on the humps of the skull of a hypno- tized subject. The account of these experiments occupies an important place in his Neurypnology. Braid, after taking care to inform us that, while making use of phrenology, he is no materialist, confidently asserts that he could inspire the idea of theft by pressing on the HISTORY OF ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 73 organ of acquisitiveness ; of fighting, by pressing on that of combativeness ; of prayer, by pressing on the organ of veneration, etc. The following experiment was the most curious of the series, and wiU give an idea of the others. Acquisi- tiveness was excited, and the subject stole a silver snuff- box from one of the spectators ; the pressure was then transferred to the organ of conscientiousness,, and the patient surrendered the object with a striking air of contrition. Braid seems to have foreseen the charge of simulation, and he takes care to affirm that several of his phrenological experiments were performed on persons who knew nothing about phrenology, and whose honour was unimpeachable. It is easy, up to a certain point, to understand the strange illusion of which Braid was the dupe. He had not observed the importance of that frequent source of error called unconscious suggestion. It is now known that an indiscreet word uttered before subjects very sensitive to suggestion is enough to show what is expected of them, and to make them act in the sense intended by the operator. A gesture may some- times produce the same effect, and this explains how, in some public exhibitions, the magnetizer, having agreed with his subject to deceive the spectators, is able to make him obey mental orders without expressing them verbally. There is in reality no communication by thought, but by signs which are comprehended by the subject with extraordinary quickness of perception. In Braid's experiments it is probable that something analogous occurred, although there was no imposture. Braid was doubtless as honest as his subjects, but the latter unconsciously obeyed a gesture or word, or were 74 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. unconsciously influenced by the recollection of a previous stance. This seems the more probable assumption, since Braid's subjects were often people in good society, assembled to take part in a seance of phreno-hypnotism, and who, after seeing what Braid effected on others, voluntarily submitted to be the subjects of experiment. Braid's errors are not, however, wholly devoid of truth. Numerous observers have declared that pressure on the heads of hypnotic subjects produces a surprising variety of sensory and motor effects. As a physician. Braid was much occupied in applying hypnotism to therapeutics. His observations refer to diseases of the eye, to tic-douloureux, nervous headaches, spinal irritation, neuralgia of the heart, palpitations and irregular action of the heart, epilepsy, paralysis, convul- sions, tonic spasms, affections of the skin, rheumatism, etc. We cannot refrain from the belief that here again Braid was deceived in more than one instance, but he must be credited with having made a fairly methodical study of hypnotic therapeutics. The results of Braid's labours have in our day been considerable. He has the merit of having proved that animal magnetism is a natural phenomenon, a definite nervous condition, produced by means of known pro- cesses. Lasagne regards him as an indifferent physiologist. But this matters little, since many more intelligent and liberal minds have not the merit of having discovered a single new fact. Indeed, it appears that a certain narrowness of mind, allied with an obstinate will, is to some extent characteristic of the innovator.* * We subjoin a list of Braid's works : Neurypnology ; or, The Matimale of Nervous Sleep, considered in relation with Animal Magnetism, by James ^ HISTOEY OF ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 75 Braid's discovery had little success in his own country, although it obtained the support of the physiologist Carpenter. In 1842 he submitted his researches to the medical section of the British Association, and offered to repeat his experiments before a special commission. The offer was formally rejected, and the section proceeded to other matters. It was said that this subject, like so many others, must make its way independently of learned bodies. Braid was not discouraged, and became the propagator of hypnotism with the indefatigable ardour which is characteristic of innovators, and which we have lately observed in Burq, the inventor of metallo-therapia. He held many experimental stances in London, Liver- pool, and Manchester, without obtaining the justice due to him. Braid's theory had more success in America, but not under his own name. In 1848 an American named Grimes, who does not appear to have been acquainted with Braid's discovery, showed that most of the hypnotic phenomena could in certain subjects be produced in the waking state by means of verbal suggestion. This theory, which passed in the United States under the somewhat absurd name of electro-biology, reached Eng- land in 1830, and produced a new movement in favour of hypnotism. Although extracts from Braid's works were published by Littre and Robin, by Robin and Beraiid, etc., and Braid (London: John Churchill, 1813); Tlie Power of the Mind over the Sody (^ISiG) ; Observations on Trance,or Human Hybernation (1850); Magic, Witchcraft, Animal Magnetism, Hypnotism, and Electro-biology (1852) ; The Physiology of Fascination (ISSiJ) ; Observations on the Nature and Treatment of Certain Forms of Paralysis (1855). 76 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. ihere was an article on the subject in the Presse by Meunier, his theories were little known in France. In 1850 the question was, however, again brought before the French public by Azam, a Bordeaux surgeon. Azam had been called in to see a poor girl who was said to be insane, and who presented the singular phe- nomena of spontaneous catalepsy, of anaesthesia, and of hypersesthesia. Azam was _ acquainted with the mag- netic phenomena of artificial somnambulism, and was struck by the correspondence between these and those which occurred spontaneously in his patient. One of his colleagues mentioned to him Braid's experiments, which were reported in Todd's Encyclopedia, and he tried to repeat these experiments on his patient, not without misgivings. He tells us that "at the first attempt, after being subjected for one or two minutes to the usual process, the patient fell asleep : the anaesthesia was complete, and it was evident that she was in a state of catalepsy. Hypersesthesia afterwards supervened, accompanied by the power of answering questions, and other symptoms indicative of the exercise of the intelli- gence." * Similar experiments were successfully per- formed by Azam on another girl living in the same house, for the most part such experiments as had been described by Braid. We quote an instance of suggestions by means of the muscular sense : " If, during the period of catalepsy, I place Mile. X 's arms in the position of prayer, and leave them thus for a certain time, she states that her thoughts are fixed on prayer, and that she supposes herself to be present at a religious rite. When placed with folded arms and drooping head, she * Archives de Medecinc, 1860, p. 8. HISTORY OF ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 7*7 feels her mind possessed by a series of ideas of humility and contrition. When her head is raised her ideas become haughty." The hypersesthesia of the senses is no less decided. Azam asserts that the hearing becomes so acute as to distinguish the ticking of a watch at the distance of nine or ten yards : this sensitiveness to noise fatigues the subjects, and an expression of pain passes over the face at the rolling of carriages, the human voice, etc. When a bare hand is placed behind her back, at a distance of forty centimetres. Mile. X stoops forward and complains of feeling the heat. Azam was, however, chiefly struck by the general anaesthesia which frequently accompanied the hypnotic sleep. In concert with Broca, he sought in hypnotism a fresh mode of producing ansesthesia during surgical operations. This idea gained ground. Broca remarks that a method which introduces no foreign substance into the system appears to him to be absolutely in- offensive. This, however, is erroneous, since death may be produced by a suggestion. In 1851 Broca and FoUin put a woman under hypnotism before making an incision in an abscess in the anus. This fact was communicated to the Academy of Sciences by Velpeau, who, in an- nouncing with satisfaction this "new discovery," appeared to have no doubt that animal magnetism, which had been condemned by the Academy, had reappeared under a new name. A few days later Gu6rineau, of Poitiers, employed the same hypnotic ansesthesia during the amputation of a thigh. The interest in hypnotism became general, and it was remembered that as early as 1829 Cloquet had amputated the breast of a mag- netized woman, and that Loysel had performed very 78 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. serious operations under like conditions. It was, how- ever, a transient interest, since the surgeons perceived that the hypnotic sleep could not be produced in aU subjects ; that even in those most susceptible to it, a series of daily hypnotizations must precede the operation, and that sometimes, instead of producing ansesthesia, the converse effect of hypersesthesia was produced. These failures were partly due to the fact that it was not then known that suggestion might be used to produce in- sensibility. Chloroform was, therefore, soon preferred to hypnotism as the safer and more convenient means. The year 1860 witnessed the dawn and decline of the prevailing fashion of employing hypnotism to produce surgical aneesthesia. The question of animal magnetism, which had been proscribed twenty years before by the Academy of Medicine, was, however, reopened. The reality of the nervous sleep was no longer disputed; the mode of producing it was known, as well as its main symptoms. Distinguished physicians were now anxious to study these phenomena, without fear of compromising them- selves. It was at this time that the works of Demarquay, and Giraud-Teulon, Gigot-Suard, Li^bault, and Philips (Durand de Gros) appeared. The chief result of these researches was to confirm Braid's work in essential particulars. It was again proved that the personality of the hypnotizer is not a necessary element in producing the subject's sleep. Demarquay and Giraud-Teulon, in order to ward off the influence of the experimenter's gaze, made use of a polished steel ball, which was mounted on a stalk and fastened to a diadem ; this diadem was placed on the HISTORY OF ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 79 subject's head, and his eyes were consequently drawn into the indicated convergence without the intervention of the experimenter.* It is needless to add that this method produced sleep in the subject, just as other methods did. Gigot-Suard even ascertained that a bril- liant object need not be presented to the eyes, and that the fixity of gaze would suffice. It was enough to order the subject to look at his nose, and then immediately to bandage his eyes. This also produced hypnosis. Demarquay and Giraud-Teulon agreed that a pre- disposition to hysteria was a general condition of hypnotic effects. In fact, results were only obtained from four persons out of eighteen, and these four were all women ; the men submitted to experiment were altogether refrac- tory. Moreover, in one of these women the attempt at hypnotization produced the first symptoms of an hysteric attack. Hence they concluded that the nervous state designated as hypnotism was not physiological, but alto- gether morbidi The work by Demarquay and Giraud- Teulon is brief, accurate, and fuU of carefully observed facts, without the mystical tendency which is found in Braid. It is perhaps the first work on hypnotism of a strictly scientific character. Durand de Gros, better known as Dr. Philips, since he was one of the proscribed of December 2, and as- sunjed this name in order to return to France, delivered public lectures on hypnotism in Belgium, Switzerland, France, and Algeria. In 1860 he published a Cours theorique et pratique de Braidisme, in. which, he developed his ideas on the mechanism of hypnosis. But the medical world was not much moved by his abstract conceptions • Recherche aur V Hypnotitme {Gazelle M^dicale de Paris, 1859, 18G0). 80 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. of the hypotaxic state and of ideoplasticism, of which we will only say a few words. According to this author, the exercise of thought is necessary for the regular diffusion of nervous force into the sensory nerves ; the exercise of this mental activity is suspended by hypnotism, or rather is reduced to a minimum by submitting it to the exclusive excitement of a simple, homogeneous, and continuous sensation. Since the nervous force is no longer consumed by thought, it accumulates in the brain, and this sort of nervous congestion is termed the hypotaxic state. But, by a special impression on the sight, the hearing, or the touch, a given point of the brain may be excited, so that all the disposable nervous force may be accumulated on it. The same result may be obtained with a mental impression as with a sensorial impression; it awakens the activity proper to a given part of the brain, and produces the most varied effects. This is ideoplasticism. Durand de Gros's theories somewhat resemble those set forth five years later by Li^bault, a physician of Nancy, in a work entitled, " Sleep, and the states analo- gous to it, specially considered in the action of the morale on the physique " (Nancy, 1866). In his preface Liebault writes : " In my endeavour to study the passive modes of existence, I have first sought to demonstrate the truth that they are the efi'ects of a mental action, and then to make my readers acquainted with their properties, from the point of view of the action of the morale on the physique." In these words we find the germ of the idea developed by subsequent writers, who wish to prove that all the phenomena of artificial sleep, — both mental and physical phenomena, such as contractions, catalepsy, etc.. —are produced by suggestion. Thus, Liebault asserted HISTOEY OP ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 81 that artificial as well as natural sleep was produced by an act of the intelligence, that is, by concentrating the attention on one idea, that of going to sleep. This explanation does not apply to those persons who are hypnotized against their will. Li^bault goes further, and maintains that modifications of the attention, its too energetic retreat into the brain, etc., cause the difficulty of breathipg, the dilatation of the pupils, the weight of the head, singing in the ears, cyanosis, and the palpitations of the heart which accompany the approach of sleep. In Li^bault's opinion, attention appears to sum up the action of the mind oh the physique. Concentration of the attention causes the isolation of the senses, the cessation of muscular movements, the establishment of a rapport between the somnambulist and the operator, catalepsy, etc. The afflux of attention to the organs of the senses increases their power of perception; its accumulation on the " empreintes sensorielles " quickens the memory, and so it is with the other senses. On waking from a state of profound hypnotism, there is oblivion, which is due to the fact that all the nervous force accumulated in the brain during sleep is, on awaking, again difiused throughout the organism ; since the nervous force is diminished in the brain, it is impossible for the subject to recall to mind that of which he was previously aware. Liebault's ideas were, received with incredulity; his mode of practice appeared to i3e so singular that it was ^ rejected by his colleagues without further examination. He lived in retirement, apart from the medical world, and entirely devoted to his convictions and to his patients, who were almost wholly of the poorer class. It is not 82 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. difficult to understand the cause of his failure. His book does not contain any clear and definite account of hypnotism ; the symptoms which result from this pro- found modification of the system are not the object of a methodical study, and his descriptions are vague and without definite character. There is, perhaps, not a single scientific proof of hypnotism in the whole book. Yet wo must give Li^bault credit for having been a conscientious observer, convinced of the truth of his practice. It is said that his convictions brought him into unpleasant relations with his colleagues, and it is probable that they would never have been accepted without the labours of Charcot and his pupils, who re- established the study of hypnotism, simply by giving an accurate description of the physical characteristics of some of the nervous states designated by that name. The theories of Braid were now again in the ascendant. Up to 1878 nothing of much novelty was contributed to them. We need only mention the works of Mesnet (1860), of Lasfegue (1865), of Baillif (1868), of Pau de Saint-Martin (1869). No advance was made, but the same ground was traversed again. There is a good account of the works of this period in an article by Duval, which appeared in 1874 in the DictioTmcoire pratique de medicine et de chirurgie. At the same date, Dechambre declared in the Dictionnaire. encyclopMique des sciences Tnedioales that animal mag- netism did not exist. By degrees the question sank into silence and oblivion. The more earnest minds turned away from it, and abandoned the subject to professional magnetizers, who contrived to make money by public exhibitions of HISTOEY OP ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 83 hypnotism. From time to time a man of note attempted to shake off the general indifference, bnt no response was made. In 1875, Ch. Richet published in the Journal de Vanatomie et de la physiologie the result of some researches on hypnotism, which he had made while house-surgeon of a hospital. Although the paper was interesting and full of facts, it obtained little notice. At about the same time the somnambulism of animals was studied in Germany. As Richet justly observes : " In order to judge of the question of simulation, nothing can be simpler than to perform experiments on beings incapable of playing a part." But it was ascertained, on setting to work, that the symptoms of somnambulism in animals are by no means strongly marked. As early as 1646, Father Athanasius Kircher relates, in a book entitled Ars jnagna lucis et umbrae, that if a cock, with his legs tied together, be placed before a line made upon the floor with white chalk, he becomes at the end of a few moments perfectly motionless ; if the string be untied and he is excited, he does not issue from the cataleptic state. This experiment may be of still earlier date, since it has been ascribed to Daniel Sehwenter (1636). However this inay be, in many countries the hypnotization of poultry became a popular amusement. In 1872, Czermak carefuUy repeated these experiments ; he hypnotized a cock without making use of the ligature, or of the chalk line, and kept the animal immovable. He extended the experiment to other animals, to sparrows, pigeons, rabbits, salamanders, and crabs.* Preyer,t whose treatise on the subject is the most • Comptes rendus de VAcade'mie de Vienne, 1872, p. 361. t Die Eataplexie, etc. Jena, 1 878. 84 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. complete which we possess, ascribed most of the phe- nomena observed under these conditions to fear. This author holds that strong excitement produces the cata- leptic state, that is, a paralysis due to fear. For instance, if a lizard's tail, or a frog's foot, is suddenly pinched, the animal becomes petrified, sometimes for several minutes, and is incapable of moving its limbs. Gentle and protracted excitement is needed to effect the hypnosis of animals. If the nostrils of a guinea-pig are kept for some time slightly compressed with a pair of pincers, the animal becomes hypnotic, and is thrown into such a stupor that it can be placed in the most absurd positions without being awakened. This arbitrary distinction between catalepsy and hypnotism has not been accepted. We need only note that many animals can be hypnotized, either by a brief and strong excitement of the skin, or by a repeated and fainter action of the same kind. The experiments on the frog are interesting, and easy to reproduce. Heubel * has shown that if a lively frog is lightly held between the fingers, with the thumb on the belly, and the four fingers on the back, the animal becomes perfectly motionless at the end of two or three minutes ; it may be stretched upon its back, or placed in all sorts of positions, without making any attempt at defence or escape. The same paralytic state may be produced by gently scratching the frog's back. But it must be admitted that none of these facts throw much fresh light on animal magnetism, and we do not, therefore, insist on them further. "We now come to the year 1878, and to the researches of the Salpetriere school. * Aroliives rjlUger, vol. xlv. HISTOKY OF ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 85 The history of animal magnetism has shown that if, up to late years, the existence of the nervous sleep, and of the various phenomena allied with it, has been doubted, it is chiefly because the experimenters wanted method, and were principally concerned with the study of complex psychical phenomena. Such phenomena often lack the material characteristics which would place them beyond dispute. Since the proofs of these remarkable manifestations were wanting, it was at once concluded that they were, at any rate, hypothetical, if not false. The disputes and doubts might have gone on in- definitely, but for the intervention of material facts, which it was impossible to interpret in different senses. These material facts could not be at once discovered in the domain of the complex phenomena which had attracted the attention of the early experimenters ; they belonged to the purely physical order of things. We must add that these physical signs of hypnosis have not hitherto been observed in their complete development, except in subjects affected by hysteria. Hence it follows that the hypnotism which first took its place in science is that of hysterical patients, and it is still iermeA. profound hypnotisni,\>oth to characterize the intensity of its symptoms, and to distinguish it from, the feebler forms which had, up to that time, been exclusively studied by physicians, and which may now be grouped under the name of slight hypnotism,. The method which led to the revival of hypnotism may be summed up in these .words : the production of material symptoms, which give to some extent an ana- tomical demonstration of the reality of a special state of the nervous system. This is merely an application of 5 86 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. Descartes's rule, that we should go from the simple to the compound. Before adopting this method, we have passed through an age of senseless errors and sterile discussions. It is to Charcot that the honour must be assigned of having been the first to enter on this course, in which he has been followed by numerous observers. The violence with which he was attacked is a proof of the important part he took in the question. Whatever objections may be made to his description of the different states known under the name of hypnotism, it is certain that the application of the nosographic method to this study enabled Charcot to establish phenomena within the domain of science which had hitherto been regarded as beyond its range. Charcot was not only fortunate enough to establish the scientific value of hypnotism, but to obtain compensation for his earlier academic failures by his triumphant readmission into the Academy of Sciences.* The researches of the Salpetrifere school served as the point of departure for a fresh scientific movement, which continues up to the present day. In 1880, Heidenhain, an eminent German physio- logist, resumed the study of hypnotism, prompted by some public performances at Breslau, given by a Danish magnetizer named Hansen. Heidenhain's paper f gave the signal for several other German publications, among * J. M. Charcot, Essai d'une distinction nosographique des divers etati cumpris aom le nom d'Hypnotisme (0. E., Ac. des Seiences, 1882). t Heidenhain, Der sogenannte tlUerisclw Magnetismus ; Fhysiologieche BeobaeUungcn (Leipzig, 1880); Heidenhain uud Giutzner, Halhseitige Rypnotismus, Bypnotisclie Aphasie, FarhenUlndheit, u. Mang.l des Temper- aturismus bei Hypmtisclien, in Bresl. AHzl. Zeiischr., ii. i. 1880. HISTOEY OF ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 87 which we may mention that by Griitzner,* by Berger,t by Baumler, J by Preyer, § by Schneider. |] In France we find, among others, P. Richer, Bourneville and Regnard, Dumontpallier and his pupils, Ladame, Bottey, Pitres, Bremaud, Bernheim, Beaunis; in Italy, Tamburini and Seppili, and Lombroso ; in England, Hack Tuke. ♦ Grutzner, TJeher d. newreren Erfahrungen aua dem Gehiete des soge- nannten thierisclien Magnetismua (^Cent. f. Nerv. Peek., 10. 1880). t Berger, Sypnotische Zmtande, imd ihre Oenesiing, in Bresl. Arzll. Zeitschr., ii., 10, 11, 12. 1880 ; Ban Verhalten der Sinnesorgane, in hypno- tischen Zustand, in Bresl. Arztl. Zeitschv., iii. 7. 1881 ; Mxperimentelle Katalepsie ; Deutsch. med. Wochensclirift, vi., 10. 1880. t Baumler, Der sogen. animidieche Magnetismus, oder Bypnotismua. Leipzig, 1881. § Preyer, Die Entdeclcung des Hypnotismus. Berlin, 1881. II Schneider, Diepsych. Ursache der Hypnot. Ereehein. Leipzig, 1880. 88 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. CHAPTER IV, THE MODES OF PRODUCING HYPNOSIS. As far as its mode of production is concerned, hypnotic sleep does not essentially differ from natural sleep, of which it is in fact only a modification, and all the causes which produce fatigue are capable of producing hypnosis in those who are subject to it ; it is in this sense that we may say with Richer, that all means are effectual, if only they are applied to a predisposed organism. Sensorial excitements produce hypnosis in two ways : when they are strong and abrupt, or when they are faint and continued for a prolonged period. The former mode of excitement was studied for the first time by Charcot and his pupils, who employed, among other means, vivid impressions on the sight, such as the sudden introduction of a solar lamp into a dark room, fixing the eyes on the sun, the incandescence of a strip of magnesium, the electric light, etc. In hysterical subjects the intense excitement immediately produces catalepsy. If the patient is seated at work, is standing, or walking, she is transfixed in the attitude in which she was surprised, and fear is expressed in her countenance and in her gestures. The same effect may be produced by an intense noise, like that of a Chinese gong, by a THE MODES OF PEODUCING HYPNOSIS. 89 whistle, or by the vibration of a tuning-fork. When the subject is predisposed, comparatively slight, but unexpected noises, such for instance as the crackling of a piece of paper, or the chinking of a glass, are enough to produce catalepsy. If the excitement is moderate, rather than violent, it must be prolonged in order to cause the hypnotic sleep, which, however, it scarcely ever fails to produce. The subject is put to sleep after Braid's method, by fixing his gaze for a few moments on an object which may be slightly luminous, or altogether dark, such as a black stick, which should be held near the eyes and a little above them, so as to produce a convergent an d superio r stra bismus. After a while the eyes become humid and brilliant, the gaze becomes fixed, the pupils are dilated. When the object is withdrawn, the subject remains in a cataleptic state ; if it is not withdrawn, the subject soon falls backwards with a sigh, there is a slight frothing on the lips, and lethargy ensues. The converg- ence of the eyes alone wiU produce sleep, as for instance at night (Carpenter) ; some subjects fall asleep spon- taneously when their eyes are fixed upon their needle- work, when they are reading, or looking in the mirror while dressing. Monotonous sounds also produce sleep. Weinhold and Heidenhain produced hypnosis by causing the subject to listen to the ticking of a watch ; and a faint but continuous musical sound may produce the same effect. It is also well known that monotonous action on the hearing, a nurse's luUaby, the noise of the wind, the reciting of prayers, have a marked effect in producing natural sleep in many people. It likewise occurred to us to produce a lethargic 90 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. sleep by fatiguing the sense of smell with a protracted odour of musk. No experiments have been made on the sense of taste. Tickling of the pharynx has succeeded with many subjects, but in this case it may be from complex reasons, since the subject nearly always fixes his eyes and keeps the thorax motionless. Some facts appear to indicate that an excitement of the organs of the senses which does not act upon their special functions, but only mechanically, may produce like effects. Thus, when the eyeball is compressed through the closed lid, which was often done by Lasegue, hypnosis may be produced in some subjects, and a like effect may be produced by pressure on the external meatus of the ear. These modes of hypnotization belong, as we think, to the group of those which act by exhaustion of the special senses. In fact, a pressure on the eyeball, however slight, produces irritation at the base of the eye, whence there follows a sensation of light. When the external orifice of the ear is compressed, there is a pressure on the membrane of the tympanum by means of the air contained in the tube, and it may easily be shown that this causes a continuous murmur, which fatigues the sense of hearing, so that in this case also sleep results from exhaustion. The hypnotizing processes in which a method in- volving contact with the skin is necessary, are, however, susceptible of more than one interpretation. We know that magnetizers formerly made use of what are termed passes; these passes consist in lightly touching the subject, either directly, or indirectly, through his clothes, and a prolonged repetition of these gestures produces sleep. Ch. Kichet has ascertained that a gentle excite- THE MODES OF PKODUCING HYPNOSIS. 91 ment of the skin may produce the somnambulist sleep as well as the excitement of the special senses ; yet it may be assumed that the success of the passes is greatly due to the psychical element. We must note one interesting point in the history of hypnotizing processes, by means of irritation of the skin. On looking over the writings of magnetizers in the first half of the century, we are struck by the re- currence of certain gestures which contributed to dis- credit animal magnetism. It appears that the experi- menter often caused his subject to sit down opposite to him, pressed his or her knees within his own, grasped the thumbs with his hands, and sometimes applied his forehead to that of the subject of experiment. These gestures, which appeared to be indecent, and unnecessary for the purpose he wished to effect, were in fact founded on accurate observations, which have since been verified. It has been ascertained that when the scalp of hj'pnotized subjects is slightly irritated, the character of the sleep is changed. Thus, individuals plunged in the state designated by Charcot as lethargic or cataleptic, may be made to pass into the somnambulist state by a slight friction in the region of the scalp. Heidenhain, Griitzner, and Berger, by slight and prolonged friction on one side of the heads of subjects in the waking state, have produced in them a unilateral hypnosis, displayed by an excessive muscular excitability. The influence of irritation localized in certain regions has recently been well described by Pitres, who has shown that in some subjects there are zones he terms hypnogenic, sometimes superficial, sometimes deeply seated, and that even a slight irritation of these zones may produce hypnosis, 92 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. or occasionally cause it to cease* Sucli zones may be found in all parts of the body, but most frequently in the vicinity of the joints, on the scalp, and especially on the forehead, and also at the root of the thumb. The legitimate observation of facts therefore justifies the gestures formerly in use, and we must not hastily condemn or deny that which we do not understand. Irritation of the skin is as effectual when it is done with a feather, or some other inert body, as with the hand. We have ascertained that the sleep may be produced in several instances by placing a magnet close to an hypnogenic zone. We have also observed that the subject may put himself to sleep by pressing on such a zone. It should be added that each subject may display different hypnotic zones, not only as to their site, but as to their action; lethargy, catalepsy, and somnambulism may result in their several forms from the excitement of one or other of these zones. Heat may produce the same efi'ect as a mechanical excitement of the skin. Berger showed that he could produce hypnosis by holding his hot hands near the head of a person in a natural sleep ; the heat disengaged from his hands produced this effect, for when he wore woollen gloves, or covered the sleeper's head, hypnotization did not occur. Berger also obtained like effects by placing metal plates, moderately heated, near the heads of his subjects. An excitement which is not felt may have a hypno- tizing effect, since consciousness is a super-added element, which is not essential. Thus the magnet, which acts as a peripheral excitement, may hypnotize a subject * A, Pitres, Des zones hysM-oghies et hypnogenea. Bordeaux, 1885. THE MODES OF PEODUCING HYPNOSIS, 93 without his perceiving the action exerted by this body on his organism. The influence of the magnet on hypnosis was first pointed out by Landouzy, in 1879, and the fact was afterwards verified by Chambard, and by the present writers. Hypnotization by sensorial excitement, or by a physiological process, may be summed up as follows : — 1. By excitement of the sense of sight : (a) Strong and sudden excitement, by luminous rays, by solar or electric light, or by the sudden incandescence of a magnesium wire ; (b) slight and prolonged excitement, by fixing the eyes on an object, brilliant or otherwise, ' which is placed near the eyes, and somewhat above their level. 2. By excitement of the sense of hearing : (a) Strong and sudden excitement, by a gong, by copper instru- ments, etc. ; (b) slight and prolonged excitement, by- the ticking of a watch, the vibrations of a tuning-fork, or any other monotonous sound. 3. By excitement of the senses of taste and smell. 4. By excitement of the sense of touch : (a) Strong and sudden excitement, by pressure on the hypnogenic zones; (b) slight and prolonged excitement, by passes^ contact, action of heat or of the magnet. These several physiological processes act very differ- ently on different subjects. When used in combination, their effect may be greater or more rapid. Although, as Braid has shown, the operator's personality has not the importance which was formerly ascribed to it, yet it cannot be said to be altogether negative. It can easily be proved that some experimenters are more successful than others, at any rate with some subjects. This 94 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. elective phenomenon is not unimportant, and is perhaps partly due to the specific heat, smell, etc. If this elective aflSnity exists in physiological pro- cesses, it is much more manifest in those processes which are psychical. In fact, hypnosis is not produced only by sensorial and peripheral excitement ; it is also efiected by central excitement, that is, by acting on the imagi- nation. It may be asserted that, whenever the subject is warned that he is about to be hypnotized, his mind contributes to the success of the operation, and the sleep is partly due to psychical action. The Abb6 Faria, who induced sleep by intimation, has clearly shown that hypnosis may be effected by psychical action. His process consisted in desiring the subject, in an imperious voice, to go to sleep, and some- times, without uttering a word, a commanding gesture was enough to effect his purpose. Faria's simple process is rarely employed, and insinuation is often substituted for intimation. Sleep may, for instance, be induced by telling the subject that he is sleepy or heavy, that his eyelids are closing, that he does not hear, nor see, etc., or — as we have ourselves observed — when the experimenter himself feigns to sleep. This gentle process is perfectly successful with subjects who have previously been hypnotized in other ways, and it succeeds at once with predisposed subjects, who have been under a course of treatment, and who feel confidence in the operator, and in the result of the operation. It is, in fact, only sugges- tion in the waking state. This suggestion is often veiled by manoeuvres which formerly led to the belief that it was possible to magne- tize from a distance. A susceptible subject could be put THE MODES OF PEODUCING HYPNOSIS. 95 to sleep by making passes through a door, if only the subject was aware that a magnetizer was present with that purpose in view. This experiment, intended to show that somnambulism is produced by a fluid which escapes from the magnetizer's body, and passes through opaque bodies, simply proves that the subject's fixed idea that he is being hypnotized is enough to put him to sleep, and this is a psychical impression. In this way it can be explained how a magnetizer in Paris can hypnotize one of his subjects in the country, when the latter ia aware on what day and at what hour the operation is to begin ; and, again, how some subjects are hypnotised by causing them to touch objects to which magnetic virtue has been openly ascribed; This likewise explains the action of magnetized water and magnetized trees. But the most striking experiment is the suggestion of sleep after a long interval of time. The subject is assured, with the necessary firmness and authority, that after so many days, at such an hour, he will spontaneously fall asleep. On the day appointed and at the given hour the suggestion is realized ; the subject is overcome by sleep in the midst of his occupations, and in whatever place he may happen to be. Several writers, who have observed the power of suggestion as an hypnogenic agent, have regarded it as universally present. Thus Braid asserts that the imagi- nation of the subject is an indispensable element in the success of the experiment ; he declares that the most expert hypnotizer will exert himself in vain, unless the subject is aware of what is passing and surrenders him- self, body and soul. In our day, some authors have maintained that the expectant attitude was the cause of 96 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. all hypnotic phenomena, as well as of the phenomena of metallotherapeutics. Schneider and Berger consider that hypnosis is produced by a unilateral concentration of the attention. These assertions are too absolute. A whole series of purely physical agents exist, which prove that sleep can be induced without the aid of the subject's imagination, against his will, and without his knowledge. We will mention, in conclusion, some of the experi- ments made by one of the present writers,* which confirm the idea already suggested by Braid, that hypnosis results from the exhaustion of the cerebral influx. An experi- mental proof can be given that all the sensorial excite- ments which induce hypnosis act by exhaustion, for the first effect of these excitements is an exaggeration of the motor phenomena. If the subject is made to hold a dyna- mograph in his right hand in such a way as to exert no pressure on it, and if he is then hypnotized, it can be ascertained that a motor discharge occurs in the in- terval between the excitement and the sleep. There is an intense pressure of the fingers on the dynamograph, and, indeed, the movement extends to all the muscles of the body. It is therefore probable that the hypnogenic excitement provokes an exhausting activity. We are here met by the difficulty that the theory of exhaustion does not -explain the sleep produced by sug- gestion. It has often been said that the psychical element in hypnosis vitiates aU the attempts to give a physical explanation of this state. While admitting that the problem is difficult, we think it possible to * Ch. Fere, Inhibition et epuisement QSoc. de Biologie, May 7, 1886) ; Impuisednce et pessimisme {Revue Philosophique, July, 1886) ; La midieine d' imagination {Vrogrh Medicale, 1886, p. 717). THE MODES OF PEODUCING HYPNOSIS. 97 reconcile some psychical processes of hypnotization with processes due to exhaustion. All kinds of suggestion consist in making one idea predominant in the subject's mind ; the suggestion of sleep is included in this category, and hypnotization is eifected by the idea of sleep. Re- peated experiments, which we shall afterwards mention in detail, show that every idea is an image, that every image recalls an anterior sensation. From this point of view, hypnotization by suggestion consists in hypnotiza- tion by physical excitements, not actually occurring, but remembered. In confirmation of this assertion, we give an example of an experiment communicated to us by Ballet. The suggestion was made to a subject, either in her waking state or in a previous sleep, of an electric lamp, shining from the comer of the room. The subject was awake and conversing tranquilly. When told to look in the corner where the imaginary lamp was placed, she was at once attacked by catalepsy, just as if the electric ray had shone upon her face. Hallucination, that is, the image of the luminous impression, produced the same effect as the actual impression, because it was recalled to her mind. So it seems probable that the suggestion of sleep only effects . its purpose by inducing the recollection of certain impressions of fatigue which involve exhaustion in the same way as a physical excitement. The awakening of the hypnotized subject, as well as his hypnotization, may be effected by two different pro- cesses — by a peripheral impression, or by a central and psychical impression. It is generally enough, in order to awaken the subject, to breathe lightly on his eyes or fore- head. The wind from a pair of bellows may be substi- 98 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. tuted without inconvenience for breathing from the mouth, or a few drops of water may be sprinkled on the face. When these means fail, the subject's eyelids are opened, in order to breathe strongly on the cornese. And, in the case of hysterical patients, who do not. awake under this treatment, pressure is applied in the region of the ovarium. Pitres has also shown the existence of super- ficial zones in many hysterical subjects, which may be excited in order to awaken them. It is very probable that they might be awakened by addressing special senses, particularly those of sight and hearing. But nothing certain is known on these points. If the experimenter breathes on one half of the forehead, while sheltering the other half with a screen, only half of the body is awakened. The subject may also be awakened by a psychical impression. When the order to awake is repeated a certain number of times, the subject awakes, just as he goes to sleep when ordered to do so. We see that there is a certain parallelism between the causes which produce hypnotism and those which remove it, and that in both cases it is done by excite- ment, whether of the surface of the skin, or of the special senses, or by a psychical excitement. This relation be- tween the two processes is still more marked in some hysterical patients in whom there are found zones en- dowed with inverse properties, at once hypnogenic and the reverse. When the patients in question are awakened, an excitement of one of these zones, as for instance oa the scalp, hypnotizes them, and an excitement of the same spot awakens them. In this case it may be said that the same cause has produced contrary effects, de- pending on the physical condition of the subject at the TUE MODES OF PEODUCING HYPNOSIS. 99 moment of its action. But this is not a general rule. Some zones are exclusively hypnogenic; others are exclusively the reverse. If there are numerous ways of producing hypnotism, their eiBcacy greatly depends upon the conditions. The first of these is habit. It has been justly observed that the first attempt to hypnotize a subject nearly always fails, and that it almost invariably succeeds when the experiment has been several times repeated. It is important to note this fact of hypnotic education. Although absolutely no effect may be obtained at the first seance, and the subject may declare that he ex- perienced nothing, yet the attempt has impressed a permanent modification on his nervous system, which will render subsequent attempts more easy. At first the sleep is tardily produced, then it comes in a few minutes, next in a few moments, and finally almost instan- taneously. After this, the subject is entirely in the magnetizer's power. It is interesting to observe that these facts are the expression of a general physiological law — the law of repetition. Numerous psychometrical experiments have shown; first, that when an act is frequently repeated, with sufficient intervals of repose, each series of repetition is accompanied by a shortening of the period of reaction; secondly, that this period becomes shorter in proportion to the increase in the number of repetitions ; thirdly, that it is finally reduced to its lowest limit. We now come to one of the questions most disputed at this time in the history of animal magnetism, namely, whether every individual is capable of hypnotization by the processes of which we have given a general account, 100 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. or if, in order to eflfect the result, a morbid predisposition must exist in the subject. Is there, to use Ladame's ex- pression, an hypnotic neu7'0sis, without which hypnotiza- tion is impossible, and are nervous diseases, and especially hysteria, to be regarded as the indispensable predis- position ? We have already said that, as far as its production is concerned, artificial cannot be separated from natural sleep, and we will add that in its attenuated forms the one does not differ from the other in nature and character. We readily admit that artificial sleep may be produced in any subject by repeating, varying, and sufficiently prolonging the attempts, so as to induce fatigue. Before asserting that this result is impossible, these attempts should be made, and it logically rests with the sceptics to prove a negative. It is, however, certain that most nervous patients, and especially those suffering from hysteria, are distinctly predisposed to the hypnotic sleep, and that it differs from natural sleep by special physical characteristics. It is precisely the addition of such characteristics which constitutes the most important part of the question, for these physical phenomena serve as the indication of the extremely complex psychical manifestations which accompany them. Up to this time it has been asserted that physical phenomena, impressing a sjiecial character on the sleep, have only been observed in the hypnotism of hysterical patients, described by Charcot and Richer under the name of profound hypnotism. We admit that, in a great majority of cases, sufficient exhaustion to cause sleep may be artificially induced. But the following point remains THE MODES OF PRODUCING HYPNOSIS. 101 open to discussion : whether, because it is proved that an individual is artificially put to sleep, it necessarily follows that this is a special, not a natural sleep. Even if this question should be decided in the aiErmative, and it should be established that no one is absolutely refractory to hypnotism, we should feel justified in asserting that hypnotic phenomena consist in a disturbance of the regular functions of the organism. As Barth lately observed, it is possible to give every one a headache, but this does not prove that a headache is a physiological state. We do not therefore accept the opinion of those authors who treat hypnosis as a physio- logical state, and appear more anxious to separate it from other forms of neurosis, than to connect it. with them.* A second question is immediately connected with the former, namely, whether an individual susceptible to hypnotism can be hypnotized without his consent, and even against his will. Many persons are agitated by the idea that a stranger may influence and dispose of them as if they were mere automata. This is certainly dangerous to human liberty, and it is a danger which increases with the repetition of experiments. When a subject has been frequently hypnotized, he may be un- consciously hypnotized in several ways : first, during his natural sleep, by a slight pressure on the eyes ; next, in the case of an hysterical patient, by surprising her when awake by some strong excitement, such as the sound of a gong, an electric spark, or even by a sudden gesture. Some curious anecdotes are told on this subject. An "■ Under the name of hypnoscope, Oehorowiez hns invented an instru- ment to show the peculiar sensitiveness of some subjects to the magnet. These subjects appear to be also more easily hypnotized. 102 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. hysterical patient became cataleptic on hearing the brass instruments of a military band ; another was hypnotized by the barking of a dog ; another, who had hypnogenic zones on her legs, fell asleep in the act of putting on her stockings. Even supposing that the subject knows that he is to be hypnotized, and desires to resist, this resistance will often be in vain, in spite of his urgent protestations, and he will soon submit to the authority which the experimenter has acquired over him. Sometimes, how- ever, it has occurred to the subject that he will not sleep, and then the experimenter finds himself opposed by an idea which he is unable to modify ; — neither the gong nor the electric light produces any effect, and pressure on the eyes, continue^ for hours, only brings on an attack of convulsions. If these fixed ideas are artificially developed, they form an almost complete obstacle to all attempts at hypnotization. Of this the patients are aware, and some- times, when they do not wish to be hypnotized by a given person, they cause their companions to hypnotize and suggest to them. Experimenters sometimes adopt similar expedients; and the caskets and talismans which have been given to patients, with the assurance that no one can hypnotize them while they carry these objects about, must be regarded as simply a mode of suggestion. With respect to persons who have never been hypno- tized, and to the question whether they can successfully resist the forcible attempt to put them to sleep, some authors have said that an individual can prevent any one from hypnotizing him, if he resists. The naivete of this assertion reminds us of those philosophers who say, " I am free to do thjs or that, if I wish it." Everything depends on whether the subject can exercise resistance THE MODES OF PRODUCING HYPNOSIS. 103 and use his wilL It must not be supposed that because moral resistance is a psychical function, it is found to an eqiial degree in aU men. On the contrary, it varies with the individual, just as muscular force varies. The ques- tion does not therefore admit of a simple answer. In the case of a person who has never been hypnotized, and is not very susceptible to hypnotism, his consent, and even his good will are very necessary for the success of the operation, and without these he cannot be hypnotized. But some people are excessively susceptible, and in them the resistance is necessarily slight. They may be taken by surprise when naturally asleep and hypnotized by pressure on the eyes, and in the waking state they may be intimidated, taken by surprise, and may even receive dangerous suggestions without being put to sleep.* Such persons should guard themselves carefully, since the seriousness of the danger cannot be denied. * In confirmation of thia statement, we may cite the well-known story of a girl hypnotized by a beggar called Castellon. She left her father's house in order to follow him, although regarding him with terror and disgust, and remained in his power for four days, during which time he outraged his unhappy victim several times. (Despine, Miude tcientifique sur le wmnabulume. 1880.) 104 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. CHAPTER V. SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. The hypnotic sleep, by whatever processes it may have been effected, is displayed under vei-y different aspects : sometimes it is marked by distinct physical charac- teristics, and is then designated as profound hypnotism; at other times it does not differ from the natural sleep, and it is then termed slight hypnotism. Between natural sleep and the most profound hypnosis it is possible to establish an unbroken chain of intermediate states, which it is somewhat difficult to distinguish from each other. The diversity of symptoms which marks the gradation of hypnotic states accounts for the disputes which are of daily occurrence, and which are far from being exhausted. Each observer, who con- scientiously describes the subject before him, believes himself to be in possession of the whole truth, and allows himself to doubt the phenomena which he does not ■ find in this instance. In many cases be even denies their existence, thus contributing to establish an absolute disbelief in those who do not observe for themselves. Without attempting a critical study of these dis- crepancies, we believe that they may be ascribed to two chief causes : first, the different states of the patients on whom the experiments are tried; second, the variable SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 105 nature of the exciting causes of hypnotic phenomena in these patients. If the Salp^trifere school obtained results which do not only agree with each other, but with those obtained by other observers (Tamburini, Seppili, etc.), it is because they took care to define with the utmost accuracy the physical conditions of their subjects, and the nature of their experimental processes. These two points include the whole method summed up by Paul Richer * in the following propositions : — 1. To choose those sutgects for experiment whose physiological and pathological conditions are well known to resemble each other. 2. To submit the different experimental conditions to a rigorous law. 3. To proceed from the simple to the compound, from the known to the unknown. 4. To guard carefuUy against simulation. 5. To be chiefly occupied with simple cases, that is, with those in which the different phenomena appear to be most distinct and isolated from each other. 6. To follow the method of nosologists in classing these different phenomena in natural series, so as to establish several subdivisions in the great group of facts collected under the name of hypnotism. We shall in our description accord the first place to hysterical hypnosis, which is entitled to serve as an intro- duction to the general study of hypnotism, not only on account of its historic importance, but on account of its clearly marked divisions, and the intensity of its symp- toms. We shall describe separately each of the hypnotic • P. Richer, Eludes eliniques sur la grande liysigrie, ou, Syst^ro- epilepsie, p. 512, 2ud edition. 1885. 106 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. symptoms, beginning with the neuro-muscular phenomena, "which are manifested by more objective, and to some extent more palpable, signs than the others. We shall substitute synthesis for analysis, and give an account of the different nervous states designated by Charcot under the names of lethargy, catalepsy, and somnambulism. In order to do this, we must define the nature of these hypnotic states, which have been the subject of so much discussion. Our study of profound hypnotism will be succeeded by that of its slighter forms; we shall endeavour to classify all these different states, and to connect them with each other, so as to show how the phenomena of hypnotism are allied with those of physiology. We hold that hypnotism should not be considered by itself, nor simply as a matter for curiosity ; it is chiefly im- portant as enabling us to study the physiological processes in man, and especially the cerebral functions, and it is adapted to play a considerable part in psychology. We do not propose, however, like some German writers, to discuss theories on the mechanism of the nervous sleep, since these theories, whether physical, chemical, or physiological, are not founded on solid experi- ence, and appear, at all events at present, to constitute the metaphysics of hypnosis. We shall aim at giving to the ensuing descriptions a purely symptomatic character. I. Neuro-muscular Hyperexcitabilitt. Definition — Excitement of the Muscles. — Charcot and his school regard this important phenomenon as the dominant characteristic of lethargy. SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 107 The patient in a lethargic state appears to be in the deepest sleep; the eyes are closed, or half-closed, the eyelids quiver, the face is impassible and expressionless. The body is perfectly helpless ; the head is thrown back ; the limbs hang slackly down, and if they are raised and again dropped, they fall heavily back into the same position. An examination of the muscles shows, however, that they have acquired the property of contracting under the influence of a direct mechanical excitement, and even, when thus contracted, of forming a contracture, that is, of remaining fixed in the acquired position. To this phenomenon Charcot gives the name of neuro- muscular hyperexcitability.* It may be produced by very simple treatment. For instance, on kneading the muscles on the front of the fore-arm, the limb be- comes fixed in a bent position; if the thenar eminence is excited, the thumb turns inward on the palm of the hand. If the muscles of the face are excited, those, for instance, which connect the malar bones with the lips, the latter are raised upwards and outwards. It may be said that all the striated muscles respond to mechanical excitement, without excepting those which do not usually contract under the influence of the will, like the muscles of the pinna of the ear. The abdominal and thoracic muscles form no exception to this rule, so that it is imprudent to perform experiments of this kind on hypnotized patients without an accurate acquaint- ance with "anatomy and physiology. Some unskilful experimenters have produced unpleasant phenomena by * J. P. Charcot and P. Bicher, De VhyperexcitahilM neuro-musculaire {Archives de Neurologic, 1881-1882). 108 . ANIMAL MAGNETISM. simply touching the larynx, and by manipulating the diaphragm. In order to produce a lethargic contracture, a me- chanical excitement is usually required, which goes beyond the limits of the skin, and either acts directly on the muscles, on the tendons, or on the nerves. There are several ways of applying the excitement ; in most cases friction, pressure, a shock, and massage are equally successful. The process may be carried out equally well with the hand and with an inert body. The application of a magnet, held at a little distance from a group of muscles, produces the same effect as direct mechanical excitement, but with more energy and diffusion.* Finally, the degree of excitement is important; a slight excitement produces a simple con- traction, a stronger one produces a contracture. Excitement of the facial iniuscles. — The facial muscles, during the lethargy accompanied by neuro-muscular hyperexcitability, are differently affected from the other muscles of the body. Contraction may be produced by mechanically exciting the nerve which animates them, for instance, the facial nerve as it issues from the parotid, or by exciting the body of the muscle itself; but this contraction does not become permanent con- tracture. It generally ceases with the pressure, and if the excitement is continued for some time, the effect is exhausted, and the muscle becomes relaxed. In order to fix the contraction of the facial muscles during the lethargy, it occurred to one of the present writers to uncover the subject's eyes at the moment when contrac- tion had been effected. The subject at once became • Tamburini and Seppili, Bivista di Freniatria, p. 278, 1881. SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 1Q9 cataleptic, and the contraction of the muscle which had been excited was maintained for some time. It is possible to cause many of the muscles to con- tract singly, such as the frontalis, the depressor alse nasi, and the triangularis menti. Several muscles may also be contracted simultaneously, so as to produce what is termed by Duchenne combined, expressive contractions. With the finger, or with a slender stick, rounded at the end, all the electric experiments performed by Duchenne on subjects in the waking state, may be reproduced on the face of a subject in the lethargic state. These studies, carried on with the utmost care by Charcot and Richer, aiford an experimental proof of the part taken by each muscle in the expression of the emotions. In fact, with some few exceptions, the muscular action due to hyperexcitability is strictly localized in the muscle which has been directly excited; and the action of this muscle does not induce that of the other muscles which are habitually associated with it, in order to pro- duce an emotional expression. For instance, by press- ing the finger, or the end of a blunt pencil on the zygomaticus major, an isolated contraction of this muscle may be effected, so as to give the expression of a forced laugh. In order to obtain the expression of spontaneous laughter, the inferior half of the orbicularis palpebrarum must be simultaneously excited. Lastly, the hyperexcitability of the muscles of the face make it possible to set in motion those muscles which are not usually subject to the will, such as those of the pinna of the ear. The contraction of the muscles is not only produced by acting on their fleshy body ; the mechanical excife- 110 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. ment of their tendons, or fibrous extremities, produces the same effect. Excitement of the Tendons. — The effect of exciting the tendons of the knee is particularly marked. If, in the case of a normal individual, the ligamentum patellae is struck, a contraction of the quadriceps femoris takes place, and this induces a slight shock in the limb, to- gether with an extension of the leg. Hysterical subjects frequently present in their waking state an exaggera- tion of this tendon reflex. But some fresh symptoms occur in the artificial lethargy : first, a diffusion of the reflex action which is displayed in the shock extending to all the corresponding half of the body ; and next, by a marked tendency to contracture. Excitement of the Nerves. — The mechanical excitement of the peripheral nerve-trunks is chiefly interesting from the fact that it produces the contracture of all the muscles to which the excited nerve is distributed. Hence it results that the limb subject to experiment assumes a characteristic attitude, which is determined by the special distribution of the branches of the ex- cited nerve to the muscles of that region. It has been said that neuro-muscular hyperexcitability constitutes an anatomical demonstration of the reality of the nervous sleep; it is at any rate certain that this phenomenon cannot be simulated, even by those subjects who are thoroughly acquainted with anatomy. The nerves of the arm, which are easily accessible to mechanical excitement, are generally chosen to demon- strate this neuro-muscular property of lethargy. The ulnar nerve may be easUy reached, in the region of the elbow in the hollow between the olecranon and the internal SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. Ill condyle. If mechanical pressure is exerted by the finger on this point, the subject's hand becomes contractured in the attitude represented in Fig. 1. Pig. 1. — ^Uliiar attitude. (From Charcot and Bicher.) The fundamental characteristics of this attitude, which presents some secondary variations in different subjects, are the flexion of the ring and little fingers, the adduction of the thumb, the extension and separa- tion of the index and middle fingers. Analysis shows that this attitude is in complete accordance with our anatomical and physiological knowledge. On the one hand, anatomy teaches us the distribution of the ulnar nerve in the fore-arm and the hand ; on the other, physiology shows the partial action of the muscles by means of the ulnar nerve. By combining both these data, we may rigorously infer what attitude the hand ought to take under the combined action of all the muscles brought into play. The attitude - deduced by reasoning pi-ecisely agrees with the attitude produced 112 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. during lethargy by excitement of the nerve. The attitude is controlled by the localized faradisation. In healthy individuals faradic excitement of the nervous trunks gives the same results as mechanical excitement in subjects in the lethargic state. The median attitude, which is produced by exciting the median nerve, which extends along the inner edge of the biceps, consists in a contracture which causes the flexion of all the segments of the limb ; the fore-arm is Fig. 2.— Median attitude. Tig. 3.— Eadial attitude. (From Charcot and Eiclier.) raised in a constrained position, the wrist is bent, and the hand closes (Fig. 2). The radial attitude, which is in some sort the con- verse of the preceding one, consists in the supine position of the fore-arm, while -the wrist and all the fingers are extended. This attitude is produced by exciting the radial nerve, where it issues from the spiral groove of the humerus (Fig. 3). SYMPTOMS OP HYPNOSIS. 113 By the mechanical excitement of the spinal nerves, Berger and Heidenhain were able to produce movements in the limbs in correspondence with them. We have one remark to make on the localization of the contracture which is produced by exciting the nerve. In the case of the ulnar position, the hand becomes stiffened into what may be termed a sacerdotal attitude. In fact, the muscles in connection with the ulnar nerve are not the only ones affected ; their antagonists also are evidently in a state of tension, and it may be said that all the muscles of the hand are affected. Yet the ulnar attitude assumes a characteristic form which enables us to distinguish it from the median and radial attitudes which we have described. This is due to the fact that, in the collective action of the muscles of the hand, it is only the muscles connected with the ulnar nerve which give a characteristic attitude to the hand, and the other muscles only come into play in oi'der to keep the hand immovable in that attitude ; their contraction is perhaps due to the excitement which affects their fibres in consequence of their sudden extension. Galvanic Excitement of the Scalp. — The phenomena produced by the galvanic excitement of the scalp of a subject in the state of lethargy must be referred to an hyperexcitability allied to that which is neuro-muscular. Charcot observed that the application of a galvanic current to the cranial arch during lethargy produced strong muscular shocks in the subject's body. The posi- tive electrode is placed on the scalp, at a level with the motor regions, and the negative electrode is placed on the sternum, on the fore-part of the head, or behind the ear; When the circuit is interrupted, at its open- 114 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. ing, and especially at its closure, a distinct shock is produced on the opposite side of the body, and of the face. In some patients the shock occurs on both sides of the body, with a marked predominance on the side to which the electrodes are applied. When the same experiment is performed on subjects in the waking state, variable results are obtained. In some, the galvanic excitement has no effect ; in others, its effects are the same as in the lethargic state.* Character of tice Lethargic Contracture. — Lethargic contracture presents some characters which clearly dis- tinguish it from a voluntary contraction, and make it easy to ascertain that there is no simulation on the part of the subject. Experiments have been performed on strong and healthy subjects, who voluntarily assumed attitudes resembling those of lethargic contracture, and the com- parison furnished the following results. Under the influence of a continuous traction, the contractured limb of a lethargic subject gradually relaxes, just like the limb which is voluntarily stifiened. So far the re- semblance is complete, but the myographic and cardio- graphic tracings reveal curious differences. In the simulator, the trembling of the limb and the irregular breathing soon betray that the effort is voluntary ; in the hj'pnotized subject the respiratory rhythm does not vary, and the contractured limb is slowly relaxed, with- out the slightest irregularity. Charcot and Richer state that when, during lethargy, a group of muscles is excited, and at the same time the limb is not allowed to move in the direction of the * J. M. Charcot, SodeUde Biologie, January 7 and 14, 1885. SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 115 muscles under excitement, this excitement is trans- ferred to the antagonist muscles. For instance, if while exciting the extensors of the fingers the hand is kept half bent, its flexion is accentuated by the con- traction of the flexors, although the excitement was limited to the extensors. We remarked above on an analogous fact; the attitude due to a lethargic con- tracture depends not only upon the muscles which are excited, but also on the antagonistic muscles. It may be stated as a rule of mo tor- nerve power, that the antagonist shares in the excitement of any muscle whatever. In ordinary circumstances, this contraction of the antagonist has only a regulating function, but it may become preponderant if the eflect of the direct contraction is in any way arrested.* If the conti-acture is left to itself, it will continue thnjughout the lethargy ; in some subjects the transition to another phase of sleep, or the awakening, will put an end to the contracture ; in others, it will remain for an indefinite time, even after thc-y are awake. In order to put an end to it, the expei iinenter must in this case throw the subject into a fresh lethargy, and then proceed to excite the antagonistic muscles. Friction and the kneading of the muscles will, in fact, soon relax lethargic contractures. When fl, con- tracture of the flexors has been produced, the excite- ment of the extensors on the back of the hand will soon cause it to disappear. If the sterno-mastoid muscle has been excited, so as to produce a rotation of the head in the opposite direction, the excitement of the opposite muscle will bring back the head to its original * ChaiTOt and Richer, Brain, October, 1885. 116 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. position. This antagonistic action is one of the charac- teristics peculiar to contractures of the lethargic type. There is another interesting phenomenon which should not be omitted in the histoiy of neuro-muscular hyperexcitability. Under the name of "a paradoxical contraction," Westphal has described the foUomng phenomenon : — When a sudden and energetic movement of dorsal flexion is, for instance, given to the foot, the anterior tibial muscle contracts so as to produce ad- duction and a certain degree of dorsal flexure of the foot, which remains fixed in this position. Charcot shows that this phenomenon is more marked in hyper- excitable patients. If, instead of abruptly bending the limb, it is gently placed in the same position, and the extensor muscles are mechanically excited, the limb remains fixed in the attitude oif flexion. The excite- ment of the extensors has a reflex action on the flexors to which they respond by forming a contracture. Erleraeyer makes the reasonable suggestion that the term " contracture by antagonistic distension " should be substituted for that of " paradoxical contraction." This phenomenon, which is most marked in hysterical and hyperex citable subjects in the state of lethargy, explains why some of these subjects retain the positions due to a sudden eifort, as, for instance, when a subject who has thrown a stone, or given a blow, retains his arm in contracture in that ])osition.* The EBsthesiogenic action on lethargic contracture must be briefly noticed. In subjects sensitive to the magnet, the transfer of unilateral contractures may be * Ch. ¥4c6, La Contraction paradoxale {Vrogrh Medical, 1884, p. 69). SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 117 effected by means of this agent ; thus, when the ulnar attitude has been produced in the right hand, and a magnet is brought close to the subject's fore-arm when he is asleep, and even when he is awake, both his hands become agitated with slight, jerking movements ; then the contracture of the right hand ceases, and is trans- ferred to the left hand, without losing any of its charac- teristics or of its precise localization. Several other agents, such as a vibrating tuning-fork, metals, and electricity in all its forms, may be used to effect the transfer.* Some interesting phenomena are allied with this last experiment. If the circulation is arrested by the circular compression of a limb in a centripetal direction, by means of one of Esmarch's elastic bandages, the me- chanical excitement of the limb thus rendered anaemic does not produce contracture, or rather, it produces a latent contracture, of which there is no external sign, but which is manifested when the circulation returns. In fact, when the bandage is removed, the contracture of the limb takes place in proportion as its colour returns.f Again, the magnet applied to the auBBinic member transfers the contracture to the sound member, in which it at once becomes visible (Charcot and Richer). We have observed a phenomenon somewhat allied to the one just cited. When a lethargic subject is placed under the influence of a magnet, and the subject's hand or arm is mechanically excited, the contracture does not occur in the muscle which is directly excited, but in the corresponding muscle of the other arm. * K. Vigoureux, Metalloscope, MetallotMrapie Esfhesiogenes (^Archives de Neurologie, 1881). t Brissaud et Rlchet, Progres Medical, Nos. 23, 21, 1880. 118 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. When the magnet is applied to a bilateral and symmetrical contracture, such as two radial or ulnar attitudes, it does not produce a transfer, but another phenomenon, for which wa have -suggested the term polarization.* Under the magnetizing influence, both the subject's hands, when in a state of contracture, display slight, irregular, and rapid oscillations, succeeded by more extensive movements, then by actual con- vulsions, and finally, the two contractures almost simultaneously disappear. According to Tamburini and Seppili, the neuro- muscular hyperexcitability of a limb may be destroyed by the application of cold water, or of ice. Neuro-muscular hyperexcitability, like other patho- logical symptoms, is not equally developed in all subjects. In some we only find an exaggeration of the tendon reflex with no tendency to contracture; in others the contractures may be displayed, yet without any precise localization. Finally, — a singular fact, which shows that in some subjects the waking and hypn(^tic states arc closely allied, and that there are symptoms common to hysteria and hypnosis, — contractures can be easily pro- duced in many hysterical patients in their waking state, either by kneading the muscles, by pressure on the nerves, or by striking the tendons. These contractures in the waking state are, indeed, of the same nature as those which occur during lethargy, since they yield to the excitement of the antagonistic muscles, and. may be transferred by the magnet ; they are occasionally as intense and as clearly defined. Several writers — Charcot and Richer, Heidenhain, Tamburini and Seppili, Brissaud * A. Biuet et Ch. Fere, La Polurimlion psycMque {Revue Philoa., 1885). SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 119 and Richet* — have observed that hyperexcitability may continue durmg the waking state. In many hysterical patients, digital pressure on the nerves will produce in the waking state median, radial, and ulnar attitudes, identical with those produced in the state of lethargy, with the exception that they are sometimes accompanied by pain. We may infer from these facts, at any rate in the case of some subjects, that an aptitude for contractures is not a. symptom peculiar to lethargy, and cannot prove the reality of that state. In reply to an inquiry into the nature of the con- tractures produced by muscular hyperexcitability, we should connect them with reflex phenomena, without, however, claiming to throw any vivid light upon the question. Even when the excitement is directly applied to the. centre of a muscle, the contracture which ensues is due to a stimulus which has followed the diastallic arc formed by the afferent nerves, the nerve-centres, and the efferent nerves. This is proved by the inhibitory action exerted by the antagonist muscles on the con- tracture, even when they are, like the sterno-mastoid pair, placed on either side of the median line. This kind of interference can only be produced in the nerve- centres, in the brain, or in the spinal cord. Some of the poisons which affect the central nervous system may, by suspending its action, serve to show the part taken by the nervous centres in neuro-muscular hyperexcitability. If an hypnotized subject is made to inhale ether or chloroform, the moment comes when all traces of hyper- excitability disappear, and the mechanical excitement of the muscles and the motor nerves ceases to take effect. • Fails pour survir a I'llistoire dee CuiUractures (Frogre-i Medical, Noa. 19, 23, 24, 18S0). 120 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. Finally, neuro-muscular hyperexcitability constitutes the most important objective characteristic of that hypnotic state which is termed lethargy ; it is displayed by an exaggerated reaction to mechanical excitement applied to the muscles, the nerves, and even to the nerve-centres. It cannot, however, be doubted that the same reactions may be produced on some subjects in the state of lethargy under the influence of superficial excite- ment of the skin, or of bones in the region of muscular insertions. It need not astonish us to find them occasion- ally in other hypnotic states. We have already observed that neuro-muscular hyperexcitability is displayed in some hysterical patients when not under the influence of hypnotism. In a slight degree, that is, when it is reduced to a simple exaggeration of normal reflex action, neuro- muscular hyperexcitability belongs to other pathological states of the nervous system, with which consequently it is necessary to be acquainted, in order that we may justly estimate the value of this phenomenon. II. Cataleptic Plasticity. Immobility is the most striking feature of the cataleptic state. The subject maintains all the attitudes given to his limbs and his body. The arms can be raised or bent by the observer with great ease, since they offer no resistance. The eyes are wide open, the gaze is fixed, and the countenance is expressionless. These collective phenomena give to a cataleptic subject an appearance which cannot be forgotten when once it has been seen. These attitudes cannot be maintained for an indefinite SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 121 time, as some authors have asserted. A cataleptic subject cannot remain in a constrained position for more than ten or fifteen minutes, and a strong man might do as much. The distinctive character of the cataleptic attitudes must be sought elsewhere. If, in a case of true catalepsy, a tambour is applied to the extended arm to register its slightest oscillations, and a pneumatograph to the chest, to obtain the curve of the respiratory movements (Fig; 4), the following facts may Fig. 4. — Plan of arrangements for experiments in cataleptic immobility. R, Marey's tambour; P, Pneumatograph; 0, Eevolving cylinder; T T, Tambonrs 'with lever. (Charcot, Lefons sur lea maladies du, systeme nervemc, vol. iii.) be ascertained : — the cataleptic limb does not tremble ; it drops slowly and gently, and the style of Marey's apparatus traces on the cylinder a perfectly regular straight line (Fig. 5, II). At the same time the respira- 122 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. tory tracing maintains the same calm and norma! character throughout the experiment (Fig. 5, I). On the Fig. 5. — Plau of tracings obtained from an hystero-epileptic patient in a state of hypnotic catalepsy (Charcot). I, Tracings of the respiration ; II, Tracings of the oscillation of the limb. other hand, an individual who voluntarily attempts to SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 123 raalntain such an attitude soon becomes fatigued, his hand trembles (Fig. 6, II) ; his breathing, calm at ^;,r. 6. Plan of tracings obtained from a man who attempted to maintain "the cataleptic attitude (Charcot). I, Tracings of the respiration; II, Tracings of the oscillations of the extepded limb. first, becomes hurried and irregular (Fig. 6, I). The 124 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. tracings show abrupt oscillations, which betray muscular fatigue, and the efforts intended to conceal it. The Salp^trifere experimenters have endeavoured to define the characteristics of true catalepsy, in opposition to the false catalepsy, or catalepsoid states, which may be met with in other phases of hypnotism. If the limb of a patient in a state of lethargy or somnambulism is raised and held up for a few moments, it will remain in the position in which it has been placed. At first sight, this might be called catalepsy, but the truth is that the muscles of the arm were excited by this process, and they have formed a contracture in situ. The limb is contractured, not cataleptic ; friction and massage will at once cause the muscles to relax. Besides, a certain resistance is offered to a change of attitude, and neither of these characteristics belong to true catalepsy. We do not, in fact, in profound hypnotism, meet with contractures during catalepsy. If a prolonged pressure is exerted on the muscles, nerves, or tendons, only a relaxation of the muscles takes place, which is followed by paralysis. Richer has devoted himself to the study of cataleptic paralysis. He shows that the paralyzed muscle loses its elasticity and becomes elongated, and the in- fluence of the opposing muscles becomes preponderant. For this reason, when the flexors are excited, the limb is extended. The cataleptic attitude is therefore the exact contrary of the lethargic attitude produced by the excite- ment of the same motor point. As, however, there is no contracture, the new attitude is not maintained with any rigidity. Localized faradization rapidly puts an end to cataleptic paralysis, if it should continue after sleep is over. It is modified with difficulty by excitement of the antagonists, and by suggestion. SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 125 The magnet and other sesthesiogenic agents may effect the transfer of cataleptic attitudes.* A subject is seated near a table on which a magnet is placed; the left elbow rests on the arm of the chair, the fore-arm and the hand are raised in a vertical position, the thumb and fore-finger are extended, and the other fingers are half bent. The right fore-arm and hand are stretched upon the table ; the magnet is placed at a distance of about five cen- timetres, covered by a cloth. At the end of two minutes, the right fore-finger becomes tremulous and is raised, the extended fingers of the left hand become flaccid, and so likewise is the hand for an instant. The right hand and fore-arm are raised and assume the original position of the left hand, which is extended on the arm of the chair with the waxy softness peculiar to the cataleptic state. It is possible to limit catalepsy to one half of the body, an experiment which it occurred to Descourtes to try at the Salpetrifere in 1878.t It is well known that during catalepsy the eyes are widely opened, and that the cataleptic subject falls into a lethargy if they are closed. If one eye, the right, for example, is closed while the other is kept open, a mixed state ensues ; the right side continues to be affected by catalepsy, while the left acquires all the characteristics of lethargy. If the right arm is raised, it retains the position given to it, while the left arm falls heavily down again. Mechanical ex- citement on the right side fails to produce reflex action, or contracture, while excitement on the left side imme- diately produces an intense contracture. Catalepsy may also be combined with somnambulism, * Ch. Fere and A. Binet, SociiU de Bidlogie, July 5, 18S5. t Progres Medical, December 21, 1878. 126 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. by first throwing the subject into a lethargy, and then acting on one side of the scalp, while opening the eye on the other side.* The magnet produces the transfer of all these divided states. The transfer of hemi-catalepsy, associated with liemi-lethargy, presents a special feature : at the end of the experiment, the eye remains open on the side which has become lethargic, and conversely, the eye remains closed on the side which has become cataleptic. Thus, in the case of a typical subject, this mode of transfer enables us to obtain a hemi-catalepsy with the eye closed, and a hemi-lethargy with the eye open.f Cataleptic attitudes display a certain number of characteristics to which we shall revert when we come to describe suggestions. Braid was the first to point out that there is a constant agreement between the attitude of the body and the expression of the countenance. The alternation which exists in catalepsy between the atti- tudes and the intellectual manifestations should also be noted. When, for instance, a cataleptic subject receives an hallucination, the fixed attitudes, artificially impressed on a limb, give place to complex and perfectly co-ordi- nated movements, corresponding with the object of the suggestion. The subject resembles a statue, endowed with animation ; presently the suggestion is exhausted, the hallucination loses its force, and the subject, if left to himself, again becomes immovable in a cataleptic attitude. This sort of oscillation between psychical and motor disturbance is peculiar to catalepsy. " Diimontpallier and Magnin, Sociildde Biohgie, 1882, p. 147. ■f Ch. Kere'and A. Biuet, SocUU'de liiohgie, July 5, 1884. SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 127 ITT. CUTANO-MUSCULAR HYPEREXCITABILITY. We have seen that during lethargy strong con- tractures may be produced by the mechanical excite- ment of the nerves, of the tendons, or of the bodies of the muscles themselves, and sometimes also by the excitement of the skin. In the state of somnambulism, as it is pro- duced in hysterical subjects, we find a contracture which seems to be of a different kind ; it differs both in the mode of excitement and in the mode of its relaxation. The starting-point for the contracture of somnam- bulism appears to be in the skin, which acquires an exquisite sensibilitj' ; it may be produced by making use of very slight superficial excitements, such as stroking, passing the hand over the hairs of the skin, breathing from the mouth, or moving the hand to and fro at a little distance, so as to induce a slight current of air, and perhaps also a psychical excitement. This is different from the contracture of lethargy, which is generally the result of a strong excitement. This first difference in- volves a second : produced by a diffused cutaneous excite- ment, the contracture of somnambulism is itself diffused, and although it may be limited to one segment of the limb, there is none of what may be called the anatomical localization of the contracture of lethargy. On the con- trary, the observations of Heidenhain and Dumontpallier show that it gradually overspreads those parts which had not been subject to the excitement. But the mode of relaxation offers the best distinction between these two species of contracture, at any rate in the typical cases of profound hypnotism. The excitement of the opposing muscles, which at once puts an end to the contracture 128 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. of hypnotism, has no effect on that of somnambulism ; it can only be relaxed by renewing for a few moments the cutaneous excitement which produced it. Other differ- ences have been noted, but they are less constant than those given above. It has been asserted that it is only the contracture of lethargy which can be transferred by the magnet, but we have been equally successful in the transfer of the contracture of somnambulism. The aptitude for contracture by means of cutaneous excitement is generally diffused over the whole surface of the body. But it is possible to limit it to a definite region by exciting the scalp in different ways.* We shall presently see, as we continue our description of the different states, that when a subject of profound hypno- tism is in a lethargy or catalepsy, friction of the scalp wiU cause complete somnambulism, and all parts of his body acquire an aptitude for cutaneous contractures. A lateral friction, limited to one side of the head, wil] produce hemi-somnambulism ; restricted to the corre- sponding side of the body, the state of the other half of the body remains unchanged. Thus we have a hemi-somnambulism, allied with hemi-lethargy, or hemi- catalepsy. If, again, instead of applying the friction to the whole of the scalp, a strong pressure is exerted with the finger, or some blunt instrument, on certain points of the hairy scalp which seem to correspond with the motor centres, it is possible to effect the partial somnambulism of the limb to which, the motor centre afiected appears to belong. In this way it is possible to effect the isolated somnambulism of one half of the face, one arm, one leg, both arms, both legs, and of • Ch. Fere and A. Binct, Society de Biohgie, July 19, 1884. SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 129 the whole face. It is even possible to produce the isolated somnambulism of the upper part of the face, by exciting a point of the scalp situated above the horizontal line which would pass through the eyebrows, and behind a vertical line which would pass at the back of the mastoid process, etc. The isolated and successive ex- citement of these different points produces a generalized, partial state of somnambulism, in which the subject speaks, hears, and is receptive of hallucinations. The rigorousness of these experiments secures them from fraud, for they involve the local disappearance of the phenomenon of neuro-muscular hyperexcitability which is peculiar to lethargy. This is not a phenomenon capable of imitation ; the subject can neither produce nor suppress it at pleasure. We think it is impossible to explain these experiments, and to decide if they are a con- firmation of cerebral localization, or if it is to be explained by the existence of reilexogenic zones. The latter inter- pretation appears to tis to be the most probable. We find, in fact, that in hysterical hypnotized subjects there are several zones in which excitement produces reflex action: first, the hysterogenic zones, on which the pressure produces an attack of hysteria, which is arrested when that pressure is removed ; * next, the hypnogenic zones, distinct from the former in their position and effects ; the excitement of these produces, or in some cases modifies and even puts an end to, the hypnotic . sleep. Then come the dynamogenic zones, pointed out for the first time by one of the present writers ; i" the excitement of these produces a momentary * Charcot, Maladies du Systeme nerveux, voL i. t Ch. Fere, Sensation est Mouoement (JBevue PliilosopMque, lS86)i 130 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. exaggeration of muscular force, which may be measured by the dynamometer. There are also erogenic zones, of which we shall speak presently. Finally, Heidenhain, Born, Dumontpallier, and Magnin have described the re- flexogenic zones, which, when excited in hypnotic subjects, produce motor phenomena, in places more or less distant fi'om that point on the skin which has been excited. In some of Heidenhain's subjects, pulling the skin of the nape of the neck, in the region of the cervical vertebrae, produced by reflex action a sonorous respiration, or groan ; in this way the celebrated experiment performed by Goltz on frogs is repeated on the human subject. DumontpalUer, by exciting the skin of the hairy scalp, produced direct or complex movements, in correspondence with the motor centres excited by him. All these experiments show that in the hypnotized subject many points of the body, and especially those of the hairy scalp, are in a state of hyperexcitability. It would be imprudent to go beyond this simple assertion. IV. Disturbance of the Breathing and of the Circulation. When a subject is put to sleep by a slow and pro- longed process, as for instance by fixity of gaze, it may be observed that after a while the breathing is quickened; then, at the moment when sleep comes on, a peculiar sound is often heard in the larynx. Tamburini and Seppili have applied the graphic methods of modern physiology to the study of the respiration and the circulation.'* The results to which they have arrived by • Bivista sperimentale di freniatria. No. 3, Scries vii.; Nos. 3, 4, Scries viil. SYMPTOMS OP HYPNOSIS. 131 these methods are in perfect agreement with those made at the Salpetrifere at about the same time. During the state of lethargy, the respiratory curve is fairly regular ; its movements are usually slow and deep ; in short, the respiration does not essentially differ from what it is in the normal state. The same may be said of the state of somnambulism. The only characteristic peculiar to hypnotism appears to be a certain disconnec- tion, or even a true antagonism between the thoracic and abdominal respiration. In catalepsy, however, there is a considerable modifica- Fig. 7. — Eespiratory tracing. L, during lethargy; G, during catalepsy. (Tamburini and Seppili.) tion in the mode of breathing. The movements are in- frequent, superficial, and extremely slow, and separated Ijy a longer or shorter interval of complete immobility. In the subjoined figure (Fig. 7), the widely different tracings afforded by catalepsy and lethargy may be compared. It has been observed that the application of a magnet to the subject's epigastrum produced profound modifica- 132 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. tions in the respiratoiy curve of lethargy ; in catalepsy, on the contrary, the curve was scarcely affected by the magnet. The subjoined figure (Fig. 8), which we owe to Tamburini and Seppili, who performed the experiment, accurately represents these two contrary effects. The Fig. 8 — ^Eespiralory tracing. L, curve of lethargy ; M + , the magnet is approacbed to the thorax ; C, catalepsy Is produced ; L, lethargy is produced; M — , the magnet is withdrawn. subject is placed in the state of lethargy; after a few regular respirations the approach of the magnet induces a strong movement of expiration, then of inspiration; SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 133 catalepsy is then produced by opening the subj ect's eyes, and the shallow breathing peculiar to this state is at once displayed. Soon afterwards the eyes are again closed, and lethargy is produced ; another deep expiration, followed by a deep inspiration, takes place, owing to the unchanged position of the magnet, and if this is removed, the curve of lethargy reverts to its normal type. The researches made by Tamburini and Seppili on the circulation are no less interesting. By means of Mosso's plethysmograph, and the air-sphygmograph, they ascertained that in the state of lethargy the graphic tracing shows a constant tendency to rise, and that when catalepsy is produced, it again descends gradually. In other words, lethargy increases the volume of the fore- arm, that is, causes the vessels to dilate ; catalepsy, on the other hand, diminishes the volume of the fore-arm, or causes the vessels to contract. Tamburini and Seppili's experiments were repeated by one of the present writers, and although the results obtained were not absolutely corroborative, yet they showed that modi- fications took place in the peripheral circulation which appeared to be wholly independent of the subject's will. We have dwelt long upon the neuro-muscular pro- perties of hypnotism, because the Salp^trifere school considers that these phenomena display physical signs which irresistibly prove the sincerity of the experiments. The precise localization of the lethargic contracture in the muscles supplied by the branches of the nerve which has been excited; the maintenance of the cataleptic attitudes without trembling or fatigue ; the efiects of a continuous traction on the contractures of lethargy and somnambulism; the limitation of each of these phe- 7 134 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. nomena to one half of the body ; their mode' of appear- ance and disappearance — all these signs serve as so many guarantees against simulation. On this point the demonstration is complete. It is almost certain that no individual in the waking state, unless affected by a nervous state allied to hypnotism, could imitate the distinctive physical signs by which profound hypnotism is manifested. The dread of simulation, which dominated the whole history of animal magnetism, has now become a completely imaginary danger, if the experimenter is adroit and cautious. V. Subjective Symptoms. Up to this time the modifications produced by hypno- tism in the condition- of the senses, and of the intellectual functions, have not been the subject of accurate research. Some isolated observations have been made, which are not wholly in agreement with each other, and no general view can be deduced from them. In order to obtain a clue to the labyrinth, we should compare hjrpnotic sleep with natural sleep, and we shall see that the psychical manifestations of hypnosis present a strong analogy to the faculty of dreaming. 1. The state of the senses, in hypnotic subjects, ranges from anaesthesia to hypersesthesia. During lethargy all the senses are suspended, with the occasional exception of the sense of hearing, which is sometimes retained, as it is in natural sleep. During catalepsy, the special senses are partially awake ; the muscular sense, in particular, retains all its activity. Finally, in somnam- bulism the senses are not merely awake, but quickened SYMPTOMS OF HYPKOSIS. 135 to an extraordinary degree. Subjects feel the cold pro- duced by breathing from the mouth at a distance of several yards (Braid). Weber's compasses, applied to the skin, produce a twofold sensation, with a deviation of 3° in regions where, during the waking state, it would be necessary to give the instrument a deviation of 18° (Berger.) The activity of the sense of sight is some- times so great that the range of sight may be doubled, as well as the sharpness of vision. The sense of smell may be developed so that the subject is able to discover by its aid the fragments of a visiting-card which had been given to him to smell before it was torn up (Taguet). The hearing is so acute that a conversa- tion carried on in the floor below may be overheard (Azam). These are interesting but isolated facts. We are still without any collective work on the subject, of which it would be easy to make a regular study, with the methods of investigation we have at our disposal. 2. More careful observations of the state of the memory have been made, but this state has only been studied as it is found during somnambulism, when it generally displays the same hyperexcitability as the other organs of the senses. The contrast between the memory on awaking and the memory during hypnotic sleep has been justly re- marked. There is a difference between the two phases of memory ; and this, indeed, is also the case with natural sleep. The hypnotized subject seldom re- members, on awaking, the events which occurred during his hypnotic sleep. On the other hand, when he is asleep his memory embraces all the facts of his sleep, of his waking state, and of previous hypnotic sleeps. 136 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. We will first consider the hyperexcitability of the memory which occurs in somnambulism. Eichet per- formed an experiment which throws a strong light on this strange phenomenon. " After hypnotizing V I recited some verses to her, and then awoke her. She was unable to remember them. I hypnotized her again, and she remembered the lines perfectly. When I awoke her, she had again forgotten them." The memory of a hypnotized subject has a wide range — much wider than it has at other times. Frequent instances of this extraordinary memory have been given, so surprising as sometimes to lead to the belief that the subjects were endowed with a mysterious lucidity. Richet remarks that somnambulists describe with minute details places which they have formerly visited, or facts which they have witnessed. In one instance, a hypnotized subject sang the air of the second act of I'Africaine, of which she could not remember a note after she awoke. Beaunis cites the case of a subject whom he induced during sleep to tell him all that she had eaten on the day, or two days before, without omitting a single item. When she awoke, he recounted the menu of her dinner, and she was astonished to find him so well informed. We have been able to make a hypnotized subject give the inenus of dinners she had eaten a week before. Her normal memory did not extend beyond three or four days, and in order to cause her to exceed this limit, it was necessary to use the excitement of the magnet. We give one more instance, well calculated to display the acute memory of somnambulists. A girl, in a state of somnambulism, was in Charcot's room at the Salp6- SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 137 tribre when Parrot entered, the physician to the refuge for Enfants assistes. The subject was asked what was the stranger's name, and she replied, to the surprise of all present, and without hesitation, "M. Parrot." On awaking she declared that she did not know him; but, after looking at him for a long while, she finally said, " I think that he is a physician at the Enfants assistes." When about two years old she had been for some time in this refuge, and had long forgotten the physician, whom she now recognized with difficulty in her waking state, while she could, during somnambulism, give his name when ordered to do so. The acuteness of the memory during somnambulism, without absolutely justifying those who assert that nothing is lost to memory, yet shows that its coTi- servative power is much greater than is supposed, when measured by the capacity of reproduction or re- collection. It proves that, in many cases in which we believe that a certain fact is completely efiaced from the memory, this is by no means the case ; the trace of it is there, but the power of recalling it is wanting; and it is probable that under the influence of hypnotism, or of some excitement to which we are sensitive, it would be possible to revive the apparently extinct memory of the fact in question. It is therefore evident that hypnotism has a peculiar power of exciting the recollection. Our experiments, which are in accordance with those of other observers, tend to show that in the sleeping and waking states the conservative memory is about the same. After repeated attempts to make hypnotized subjects repeat a series of figures after only one reading, we could not discover that 138 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. they were able to retain a greater number of figures than in their waking state. But these are negative experi- ments, which must not be taken for more than they are worth. The development of the memory under somnambulism may be compared with its development during natural sleep. There are numerous facts to show that in dreams we see people or hear names with which we were once acquainted, and which we believed we had completely forgotten. Maury, an author who may with advantage be consulted on the subject of sleep and dreams, gives several interesting examples of this revival of old memories in the sleeper. " Some years ago," he writes, "the word 'Mussidan' was recalled to my mind. I knew that it was the name of a town in France, but I had forgotten where it was. A few days later, I saw a person in my dreams who said that he came from Mussidan. I asked him where it was, and he told me that it was in the department of Dordogne." Maury verified the truth of this fact when he awoke. The same author gives another instance of the recall of forgotten facts in a dream. His youth was passed at Trilport, where his father built a bridge. He dreamed one night that he was a child at Trilport, and that he saw a man in uniform and asked his name. The man replied that his name was C , that he was the bridge-ward, and then disappeared. When he awoke, Maury was haunted by C 's name, and some time after he asked an old family-servant if she remembered any one of that name. She answered at once that a man named C was bridge-ward when his father was at work on the bridge.* * Maury, Sommeil et Eeves, p. 6. Paris, 1861. SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 139 The comparison we have just made between natural and artificial sleep may be extended to the phenomena which ensue on awaking. It is well known that the forgetting of dreams is an almost constant fact. At the moment of awakening we have a somewhat vivid sense of our dreams, which is effaced a few instants afterwards, unless we take the precaution of relating them to a third person, or of writing them down. So also in hypnosis ; if the sleep has been at all profound, forgetfulness ensues on awaking, and this forgetfulness is even more absolute than after the natural sleep. This characteristic fact has been noted by all observers. Take a subject who has been caused to execute the most complex acts, and to display the most dramatic hallucinations : he has ex- pressed astonishment, has laughed, wept, and been angry — passing through all the violent emotions ; he may even have fallen down and injured his head in so doing, yet he remembers none of these things when he awakes. If left to himself, he will be unable to recall one of the scenes in which he has taken part either as witness or actor. On a closer examination, however, we see that his forgetfulness is not absolute; a vague and confused memory remains, which may be revived by putting the subject on the right road, especially when he is aroused from somnambulism without allowing him to pass through its deepest phases. Heidenhain gives several instances of this recall of the memory, which is, indeed, equally possible in the case of ordinary dreams. After hynotizing his brother, Heidenhain repeated to him the following quotation from Homer : — He then awoke him, and in order to bring the line back 140 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. to his brother's mind, it was enough to say, " Homer, flight." The brother then accurately, but with extreme slowness, repeated the line in question. I take this instance from Richet, who cites another of the same nature : " On awakening F , I can revive his recollec- tion of what has occurred. He says at first that he remembers nothing, but if, for example, I indicate that he rose up in terror, he says, ' Ah yes, I remember that you made me see a serpent.'" Other experimenters — Beaunis, for example — have made use of a difierent method, suggestion. It was enough to suggest to some subjects that they would, on awaking, remember all that they had seen, heard, and done during sleep, and their recollection was accordingly complete. Delboeuf arrived at the same result without making any special suggestion; he ascertained that whenever the subject is awakened in the midst of an action, he is capable of remembering all that is connected with that action.* For instance, the experimenter smokes an imaginary cigar beside hia hypnotized subject ; he suddenly says that the burning ash has fallen from the cigar on to her neckerchief and has set it on fire. The subject rises at once, and places the neckerchief in a basin of water which stands on the table. This is the moment for waking her; she feels that her hands are wet, sees the neckerchief, and recalls the whole scene. In this experiment, the last act of the dream is the first act of awakening. Delboeuf insists on this condition, which he considers necessary to ensure the recollection. It is not enough that the suggestion made during somnambulism should leave a material * Delboeuf, La Mgmoire chez lea hypnotist (ffecue Philosophique, May, 1886). SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 141 trace; it is also necessary to surprise the subject by awaking him in the midst of an action. These experiments are the more interesting since they agree with other pathological facts. One of the present writers has shown that in the epileptic state, which has been compared to the so-called unconscious- ness of somnambulism, the patient may have retained the memory of the act reputed to be automatic, and can, under the same conditions, even explain it.* "We should not, however, be too hasty in including all these modes of reviving the memory in a formula, since the result depends upon many causes — the constitution of the subject, the form of the suggestion, the hypnotic educa- tion, etc. It may be a matter of surprise to learn that it is sometimes possible to cause a subject to remember some act committed during somnambulism, without putting him on the right road as Kichet does, or giving him a special suggestion like Beaunis, or awakening him in the midst of an act like Delboeuf; it may be done simply by firmness, and by fixing the subject's attention as steadily as possible on the memory which it is proposed to evoke. If at the same time an exciting cause, such as the magnet, is employed, it contributes to revive the memory by suggestion. Whatever may be the expedients devised to excite the memory of an individual issuing from the hypnotic state, so as to form a kind of bridge between his sleep and his awaking, the truth remains that a profound hypnotic sleep is always followed by a suspension of the power of memory — a fact proved by the very efforts * Ch. Fere, Note pour servir a I'liistoire dei actes impuUifs des epileptiques {Itevue de M^decine, 1885). 142 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. which it is necessary to make to restore it. It is evident that hypnosis produces a lesion of the memory. This lesion is, however, superficial rather than profound; it only affects one portion of the memory— that of the recollection; the memory of conservation remains almost intact, since a fresh sleep gives back to the subject the complete memory which he appeared to have lost in his waking state. It may, therefore, be said that the disturbance of the memory which ensues from somnambulism is superficial, and only concerns one kind of memory — that of recollec- tion; its power is exaggerated under somnambulism, and depressed on a return to the normal state, and we are still completely ignorant of the cause of such variations. "We shall have to make many such con- fessions of ignorance in the course of this work. It is difficult to define the intellectual condition of hypnotized subjects; we may estimate the keenness of their senses, and make an inventory of the contents of their memory, but it is not possible to appreciate with the same accuracy the state of their judgment and of their reason. All that can be done is to make the general remark that the intelligence of a hypnotic subject is developed in proportion to his sensitiveness. What is called lethargy implies a deep and dream- less sleep, in which the psychical faculties are usually dormant. Those subjects who retain the sense of' hear- ing are still capable of receiving some elementary suggestions : if pulled by the sleeve, they may be made to rise, and hallucinations of the hearing may also be produced ; but this is all which can be effected. It is, however, possible that lethargy only suspends the power SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 143 of reaction, and that behind the inert mask of lethargy a remnant of thought is still awake. In the two other phases of catalepsy and somnam- bulism, the sleep is not nearly so profound; the subject's intelligence comes into play, and the hypnotic dream begins. The automatism of catalepsy is its dominant character. This epithet has sometimes been used to define the in- tellectual character of hypnosis, but it is, in fact, only the cataleptic subject who can be termed an automaton. Catalepsy is sometimes allied with a partial wakefulness of the intelligence, which enables the experimenter to act on his subject by verbal suggestion. In all cases, catalepsy permits the mind to be handled with the same docility as the limbs; the subject's ideality may be said to be plastic. The suggestions oifered to him are inevitably accepted, since he never resists them. It has been justly said that a cataleptic subject ceases to have a personality; that there is no cataleptic ego. An analogous state may be found in certain dreams to which we surrender our- selves without reflection and without resistance. The condition of the somnambulist is very different; he is no automaton, but a person endowed with character, aversions, and preferences. For this reason thfe name of secondary condition, in opposition to the waking state, has been given to somnambulism. In this state there is certainly an ego. The somnambulist's intellectual condi- tion may be compared to those dreams in which the sleeper actively intervenes, and displays judgment, critical sense, and sometimes even mind and wUl. There are, indeed, somnambulists who dream spontaneously, and then cease to be en rapport with the experimenter. 144 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. Setting aside what concerns lethargy and catalepsy, we propose to study some developments of the in- tellectual state of a somnambulist. Somnambulism is emphatically the medico-legal state, and it is the state in which the aptitude to receive suggestions is the most fully developed. We have now under observation two subjects, repre- senting the two opposite types of somnambulism — the active and the passive types. The latter remains motion- less, with closed eyes, without speech or expression, and, if asked a question, she replies in a low voice. Yet we are confident that this repose of the intelligence is only apparent ; the subject retains her consciousness of places and of persons, and hears all that is said in her presence. The other subject is a singular contrast to the one we have just described, since she is in a state of perpetual movement. As soon as she is thrown into a somnambu- list condition, she rises from her chair, looks to the right and left, and will even go so far as to address the persons present with familiarity, whether she is acquainted with them or not. On one occasion the photograph of one of these persons was shown to her; she took it, looked for and found the original, and compared him with the photograph, in order to satisfy herself of the resemblance. At another time she spontaneously described some hyp- notic experiments which another person had performed upon her a few days before. In short, this subject did not, like the other one, appear to be asleep. These are, however, only appearances, and we must endeavour to examine more closely the psychical state of somnam- bulism. In the majority of subjects there is no marked SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 145 difference between fcheir normal life and that of somnam- bulism. None of the intellectual faculties are absent during sleep. It only appears that the tone of the psychical life is exaggerated ; excessive psychical excite- ment is nearly always present during somnambulism. This is clearly shown in the emotions. It is, in general, perfectly easy to make a subject shout with laughter, or shed tears. He is deeply moved by a dramatic tale, and even by words in which there is no sense, if they are uttered in a serious tone. It is curious to note the influence of music ; the subject expresses in all his attitudes and gestures an emotion in accordance with the character of the piece. In short, hypnotism does not appear to effect any radical change in the character of those subjects whom we have observed. The intellectual faculties are as active as before. The following is a convincing proof of the exercise of the mind. A patient who had been ad- mitted to the Salpetrifere at an early age was in the habit of tutoyiTig M. X when she was alone with him, or in company with her acquaintance ; she ceased to do so on the entrance of a stranger. Even under somnambulism this patient observed the laws of good breeding, address- ing M. X as tu when she was alone with him, and ceasing to do so as soon as a stranger came in. It is in somnambulists that we find the curious phenomenon of resistance, of which we shall speak further, when we come to consider suggestions. When an order is given to somnambulists, they will often dispute it, ask the reason, or refuse to obey. It is under the form of a refusal to obey a given order that resistance occurs; subjects more rarely resist hallucinations, since 146 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. these do not affect their personality. There are, how- ever, instances of this latter form of resistance. When we proposed to transform one of our subjects into a priest, and to give him a cassock, he obstinately refused it. It was suggested to one of Richet's subjects that her arm was being amputated, and she screamed at the sight of the flowing blood, but almost at the same moment she discovered that it was a fiction, and she laughed through her tears. Facts of this kind have unjustly led to the suspicion of imposture. Richet's subject was really under an hallucination, and beheld a sensible image^ but her reason was not completely paralyzed, and she was still able to defend herself against the false perception suggested to her. If we study our own dreams, we may all become aware of these curious duplications of the consciousness ; and this shows the connection between normal and hypnotic sleep. The dreamer is, in general, like the somnambulist to whom hallucinations are suggested; he is surprised by nothing, although the most absurd im- probabilities are presented to his vision. Yet there is sometimes a remnant of critical sense which induces him to say, in the midst of some grotesque scene, " But this is impossible ; I must be dreaming ! " Somnambulists can not only resist, they can tell lies. Pitres states that he suggested to a somnambulist woman that she should murder one of her neighbours, and when she supposed that the crime was accomplished, he caused her, stiU in the somnambulist state, to appear before a magistrate. She declared her innocence of the crime, and it was only after a prolonged examination, when pressed with questions and overwhelmed by proof, that SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 147 she finally confessed that she had stabbed her neighbour with a knife. And even then the confession was made with some reserve.* These facts show that a somnambulist is far from being, as some writers assert, an unconscious automaton, devoid of judgment, reason, and intellectual spontaneity. On the contrary, his memory is perfect, his intelligence is active, and his imagination is highly excited. Instances have been given of subjects who could, during somnambulism, perform intellectual feats of which they were incapable in the waking state. We ourselves have ascertained nothing decisive on 'this point, except that we have sometimes observed hypnotized subjects, who could read printing in an inverted position more rapidly than when they were awake, and who could even supply the omitted letters of a double acrostic. There is, indeed, nothing improbable in this quickening of the intellect. There are several instances of a thinker having, wh^en dreaming at night, resolved problems to which he had devoted the fruitless study of many days. We must, finally, note a peculiar mental state which is only found in slight hypnotism. The subjects assert, on awaking, that they have never for a moment lost consciousness, and that they have in some sense been present as witnesses at the phenomena of suggestion developed by the magnetizer. The very vague observations to which we have been obliged to restrict ourselves show the difficulty of stating the psychical formula of somnambulism. We are content to assert that the state is not accurately defined bj' applying to it the term of automatism. * PiU'Os, De la suggestion liypnotique, p. 63. Bordeaux, 1884. 148 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. Finally, their aptitude for suggestions is a feature of the intellectual state of hypnotic subjects, and this fact is so important that we propose to treat of it apart. The phenomena of elective sensibility, which we have already mentioned in speaking of the processes of hypnotization,are considerably developed during somnam- bxilism. Somnambulist subjects often display a kind of attraction for the experimenter who has hypnotized them by touching the scalp. We shall see presently that friction of the scalp is the means most generally used in the secondary production of somnambulism. When pressure on the scalp is effected with an inert object, as, for instance, with a paper-cutter, a state of indifferent somnambulism is generally produced : the subject remains calm, and may be approached and even touched by any one without causing him to make any gesture of defence ; the contractures proper to a state of som- nambulism may be produced by any one, or produced by one person and destroyed by another; they do not depend on any individual influence, and suggestions may be given by any of those present. It is quite otherwise in the case of elective somnam- bulisTn. As soon as the experimenter has pressed upon the scalp with his hand, or has breathed upon the subject with his mouth, the latter is attracted towards the experi- menter ; if the experimenter withdraws to a distance, the subject displays uneasiness and discomfort ; he sometimes follows the experimenter with a sigh, and can only rest beside him. Any contact with a third person causes suflering. Elective somnambulism is also produced when the subject is hypnotized by means of passes, which is the SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 149 practice of magnetizers, or by intimation or suggestion. It is a curious fact that if the subject is told that he will fall asleep at a given hour on the following day, the sleep which occurs at that hour in the operator's absence is elective, and the subject is only en rapport with the person by whom the suggestion was made (Beaunis). Finally, when the subject is in a state of indifferent somnambulism, and a person touches an ex- posed part of the body, such as the hands, the elective phenomena are displayed in his favour. All these processes display the common characteristic of bringing the personality of the experimenter into play, and if his importance was formerly exaggerated, it has been too much depreciated since Braid's time. It has been ascertained that electivity is altogether absent in some subjects, while it is constant in others. And again, in addition to the artificial electivity de- veloped by the experimenter, there is a natural or spon- taneous electivity; for this reason one experimenter is more successful than another in hypnotizing or in giving suggestions to a given subject, and especially when he has often hypnotized that subject before. This special influence of one individual on another, which is so strongly marked during somnambulism, is, in fact, only the exaggeration of a normal fact. It is not uncommon to find persons who feel a special attraction towards some others, and who have a sense of sympathy or antipathy without any sufficient motive. It cannot be disputed that these are real psychical states, although psychologists have for the most part abandoned their study to novel-writers. It is probable that the phenomena of electivity have 150 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. their origin in the experimenter's contact with his subject. Bain, in his work on the Emotions, remarks that animal contact and the pleasure of an embrace are the beginning and end of all the tender emotions. We have seen, in fact, that electivity is displayed in a somnambulist after his scalp and bare hands have been touched by the experimenter ; the action of the fingers, as they are used in making passes, seems also to be due to a like influence. The production of elective somnam- bulism by means of suggestion may also be explained by the fact mentioned above, that since suggestion con- sists in the recall of a sensation, it probably acts in the same way as a sensorial excitement. An ingenious experiment made by Richer confirms this view, and shows that electivity has its source in an exaggeration of the sense of touch. " When the subject is in a state of profound somnambulism, owing to friction of the scalp with some inert object, two observers come forward, and each takes hold of one of his hands, without meeting with any resistance on his part. Very soon the subject presses each observer's hand with his own, and will not leave go of them. The special state of attraction applies to both, and the subject is in some sort torn in two. E^ch observer only possesses the sympathy of one half of the subject, who offers the same resistance to the observer on the left, when he attempts to seize the right hand, as to the observer on the right, who would take the left hand." * A variation on this experiment is also very in- structive. The experimenter preferred by the subject may transmit this attraction to another person ; the • Eicher, op. cit, p. 6G3. SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 151 second experimenter has only to slip his hand over that of the former one, so as gradually to lay hold of the subject's hand, and he, after one strong shock, presses up to him in the same way as to the first experimenter. Elective sensibility is displayed by several phe- nomena, of which that which relates to contractures is the most important. Only the experimenter who is en rapport with the subject can produce and destroy the contractures of somnambulism. It is useless for another person to try to put an end to a contracture by a fresh excitement of the same nature, directed on the same point. His efforts are fruitless, even when the subject cannot see him. The hypersesthesia of the sense of touch enables the subject to recognize the contact of one operator in a thousand ; he may even recognize it through his clothes. Electivity is also found in suggestions. In the case of indifferent somnambulism, the subject complies with all suggestions, from whomsoever they come ; an halluci- nation effected by the words of one person may be continued -by another, and destroyed by a third. This also occurs in catalepsy. In elective somnambulism, the subject is often only able to hear the voice of his hypnotizer, and from him alone he can receive sug- gestions. We have also remarked that when two observers divide the subject's sympathy in half, the hallucination by the one en rapport with the right side only affects the right eye ; it is unilateral, and the subject sees nothing with his left eye. When the phenomena of elective sensibility are subjected to eesthesiogenic action, repulsion, by a singular transformation, succeeds to attraction. At the moment 152 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. when one of our somnambulist subjects was holding M. X 's hands, we placed a small magnet close to his head. The subject at once withdrew from M. X , uttering a cry ; M. X followed her ; she still with- drew, groaning whenever he touched her. Shortly after- wards she came towards the experimenter of her own accord, and again drew back, so that it was impossible to touch her. When she approached for the third time, he took the opportunity of awaking her.* We must here remind our readers that in the case of some hysterical subjects there are regions in certain parts of the body, termed by Chambard erogenic zones,] which have some analogy with the hysterogenous zones, and simple contact with these, when the subject is in a state of somnambulism, produces genital sensations of such intensity as to cause an orgasm. These phenomena have often been displayed, unknown to the observer, who might be liable to the gravest imputations, unless he had taken the precaution, indispensable in such cases, of never being alone with his subject. When we add to this fact the possibility of suggesting to the somnambulist the hallucination that some given person is present, it is easy to see what culpable mystifications might occur. The erogenic zone only becomes sensitive when somnambulism is absolute. In partial somnambulism, produced by artificial excitement in the region of the motor centres of the limbs, the erogenic zone is inactive ; it becomes active when the occipital region of the brain is excited. • Binet and Fere, La Polarization psychique (Uevue Phiheophique, April, 1885). t Chambanl, Etudes eur le SomndbuUsme provoque. 1881. SYMPTOMS OF HYPNOSIS. 153 The erogenic zone may be transferred Ly the magnet. This transfer is followed by consecutive oscillations, which produce an intense genital agitation. Finally, the excitement of the erogenic zone has no effect unless it is made by a person of the opposite sex ; if the pressure is made by another woman, or with an inert object, it merely produces an unpleasant impression. 154 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. CHAPTER VI. TfiE HYPNOTIC STATES. Charcot's nosographio essay — Catalepsy — Lethargy — Somnambulism — Meaning of the three states — Their variations — Intermediate states. The different phenomena presented by the symptoms of hypnotism may either exist separately or occur associated in a certain order. Charcot and his pupils have observed ^hat in hysterical subjects these symptoms tend to fall into three distinct groups. We think it well to give here a summary of Charcot's nosographic essay.* "Attempt to make a nosographic distinction of the different nervous states known under the name of Hypnotism,. "The numerous and varied phenomena which are observed in hypnotic subjects do not occur in one and the same nervous state. In reality, hypnotism clinically represents a natural group, including a series of nervous states, differing from each other, and each distinguished by peculiar symptoms. We ought, therefore, to follow the example of nosographists in endeavouring to make a clear definition of these different nervous states, accord- * Comptes rendus de VAcad^mie dee Sciences. 1882. THE HYPNOTIC STATES. 155 ing to tbeir generic characters, before entering on the closer study of the phenomena presented by each of them. It is owing to not having begun by defining the special state of the subject under observation that observers so often misunderstand and contradict one another without sufficient cause. "These different states which, taken as a whole, include all the symptoms of hypnotism, may be referred to three fundamental types : Isfc, the cataleptic state ; 2nd, the lethargic state ; and 3rd, the state of artificial som- nambulism. Each of these states, including moreover a certain number of secondary forms, and leaving room for mixed states, may be displayed suddenly, originally, and separately. They may also, in the course of a single observation, and in one subject, be produced in succession, in varying order, at the will of the observer, by the employment of certain methods. In this latter case, the different states mentioned above may be said to represent the phases or periods of a single process. " Setting aside the variations, the imperfect forms, and the mixed states, we do not propose in this account to do more than indicate briefly the general features of these three fundamental states, which may be said to dominate the complex history of the symptoms of hypnotism. "1. The Cataleptic State. — This may be produced: (a) primarily, under the influence of an intense and unex- pected noise, of a bright light presented to the gaze, or, again, in some subjects, by the more or less prolonged fixing of the eyes on a given object; (6) consecutively to the lethargic state, when the eyes, which up to that moment had been closed, are exposed to the light by raising the eyelids. The subject thus rendered cataleptic 156 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. is motionless and, as it were, fascinated. The eyes are open, the gaze is fixed, the eyelids do not quiver, the tears soon gather and flow down the cheeks. Often there is anaesthesia of the conjunctiva, and even of the cornea. The limbs and all parts of the body may retain the position in which they are placed for a considerable period, even when the attitude is one which it is difficult to maintain. The limbs appear to be extremely light when raised or displaced, and there is no flexibUitas cerea, nor yet what is termed the stifihess of a lay figure. The tendon reflex disappears. Neuro-muscular hyper- excitability is absent. There is complete insensibility to pain, but some senses retain their activity, at any rate in part — the muscular sense, and those of sight and hearing. This continuance of sensorial activity often enables the experimenter to influence the cataleptic subject in various ways, and to develop in him by means of suggestion automatic impulses, and also to produce hallucinations. When this is the case, the flxed attitudes artificially impressed on the limbs, or, in a more general way, on difierent parts of the body, give place to more or less complex movements, perfectly co-ordinated and in agreement with the nature of the hallucinations and of the impulses which have been produced. If left to him- self, the subject soon falls back into the state in which he was placed at the moment when he was influenced by the suggestion. "2. The Lethargic State. — This is displayed: (a) pri- marily, under the influence of a fixed gaze at some object placed within a certain distance of the eyes ; (b) in suc- cession to the cataleptic state, simply by closing the eye- lids, or by leading the subject into a perfectly dark place. THE HYPXOTIO STATES. 157 "At the moment when he falls into the lethargic state, the subject often emits a peculiar sound from the larynx, and at the same time a little foam gathers on the lips. He then becomes flaccid, as if plunged in deep sleep ; there is complete insensibility to pain in the skin, and in the mucous membrane in proximity with it. The organs of the senses sometimes, however, retain a certain amount of activity ; but the various attempts which may be made to affect the subject by means of suggestion or intimidation are generally fruitless. The limbs are relaxed, flaccid, and pendent, and when raised they fall back again as soon as they are left to them- selves. The pupils are, on the other hand, contracted, the eyes are closed or half-closed, and an almost incessant quivering of the eyelids may usually be observed. There is an exaggeration of the tendon reflex ; neuro-muscular hyperexcitability is always present, although it varies in intensity. It may be general, extending to all the muscles of the animal system, the face, the trunk, and the limbs ; and it may also be partial, only present, for instance, in the upper limbs, and not in the face. This phenomenon is displayed when mechanical excitement is applied to a nerve-trunk by means of pressure with a rod or quill; this causes the muscles supplied by this nerve to contract. " The muscles themselves may be directly excited in the same way ; somewhat intense and prolonged excite- ment of the muscles of the limbs, trunk, and neck pro- duces contracture of the muscles in question ; on the face, however, the contractions are transitory, and do not become established in a state of permanent contracture. Contracture may also be produced in the limbs by means 8 158 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. of repeated percussion of the tendons. These contrac- tures, whether produced by excitement of the nerves or muscles, or by percussion of the tendons, are rapidly relaxed by exciting the antagonist muscles. As it has been already said, the cataleptic state can be instan- taneously developed in a subject plunged in lethargy, if while in a light room the upper eyelids are raised so as to expose the eyes. " 3. The State of Artificial Somnambulism. — This state may, in some subjects, be immediately produced by fixity of gaze, and also in other ways which it is not now necessary to enumerate. It may be produced at will in subjects who have first been thrown into a state of lethargy or catalepsy, by exerting a simple pressure- on the scalp, or by a slight friction. This state seems to correspond with what has been termed the magnetic sleep. "It is difficult to analyze the very complex phe- nomena which are presented under this form. In the re- searches made at the Salp^triere, many of them have been provisionally set aside. The chief aim has been to define, as far as possible, the characteristics which distinguish somnambulism from the lethargic and cataleptic states, and to demonstrate the relations which exist between it and the two latter states. " The eyes are closed or half-closed ; the eyelids generally quiver; when left to himself the subject seems to be asleep, but even in this case the limbs are not in such a pronounced state of relaxation as when we have to do with lethargy. Neuro-museular hyperexcitability, as it has been defined above, does not exist; in other words, excitement of the nerves or of the muscles them- THE HYPNOTIC STATES. 159 selves, and percussion of the tendons, do not produce contracture. On the other hand, various methods, among others, passing the hand lightly and repeatedly over the surface of a limb (aiesmeric passes), or, again, breathing gently on the skin, cause the limb to become rigid, but in a way which differs from the contracture due to muscular hyperexcitability, since it cannot, like the latter, be relaxed by mechanical excitement of the antagonist muscles ; it also differs from cataleptic immobility in the resistance encountered in the region of the joints, when the attempt is made to give a change of attitude to the stiffened limb. To distinguish this state from cataleptic immobility, strictly so called, it is proposed to distinguish the rigidity peculiar to the somnambulist state by the name of catalepsoid rigidity;- it might also be called pseudo-cataleptic. " The skin is insensible to pain, but this is combined with hypersesthesia of some forms of cutaneous sensi- bility, of the muscular sense, and of the special senses of sight, hearing, and smell. It is generally easy, by the employment of commands or suggestion, to induce the subject to perform very complex automatic actions. We may then observe what is strictly called artificial som- nambulism. " In the case of a subject in a state of somnambulism, a slight pressure on the cornea, made by applying the fingers to the eyelids, will change that state into a lethargy afccompanied hy neuro-muscular hyperexcita- bility ; if, on the other hand, the eyes are kept open in a light room by raising their lids, the cataleptic state is not produced." We ought to add that this description is made from 160 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. nature, and that the Salp^trifere nearly always furnishes patients in whom it is easy to observe these three states, with all their characteristics. In order to observe these states in a new subject, the conditions laid down by the Salpfetrifere school must be observed. These two conditions have been already noted by us: (1) The experiment must be tried on the same kind of subject, that is, on one aflFected by epileptic hysteria ; (2) the same mode of operation must be used, that is, by the simplest processes — by fixity of gaze, pressure on the scalp, the electric spark, etc. Any change effected in one of these two conditions alters the experiment and consequently modifies its results. It must be admitted that even in the case of subjects affected by epileptic hysteria, results differing from those of Charcot will be obtained if the patients are subjected to a diSerent modus operandi ; if, in other words, they do not receive the same hypnotic education. We have often been struck by this fact in the course of our researches, and it has appeared the more significant to us, since our experiments have been made on subjects resembling those who served to establish the theory of the three states. We give some examples. It is not, as might be supposed, a necessary symptom of catalepsy that the eyes should be open. We have observed that if hemi-catalepsy and hemi-lethargy are produced, and these hemi-states are then transferred, half of the body becomes cataleptic, although the eye belonging to that half remains shut. Catalepsy with closed eyes may, there- fore, exist in profound hypnotism. So, again, it is possible to throw the same subjects into a deep lethargy, in which no trace of neuro-muscular hyperexcitability remains. THE HYPNOTIC STATES. 161 We have ascertained that when a magnet is brought near to the arm of a subject in a natural sleep, or to the scalp of a subject in the, lethargic state, a new state is pro- duced which has nothing in common with the lethargy described above except the relaxed state of the muscles ; mechanical excitement of the nerves, muscles, and ten- dons, and pressure on the hypnogenic or hysterogenic zones, produce absolutely no effect. No change occurs when the eyes are forced open, the breathing is impercep- tible, and there is complete insensibility ; it is, in fact, the image of death. Pitres * had the opportunity of observ- ing a case of equally profound lethargy in a patient who was subject to spontaneous attacks of sleep. When one of these attacks came on while he was in a lethargy accompanied by hyperexcitability, this phase of hypnosis became more profound, and all muscular reaction disap- peared. Finally, as we have already remarked, neuro- muscular hyperexcitability is not a symptom peculiar to lethargy; in cases of profound hypnotism, contractures may be produced in the waking state, corresponding in all respects to those of lethargy. These facts only prove that the general symptoms of profound hypnotism may be incomplete or modified, and this is also the case with all other morbid symptoms. The number of states or periods may also vary in the case of each subject. Speaking generally, there are three states — lethargy, catalepsy, and somnambulism ; but this number is not fixed. Dumontpallier and his pupils demonstrated some time ago, and any one may verify the fact for himself, that there are transitional stages between each of these periods, really mixed states, which ♦ Des Zones hjpnngenes, p. 65. 162 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. the experimenter may make permanent by the employ- ment of appropriate means. In this way from six to nine new states may be created, or even a greater number. It is probable that the invention of new experimental processes, subjecting hypnotic patients to fresh modes of excitement, would lead to the pro- duction of entirely new manifestations, differing from those which have been described up to this time. In fact, hypnosis is not a spontaneous neurosis, but an expei-imental nervous state, of which the symptoms may vary with the processes which give rise to it, while, however, still falling within the limits of the general physiology of the nervous system. We should misunderstand Charcot's description if we regard it as a systematic work. The only object of the description was to represent hypnosis in all its forms and details. It must not be forgotten that at the time it was made, he wished to establish the real existence of a certain number of hypnotic phenomena, and to demonstrate the existence of an experimental nervous state by such strongly marked characters as to be obvious to every one. Charcot selected subjects in whom these characters were displayed in an ex- aggerated form which left no room for doubt. This method was perfectly successful, since even those who were unwilling to accept profound hypnotism, were led to study its less developed forms. The theory of the three states, therefore, only includes one part of the truth, but it is a part which opened the way to all the researches subsequently made upon the question, and even now profound hypnotism is the only state in which we find such objective characters THE HYPNOTIC STATES. 163 as to limit the field of discussion. It is the object of the Salpetriere school, not so much to give a definitive description, as to show that hypnotism may be studied in accordance with the most improved processes of clini- cal science and experimental physiology, and that the science can only be constituted by means of the charac- ters determined by this mode of study. As long as patients affected by acute hysteria exist, most of the results obtained by the Salpetrifere school may be verified. The history of profound hypnotism serves as an invaluable guide in threading our way through the con- fused mass of observations which are not included in this form of neurosis. 164 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. CHAPTER VII. IMPERFECT FORMS OF HYPNOSIS. Imperfect states— Confusion of states in hysterical subjects— Hypnosis in healthy individuals : Experiments by Kichet, Boltey, and Bre'maud — Different results obtained by the Nancy school. There are many hysterical subjects in whom the division of hypnosis into three states cannot be traced. Many observers have pointed out these exceptions to the rule, which are indeed much more numerous than the normal cases ; it is only just to add that this fact was first pointed out by the Salp^trifere school. Richet writes : " The neuro- muscular phenomena of lethargy and of somnambulism are often confounded, while the cataleptic state retains its peculiar characteristics. Sometimes the confusion is still greater, and the neuro-muscular phenomena remain the same, whatever be the phase of hypnotism." Dumontpallier, Magnin, and Bottey* have insisted on this confusion of states. They ascertained that some hysterical subjects display an aptitude for contrac- ture throughout the periods of hypnosis. They also found that there was often a complete confusion between the ♦ Magnin, Effets des excitations periph^riquea eliez les hysifyo- epileptiqttes a Vital de veille et d'hypnotisme (TJiese de Fan's, 18S1); Le Magn&isme Animal (Paris, 1884). IMPEEFECT FORMS OF HYPNOSIS. 165 two kinds of contractures distinguished by Charcot; excitement of the skin and profound excitement of the muscles produced tiie same muscular phenomena in all degrees of hypnosis. This phenomenon may also occur under the slightest excitement, such as the ticking of a watch, the noise of a telephone, the wind of capillary bellows, a drop of ether or of warm water, a ray of light falling directly on the skin, or reflected from a mirror. rinally,all the peripheral excitements capable of producing contracture are also capable of putting an end to it. Pitres has also described another deviation from the normal type in what he terms the catalepsoid state, when the eyes are closed, which he has observed in some of his hysterical patients. We pass from hysterical hypnosis to the hypnosis of persons who are, or are assumed to be, in perfect health. We mean by these words persons who display none of the well-known signs of hysteria. Many experimenters have observed persons of both sexes, of all ages and conditions, without taking any note of their pathological antecedents, which involve such minute research, that nothing can be said about them without a careful ex- amination.* Richet, who holds that no one is absolutely insensitive to magnetism, pursued this course as early as 1875. He hypnotizes his subjects by exerting a strong priessure on their thumbs for three or four minutes, and then by making passes in a downward direction over the head, forehead, and shoulders. After a while, this prolonged process produces what Richet terms som- * Ch. Fere, La Famille n^oropathiqtie (Arcliives de Neurologie, 1884); Nervous Troubles, as foreshadowed in the child (Brain, July, 1885) ; Dejerine, tie Vh^rediU dans les maladies du systeme nenieux, 1886. 166 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. nambulism. This state is capable of presenting three degrees of intensity,* The first degree, the period of torpor, occurs after passes have been made for a period varying from five to fifteen minutes. The subject begins by being unable to raise his eyes, and these become red and moist: some- times the muscles show a tendency to contracture under mechanical excitement. The second degree, or period of excitement, is not attained at once, but after a series of magnetizations ; in this state the subject is asleep, yet able to answer questions. During this period, hallucinations may be produced, acts may be suggested, and there is forget- fulness on awaking. The third degree constitutes the period of stupor; automatism prevails, together with insensibility to pain and the muscular phenomena of contracture and of cata- lepsy, over which the author passes too rapidly. Some recent writers, Br6maud and Bottey, have returned to this question of the hypnotism of healthy individuals, and have more accurately defined the fea- tures of Richet's clinical description. They state that if some other processes are substituted for the passes, such as pressure on the closed eyes or on the scalp, or the prolonged and fixed gaze on some brilliant object, in short, if the means in use for hysterical hypnosis are employed, it is easy to produce in healthy individuals, not only somnambulism, but also lethargy and catalepsy, and there is no sensible difierence between these states and those produced in hysterical subjects. Br^maud was also able to produce in men presumed • Eichet, L'Homme et V Intelligence. Paris, 1884. IMPERFECT FOKMS OF HYPNOSIS. 167 to be perfectly healthy, a new state which he terms fascination. It is effected by fixing the eyes on a brilliant point ; the subject appears to fall into a sort of stupor, he follows the experimenter, and servilely imitates all his movements, gestures, and words; he is also sensitive to suggestion. On the physical side con- tractures produced by excitement of the muscles may be observed, and cataleptic plasticity is absent. Br^maud considers that fascination represents hypno- tism in its lowest degree of intensity. This nervous state cannot be effected in women, nor in men who have been the subjects of repeated experiments. In propor- tion to the increase of impressionability in the subject, he over-leaps this first stage, and passes at once into catalepsy.* These experiments are completely at variance with the results to which Bemheim, Li6geois, and Beaunis arrived. Their experiments, like the foregoing, were made on all kinds of subjects, without distinction of age, sex, and pathological condition. Their observations do not, in fact, amount to much, exclusive of the facts of suggestion. By whatever process a subject is hypnotized, the moment arrives when his eyes are closed, and his arms fall slackly down. In this state the subject can hear the experimenter. Although motionless and with a counten- ance as inert as that of a mask, he hears everything, whether he remembers it or not when he awakes. Of this we have a proof in the fact that the one word " Awake ! " uttered once, or repeated several times, awakes him, without touching or breathing on his eyes. ' Bre'maud, Soci^t^de Biologie, 1883, pp.537, 635; 1884, p. 169. 168 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. In this state the subject can receive all sorts of suggestions. If a limb is raised, and he is told that it cannot be lowered, he passively retains it in the attitude in which it has been placed. If, again, a given movement is given to his limbs, that movement goes on indefinitely until it is arrested. In most subjects there is complete ansesthesia ; the skin may be pricked with a pin, and they do not appear to be aware of it. Those who remain sensible to pain may be rendered insensible to it by suggestion. These observers have not ascertained that the act of opening or closing of the eyes, or that friction of the scalp modifies the phenomena in any way, or that it develops them in subjects in whom they cannot be pro- duced by suggestion alone. They have only ascertained that the degree in which subjects are liable to suggestion varies with the individual. Some only close their eyes, with or without torpor ; in others the limbs are relaxed, inert, or incapable of spontaneous movement ; others re- tain the attitudes given them ; contracture by suggestion and other suggested and automatic movements are dis- played in other cases. Finally, automatic obedience, anassthesia, illusions, and hallucinations mark the succes- sive stages to which suggestion may be carried, of which somnambulism is the culminating point. It is only in this latter state, in which the phenomena of suggestion are most fully developed, that there is forgetfulness on awaking. About one hypnotic subject out of six attains to this degree of profound somnambulism. It appears that the performers of these experiments.^ at Nancy only observed in their subjects the phenomena of suggestion which belong to somnambulism ; they hold IMPERFECT FORMS OP HYPNOSIS. 169 that all hypnotism is summed up in suggestion. Not content with explaining what they have observed, they repeatedly manifest the intention of including within the sphere of suggestion the lethargy and catalepsy described by other writers. But we may set aside the interpreta- tion, and content ourselves with the facts. It is very strange that the observers at Nancy have not seen con- tracture produced in hypnotized subjects by excitement of the nerves, tendons, or muscles. Richet has often met with this common phenomenon in his experiments on healthy subjects ; it has been constantly observed by Bottey ; Braid himself repeatedly mentions it ; and yet Bernheim, whose experiments were performed on similar subjects, is unacquainted with it. If it is true that none of his subjects, whatever be the excitements to which they are subjected, displayed any physical characteristics of hypnosis, and that everything was summed up in the phenomena of suggestion, we are compelled to infer that there is no scientific proof that his subjects were i-eally hypnotized. Our disbelief is not absolute ; we do not assert that these observers only had to do with impostors, nor do we throw doubt on their experiments in general, but if we had to make a medico-legal examination of one of their subjects, we should find it hard to decide whether he was truthful or a deceiver. We are not disposed to believe that subjects at Nancy difier from those at Paris. In reality, the difierences are not due to the subjects, but to the experimenters ; they come from the mode of culture, and still more from the ;processes of study. As we have repeatedly said, the results of experiments depend on the methods by which they are carried on. If suggestion is employed as the 170 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. sole process, only the effects of suggestion will be obtained; and thus it was at Nancy. But if we apply ourselves to the study of physical characteristics, they may sometimes be observed at the outset, and they may also be graduallv developed in some other subjects. ( 171 > CHAPTER VIII. GENERAL STUDY OF SUGGESTION. I. Definition of suggestion — Suggestion and dreams — Distinction between the experimental processes by ideas and by peripheral excitement — The persons capable of receiving suggestions — The .conditions of receptiveness : mental inertia, psychical hyperexcitability — Sugges- tion during hypnotism — Suggestion during the waking state — Diffe- rent kinds of suggestion — Speech — Gesture — Muscular sense — Auto- suggestion — Relation between the idea suggested and the peripheral excitement — Error made by those who see suggestion in everything. If. The method — Simulation — Voluntary suggestions — Unconscious sug- gestion — Comparison between the phenomena of suggestion and the facts of positive science. HI. Effects of suggestion — Modifications of vegetative functions — The sug- gestion of psychical phenomena — Classification — Positive suggestions hallucination, and action — Psychological analysis of their produc- tion — Law of negative suggestions— Law of psychical inhibition — Post-hypnotic hallucinations — Forgetfulness of the act of suggestion. Definition of Suggestion. — We have seen that the hypnotic sleep approximates to natural sleep in its mode of production and in some of its symptoms. This com- parison may serve as an introduction to the theory of the facts of suggestion. These facts are at first sight astonishing, unintelligible, and sometimes indeed they appear incredible. The question arises how it should be 172 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. possible for one person to exert over another the power of making him speak, act, think, and feel as it pleases the experimenter to dictate. In order to make a systematic study, we must proceed from what is better known, to what is less known. As we have repeatedly said, the psychical phenomena of hypnosis can only be understood when they are compared with the dreams of natural sleep. The effects produced on hypnotized subjects by suggestion are nothing but a dream, produced and directed by the experimenter. This is a legitimate comparison, since it is possible to modify the dreams of a 'person who is naturally asleep. Maury per- formed some striking experiments on himself to illustrate this fact.* He begged a person to remain beside him in the evening, and as soon as he fell asleep to excite certain sensations in him, without telling him what they were to be, and to wake him after giving him time to dream. These dreams, produced by sensorial excitements, did not differ from those obtained from hysterical hypnotized subjects, by means of suggestion. On one occasion eau-de-cologne was given to him to smell ; he dreamed that he was in a perfumer's shop, then the idea of the perfume aroused that of the East, and he dreamed that he was in Jean Farina's shop at Cairo. The nape of his neck was gently pinched, and he dreamed that a blister was applied to it, which recalled to mind the physician who had attended him in childhood. When a hot iron was brought near his face he dreamed of stokers. When he was asleep on another occasion, a person present ordered him in a loud voice to take a match, and he dreamed that he went voluntarily to find one. * Maury, Sommeil el Reves, p. 127. GENEKAL STUDY OF SUGGESTION. 173 Another resemblance of a different kind may be established between the psychical phenomena of natural sleep and those of hypnotic sleep. As one of the present writers has shown,* in the case of many patients the pathogenic idea, the first manifestation of delirium, may originate in the waking state, but it is generally confirmed by the dreams of natural sleep, in which it is re-echoed with added strength. Clinical observation therefore shows that the experiments so easily performed during the artificial sleep may be spontaneously realized in the normal sleep. The region of suggestion has a "wide range. There is not a single fact of our mental life which may not be artificially reproduced and magnified by this means. It is easy to understand how Diuch psychologists may gain from this method, which introduces experiment into psychology. Before going further, we must define the extent and limits of suggestion, by a more precise definition than the somewhat vague and summary one given above. Strictly speaking, suggestion is an operation producing a given e fl'ect on a subject by acting on his intelligence. Every suggestion essentially consists m acting on a person by means of an idea ; every efiect suggested is the result of a phenomenon of ideation, but it must be added that the idea is an epi-phenomenon ; taken by itself, it is only the indicative sign of a certain physio- logical process, solely capable of producing a material effect. This characteristic will generally enable us to recog- * Oh. Feie, La Medicine d' imagination (_Progres MeSical, 1881, p. 309 ; 1886, pp. 717, 741, etc.). 174 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. nize what is and what is not suggestion, although this is often a very difficult question. Thus, when striking the tendons, or kneading the muscles makes it possible to form a contracture of the arm of an hysterico-lethargic patient, no suggestion is made, since the contracture results from a physical action, into which the subject's mind does not appear to enter. If, on the other hand, the experimenter approaches the subject, and says, with- out touching him, " Your arm is bent and stiffened, and you cannot straighten it," the contracture which occurs in consequence of these words results from a psychical action. The experimenter's command only produces its effect by traversing the subject's intelligence; it is the idea of contracture, entering into the subject's mind, which has produced the contracture, and this is really suggestion. From this point of view, it may be said that the theory of suggestion infuses new life into the old philosophic question of the action of the mind upon the body, and that at the same time it throws fresh light on the large group, still so obscure, of diseases of the imagination. We give another example. Like contracture, paralytic movements may be produced in two different ways. If in a hysterical subject the fixed end of a vibrating tuning- fork is applied to certain points of the vault of the cranium, a transitory excitement of motor force takes place in the subject's arm which soon passes into complete and flaccid paralysis.* In this case the paralysis is the direct result of the vibratory movement transmitted by the tuning- fork through the thickness of the skull to the brain : the • Ch. Fere, InliibiUon et lipuiaement {Bull. Soe. de Biologie, 1886, pu 178, 195, 220). GENERAL STUDY OF SUGGESTION. 175 subject's intelligence takes no part in it; the experiment, although made upon his body, has not aifected his mind ; there is no suggestion. On the other hand, if the idea is impressed upon the subject that his arm is afl'ected by- paralysis, the paralysis which ensues is of a psychical nature, since it results solely from the subject's conviction that he is paralysed. It does not result from a physical shock, or traumatism, but from a phenomenon of ideation. A suggestion has been made. The analysis of this last example makes it possible to avoid a confusion made by some w^riters. It has been too readily admitted that every hypnotic process which has its seat in the brain, proceeds from a phenomenon of suggestion, and this has led to the opinion that lethargy, catalepsy, and hysterical somnambulism, which are perhaps due to reflex cerebral action, are the pure and simj)le products of suggestion. The fact just mentioned disposes of this error. The paralysis induced by physical vibration and the paralysis induced by suggestion probably both result from modifications of the cortical substance of the brain ; they are conse- quently reflex cerebral acts. But the two cases are widely diflferent. Paralysis by suggestion demands the aid of the subject's intelligence, and if the function of ideation were for any reason suspended, this kind of paralysis could no longer be produced. The study of hypnosis may be divided into two parts, distinguished by the different processes which are employed. The first part includes the hypnotic phe- nomena produced by physical excitements, or sensations, which were the subject of the two preceding chapters; the second part includes the hypnotic phenomena pro- 176 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. duced by ideas, that is, the theory of suggestions. These two modes of experimentation are parallel, and it is difficult to say which of the two has the widest extent. Those liable to Suggestion. — Suggestion does not act with equal intensity on all individuals. If you assure a person who is awake, in normal health, and perfectly self-possessed, that she is hungry, she will reply that you are mistaken ; if you try to suggest a visual halluci- nation by asserting that she has a book in her hands, shew iU declare that she does not see it. The assertion only produces in her mind a slight effect, which is quickly effaced. It produces an idea of the phenomenon, not the phenomenon itself It is, in short, evident that the suggestion influences a sound person no more than the opening of her eyes would prpduce catalepsy. In order that the suggestion should succeed, the subject must be either spontaneously or artificially in a morbid state of receptivity ; but it is difficult to define with precision the conditions under which suggestion is possible. Two have been given, of which the first is the mental inertia of the subject. It has been said that in an hypnotic subject the field of consciousness is completely vacant. A state is produced, and since there is no obstacle — neither the power of arrest nor that of antagonism, — the idea suggested dominates the sleep- ing consciousness. This explanation has been given by Heidenhain, Richet, RIbot, and others, yet we doubt whether it is altogether in harmony with the facts. If the limitation to a single idea is realized in cataleptic subjects, it is much more rare in the case of somnam- bulists. We believe that the aptitude for sugo-estions is caused by a second phenomenon — by psychical hyper- GENERAL STUDY OF SUGGESTION. 177 excitability, In our opinion, if the idea suggested exerts an absolute power over the intelligence, the senses, and the movements of the hypnotized subject, it is especially due to its intensity. But we admit that it is difficult to resolve the question, and we prefer to leave it open. The number of persons liable to suggestions is im- mense ; the liability is evinced, not only in cases of hypnosis and of natural sleep, but also in some forms of intoxication by alcohol, and haschich, and in the waking state. We only propose, however, to consider hypnotized subjects. The aptitude to receive suggestions is strongly developed by hypnotism, but, as we have already said, it does not occur in all phases of hypnosis, only in catalepsy and somnambulism. The suggestions made to a cataleptic subject are simple, automatic, inevitable ; the reason takes part in those of somnambulism; the subject discusses and enlarges on them, and sometimes even offers resistance. We shall have to consider these shades of differences whenever we have to do with interesting suggestions, and we shall for the most part content ourselves with describing the suggestions of somnambulism. After awaking, the subject is still sensitive to sug- gestion ; this fact has long been known, and is mentioned by Braid among other writers. Of late years it has been studied by Richet, Bernheim, Bottey, etc. It" is possible, not only to make suggestions to subjects in the waking state, but also to persons who have not been hypnotized at- aU. Learned men have been agitated by these latter experiments, which have aroused in them doubt and 178 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. dissatisfaction. They have no difficulty in admitting that suggestions may be made to hypnotized subjects, since they are not in normal health, but they cannot understand how they should be made to individuals who are awake, not under hypnotism, and that this should be done by modes of action in daily use in our relations to one another. The question arises whether individuals capable of receiving suggestions in their waking state are in common life liable to submit autojnatically to the influence of others ; whether they are weak in mind ; what is their physical and moral state, and if there is anything peculiar in their waking state and hereditary antecedents. These are the questions stated by Janet, and they have not as yet received any reply. The possi- bility of making suggestions to normal subjects must, however, be admitted if, as one of the present writers has done, we refer suggestion to the abt of attention. When attention is sufficiently intense, the period of reaction may disappear, and may even become negative ; that is, the reaction may precede the excitement. An intense mental representation, whether arising spontaneously, or induced by suggestion, may therefore produce a reaction irrespective of any excitement.* Different hinds of Suggestions. — If it is the character- istic of suggestion to address itself to the subject's intelligence, it follows that there are as many forms of suggestion as there are modes of entering into relations with another person. The experimenter may begin by employing spoken or written suggestion. This is the simplest and most convenient means. In order to produce an hallucination, * Ch. Fere, Progris Ugdical, p, 741. 18S6. GENERAL STUDY OF SUGGESTION. 179 it is enough to name the imaginary object, to say to the subject, " There is a serpent at your feet ! " and the hallucination immediately occurs. Verbal assertion is the process most in use, since in this way everything which human speech is capable of expressing may be suggested, and it is also the most precise. Gestures, which are often employed by some experi- menters, are a very inferior means. They are undoubt- edly fairly successful in the case of subjects who have been long under treatment. Without uttering a word, the hallucination of a serpent may be produced in such subjects by making an undulatory movement with the finger, or still more simply, by directing their eyes downwards. It also becomes possible to give orders by means of gestures, to constrain the subject to walk, to follow or approach the experimenter, to make him kneel down, etc. On pointing to a hat, the subject takes hold of it, and on pointing again to his head he puts it on. He may also be made to take something out of the pocket of another person. Pitres mentions the amazing quickness with which he has observed some subjects divine the meaning of the slightest movement of the fingers, lips, or eyes. But these processes are lacking in precision. Although it is probable that it is the psychical and expressive character of the gesture ^hich generally acts upon the subject, that is, that it arouses ideas, we do not certainly know that no other cause is at work. The same must be said of passes, for when suggestions are made by their means, we do not know how it is done. But if suggestion by means of gestures is often vague, it may be very intense. When a verbal suggestion of movement is given to a subject. 180 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. the image of such movement is aroused in his mind ; this image, however intense it may be, must always be less intense than the sensation given to the same subject when the movement in question is executed before his eyes. The result of the two experiments is therefore very different.* It has been repeatedly ascertained that if a dynamometer is placed in a subject's right hand, and he is ordered to hold it with all his might, this verbal suggestion only augments his normal dynamometric force by a few degrees ; but if the action of firmly clenching his fist is imitated before him, his muscular force is not merely increased, but doubled ; thus showing that in certain cases the suggestions given by gestures afford more intense results than it is possible to obtain by words only. It is sometimes useful to combine suggestive gestures with verbal suggestion, or with the presentation of an object. For instance, a real object is presented to the subject, of which the nature is said to be different ; he is caused to eat paper, while told that it is a cake; or it is suggested to him that one of the persons present has a false nose. Combining the word with the gesture gives definiteness to the suggestion. Suggestive gestures address themselves to the sight. The other senses may also receive impressions. If a gong is gently sounded close to the ear of an hypnotized subject, he thinks that he hears bells ; and if he is pricked or pinched, the image of stinging creatures may be aroused. But all these processes are inferior to that of speech. In all cases in which the idea awakened in the subject emanates from the experimenter's direct sugges- * See Ch. FeH Sensation et ytouvement (Etudes de pnyclw-mechanique). GENERAL STUDY OF SUGGESTION. 181 tion, the subject is in a state of direct subjection to him. This state is not opposed to that which we may observe in the waking state; there is only an exaggeration of phenomena, which makes it easier to understand what occurs in subjects held to be of sound mind, who are unconsciously influenced by the will of another person substituted for their own. Indeed we have only to glance at social relations in order to see that individuals fall into two categories — the leaders and the led — that is, the givers and the recipients of suggestions. It is characteristic of suggestion by means of the muscular sense, that it may be said to have its origin in the hypnotized subject. If his limbs are placed in a tragic attitude, a corresponding emotion is displayed ; if his fists are clenched, he frowns with an expression of anger ; if his limbs are disposed so as to begin any action, it is carried on by the subject, and in this way he may be made to climb or go on all fours ; or if a pen or piece of work is put into his hand, he will write or sew. If his hand is raised, and the fore-finger is bent, the idea occurs to him that a bird is perching on his finger, and this hallucination is developed. A slight movement by the experimenter will carry on this silent suggestion; the subject then imagines that the bird has taken flight, and he runs about the room trying to catch it. If the hands • of a female subject are crossed upon her bosom, it sug- gests the idea that she is holding an infant. All these facts ar.e included in the same formula; the attitude given to the subject's limbs is accompanied by definite muscular impressions, which arouse corresponding ideas in the brain. Since every suggestion has its origin in a sensorial 9 182 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. impression which is experienced by the subject, it is easy to see that this impression may be produced by an external object without the intervention of the experimenter. This mode of suggestion is inconvenient, and therefore rarely employed, but it is sometimes spontaneously dis- played. Bennett mentions the case of a butcher who wished to place a heavy piece of meat on a hook above his head ; he slipped, the hook caught him by the arm, and he remained suspended. He was taken down half- dead, his sleeve was cut open, and, although he complained of great suffering, as soon as the arm was exposed, it was found to be absolutely intact ; the hook had only penetrated his coat-sleeve, This is an instance of sug- gestion without an experimenter, and many others might be given. We shall speak presently of the paralysis induced in hypnotic subjects by suggestion. It is pro- bable that some cases of hysterical paralysis, termed traumatic, — that is, caused by a shock, — are also due to suggestion, since the patient cannot divest himself of the idea that such a severe shock must produce paralysis. These latter facts pass gradually into those to which the name of auto-suggestion has been given. There are cases in which suggestion has its origin in the subject's intelligence; in which the suggestion is made by himself. Instead of being the result of an external impression, as in the case of verbal suggestion, the suggestion results from an internal impression, such as a fixed idea, or delirious conception. A few examples will explain this better than dry definitions. A subject imagined that she was opposing by force the halluci- nation suggested by one of the present writers, and that she had given him a blow on the face. When her supposed GENERAL STUDY OF SUGGESTION. 183 adversary entered the room on the following day, she imagined that she saw a bruise upon his cheek. This hallucination was derived from the former one, just as a conclusion is derived from its premisses, and it may be taken as a type of auto-suggestion. The subject must have unconsciously argued after this fashion : I gave him a blow on the cheek, of which therefore he must bear the mark. Another subject, coming out of a state of profound lethargy, which had only lasted for five or six minutes, imagined that she had been asleep for several hours. We encouraged the illusion by saying that it was two o'clock in the afternoon, although it was in reality nine in the morning. When she heard this, the patient felt extremely hungry, and begged us to let her go to get food. This was a kind of organic hallu- cination — the hallucination of hunger — suggested to the subject by herself. She unconsciously reasoned some- what after this manner : It is two o'clock in the after- noon; I have eaten nothing since I got up, and am therefore dying of hunger. This imaginary hunger was soon satisfied by an equally imaginary meal. We sug- gested that there was a plate of cakes on a corner o£ the table, of which the subject might partake, and at the end of five minutes her hunger was appeased. These examples of auto-suggestion are derived from halbici- nation, and we now give one belonging to a different order of ideas. We approached a hypnotized subject, and addressed her as follows: "A serious accident has just befallen you. Do you remember it ? Your foot slipped in crossing the court-yard, and you fell upon your hip. You must have hurt yourself very much." The subject instantly felt a severe pain in the hip and began 184 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. to moan, and also, suggesting to herself the natural con- sequences of the fall, she gave herself a slight paralysis of the limb, and limped on awaking. The general conclusion to be derived from all these facts and experiments is, that suggestion consists in introducing, cultivating, and confirming an idea in the mind of the subject of experiment. In reply to the inquiry. What is meant by an idea, and what latent force does it possess in order to aflfect some individuals so powerfully ? we must repeat that the idea resolves itself into an image, and the image into a revival of the sensa- tion. It consists in the psychical renewal of a peripheral sensation already experienced by the Subject. This enables us to understand its power ; the idea is, strictly speaking, only an appearance, but there lurks behind it the energy excited by a physical, anterior excitement. This point of view is confirmed by the fact that it is possible to produce, by simple physical excitements, that is, by sensations, almost all the effects which have hitherto been produced by suggestion, that is, by ideas. Thus, instead of producing or putting an end to paralysis by speech, it may be produced by a shock to the limb or on the skull (Charcot), and it may be terminated by employing the same process. The repetition of the vibra- tions of the tuning-fork represents the shock of trauma- tism. Hysterical anaesthesia may also be produced and destroyed by analogous processes.* The movements may also in some cases be produced by excitement of the scalp. We cannot here give full details, and only wish to show that suggestion may be referred to the * Ch. Fe'rd, Note pour servir a Vhistoire de Vumhlyopie hyftgriqiii (^Bulletin de la Soc. de Biologie, 1886, p. 389). GENERAL STUDY OF SUGGESTION. 185 peripheral excitement in which it has its source. It is precisely because it produces in the nervous centres of some subjects the same dynamic modifications, that suggestion is able to effect all the phenomena which result from peripheral excitements. We are reminded of an old saying which is not yet obsolete, Nihil est in intellectu quad non prius fuerit in sensu. In our day the power of suggestion has been so firmly established that some people have maintained that it is to this we must ascribe the action of sesthesi- ogenic and dynamogenic agents, etc., employed for peripheral excitements. The reality of the process of cure by these agents has been denied, and it is thought that suggestion wiU explain the singular phenomenon of transfer, discovered by Gelle, and afterwards studied by a commission of the Societe de Biologie ; what Carpenter ascribed to expectant attention is now ascribed to sug- gestion. This error is chiefly due to the idea that if suggestion will reproduce any given phenomenon which was previously ascribed to a physical excitement, there- fore suggestion is its true cause. But this argument is weak. It might as well be said that since it is possible to satisfy a somnambulist's hunger with an imaginary meal, nourishment is at all times unnecessary for him. Moreover, this opinion does not possess the merit of simplicity which is claimed for it, since it is as difficult to understand why the simple idea of paralysis should paralyse, as to understand why a shock to the skull should produce the same efifect. Besides, in ascribing everything to the idea, we ignore the fact that it is a secondary and derivative phenomenon. To main- tain that the idea is everything, and the peripheral 186 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. excitement nothing, would be equivalent to maintaining that the idea is a phenomenon entirely independent of the sensorial functions' ; it is, in fact, a revolt against the wrand theory of the relations between sensations and imao-es which dominates modern psychology. Such an opinion is also opposed to physiology, which teaches ns that several functions — the secretions of sweat, tears, etc. — may become active by means both of physical and mental causes, and that the reality of the one does not exclude the other. II. We now come to the important question of the method. Such a book as this cannot include within its narrow limits the innumerable details of hypnotic experimenta- tiout Since it is necessary to restrict the exposition of facts, we think it well, by way of compensation, to throw light on the questions of method, which constitute the philosophic side of the subject. The study of hypnotism bristles with difficulties, although this has not occurred to the numerous persons who have expected to find in these questions the occasion of a brilliant and easy success. Although nothing is more simple than the invention of dramatic experiments, which strike the vulgar with fear and astonishment, it is on the other hand very difficult, in many cases, to find the tme formula of the experi- ment which will give its result with convincing accuracy. Speaking generally, the method is the same in the study of physical phenomena, and in that of the pheno- mena of suggestion. In order to obtain constant results, GENERAL STUDY OF SUGGESTION. 187 which may be verified at pleasure by any other observer, it is necessary to define with the utmost precision the physiological and pathological conditions of the subjects of experiment, and the nature of the processes by which it is performed. Whenever one of these two rules is vio- lated, the method is incorrect. There is a risk of seeing the result announced falsified by another observer, who was unable to reproduce it ; hence the questions become confused, personal discussions, which are necessarily sterile, ensue, and finally general disbelief is aroused. The physical state of the subject must first be defined. We recommend the course pursued by our- selves, of choosing hysterical subjects who display the strongly marked characteristics of profound hypnotism. Any one who wishes to verify the new experiments in suggestion which we adduce, must occupy himself solely with these subjects. It is very important to indicate the physical state of the subject of experiment, and in no other way can there be any comparison of results. It is true that no morbid state is constantly presented under the same aspect. Each individual im- presses a peculiar stamp on the morbid state to which he is subject. All diseases are displayed in forms which vary with the constitution of the subject, and it may even be said that each organic function presents in- dividual variations. We cannot, therefore, be surprised that hypnosis is displayed under various and more or less characteristic aspects, but this is an additional reason for only comparing similar facts, unless we wish to fall into deplorable confusion. It is less easy to define with precision the modes of operation, since the experimenter is often mistaken with 188 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. respect to the means which he employs. He believes that he is suggesting a given idea, but at the same moment he unconsciously suggests a second, which alters the first idea, or else the subject intervenes in an active manner, in order to simulate certain phenomena, thus deceiving the observer. Simulation and unconscious suggestion are the two rocks to be avoided in studying the facts of suggestion. Simulaiion. — It must be admitted that simulation, always a difficulty in the study of hysteria, is no where so formidable as it is in this department of study. The experimenter is safe as long as he has to do with physical phenomena, but this is not the case with many of the facts of suggestion. It is very easy for the subject to simulate an hallucination or delirium. These are internal phenomena which cannot be seen, touched, and handled, like an objective fact; they are subjective phenomena, personal to those who experience them, and consequently they may readily be assumed. Before studying them, it must be proved that they exist. Before observing the characteristics of an artifi.cial hallucination, we must ascertain that it is really experienced by the subject. The danger is not averted by proving that the subject is really hypnotized, for, as we have already said, simula- tion and somnambulism do not exclude each other. Pitres has ascertained that even when the subject is asleep she may still deceive. We must, therefore, exact from the facts of suggestion themselves the proof of their reality. Strictly speaking, we might appeal to moral proofs ; but these proofs are only valuable to those who know the subjects ; they are strictly personal. Moreover, those who are satisfied with moral proofs should remember GENERAL STUDY OF SUGGESTION. 189 Hublier, whose good faith is undoubted, and who was deceived by his somnambulist subject for four consecutive years. It would be wise to accept the lesson of caution presented by this fact. The method to be pursued in such cases is already told, and it may be summed up in one word : it is the experimental Tnethod, and includes the most improved processes of clinical observation and physiological re- search. In earlier times magnetizers were content to observe, and many in our day imitate them in this respect. After producing a given psychical phenomenon by suggestion, they observe, and then describe it. We hold that this is only a preparation for the experiment, which remains incomplete. Passive observation is not enough to assure us of the subject's sincerity, nor can the reality of the hallucination suggested be proved, if we only observe what the subject does, and listen to what he says. The investigation must be carried further, and the pheno- menon of suggestion must be subjected to oystematic examination, in order to separate it from the objective signs. It is in this way that experiments have shown that hallucinative vision is modified by optical instru- ments just as actual vision is ; that hallucination with respect to a colour produces the same effects of contrast in colour, as if it were actually seen ; that artificial anaesthesia produces the same phenomena of colour as the spontaneous achromatopsia of hysterical patients ; that the motor paralysis induced by suggestion is accom- panied by the same physical signs as a paralysis due to organic causes. These hidden characters, which are revealed by experiment, are evidently of a complex 190 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. nature ; - in order to understand them we must be acquainted with physics, psychology, and the physiology of the nervous system. The effects of contrast produced by colour-hallucination is inexplicable, unless we under- stand the theory of complementary colours. Again, we cannot understand the clinical signs of motor paralysis produced by suggestion, unless we are acquainted with the nature of organic paralysis ; and so it is in other cases. There is no risk of the subject's inventing the characteristics as a whole, in order to deceive the experi- menter, and we may therefore be assured that there is no simulation, and this for two reasons : first, want of know- ledge, and, secondly, want of power. The objective signs mentioned just now are therefore very valuable ; they apply to every case, and offer an irrefutable proof of the reality of the experiment. In short, the method to be pursued with respect to facts of suggestion is this : the artificial psychical phe- nomena must be matter for experiment, with the aim of rendering these subjective disturbances objective. A singular problem, however, occurs with reference to simulation, which has not yet been examined by any observer. The rules which we have just laid down in order to counteract simulation are very efficacious when the simulator does not experience in any degree the assumed phenomenon. For instance, if the subject asserts that he has a visual hallucination, when he sees absolutely nothing, the manifold proofs furnished by optical instru- ments, complementary colours, etc., will easily expose the fraud. But it is open to question whether simulation in a subject liable to suggestion may not effect all which is effected by suggestion itself GENERAL STUDY OP SUGGESTION. 191 Let us take an important instance. Motor paralysis can be given to some subjects by means of suggestion, and it is a question whether the subject, with the purpose of deceiving the experimenter, may not simulate a motor paralysis, and whether this assumed paralysis may not present the same objective characters as that which is produced by suggestion. We think that this is possible, for in paralysis by suggestion the real cause of functional impotence is the idxa of a paralysis, and it matters little whether this idea proceeds from suggestion by the experimenter, or from simulation by the subject ; it is only essential that it should be sufficiently intense as to afiect the motor power. It is in this way that we hold that simulated phenomena may in some cases be absolutely confounded with real phenomena. This question of simulation in an individual liable to suggestion is, in fact, only one aspect of a much larger question : that of the action of the will on phenomena of suggestion. It may be asked whether an individual liable to suggestion can voluntarily create, modify, and destroy effects on himself comparable to those developed by suggestion. We are acquainted with facts which enable us to reply in the affirmative. We have seen subjects who could at pleasure, and in the waking state, call up the hallucinative image ; when looking attentively at a sheet of white paper, they could cause it to appear red, blue, green, etc., and the colour thus evoked would be sufficiently distinct to give birth in due succession to the complementary colour which the subject could indicate correctly. This remarkable visual phenomenon differs from artificial hallucination in one respect; it requires a voluntary effort, continued for a period vary- 192 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. ing between twenty seconds and a minute, while a suggested hallucination occurs almost spontaneously. We met with another instance of voluntary suggestion in ])sychical paralysis. A subject to whom complete paralysis of the arm had been given was able to free herself from it after endeavouring for five minutes to move the paralysed limb. Unconscious Suggestion. — We have not yet had occasion to speak of this last kind of suggestion, which has a tendency to introduce itself like a parasite into the experimenter's mental suggestions, so as alto- gether to vitiate the results. It should be known that some hysterical subjects become when hypnotized so sensitive and such delicate re-agents, that no word or gesture escapes their notice ; they see, hear, and retain everything, like registering instruments. Suppose that the experimenter has produced a visual hallucination ; he then wishes to ascertain whether this sensorial dis- turbance has produced any modification in the sensibility of the integuments of the eye, which were insensitive before the experiment. Before making the examination, he says to one of his assistants, "I am going to see whether the cornea and conjunctiva have become sensitive." The subject hears what is said, and it may easily, although not certainlj'-, happen that the words act as a direct suggestion of the symptom in question, so that the experimenter runs the risk of taking for an effect of hallucination what is the effect of sufforestion. oo The subject acts in good faith, as well as the experi- menter ; there is no simulation, and yet there may be a considerable error. The risk of unconscious suggestion is not found in GENEEAL STUDY OF SUGGESTION. 193 the subjects of profound hypnotism in all degrees of hyp- nosis ; it is slighter during lethargy and catalepsy, and does not exist at all in the case of some subjects, who are in these states unable to receive any suggestions whatever. It is during somnambulism that unconscious suggestion is most frequently present, and when the experimenter has to do with a somnambulist, he should always remember this source of error, and guard against it. The moral proof derived from the subject's good faith is useless, since we are not concerned with simulation. It is well for the experimenter to work in silence, not to pre- pare his experiments in the presence of his subject, and to execute them before a limited number of spectators. One or two are enough. We cannot too often repeat that only the first experiments are convincing, since, strictly speaking, these alone are performed on a virgin subject, safe from unconscious suggestion. Every time that the experiment is repeated, there are probably more spectators who comment upon it aloud ; they uncon- sciously make suggestions which vitiate the purity of the phenomenon, and greatly diminish its value. In addition to this there is another source of error, namely, that when the second experiment takes place, the subject remembers the former one. For instance, if a given phenomenon has been produced once by the employment of a given agent, on the second occasion the presence of this agent, or even its image, may recall its sensation, and so disturb the experiment in hand. For these reasons, among others, we have always been careful in our papers on hypnotism to give the results of the first experiment, although these results were often less exact and complete than those which followed. 194 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. We believe that the experimenter who follows the rules just laid down, who accurately defines the physical and mental condition of his subjects, who takes measures completely to eliminate simulation and unconscious suggestion, will obtain verifiable results. We must not omit a final precept, equally applicable to the research into facts and to the performance of experiments, and that is, to bring together the phe- nomena of suggestion which are already known, and which make part of positive science. Many experi- menters have disregarded this important precept, and have written pages on suggestion which are only a collection of amusing anecdotes, adapted rather to pique curiosity than to aflbrd instruction. Paul Janet has forcibly remarked on the serious consequences of this omission : " In recent works on the subject of suggestion, all more or less intended for the public, since they were published at conferences, lectures, or in reviews, we have observed that, instead of first relying on the most common and elementary facts, assuming that these were already too well known, which is by no means the case, they have been chiefly anxious to dwell on extraordinary facts which strike the imagination. This is intelligible enough, since in addressing the pubKc, success is the first object. The writer doubtless loves truth for its own sake, but he is not unwilling to make it effective. If the audience or the reader is prepared, the effect is weakened, and it becomes greater in proportion to its unexpectedness. This tendency to throw into relief the extraordinary and the unexpected is excellent from the literary and dramatic point of view, but it has many inconveniences when we are concerned with science GENERAL STUDY OF SUGGESTION. 195 for when the amazement is too great, it inclines the mind to unbelief, and diverts it from examination. Enlightened minds have long held aloof from the study of magnetism, precisely because of its marvellous and mysterious character. And now, although the new facts rest, or appear to rest, on a really scientific method, yet their resemblance to those of magnetism tends to produce an analogous disposition to hostility and dislike. At the same time, by a reciprocal and contrary effect which is no less vexatious, others regard these singular phenomena, of which they cannot divine the cause, as if they were invested with the same prestige of the unknown and the mysterious as those of magnetism. The one leads to the other, and since the public is unacquainted with the methods of science, they coiifuse the subjects together, so as to fall back into the error which it was sought to avoid." * The method to be pursued consists, as we have said, in at once showing that suggestion is not a distinct phenomenon in the history of intelligence, an isolated, disconnected fact, explained by nothing, and as it were suspended in mid-air. It is necessary to insist on the close relations existing between the phenomena of sug- gestion and the admitted facts which form part of positive science; the connection between them must be made clear, since 'these phenomena are only an exaggeration and a pathological deviation. On this subject we shall have to point out numerous parallels between the facts of suggestion and those of physiology, of psychology, and of mental disorder. The comparative study of suggestion and of psycho- • Bevue politique el lilt^raire, August, 18S4. 196 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. logical phenomena will show us that the hypnotic subject is not governed by special psychological laws, and that the germs of all his symptoms may be traced in the normal state. The comparative study of the phenomena of suggestion and of mental disorder will, moreover, show that the psychical disturbance caused in the subject by suggestion has many characters in common with the spontaneous disturbance found in an insane person ; that, for instance, the hallucination of hypnotism does not essentially differ from the ordinary forms of hallucination. It is by means of these repeated comparisons that the experimenter finds his bearings in the study of hypnotism, in which such care is necessary. Ke- liance on the achieved results of positive science acts as a check and guidance, and hypnotism, instead of being merely an amusement for the idle, becomes a useful method of experiment in psychology and in mental diseases. Ill Suggestion acts on the subject's nervous system, and produces modifications analogous to those which are produced by peripheral excitements. But we are far from knowing all the effects produced by the idea which is introduced by means of suggestion into the subject's brain ; it is, indeed, probable that we are not acquainted with the thousandth part of them. Far from wishing to conceal this incompleteness of the theory of suggestion, we think it well to call particular attention to it. The study of suggestion has only just begun, and many surprises are doubtless in store for us. GENERAL STUDY OF SUGGESTIOlf. 197 We think it probable that when suggestion is em- ployed in the case of a subject adapted for it, it is capable of producing all the actions connected with the nervous system. This is, however, only a proba bility, since direct proofs are wanting, and if it were proved, we have still to learn the extent and limits of the influence of the nervous system on the rest of the organism. The question of suggestion merges in this case in an important and still somewhat obscure question of physiology. A fresh chapter in the history of suggestion has been lately opened. Various observers have been study- ing suggestions which do not exert any action on the subject's physical life, but on the so-called vegetative functions, circulation, calorification, secretion, digestion, etc. We do not propose to dwell on well-known facts, such as purging by means of suggestion, since such facts present no special feature, and we know that in the normal state these effects are produced by certain forms of mental emotion. The most important of the organic disturbances pro- duced by an idea is an experiment on vesication, per- formed by Foeachon, a chemist at Charmes. He applied some postage stamps to the left shoulder of a hypnotized subject, keeping them in their place with some strips of diachylon and a compress; at the same time he suggested to the subject that he had applied a blister. The subject was watched, and when twenty hours had elapsed the dressing, which had remained untouched, was removed. The epidermis to which it had been applied was thickened and dead and of a yellowish white colour, 198 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. and this region of the skin was puffy, and surrounded by an intensely red zone. Several physicians, including Beaunis, confirmed this observation, and the latter made photographs of the blister, which he presented to the Society of Physiological Psychology on June 29, 1885.* Shortly afterwards, on July 11, 1885, Dumontpallier informed the Societe de Biologie of experiments per- formed on hypnotized hysterical subjects, whose tem- perature he had raised locally several degrees ; this is a curious fact, to which another is analogous, namely, that the temperature is lowered in the correlative region of the body during the suggestion of these physical phenomena. During the same seance, Bourru and Burot, professors of the Rochefort school, published records of epistaxis, and even of blood-sweat, produced by suggestion in a male hysterical patient, who Was affected by hemiplegia and hemi-anaesthesia. On one occasion, after one of these experimenters had hypnotized the subject, he traced his name with the blunted end of a probe on both his fore- arms, and then issued the following order : — " This after- noon, at fout o'clock, you wiU go to sleep, and blood will then issue from your arms on the lines which I have now traced." The subject fell asleep at the hour named; the letters then appeared on his left arm, marked in relief, and of a bright red colour which contrasted with the general paleness of the skin, and there were even minute drops of blood in several places. There was » It seems that as long ago as November, 1840, Prejalmini, an Italian physician, raised a blister by applying to the healthy slsiu of a somnam- bulist a piece of paper on which he had written a prescription for a blister. We owe this fact to Ferrari, who found it in Eicard's Journal de Mag- n^Usme Animal, 2ud year, 1S40, pp. 18, 151. GENEKAL STUDY OF SUGGESTION. 199 absolutely nothing to be seen on the right and paralysed side. Mabille subsequently heard the same patient, in a spontaneous attack of hysteria, command his arm to bleed, and soon afterwards the cutaneous haemorrhage just described was displayed. These strange phenomena recall, and also explain, the bleeding stigmata which have been repeatedly observed in the subjects of religious ecstasy who have pictured to themselves the passion of Christ. Charcot and his pupils at the Salpetriere have often produced the effects of burns upon the skin of hypnotized subjects by means of suggestilfei. The idea of the burn does not take effect immediately, but after the lapse of some hours. It is still very doubtful whether all organic functions may be thus modified by means of suggestion. Quite recently one of the present writers * succeeded in showing, by means of processes analogous to those of Mosso, that any part of the body of an hysterical patient may change in volume, simply owing to the fact that the patient's attention is fixed on that part. This im- portant observation is not only an addition to the foregoing, but explains them by showing what influence may be exerted in hyperexcitable subjects by a simple phenomenon of ideation on the vaso-motor centres, which are concerned in all experiments of this kind. Among the effects of suggestion only one class has been the object of regular research: that of psychical phe- nomena. These have been studied by preference because they were the first which charlatans sought to turn to their advantage. To these we now propose to turn • Ch. Fe'r^, Bull. Socieie de Biologie, 18S6, p. 309. 200 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. our attention, endeavouring to define and classify them with the utmost care. If, before going into details, we consider the subject as a -whole, it will be seen that we have to study the part played by ideas in the modification of the in- telligence; that we must observe what this factor produces when it acts alone. It is generally admitted by psychologists that the idea is only a secondary factor, that it is for the most part a resultant, a point of arrival ; that psychical phenomena are in some sort developed from below in an upward direction. They do not begin in^he upper centres of ideation, but are com- pleted there.* So also the phenomena of suggestion which, by an inverse mechanism, are developed from the higher to the lower plane, are more superficial and ephemeral than spontaneous phenomena. It is possible to suggest to a subject that he is very hungry, but this feeling, which is dictated by an idea, will not be so deep as that which is due to an organic necessity. So, again, the personality of the subject may be transformed, and he may be changed into a dog or a wolf; but when this boiTOwed personality is engrafted on the true one, the character is not fundamentally changed. If the suggestion is to produce any permanent modifications it must be often repeated, and it will then, at least in some cases, end by producing habits. A subject to whom suggestions of motor paralysis had been repeatedly made, said that in dreams she often saw half of her body paralysed. Experimental suggestions of crime ought not to be lightly made, since we cannot always tell what traces they leave behind them. • Eibot, Maladies de la Personnalilg, p. 131. Paris : P. Alcan. GENERAL STUDY OF SUGGESTION. 201 A careful study of suggestioa shows that this word does not imply a single fact, but two principal facts which may be said to form the cardinal points of the whole theory. There are two fundamental kinds of suggestion ; the one produces an active or impulsive phenomenon, such as a sensation of pain, an hallucination, an act; the effect of the other is to produce a phenomenon of paralysis, such as the flaccidity of a limb, the loss of memory, anaesthesia of the senses. These are two quite different processes, and may even be said to be opposed to each other, since the one undoes what is done by the other. It is impossible to refer them to the same psychical law, and to apply to them the same explanation. Let us first consider the positive suggestions, of which the hallucination and the act are the most important. It has already been observed that all suggestions are ad- dressed to the subject's sensorial organs, and that the co-operation of his intelligence is necessary in order to attain the end in view. We must go further, and establish the fact that each suggestion includes two things : first, an impression is made upon the subject, which is, ac- cording to circumstances, a sensation of sight, of hearing (verbal suggestion), of touch, or of the other senses. This initial impression, which may be termed the sugges- tive impression, has the effect of arousing in the subject's brain a second impression, which may be termed the suggested state, such, for instance, as the hallucinatory image. The first impression is the means, the second its object. In reply to the question how the first impression, which is directly produced by the experimenter, can arouse the second, which is wholly from within, and without any direct influence from the experimenter, we 202 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. should reply that this is owing to the association of ideas. Suggestion in its positive form is only the setting in action of a mental association previously existing in the subject's mind. Suppose, for example, that the subject is told to look at the bird on her apron. As soon as the words are uttered she sees the bird, she feels it in her hand, and can sometimes even hear it sing. Inexperienced persons may think it extraordinary and even inexplicable that an imaginary image can be created in the subject's brain by mere words; but it is nevertheless a fact that the association of ideas is the cause of the suggestion, of hallucinations. The words uttered by the experimenter are associated with the mental image of a bird by education, by repetition, in a word, by habit ; therefore it produces this image, and the hallucination is effected. It is a law that when two images have frequently been received together, simultaneously or in quick succession, the presence of the one tends to revive the other. The production of the hallucinatory image by means of verbal affirmation is only a fulfilment of this well-known law. We should be .able to show, by considering it more closely, that this mode of suggestion belongs to the group of associations by proximity. Instead of making use of speech, the subject's sense of sight may be employed. When his eyes are mobile and follow all our actions with docility, we make with the hand the appearance of some flying object, and the subject soon .exclaims, " What a beautiful bird ! " This singular effect of a simple gesture is also due to the association of ideas. The rude imitation by which the hand represents the movement of some flying object has GENERAL STUDY OP SUGGESTION. 203 raised up the image of a bird. In this case the associa- tion which comes into play differs from the former one ; it is an association due to resemblance. It is in this way that psychology explains the mechanism of hallucinatory suggestion, which essenti- ally consists in acting on an association. It is only a special case of the great law of which this is the for- mula : — When an image is aroused in the mind, it tends to reproduce all the images which resemble it, or which were found with it in an anterior act of consciousness. In a word, one image suggests another. Paul Janet observes on this subject : " Some Scotch psychologists. Brown for example, have even proposed to call this law the law of suggestion, a term which would be much more appropriate than the other. I have no doubt that the expression of suggestion, introduced by Braid into his theory of hypnotism, is derived from this source." * Just as the association of the word with the image explains the suggestion of hallucinations, so the association of the image with the movement explains the suggestion of acts. When a given movement is executed before the eyes of a subject, such as clapping the hands, the representation of this movement is produced in his mind. When, with- out moving himself, the experimenter bids his subject clap his hands, the representation of the same action is aroused in his mind by the association of words with ideas ; if in both cases alike the subject performs the act in question — in other words, if the image is translated into movement — this is because custom has associated the image with the movement. It is, as it • Revue politique et lUi^raire, August, 1881. 204 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. were, the beginning or first s.tage of the movement which it represents, and owing to this fact the subject auto- matically executes whatever he is ordered to do, even if the act should be dangerous, immoral, or merely ridiculous. Eichet tells us that on one occasion, when performing experiments on the friend he had hypnotized, he com- pelled him to pick up the piece of chalk he had thrown under the table twenty times. In fact, the suggestion of acts is perhaps, of all the phenomena of suggestion, the one which approximates most closely to the normal state; it simply consists in the servile execution of an order. We have, however, an observation to make on this subject. We are compelled to connect these facts of suggestion, impulses, and hallucinations, with the facts of positive science which may serve to prove and control them. Yet we are far from believing that this method will give a complete explanation of the phenomena in question. It is a proof of excessive confidence to assume that everything is explained, and a word is enough to show that the matter is still full of obscurity. Admitting that the suggestion of a movement is explained by the association of the movement with its image or representa- tion, it is a question whether as much can be said of the suggestion of an act. When the subject's brain is charged with this idea, "On awaking you will steal the hand- kerchief of some given person," and the subject when he awakes does actually commit the theft, we cannot suppose that there is nothing in this except an image associated with an act. The subject has, in fact, appropriated and assimilated the experimenter's idea. Instead of passively executing the order given by another, the order has passed into the active state, that is, the subject feels a GENERAL STUDY OF SUGGESTION. 205 desire to steal — a complex and obscure state which no one has hitherto been able to explain. We shall return to this subject presently, in order to examine- it more closely. Since we find so much that is enigmatical in the region of impulsive suggestions, which are the clearest and most intelligible, this is still more the case when we approach the subject of inhibitory suggestions. Here the most superficial psychologist will find himself on new ground. The facts of paralysis by means of sug- gestion completely overthrow classic psychology. The experimenter who produces them with perfect «ase does not really know what he is doing. Take an instance of systematic anaesthesia. The subject was told, " On awaking you wiU be unable to see or hear, or in any way perceive M. X , who is now present ; he will have completely disappeared." Accord- ingly, when the subject awoke she saw all the persons who surrounded her with the exception of M. X . When he spoke, she did not answer his questions, and when he laid his hand on her shoulder, she was uncon- scious of the contact. He put himself in her way, and she walked on and was alarmed to encounter an invisible object. We are ignorant how this phenomenon is pro- duced and can only accept the external fact; namely, that when a subject is assured that an object present has no existence, the suggestion has the direct or indirect effect of establishing in his brain an ansesthesia cor- responding to the object selected. But it is still a question what occurs between the spoken affirmation, which is the means, and the systematic ansesthesia, which is the end. We cannot, as in the case of halluci- 10 206 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. nation, assume that the word spoken to the subject, and the phenomenon produced, are connected by asaociation. If it is true that the image of a serpent is associated with the words, "Here is a serpent," it cannot be said that the incapacity for seeing M. X , who is present at the time, is also associated with the words, " M. X is non-existent." In this case the law of association, which is so useful in resolving psychological problems, is altogether unavailing. This is probably because this law will not explain all the facts of consciousness, and is less general than it is supposed to be by English psychologists. Similar reflections apply to another instance of paralysis by suggestion, or motor paralysis. It is pos- sible to suggest to a hypnotized subject that her arm is paralysed. It is only necessary to say repeatedly with the requisite authority, " Your arm is paralysed," and functional impotence is soon displayed. The subject begins by signifying a denial of the fact, she tries to raise her arm, and succeeds in doing so. She is repeatedly told, "You cannot raise your arm; it will fall again," and paralysis gradually comes on, and presently extends to the whole arm. The subject can no longer move it, and its flaccidity is absolute. Such is the singular phenomenon of motor paralysis by means of suggestion. It is as difficult to understand as the anaesthesia to which it corresponds. We do not think that it can be explained by any psychical facts now known to us. Perhaps this whole class of facts is subject to a general psychical law of which the most advanced psychologists have not yet discovered the formula and which may have some analogy with an inhibitory action. GENERAL STUDY OF SUGGESTION. 207 According to this hypothesis it may be provisionally admitted that in order to paralyse the subject the experimenter produces in him a mental impression which has an inhibitory effect on one of his sensorial or motor functions: it should also be clearly understood that, strictly speaking, it is not the mental impression which produces the inhibition, but the concomitant physio- logical process. Moreover, it must be remembered that the word inhibition explains nothing, and does not dis- pense with the necessity of seeking the true explanation. Hypnotic suggestions may be classified as follows : — Some are only effected during sleep, and disappear with a return to the normal state ; others continue during the waking state ; others, again, are produced in the waking state. Thus, the hallucination of a bird may be given to a somnambulist, and this hallucination will disappear when the subject is awakened by breathing on his eyes. As soon as he returns to the normal state, he is completely free from any imaginary vision. This is the case with fresh subjects and with those who are only mode- rately receptive, in whom suggestion does not outlast the hypnotic sleep. It is possible, however, to protract the suggestion after the awakening by strengthening it with a different suggestion. If the precaution is taken of telling the subject to whom the hallucination is given that he -will stiU see the object in question when he awakes, the assertion is often enough to ensure the existence of the suggestion in the post-hypnotic state. It is not usually necessary to make a special sugges- tion in order to produce this effect in subjects thoroughly under the influence of profound hypnotism. Every effect •208 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. whicli has been suggested -without fixing any term to it, and which has a continuous form, may persist for a shorter or longer period during the waking state. This is especially the case with hallucinations, paralysis, etc. We are thus presented with a curious experience, calcu- lated to interest the psychologist. The subject is awake, has returned to what may be called his normal state, is able to reflect, reason, and direct his conduct ; and yet, under these conditions, he is influenced by the hypnotic suggestion. The suggestion which persists during the waking state presents one interesting characteristic; it appears to the subject to be spontaneous. As a general rule, the process which produced the suggestion seems to leave no trace of its symptoms, and the subject who after awaking is still a prey to the hallucination which was suggested, does not remember the way in which it was produced. We have not in a single case met with a subject who said spontaneously, "If I see a bird at this moment, it is because you assured me that I saw one when I was asleep." The memory of the uttered word has completely disappeared, while its eflTect remains in the hallucinatory image. Hence it follows that hypnotic hallucination has always the appearance of a spontaneous symptom. Some curious consequences ensue. A subject is told that one of the persons present wears a coat with gold buttons, and the word arouses the sensible image of buttons of a yellow colour. If the subject is afterwards asked of what the buttons are made, he may reply, " They are made of copper." The buttons which he has before his eyes are yellow, and he supposes that they are copper ; he has completely for- GENERAL STUDY OF SUGGESTION. 209 gotten the word gold which figured in the verbal suggestion. The same may be said with respect to suggestion of acts. On awaking, the subject obediently performs the act which he was ordered to do during the hypnotic sleep, but he does not remember who gave him the order, nor even that it was given at all. If asked why he is performing this act, he usually replies that he does not know, or that the idea has come into his head. He generally supposes it to be a spontaneous act, and some- times he even invents reasons to explain his conduct. All this shows that the memory of the suggestion, so far as respects its utterance, is completely effaced. The same rule applies to paralysis by suggestion. The subject who is affected by a monoplegia, when he awakes does not understand how the accident occurred ; he remembers nothing of the verbal suggestion, nor does he suspect that the incapacity to move his arm is due to a conviction of the want of motor power. In short, the suggestion is effaced from the subject's mind as soon as it has produced its effect, and the symptoms appear to be evolved independently of their cause. The existence of this partial failure of memory may perhaps allow us to compare the artificial results of suggestion with the phenomena which are spontaneously displayed in normal individuals and also in the insane, in their acts, pheno- menal impulses, hallucinations, etc. We now come to the detailed study of the facts of suggestion. It is impossible to examine all of them, and we must be content with selecting a certain number of typical cases for careful study. We shall successively consider hallucinations, impulsive acts, motor paralysis, 210 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. and paralysis of the senses. The phenomena just indicated are the simplest which can be obtained by means of hj'^pnotic experimentation, and in studying them we may be said to study the most elementary properties of the phenomena of suggestion. If space permitted, we should follow up the study of these elementary facts of sugges- tion by enumerating the complex facts derived from them. Thus, we might connect with the hallucinatory image all the facts included under the name of intelli- gence — sensation, the association of images, memory, reason, and imagination. With a suggested act are con- nected sentiments, emotions, passions, voluntary action, and all the phenomena constituting the psychology of movement, with which we are as yet imperfectly ac- quainted. Finally, paralysis by suggestion is connected with the phenomena of psychical inhibition of which the study has not as yet even begun. ( 211 ) CHAPTER IX, HALLUCINATIONS. Hypnotic hallucination, of which we propose to give a short sketch, is undoubtedly one of the most important phenomena of hjrpnosis ; the attention of observers has long been directed to it, and it has been the subject of numerous experiments. In the case of a subject sensitive to suggestion, the experimenter can produce the most varied hallucinations, and it may almost be said that there is nothing which suggestion cannot create. This observation will suffice, and we need not cite the innumerable instances of hal- lucinations given by some authors, who are more inte- rested in experiments which amuse than in those which instruct. It is as unprofitable to enumerate all the species of hallucination which it pleases the observer to impose upon his subject, as to describe all the forms which a piece of clay may assume in the hands of its moulder. We shall, therefore, content ourselves with giving a few instances of the way in which hypnotic hallucination may affect all the senses. Sight. — ^A false appreciation of the form of an object may be suggested, so that it appears to the subject to be 212 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. larger, smaller, or misshapen. If, for example, the idea of some deformity of face in a given person is suggested, the subject, even when some hours have elapsed since his awakening, will regard that person with an expression of disgust or horror whenever he looks that way, and, indeed, the person in question may sometimes become an object of permanent dislike. We have employed this method with success in order to break off the relations between certain hysterical patients. The illusion may be carried so far as to produce a mistake with respect to the identity of a person ; an hypnotic subject will in the waking state lavish caresses on a person whom she ia known to detest, if during the hypnotic sleep it has been suggested to her that she has to do with some other person to whom she is attached, and the error will some- times persist for a whole day, until the illusion is destroyed by natural sleep or by an hysterical attack. If the presence of a person who is really absent has been evoked during the hypnotic sleep, the illusion is equally persistent, and the subject may perceive an imaginary object throughout the day. At the word of the experi- menter the laboratory becomes a street, a garden, a cemetery, a lake, etc ; a portrait appears on a blank sheet of paper. It may even be suggested that there is a column of figures on the paper, which the subject will add up correctly. (Babinski.) Hearing. — Influenced by suggestion, the subject con- . founds the voice of an unknown person with that of an absent acquaintance; he can hear, in the midst of pro- found silence, voices which issue orders, which repeat insults or obscene words, etc. Taste.— li the subject is presented with a piece of HALLUCINATIONS. 213 paper, and told that it ia a cake, he will begin to eat it with relish. In other cases, he may be convinced that his food is poisoned. If the idea of a nauseous substance is suggested to him, the sensation may be so intense as to produce vomiting. Smell. — This sense may also become the seat of erroneous impressions. The subject may, for example, believe that a bad smell is coming to him through the keyhole, etc. Touch. — The illusions and hallucinations of touch assume still more varied forms, and aU forms of cuta- neous sensibility may occur together or separately. The suggestion of a wound is one of the most curious of these hallucinations ; the subject's description of his suffering varies with the suggestion that the wound was given by a sharp or blunt instrument, but his description is only correct if he has previously experienced one of these accidents. It is still more remarkable that the hallucination of sight is simultaneously developed : the subject sees the blood flow, etc., and a systematic delirium ensues which is more or less persistent, and during which he complains of imaginary suffering, applies appropriate dressings, and carries his arm in a sling, just as if the wound really existed. Muscular Sense. — If an hallucinatory object, such as a lamp-shade, is put in the subject's hands, and he is told to press it, he experiences a sensation of resistance, and IS unable to bring his hands together. Internal Sense. — Suggestion cannot only be applied to the senses ; it is possible to produce visceral hallucina- tions and illusions, the sensation of a foreign substance in the interior of the body, etc. But the most remarkable 214 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. of this group of suggestions, and the one which it is the most easy to produce, are those which refer to the calls of nature. When hunger or thirst has been suggested, the subject eagerly calls for food or drink as soon as he awakes, and if they are presented to him, he swallows them with avidity. If it is suggested that he wishes to make water, the subject is scarcely awake before he assumes an embarrassing attitude and hastens to satisfy the imaginary necessity. Sensual suggestions provoke equally imperious desires, of which the consequences may be imagined. Nor is this all. Not only do the suggestions of imaginary sensations affect the senses and the viscera, but it is possible to suggest the idea that there is a change of structure in the whole substance. The subject may, for instance, awake in amazement, saying, "I am made of glass, do not touch me," and systematic delirium may ensue from this mistaken idea. Other forms of delirium may be created at pleasure, by the suggestion of a sensation affecting one of the special senses. Riehet's observations on this subject, in the Revue Philosophique of March, ISSi, are worthy of notice, and we subjoin a few of them. Mme. A , a respectable matron, underwent the following metamorphoses: — As a peasant. She rubbed her eyes and stretched herself: "What o'clock is it? Four in the morning ! " She drags her feet as if wearing sabots. " I must get up and go to the stable. Now, La Eousse, turn round ! " She assumes to be milking a cow. " Leave me alone, Gros- Jean ; leave me alone, I say, and let me get on with my work." As an actress. Her face, so harsh and dissatisfied a moment before, assumes HALLUCINATIONS. 215 a smiling expression. " You see my skirt ? My director insisted that it should be longer. In my opinion, the shorter the better ; but these directors are always annoy- ing. Do come and see me sometimes ; I am always at home at three. You might pay me a visit, and bring a present with you." As Archbishop of Paris. Her face assumes a very serious expression, and she speaks slowly, in a voice sweet as honey : " I must finish writing my charge. Oh, it is you, M. le grand vicaire. What do you want ? I did not wish to' be disturbed. . . . Yes, this is New Year's Day, and I must go to the cathedral. . . . This is a very reverent crowd, is it not, M. le grand vicaire ? There is still a sense of religion in the people, whatever happens. Let that child come near, that I may bless him." She presents an imaginary ring for the child to kiss, and throughout this scene she makes gestures of benediction to the right and left. " I have now another task in hand. I must go and pay my respects to the President of the Republic. M. le President, I give you my good wishes. The Church wishes you a long life :■ in spite of the cruel attacks made upon her, she knows that she has nothing to fear as long as a perfectly honest man is at the head of the Republic." She pauses, appears to listen, and says aside, " Yes, yes, only false promises ! " Then aloud, "Now let us pray;" and she kneels down. We have observed some phenomena of the same kind, but in a less developed form. On one occasion we told X that she had become M. F , and after some resist- ance she accepted the suggestion. On awaking she was unable to see M. F , who was pi-esent; she imitated his manner, and made the gesture of putting both her hands in the pockets of an imaginary hospital apron. From 216 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. time to time she put her hand to her lips, as if to smooth her moustache, and looked about her with assurance. But she said nothing. We asked her whether she was acquainted with X . She hesitated for a moment, and then replied, with a contemptuous shrug of the shoulders, " Oh yes, an hysterical patient. What do you think of her ? She is not too wise." . It is difficult to define the psychical nature of these transformations of personality. In our opinion the phenomenon is more complex than that of hallucination, and constitutes true delirium. Moreover, many hypnotic hallucinations — that of hearing, for instance — have a secondary tendency to produce a delirium corresponding with their character. The form of hallucinatory suggestion may be varied. We have begun by considering the hallucinations which relate to the present time, those which are realized as soon as the suggestion is given. It is possible, in the case of some subjects, to create an hallucination which is to be realized in a given number of days, weeks, or even months. A simple affirmation is enough to effect this experiment. The patient is told that when he enters the room on the following day he will see a crow perched on the table ; or that two months hence, on the 1st of January, he will see the speaker come in to wish him a happy new year. The subject remembers nothing of this when he awakes, and the suggestion remains dormant in his mind until the date fixed for its revival. We shall have more to say on the subject of these experiments. On the other hand, retrospective hallucinations, which are really haUueinations of the memorv, can also HALLUCINATIONS. 217 be given. It is, for instance, impressed upon the sub- ject that at a given moment of his past life he witnessed the commission of a crime by an old man living in the same house with him (Bernheim), and if the suggestion is clearly defined, the subject's memory will be as intense and as full of details as if the fact had actually occurred. We can see what grave consequences might ensue from these experiments from a medico-legal point of view. Unilateral Hallucinations. — The hallucinations hitherto in question are bi-lateral; the senses all agree to deceive the subject : what the eye sees, that the hand touches, and the ear hears. By means of suggestion, how- ever, a subject can receive a uni-lateral hallucination, as when an imaginary object is presented to him which he can only see with one eye. Dumontpallier was the first to study this phenomenon, which is common in the insane, and may be produced in several ways. For instance, the subject is told, that there is a portrait on a blank sheet of paper, and it is added, after opening the right eye only, " You see this portrait ? " Then this eye is closed and the other is opened, with the words, " You no longer see anything." On awaking the hallucination remains, localized in the right eye, with which the subject sees the portrait, while for the left eye the paper remains blank. The experiment, performed in this way, is simple enough. Dumontpallier has made it more complex by giving; different hallucinations to each of the two symmetrical organs, to each eye or each ear. Thus, after hypnotizing the subject, he says to the right ear that it is a fine, sunshiny day, while another person says to the left ear that it is raining. On the right side of the subject's face there is a smile, while on the left the lip 218 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. ^is drawn down, so as to display annoyance at the bad weather. The experiment is continued by the interven- tion of sight and hearing, and the description of a rustic fete, attended by young people of both sexes, is trans- mitted to the right ear. This description is perceived by the left cerebral hemisphere, as it appears from the smile on the right side of the face, while on the left there is an expression of emotion, caused by the imitation of the barking of a dog at that ear. It is said that the different expression of the two halves of the face is most striking. These bilateral hallucinations, which may also be some- times observed in the insane, are very interesting from a psychological point of view. Dumontpallier thinks that they may be taken as a proof of the functional indepen- dence of the two cerebral hemispheres.* In connection with this order of ideas, we wUl adduce a fresh fact, which we have repeatedly observed. Suppose the idea is given to the subject that a white cardboard appears red to the right eye only; if he closes the left eye while looking at the cardboard with the right eye, it appears to be of a brilliant red ; if he uses both eyes, the colour appears to be pink. It is probable that the sensation of whiteness received by the left eye exerts an attenuating effect on the hallucination of the right eye, and thus produces the degradation of colour. The two following facts are connected with this experiment : — If one eye is fixed on a red square, and the other on a white surface, the sensation of red persists, but it is eclipsed from time to time as if by a white cloud. If a red image is^roduced in one eye after gazing fixedly at * 8oai€Mde i?/o%ie, 1 882, p. 786 ; 'BeriWon, DeVind^pendanee f(mcUon- elle des deux hemispheres c^rghvaux (JVhcse de Paris, 1881, p. 175). HALLUCINATIONS. 219 a green square, and the other eye is then opened on a ■white surface, the consecutive monocular image is soon effaced. The experiment of the unilateral hallucination of colour holds a middle place between these two; the hallucinatory red image is weakened by the sensation of whiteness received by the other eye, but it is not so much weakened as the consecutive image, and it is more weakened than the actual sensation. With the exception of these differences in intensity, the three phenomena may be referred to a single fact, belonging to the study of optics, and termed the concurrence or struggle of the two fields of vision. Nor is this all. The result is complicated if it is suggested that the cardboard appears red to the right eye, and green to the left eye. In the subjects observed by us, we have not found that there was a confusion of the two suggested colours, but a species of conflict : at first the cardboard appeared to be red, and a moment after it was green, and this alternation of colour seemed to perplex and weary the patient's sight. This second experiment may be explained like the former one, by the struggle between the two fields of vision. In the normal state we find that this struggle occurs when two dif- ferent colours, such as red and blue, are simultaneously presented to the right and left eyes. The subject does not, as might have been supposed, see a composite colour, but a kind of mist floating over both colours, and occasionally displacing them. Finally, on looking through the stereo- scope at two similar images, one white and the other black, the colour of the images is not :^sed into a uniform grey, but a conflict takes place between the two fields of vision, so that at one time the bright, at the 220 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. other tlie obscure, shade predominates, and hence there results the impression of a shining surface.* These well- known phenomena seem to explain the experiments on hallucinations which we have mentioned above. Before going further, we must draw some psychological conclusions from the facts just enumerated. Most modern psychologists accept the law indicated by Dugald Stewart, and more regularly developed by Taine,t according to which every image involves a momentary belief in the. reality of its object. Dugald Stewart observed that few men could look from the top of a high tower without experiencing a sensation of fear, although their reason convinces them that they run no greater danger than if they were standing on the ground. " In fact," as Taine adds, " on looking suddenly down, we imagine ourselves to be suddenly thrown headlong to the bottom, and this imagination only terrifies us, because for an imperceptible moment of time it is a belief. We instinctively draw- back, as if we felt ourselves falling.'' In every image presented to the mind there is, therefore, the germ of an hallucination, which only needs development. Such development occurs in the hypnotic state, in which it is only necessary to name a given object to the subject, simply to say, " Here is a bird ! " in order that the image suggested by the experimenter's words should become an hallucination. Thus there is only a difference of degree between the idea of an object, and the halluci- nation of that object. There is one striking fact to be noted, namely, that ♦ Bernstein, On the Senses. For greater details, see Helmholtz, OpWjue physiologique, p. 964. t De V Intelligence, vol. i. p. 89. HALLUCINATIONS. 221 most of the patients -whom we have employed as subjects of experiments in hallucination are, in the waking state, endowed with a special power of representing objects in a sensible form. Li^bault regards this quality as the sign of individuals susceptible of hypnotism. Without fully accepting this opinipn, we believe that persons who have what Galton terms the power of visualizing, are more susceptible of visual hallucinations than others. When we request one of our subjects to picture to him- self an absent person, he soon declares that he sees that person as distinctly as if he were actually present. This vivid power of representation is frequently found in hysterical patients, and it explains why, when such patients are gathered together, they, by exchanging confidences or by imparting their respective impressions, reciprocally hallucinate each other. When susceptible and hysterical subjects have been hypnotized by the same experimenter for several days, they often end by remaining in a state of permanent obsession ; they are, so to speak, possessed, boih by day in the waking state, and at night during their dreams. This state of mind is accompanied by spontaneous hallu- cinations of varying form, but of which the experimenter is always the object. One patient will have an incubus, another will be tormented, embraced, etc. If several subjects meet under the same conditions, and confidences are exchanged, a species of epidemic of hysterical delirium ensues, in which the hallucinations will be followed by impulses, acts of violence, etc., which would account for the different phases of the drama which terminated in the death of Urban Grandier. One of the present writers was present at a scene of this nature, which showed that 222 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. such methods of experiment ought to be conducted with the utmost care.* As we have just seen, hallucination consists in the vivid external projection of an image. But these terms have the defect of treating the image as a thing, as a unity. Yet reflection soon shows that this assumed unity is composed of numerous and heterogenous elements — that it is an association, a group, a fusion, a complexity, a multiplicity .-f The image o£ a ball is the resultant of complex sensations of sight, touch, and muscular sense. It is, therefore, interesting to know if, when an image is associated by contiguity with several others, the external projection of the first image involves that of the others. This occurs in numerous cases of hallucination which may be referred to the action of the memory. Heiden- hain gave a series of hallucinations to a hypnotized student, in which he went to the hippodrome, and then to the Jardin des Plantes, where he saw the lions come out of their cages. When, some time afterwards, the subject was again hypnotized, the same series of hallucinations occurred spontaneously. So, again, if the subject was reminded of his normal life, or, rather, if an hallucinatory suggestion was made to him, the memory of subsequent events was evoked in its turn, and formed a tableau or hallucinatory scene. In this way a subject may be con- strained to live over again a part of his life, and secrets are revealed which would never have been uttered in the waking state, nor even perhaps under hypnotism. We may, for example, cite the story of the singer given by * Ch. Fere, Les hypnotiques hysttTriques comid^ries comme sujetg d'ex- pHience mentale, etc. {Soei^l^ Medico-psychologique, 1883). t Kibot, Maladies de la memoire, p. 15. Paris. HALLUCINATIONS. 223 Mesnet. If a curved stick was given to him, which he took for a gun, his military recollections revived; he loaded his gun, crouched down, took aim and fired. If a roll of paper was given to him, and a light was flashed across his eyes, recollections of his present profession of singer at a cafe-chantant were aroused ; he unrolled the paper and sang loudly. Finallj'^, if a story is told to the subject, and he is then hypnotized, it is not impossible that as soon as he is put upon the track, he may have an hallucination of all the events in succession, as they were related to him. This tendency of hallucinatory images to suggest themselves shows that the law of the association of ideas by proximity may be exerted without the partici- pation of the subject's intelligence and will. One image provokes another, in virtue of the bond which unites them, and in the same way the second suggests the third. This is one of the clearest manifestations of cerebral automatism. In pushing the analysis a little further, it may be observed that in these kinds of hallucination it is not merely the image, taken by itself, which is externally projected, but the bond of association which unites several images. It is, in fact, this association which formulates the hallucination ; it produces the successive projection of the images in the order in which they are grouped in the mind. This proves that the law laid down by Dugald Stewart with respect to the states of consciousness also applies to the relations of these states. In reply to the question, What is meant by ex- ternal projection ? we answer that it is the belief in the reality of a thing. The external projection of an image 224 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. is, therefore, the belief in its reality. So that, if it is true that we are inclined to make an external projection of the associated images existing in the mind, this implies that we are inclined to believe that things are in reality- associated together, just as their images are associated in the mind. This is no new idea ; a considerable time has elapsed since it was formulated by Stuart Mill, and it is confirmed by the facts of hypnosis in the most striking manner. Speaking generally, we may say that, whenever two images are in association, an implicit affirmation of the existence of a relation between two things ensues ; this is an opinion which, therefore, must be referred to an association of externally projected images. II. One of the most striking characteristics of hypnotic hallucination is the permanence of its localization. Take the hallucination of a portrait, which is instructive in many respects. If, by means of suggestion, a portrait is caused to appear on a sheet of cardboard of which both sides are alike, the picture will always be seen on the same side of the cardboard, and in whatever direction it may be presented to him, the subject will always place it in the position which it occupied at the moment of suggestion, so that the picture may not be inverted, nor even inclined. If the cardboard is turned round, the portrait is no longer seen, and if it is turned upside down, the portrait is seen with its head downwards. The subject never mates a mistake; if his eyes are covered, or if the experimenter stands behind him while HALLUCINATIONS. 225 changing the position of the object, his answers are always in conformity with its original localization. This fact is still more clearly shown by an experi- ment devised by one of the present writers.* We place a blank card on a blank sheet of paper, and with a blunt pointer, which does not, however, touch the paper, we follow the outline of the card so as to suggest the idea of a black line. We ask the subject, on awaking, to fold the paper in accordance with these imaginary lines ; he holds the paper as far from him as it was at the moment of suggestion, and he folds it so as to form a rectangle which precisely covers the card. Charcot has often repeated a curious experiment which fundamentally resembles the foregoing one. It is suggested to the subject that there is a portrait on a blank card, which is then mixed with a dozen others which appear to be precisely similar. The subject is requested, on awaking, to run his eye over these cards, which he does without understanding the reason, but when he comes to the card on which the imaginary portrait was traced he sees it at once. AE these experiments seem to imply that the halluci- natory image produced in the subject by verbal sugges- tion does not remain in his brain in a vague and floating state ; it is probable, as one of the present writers has shown,t that this image is associated with some external mark — a dot, for instance, or a raised spot, — some dis- tinctive feature of the blank card which was shown to him when the suggestion was made, and this association of the * Ch. Fere, Les hijpnotiques hyst^nques .consid^r^es comme sujets d'ex- perience, ele. Paris, 1883. t Binet, L'Sallucination (Eevue Fliilusophigue, April, May, 188iJ. 226 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. cerebral image with an external mark would explain the series of facts of which we have given an account. One detail of these experiments is significant. If, instead of putting the pack of cards into the subject's hands, we show him the imaginary portrait while hold- ing it two yards from his eyes, the card still appears to him to be white, although a real photograph would appear to be grey. If the card is gradually brought nearer to his eyes, the imaginary portrait becomes visible, but it must be brought much nearer than an ordinary photograph before the subject can say for whom it is meant. This peculiarity can be explained on the assumption that the hallucinatory image is evoked by distinctive marks on the card which are only visible at a short distance. So again, the subject cannot distinguish the portrait through a sheet of tissue paper placed upon the card. With the help of an opera glass, the subject can recognize the object of hallucination when it is too far for him to perceive it with his naked eye, and the same explanation applies to this experiment, although there is an air of paradox about it. Without going further into the matter, these observa- tions may be summed up in the following formula : The imaginary object presented by hallucination is perceived under the same conditions as if it were real. This formula has served as our guide in a series of experiments on visual hallucination, which we have endeavoured to modify by optical instruments. We proceed to indicate the most important results of these researches into what Janet terms hallucinatory optics. The origin of these researches is found in an early experiment by Brewster, which was performed in the HALLUCINATEONS. 227 following way : — It is well known that if, in the normal state, a finger is pressed upon the eye so as to divert it from its normal position, and at the same time the individual looks fixedly at some external object, his sight is doubled, and he sees two objects instead of one. Brewster performed this experiment on a subject who had visual hallucinations, and pressure on the eye caused a duplication of the imaginary object. Paterson tells us that this curious experiment was repeated in analogous circumstances by a student subject to hallucinations. When this student was crossing a garden, he perceived a phantom, wrapped in a large blue cloak, standing a little way oflf under a tree. The student desired to verify Brewster's famous experiment, and pressed one eyeball, which only had the efiect of rendering the figure less distinct. But on looking obliquely he saw the same figure double, and of the natural size. This observation has been confirmed by others. Ball mentions an hys- terical female servant who was subject to ecstatic crises in which the Virgin appeared to her in a splendid robe ; pressure on the eyeball caused a duplication of the vision, and she beheld two Virgins. This experiment of duplication has served as the point of departure for researches intended to establish the reality of the subjective phenomena produced in hypnotic subjects.* It occurred to one of the present writers to substitute a prism for pressure on the eyeball. If, when regarding external objects, a prism is placed before one eye, the objects appear to be double, and one of the images presents a deviation of which the direction * Fere, Mouvements de la pupille et proprM^s du prismedans les hal- lucinations provoqu&s dee hyst^iiqueg (Soc. de Biologie, December, 1881). 228 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. and extent may be calculated. If, during the hypnotic sleep, it is suggested to the subject that a profile portrait is on a table of dark wood before him, he distinctly sees this portrait on awaking. If, without warning, a prism is placed before one eye, the subject is astonished to see two portraits, and the position of the false image is always in conformity with the laws of physics. Two of our subjects answered correctly in the cataleptic state, although they were unacquainted with the properties of the prism. Moreover, by concealing its edges they may be deceived as to the precise position in which it is placed. If the base of the prism is uppermost, the two images are placed one below the other, and if the base is lateral, the images are side by side. Finally, the table may be brought so near that the duplication of the image ceases, and this will serve as an index.* This experiment with the prism is only a variation of the one performed by Brewster. The prism, as well as ocular pressure, exerts two distinct actions on the hallu- cinatory image — that of duplication and of deviation. Deviation by means of the prism is a more accurate phenomenon than when it is effected by ocular pressure, since, when the position of the prism and its distance from the object is known, it is not only possible to predicate its direction, but to estimate its extent. It is an interesting fact that, in the case of a given distance, the prism produces or fails to produce a duplication of the image in proportion as the sight of the eye is more or less normal This same remark applies to the vision of real objects in the waking state. - Fere, Soe. de Biologie, October, 1881 ; Frogret Medical, December, 1881. HALLUCINATIONS. 229 One of the present writers* has substituted other optical instruments for the prism, in order to verify and develop the former experiments. An opera-glass brings imaginary objects nearer, or makes them appear further off, just as if the objects were real. We begin by sug- gesting a given hallucination, either placed upon the waU of the laboratory or, which is better, on a screen covered with white ; it may be a bird perched upon the wall, a lizard which runs up it, a flower, or a picture hung upon the wall. If the subject is made to look at the hallucina- tory object through an opera-glass, it appears to be nearer or more distant, according to the end of the glass pre- sented to his eye. It is well to guard against imposture, by not allowing the subject to see which end of the glass is in use. It is the simplest arrangement to have two cards of equal size, each pierced with two openings, and fastened with sealing wax to both ends of the opera- glass. This will prevent the subject from perceiving real objects on the field of the glass, which might, owing to the changes of dimension, serve as an index of its position. For the same reason, a plain and even surface should be chosen as a back ground for the hallucination. It is interesting to observe that the opera-glass will not make the object appear more or less remote unless it has been adapted to the subject's sight. Thus W , who is short sighted, could see nothing through a glass which had been adapted to C 's long sight. Hence the subject must be requested to adapt the glasses to his sight before he is hypnotized. A great difference may be observed in the way in which subjects are affected by the experiment. C and D merely declare that the • Biaet, L' Hallaeiaation (^Revae PhUonphig^ae, April, May, 1S81). 11 230 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. imaginary object is at one time near, at another far off j and this change of distance does not surprise them ; only if an unclean beast is the object of suggestion and he is made to appear close to them, they utter a cry of terror. W , who is much more intelligent, always evinces the most lively astonishment. When a bird perching on the branch of a tree is the object of suggestion, she cannot understand why it should be close to her at one moment and far from her at another. If we tell her that the bird is moving from place to place, flying nearer or further away, she rejects this explanation, and replies that the tree also seems to change its position. She finally concludes that her eyes are affected, so as to change the apparent distance of objects, which is a reasonable, if not a just conclusion. These reflections are all made during the state of somnambulism. This experiment with the opera-glass may be modified by making use of hallucinatory portraits. The portrait of a given person may be made to appear on a square of white paper, and a series of experiments may be performed on this imaginary portrait, which are only a development of those with the opera-glass, since a final analysis must refer them all to an application of the laws of refraction. If a magnifying glass is placed before the imaginary portrait, the subject declares that it is enlarged, and if the lens is sloped, the portrait is dis- torted. If the sheet of paper is placed at a distance equal to twice the focal length of the lens, the por- trait appears to be inverted. These experiments do not always succeed, but if under favourable conditions they are successful in only one instance, they must be accepted as genuine. HALLUCINATIONS. 231 Again, a prism with three equal facets is passed over the white paper, and the subject is requested to look through it at the portrait, beginning with its upper part ; he sees two heads instead of one, and these heads are enlarged in a direction corresponding with the orien- tation of the prism. Now, we must observe that the surface of the paper on which the prism is placed is perfectly white and smooth, so that no one ignorant of the properties of a prism could perceive that it doubled the image of the subjacent morsel of paper. If again the paper is applied to one facet of the prism, the subject sees only a single portrait, which seems to be folded in two. These appearances all conform to the reality ; the subject would see the same series of modifi- cations if there were really a picture on the paper. Under similar conditions a doubly refracting crystal gives two images, which are modified by revolving the crjj'stal on its axis. The last experiment of this nature is that with the microscope. The question arises whether, if a given preparation is supposed to be mounted on a micro- scopic slide, and the subject is made to examine it through the microscope, the hallucinatory image will appear to him to be magnified ; whether this enlargement will be sufficient to reveal to him structural details which are invisible to the naked eye; whether, for instance, he will distinguish the corpuscles in the drop of blood suggested to be on the slide, or if he will see the stomata in a fragment of vegetable, epidermis. The experiment is difficult, siace most of the subjects who look at the microscopic slide fail to. discover the imagin- ary preparation. Kepeated attempts have convinced us 232 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. that the microscope enlarges the hallucinatory image — that a spider's foot, for example, becomes enormous, — but we have not observed that hypnotic subjects discover details invisible to the naked eye. It is much more easy to obtain the reflection of an imaginary object in a mirror. It may be suggested to the subject that an object is placed on a given point of the table, and if a mirror is placed behind that point the patient immediately sees two objects. If, for ex- ample, the appearance of one cat is suggested, a second is likewise seen, but the two objects are not always alike; On one occasion we gave to our subject the hallucination of a white cat, and the mirror caused another to appear, which was of a grey colour. The reflection of the imaginary object appeared to the subject to be just as real as the imaginary object of suggestion. Thus, when the mirror was in its place and the subject was told to look at the beautiful butterfly perched upon the table, she at once exclaimed that she saw two butterflies. When desired to catch them both, she made the gesture of seizing the one perched before the mirror, and fastened it with a pin to her bodice. This at least was done by D , while C refused to be so cruel as to run a pin through the butterfly. She then tried to catch the second butterfly, of which she saw the reflection in the mirror, but as her hand came in contact with the glass, she was unable to reach the spot which the butterfly seemed to occupy. It was curious to observe W 's behaviour at such a time. After knocking her hand against the glass several times in succession, she gave it up with indignation ; disregarding our orders, she abso- lutely refused to repeat the attempt, saying, " I cannot HALLUCINATIONS. 233 do it, I cannot do it." It may easily be shown that the subject does not place the imaginary object on the surface of the mirror, but sees it xuithin the mirror. In fact, if the mirror is advanced, withdrawn, or inclined, so that it could no longer reflect the supposed object, the double vision ceases. These primary experiments are rude. They may be summarily explained by saying that the subject sees the mirror, and logically concludes that the object of sug- gestion must be reflected in it. We do not assert that this phenomenon of auto-suggestion is impossible, yet it seems to be excluded by the following experiments : — We recur to the hallucination of a portrait, which we have already employed, and shall have further occasion to employ. A prism of total reflection is placed upon the blank sheet on which there is an imaginary portrait. The resemblance of this prism to a mirror cannot warn the subject of what is to follow, and yet he never fails to see a second portrait, like the first one, when he looks at the hypothenuse facet of the prism. If the portrait is then placed opposite to a mirror, and it has been sug- gested that the profile is turned to the right, it appears in the mirror to be turned to the left. The reflected picture is therefore symmetrical with the hallucinatory image. If, without allowing the subject to see what is done, the paper is turned upside down, the reflected portrait also appears to be inverted, and, which is to be noted as in agreement with the laws of optics, the profile is turned to the right. We repeat that the imaginary portrait is turned to the right, and in the mirror it is turned to the left, but that if the paper is inverted, it appears to be turned to the right. Such combinations would not 234 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. be invented, and a still more complex experiment may- be performed. An inscription of several lines may be substituted for the portrait, and in the mirror it is inverted and runs from right to left. If the paper is turned upside down, so also is the reflection of the inscription, and at the same time it ceases to run from right to left. This experiment frequently, but not in- variably, succeeds, and that in a way which excludes all suspicion of fraud. Yet few persons are aware that, while reflected writing must be read from right to left, this condition ceases when the reflected writing is in- verted. Such difficulties do not exist for the hypnotic subject, who only sees and does not reason. Since the imaginary object created by hallucinatioa acts in all respects as if it were real, it may be asked whether that object is concealed by the interposition of a screen. This depends upon the subject, and the results are extremely varied. In the simplest case the hallucination is destroyed by the screen, and the subject declares that he has ceased to see anything. In the case of other subjects the screen has not this effect, the hallucination persists, without any change of place, and if the subject is ordered to seize the object of sug- gestion, his hand goes to the other side of the screen in search of it. In other subjects, again, the imaginary vision is not interrupted by an opaque body, but the object is transferred to that body. "We are unable to assign a cause for these variations, which may be noted in different subjects, and sometimes in the same subject, in the course of a series of experi- ments. We need only remark that peculiarities of the same kind occur in the vision of real objects during HALLUCINATIONS. 235 somnambulism. In some somnambulists tbe vision of real objects is not destroyed by the interposition of a screen, and it is destroyed in others. It must be clearly understood that these experiments were not concerned with the wonderful phenomena of vision through a thick bandage, of which so much was said in former times, and for the demonstration of which the Burdin prize was offered by the Academy of Medicine. We have not, strictly speaking, to do with vision through a screen, but with an hallucinatory vision which persists in spite of interposed screen, which is very different. The incon- stancy of these phenomena, however, decided us not to make them the object of continued study. The logical connection of the foregoing experiments wiU be readily seen. The first in date and importance is that of ocular pressure. This is a curious discovery, which must serve as a starting-point for a whole series of fresh researches, and it is the first instance of experi- ment on hallucinations, although it has been long neglected, and has only become fruitful in our own day. The prism experiment is merely a variant on that by Brewster ; instead of the mechanical deviation of the eye produced by the finger, the prism causes the deviation of the luminous ray before it enters the eye, but the result of double vision is the same. The experiment with the opera-glass, again, may be regarded as a development of that with the prism, since both instruments are founded on the laws of refraction of light. Finally, the mirror is as closely connected with the preceding experiments as in physics the phenomena of the reflection of light are connected with the phenomfena of refraction. All these new facts are logically derived from Brewster's experi- 236 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. ment, which virtually includes them all, just as the properties of lines, angles, and surfaces virtually include the whole of geometry. It is only necessary to deduce and suppoit each deduction by experimental research. In order to give a satisfactory explanation of these experiments, we must decide between three hypotheses. 1. A suggestion is made; the subject is aware that a prism is placed before his eyes which has the property of duplicating objects, or an opera-glass which enlarges them, etc. But this first hypothesis must be rejected, since it is evident that the subject is ignorant of the complex properties of the lens, of the simple prism, the bi-refracting prism, and of the prism of total reflection, and although the subject may be acquainted with the other instruments, such as an opera-glass, care is taken to conceal them in the performance of the experiment. Therefore, unless we suppose that the experimenter has been incautious enough to announce the result before- hand, it must be considered certain that suggestion in this sense has had nothing to do with it. 2. The optical instruments employed have modified the real objects in the subject's field of vision, and these modifica- tions have served as an index from which he could infer similar modifications in the imaginary object. Although this second explanation is better than the former one, it appears to us insufficient. It is opposed by numerous facts already cited — by the precise localization of the haUucinaticn on a point which the experimenter is only able to find by the aid of elaborate measurements ; by the recognition of an imaginary portrait on a blank card mixed with other cards which appear to us precisely the same ; by the inversion of the imaginary portrait when HALLUCINATIONS. 237 the card itself is inverted, without the suhject being aware of it, etc. We adopt a third hypothesis, which has already been indicated. 3. The hallucinatory image is associated with external and material marks, and the modifications produced by the optical instruments on these marks modify the hallucination in their turn. The following observations seem to confirm this theory. We will first give an account of the experiments performed by Marie and Azoulay, on the duration of the perception of the imaginary object. These observers have shown that it takes a longer time to perceive an imaginary object than when the object is real.* " The apparatus consists of a white strip placed on Marey's cylinder; as the cylinder revolves, the strip passes before a spy-glass of somewhat small diameter, through which the subject looks. At the moment when the subject sees the white strip, he gives an electric signal. The precise moment at which the strip passes before the glass is known, so that in order to ascertain the time of personal reaction it is only necessary to measure the period which elapsed between that moment, and the moment when the signal was given. " In the first series of experiments we estimated, in the case of an hysteric patient attended by Charcot, the time of reaction in the waking state, making use of a real white strip. This time was on an average 018", and it was the same in the case of a normal individual. In the state of somnambulism the time was 020'', that is, it was increased by 0-02"; We then, instead of employing a real white strip, suggested to the hypnotized subject that there was a white strip on a certain part of the * Sodmde Biolocjie, July 31, 1885. 238 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. blackened cylinder, although there was in fact absolutely nothing to distinguish this part of the cylinder. We told the subject to indicate the moment at which she saw the imaginary white strip. The time of reaction was 0-22". "We then awoke the subject and again estimated the time of reaction. In this case the average was 0-23". " It remained to be seen whether this average varied during the period of suggestion. On the following day, after the lapse of twenty-four hours, we found that the time of reaction was 1"02", and after forty-eight hours it was 1"114!". We could not carry our researches further, since at the end of seventy-two hours the suggestion had vanished, and the subject could no longer see the strip on the cylinder. "These are the two points on which we wish to insist : first, on the value of these experiments as a means of verification, since, as we were able to ascertain, simu- lation is absolutely impossible. However intent the subject may be, he cannot, either by sight or by the employment of some rhythm, succeed in producing such a tracing as those we have obtained, since in these tracings all the times of reaction agree almost perfectly. Therefore, the images furnished by suggestion may, as well as the real images, be checked by the graphic method. Secondly, the time of reaction increases enor- mously, but not in direct proportion with the duration of the suggestion. Seconds. Immediately after suggestion it Is ... ... 0-23' Twenty-four hours after it is ... 1-02" This is an increase of ... 0-79" Forty-eight hours after it is ... 0114" This is an increase of ... 0093" HALLUCINATIONS. 239 " In a second series of experiments, the relative values of the time of personal reaction was the same, although each was slightly raised to the amount of 0'02" or 003"." The primary fact to be deduced from these experi- ments is that for the perception of a real object the time of reaction is 0'18" ; for that of an imaginary object it is 0'23". The probable reason for this difference is that in the vision of a real colour, there is only a single phenomenon — the sensation received by the eye. On the other hand, in the vision of an imaginary colour, fixed by suggestion on an external point, two things are involved — the vision of the point, and then the appearance of the imaginary colour on that point. This double phenomenon must occupy more time than a simple sensation. Moreover, as time goes on, the association between the point in question and the hallucinatory image is relaxed, until at last it disappears, since the moment comes when the point ceases to arouse any image in the subject's mind. Hence we understand why the duration of the time of reaction increases up to the moment when the perception ceases altogether. The graphic method has the advantage of seizing these pro- gressive modifications in the duration of the imaginary perception, delicate phenomena which completely escape from simple observation. For this reason the experi- ments by Marie and Azoulay have a real psychological interest, teaching us how to measure the force of a mental association as it becomes weaker. Londe, chief of the chemical works at the clinical establishment of the Salp^trifere, informed us of the following fact, which is a remarkable instance of pro- tracted suggestion, confirming the ideas just set forth. 240 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. On one occasion when an hysterical patient was in a state of somnambulism he approached her, and showed her a plate, representing a view in the Pyrenees, with asses ascending the hill, and said, " Look at your portrait. You are quite naked." The subject happened to see the plate when she awoke, and since she was furious at seeing herself represented in a state of nature, she jumped upon it, and broke it. Two photographs had, however, been taken from the plate, and these were carefully preserved. The patient's fury was excited whenever she saw them, since she always saw herself represented naked, and after two months had elapsed the hallucination still remained. This extraordinarily long survival of the hallucination is easily explained by the theory of distinctive marks. In fact, photography presents to the subject an immense number of such distinctive marks, which become associ- ated with the hallucinatory image and evoke it with in- vincible force by accumulating their effect; The most curious feature of this observation is that the subject did not see these distinctive marks, or, rather, it did not occur to her what they really were, since she must have seen them in order to project her hallucination. She failed to see, however, that their combination formed a view in the Pyrenees. The effort to convince the subject of her error was fruitless ; she only saw her own portrait. There is another remark to make on Londe's obser- vation. This hallucination of the portrait existed in the case of all the proofs of the same photograph. It was first produced by the plate and then transferred to the copies printed off from it ; the imaginary portraits equalled in number the printed copies. This multiplication of HALLUCINATIONS. 241 the hallucination by the multiplication of the distinctive marks somewhat resembles the phenomenon of the reflec- tion in the mirror ; at any rate, it clearly proves with what force the fictitious image was associated with the sight of the photograph, since the presentation of a new, but entirely similar copy was apt to suggest the same hallucination. We repeat that if the hallucination of a portrait is created on a real photograph, the subject will discover the same portrait on a second copy of the photograph without the intervention of any fresh suggestion. This, which was at first an isolated experiment, led us to invent another which is logi<3ally derived from it. A blank card on which suggestion had fixed an imaginary portrait was photographed, and when we presented this photograph of the blank card to the subject, she instantly recognized the imaginary portrait. But it is evident that experiments of this kind are too delicate to be invariably successful. Just as experiments in physics sometimes miss fire, so it is with experiments in cerebral physiology. The one which succeeded had, however, a great demonstrative value, since it was the first. We made a second attempt, which completely failed, and we have made no further attempts. This same theory of distinctive marks may explain some other points. It leads us to understand why hypnotic hallucination persists in many cases after the subject awakes, while the memory of what occurred during sleep is completely efiaced, at least unless certain expedients are used to revive it. The contrast is striking. The subject is ordered to commit a murder, and on awaking, he neither remembers the order he has received. 242 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. nor the act he is supposed to have performed. Yet if the hallucination of a bird has been given, it will be almost as vivid after awaking as it was during somnam- bulism, and for this we may ask the reason, since if the hallucination is an image, so also is memory. This is true, but the hallucination is an image with the addition of some external, distinctive mark, and this distinctive mark, which is still present, recalls the hallucinatory image by means of the association of ideas, like a knot tied in a pocket-handkerchief The existence of this distinctive mark establishes a natural transition between the hallucination and the illu- sion of hypnotism. The two phenomena are both pro- duced by verbal suggestion ; the only difference between them is that there is a substratum for the illusion which is wanting in the hallucination ; in the case of every illusion there is a real object which is more or less transformed by the suggestion. It must be admitted that this is not an essential difference, since suggestion may transform the object in a thousand ways. A book may become a hat, a dog, or a person, and precisely the same appearances may be created without the aid of any object. For those who accept the theory of distinctive marks this difference between hallucination and illusion is completely effaced, and hypnotic illusion appears to be an hallucination for which the special suggestion has selected a distinctive mark which happens to be a real object. Hence some interesting consequences ensue ; the hypnotic illusion is modified, just as an hallucination is modified in accordance with the real object to which it is applied. We have seen that in the case of hallucination these HALLUCINATIONS. 243 modifications consist in phenomena of deviation, duplica- tion, etc., produced by optical instruments. In the case of illusion, since the distinctive mark is not a mark, but a real object, and often a person, it may be spontaneously modified, and this adds a fresh complication to the experiment. A gentleman named X was trans- formed by suggestion into a dog. The subject no longer saw X , who ceased to exist for her, but she ascribed aU his gestures and movements to the dog which had been suggested to her. Hence it followed that the illusion had not the fixed character habitual in halluci- nation, but constantly varied, and all the changes which took place in X reacted on the illusion. On one occasion we pointed out X to one of our subjects, saying, " Do you see that person ? She is a nurse, carrying an infant." The hallucination persisted on awaking, and the subject looked at the nurse and child with feminine curiosity. Strangely enough, she watched X 's gestures, and ascribed them to the nurse, so that the real and the imaginary were closely inter- mingled. When X raised his hands, she said angrily, " Wretched woman, is that the way to carry an infant ? Do you wish to kill it ? " Hypnotic illusion leads us by a logical transition to the ordinary and physiological illusion of the senses, which occurs in , so many difierent circumstances, and of which every one has had experience. The cause of these two illusions is not the same, since hypnotic illusion is produced by verbal suggestion, that is, from within, and the illusion of common life is generally produced by the imperfect perception of external objects, that is, from without. Yet it cannot be doubted, in 244 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. spite of this diflference in the formative process, that every kind of illusion is formed by the synthesis of two elements — the external element and the false image constructed by the mind and projected on the object. We may add the ordinary illusion may, like the other, be magnified by a lens, reflected by a mirror, etc., as some of our observations prove. In this case these optical modifications seem to be quite natural, since the false image is associated with an external object. It ia, however, an interesting fact that a common law domi- nates the whole series of phenomena, hallucination, hypnotic illusion, and normal illusion. Nor does the series end here. The normal illusion of the senses is directly connected with the external perception, that is, with the normal act by which we enter into relations with external and present objects. External perception is termed by Taine a true halluci- nation. Certainly this act is, like illusion, a synthesis of external sensations with internal images. The study of the mechanism of perception by one of the present writers leads to the conclusion that it presents on a small scale the phenomena which occur on a large scale in hypnotic hallucination — deviation, duplication, and enlargement of the inental images. Hallucination must, therefore, be a disease of external perception.* The theory of distinctive marks may be extended to hallucinations which are given for some remote period ; a singular fact which conflicts with our scientific ex- perience, so that doubt has been thrown upon it. * Binet (La psychohgie du miaonnement. Paris, 1S86) has set forth the principal psychological oonclusions derived from these phenomena of hallucination. HALLUCINATIONS. 245 Bernheim * said to S , formerly a sergeant, when he was in a state of somnambulism, " On what day will you be at liberty during the first week of the month of October ? " He replied, " On Wednesday." " Then, listen to me. Go to Dr. Liebault on the first Wednesday in October, and you wiU see the President of the Republic, who wiU give you a medal and a pension." He said that he would go, but remembered nothing of it when he awoke. On the 3rd of October, however, sixty-three days after the suggestion, S presented himself at Dr. Lidbault's, at ten minutes to eleven. On entering he met and saluted F , and then, without paying attention to any one, he went to the left side of the library, made a respectful salute, and uttered the words, "Your Ex- cellency." As he spoke rather low. Dr. Liebault went up to him, and at that moment he extended his right hand, saying, " I thank your Excellency." Liebault asked to whom he was speaking, and he replied, " To the President of the Republic." Beaunis informed the Societe de psychologie physio- logique (April, 1885) of another instance of post-hypnotic hallucination, which was realized six months after the suggestion. On the 14th of July, 1884, he told a hypno- tized young woman that she would see him enter her room on the following 1st of January, and wish her a happy new year. And so, in fact, it was. On New Year's Day the young woman saw Beaunis (who was in realitj^ in Paris) enter her room, wish her a happy new year, and disappear. Suggestions of dreams which would occur on some subsequent night have also been given. Our observations lead us to believe that hallucinations • De la Suggestion. Paris, 1884. 246 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. given for some remote period really take effect. The length of the intervening period is less surprising than the fact that they are realized at the fixed hour. It may be asked whether hypnotic subjects possess an abstract power of measuring time. We think it more probable that the occurrence of the hallucination at the moment assigned beforehand is produced by some ex- ternal circumstance, and that if this circumstance, which acts as a stimulus, is removed, the latent existence of the hallucination may be indefinitely prolonged. It must be observed that in the experiments by Bemheim' and Beaunis the day fixed for its fulfilment bore a dis- tinctive mark. In the one case it was the first Wednes- day of October, in the other the 1st of January. These dates perhaps served as the subject's distinctive mark; it was as if he had been told that the hallucination would occur when the experimenter clapped his hands, and the advent of the moment which had been named served as a kind of signal. This explanation must, how- ever, be regarded as provisional, and the question, like so many others, remains open. III. We next propose to describe a series of hypnotic experiments which seem to throw some light on the still obscure problem of the physiology of hallucinations. In fact, the new phenomena with which we are about to acquaint our readers appear to show that hallucination is produced by an excitement of the sensory centres. If the conclusion is not new, it is, at any rate, interesting, and although it has often been set forth by physicians of HALLUCINATIONS. 247 the insane, no complete proof of the hypothesis has hitherto been given. Such a proof is furnished by tlie careful study of hypnotic phenomena. We must, however, hasten to add that we are less anxious to develop a theory than to register a certain number of facts which are interesting in themselves inasmuch as they are facts. The conclusions which we draw from them with respect to the physiology of hallu- cinations are merely the bond which serves to connect very varied observations, and it is these alone which have " any value. The regular observation of any phenomenon remains as a definite acquisition to science, whatever after- wards ensues, while the future of theories is uncertain. 1. Achromatopsia. — We wiU first consider achro- matopsy, or colour-blindness. Paul Richer, in his Etudes cUniques sur I'hystero-epilepsie, was the first to show that in the case of most hysterical subjects it is im- possible for their vision to accept hallucinations of colour. Since the eye has lost its chromatic sensitive- ness, it cannot see the colours of an imaginary object. As one of the present writers has shown, the same rule seems to apply to the spontaneous hallucinations of insanity. We observed in the St. Anne asylum, of which Dr. Magnan is in charge, an insane, hysterical patient who was constantly haunted by the image of a man dressed in red. The left side of this woman's body was afiected by anaesthesia and achromatopsia, and when her right eye was closed, she continued to see the hallucination with her left eye, but instead of being dressed in red, the man appeared to be in grey, and enveloped in mist.* • Biuet, L' hallucination {Bevue Fhiloeopliique, April, 1884). 248 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. Since the fact is proved, it has still to be explained. It may be considered strange that a somnambulist sub- ject is capable of receiving all sorts of hallucinations, however absurd they may be ; that in the course of a few minutes she may be surprised by the appearance of a ball, a public fete, the overturning of a carriage, a tumultuous crowd, an insurrection, a conflict before barricades, succeeded by a quiet, moonlit night, reveal- ing the bodies of the dead. The patient who sees all this may laugh, weep, be amazed, or utter cries of terror, in correspondence with the scenes unrolled before her; but when the attempt is made to display some coloured object to her, the experimenter's power is suddenly arrested, and the automaton, who is so docile in all other respects, obstinately asserts that she does not see the colours suggested to her. For instance, if the eye which remains open has lost the perception of violet, it is impossible for that colour to enter into any of her hallucinations, unless the other eye, which retains the sense of that colour, is opened. This is a striking fact, but it will cease to appear absurd when we bestow upon it sufficient reflection. It can be satisfactorily explained when we consider the seat of achromatopsia, and the probable seat of the hallucination. It is now almost certain that hysterical achromatopsia results from a functional disturbance of the cerebral cortex, and not from any lesion of the retina, or of the media of visual perception. All that we know of the nervous disturbances of hysteria leads us to believe that they do not involve these media, and that we must regard achromatopsia as a functional disturbance of the cortical cells concerned with the perception of HALLUCINATIONS. 249 colour. This belief leads to the conclusion that if this functional disturbance is the same hindrance to the hallucination as to the perception of a given colour, it is probably because these two phenomena, perception and hallucination, employ the same class of nervous ele- ments. In other words, hallucination occurs in the centres in which the impressions of the senses are received, and it results from an excitement of the sensory centres. It may be objected that in the case of some hypno- tized subjects achromatopsia is no hindrance to the sug- gestion of coloured hallucinations, but we find it easy to explain this deviation from the rule. The achroma- topsy of hysterical subjects depends on hemi-ansesthesia, and there is nothing definite in this lesion. It is not so much a paralysis as a paresia, a slothfulness of the nervous elements. These elements no longer respond to the call of their normal excitant, the coloured ray, yet it is not surprising that they should react when approached from a different direction, by an excitement which proceeds from the auditory centres, and which is merely verbal suggestion. 2. The phenomena of contrast. — There is another fact which shows, still more clearly than the one just given, that hallucination and sensation have the same seat in the brain, namely, the property with which the hallucinatory image is endowed of producing the same effects of contrast as those produced by sensation. Parinaud, the head of the ophthalmological laboratory of nervous diseases at the Salp^triere, has been good enough to send us the following paper, relating to hitherto unpublished experiments, which are of an extremely interesting character : — 250 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. "Hallucinations of colour may develop phenomena of chromatic contrast as readily as, and with even greater intensity, than the actual perception of colour. " If, for instance, a piece of paper divided by a line is presented to a hypnotized subject, and it is suggested to her that one half is red, the sensation of the com- plementary colour, green, occurs on the other half. If, after awaking, the sensation of red remains, so also does the sensation of green. " In order to understand the meaning of this fact, I must refer to the following experiment, relating to chromatic contrast, which I communicated to the Soci4t4 de Biologic in July, 1882. "A card which is half white and half green on one side, and wholly white on the other, is marked in the centre on both sides with a spot intended to fix the vision. For half a minute the eyes are fixed on the parti-coloured side, and then the card is turned and the eyes are fixed on the central spot of the white side. On the half which corresponds to the green half a red tint appears, which is merely the definitive after-image, and on the other half the complementary green tint is seen. The after-image of red has, therefore, developed by induction the sensation of green in the part of the retina which had only received the impression of white. This experiment, which may be varied in difierent ways, so as to establish the fact that we have to do with positive sensations, and not with any error of judgment, shows that every impression of colour leads to a more or less persistent modification of the nervous elements which produce the after-image HALLUCINATIONS. 251 and that this modification causes, in the parts not affected, a modification in the opposite direction which develops the complementary sensation, by a phenome- non analogous to that which occurs in a magnetized body. " The image of hallucination acts like the after-image, and may likewise cause an induced sensation, so that it corresponds with a material modification of the nervous centres. " In order that the experiment should succeed, it is necessary that the subject should retain the perception of the suggested colour, for we know that the per- ception of colours is frequently affected by hysterical amblyopia. If there is any blindness with respect to this colour, the suggested sensation is confused, and the induced sensation does not occur. When the subject is able to distiaguish all the colours in the waking state, she can also distinguish their complementary colours. When only unable to distinguish certain colours, which is often the case, a singular result follows. Suppose that the subject sees red, and cannot see green, the hallucina- tion of green cannot develop the induced sensation of red; yet the hallucination of red, which she sees, may develop the induced sensation of green, which she cannot see." It clearly appears from these experiments that from the point of view of simultaneous contrast, the halluci- natory image acts precisely as a real sensation would do, whence it may be concluded that the two phenomena effect the vibration of the same keys of the cerebral instrument. They are, however, distinguished by the following difference. When a real sensation of colour is experienced, the sensation results from an excitement of 252 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. the retina, and it reaches the centre of visual sensation by the paths of vision, by the optic nerve, the chiasma, the optic tracts, etc. The sensation of colour suggested by -words, that is, the hallucinatory image, results from the excitement of the organ of hearing, and it is reflected in the centre of auditory sensation before it reaches the centre of vision. With the exception, however, of this difference in the process of excitement, we repeat that the hallucination and the reaL sensation appear to cor- respond with the same physiological process, since other- wise the same effects of chromatic contrast would not occur in both cases. 3. Subjective Sensations. — Parinaud's researches into the simultaneous contrast naturally led to the inquiry whether haUueinations produce subjective sensations, since these two orders of phenomena are closely allied. Let it be remembered, for the sake of clearness, that the term of objective sensations is given to the perception of images which follows the impression on the sight of a luminous or bright object. The image which ensues is positive or negative, according to the conditions under which it is seen. In the positive image we have the representation of the object as it really is ; its colour and the relatively luminous intensity of its parts are main- tained. Conversely, in the negative image the light parts of the object appear to be dark, and the dark parts to be light ; and its general colour is exchanged for the complementary colour. The production of after-images is a normal phe- nomenon which constantly, but with varying intensity, accompanies the exercise of external vision. We have ascertained that hallucinatory vision is subject to HALLUCINATIONS. 253 the same conditions; every hallucination of some per- sistence is succeeded, on its disappearance, by an after- image, just as in the case of ordinary sensations which affect the retina.* This phenomenon was first observed, several years ago, by the physiologist Gruithuisen. Observing what occurred in his dreams, he states that "sometimes a bright, fantastic image was succeeded by one of the same form, but indistinct. Sometimes, again, after dreaming of violet fluor-spar, or burning coals, he perceived a yellow patch on a blue ground." f We had occasion to verify the exactness of this observation in our treatment of hypnotic patients. The somnambulist subject was requested to look attentively at a square of white paper, with a black spot in the centre, designed to fix her vision. At the same time the sugges- tion was made that the paper was of a red or green colour. A second square of paper, likewise marked in the centre with a black spot, was then produced, and as soon as the subject had fixed her eyes on the spot, she exclaimed that the spot was surrounded by a coloured square, and the colour indicated was complementary to that which had been made to appear by means of sugges- tion. This complementary colour is the negative image left by the hallucinatory colour; it lasts but a short while, it is effaced, is lost, or dies, as the subject says, and it resembles in all respects a normal, negative image. This experiment was repeated by Charcot before a numerous assembly, during one of his lectures on aphasia. * This experiment was performed for the first time by Kioher and the present writers in Jane, 1884. t Quoted by Burdach, in his Traii€de phyeiologie, vol. v. p. 206. 12 254 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. That eminent professor demonstrated that, in order to ensure success, care must be taken to define the nature of the suggested colour. For instance, if only the colour red is suggested, the subject may either see the shade of red, of which green is the complementary colour, or the orange-red, of which blue is complementary. These con- tradictory results are impossible when the colour which the subject is intended to see is made clear by a com- parison. It may be remarked in passing, that this experiment is a peremptory reply to those who still believe in the existence of a general simulation. It would be unreasonable to maintain that an hysterical woman, who scarcely knows how to read or write, has the theory of complementary colours at her fingers' ends. Our subjects have always answered correctly, and, which is more important, the correct answer has been given when the experiment was performed for the first time.* It must be remembered that analogous phenomena occur in the mental vision of normal individuals. The persistent idea of a brilliant colour develops an after- image of the complementary colour, just as a real sensa- tion does.t If we close our eyes and fix our minds for a long while on an image of some vivid colour, and then open our eyes to look at a white surface, we shall, for a brief space, see the object of our imagination, but of the complementary colour. One of the present writers successfully repeated this experiment, which is difficult and demands from the subject a great power of visualiza- * An interesting fact was displayed in the case of one of our subjects. Slie had lost the perception of violet in both eyes ; violet looked like black. When the hallucination of yellow was given, the after-imago was black, instead of violet, the complementary of yellow. t Wundt, quoted by Ribot, Maladies de la m€moire, p. 11. HALLUCINATIONS. 255 tion. He was able to picture to himself the idea of red, so intensely that at the end of a few minutes he was able to see a green patch upon the white paper ; but, strangely enough, repeated efforts were required before he was able to associate an outline with the colour, so as to reproduce under the form of a subjective image the idea of a coloured cross or circle. These facts show the close connection which unites sensation, hallucination, and memory. These three phe- nomena are evidently based on the same physiological operation, and are effected in the same region of the nervous centres. Thus, whether it is a real impression of the colour red, whether the colour is pictured by the memory, or again, whether it is seen by an hallucination, it is always the same cell which vibrates. 4. The Mixture of Imaginary Colours. — Since it is interesting to develop an experiment, so as to consider a fact in every aspect, we sought to discover what would result from the mixture of imaginary colours. We wished to know whether an hypnotic subject could make white out of the suggested colours of combined red and green. The process which, after many attempts, we found to be the most convenient, does not involve much preparation. Two squares of coloured cardboard are placed on a table at a little distance from each other, and a piece of glass is held before the eye at such an angle as to admit a direct view of one of the squares, and at the same time a reflected image of the second square ; in this way it is easy to place one image over the other, and thus to mix their colours. The result may be varied in manifold ways by employing differently coloured squares. After this arrangement is made, a series of blank cards are 256 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. shown to the subject, and it is suggested to him that they are coloured. Care is taken each time to define the suggested colour by showing to the subject, by way of pattern, one of the coloured cards which were used- for the previous experiment. In this way the imaginary colours of the white cards are absolutely the same as the real colours on the other cards. The subject may then, with a piece of glass and his collection of cards coloured by suggestion, effect the same mixture of colours as the experimenter, who can on each occasion verify the exactitude of the result by the com- bination of the real colours. Under these rigorous conditions, which leave no scope for erroneous sugges- tions, the imaginary colours give the resultant shades which are in conformity with optical laws. Hence we may conclude that the hallucination of a colour is a suggested sensation which occupies the same region of the cerebrum as a real sensation. 5. Phenomena observed with reference to the Eye. — We now come to a consecutive series of clinical observa- tions and of experiments which furnish a valuable argu- ment in proof of our thesis, and which are perhaps the most decisive of all. When a lesion of the brain produces sensory dis- turbances in the integuments of the eye, visual disturb- ances also occur, such as achromatopsia, or concentric or lateral contraction of the field of vision. This has been shown by numerous observations.* This singular rela- tion between the general sensitiveness of the eye and its * Veie, Des troubles fonctionnela de la vision par lesions cgrehrales, pp. 152, 153 (.1882); Notes sur Vanesthgsie hyst^rique (_Soc. de Blologie, October 29 and November 26, 1881 ; July 24, 188G;. HALLUCINATIONS. 257 special sensitiveness is particularly a,pparent in the hemi-anaesthesia of hysterical patients. In fact, in these cases, the insensibility of one-half of the body not only extends to the skin and mucous membrane, but also to the other organs of the senses : sight, smell, and hearing are Ukewise affected on the same side ; in a word, there is, as a rule, a sensitivo-sensorial hemi-ansesthesia. Under these conditions the general sensitiveness of the eye, the sensitiveness of the conjunctiva and of the co.rnea, is always in correspondence with the special sensitive- ness of that organ. Thus the hemi-anaesthetic hysterical patients whom we have observed, and in whom there was neither contraction of the field of vision, nor achro- matopsia, retained the sensitiveness of the conjunctiva. Those who had lost the power of seeing one or more colours, or whose field of vision was more or less re- latively contracted, did not only experience ansesthesia of the conjunctiva, but also of the cornea. In this latter case, if while the subject is looking intently at any object, the conjunctiva and the cornea are touched by a strip of paper, the eye and eyelids do not move as long as the foreign substance does not come in front of the pupil. The reflex movement of the eye and eyelid which occurs in the latter case is exclusively produced by the excitement of the retina, which has lost the per- ception of colour, but still distinguishes light and shade. In those who are simply hemi-ansesthetic, or who are totally anaesthetic with a predominance on one side, magnetization, statical electrization, etc., will effect a transfer of the ansesthesia, so as to furnish a counter- proof, affording constant results. This relation between cutaneous and sensorial in- '258 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. sensibility does not only exist when the anassthesia extends to one-half of the body, but when it is more restricted. When statical electrization has destroyed the hysterical ansesthesia, after an interval which varies in diflPerent subjects, insensibility reappears in a localized region, which does not correspond with the distribution of the nerves. In the case of one of our patients, in- sensibility first returned to a limited zone round the eye, which included the cornea and the conjunctiva, and visual anaesthesia was reproduced, simultaneously with the limited anaesthesia of the skin.* Another proof of the relation which exists between the special sensitiveness of the eye, and the sensitiveness of the conjunctiva, may be found in the observations we made on three hysterical and hypnotic patients at the Salp^trifere. Two phases of catalepsy may be dis- tinguished, as far as the eye is concerned: First, in profound catalepsy, such as is produced by a sudden noise, the eyes remain fixed, with no movement of the eyelids. In this state it is possible to touch the con- junctiva without producing any reflex action. Secondly, when an object is moved to and fro before the subject's eyes, so as to fix his gaze on the moving object. If in this case the conjunctiva is touched, there is an imme- diate reaction of the eyelids, as in a healthy subject, although the insensibility of the rest of the body is maintained. The experiment may be repeated at plea- sure by again throwing the subject into a state of profound catalepsy, and the result is always the same; • What we have said of the eye applies also to the other senses. For further details, into which we do not enter here, see F&e's work, quoted above. HALLUCINATIONS. 259 as soon as the fixed gaze ceases, the sensitiveness of the conjunctiva returns. The object which is moved to and fro excites the special sensitiveness of the eye, just as under other circumstances a strong local excitement brings back the sensitiveness of the skin, and together with the function of sight the sensitiveness of the external membrane of the eye returns. These facts appear to indicate that in some indeter- minate region of the brain there are sensory centres common to the organs of the senses and to the integu- ments by which they are covered.* This long preamble brings us to the observations in which we are more immediately interested, which regard the physiology of hallucinations. One of the present writers has ascertained that when a cataleptic subject receives a visual hallucination, the general sensitiveness of the eye is often profoundly modified. We have just seen that in the cataleptic state the conjunctiva and the cornea, with the exception of the region of the pupil, are generally insensitive. In the case of the subject P , as soon as a visual hallucination was developed, the sensitiveness of the external membranes of the eye returned; the membranes could not be touched by any foreign body without producing reflex action of the eyelids.-f An hallucination arouses the general sensi- tiveness of the eye, just as it is aroused by waving a real object before the subject's eyes. This is surely a proof that visual hallucination excites the visual centres. A second experiment displays the same fact under * Fere, Troublei fonclionneU de la vision, pp. 149, 151, 158. t Fere, Lee hypnotiques hyst^riques, comme sujets d'exp^iience en medicine mentale, etc. (Arch, de Neurologia, p. 122, vol. vi. 1883). 260 ANIMAL MAGN-ETISM. another form. In M 's case the visual hallucinatiop usually persisted for three or four minutes after awaking. As soon as this subject awoke, she complained of pain in the eyes and constantly rubbed them, only ceasing to do so when the hallucination disappeared. We saw this behaviour repeated more than forty times without attaching any importance to it, so true is it that we only see what we expect to see. And yet the phenomenon is curious ; the hypersesthesia, or rather the dyssesthesia, of the integuments of the eye is produced by the visual hallucination, since it lasts for the same period and dis- appears at the same time. If an hallucination brings about this modification of the cutaneous sensitiveness of the eye, it is probable that it excites the special sensitive- ness of that organ, in other words, the centre of vision.* We observed another form of the same phenomenon in the subject X . We suggested to her the halluci- nation of a bird perched on her finger, suggesting at the same time that she only saw the bird' with her right eye. The hallucination persisted after awaking; the subject fondled the bird without being aware that she only saw it with one eye, for both eyes were open, nor did it occur to her to close one of them. After a while she complained of pain in the right eye, saying that she felt as if sand had got into it, and she only put her hand to this eye. It should be observed that persons aflfected by conjunctivis complain of the same sensation of sand in the eye. The localization of the pain in the right eye proves that the dyssesthesia depended on the halluci- nation. * In this patient an hallucination of hearing produced local pain in the auditory meatus. HALLUCINATIONS. 261 Each of these facts, taken alone, is insignificant, but t"hey are in logical agreement and connection, and appear to prove that visual hallucination has its seat in the visual centre. After studying the influence of hallucination on the organs of the senses, and on the eye in particular, we must mention the observation made by one of the present writers* on the state of the pupil in subjects of hallu- cination. He observed in the first place that in the hallucinations which accompany the third period of a strong hysterical attack, the diameter of the pupil varies with the assumed distance of the hallucinatory object. This interesting fact also occurs in the hallucinations produced by hypnotism : " This was what we observed in the case of two hysterical patients with whom it was possible to hold oral communication during catalepsy. When we desired them to look at a bird perched on a steeple, or flying high in the air, the pupil was gradually dilated until its normal diameter was almost doubled. When we caused the bird to fly down, the pupil gradually contracted, and the same phenomenon was reproduced as often as the idea of any moving object was evoked. "The modifications of the pupil produced in this manner in a cataleptic subject, who continued to display all the phenomena peculiar to catalepsy, show that the fictitious object of hallucination is seen just as if it actually existed, and its supposed movements produces efforts of accommodation which are governed by the same • Fere, Note on some phenomena of the eye observed in hvstero-epi- leptio subjects, either during the attack or at other times, in the SocrUU de Biologie, October, November, December, 1881. 262 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. laws as if it were a real object. We, therefore, have to do with a true hallucination, and not with any im- posture." IV. We have now to observe how hallucination is affected by sesthesiogens. We have had frequent occasion to speak of sesthesio- genic agents. The term is applied to certain agents which, according to Burq, whose observations have been confirmed and extended by other scientific men, have the property of acting on the sensibility and motor power of a certain category of subjects. The magnet is the aesthesiogen to which we have most frequently had recourse. There is nothing mysterious about this agent ; compared by physics to a solenoid, it acts like a faint electric current on the nervous system, and produces a continuous peripheral excitement. Its mode of action has, moreover, been clearly established by one of the present writers.* We need not in this place prove the reality of ijesthesiogenic influence, in order to reply to those who only see in these agents the effects of suggestion and of expectant attention, since we have already had occasion to explain this point. It only remains to show that in the following experiments we took sufiicient care to eliminate suggestion and expectant attention. These were the points on which we insisted : 1. Since these researches were new to us, we were in many cases unable to foresee what would occur, and especially with respect to the polarization of emotions, so that suggestion • Fer^, Bull. Society de Biologie, p. 590, 1885. HALLUCINATIONS. 263 on our part was impossible. 2. We repeated the experi- ments on absolutely fresh subjects, and obtained the same results. 3. The same effect was produced when the magnet was concealed under a cloth. 4. This was also the case when the magnet was made invisible by suggestion. 5. We made use of a wooden magnet, and nothing occurred, although if there had been any results they could not have afforded a counter-proof, since they might have been explained by the recollection of a previous peripheral excitement. 6. The experiments made under somnambulism were in logical connection with those made under lethargy and catalepsy, although in these two latter states we have found our subjects incapable of receiving any coinplex suggestion. We think that under these conditions the results we have obtained must be considered due to ffisthesiogens, and not to unconscious suggestion. Many observers may attempt to verify our experi- ments, and if they fail they will declare them to be false, or to have been produced by suggestion. Let them remember Claude Bernard's remark, that for the most part a negative experiment only proves that it has been imperfectly understood. It is clear that sesthesiogens only act on a certain class of subjects ; this was admitted at the outset by aU observers who have studied this question. Since our experiments with sesthesiogens are only the logical development of the experiments in metallo-therapeutics made by Burq and his successors, they are clearly subject to the same conditions. Our researches wiU not be invalidated by showing that they failed with the first subject who was presented to them ; such an argument would be irrational. We do not dis- 264 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. believe the phenomenon of neuro-muscular hyper- excitability, because it cannot be produced in a healthy subject, not affected by hysteria. Our present and future opponents are recommended to perform their experiments exclusively on the hysterical patients who display the features of profound hypnotism, and in those whose sensitiveness and muscular strength are modified by the application of magnetism. We have observed that in the case of some subjects affected by profound hypnotism, unilateral hallucination may be transferred by the magnet, like a contracture or an hysterical paralysis.* Contrary to what occurs in contractures, the trans- ferred hallucination of vision is not symmetrical with the initial hallucination. It is suggested to the subject that he sees a portrait in profile on a card, and that this profile is turned to the right ; it is added that he only sees this profile with the right eye, not with the left. By applying a magnet the hallucination is transferred from the right to the left eye; if the subject is then asked to which side the profile is turned, he- says, as before, that it is turned to the right, although symmetry demands that it should be turned to the left. During the transfer, the subject spontaneously com- plains of pain in the head, shooting from side to side. This pain is not diffused but local, and its seat is note- worthy. The cranio-cerebral topography established by one of the present writers -f* enables us to show that the point where pain is confidently indicated by the subject • Binet et ¥ir6, Le transfert p ychique {Mevm FhilosopMgue, January, 1885). t Fe'r^, Anatomie medicale du systcme nerveux, p. 95. Paris, 1886. • HALLUCINATIONS. 265 coincides, in the case of certain forms of hallucinations, with the sensory centres of the cerebral cortex, just as they have been established by the physiological and anatomical researches of late years (Fig. 9). This is Fig. 9. — Cranio-cer^al topography. — B, Bregma ; C, Point corresponding with the outer extremity of the coronal suture; L, Lambda, correspond- ing with the parieto-occipital fissure ; C S, Fissure of Sylvius ; R K', Sulcus of Bolando ; K, Its anterior extremity, about three centimeters behind the outer extremity of the coronal suture; R', Its posterior extremity, forty-five millimeters behind the bregma; A A, (Jondylo- alveolar plane ; B O, Auricnlo-bregmatio plane ; G L, Plane passing through the minimum frontal transverse diameter and the lambda ; K E, Section passing between the two folds of the third frontal convolution at the point C, which corresponds with the external extremity of the coronal suture, and just touching the head of the caudate nucleus ; R' H, Section passing through the posterior extremity of the sulcus of Rolando, and behind the posterior border of the optic thalamus : N M, Horizontal plane passing over the upper surface of the corpus callosum, and below the grey nuclei. 266 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. especially the case with the most important halluci- nations, those of sight and hearing. Thus, in the transfer of an hallucination of vision, the point is a little behind and above the pinna of the ear, corresponding with the region of which the destruction causes blindness and hemianopia; it is, therefore, the posterior part of the lower parietal lobule. In the transfer of an hallucination of hearing, the pain is seated in the centre of the space included between the anterior part of the pinna of the ear and the external, angular process of the frontal bone. The pain almost corresponds with the centre of the temporo-sphenoidal lobe, and approximatively with the region of which the destruction causes deafness. For the sense of taste, the point is above the external occipital crest, two centimeters from the median line. For the sense of smell, it is one centimeter above that line. These two latter localizations are not in agreement with the results of anatomical and clinical researches, and demand revision. It may be asked how this coincidence should be interpreted : whether it proves that the physiological process in correspondence with the hallucination is seated in the sensory centres of the cerebral cortex, behind the motor zone, or if we are only to regard it as one of the reflex acts, termed in physiology, an echo of pain. We cannot decide this question, since it is only certain that in the case of some subjects there is a special relation between some points of the external covering of the head, and certain nervous centres of which the exact locality is still undefined. On this account the seat of the pain of transference must be estimated as an objective sign. HALLUCINATIONS. 267 In another experiment on the same subjects, we obtained a demonstration of the same relation between certain points of the hairy scalp and certain sensory functions. This was in experiments on partial somnam- bulism.* If the subject is thrown into a state of total catalepsy, and those points of the scalp which become painful during the transfer are then mechanically ex- cited by the finger or by some other blunt object, curious results are produced. On exciting that point of the scalp which corresponds with the centre of vision, both the subject's eyes are afiected by somnambulism; they lose their cataleptic fixity, and follow the movements of the finger. If the point corresponding with the auditory centre is excited in a similar way, somnambulism afiects the organ of hearing,, and the subject who, up to that movement is completely insensible to the voice, hears the orders addressed to him and attempts to execute them, so far as his limbs, which are still cataleptic, allow. We have seen what eifect is exerted by the sesthesio- gen on unilateral hallucinations; it displaces, and sub- jects them to a series of oscillations. When the halluci- nation is bilateral, the result is difierent; it is not a transfer, but what we have termed a polarization.f Of this we will give some instances. The usual hallucination of a bird perched on her finger was given to a somnambulist subject. While she was caressing the imaginary bird, she was awakened, and a magnet was brought close to her head. After the lapse of a few minutes, she suddenly paused, raised her eyes * Fere and Binet, Le somnambulisme partiel {Soc. de Biol., 1884). t Fe're' and Binet, La polarization psychique (Beoue Philosopliique, April, 1885). 268 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. and looked about her in astonisliment. The bird which she supposed to be on her finger had disappeared. . She looked about the room, and finally discovered it, since we heard her say, " So you leave me thus ! " The bird presently disappeared again, and once more reappeared. The subject complained from time to time of pain in the head at the point already described by us as correspond- ing with the centre of vision. The magnet exerts the same suspensive effect on a real perception. For instance, after awaking one of our subjects, we showed her a Chinese gong and the pad with which it was sounded. The sight of the instrument alarmed the subject, and as soon as it was struck, she fell into a state of catalepsy. After this preparatory experi- ment, she was awakened and requested to look attentively at the gong, and meanwhile a small magnet was brought close to her head. In the course of a minute she asserted that she could not see the instrument, and that it had completely disappeared, and when the gong was sounded, more loudly than before, she did not fall into a state of catalepsy, but only looked about her with an air of some surprise. Hence it appears that the magnet in some sense paralysed the vision of the gong; the per- ception of this'object was replaced by a corresponding anaesthesia, so that tlie noise of the gong no longer pro- duced catalepsy. We have also ascertained that the magnet destroys a suggested memory, just as it destroys both real and imaginary vision. This analogous effect is intelligible, since all these phenomena have a common basis. Memory is an image, and so also is hallucination, and an image is only a faint copy of an anterior sensation. HALLUCINATIONS. 269 Memory, hallucination, and true perception are dis- tinguished by the secondary states of consciousness which accompany the suggestion of the image. In the case of memory, this state consists in the reasoning which localizes the image in the past. In hallucination and true percej)- tion these states consist in reasoning which localizes the image in the external world. But these localizations in space and time are secondary, accessory, superadded acts. One experiment on polarization clearly shows the connecting link between these three phenomena. When one of our subjects was in the waking state, we spoke to her of the gong, begging her to describe its form, colour, size, and use. She repeatedly told us that she saw it distinctly in her mind. When her attention had been firmly fixed on the idea of this object, we applied the magnet, and in the course of a minute she had a difiiculty in picturing the gong to herself, and ended in being unable to understand us when we spoke of it. We then took the gong off a table which stood near, and offered it to the subject, who did not see it. Even when it was sounded with considerable force, she only gave a slight start. But after waiting a few seconds, a consecutive oscillation took place ; her recollection of the gong returned, together with the vision of the instru- ment, and then a slight stroke upon the gong sufficed to throw the subject into a state of catalepsy. Thus we see that the suppression, or rather the paralysis of memory, produced by the application of the magnet, induces a corresponding paralysis of the per- ception of the object. Since the subject was unable to picture the gong to herself, she was also unable to see it when it was presented to her. 270 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. The foregoing account describes the action of the magnet on a sensation, an hallucination, a memory, either by suppressing them^ or by substituting a corresponding Fig. 10. — Eed cross. paralysis. There is an additional element in polarization, the production of a complementary phenomenon. This Fig. 11. — Eose-coloured cross with green rays between its arms. is shown by the following experiment, to which we must limit our description. We have seen that after looking intently at a red cross, and then on a white HALLUCINATIONS. 271 surface, a green cross appears as the consecutive sensa- tion; in the subjective image the primitive colour is replaced by its complementary, but the form of the cross still persists. The same thing occurs when the hallucina- tion of a red cross is evoked, or when the same coloured figure is presented to the imagination with sufficient intensity. Fig; 12. — ^The cross has disappeared, leaving a space. The green rays have become elongated and of a darker shade. If we inform one of our subjects, W or C- while in the waking state, that the cross we have just drawn on a piece of white paper is coloured red, and if we then request him to consider this cross attentively while a magnet is, without his knowledge, placed behind his head, we have the following result : the subject sees green rays appear between the arms of the cross, these rays gradually become elongated and at the same time 272 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. the original red tint of the cross changes to pink. For an instant the cross appears to be green, and then all colour disappears from the original figure, and the subject perceives a blank cross, a space surrounded by the persistent green rays (Fig. 12, p. 271). If at this moment a red cross is placed over the outlined figure, the subject is unable to see it. The magnet produces analogous eSects on the memory of coloured objects. It would be interesting to apply similar experiments to the senses of taste, smell, and hearing, in order to ascertain whether in the case of these sensory organs it is possible to establish a theory of complementary sensations, comparable to those of vision. We have merely had occasion to observe that under the influence of the magnet a suggested impression of heat is replaced by an impression of cold, which causes shivering. V. In the case of some subjects, the hallucination begins and ends during somnambulism. In others it is more permanent, and persists during the waking state. " It will be easily understood that the duration of post-hyp- notic hallucination is very variable, since it depends on many circumstances. In the case of subjects whose hypnotic hallucinations continue in the waking state, it is interesting to inquire what the hallucination becomes in its new environment. It might at first appear that the subject would on awaking correct her hallucination and in some sense expel it from her intelligence, but this is by no means the case. In subjects affected by profound hypnotism the hallucina- HALLUCINATIONS. 273 tion which persists in the waking state is accompanied by blind confidence. It is useless to tell the subject that she is the victim of an illusion, and that the portrait which she thinks she sees is an imaginary vision. She regards such language as a mockery, and if it is repeated the subject becomes uneasy and assumes a distracted air, and indeed -on one occasion an hysterical attack appeared to be imminent. These facts seem to show that a con- viction of the reality of the hallucination is an essential part of the phenomenon; the hallucination does not merely consist in the external projection of a sensible image, but in the condition of mind which accompanies the projection of this image. On one occasion we informed our subject before hypnotizing her, that we were going to suggest an hallucination, and we agreed that she should, on awaking, make every efibrt to correct the hallucination and regard it as false. After hypnotizing her, we gave her the suggestion that a gold ten-franc piece, bearing the effigy of Napoleon III., was lying on the table. When she awoke, she still saw this coin. We said to the subject, "You know what we agreed upon. We gave you an hallucination, and the gold coin is not really there." She looked at us with a stupefied air, or I might almost say Ln a stupor, our words seemed to her so amazing. The mere idea that it was possible to doubt the existence of a piece of money which she saw and touched seemed to disturb her intelligence. But she soon recovered herself, and positively declared that she saw the coin, that it was a real coin, and that we were laughing at her in asserting the contrary. It was impossible to infuse the slightest doubt into her mind. The hallucination might be destroyed 274 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. by suggestion, but as long as it remained, the subject believed it with all her might. On the other hand, many writers have declared that it was only necessary to tell the subject that the hallucination was suggested to destroy his belief in the reality of the vision. We have only met with this submission in our subjects when the hallucination was fading away, and had lost its intensity. We have still to say how the hallucination which has been produced may be destroyed. It is often very im- portant to leave no trace of a sensory disturbance which may have dangerous consequences for those who are brought in contact with the patient. Any subject of hal- lucination is as dangerous as some explosive substance. In many cases the hallucination is spontaneously effaced, and this mode of disappearance has been well described by some subjects. The imaginary object loses its dis- tinctness of outline, it becomes transparent, and ceases to conceal the real objects before which it is placed, and it finally seems to melt into air (Richer). In other cases, the hallucination disappears during the waking state, after an interval which varies with the subject. Some are in despair when the imaginary object dis- appears. One subject, to whom Bernheim had given imaginary rings, bracelets, and fans, implored him to leave her in possession of these gifts, since experience had taught her their fugitive nature. Others try to find some mode of accounting for this strange disappearance. X , who, at the end of a few days, saw the portraits which had been suggested to him fade away, and the cards become blank, explained the fact by saying that the photographs had been badly focussed. HALLUCINATIONS. 275 The simplest mode of destroying the hallucination is to assure the subject that he has seen, heard, and felt nothing. Sometimes he resists this intimation. The magnet may also be employed, if the subject is sensitive to this BBsthesiogen ; we have already seen that the magnet rapidly destroys a bilateral liallucination. For the most part, the hallucination and all recollection of it disappears together; such amnesia may even occur when the hallucination has been produced in the waking state, and this is a valuable note by which we may ascertain the sincerity of the experiment. This is the place for mentioning some curious pheno- mena. A somnambulist was shown a real scent bottle, which was on the table, and it was then removed, and she was told that it was still there. On awaking she saw the imaginary scent bottle, and was unable to see, smell, or in any way perceive the real one. It was placed in her hand, passed over her face, struck with a key, and she was not the least aware of it. The perception of the real object was completely paralysed by the imaginary vision of the same object. Here is another example. The hallucination was given to X that one of the present writers at- tended a ball which is annually given at the Salp^- trihve ; she saw him distinctly and spoke to him several times during the ball. He came to the Salpetrifere on duty on the following day, in reality this time, and not in hallucination. X saw, but did not recognize him, taking him for a stranger. It was necessary to hypno- tize her in order to restore the perception of his person. An hallucination may also be destroyed by a simple physical excitement. It is suggested to a somnambulist 276 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. that she hears a letter repeated, L, for example. On awaking she continues to hear the same sound. On opening her mouth it is ascertained that the movements of her tongue coincide with each mental act of hearing. If this movement is checked by an energetic pressure, the hallucination disappears. It also disappears if the subject protrudes her tongue, and keeps it in this con- strained attitude, or again if a contracture is produced. We see, therefore, that an hallucination may be destroyed by three different processes, by suggestion, by physical excitement, and by the magnet. It is probable that the two latter agents really act by suggestion. Hallucination, of which we have now described the chief characteristics, stands at the beginning of a series of mucji more complex and more obscure phenomena; it may therefore serve as the preparation and introduction to the study of these higher phenomena, among which we may mention the conceptions of delirium. ( 277 ) CHAPTER X. SUGGESTIONS OF MOVEMENTS AND OF ACTS. Motor suggestions present us with a series of experi- ments which start from a simple, natural, and even fairly- intelligible phenomenon, the suggestion of a movement, and culminate in complex phenomena which it is most difficult to explain, the suggestion of acts. Acts do not consist merely of movements, but of sensations, percep- tions, reasoning, reflection, and will. The act may be said to be the resultant in which all the intellectual, moral, and motor functions of the individual converge. The simplest suggestions of movement belong to the cataleptic phase. We have seen that harmony is the chief feature of the attitudes artificially impressed upon the subject. The expressive movements given by the experimenter to diflTerent parts of the body are always immediately reflected in the countenance, which thus completes the expression. Braid clearly saw this influence of the gesture on the countenance, and we regard this fact as one of the finest and most wonderful results of hypnotic experiments. It affords to psychology a valuable source of information in the expressive mechanism o£ the emo- tions, and it furnishes the artist with a motionless model, 13 278 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. representing wifch striking fidelity all the sentiments of ■which man is capable. It has been said that the sculp- tors of antiquity took women in a state of catalepsy for their models, and there is nothing improbable in the fact. An infinite number of expressive attitudes may be given to the subject, who may be caused to express ecstasy, prayer, grief; suffering, disdain, anger, and fear. If the extended hand is approached to the mouth, as if in the act of sending a kiss, the mouth smiles. If the fists are clenched, the brows contract and the face ex- presses anger. This reaction of the gesture on the countenance is not only seen in catalepsy but in other states, as, for instance, in somnambulism, and even, although in a minor degree, in the waking state. But the maximum of intensity only occurs in cataleptic subjects, on account of the complete automatism which characterizes this state. The slightest change in the attitude of the limbs produces a corresponding modifica- tion of the expression. When the open hand is carried to the lips, there is a smile ; when the fist is clenched, there is an expression of anger. Moreover, this reaction of the expression takes place, with whatever rapidity the change in the attitude of the limbs may be effected. If the subject's open hand is taken and moved swiftly to the mouth and again withdrawn, a formal smile is seen on the lips as the hand approaches, which passes away as soon as it is withdrawn. Again, the influence of the gesture on the countenance may be rendered unilateral; when the left hand is clenched, a frown is seen on the left side only, and if at the same time the right hand is approached to the mouth, there is a smile on the right side of the face. Each side of the face thus expresses a different emotion. SUGGESTIONS OP MOVEMENTS AND OF ACTS. 279 It occurred to Charcot and Kicher to modify the gesture by acting on the countenance. By means of localized faradization they developed a given emotion on the features, and the body at once assumed an attitude in correspondence with that emotion. When once it has been produced, the emotion impressed upon the features does not become effaced, and the position of the limbs is likewise persistent. It is possible, by graduating the force of the current, to cause the subject to express different degrees of the same emotion. We have seen that in a state of lethargy, all the muscles of the face may be contracted separately, by pressing the finger on their motor points. The experiment of which we are now speaking is of a somewhat different character, and of greater importance in the study of the play of countenance. The excitement is no longer, as in lethargy, localized in the muscle which is touched ; it is communi- cated to the other facial muscles, which must also be brought into play in order to produce the desired expression. It has often been asked what is occurring in the mind of the cataleptic subject, when he is- placed in an emotional attitude. There is a curious contrast between his statuesque immobility and the tragic expression of his countenance; in one sense he appears to see and hear nothing, and in another he displays intense emotion. It occurred to Richer to resolve the problem by con- sulting the respiratory tracings of the subject under experiment. He effected the contraction of the muscles which express terror, and, strange to say, while the features and gestui;gs of the subject expressed the most lively alarm, the breathing, after one abrupt act of expira- 280 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. tion, resumed the calmness and immobility characteristic of catalepsy. Hence we may infer that in the cataleptic subject suggestions by the muscular sense are more superficial than the suggestions of somnambulism. The chief conclusion to be drawn from these studies is the influence exerted on psychical activity by the expressive movements of the countenance and of the whole body. The expression is not merely an external sign of the emotion, but it forms an integral part of it. Even in the normal state, when an expression is arti- ficially produced, it gives rise to the corresponding emotion, which passes away when the expression changes. Dugald Stewart's remarks on this subject have been often quoted. He observes that just as every mental emotion produces a sensible effect on the body, so when the countenance assumes the expression of any strong emotion, accompanied by analogous gestures, the emotion corresponding with this artificial expression is .in some degree felt. Burke asserted that he had often experi- enced the awakening of the passion of anger in proportion as he assumed the external signs of that passion, and Stewart did not doubt that in the case of many iadividuals the same experiment would afford the same results. Burke also remarked that when Campanella, a celebrated philosopher and great physiognomist, wished to know what was passing in the mind of another person, he imitated, as well as he could, the attitude and counte- nance of the person in question, and at the same time he concentrated his attention on his own emotions. Suggestions of attitude constitute the simplest form of automatism. A given number of co-ordinated move- ments may moreover be produced in some cataleptic SUGGESTIONS OP MOVEMENTS AND OP ACTS. 281 subjects by placing their limbs in a certain position. For instance, if his hand is approached to his nose, the subject wUl blow his nose. Or certain impulses, which may be indefinitely prolonged, may be impressed on his limbs, as when the subject is made to twirl his thumbs, he will continne this automatic movement until it is stopped mechanically or by suggestion. These phe- nomena are simply automatic, and can be explained in great measure by the laws of the association of movements. A higher form of automatism consists in what Heidenhain calls imitative automatism. The experi- menter begins . by looking fixedly at the subject, so as to arrest his gaze, and then draws back. The subject rises to foUow the experimenter, of whom he never loses sight, and he imitates his every movement, whatever it may be. In this way he can be made to laugh, whistle, sing, blow his nose, clap his hands and feet together. The subject reflects the acts of the experimenter as a mirror might do; he imitates with his right hand the movements of the experimenter's left hand, who stands opposite to him. Despine has tei-med this phenomenon specular imitation. Automatism may also be produced by the recollection of the use of an object. This is a less direct process, and the automatism is more complex. For instance, if a cake of soap is placed in the hands of a cataleptic subject, he rubs his hands, as if in the act of washing them. If an umbrella is given to him, he opens it, shivering, as if sensible of the coming storm. Sight, or contact with the object, automatically arouses a series of movements which are in the normal state associated with the same sensory impression. The subject relies on a basis of habits, and 282 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. invents nothing. An unknown object produces no suggestion. This is not the place for insisting on the analogies which exist between the movements, acts, and suggested ideas of hypnotic subjects and the spasmodic movements and ideas of the insane. We will only remark that in the case of the latter, an impulsive act is not un- frequently induced by the sight of an appropriate object. Max Simon gives an instance of a learned man who was seized by an overwhelming impulse to cut his throat when he was shaving, and who could only overcome it by desisting from this operation. Many other analogous facts might be cited. Certain acts which are not purely mechanical cannot be suggested merely by the presence of the instrument which effects them. The act of writing, for instance, not only involves the exercise of the hand which traces the characters, but of the thought which co-ordinates the words in a given sequence. If, during the cataleptic state, a pen is placed between B r's fingers, she holds it loosely, and at the end of a few moments lets it drop, without making any attempt to use it. If a sentence is dictated to her while she holds the pen, a word at a time, or still better, a syllable at a time, she may be induced to write a phrase or two in her own orthography, but the writing is irregular, since it is due to the influence of successive suggestions which are disconnected in the subject's mind. Yet if care is taken about the position of the hand, an autograph may be obtained which can hardly be distinguished from those which are written in the waking state. There are several proofs of the absence of design. SUGGESTIONS OF MOVEMENTS AND OF ACTS. 283 The subject to whom soap is given wiU go on washing his hands indefinitely, and on one occasion the operation was protracted for two hours (Eegnard). If a subject is putting on her boot, she will go on doing up and undoing the laces for an indefinite period, and if a piece of crochet work is given her, she will make a long chain of loop- stitch without attaching it to the rest of the work. Sometimes the act which is begun is continued indefi- nitely, owing to contact with the object which suggests the idea of employing it. More frequently, when the suggestion is exhausted, the subject stops short and becomes rigid in catalepsy. A species of oscillation may be observed between the cataleptic attitiide and the psychical phenomena produced by suggestion. While the subject is afiected by the suggestion, catalepsy ceases ; as soon as the suggestion comes to an end, catalepsy reappears. During the automatic activity it is possible to affect the subject unilaterally. Take a subject, for instance, be- fore whom are placed a jug and basin and some soap. As soon as her eyes are attracted to these objects the subject, with apparent spontaneity, pours water into the basin, takes the soap and washes her hands with scrupulous care. If one of her eyes is then closed, the same side of the body becomes lethargic, while the other hand con- tinues to exert the same movements. So, again, when the subject is working crochet and one eye is closed, the corresponding hand becomes motionless, while the other continues to exercise the same movements alone, although' they are rendered useless by its isolation. Yet, as Richer observes, the intelligence seems to take some part in the unilateral movements; the subject tries to supply 284 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. the place of the missing hand by supporting the other on the knee or breast. , None of these phenomena are peculiar to catalepsy : they may all be readily reproduced in somnambulism. But in catalepsy the movements are simpler and more automatic ; the impulse seems to be irresistible. It may be profitable to consider the facts of automatic imitation which are so readily produced in the cataleptic state ; the echoing of any utterance, or echolalia. It is long since pathologists became acquainted with this phenomenon, which was discovered by Berger in the case of hypnotic subjects. It is produced in a somnambulist by applying the hand to the forehead or to the nape of the neck ; the subject, who up to that time has answered the questions put to him with distinctness, at once repeats, instead of replying to the questions, as if he were transformed into a phonograph. He may be made to sing, scream, cough or sneeze ; he will repeat words uttered in languages unknown to him, with an exact- ness which is often surprising. Some subjects also retain tunes, and may be made to sing a musical air; if a vibrating tuning-fork is applied to the ear, the subject reproduces the sound, with its pitch and quality. In this state also the subject automatically imitates all the gestures of the experimenter (Charcot). Marie and Azoulay* have measured the period of reaction in echolalia. They adopted the following arrangement. A telephone was applied to the subject's ear, and his mouth was provided with a mouthpiece, so constructed that when the word " toe " was uttered by the subject, an electric signal was given by Marey's * Soc. de Fsychologie, May 18, 1883. SUGGESTIONS OF MOVEMENTS AND OF ACTS, 285 tambour. At the otlier end the fixed telephone was inserted in a circuit which included an electric contact and one of Deprez's signals, also registering on the same cylinder. Thus, when the electric contact took place, a sound in the telephone and a signal on the cylinder were simultaneously produced. The subject said "toe," whenever he heard the sound in the telephone, so as to give the period of personal reaction, as far as his auditory impressions were concerned. In the waking state ttis period waa -^ of a second. In the somnambulist state M „ II. Acts only differ from movements in their complexity. Acts consist of associated movements, adapted by the subject to the end which he has in view. We wish to study these acts in the phase of somnambulism. Verbal suggestion is the process usually employed. Heidenhain observed that when he said to his hypnotized brother, "If I had a watch, I should like to see what o'clock it is," no effects ensued. But if he said, " Show me your watch," the order was at once obeyed. We have been successful in giving such orders in writing. As soon as the subject read the words : " I am going to rise," he arose. In short, the only necessary condition is that the image of the act in question should be distinctly formed in the subject's mind. To give an idea of the mathematical precision with which the suggested act is executed on awaking, one of the present writers performed the following experiment. 286 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. We showed to the somnambulist an imaginary spot on a smooth surface, which we could only afterwards ascertain by means of careful measurement, and we ordered her to stick a penknife into this spot when she awoke. She executed the order without hesitation and with absolute correctness : a criminal act would have been as punctually executed.* It is interesting to ascertain whether the subject who is actuated by an irresistible impulse behaves like an auto- maton subsisting on a basis of the past, on his memory and habits, or if, on the contrary, the subject is capable of reflection and of reasoning like a normal individual. This latter is more frequently the case. When care is taken to suggest a somewhat complex act, for the performance of which some combination is necessary, we may observe that the subject invents such combined expedients although they had not been suggested to him, and this inventive process shows that everything is not explained by comparing him to an automaton. For instance, it was suggested to a subject that she should poison X with a glass of pure water which was said to contain poison. The suggestion did not indicate in what way the crime was to be committed. The subject offered the glass to X , and invited him to drink by saying, " Is it not a hot day ? " (It was in summer.) We ordered another subject to steal a pocket- handkerchief from one of the persons present. The subject was hardly awake when she feigned dizziness, and staggering towards X , she fell against hira and hastily snatched his handkerchief. When a similar theft was suggested to a third subject, she approached X , • Ch. Fdrd, Les hi/pnotiqaes hyMriqueg, etc. SUGGESTIONS OP MOVEMENTS AND OP ACTS. 287 and abruptly asked him what he had on his hand. While X , somewhat startled, looked at his hand, his hand- kerchief disappeared. None of these expedients were sug- gested, but were derived by the subjects from their own resources. These complex phenomena cannot be referred to the simple fact that the image of a movement produces that movement ; such a rudimentary explanation can only apply to elementary experiments. There are numerous instances of resistance in hypno- tized subjects. The order is disregarded, and not executed by the subject. The failure may arise from two different causes, derived either from the experimenter or from his subject. In the former case, as one of the present writers has already observed, the promptness and energy with which the act is performed depends on the authority with which the suggestion is given. When the order is given gently and indecisively, the subject awakes in a state of mind which it is interesting to study. She is uneasy, beset by the fixed idea that she has to do some- thing which is absurd or revolting — to embrace a skull, for example. She hesitates long, and sometimes even expresses her hesitation, saying, " I must be mad, to wish to embrace a skull. It is absurd ; I do not wish to do it, and yet it seems impossible to resist." And eventually she does it. It should be added that the personality of the experimenter has some share in the efficacy of the suggestion ; a subject may resist an order given by one person, and obey the same order given by another. These facts were known to the early magnetizers, and they recommended the experimenter to use an authorita- tive tone, and the subject to be perfectly submissive. At another time the subject's resistance may be due 288 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. to the nature of the suggested act. This resistance may be said to be a survival of the subject's personality ; his personal reaction which is not completely destroyed by the hypnotic sleep. Such resistance occurs most fre- quently in those affected by profound hypnotism, and it is more common in some states than in others. We have already observed the automatism of the somnambulant state is much less absolute than that of catalepsy ; the cataleptic subject is a machine, the somnambulist is a person. The first readily performs all the acts suggested, while the second often offers a resistance which may become troublesome to the experimenter. Many subjects display their honesty by refusing to commit the thefts suggested to them. They assign various motives for the refusal. Sometimes the subject may reply : " No, I will not steal ; I am no thief." Some- times the motive is not so high. Many subjects reply to the suggestion by saying frankly, " Some one will see me." The suggestions of murder may provoke similar objections. If Z is armed with a paper-knife, and ordered to kill X , she says, " Why should I do it ? He has done me no harm." But if the experimenter insists, this slight scruple may be overcome, and she soon says, ''If it must be done, I will do it." On awaking, she regards X with a perfidious smile, looks about her, and suddenly strikes him with the supposed dagger. But neither this subject nor any other could be impelled to murder some unspecified person. Another of our subjects presented an interesting example of invincible resistance. She had been deeply attached to a young man, and although she had suffered much from him, the passion was not extinct. If the presence SUGGESTIONS OP MOVEMENTS AND OF ACTS. 289 of this man was evoked, she instantly displayed signs of great distress, and attempted to escape ,' but it was im- possible to induce her to do anything which might be injurious to him whose victim she had been. Yet she automatically obeyed every other command. Another subject cannot be induced to repeat a prayer; a second will not sing a song which she has composed, reflecting on one of the present writers ; a third resists the order to sign a cheque for a million francs, and will only do so for a much smaller sum. Some hypnotized persons have the illusion of resist- ance, and believe that they can resist if they please. These illusions do not occur when the sleep is profound, and we have not met with them in our subjects, but Eichet has observed them in some cases. He writes: "One of my friends, who was drowsy but not quite asleep, carefully studied this phenomenon of incapacity, combined with the illusion of capacity. When I pre- scribed a movement, he always performed it, even although he had, before he was magnetized, been deter- mined to resist. He found this hard to understand when he awoke, and said that he certainly could have resisted, only he did not wish to do so. Sometimes he was inclined to believe that he was simxilating. 'When I am asleep,' he said, 'I feign automatism, although I believe that I might act otherwise. I begin with the firm determination not to simulate, but as soon as I am asleep it seems that, in spite of myself, simulation begins.' It is evident that this mode of simulating a phenomenon does not diCFer from the real phenomenon. The automatism is proved by the simple fact that in all good faith persons act like automata. It matters little 290 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. that they believe themselves capable of resistance, since as a fact they do not resist. This is what we have to consider, not their illusion as to their imaginary power of resistance." * Among the psychical phenomena which accompany the motor impulse that is suggested, there is perhaps none more interesting than the apparent motives which the subject assigns to his act. These facts show, as the illusion of resistance has already shown, that the subject is altogether ignorant of the original source of the im- pulse he has received. When the subject awakes, and performs the act which was suggested to him during somnambulism, he generally supposes it to be sponta- neous ; the suggested act, imposed by the wiU of another, seems to him of precisely the same nature as those acts which he performs of his own initiative. And again, since he is unaware of the true cause of action, the subject in- vents a motive, more or less plausible or ingenious, to explain to himself the reason of his conduct. Richet was the first to make a regular study of this phenome- non, and we give some of his observations: "When B was hypnotized, I said to her : ' On awakening, you will take the shade off the lamp.' I awoke her, and when we had conversed for a few minutes, she said: ' We do not see well,' and she took off the shade. Another time I said to B , ' When you awake, you wUl put a good deal of sugar in your tea.' I awoke her, tea was served, and she filled her cup with sugar. Some one asked what she was about. ' I am putting in the sugar.' ' But you put in too much.' — ' Really ! that is a pity.' And she continued to put it in. Then she said, on finding * Kicliet, L'liomme et Vintelliijence. SUGGESTIONS OF MOVEMENTS AND OF ACTS. 291 the tea undrinkable : ' What would you have ? It was a stupid thing to do ; but have you never done anything stupid?'"* An analogous observation was made by one of the present writers. Together with M. B , whose first visit to the Salp^trifere was made on that day, we per- formed some hypnotic experiments on one of Charcot's hystero-epileptic patients. When the subject was in a state of somnambulism, I ordered her on awakening to stab M. B with the pasteboard knife I put into her hand. As soon as she awoke, she rushed towards him and struck him in the region of the heart. M. B feigned to fall down. I then asked the subject why she had killed this man. She looked at him fixedly for a moment, and then replied with an expression of ferocity, " He is an old villain, and wished to insult me."t It is evident that there was in this case no sub- stantial motive for the crime, nor had any motive been suggested to her. When the crime was accomplished, the subject hesitated for a moment before assigning a motive; her conscience was at fault, and she questioned the outward aspect of her victim. No great power of observation was necessary in order to note M. B 's sprightly expression of countenance, and this was enough to supply the answer. He had not struck nor robbed her, and since there was no other reason for stabbing him, an insult must have been the cause, since she would not have done such a thing without a reason. It must * Eiohet, LaM^moire et la personnalM dans le somnambuUsme {Bevue PhilosopMque, March, 1882). t Ibid. 292 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. be remembered that epileptic subjects, when they have involuntarily committed a crime may, like the subjects of suggestion, not only admit their guilt, but explain it by more or less rational motives. This is only another proof that experiments in hypnotism are valuable. in the treatment of mental diseases.* We may add that a suggested impulse resembles the irresistible impulses of some insane persons in two important features: the subject's anguish when he is restrained from accomplish- ing the act, and his relief when it is accomplished. Suggestions which are not to be at once acted upon are possible in the case of acts as well as of hallucinations. Richet was the first to call attention to these experi- ments.! "When B was hypnotized," he writes, "I said to her : ' You will come here on a given day and at a given hour.' When she awoke she had forgotten these words, and she asked when I wished to see her again. I said : ' Whenever you can come ; any day next week.' — ' At what o'clock ? ' — ' Whenever you please.' And she came regularly, with surprising punctuality, at the date and time indicated by the suggestion. This phenomenon sometimes leads to absurd consequences. A arrived one day at the hour agreed upon during hypnotism, and the first thing she said was : ' I do not know why I came. The weather is horrible, and I had visitors. I had to run to get here in time, and I cannot stay. I must go back in a few moments. It is absurd, since I do not understand why I came. Is this another phenomenon of magnetism ? ' " * Fevi, Note pour eervir a I'Mstoire des doles impuUifs des epileptiguet (JRevwe de Medicine, 1885). t Revue PMlosophique, March, 1888. SUGGESTIONS OF MOVEMENTS AND OF ACTS. 293 These experiments give rise to the same difficulties as the hallucinations which occur at a fixed date, and we need not go over the question again. The only point peculiar to suggestions Of command is that up to the moment which has been fixed, the subject does not perform the act enjoined, even when led up to it and reminded of the order. Suppose that a subject is told that at five o'clock on the following day he will read page 8 of this book. On awaking, the book is presented to him, open at the page just indicated, but it suggests nothing to him. The suggestion is only realized at the given hour, and cannot be realized untU that hour arrives.* It cannot be denied that all these facts have disquiet- ing consequences with respect to the existence of free- will. Psychologists of the spiritualist school have long regarded the sense of liberty with which we all perform a voluntary act as a proof of free-will. The history of suggested impulses show what is the value of this sub- jective sense, which has been exalted into an objective proof, and which is perhap's only an illusion. Philo- sophers wiU have to ask themselves what confidence can be placed in what Leibnitz termed " the lively internal sense of freedom," since this sense may be so greatly deceived. Spinoza's profound remark on this subject must be remembered :" The consciousness of free-will is only ignorance of the causes of our acts." It must be admitted that these words are perfectly applicable to the acts produced by hypnotic suggestion; the subject believes himself to act freely, beiause he has forgotten the suggestion by which he is impelled. It may be asked whether we can reason from a hypnotic patient to a man * Beaunis, Le SorrmambuUsme provoqu^, p. 57. Baillifere, 1886. 294 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. of sane and normal mind. Some philosophers may accept this as a mode of escape, and we cannot go more deeply into the question. But we think that at any rate the experience of hypnotism proves one important fact, that the testimony of our inner consciousness is not infallible. We have not yet dwelt upon the form in which the suggestion is given. For the most part the act to be performed is simply indicated : " When you awake you will clap your hands." The wish to perform the act may also be suggested. "You are very angry with X , and when you awake, you intend to strike him." A suggestion of incapacity may also be substituted for the suggestion of wiU: "I order you to strike X , and however much you resist, you will be obliged to obey." In all these cases the result is the same, and the act suggested is performed. From the psychical point of view there is, however, a wide difference between the agent who performs an action because he wishes it, and the agent who obeys the irresistible will of another person. Yet hypnotism shows that this difference is merely superficial. In both cases there is what may be called in psychological terms the same impulse, and in physiological terms the same dynamic state of the motor centres. We were confronted with a similar fact in the study of hallucinations. Hallucination, memory, and sensation, as we then observed, are clearly founded on the same physiological act, which takes place in the same region of the cerebiTim. They are only distin- guished by the secondary states of consciousness which accompany the formation of the image. In memory, this state consists in the reasoning which localizes the imao-e SUGGESTIOKS OF MOVEMENTS AND OP ACTS. 295 in the past. In hallucination and in sensation, these states consist in the reasoning which localizes the image in the external world. But these localizations in time and space are superadded acts, which are not essential and are often absent. We believe that it is the same with volition. The impulse is the fundamental fact, around which may be grouped the secondary states of consciousness which make the impulse a voluntary or involuntary act, or which assign to it a given motive. These are accessory and superadded phenomena, not integral parts of the occurrence. Finally, we must indicate the relation which exists between cataleptic attitudes and the attitudes produced by a suggestion given during somnambulism. By sug- gestion a subject may be induced to maintain a given attitude for some time, as he does during catalepsy. This retention of attitudes under the influence of an idea cannot last indefinitely ; its duration depends upon many circumstances, and chiefly upon the muscular strength of the subject, and on the form of the sug- gestion. If the subject is merely ordered to keep his arm horizontally extended, the arm soon begins to tremble, and respiration becomes irregular. In one debilitated subject the trembling was very marked, and the arm dropped in two minutes. But if this subject was told that her arm was made of wood, then the ex- tended arm did not precisely tremble, but was affected by slow oscillations which moved the whole limb, and it only dropped at the end of three minutes. Con- sequently the attitudes imposed on our subjects by suggestion differ from those impressed upon them during catalepsy, a difference which proves that the catalepsy 296 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. of these subjects is not a state produced by suggestion. But we do not wish to assert that by subjecting patients to repeated experiments in suggestion, it might not be possible to give them attitudes resembling those of true catalepsy. III. We have submitted to the action of the magnet the unilateral form of the acts and movements suggested during hypnotism, and we have ascertained that these unilateral phenomena may be transferred like halluci- nations, and other physical symptoms of hypnotism.* After hypnotizing one of our subjects, we placed a bust of Gall on a table standing near. We then sug- gested that she should make a long nose at the bust with her left hand. A magnet was placed close to her right hand. On awaking, the subject, as soon as she saw the bust, made a long nose at it with her left hand ; after the lapse of a few seconds she began again, and repeated the gesture fourteen times, always with the left hand. The latter movements were more faintlj"^ executed, and the gesture was not fully carried out ; she only raised her hand as high as her mouth, without extending the fingers. A slight tremulous motion then began in the right hand, and the left hand remained still. The subject appeared to be uneasj'-, and turned her head from one side to another; she addressed the bust, saying: "How offensive that man is!" She scratched her ear with the right hand and then began a series of the same gestures as before with that hand, * Bevue Fhilosophiqtie, January and March, 1885. SUGGESTIONS OP MOVEMENTS AND OF ACTS. 297 whicli went on for ten minutes. She admitted that it was absurd to make such gestures, yet if she paused for an instant, it was only necessary for the experi- menter to make a long nose at the bust to cause her to resume them. We withdrew the magnet, and the action was then transferred to the left hand, with the same characteristics as before. We gave the subject a piece of work to employ her hands, but she laid it down at regular intervals of three or four seconds, in order to make a long nose. From time to time she complained of pain, which oscillated from one side of the head to the other. This is an instance of a transferred act, which was suggested during somnambulism, and yet , had all the appearance of being spontaneous. The subject invented specious reasons to explain her conduct ; she said that the bust was offensive, and believed that she made a long nose at it for this reason. As we have observed, when she paused, it was only necessary to imitate the gesture in order to re-charge the subject, and make her resume the insult. This proves the force of example, or rather, the influence of the representation of the movement on the movement. The ensuing experiment defines the result of the transference, and shows that the transferred act is sym- metrical with the suggested act. We impressed on a hypnotized subject the idea of setting down figures in the ordinary way, with her right hand, and at the same time a magnet was concealed near her left hand. On awaking, she wrote as far as the figure 12 with her right hand, then she hesitated, changed the pen to her left hand, and went on writing. The figures she set 298 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. down were correct when seen in a mirror, so that the movements executed with the left hand were sym- metrical with those made with the right hand. The magnet had therefore transferred the action. It should be observed that while she was writing with the left hand, she was unable to use the right; she was as it were left-handed with her right hand. Fig. 13. — ^Experiment on June 16, 1884. Magnetic transfer of impulse to write. Fig. 13 represents the first experiment of the transfer of writing. These figures were set down with the left hand. Only the three first figures are reversed. Fig. 14.— Experiment of November 29, 1884. Magnetic transfer of impulse of writing. Fig. 14 represents a subsequent experiment. The subject had improved; the first line of figures was written with the right hand, and that below with the left, set down from left to right. The figure 7 is absent, because it had been suppressed by suggestion in a previous experiment. The reversed writing produced by the magnet demands attention. This phenomenon SUGGESTIONS OP MOVEMENTS AND OF ACTS. 299 is due to the fact that the magnet has transferred the impulse to set down figures from right to left and reversed writing is the normal writing of the left hand. This fact has been proved by many experiments. The transfer of verbal impulse, which is in fact only a variety of the motor impulse, may also be effected. We suggested to a subject that she should count aloud, up to 100. She began to count as soon as she awoke. A ten-forked magnet was placed near her right arm. When she got to 72 she paused, hesitated, could not go on counting, and at the end of a minute she was unable to speak at all. Yet she could move her tongue, and understand what was said to her. After ten minutes had elapsed, the magnet was applied to her left side ; in about two minutes the left arm began to tremble and the power of speech returned. Finally, let us note the transfer of resolutions, that is, of proposed, but unfulfilled acts. We said to X when under somnambulism : " Here is the key of the wardrobe at the end of the room. When we ofiier you the key, you will take it in your right hand ; you will open the drawer, take out a box, close the drawer, and finally give the box to B : aU with the right hand." On awaking the subject, a magnet was placed near her right fore-arm. After a few moments X complained of pain in the right parietal region ; pain which traversed the head and passed into the same region on the left. A minute afterwards we ofiered her the key ; she took it in her left hand, walked to the wardrobe and attempted to open it with her right hand, but was unable to do so. She had recourse to her left hand in order to open the drawer, and she w.ent through the same process before 300 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. taking the box ; she alternately extended the right and left hand, and finally made use of the latter. She closed the drawer, after the same hesitation with the left hand, came back with the box, stood before B , and said, " Here is the box, sir," and offered it to him with her left hand. We repeated this experiment a second time, allowing five minutes to intervene before presenting the key, so that the transfer might be completely efiected. In this case the subject took the key in her left hand without the slightest hesitation, she opened the drawer, took out the box, closed the drawer and gave the box to B without any attempt to use the right hand. We have here a peculiar kind of transfer. There is a resolution to perform an act, which is in some sense present in the subject's cerebral cells. This virtual act is susceptible of transference, precisely like an act which is actually accomplished, and this clearly shows that it has likewise a material substratum. We should also observe the phenomenon of pain which accompanies the transfer; a pain which is not diffused but local, and according to the theories of cranio-cerebral topography alread}' established by one of the present writers, the pain is localized in the ascending frontal and parietal convolutions, in the motor centres of the limbs. It will be remembered that the pain which accompanies the transfer of an act has the same localization. This resem- blance seems to show that the resolution to perform an act with a given limb, with the right arm for example, corresponds with a physiological process which has the same site as the movement of the arm. The potential act — and a resolution to act is nothing else — seems to SUGGESTIONS OF MOVEMENTS AND OF ACTS. 301 have the same cerebral centre as the act which is really performed. It must be understood that we give this interpretation with all reserve, and that it is merely an hypothesis. Finally, the magnet exerts its special action on spontaneous phenomena, which have not merely the appearance of being freely displayed, but are really voluntary, in the ordinary sense of the word. In fact transference may be effected without the hypnotic sleep or suggestion. The subject is merely requested to per- form a given act, and the application of the magnet will compel him to perform a second act, symmetrical with the former. We give the experiment without further comment. X was perfectly awake, and had not been hyp- notized for several days. We begged her to rest her right elbow on the table, close to a concealed magnet. ' She asked the reason, and we made the pretext of a wish to take her portrait, to which she agreed. After two or three minutes, she brought her right arm close to her body, saying that she was tired and that her arm was numb. She seemed uncertain for a moment, and looked to the right and left. We begged her to resume her position, and she said she had forgotten what it was ; in another minute she rested her left elbow on a chair she had drawn up, in a position symmetrical to the former one. When the magnet was withdrawn, consecutive oscillations were observed. The magnet will likewise effect a bilateral act : the result differs according to the simply automatic, character of this act, or its correspondence with the emotional state; in the former case it produces what we have 14 302 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. called a motor polarization, and in the second case an emotional polarization. We first give an example of motor polarization. The .idea is suggested to a subject that he should move both his hands as if rolling a ball. While he is continuing this action, a magnet is brought close to the nape of the neck. After a while both hands begin to tremble ; the subject tries to roll his fingers without being able to do so, and seems at a loss what to do. Th« suggested im- pulse is succeeded by a corresponding paralysis. Many other experiments might be cited, in which the impulse is likewise changed into paralysis. When motor polarization is compared with sensory polarization, it will be seen that they are at once alike and unlike. When the vision of the colour red is polarized, three effects are produced : suppression of this vision, paralysis, as far as red is concerned, and the subjective consciousness of the complementary colour, green. When an automatic movement is polarized the two efiects of suppression and of paralysis are indeed produced, but the production of an inverse, com- plementary phenomenon corresponding with the colour green, appears to be absent. This gap is more apparent than real, and we shall presently attempt to fill it. We must now give an instance of emotional polari- zation. We impressed the idea on a hypnotized subject that she would on awaking feel a desire to strike F . A magnet was placed near her right foot. As soon as she awoke, she looked uneasily at F , got up suddenly, and tried to give him a slap which he had just time to ward off. " I do not know why," she said passionately, " but I feel a desire to strike him," and indeed she tried SUGGESTIONS OP MOVEMENTS AND OP ACTS. 303 hard to do so. In another moment her countenance changed, she assumed a gentle and supplicating ex- pression, threw herself on the experimenter, saying, " 1 want to embrace him," and it was necessary to use force to restrain her impulse. Consecutive oscillations were then observed. In this last experiment, the magnet directly polarized the suggested emotion, which in its transformation led to a fresh series of acts. This is an emotional, not a motor polarization, a distinction which should be clearly understood. The magnet, if it acted solely on a motor phenomenon, such as the act of striking, would not substitute for it phenomena of another order, such as the act of embracing : for the opposition of these two acts is due to the difference in the emotion they express, and not to the diflFerence in their motor character. The state of emotion is therefore the pivot on which the experi- ment turns. The analysis of this emotional polarization will show that it consists of the three elements mentioned above : suppression, paralysis, and manifestation of the converse state. When we compare these facis with those ob- tained from the polarization of colours, we shall see that there are complementary emotions, just as there are com- plementary colours.* • For farther details, see Bevue Philosophi