CYCL ^tate (lolleg? of Ai^ticttltute 3Vt ClJacneU Iniueraitg Jtlfata, ST. t. Slibtatg Cornell University Library S 411.P44 The American encyclopaedia of agricultur 3 1924 001 171 374 The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924001171374 z <; z o h W S < X THE AMERICAN Encyclopsedia of Agriculture A TREASURY OF USEFUL INFORMATION POH THE FARM AND HOUSEHOLD. Edited by Hon, Jonathan Periam, Late Editor Prairie Farmer, and op the Western Rural ; First Recording Secretary Board of TRasTEEa, AND Superintendent of Agriculture, Illinois Industrial University ; Ex Vice-President Department of AGRicuLTriiE of Illinois ; Life Member American PoMOLoiJiCAL Society, Etc., Etc. ILLUSTRATED. CHICAGO : RAND, McNALLY & COMPANY. 18§K Q^U^-gl Entered According to Act of Congress, in the Year 1881, by RAND, McNALLT & COMPANY, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. ENCYCL0Pi5niA OF AGRICULTURE: TREASURY OF USEFUL INFORMATION. ABORTION ABATTOIR. A building erected especially for slaughtering animals intended for human food. Eeally a French term for a slaughter hruse, but understood in the United States, for those intended for slaughtering animals near large cities, to supply the daily consumption.' ABDOMEN. That region of the body of animals which contains the stomach, intestines, liver, spleen, pancreas, kidneys' and bladder. In spiders it is the second division of the body ; in insects the third division. In some species of insects the abdomen is covered vfith wings and, also, wing cases. The abdomen is divided into segments or rings, on Ihe side of which are spiracles, by which the respiration of insects is carried on. In animals the abdomen is separ- ated from the breast,internally by the diaphragm, and externally by the extremity of the ribs. In ichthyology, the abdominals are a class, or order of fishes, the ventral flns of which are placed behind the pectoral. These embrace the division of bony fishes. This class contains among others the flying fish, hening, mullet, pike and salmon. ABNORMAIi. Irregular or unusual ; applied to deviations from the ordinary development of parts of animals or plants. ABORTION. The casting of young before the natural time. In veterinary practice, abort- ing is the slipping, slinking, miscarriage or ex- pulsion of the foetus at so early a period as to render continued life impossible. The causes are numerous, principal among which are want of proper sustenance, undue feeding, sudden frights, accidents from falls and bruises, over ex- ertion, arfd particularly, in large stables, the odor and diseased condition of animals which abort, so that often in stables where many cows are kept it will infect the entire herd. Of late years it has become one of the most serious disabilities in large dairy stables. The signs of approaching abortion are uneasiness, languor, restlessness, sudden filling of the udder, and often a bloody discharge. At the first symptoms the animals so affected should be immediately removed and the whole stable completely disinfected. The pre- ventives are regular care and feeding, and aD- ABORTIOX solute cleanliness. One peculiarity of this dis- ability is that animals, aborting once, are liable to a recurrence at about the same period, when again gravid. Great care is therefore necessary with such animals during the period when it may again be looked for. One superinducing cause of abortion in large dairies is thought to be de- generation from over service of the bull. In- stances are recorded when abortion has ceased, upon a change to u, mature, vigorous bull, who was restricted to one service a day during the coupling season ; and it is a notable fact that in small dairies of not over a dozen cows, abortion is rare. Another prolific cause is, confined, hot stables where many cows are kept. The remedy here would be, as we have said, perfect cleanli- ness, and perfect ventilation as well. Many of the causes of abortion seem obscure, yet the foUovTing may be taken as being pretty well settled: The prevalence of abortion is not pro- portionate to the relative extent of butter and cheese production in the afflicted districts. It is not more prevalent among good milkers than among ordinary milkers. It is not more common in first pregnancies than in subsequent ones. It happens most frequently in the sixth, the seventh, or the eighth month of pregnancy, and in the month of December, January or February. In all probability it is not due to exposiu-e to cold, or to insufficient stabling of any kind. It is not more prevalent among cows impregnated at the age of one year or eighteen months than among those impreenated at a later period. It is more frequent arnong cows which have been impreg- nated by two or three year old bulls than among those impregnated by yearling bulls. It is not due to inflammation of the uterus, nor to any marked change in the generative organs except a stoppage of the circulation and an arrest of de- velopment. It is probably not owing to any de- fect in the original form of the foetus. Abort- ing cows are more liable to miscarry the follow- ing year than those which have never been af- fected. The early separation of the calf from the cow does not seem to have any injurious influ- ence in producing subsequent abortions. Abor- (9) ABORTION 10 ABSORPTION" tion is a disease which is extremely local in char- acter, and confined for the most part to particu- lar farms. The large majority of farms, even in the afEected districts, are free from the disease, ■while upon a few farms the percentage of abor- tion is high, and the disease destructive in its effects. Farms affected, and those unaffected, , often lie in close proximity, with no marked dif- ference in physical situation, or in the treatment which the cattle receive, to account for the dif- ference in the prevalence of abortion. It is prob- able that abortion is, in many instances, imported into the affected farm by cows, purchased while with calf, coming from infected districts, or even from localities where the disease is not known to exist. Abortion is caused by a number of natur- al causes: pampering with high feed in hot stables; smutty grain and hay is especially a pre- disposing cause ; violent usage, as blows on the belly, slipping in the stall or on frozen ground ; teasing by the bull ; purging, or condiments, are also predisposing causes. It is, of late years, epidemic, or more probably endemic as confined generally to large stables, and, probably also gen- erated there; and, once a cow is attacked, sym- pathy may cause it to spread; also if the animal be not removed, and the stable thoroughly fumi- gated, it may spread by means of the minute germs always given off in all cases of disorgan- ization, and thus in extreme cases it may be car- ried to other stables; hence the necessity once it is found, that the greatest care be taken in isolat- ing affected'animals. Indeed it is better that a cow that has once aborted, be fattened and killed, since at the recurrence of the same period of car- rying the young, the cow will again be liable to abort. To one who has inhaled the peculiar odor of a stable where there are aborting cows, it will at once be apparent that the utmost pains should be taken to thoroughly fumigate the stable, and also, where gravid cows are stabled, that the building be kept free from foul odors of every kind, since cattle are apparently more annoyed by these than any other of our farm animals. Thus, also, every person in buying cows, should receive a guarantee, if possible, that she has never aborted; even then she should be carefully watched for symptoms up to the seventh month of carrying the foetus. The first sjrmptoms are : The animal will lose appetite ; the cow will par- tially or altogether cease to chew the cud; her milk vyill diminish ; she will be listless and dull, inclined to lie down, and, upon being moved about, will show weakness, and perhaps will stagger. If she seems restless, refuses her food, or if she paws the groimd, rests her head on the manger, and especially if there be a discharge of whitish glairy fluid from the vagina; if the belly seem less round, somewhat enlarged, or in any way altered in shape, remove her to other and distant quarters at once. As the symptoms pro- gress, the animal shows more and more distress, she moans, and at length the pains of labor re- lieve her of the load, often in a putrid and even decomposed condition. Once certain that the foetus is dead, delivery should be accomplished as quickly as possible. The water bag (the pouch in which tlie foetus is contained), if not broken, should be so ; then proceed to remove the after- birth as directed in the article After-birth, using plenty of time and operating in the most gentle manner. Sprinkle the foetus and all that comes away from the cow with carbolic acid or chloride of lime, or bury it deeply, covering it with quick- lime, or sprinkle it with carbolic acid. The va- gina of the cow should be cleansed, by being syringed with chloride of lime as directed in the article After-birth, the stable thoroughly cleansed, the animal carefully littered and tended, and when all foul odor has ceased from the va- gina, the stable must be effectually fumigated. (See article Fumigation.) The cow having re- covered, she should not be allowed to take the bull the same season, or at least for several months; and, in no case, with any cow, should a bull be allowed to serve, who is not in full vigor. There is no doubt the service of exhausted male animals is among the potent causes of abortion: hence the necessity that such males be vigorous. The treatment of the cow during recovery may be identical with that described in the article After-birth. 4B0RTIVE. Deficient. A common term in botany, and signifying the absence of stamens or pistils, whereby fruit can not be produced ; but also used to designate the partial or complete ob- literation of any other organ, as the leaf, petals, carpels, etc. ABSORBENTS. In veterinary practice medi- cines given internally to neutralize the action of acids found in the stomach or bowels. Prepared chalk, carbonate of soda, etc., are absorbents. Externally absorbents are agents applied for ab- sorbing the moisture of galls, or to prevent fric- tion between folds of the skin. Calamine, flour, starch and other agents of a drying nature, or those for drying up sores, blisters or grease, are absorbents. They are useful in all mild case* where the system has not become imbued with virus. In physiology absorbents are a class of vessels whose office it is to convey the product of digestion, the nutrition, into the circulation, to be deposited as flesh, fat, bone, and other necessary portions of the animal body, to build up the sys- tem and repair waste. They are divided into lacteals and lymphatics. The lacteals are situ- ated in the cavity of the abdomen; their minute mouths, opening on the inner suj-face of the stomach and ifltestines, suck up the nutritious portion of the food eaten, and carry it to a canal emptying into the left jugular vein. The lym- phatics, on the other hand, are distributed over every portion of the animal frame. They re- move the residue of nutrition. When the supply of food is deficient, the lymphatics remove from those portions of the body such material as can be spared, to be converted into blood. They empty their contents into the same vein as the lacteals, and in their distribution through the body follow the course of the veins. In plant life the leaves are absorbents to a slight degree, but the true absorbents are the minute, sponge- like extremities of the roots {Spongiosis), whose office it is to suck up the fluid nutrition of planta from the soil in which they are rooted. ABSORBENT SOILS. Such soils in so fine a state of tilth or division that they will absorb moisture readily from the air. The sandy soils and loams are, in a natural state, good absorbent soils. (See Soils.) ABSORPTION. The taking in or sucking up of fluids. The roots of a plant absorb the liquid food. In certain damp states of the at- mosphere the leaves and green parts of plants absorb moisture to a certain degree. In animals absorption is carried on by the lacteals and lym- ACCLIMATION OF PLANTS 11 ACCLIMATION OF PLANTS phatics. The earth absorbs rain and dew. Char- coal, plaster, etc., absorb ammonia and other cases. ABSTERGENTS. Medicines used for resolv- ing tumors. They are usually stimulating. ABUTMENT. The solid part of a pier from ■which an arch springs. ACACIA. A class of spinous, leguminous trees, with small flowers collected in spikes and heads, many of them highly ornamental from the delicacy of their foliage. They are mostly natives of hot climates. The United States contains but few species, and these are insignificant. The lo- cust, sometimes called acacia, is not so, but a robinia; one variety (rt. psewincacia) being well known as one of our most valuable timber-trees, where it escapes the ravages of the borer. The honey locust, sometimes called three-thorned acacia, Gl ditS'liia - trincanthoa, is somewhat closely allied to the true acacia, is very ornamen- tal as a tree and useful for hedging. (See Lo- cust, and Honey Locust. ) ACABI. The family of rtiites, to which belong the scab, the mange, the itch, and other insects infesting the skin of animals. These will be treated of under the appropriate names as they occur, as in itch, mange, etc. A(;0IP1TBES. The order of birds to which belong eagles, hawks, and similar birds of prey. ACCLIMATE. To cause an animal or plant to remain healthy and in sound condition in a climate different from its natural one. Plants •can not be acclimated in climates essentially dif- ferent from their native ones. ACCLIMATION OF PLANTS. It is a gen- erally received opinion that a plant removed from a warmer to a colder climate gradually becomes changed so that it will stand a lower temperature than in its native habitat. Such, however, is not the fact. Its zero, that is, the temperature at which it is killed, remains the same. The tem- perature at which a plant is destroyed, varies with each species. Indian com, for instance, is certainly killed when the thermometer sinks to 33° Fahrenheit, The cucumber is killed at 40°; the egg-plant at 45°. Celery, on the other hand, will withstand a temperature of 20°, and cabbage 15° or less. Plants, however, are essentially modified by being removed to a climate more severe than is natural to them. They gradually become earlier in ripening. Thus we see corn and potatoes, two of the plants most widely dis- tributed as to latitude, broken up into a great number of varieties, some of them remarkably early in ripening. A contributor in an extended article on the geography of plants, originally published in a report of the Department of Ag- riculture, holds the following language : We are apt to suppose that plants which grow in tropical countries must necessarily be tender, and adapted only to hot-house culture, not reflecting that they ma)' have grown in very elevated and cold re- gions in those countries. Such is the case with many species introduced from Japan, Chili and Nepal, which appear to be hardy in England. Of the dahlia, the heliotrope, the potato, and Lima bean, it may be said long culture has •done nothing to increase their hardmess. Sound views respecting the geography of plants would coiTect the prevailing errors regarding accli- mation. The acclimatizing of plants, or, as it is supposed to be, inuring them to lower tem- peratures than those they have been accustomed to or have required in their native habitats, does not appear to be a possibility. It has been satis- factorily determined that a plant must receive the ssime amount of heat for the proper perform- ance of certain processes necessary to the pro- duction of leaves, flowers and fruit, whether in places to which it is indigenous, or far removed therefrom in more northern latitudes The defi- nite degree which it has demanded during certain epochs of growth is still required wherever it may grow; but the aggregate of heat may be re- ceived during a shorter term in high latitudes be- cause of the greatly increased length of the day, and the processes be hastened and maturity at- tained at an earlier date. This is well illustrated in the growth of maize or Indian corn, which is said to be remarkably accommodating, though it must have a semi-tropical heat wherever grown, if only for a few weeks, and this heat it obtains even beyond the nortliern limits of the United States. It is well known that the varieties of maize grown near the northern limit of its cul tivation ripen earlier than those which are es- teemed valuable further south. Man has applied to his purposes the property possessed by many plants of adapting themselves to the new con- ditions, and the many varieties of maize, wheat, etc., attest the possibility of change within cer- tain limits. The principle above enunciated is, however, subject to some modifications as regards its application to certain physiological changes which have been observed to result from long- continued efforts to cultivate plants under un natural conditions. Plants are, without doubt, capable of modification within certain limits. Witness the numberless varieties of grains and fruits, some of which appear to be more hardy than their progenitors. Many of these which ap- pear to, or really do, thrive in more northern districts than those from which they were de- rived, have merely acquired a gi-eater suscepti- bility to the influences of light and heat, and are thence aroused into earlier action, quickened in their vital functions, and mature under a lesser aggregate of heat as measured by the thermom eter, though for the critical periods of their ex- istence they demand the same mean temperature as the original from which they were derived. It is in the power of man to fix these peculiarities when observed, and in a measure to produce them by the selection of those which promise well, and continuing the selection with adequate care through several generations Vilmorin, by skillfully applying the principles which influence plants in their tendencies to sport into new va- rieties and directing them into the desired chan- nel, has almost created a new race of beets con- taining twice as much sugar as their ancestors, and promising to be readily perpetuated. Ac- climating the tender plants of the tropics, and inuring them to the cold seasons of the north or temperate latitudes, is, therefore, impossible, though some minor modifications upon those of short growth during the periods of fervid heat of the northern summer have been made The olive and the orange have not been rendered more hardy, and the peach appears to be still en- dowed with the same tenderness of bud it has always shown. The difficulties of acclimation may be illustrated by the fact that certain vege- table products can be grown in particular lati- tudes, while others, though they may attain con- siderable size, can not be grown with any useful ACCLIMATIOK OF PLANTS result. For instance, in England tho vine will never yield grapes capable of making wine oven of a quality equal to champagne; nor will to- bacco over acquire that peculiar principle which gives it, in the estimation of many, so great a value when grown in some otliev countries; and TVIEB'S CUT-IEAVED SILVER MAPLE. yet both the vine and the tobacco plant flourish in the soil of England. The botanist and the meteorologist can explain why this is so, and thus prevent the commencement of speculations 12 ACCLIMATION OF PLANTS which must end in loss and disappointment. It is of great importance to be able to define accu- rately when a plant may be said to suit a particu- lar climate. It is not enough that it live and send out leaves; it must be able to produce flowers and seeds and to elaborate the peculiar secretions and pro- ducts on which its qualities depend. Indian hemp has grown in England, even, to the height of ten feet, with thick stems, vig- orous leaves, and abundance of flow- ers, biit it did not produce the resin- ous matter upon which its supposed value as a medicinal, agent-depends. Tiie rliubarb of -Turkejv i- which, as regard^""" size and vigor of tltr::- plant, thrives "well; in England, docTi not produce a root of any medicinal value, or of tlie same quality as that grown in Chinese T a r t a r y , from which, t h o u g li p^ known as Turkey rhubarb, it is de- rived. The leaves of the tea plant are liarmless, or but slightly stimulating- in certain latitudes, while they become- narcotic and u n - wholesome in oth- ers. This fact can be explained by the- study of the con- nection which ex- ists between climate- and vegetation — a question to be solv- ed by the botanist and meteorologist. It is science only that can explain the failure of attempts^ to cultivate the tea plant in Madeira and in tlie Indian Archipelago, while a variety of 1 he Chi- nese plant is now cultivated in tlie up- per districts of In- dia with great suc- cess. In the United States we have so wide a range of lati- tude and so fervent a summer sun that many tropical plants, which mature in a single season, may be most .success- fully raised by means of some forcing in the spring, Witness the cultivation of the tomato ACIDS 13 ACIDS and egg plant in high latitudes. These have been broken up into many varieties, some of wliich ripen earlier than others, yet they are cer- tainly killed with the same degi-ee of cold in one situation as they are in another, and there is no reason to_ suppose that these or other plants will ever become acclimated so as to resist a greater degree of cold than would suffice to kill them in their native country. ACCOUNTS, FARM. (See Farm Accounts.) ACER. The generic name of the maple fam- ily of trees. The flowers are polygamous, calyx colored, five lobed or parted — rarely four to twelve lobed; petals either none or as many as the lobes of the calyx; stamens four to twelve; ovary two celled, with a pair of ovules in each; styles two, long and slender; at the back of each oxary a wing is formed, the fruit being in pairs, and one-seeded, but which at length separates each keyed fruit by itself. The family contains both trees and shrubs, with apparently palmated-lobed -leaves and sm'all flowers. The species of value for jplanting are: Tlie sugar or rock maple, Acer sac- --chariiiujii; the black sugar maple, A. nigrum; -Tihe white or silver maple, A . dasymrpum, and the - red or swamp maple, A. rvbi'um, of the American species, and the Norway m'aple, A . platanoides, a European species. There are now a number of ornamental species, some of which are beautiful. We give an illustration of one of the best, origi- nated in Illinois and now widely planted east and west. It will serve as a type of the ornamental weeping species. The illustration of the leaves re- duced will show the peculiar toothed notches of the leaves. The shrubs or small trees belonging to the maple famUy are the striped maple, or moosewood, Acer Pcnnsylnanicum, and the mountain maple, A. spicatam. ISeguH- do aceroi'les, or the ash-leaved maple, or box elder as it is called in the west, is closely allied. It is a fast- growing and hand- some tree when young, and attains a height of sixty feet. It will live fifty or six- ty years, and soon forms a pleasant and dense shade; hence is much planted in the west. Its sap makes an excellent syrup, but no sugar, the flowers leaves of wieb's cut-leaved are dioecious, calyx maple (beduceu). minute, four to five cleft; petals, none; stamens, four to five. The leaflets are smoothish when old, very veiny, ovate, pointed, toothed; the seed smooth, with large rather in-curved wings, and should be gathered and planted as soon as ripe, which occurs early in summer. (See articles on the various species.) ACETATES. Salts containing acetic acid. Sugar of lead is a combination of acetic acid and lead, hence called acetate of lead. ACIDS. Generally sharp, sour substances, which redden litmus paper, and combine with metallic oxides or bases to form salts. All acids, however, are not sour to the taste, since all oily bodies contain one or more acids, and corn starch sugar is made by means of sulphuric acid. The inorganic acids are mineral ones. Those of inter- est in agriculture are, sulphuric, muriatic, silicic and phosphoric acids. Sulphuric acid is a com- ponent of gypsum, forming with the base sul- pliate of lime. Muriatic acid occurs in salt, as chloride of hydrogen, forming chloride of .'u'- nips, mangel-wurzel, etc., extensively, by field husbandry, for feeding cattle, by which, a given quantity of land may be made to produce much more nutritive matter than if it were occupied by grain or grass crops, and the health as well as the thriving of the animals in the winter season greatly promoted. Laying down lands to grass, either for pasture or mowing, with a greater variety of grasses, and with kinds adapted to a greater variety of soils ; such as orchard -grass for dryland; foui meadow-grass for very wet land; timothy or herds'-grass for stiff, clayey soils, etc. The substitution of fallow crops (or such crops as require cultivation and stirring of the ground while the plants are growing) in the place of naked fallows, in which the land is allowed to remain without yielding any profitable product in order to renew its fertility. Fields may be so AGRICULTURE foul with weeds as to require a fallow, but not what is too often understood by that term in this country. In England, when a farmer was com- pelled to fallow a field, he let the weeds grow into blossom and then turned them down: in America, a fallow meant a field where the pro duce is a crop of weeds running to seed, instead of a crop of grain. Again, the art of breeding the best animals and the best vegetables, by a judicious selection of individuals to propagate from. These improvements, with others too numerous to be here specified, have rendered the agriculture of the early part of the century very different from that of the middle ages when it had sunk far below the degree of perfection which it had reached among the Romans. In relation to the diificulties experienced in advanc- ing agi-icultural art in the United States, it is well known that the earliest settlers found the country a, wilderness, with many varieties of climate and soil, of which they were entirely Ignorant, and to which the knowledge they had obtained in the mother country did not apply. Thus, they had to contend with the innumerable obstacles, such as the wilderness of nature, their ignorance of the climate, the hostility of the In- dians, the depredations of wild beasts, the diffi- culty and expense of procuring seeds, farming implements and superior stock. These various difficulties are quite sufficient to explain the slow proOTess they made in the way of improve- ment. For many years agriculture was in an exceedingly backward and depressed condition. Stocks ancl tools were poor, and there were obstacles and prejudices against any innovations in the established routine of practice. This state of things continued for many years with very little change. Jared Eliot, a clergyman of Connecticut, one of the earliest agricultural writers of America,' published the first of a series of valuable essays on Field Husbandry, in 1747, but with this and a few other exceptions, no real efforts were made to improve farming until after the revolution, when the more settled state of the country and the gradual increase of population, began to impress the intrinsic import- ance of the subject upon the minds of a few enlightened men. They sought by associated effort to awaken an interest in the subject, and spread abroad valuable information. The South Carolina Agricultural Society was established in 1784, and still exists, and the'Philadelphia Society for the Improvement of Agriculture, established in the same year, and a similar association in New York in 1791, incorporated in 1798, and the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, established in 1793, were active in their field of labor, and all accomplished import- ant results. The correspondence at this period between Sir John Sinclair and Washington, shows how anxious was the father of his country to promote the highest interests of the people by the improvement of agriculture. But all the efforts of the learned, and all the investigations of the scientific, prove comparatively unavailing, unless the people themselves — the actual workers of the .soil — are prepared to receive and profit by their teachings. Many years elapsed before the habit of reading became sufficiently common among the masses of the actual tillers of the soil, to justify an expectation that any profit would arise from the afinual publication of the transactions of the several societies. The 22 AGRICULTURE improvements proposed fell dead upon the people, who rejected book fanning as impertinent and useless, and knew as little of the chemistry of agriculture as of the problems of astronomy. Such has been the increase of intelligence and the growth of liberal ideas among all classes of men duringithe last half century, both in this country and Great Britain, that we, at this dis- tance of time, can with difficulty realize the extent of the prejudices which blinded the eyes of the people of those days. The farmer who ventured to make experiments, to strike out new paths of practice, or to adopt new modes of culture, subjected himself to the ridicule of a whole neighborhood. For many years, there- fore, the same routine of farm labor had been pursued in the older settlements, the son planting just as many acres of corn as his father did, in the old of the moon, using the same number of oxen to plow, and getting in his crops on the same day, after having hoed them the same number of times as his father and grandfather. So all farm practices were merely traditional ; no country or town agricultural societies existed to stimulate careful effort through competition. There were no journals devoted to the spread of agricultural knowledge, and the mental energies of the farmer lay dormant. The stock of the farm was such as one might expect to find under such circumstances; the sheep were small, and ill cared for in the winter, and the size of cattle generally was but little more than half the aver- age of the present time. The value of manures was little regarded ; the rotation of crops was scarcely thought of; the introduction even, of new and labor-saving machineiy, was sternly resisted and ridiculed by the American farmers of that day as well as by the English laborers. It was long before the horse-rake was brought into use in opposition to the prejudices it encountered. It was equally long before the horse-power thresh- ing-machine was adopted In some parishes of Great Britain, even so late as 1830, the laborers actually went about destroying every machine they could find. Now, on the contrary, the use of the flail is a drudgery to which very few are willing to submit, and steam-power has in many instances been substituted for the horse, while new and improved implements of all kinds are sought to an extent unprecedented in the history of agriculture. Changes are gradually made every where, and the success which attends the intro- duction of new implements disarms prejudice. "Within the last half century, chemistry, the indispensable handmaid of agriculture, has grown with great rapidity, and in each new dis- covery some new truth applicable to practical agriculture has come to light, while willing experimenters have labored in the field to prove the truth or falsity of the theories proposed, and thus the well established facts from which the science of agriculture is derived, and the sound theories deduced from these facts, are constantly increasing in number. The substitution of animal for manual power, and yet more, the saving of animal power by the substitution of natural and mechanical forces, are the surest indications of improvement. From the changes which have grown up in these respects, and from the more constant use of chemical analysis to determine the qualities of soils and manures within the last fifty years, we may safely assert that the progress made during that period, or within the last AGRICULTURE 23 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION twenty years, is wholly unparalleled. To come down now to our own day, in comparing our husbandry, with European, Ave find that in all the older settled portions of the United States, the processes of agi'iculture will now compare favorably with those of any country on the globe, in the perfect adaptation of means to the end. The American farmer does not raise so great an average crop per acre as the English or the Bel- gian or the Holland farmer; the reason of this lies in the cheapness of the land, rendering it easier to work a larger area somewhat superfi- cially, than to put a considerable expense on a smaller one. The fact that the conformation of the land, especially in the West, admits of work- ing almost entirely by the use of machinery, is the reason that a large area per capita may be economically cultivated. It is this that has made the "West to teem with abundant crops of Indian corn and the other cereal grains ; that has enabled her fanners to produce the immense herds of cattle, droves of swine, and flocks of sheep. It has made this magnificent agricultural region to teem with every crop that may be pro- duced in a temperate climate, and before which the productions of ancient Egypt, so much vaunted, sinks into utter insignificance. It has indeed made the West the granary of the world. To show something of this we give a statement showing our agricultural exports up to 1875, in Ijeriods of five years, extending hack over fifty years, the figures being the average per annum for each period. These exports are divided into five classes : animals and their products, bread- stuffs, cotton (including its manufactures), wood, and miscellaneous pi-oducts. Necessarily the ex- tension of raw materials, as manufactured meat- products, lumber, vegetable oils, must be con- sidered, and the direct manufacture of a single and uncombined product of the farm, to render it available for exportation, was deemed for this purpose an agricultural product: Periode. Aninialy ' and their Breadstnffe, etc. Cotton, etc. prodncte. 1826-lt:30 * 4.602,375 6 8,472,623 $ 27,801,516 18:H-1835 4,873,044 9,619,072 43,489,612 1836-lWO 4,061,852 9,422,982 67,312,345 1841-1845 .. 8,779,297 10,341,102 54,678,009 1846-18.50 12.694.772 28,446,477 63,915,365 18.51-18.55. .. . 13,579,737 26,836,313 105,247,092 1856-1860 ... 20.844,187 40,609,279 158,514,271 1861-1865 51,311,851 72,820,959 17,017,960 1866-1870 . 35,4:M,754 55,282,657 209,^0,210 1871-1875... 85,560,083 107,228,367 208.818,938 IHV.I 146,641,223 210,391,068 173,158,200 Periods, Wood, fiDd wood Mlscellane- Average annual aggre- pptidiicts. gate. 1826-18:W .. . . * 3,126.501 $ 6,568,375 $ 50,571,390 1831-1835 3,490.600 7,.569,751 89,042,079 1836-1840. . 4,008,762 10,482,429 95,288,370 1841-1845 3.866.231 10,429,520 86,094,159 1846-1850 4.0 6,636 9,799,988 118,933,233 1851-1855 . ... 6,049,727 15,438,588 167,151,457 1856-1860 . ... 1 12,270,881 26,531,647 256,770,265 1861-1865 i 11.069,359 34,171,187 188.891,816 1866-1870 ! 16,405,155 34.920,511 351.278,287 1871-1875 . .. 1 22,730,065 40,376,374 464,713,827 20,1-22,967 1 .53,843,026 Total agricultural export, 1879, $604,156,492. ' ^ The advance has been most remarkable ; progress •without a faltering step, except in the period following the great financial depression which resulted from the great monetary crash of 1837, when the exports of cotton greatly declined. The average for the last of these ten periods is nearly ten times that of the first. As showing the Immense proportions to which agriculture has grown, we present a general summary, showing the estimated quantities, number of acres, and aggregate value of the principal crops of the farm in 1879: Products. Number of bushels, etc. Number ot acres. Value. Indian com, bu 1,547,901,790 448,756,630 23,639,460 363,761,320 40,283,100 18,140,000 181,626,400 53,085,450 32,545,950 1,625,450 12,683,500 1,680,700 639,900 1,836,800 $580,488,217 497,030,142 15,507,431 Oats, bn Barley bu 120,533,294 23,714,444 Buckwheat, bu Potatoes, bn 7,858,191 79,153,673 Total 2,619,108,700 104,097,750 492,100 27,484,991 12,595,500 1,324,281,392 Tobacco, lbs Hay, tons 391,278,850 35,493,000 5,261,202 22,727,524 830,804,494 242,140,987 Cotton, bales 450 lbs. 144,670,341 1,919,954,897 What has brought all this about? It is the com- plete and general system of education in our country by which every child is enabled to glean current facts relating to his profession as fast as they come up. It is the perfection of ma- chinery and the improvement of stock; this added to a fertile soil has enabled the agriculture of to-day to keep pace with the growing events of a teeming and increasing population. It has enabled the farmer of the United States not only to supply the demand at home, but to send abroad yearl}' the vast surplus of every kind which is accumulated from year to year. Science has enabled the farmer to plow his gi'ound, sow his seed, cultivate his crops, harvest his grain, and make it ready for the stook, thresh, winnow, and send it to the market by the mere act of superintending machines, which do the work like so many creatures of intelligence. He mows his grass, makes it into hay, rakes it into windrows, cocks or loads it directly on the wagon, stacks or puts it in the barn, and even does the heavy work of feeding, entirely by machinery. Water is pumped for his stock and canied Into his house by the agency of wind and steam. He digs drains, lays tile, makes roads, .subsoils and trench-plows his land; and plants, hauls, and grinds his grain ; prepares fodder for, and feeds it to his stock; pumps, saws, and threshes; spades and hoes; loads and unloads; stacks his hay and straw, and does an infinity of other work besides, by the power of automatic sinews of iron and steel How? By the power of mind applied to the direction of material forces ; by true knowledge of cause and effect ; in a word, by science. And yet, if asked the ques- tion to-daj', it is highly probable that a majority would laugh at any intimate relation between science and agriculture. And yet modern agri- culture rests upon all science, chemistry being its corner stone and intelligence the power which applies it to agriculture. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. Some years since the editor carefully prepared a digest of his ideas on education to the industries, in which he held to the Socratian doctrine, that a AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 34 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION child should be taught in youth that which he was to practice in age ; and, also, to the Divine precept, train up a child in the way he should go, and when he is old' he will not depart from it. It was a subject that had long interested thinking men, and at the time spoken of a number of ag- ricultural colleges were in operation, under the law of Congress, granting lands for the endow- ment, and others were projected. The law was broad enough in its conception to include all the industries, and also. military tactics. In the for- mation of some offttheso schools of industrial education, it wafe sought to carry them directly back into the grooves of the old scholastic sys- tem. There was a long and bitter strife over the matter, and particularly in Illinois, which State was among the foremost in urging forward the new system of education, and in bringing it prop erly before the people. It is now generally con- ceded that to the persistent and continued efforts made by the true friends of industrial education, is due the fact that these colleges have been kept proximately near the mark originally intended for them. That is, to give a different education to the youth than that of the ordinary literary colleges — one founded upon the sciences under- lying art. Our higher schools of learning had hei-etofore educated their students in an undevi- ating groove — the classics. Science had but lit- tle place in our colleges, except a smattering of some of the principles obtained from text-books. When the student left college, if indeed, it had not so far unfitted him for labor in agriculture and the mechanic arts as to render these disgust- ing, he had to unlearn much that he had acquired, and begin again — a self-education. Here was where, as far back as 1850, such men as Presi- dent Way land, of Brown University; Bishop Potter, of Pennsylvania; Washington Irving, Governor Hunt and Senator Dix, of New York; President Hitchcock, of Amherst Col- lege ; Profs. Webster, Dewey, Henry and Bache ; Prof. Mitchell, of Cincinnati; Prof. Pierce, of Cambridge; and that persistent wheel-horse of agricultural education in the West, Prof. Jona- than B. Turner, of Jacksonville, 111., aided by Bronson Murray, John Gage, Smiley Shepherd, John Davis (now of Kansas) and others, had been preparing the public mind for years to the importance of education, grounded upon science rather than upon letters. At length a conven- tion was called in 1851, at Greenville, 111., at which this question was fully discussed. Two of the resolutions there adopted were as follows ; Besolved^ That, as the representatives of the industrial classes, including all cultivators of the soil, artisans, mechanics and merchants, we desire the same privileges and advantages for ourselves, our fellows and our pos' terity, in each of our several pursuits and callings, as our professional brethren enjoy in theirs; and we admit that it is our own fault that we do not also enjoy them. Besolved, That, in our opinion, the institutions origin- ally and primarily designed to meet the wants of the pro- fessional classes, as such can not, in the nature of things, meet ours, any more than the institutions we desire to estahlish for ourfaelves could meet theirs. The next resolution provided that immediate steps be taken for the establishment of a univer- sity, expressly to meet the wants of each and all the industrial classes in the State. It was also recommended to found high schools, lyceums, institutes, etc. , in each county, on similar princi- ples, so soon as it might be practicable to do so. At this convention Prof. Turner, in an ex- haustive address, unfolded an elaborate plan for the establishment of a State University, which was subsequently made the ground-work upon which the act of endowment by the United States, and the law regulating the Industrial University of Illinois, were founded. A second convention was held at Springfield, 111., June 8, 1852. On this occasion there was a prolonged controversy, forced upon the convention by the representatives of a few of the old classical and theological colleges, who had been admitted by courtesy to participate in the debate. As is usual with many of this class, they consumed the greater part of the time without making much, if any, impression for good on the minds of their auditors. These advocates of the col- leges just named desired to be themselves made the custodians of, and instruments through which, the funds of the State should be applied to the education of the industrial classes. This the representatives of these classes then and since, in all their conventions, have unanimously and steadfastly opposed. It was fitill fought for after the law of Congress endowed a more practical system of colleges ; and when the masses thought they had finally beaten the scholiasts, and had secured the fund to the uses of those for whom it was intended, they soon found that their foe had only been beaten off to come up again in another form. A third ( jnvontion was held at Chicago, November 24, 1852, at which it was resolved to establish an Industrial League of the State of Illinois, which was subsequently chartered by the legislature. The League was empowered to raise a fund to defray various expenses as, first, to disseminate information, both written and printed; second, to keep up concert of action among the friends of the industrial classes ;■ and third, to employ lecturers to address citizens in all parts of the State. At this convention much important business was transacted ; many helpful methods and useful aims were presented, and many interesting ideas elaborated. Prof. J. B. Turner was appointed Principal Director of the League, and John Gage, Bronson Murray, Dr. L. S! Pennington, J. T. Little and William A. Rennel, Associate Directors. The conven- tion was harmonious throughout, the members having wisely decided to exclude those profes- sional educators who had no practical knowledge of the wants of the industrial classes. The most noteworthy action of this convention, h6wever, was the passage of a resolution to memorialize Congress for the purpose of obtaining a grant of public lands to establish and endow industrial colleges in each and every State of the Union. Thus, was finally brought forth a definite plan of action, which immediately took firm hold of many leading minds throughout the country, consolidating, in valuable degi'ee, persistent and unselfish efforts which had previously been more or less scattered. A fourth convention was held at Springfield, III, on the 4th of July, 1853, at which the duties of the members and terms of oflice of officers of the League were fixed. Nev- ertheless, the important business of this conven- tion was the preparation of a memorial — this time to the legislature — setting forth in the strongest light, facts, figures, and arguments, to show the great need of a thorough and systematic education of (he masses to the industries they wouldi follow in after life. The following ex- tracts from this, memorial will show the animus and tenor of the work . We need the same AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION thorough and practical application of knowledge to our pursuits that the learned professions enjoy in theu-s through their universities and their'lit- erature, schools and libraries, that have grown out of them. For, even though knowledge may exist, it is perfectly powerless until properly ap- plied; and we have not the means of applying it. What sort of generals and soldiers would all our national science (and art) make, if we had no military academies to take that knowledge and apply it directly and specifically to military life? Are our classic universities, our law, medicine and divinity schools, adapted to make good gen- erals and warriors? Just as well as they are to make farmers and mechanics, and no better. Is the defense, then, of our resources of more actual consequence than their production? Why then, should the State care for the one and neglect the other? It was shown that only one in 260 of the population of the State were, in 1853, engaged in professional life, and not one in 200 in the Union, generally; and that a very great proportion, even of these, never enjoyed the advantages of classical and professional schools. Further, there were, in the United States, 225 principal universities, colleges, seminaries and schools, devoted wholly to the interest of the professional classes, besides many smaller ones, while there was not a single one, with liberal en- dowments, designed for the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes. It said: No West Point, as yet, beams upon the horizon of hope ; true, as yet, our boundless resources keep us, like the children of Japhet emigrating from the ark, from the miserable degradation and want of older empires; but the resources themselves lie all undeveloped in some directions, wasted and misapplied in others, and rapidly vanishing away as centuries roll onward, under the unskill- fulness that directs them. We, the members of the industrial classes, are still compelled to work empirically and bUndly, without needful books, schools, or means, by the slow process of that individual experience that lives and dies with the man. Our professional brethren, through thfir universities, schools, teachers, and libraries, combine and concentrate the practical experience of ages and each man's life. We need the same. We seek no novelties. We desire no new prin- ciples We only wish to apply to the great in terest of the common schools and the industrial classes precisely the same principles of men- tal discipline and thorough, scientific, practical instruction, in their pursuits and interests, which are now applied to the professional and military classes. We would, therefore, respectfully peti- tion the honorable Senate and House of Repre- sentatives of the State of Illinois, that they pre- sent a united- memorial to the Congress now as- sembled at Washington, to appropriate to each State in the Union an amount of public lands not less in value than $500,000, for the liberal endowment of a system of industrial universi- ties, one in each State in the Union, to cooperate with each other and with the Smithsonian Insti- tute at Washington, for the more liberal and practical education of our industrial classes and their teachers, in their various pursuits; for the production of knowledge and literature needful in those pursuits, and developing, to the fullest and most perfect extent, the resources of our soil and our arts, the virtue and intelligence of our people, and the true glory of our common | 25 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION country. The result of these labors was a series of strong resolutions, adopted by the legislature of Illinois, to Congress, of which the following is important: liesolyea. By the House of Representatives, the Senate concurring herein, tbat our Senators in Congress be in- structed, and our Representatives he requested, to use their hest exertions to procure the passage of a law of Con<»iess donating to each State in the Union an amount of public lands not less in value than $5 0,000, for the liberal en- dowment of a system of industrial-universities, one in each Slate in the Union, lo coflperate with each other and with the Smithsonian Institijte at Washington for the more liberal and practical eduStion of our industrial classes and tbeirteacliers-aliberal and varied education —adapted to the manifold wants of a practical and enter- prising people; and a provision for such educational facil- ities being in manifest concurrence with the intimations of the popular will, it urgently demands the united efforts of our national strength. A Jesolution was also passed by the legisla- ture inviting the executive and legislatures of the other States to unite with Illinois to cooperate in the effort to induce popular in- dustrial education. Meanwhile the friends of industrial education East had not been idle, as the following extracts from the history of the subject will show: The New York Tribune, of February 26, 1853, said: Here is the principle contended for by the friends of practical educa- tion abundantly confirmed, with a plan for its immediate realization. And it is worthy of note, that one of the most extensive of public-land (or new) States proposes a magnificent donation of public lands to each of the states, in furtherance of this idea. Whether that precise form of aid to the project is most judicious, and likely to be effective, we will not here consider. Suffice it that the legislature of Illinois has taken a noble step forward, in a most liberal and patriotic spirit, for which its members will be heartily thanked by thousands throughout the Union. We feel that this step has materially hastened the coming of scientific and practical education for all who desire, and are willing to work for it. It can not come too soon. Governor Hunt, of New York, in his annual message to the legis- lature of that State, used the following language : Much interest has been manifested for some years past in favor of creating an institution for the advancement of agricultural science, and of knowledge in mechanical arts. The views in favor of this measure, expressed in my last an- nual communication, remain unchanged. My impressions are still favorable to the plan of combining in one college two distinct depart- ments for instructions in agi-iculture and me- chanical sciences. I would respectfully recom- mend that a sufficient portion of the proceeds of the next sale of lands for taxes be appropriated to the erection of an institution, which shall stand as a lasting memorial of our munificence, and contribute to the diffusion of intelligence among the producing classes, during all future time. Hon. Marshall P. Wilder, of Boston, in advocating this system of education before the Berkshire Agricultural Society of Massachusetts, held that : For want of knowledge, millions of dollars are now annually lost to the common- wealth, by the mis-application of capital and labor industry. On these points we want a sys- tem of experiments directed by scientific knowl- edge. Are they not important to our farmers? Neither the agricultural papers, periodicals or societies, or any other agents now in operation, are deemed suflicient for all that are desirable: AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION We plead that the means and advantages of a professional education should be placed within the reach of our farmers. This would not only- he one of the most important steps ever taken by the commonwealth for its permanent ad- vancement and prosperity, but would add another wreath to her renown for the protection of our industry and elevation of her sons Rev. Dr. Hitchcock, President of Amherst College, while advocating the endowments of such institutions before the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture (1851), testified as follows: 1 have been a lec- turer on chemistiy for twenty years. I have tried a great many experiments in that time, but I do not know of any experiments so delicate or so difficult as the farmer is trying every week. The experiments of the laboratory are not to be compared to them. You have a half dozen sciences which are concerned in the operation of a farm. There is to be a delicate balancing of all these, as every farmer knows. To suppose that a man is going to be able, without any knowledge of these sciences, to make improve- ments in agriculture by hap-hazard experiments, is, it seems to me, absurd. A general conven- tion on the subject of a national system of practical university education, was held at Al- bany, January 26, 1853. This convention was numerously attended by some of the most illus- trious men of the country, including many dis- tinguished educators, scientists and divines. A committee of twenty-one was appointed to report a plan of action. Rev. Dr. Kennedy spoke of the want that had long been felt for institu- tions different from those already established. Prof. C. S. Henry insisted that the welfare of our country was, in a great degree, dependent upon what should be done in regard to the pro- posed university. Rev. Ray Palmer said there was lack of opportunity for scientific men to perfect themselves in their various pursuits, and desired that this want should be supplied to all parts of the country. Rev. Dr. Wykofl! consid- ered that the first desideratum to the establish- ment of the institution was a conviction of its Importance. When the souls of men are fired up, the money will not be wanting. He believed that the proper spirit was abroad — a feeling that would redound to the honor and benefit of the people, and that the work would be done. The enterprise was one for the masses. It would ■open the path of knowledge for all the youth in the land; and, from the common school to the highest university, he would like to see our educational institutions thrown open to all. Prof. Henry said that he would bid the en terprise God speed! He deprecated the idea of attempting to establish a university at a moderate outlay. One fitted for the wants of this country should throw open its lecture rooms freely, to all who might wish to avail themselves of their advantages. It should be the complete develop- ment of the principle which lies at the founda- tion of our common schools. Rev. President Wayland expressed the belief that such an estab- lishment in New York would be an example, which, he believed, would be followed in other States. A university with a thousand students would abundantly sustain itself, and he thought the needed expense would not be so great as some gentlemen anticipated. Did these gentle- men know anything about the subject of prac- tical education in America V Said the lamented 26 .A.QRICULTURAL EDUCATION Downing, the father of rural art in this country, in the last number which he edited of the Horti- culturist : The leaven for the necessity for edu- cation among the industrial classes begin to work, we are happy to perceive, in many partsj / of the country. Spealdng of the plan of Prof. ' Turner, he said: It is not often that the weak points of an ordinary collegiate education are so clearly exposed, and the necessity of workingmen's universities so plainly demon- strated. This was in July, 1853. Before the article was published this preeminent master of horticultural art and science was lost in the ill- fated steamer, Henry Clay. An editorial in the North American (the oldest paper in Philadel- phia) on education and agriculture, said to be written by Judge Conrad, said- To secure the diffusion and practical application of agricultural science, it seems necessary that it should be interwoven with general education, and its acqui- sition made an object of early pride and animated ambition. The triumph of a republic can only be successfully achieved and permanently en- joyed by a people, the mass of whom are an enlightened yeomanry, the proprietors of the land they till, too independent to be bought, too enlightened to be cheated, and too powerful to be crushed. Said Dr. Lee, the talented editor of the Southern Cultivator, the leading monthly periodical of the southern planting interest, published at Augusta, Georgia, in reply to a let- ter inquiring for some practical agricultural school for the sons of the planters (which letter he published as a fair sample of scores of sim- ilar letters received every month): There is not a good agricultural school 'in the United States. The truth is, the American people have yet to commence the study of agriculture as the combination of many sciences. Agriculture is the most profound and extensive profession that the progress of society and the accumulation of knowledge have developed among mankind. This is why the popular mind is so long in grasp- ing it. Whether we consider the solid earth under our feet, the invisible atmosphere which we breathe, the wonderful growth and decay^of all plants and animals, or the light, the heat, the cold, the electricity of heaven — we contem- plate but the elements of rural science. The careful investigation of the laws that govern all ponderable and unponderable agents is the first step in the young farmer's education. To facili- tate his studies, he needs, as he preeminently deserves, a more comprehensive school than this country now affords. From the time of the general awakening on the subject of industrial education, the discussion of the subject was kept prominently before the people of the United States. This eventuated in the introduction of several bills into Congress, most of which fell still-born. One of them, however, successfully ran the gauntlet of Congressional opposition, only to be strangled in the very last stages of law making. The following is a brief summary of the matter; On the 14th of December, 1857. a bill was introduced i'nto the House of Repre- sentatives by Hon. Justin S. Morrill, of Ver- mont, who was at that time Chairman of the Committee on Agriculture, to appropriate a por- tion of the public land to the several States for the purpose of founding colleges for the ad- vancement of agriculturfd and mechanical edu- cation. Great opposition was manifested to the AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION bill at once, and instead of being referred to the Committee on Agricultm-e, where it should legitimately have gone, it was referred to that ■on Public Lands. There it was held four months, when the Chairman of that Committee, Mr. Cobb, of Alabama, reported upon it ad- versely. Notwithstanding this, the subject was earnestly discussed by the House, and the bill finally passed by a small majority. The Senate reached it in the winter of 1859, when it was strong^ly advocated by Senators Wade, Harlan and Stuart, and as determinedly opposed by Senators Davis, llason and Pugh Subsequently, it was passed bj- a majority of two and went to the President,— Mr. Buchanan, — who, with ^reat alacrity, returned it with his \'eto The same bill was again introduced into the Senate in 1862, by Mr. Wade, was favorably reported by Mr. Harlan, and was passed on the 10th of June, by the decisive vote of thirty-two to seven. From thence the bill went to the House, where on the 17th of June, it was passed by the equally deci ive vote of ninet}' to twenty-five. It was approved by President Lincoln, and on the second day of July became a law. So much has been said "and argued by the various minds who have endeavored to interpret this law, that It will not be out of place here to give this bill, and the amendment to the fifth section in full, so that every reader of this work may judge for himself what was the true intent and meaning -of this act for the education of the masses to Industrial pursuits. The text of the act of Con- gress, donating public lands to the several States ^nd Territories which may provide colleges for the benefit of agriculture and the mechanic arts is as follows . Be It evacted by the Sevate and House of Rppresenta- lires of the Uniled States of America, in Congress assem- bled. That there be granted to the several Slates, for the purposes hereinafter mentioned, an amount of public land, to be apportioned to each State, in quantity equal to 30,000 acres for each Senator and Representative in Congress to which the States are respectively entitled by the apportionment under the census of 1860: ProrideU, That no mineral lands shall be selected or purchased under the provisions oi this act. § 2. And be it further enacted. That the land aforesaid, after being surveyed, shall he apportioned to the several States in sections or sub-divisions of sections not less than one quarter of a section: and whenever there are public lands in a State, subject to sale at private entry, at one dollar and twenty-five cents per acre, the quantity to which said State shall be entitled, shall be selected from such lands, within the limits of such state; and the Secretary of the Interior is hereby directed to issue to each -of the States, in which there is not the quantity of public lands subject to sale at private entry, at one dollar and twenty-five cents per acre, to which said State may be eniitled under the provisions of this act, land scrip to the amount in acres for the deficiency of its distributive share ; said scrip to be sold by said States, aud the proceeds thereof applied to the uses and purposes prescribed in this act, and for no other use and purpose whatsoever: Provided, That in n'» case shall any State to which land scrip may thus be issued, be allowed to locate the same within the limits of any other Slate, or of any Territories of the Utiited States; but their assignees may thus locate said land scrip, upon any of the unappropriated lands of the United States subj' ct to sale at private entry, at one dollar and twenty-five cents or less per acre. And pro- rAde I, further. That not more than one million acres shall be located by such assignees in any one of the States: And provideit, further. That no such locations shall be made before one year from the passage of this act. § 3. And be it further enacted. That all expenses of management, superintendence, and taxes from date of selection of said lands previous to their sales, and all ■expenses incurred in the management and disbursement of the moneys which may be received therefrom, shall be paid by the States to wh'ch they may belong, out of the treasury of said States, so that the entire proceeds of the «iilc of said lands shall be applied, withoutanyiiiminntion Tvhatcver. to the purposes hereinafter muntioued. 27 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION § 4. ^7?(/6ez//«?'Me;'^/?aWea!, That all moneys derived from the sale of lands aforesaid, by the States to which the lands are apportioned, and from the sales of land scrip hereinbefore provided for, shall be invested in Stocks of the United States, or of the States, or some other safe stoclsie, yielding not less than five per cent, upon the par value of said stocks; and that the money so invested shall constitute a perpetual fund, the capital of which shall remain forever undiminished (except so far as may be provided in section fifth of this act), and the interest of which shall be inviolably appropriated by eat-h State, which may take and claim the benefit of this act, to the enriowment, support and maintenance of, at least, one college, where the leadingobjectsballbe— without exclud- ing other scientific and classical studies, and including military tactics— to teach sucb branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts, in eucn man- ner as the legislatures of tbe States may respectively prescribe, in order to promote tbe liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions in life. § 5. AndbeU further enacted, That tbe grant of laud and scrij) hereby authorized, shall be made on the follow- ing conditions, to which, as well as to the provisions here- inbefore contained, tbe previous assi-nt of the several States shall be signified by legishilive acts: First-If any portion of the fund invested, as provided by the foregoing section, or any portion of the interest thereon, shall, by any action oi- contingency, be dimin- ished or lost, it shall be replaced by the State to which it belongs, so that the capital of the fund shall remain for- ever undiminished: and the annual interest shall be regularly applied without diminution to the purposes mentioned in tbe fourth section of this act, except that a sum. not exceeding ten per centum ujion the amount received by any State under the provisions of this act, maybe expended for the purchase of lands for sites or experimental farms, whenever authorized by the respec- tive legislatures of said States. Second — No portion of said fund, nor the interest thereon, shall be applied, directly or indirectly, under any pretense whatever, to the purchase, erection, preser- vation or repair of any building or buildings. Third— Any State which may take and claim the benefit of the provisions of this act, shall provide, within five years, at least not less than one ci 'liege, as presci-ibed in the fourth section of this act, or tins grant to such State shall cease; and said Stati' shall be bound to pay the United States the amount received of any lands previoiiisly sold, and that tbe title to purchasers under ihe State shaJ be valid. Fourth— An annual report shall be made regarding the progress of each college, recoiding any improvementB and experiments made, with their cost and results, and such other matters, including Siate industrial and economical statistics, as may be supposed useful ; one copy of which shall be transmitted by mail free, by each, to all the other colleges which maybe endowed under the provisions of this act, and also one copy to the Secretary of tbe Interior. Fifth— Wh' n lands shall be selected f i om those which have been raised to d(uible the minimum price in con- sequence of railroad grants, they shall be computed to the States at the maximum price, and the number of acres proportionally diminished. Sixth— No State, while in a condition of rebellion or insurrection against the government of tbe United States, shall be entitled to the benefits of this net. Seventh ' No State shall be entitled to the benefits of this net, unless it shall express its acceptance th- reof by its legislature within two years from the date of the ap- proval by the President. § 6. And fje if. far l/ier enacted. That lIE]Sr entirely hardy, and anywhere it can not be consid- ered a tree of special value for extensive planting. AILANTHUS GLANDULOSA, or glandu- lous ailanthus, has the calyx five-toothed ; petals five, inserted with the ten stamens under a hy pogy- nous disk : carpels three to five, samaroid, tumid in the centre, one-celled and one-seeded. Stigmas capitate, radiatelyflve-lohed. Flowers dioeciously polygamous. The leaves are odd pinnate, leaf- lets oblong — lanceolate, acuminate, coarsely den- tate at base, with a gland on the under side of each tooth. Darlington, in AVeeds and Useful Plants, says of it; Stem, thirty to sixty feet or more high, much branched ; young branches never multiply- ing during growth, but developed only from the buds of the preceding year. Leaves (on young trees especially) much elongated and consisting of many pairs (fifteen to twenty) of smooth leaf- lets, which are three to five inches in length and entire, except a pair or two of coarse teeth at base. Flowers pale greenish yellow. Cultivated as a shade tree, and native of China. AIR. (See Atmosphere.) AIRA. The genus of hair grasses. They are perennial, usually grown in wet places, and are of little moment in agiiculture. AIR, AM) THE GROWTH OF CROPS. The importance of air as an agent in the growth of crops is but little known by the majority of farmers. The action of the oxygen of the air in connection with heat and moisture causes the seed to germinate, and during the whole growth of the plant, air is essential to growth and the proper ripening of the .'ieed. For this rea.sou the ground is required to be kept mellow ; for this reason we cultivate often and thoroughly, and to enable the soil to become aerated, we break the crust as often as it is fonned. As showing the importance of air in the soil, a series of experi- ments made some years ago exhibits tlie agency of air and carbonic acid gas in the growth of crops. These experiments were made with three ! glass vessels, in depth two and a half feet, which were filled with soil of a like character, and planted in oats and peas. They grew 110 days, and then the plants, with their roots, were taken out and dried and their ashes analyzed, and the soluble mineral substances ascertained that were left in the soil. In one of these vessels no air was introduced ; in another, it was by a hole in this bottom of the vessel; and in the third one, air and carbonic gas by the same means. The result is as follows, the estimates being made for the acre: Experiment without additional sup- ply of air — quantit}' of dry plants, in pounds, per acre — oat plants, 1,560; pea plants, 688; roots of both, 108. Soluble mineral substances, in pounds, per acre — in the ashes of the plants, 208 ■. left in the soil, 608. Experiment with supply of air — quantity of dry plants, in pounds, per acre — oat plants, 3,060; pea plants, 984; roots of both,lo3. Soluble mineral substances, in pounds, per acre — in the ashes of the plants, 380; left in the soil, 1,104. Experiment with supply of air and car bonic gas — quantity of dry plants, in pounds, per acre — oat plants, 3,396; pea plants, 1,304; roots of both, 240. Soluble mineral substances, in pounds, per acre — in ashes of plants, 448 ; left in the soil, 1,548. These experiments exhibit the important action of an- and carbonic gas in the growth of vegetable matter- The first increased the plants in size about eighty per cent. ; the min- eral substances in the plants about eighty per cent., and the soluble minerals left iu the soil about eighty per cent. The" carbonic gas in- crea.sed the growth of plants over that caused bj' air alone about tliirty per cent. ; the mineral sub- stances absorbed by the plant thirty-five per cent. , and the soluble minerals left in the soil about sev- enty-five per cent. The element of the air which causes such important action is its oxygen. It is the great destroyer either by rapid burning or by slow decay. It is this which, uniting with the wood of plants, turns it into carbonic gas. It aids in rendering soluble the insoluble minerals of the soil; that is, it so changes them that they dis- solve in water and are carried b}' it into the roots of the plants. Hence it is the great destroyer of the mould of the soil, as before stated, turning it into carbonic gas, and thus making it useful to form new vegetable growths. By retiu'ning tlie.se to the soil we increase the amount of the mould, for in addition to the amount of carbonic gas they have derived from the old mould, they have received much from the atmasphere. AIR CELLS. In plants, enlarged cavities in the cellular tissue, to produce buoyancy' in aquatic plants. In birds, membranous cavities communicating with the lungs, and tra\'ersiiig all parts of the bird, even to the interior of the bones and quills. In some insects the air vessels are enlarged into cells. AIK PLANTS. Those which grow without striking their roots into the S(,il. The}' usuallj- derive sustenance from other plants. Orchids are air plants. AIR PUMP. A pump for removing air to produce a vacuum. The principle is simple. The essential part of the machine consists of an exhausting syringe formed of a tube or barrel of brass, closed at one end, with the exception of a small orifice, to which a valve, opening inward, is attached . An air-tight piston is worked in the barrel. The piston has also an orifice with a ^'alve, which opens upward, or in the sanu? di- rection as the valve of the tulie. The syringe communicates, bj- means of a small pipe fitted into the opening at its lower extremity, with a vessel (receiver) from which the air is to be ex- tracted. The principle is applied wherever a vacuum is to be produced. In agiiculture the air-pump is used as a portion of the machinery attached to the vaccuum pan in condensing the juice of the cane or other saccharine plants, in the manufacture of sugar. ALBUMEN. A substance occurring in the blood and nerves of animals, in the eggs of birds, and in grains and vegetables, in almost exactly identical composition. These we give, and also that of fibrin and casein, as follows . Albumen dif- fers from fat in its composition, having the four elements— carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen — while fat contains but three. All the organs of the bodies of animals contain these four elements, and food must necessarilj' contain them to lie nutritious. We find the carbonaceous foods to be fat-producing or heat-giving. The nutritious foods containing the four elements are called nitrogenous or flesh-forming foods. They are al I included in the three forms, albumen, fibrin and casein, which contain the four elements in nearly the same proportions. When we consider that albumen, or at least the group of which it is ii member, is one of the constituents of food with- out which young animals can not thrive, that it ALBUMEN 33 ALCOHOL the milk of animals, we shall see the importance and necessity of food containing largely of the so- called protein compounds, especially for young and growing animals. Boussingault gives the results of analysis performed by Messrs. Dumas and Cahours to prove this fact, as follows : ALBUMEN Name. Animal. Vegetable. Carbon 53..') 7.1 23.6 15.8 53.7 7 1 23.5 15 7 100.0 100.0 Fibrin is the principal element of which the mus- cles of animals are formed ; it also forms the clot and globules in blood. Like albumen, fibrin is found in vegetables in nearly identical composi- tion with that of animals. Analysis shows : FIBRIN. Name. Animal. Vegetable. Carton 52.8 7.0 23.7 lti.5 53 2 7.0 Oxvgen 23.4 Nitrogen. . ... 16.4 100.0 100.0 Casein is found in the milk of mammals, and is identical with that called legumen, of the legu- minous seeds, such as beans, peas, etc. , in which it exists more abundantly than in milk itself. Analysis shows the composition of the animal and vegetable casein to be also nearly identical : CASEIN. N ame. Animal. Vegetable. 53.5 7.0 23.7 15.8 53.5 7.1 23.4 >Iitrogen 16.0 1 100.0 ino.o Again, we see that the composition of albumen, fibrin and casein, is nearly similar, and that they contain a large percentage of that important and scarce element in agriculture, as well as neces- sary constituents in all plants and animals. Al- bumen abounds in bone, muscle, the mem- brane of shells, sponges and cartilage, the nails, claws, horns and hoofs. The horns of ani- mals are almost entirely composed of it. Albu- men is found in the fluid state in the serum of blood and the whites of eggs. In the moist state it easily putrefies in the presence of heat and air and coagulates at about 180° Fahrenheit. Dry, it is a transparent, brittle substance, resist- ing decay. Many plants contain notable quanti- ties of albumen, and the juice of all plants con- tain more or less, being found in all their parts as necessary to growth. The accumulation ends in the seeds, the cereal and leguminous grains being especially rich in albumen. Besides car- bon, oxygen and hydrogen, albumen contains from fifteen to eighteen per cent, of nitrogen, a small quantity of sulphur, and sometimes phos- phorus. The albuminoids are both soluble and insoluble in water. The insoluble albuminoids sometimes occur in both plants and animals. When purified it resembles white, flocky, lumpy or fibrous bodies, without taste or odor. ALBURNUM. The sap wood lying between the inner bark and heart wood (Duramen). It is usually of a different color, and much more per- ishable than the heart wood. ALCOHOL. Spirits of wine. It is formed during the vinous fermentation. The pure spirit has a specific gravity of 0.793, and consists, chemically, of C4, He, O2. It is present in brandy, whisky and strong spirits, to the extent of fifty per cent. , twenty-five per cent, in strong wines, ten per cent, in cider and ales, and six per cent, in beer. It is of great use in the laboratory as a solvent of rosins, etc., and for the hot flames it produces when burned in lamps. The history of alcohol is as follows -. Alcohol is the name first given by the alchemists to the liquid obtained by the distillation of wine, beer and other fermented spirits. These seem to have been known in the earliest ages. Noah, who planted a vineyard, drank wine, and the heathen writers deemed the invention worthy of being ascribed to their greatest kings and heroes. Beer, there is little doubt, was invented by the Egyptians. They certainly used it in the days of Herodotus. The Germans drank it extensively when Tacitus wrote. These were probaby the purest varieties of alcohol then generally made, although they were known in the dark ages, and it is probable have been employed in the north of Europe from a very remote period. The process, however, of separating the impure alcohol from these is verj' easy; upon subjecting the wine or "wash" to a moderate heat, the spirit arises, and is easily collected in a worm surrounded by cool water. It is in this way that gin is procured from the distillation of fermented barley or other grain, rum from molasses, brandy from wine. It must not be supposed, however, that the product of these distillations is pure alcohol, for even the strongest brandy contains between forty and fifty per cent, of water. 1 he first who procured alcohol in a state of tolerable purity is supposed to have been Arnold, of Villa Nova, a celebrated alchemist of the fourteenth century. When impure alcohol is concentrated by repeated dis- tillations, and by mixing it with some salt, like the salt of tartar, that has a strong attraction for water, it gradually parts with a considerable por- tion of its water and becomes reduced in specific gravity to about 0.820; that of commerce, however, is rarely of less specific gravity than 0.8371. At the greatest strength, however, at which it has been observed, such as that of 792, which M. Lowitz obtained by repeatedly distilling rectified spirits from potash, it pos- sesses the following properties : it is transparent, colorless, of a strong, agreeable, penetrating taste, and produces, when swallowed, intoxica- tion. It does not freeze, even by exposure to the most intense cold; it is very volatile, boiling at 176° of Fahrenheit, and m a vacuum at 56°. It unites with water in all proportions, and is entirely combustible — burning without leaving any residuum. It is, however, not found in commerce pure, since the cost of making it chemically so is too expensive. Hence it is never found pure, except when wanted for special scientific purposes. Alcohol, according ALDERNEY CATTLE 33 ALDERNEY CATTLE to the analysis of M. Saussure, is composed as follows : Hydrogen 13.70 ■Carbon 51.98 Oxygen 34.33 ioo.oo The following table will show the ordinary pro- portion of alcohol per cent, by measure in various fluids, according to the experiments of Prof. Brande : Constantia 17.75 Tent 13.30 Slieraz 15.52 Syracuse 15.28 Nice 14.ii3 Tokay 9.88 Kaisln 2.j.77 Grape 18.11 Currant 20.55 Gooseberry 11 .84 Elder 9.87 Cider 9.87 Perry 9.87 Brown Stout 6.80 Ale 8.88 Brandy .5/1.39 Rum 53.08 Hollands or Gin 51.60 Port ..12.10 19 34 . . 18.25 ...12.91 Lisbon ...18.94 Malaga ...17.26 Red Madeira ..18.40 Malmsly Madeira... ...16.40 Ked Champagne.... ..ll.iO White Champagne. . ...12.S0 Burgundy ...14.53 Hock . ..11..S7 Vinde Grave ...12.80 Ifrontignac . . .12.79 Coti-Roti ...12.32 Roussillon ...17.26 Cape Madeira ...18.11 Cape MuBChat ...18.25 The spirits distilled from different fermented liquors, says Davy, differ in their flavor, for peculiar odorous matters or oils rise in most cases with the alcohol. The spirit from malt usually has an empyreumatic taste, like t^at of ■oil formed by the distillation of vegetable sub- .stauces. The best brandies seem to owe their flavor to a peculiar oily matter, formed probably "by the action of tartaric acid upon alcohol ; and rum derives its characteristic taste from a prin- ciple in the sugar cane. The cogniac brandies contain pmssic acid. ALDER. Shrubs of the genus Alnus, which is closely allied to the birch. The common swamp alder is the A. surrulata. The A . glauca (Black Alder) is used by dyers for the production of a black. ALDERNEY CATTLE. Jersey or channel cattle, are natives of the islands belonging to England, lying in the British channel about twelve miles from France. The largest of the .group (Jersey) is about twelv^ miles long by five in breadth, and here the largest number and the best of these distinctive and excellent milk- ing cows — if we consider them purely for the richness of the milk in cream and butter — are now produced. Hence they are now generally known as Jerseys. 0{ late years strict attention to purity of blood and careful selection have rend- ered this breed of cattle quite uniform in their characteristics, and in breeding to type, although •one may infer that up to Yonatt's time little attention was paid to their breeding, since this careful writer bestows but little space upon their history. Briefly stated, they were carried to the channel islands long ago from Normaiidy, in France, and in the course of time developed into the peculiar and deer-like race which is now most perfectly fixed. Mr. Louis F. Allen, a careful, usually correct, and a conscientious wri- ter, though apt to form a standard from his favorite Short-horns, describes them with accu- racy as follows: Beginning with the head — the most characteristic feature — the muzzle is fine; the nose either dark brown or black, and occa- sionally a yellowish shade, with a peculiar mealy, light-colored hair, running up the face into a smoky hue, when it gradually takes the feneral color of the body; the face is slightly ishing, clean of flesh, mild and gentle in expression ; the eye clear and full, and encircled with a distinct ring of the color of the nose; the forehead bold; the horn short, curving inward, and waxy in color, with black tips; the ear sizable, thin, and quick in movement. The whole head is original, and blood-like in appear- ance, — more so than in almost any other of the cattle race, — reminding one strongly of the head of our American elk. The neck is .^^omewhat depressed — would be called ewe-necked by some — but clean in the throat, with moderate or little dewlap; the shoulders are wide and somewhat ragged, with prominent points, running down to a delicate arm, and slender legs beneath; the fore-quarters stand rather close together, with a thinnish, yet well developed brisket between; the ribs are flat, yet giving sufficient play for good lungs; the back depressed and somewhat hollow ; the belly deep and large ; the hips tolera- bly wide; the rump and tail high; the loin and quarter medium in length; the thigh thin and deep; the twist wide, to accommodate a clean, good-sized udder; the flanks medium: the hocks or gambrel joints crooked; the hind legs small ; the udder capacious, square, set well forward, and covered with soft, silky hair ; the teats fine, standing well apart and nicely tapering; the milk veins prominent. On the whole she is a homely, blood-like, gentle, useful little housekeeping body, with a most kindly temper. loving to be petted, and, like the pony with the children, readily becomes a great favorite with those who have her about them, either in pasture, paddock, stable or the lawn. The colors are usually light red or fawn, occasionally smoky grey, and sometimes black, mixed or splashed more or less with white. Roan colors, and a more rounded form, are now and then seen among them, but we do not like them (as they savor of a Short-horn cross, which they should not have), as anything but their own blood and figure, and that of the ancient stock, deteriorates them — as Alderneys. The first importation of Jerseys into the United States is said to have been made by the late Nicholas Biddle, of Penn- sylvania. They were coarse, and were probably nearer Guernse3'S than Alderneys or Jerseys. Later, Mr. Roswell Colt, of New Jersey, imported a superior herd Mr. Motley, of Massachusetts, and Mr. Taintor, of Connecticut, also imported superior animals soon after. Subsequent impor- tations of the choicest blood have rendered this breed quite common, and they are pretty gen- erally disseminated throughout the United States. Various attempts have been made in crossing the Jersey with other improved breeds, but the result.': have always proved unsatisfactory. When crossed, however, upon the native mixed stock of the country, it has always resulted in an increase in the richness of the milk, and often in an increased flow. The colors vary mudi in the Jerseys. Fawn color, fawn color and white, yel- low, mouse color, brown, and even almost black are found The bulls are darker than the cows, and the color increases with age, A yellow or fawn-colored calf will sometimes, at one or two years of age, assume so dark a tint as to leave scarcely a trace of the lighter color. The butter from the cows is very rich in cream and deep yellow in color, so much so that a few cows in a herd will decidedly change the color of the ALKALI :j5 ALLUVIUM butter of the whole herd. The percentage of eream to milk varies from eighteen to twenty- five per cent., and the proportion of butter to cream varies from 3. TO to 8.07 in 100 parts. Twenty-six quarts per day has been recorded as the product of an individual cow, and fourteen pounds of butter per week. Sixteen quarts per day may be regarded as a good yield, and when we take into consideration the light weight of the cow, and the fact that the milk will yield from one-quarter to one-sixth of the richest cream, we need not wonder that these gentle and deer-like cattle have become universal favorites as a family cow. (See cut, opposite page.) ALE-HOOF. Ground ivy. ALE MB ' C. A retort with a movable cover or cap, used in chemical manipulations. ALEXANDERS. An umbelliferous plant, formerly cultivated like celery. A.LFALFA. Lucerne; Mcdleafjo fiatini.. Un- der the name Alfalfa this plant has been extciF sively cultivated in some portions of the United States, especially in California, where it consti- tutes one of the important forage crops. It is especially adapted to a dry, gravelly soil, and once established, survives the winter up to the latitude of Central Indiana and Illinois, Northern Missouri and Southern Iowa. It is strictly a jjer- ennial plant. It is also widely known by its French name. Lucerne. Its Spanish name is Alfalfa, and having been originally introduced and cultivated by the Spaniards, in their posses- sions — since ceded to the United States — it has popularly preserved this name with us. It be- longs to the pulse family, and is allied to the clovers, which it somewhat resembles in its growth. The seed, however, is formed in spiral- shaped pods. In Northern ile.xico, Texas, and in California, it is suc- cessfully cultivated, being ctit sev- eral times in a season. Its botanical description is as follows: Root, perennial; stem one and two feet high, branched, smoothi.sli;* leaflets half an inch to an inch long, the lateral ones subsessile, the terminal one petiolulate ; common petiole one- fourth to three-fourths of an inch long. Racemes erect, on peduncles half an inch to an inch long. Corolla, violet purple, nearly twice as long as the caly.x. Introduced ; cultivated. Native of Spain. Flow- ers in June and July; fruits in August. Saint foin (Hedysarum Onohrychis, L., or Ondbryclm mtka, Lam., a plant of the Hedysaruin tribe), is cultivated for fodder on the calcareous soils of Europe. WMSi. The family of sea- weeds and fresh- water weeds {Confer rce) They are cellular and cryptogamic. ALIMENTARY CANAL. The passage from the mouth through the stomach and intestines. ALITRUNCK, ALITRUNCUS. In ento inology, the posterior segment of the thorax of an in.sect to which the abdomen is afl3xed, and which bears the legs, properly so called, or the two posterior pairs, and the wings. ALKALI. A term originally applied to the iishes of plants. The term is now generally used to designate potash, soda, and ammonia. Lime and magnesia are alkali-earths. Potassium, so- dium, lithium and rubidium are alkali metals. The alkali-earths, lime and magnesia, are formed SEED POD OF LUCERNE. by the union of calcium and magnesium with oxygen. According to Heyne and Lenk, the functions of alkalies and alkali-earth is as fol- lows : The organic acids, viz. . oxalic, malic, tartaric, citric, etc., require alkalies and alkali- earths to form the salts which exist in plants, as bitartrate of potash in the grape, oxalate of lime in beet-leaves, malate of lime in tobacco; and without these bases it is, perhaps, in most cases impossible for the acids to be formed, though in the orange and lemon citric acid exists in the uncombined or free state, and in various plants, as Semperdcmn iirboreiim, and Cacalia fimides, acids are formed during the night which disappear in the day. The leaves of these plants are sour in the morning, tasteless at noon, and bitter at night Alkaloids are a class of bodies very numerous in poisonous and medicinal plants, of which they constitute the active prin- ciple. Nicotine, caft'ein and theo-bromin are the three having an agricultural interest, and are described by Johnston in How Crops Grow, as follows, the figures attached to the letters C, H, N, O, designating the relative proportion con- tained of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxy- gen: Nicotine, Cio, Hm, N5, is the narcotic and extremely poisonous principle in tobacco, where it exists in combination with malic and citric acids. In the pure state it is a colorless, oily liquid, having the odor of tobacco in an extreme degree. It is inflammable and volatile, and so deadly that a single drop will kill a large dog. French tobacco contains 7 or 8 per cent., Virginia 6 or 7 per cent., and Maryland and Ha- vana about 3 per cent, of nicotine. Nicotine contains 17.3 per cent, of nitrogen, but no oxygen. CafEein, Cs, Ilin, Nj, Oj, exists in coffee and tea, combined with tannic acid. In the pure state it forms white, silky, fibrous crys- tals, and has a bitter taste. In coffee, it is found to the extent of one-half per cent. ; in tea it oc- curs in much larger quantity, sometimes as high as 6 per cent. Theo-bromin, C7, Hs, N4, O-;, resembles catfein in its characters, and is closely related to it in chemical composition. It is found in the cocoa bean, from which chocolate is manufactured. The alkaloids are remarkable as containing nitrogen, and from having strongly l)asic characters. They derive their designation, alkaloids, from their likeness to the alkalies. ALKALIMETER. A graduated glass tube employed in determining the quantity of i-eal alkali in commercial potash and soda, by the quantity of dilute sulphuric acid of a known strength, which a certain weight of these satu- rates. ALKANET. Andiusa tinctona. The root of this plant, which is a native of the warmer parts of Europe, contains a red resinous coloring mat- ter, which it imparts to alcohol and oils; It is used to tinge some ointments, especially lip- salves, of a red color. ALLANTOIS. A membrane attached to the extremity of the alimentary canal in the f cetus of animals. It contains the cellantoic fluid. ALLUVIUM, or ALLUVION. A term which, in the English language, has no very defined meaning. Some authors use it to designate all those rocks which have been formed by causes now acting on the surface of the earth, including those of volcanic origin ; while others, adhering to the literal meaning of the original term, con- fine its application to deposits, whatever be their ALLUVIUM 36 ALLUVIUM character, that have resulted from inundations. Neither of these definitions convey the same meaning as is usually attached to the word, the one including too much, the other too little. The term is now used in its proper application to designate all those deposits recently formed, or now forming, by the agency of water, whether from an uninterrupted and constant stream, or from casual inundation.s. All streams, lakes, rivers, seas, and the ocean itself, hold a large quantity of earthly matter in mechanical solu- tion, which they deposit in their beds. The character of the sediment is governed by the na- ture of the rocks over which the waters flow; and the quantity depends partly upon the constitution of the rocks, and partly upon the power of the water. If the rock be easily destroyed, andalarge body of water flow over it with a considerable velo- city, the destructive effect will be great, and much worn materials {detritus) being formed, the stream will have a thick and turbid appearance. The same effect is frequently produced by the discharge of a number of tributary streams into a river, all of which accumulate a greater or less quantity of the earths over which they flow. The distribution of water at the present time, more particularly ref ering to rivers, is very differ- ent from that of former periods. The majority of the valleys through which rivers are now flow- ing, have been produced by the action of water, which, running from higher lands, has not only scooped them out, but has spread over them the worn material which it accumulates in its pas- sage. By the operations which have since been going on, the waters have been collected to- gether in comparatively narrow channels of con- .siderable permanency. On this account, the influence of water that flows over the portions of the earth inhabited by terrestrial animals is greatly restricted; and the production of new beds of rock or soil is rather an accidental than a necessary consequence. But, although the influ- ence of water has been thus confined, all lands, and especially the surfaces of mountainous dis- tricts, are undergoing change, and the superficial covering on one district is conveyed to another. The showers of heaven are constantly sweeping away the soil and decomposed rocks of the up- lands into the valleys, over which they are trans- ported by streams and rivers, the larger and heavier particles falling to the bottom, the smaller being united with the water in mechanical mix- ture. That portion of earthy matter which is carried away from a district by the running water is, as far as the district itself is concerned, the most valuable, bein^ the superficial covering 'or soil, and would be forever lost to that portion of the earth inhabited by man, were it not arrested in its passage to the ocean, by deposition in the bed of the river, or on those lands which the waters may happen to overflow. It is well known to those who have visited elevated dis- tricts, that many mountains are already deprived of their soils, and are but the skeletons of the earth, without covering or life. By this action the val- leys are in the process of elevation, and the mount- ains of depression; and if we could conceive it to proceed without limitation, we may imagine a time when all the varieties of elevation and depression, which now give beauty to the sur- face, will be destroyed, and an entirely different condition of the distribution of land and water will be established. But, at the same time, it can not be denied that these changes, as far as they have hitherto proceeded, have been advan- tageous to man, whatever might be their result under the conditions to which we have alluded. The mountainous regions are, from their eleva- tion, less suited to the progression of society, so intimately connected with agricultural prosper- ity, than the plains. As we rise above the level of the sea, the atmosphere becomes more rarefied, and the cold more intense, both of which are in- jurious to vegetation in general, and unsuited to promote the comfort of animal life. The plains are, therefore, preferred by men when they con- gregate together and form societies. It can not be considered an unwise or unfit result, that the lowlands should be enriched with alluvial soils, produced by the destruction of the rocks and natural soils of mountainous regions. It is re- ported of Dioclesian, that he told his colleague, Maximilian, he had more pleasure in the cul- Hvation of a few pot-herbs which, in the gar- den of Spalatro, grew in the soil that on the top of Mount Hsemus had only produced moss and dittany, than in all the honors the Roman empire could confer. From the definition here given of the word "alluvium," it must include the gravels and sands that are of recent formation among the alluvial deposits ; but our attention is chiefly directed to the soils, or those beds which are suited to sustain vegetable life. It is true that the gravels may be made available for the cultivation of some plants, but the beds which are so used belong rather to that class of rocks de- nominated diluvial by geologists, than to the deposits of which we are speaking. If we trace tlie circumstances under which alluvial soils are formed to their cause, we shall find that they have their origin in the fall of heavy rains, and the melting of snows, in mountainous regions. The water, in its passage to the valleys, collects the superficial soil and decomposed earthy ma- terial that lies in its path, and transports them into the channels towards which it flows. The streams that are formed on the mountain slopes are generally united together before they reach the plains, and form impetuous torrents, over- coming all obstacles, until their velocity is lost, when, in their winding courses, they meet each other and form rivers. Rivers, in every part of their course, are subject to inundation; when, throwing their waters over a considerable space, they deposit the earthy materials they have accumulated. If such inundations had not occurred, the accumulated worn materials (debris) would have been deposited in the bed of the river, or carried into the lake or sea where the waters themselves are discharged. There are abundant instances on record of the filling up . of rivers by the worn materials (detritus) which have been carried into their courses, and the rivers of our own country will afford excellent examples of this result. Many rivers and estu- aries, in some portions of the globe, which a few years since were navigable, have ceased to be so on account of the large amount of alluvial matter de- posited in their beds; and many towns and cities which were once populous and wealthy, have on this account become poor and almost deserted. If we would see the effect of the transport of worn materials into lakes, we can not have a more favorable opportunity than in Switzerland. Many of the lakes of this sublime and majestic country are rapidly filling from this cause , and in some ALLUVIUM 37 ALLUVIUM of them water plants are seen above the surfacis of the water. But when a river suffers inunda- tion, the earthy matter, which is held in mechan- ical mixture, is arrested, and deposited on the land that is overflowed, and a richly productive soil is formed. One or two examples may illus- trate these remarks. The Ganges annually over- flows its banks, and deposits a rich alluvial soil over the country it inundates. This magnificent river was supposed to take its rise on the northern side of the Himalaya mountains, until it was proved, in 1819, by Lieutenant Webb, that all the streams which unite to give its existence, take their rise on the south side of the Hindoo Coast, or Snowy mountains. The melting of the snows, and the heavy periodical rains augment the volume of the water, and by the end of June, before the rainy season has commenced in the low country, the river has generally risen fifteen feet; but after the rains in Bengal it usually attains a height of thirty-two feet above its ordi- nary level. By the end of July all the low countries adjoining the Ganges and the Burram- pooter are overflowed, and nothing but houses and trees are seen for many miles inward. The province of Bengal is divided into two nearly equal parts by the Ganges ; and as a large portion of the country on the banks of the river is low, it is especially exposed to inundation, from whicli circumstance it probably derives its name, such districts being called beng. A deep bed of rich soil is deposited during ttie period of the over- flow, and the vegetable productions are of the most varied and luxuriant character. Rice, wheat, barley, tobacco, indigo, cotton, the mul- berry, and the poppy, are all cultivated with success on the alluvial soils. It is well known that Egypt has been, from time immemorial, in- debted to the overflow of the Nile for a rich alluvial soil, as well as for the means of irrigat- ing the land. The ancients seem to have been altogether at a loss to account for the periodical overflow of this river ; and when we consider the appearances before them, we are not surprised at the difficulties they experienced. They ob- served it in a country that was not moistened by a drop of rain, and when it was unaided by a single stream, and yet, at its stated period, it began to lift its waters from their bed, and rising higher and higher, overflowed its banks, and spread itself like a sea over Lower Egypt, re- freshing the parched earth with moisture, and aiding its productiveness with the formation of a superficial covering of rich loam. The philoso- phers speculated without success upon its cause ; but while they were disputing as to the origin of the phenomenon, year by year the Nile rose, and left the evidence of its beneficial sway in the richness of the crops and the luxuriance of the country. From the investigations that have now been made, we know that the rise of the Nile is occasioned by the rains which fall on the high mountains in the interior and tropical regions, and not, as many of the ancients sup- posed, from the Etesian winds, which, blowing periodically from the north, prevent the waters from reaching the sea. The great importance of rivers, as agents in the production of alluvial soils, can not be more strongly proved by any positive evidence than by a consideration of the state of Australia, a country remarkable for the fewness of its rivers, and the general poverty of its soil. Contrary to all precedents, the richest soils in this land, excepting the alluvial, are found on the summits of hills. The fires which so frequently happen on the plains, the peculiar character of the vegetation (chiefly consisting of evergreens), and the sparing distribution of water, are the principal causes of the sterility of this otherwise desirable country. There are, however, spots which, covered with alluvial soil, can rival the richest and most cultivated dis- tricts of England ; and the comparison of these with other lands impresses the observer the more strongly with the great importance of the natural provision for the restitution of that portion of the earth inhabited by man, by the disposition of new earthy matter and a virgin soil. The alluvial flats of the Nepean, the Hawksbury, and the Hunter rivers, are spoken of by all writers as remarkable for their fertility. The rich valley in which the Lake Alexandrina is situated may be noticed as another example of the influence of alluvial soils. The country around this lake appears to be one of the most beautiful and fertile in Australia ; and a glance at the map will immediately inform the inquirer of the cause. It is so situated as to receive the worn materials of the mountain chain that ranges along the prom- ontory of which Cape Jervis is the southern point, and also to obtain moisture from the lake, and a renovating soil whenever it may overflow its bamks. Alluvial soils are produced by the discharge of mountain streams into valley.s, as well as by the overflow of rivers. We have already explained the manner in which they col- lect the superficial covering of mountainous districts, and being charged with earthy matter, bring it into the plains. This may be deposited before the streams are united together in an individual channel as well as after, and should this be done, the vallej' may be covered with alluvial products. The formation of a river is a process which requires time, and many changes must happen before the flowing waters can form for themselves a local habitation ; obstacles must be removed, a bed must be scooped out, and an outlet must be formed, in the performance of which earthy matter must be accumulated, and extensive deposits be formed. A third cause in the production of alluvial deposits may be men- tioned. The sea is making great inroads upon many of its shores, carrying a destructive war against the cliffs that vainly indeavor to oppose its force; while on the other hand it is in some instances receding from the shores against which it once beat ; and thus, as though to recompense man for what it takes away, gives to him a por- tion of its own territory. Those districts which are thus added to the land are usually superposed by a fine, rich, alluvial soil, as also are those which have at a former period been covered by the sea, and would be at the present day, were it not for the ingenuity and works of man The districts in which are situated New Orleans, in America, and Missolonghi, in Greece, are chiefly alluvial, and nearly the whole of Holland has the same character, and can only be described as a district of which man has robbed the ocean. That part of the coast of Germany which is bor- dered by the North Sea is alluvial, and additions are constantly made to the shores by the gradual deposition of earthy matter upon the immense flats which extend along them. The first sign of vegetation on these lands is the appearance of the saltwort {Salicornia mantima), which is ALLUVIUM 38 ALPACA succeeded by the sea grass (Poa maritima), and when the land is very rich, by the marsh star- wort {Aster THpoUum). The land is afterwards •dyked, and used as pasture for sheep and cattle; so that the spot over which the sea has perhaps for ages exercised an undisputable control, is brought under the power of man in a state most admirably adapted to suit his wants. But it may be asked, whence does the sea obtain the earthy matter with which it abounds? Rivers discharge themselves into the ocean, and it has been already stated that their waters are charged, more or less, with supei'ficial soil of mountainous countries and the destroyed materials of rocks. A part of this may be aiTested by occasional or periodical inundations, and by deposition in the bedof the river, but a large quantity must still be carried into the ocean. It must also be remembered that the waters which is conveyed in a channel is fconstantly endeavoring so to arrange its course so as to suffer the least possi- ,ble resistance. In this attempt, it attacks the banks that confine it, and widens its course, pre- cipitating much earthy matter into the stream, to be removed by the flowing water. It fre- quently happens, and especially after the fall of heavy rains, that the water at the mouths of rivers is thick and turbid from the quantity of alluvial matter it holds in solution, and very many large rivers are rendered unsafe for naviga- tion by the existence of large bars of sand or clay at their outlet. But the sea is not merely a passive recipient of the product of destructive causes, but is itself a cause. Sea coasts are con- stantly suffering depredation by the action of tjie waves that beat upon them. Whether we look at the soft and almost unresisting rocks of the eastern coast of England, or the hard primary i-ocks of Devonshire, Cornwall, and the Shetland Isles, the same result will be observed. During the stormy months of winter, when the waves are tossed upon the coasts with an almost uncon- trolled violence, no rock is sufficiently hard to resist its energy, and when unrufiled by a passing breeze in the months of summer, its influence upon the softer rocks is hardly less destructive, though more insidious, for it then attacks the base of the cliffs, and removing the support of the superincumbent mass, causes the precipita- tion of large portions into the sea. By these two causes the sea is provided with the materials for the formation of alluvial soils. Some estimate may be formed of the violence and extent of these causes, by an examination of the present state of the German Ocean, one fifth of which is covered by banks that appear to have been pro- duced in the same way as the alluvial soils on the northern coast of Germany. Water, then, is a most powerful agent in the destruction and production of rocks, and were there no conserva- tive principle, the changes that are going on would be more extensive than they are in the present day. The floods to whirh some rivers are subject are so impetuous that they frequently sweep away all opposing objects, and involve an entire district in ruin. These -effects, however, are much more common in countries that are thinly covered by vegetation than in those where it is luxuriant, for it acts as a conservative agent, increasing the power of the resistance by binding the soil more closely together. This, therefore, will account for the diminished influence of floods upon low lands, and for the frequent deposition of rich and fertile alluvial soilsj The composition of the alluvial soils that have been brought under cultivation is exceedingly various ; but they are generally remarkable for their fertility, and are admirably suited for pasture lands. In general, says Sir Humphrey Davy, the soils, the materials of which are most vari- ous and heterogeneous, are those called alluvial, or which have been formed by the deposition of rivers; many of them are extremely fertile. — Appleton's New Cyclopsedia. ALMOND. The common almond tree {Amyg- dalus communis) is a native of Korthern Africa, and so late as the time of Cato had not been in- troduced into Italy, as he calls the fruit Greek nuts. It was introduced into Britain about 1548. It will grow to the height of twenty or thirty feet, dividing into a head of numerous spreadmg branches. The leaves very much resemble those of the peach, but they proceed from buds both above and below the flowers. There are also small glands on the lower saw-toothing of the leaves. The form of the flowers is not very different from those of the peach, but they come out usually in pairs, and vary more in their color, from the fine blush of the apple blossom to a snowy whiteness The chief obvious distinction is in the fruit, which is flatter, with a leather- like covering, instead of the lich pulp of the peach , and the nectarine, and it also opens spon- taneously when the kernel is ripe. The shell of the almond is never so hard as a peach stone, and is sometimes even tender and exceedingly brittle. It is flatter, smoother, and the furrows or holes are more superficial than those of the peach stone. In the United States the almond is hardy in the Gulf States, and even to the latitude of Kentucky. It is not, however, cultivated for market, we believe, except in California, where already very considerable plantations of it are grown. ALOES. The dried juice, or an extract of numerous species of Aloe, particularly the Aloe spicata. The plants inhabit arid countries in the tropics, and have long, rather fleshy leaves, and a liliaceous inflorescence arranged in spikes. The drug is a nauseous bitter, and warm purga- tive. It is administered to horses in balls of four to five drachms. ALOPECURUS. The genus of Fox-tall grasses; they resemble the cat's-tail. Many are of great agricultural value. ALPACA. An animal inhabiting the mount- ains of Peru (the Oamelus paca of Llnnseus), used as a beast of burden. The wool is particularly valuable, and many attempts have been made to introduce them into various countries, but as a rule not with success. Of the late attempt to introduce them into the United States, Hon. Frederic Watts, Commissioner of Agriculture under President Grant's administration, in his report says in relation to the Alpaca, that, in the latter part of 1875, correspondence was had between the Commissioner and Hon. Francis Thomas, late minister to Peru (since deceased), concerning a small flock of Alpacas which that gentleman had imported from JPeru and placed on his farm at Frankville, Alleghany county, Md. In a letter dated October 8, 1875, Mr. Thomas, inclosing a sample of the wool of four months' growth, remarked; The fiber of a fleece of twelve months' growth often exceeds fifteen inches in length, and fleeces average from seven ALSIKE CLOVER 39 ALUMINA pounds to ten pounds each in weight. The ani- mals live to the age of twenty, twenty-five, and sometimes thirty years; are too large and bold to be woiTied by dogs, and arc very docile and tractable. I think you will concur with me in the opinion that this experiment which I am con- ducting is well worth the expense which I have incurred, especially when we consider the public benefit which would accrue in case of ray suc- cess. Attempts have been made at various times in this country, in Eu- rope and in Australia, to introduce the Al- paca, but generallj- without profitable re- sult. Various causes have contributed to the failure of these efforts. Sometimes the confine- ment on shipboard dur- ing a long voyage, with impure air and unac- customed food, has al- most destroyed the stock. Again, the ani- mals, when brought to their destined abode have been placed on luxuriant clover past- ure, or other feed, so much richer than the coaree herbage of their native regions, that dis- ease has fastened on the whole flock. The Al- paca is indigenous in the mountain regions of Peru, and thrives in the highest inhabited ■districts of the Andes, where the cold is more severe than in most parts of the United States. Accustomed to the vicissitudes of such regions, and inured to cold, damp, hunger, and thirst, it is especially adapted to bleak hill dis- tricts. Yet it is .said to do well in most localities where the air is pure, the heat not oppressive, and water for bathing readily accessible. The latter is stated to be indispensable to the health of the animal, which, when deprived of this requisite, soon becomes fevered and infected with scalj. While the introduction of the Alpaca into this country still remains a matter of ex- periment, there is no known reason why such experiments should not be successful, when properly conducted, in localities affording some approximation to the native conditions of the animal. Not to mention many elevated situations in the Atlantic, Northern and Central States, the regions lying along the Rocky mountain ranges have been indicated as presenting good opportunities for such trials. ALSIKE CLOVER. Swedish clover, Tnfo- lium Jiybridnm. This variety of clover has been introduced into various localities, and with varying results — some authorities speaking highly of it and others as severely denouncing it. It is generally, however, agreed that it is a good bee pasture, and that it succeeds in moist soils better than the common red clover. It .grows to about the height of medium red clover. The blossoms are white. It would seem from the evidence that it is not so liable to winter kill as red clover, and that it sufl'ers less from cold, wet weather, being in this respect like the small white or Dutch clover. On dry soils, especially those of a sandy nature, it is conceded not to do well, but is better adapted to moist, loamy soils. It may be mown for hay when the blossoms are fully mature, at which time red clover has lost much of its succulence. Its aftermath is l)0th ALPACA SHEEP. dense and heavy, furnishing pasturage late in the season. Both the aftermath and the hay are fairly well liked by cattle, and it is undoubtedly valuable on the soils we have named. ALTERATIVES. Medicines which improve the health without any active effect. ALTERNATE HUSBANDRY. That sort of management of farms which has one part in the state of grass or sward, while the other is under the plow, so as to be capable of being changed as there may be occasion, or as the na- ture of the land may require. This system of management is supposed to lessen the expense of manure and keep the land more clean. (See Husbandry.) ALUM. The sulphate of alumina and pot- ash. The powder is a powerful styptic, and used to arrest bleeding. In lotion it is astringent and stimulating. When burned the powder becomes caustic. The lotion may be made with six to eight drachms of alum to a quart of water. It is used for grease, cracks in the heels of horses, and ulcers after the inflammation is subdued. The alum is used by dyers, but the solution of acetate of alumina is superior for most pui-poses. ALUMINA. Alumina, or alumine, is one of the component parts of alum, from which it was originally extracted. It is the principal ALUMINA 40 ALUMINA constituent of clays, In -which it is found gener- ally mixed with other subtances that impart to it a color, it being naturally white. It is a com- pound of oxygen and the metal aluminum. The precious stones, corundum, sapphire, emery and other varieties, are nearly pure crystallized alu- mina, particularly the sapphire, which is very hard, and is cut by means of diamond powder and is polished on lead wheels with the same powder, or that of eme:y, a less pure variety of the same mineral. The specific gravity of alumina is 3 (water being unity). It is without 'smell, and has little or no taste, but is not altogether void of astringenc}'. It has a strong affinity for water, and gives it off with readiness when heated. The tenacious, sticky nature of clay soils is owing to this property, and is marked in proportion as the soil approaches to pure alumina. As it gives off water under the eifects of the sun or the wind, it hardens, cracks, and becomes obdurate and unyielding. Of all soils pure claj' is therefore the most difficult to man- age or subdue by cultivation. Sir Arthur Young has said that no man ever throve upon a stiff soil. Strong teams are required to work it, and this can be done at the proper moment only, as it is not only difficult and expensive, but to a certain extent injurious at other times. Clay has merits which should not be underrated, such as the retention of fertilizers more effectually per- haps than any other material, and its capability of absorbing ammonia when exposed to the air, as is apparent to the smell when a piece of clay is breathed upon, for the peculiar odor emitted on such an occasion is due to the presence of this alkali. Alumina is rather an essential element of soils, or purveyor of food, than a constituent of plants; for the ashes of plants rarely contain it, and even then but sparingly. There is reason to suppose that those analyses which give alumina as a constituent in certain plants are erroneous, and that what was rendered as alumina may have been in reality phosphate of lime. Thus, it is stated that three-fifths of a grain of alumina are found in thirty-two ounces of the grains of wheat, and about four grains in thirty ounces of the grains of barley and of oats. It is also said to constitute 3. 73 parts in 100 of the entire plant of the sunflower, 7.11 of the entire plant of Turkey wheat, and 14 of the entire plant of the fumitory. It is seldom or never found uncombined, but rather in the form of silicate, sulphate, or phosphate of alumina. It is an important part of the crystalline rocks. Aluminous minerals, so manifestly essential to the fertility of soils, are extensively diffused throughout the surface of the globe. They occur in all soils susceptible of cultivation, which may be owing to the fact that they are retentive of fertilizing salts; and, according to a paper lately published by Prof. Voelcker, alumi- nous earths possess the power of absorbing and retaining fertilizing principles in such a state of combination as to readily yield them to plants, without their being subject to detraction from that combination by rain or water as it usually falls or passes through soils. In order to form a distinct conception of the quantities of alkalies in aluminous minerals, says Liebeg, it must be remembered that feldspar contains 17|- per cent, of potash, albite (soda feldspar) 11.43 per cent.. of soda, and mica from 3 to 5 per cent., and that zeolite contains from 13 to 16 per cent. of alkalies. The analyses of Gmelin, Lowe, Fricke, Meyer and Redtenbacher, have also shown that basalt and clinkstone contain from f to 3 per cent, of potash, and from 5 to 7 per cent, of soda; that claystone contains from 3.75 to 3.31 per cent, of potash, and loam from 1^ to 4 per cent, of potash. The quantities of these sub- stances present in any specimen can not give a coiTcct estimate of its presence in all portions of the rock; nor are the alkalies the only fertilizers to be anticipated, where analysis has not hereto- fore mentioned or detected their presence, since the presence of phosphoric acid has been shown in a variety of rocks which were considered free from that substance and from all organic remains, such as clinkstone, phonolites, horn- blende, augite, compact basalt, trap rock, pumifce stones, obsidian, mica, granite, chlorite-slate, porphyry, mica-slate and gneiss, and in native borax from the East Indies. Soils eminently aluminous, as has been stated, are absorbents of water and retentive thereof. This renders them stiff, waxy and cold, as well as damp, and exceedingly difficult to cultivate and subdue. It has been said that this property of clay soils may be modified by the application of sand ; but this is often expensive, and at all times laborious and attended with diiflculty in making the ad- mixture. The cohesive nature of clays may be overcome, and they made comparatively porous, dry, warm and fertile, by the operation of paring^ and burning, the particles being thus partly fused and made to cohere and form a gritty mass containing tlie elements inherent to the clay with the properties of sand. Besides this, burnt clays have an increased power for the absorption of ammonia; but clays thus heated lose a great pro- portion of their retentiveness of moisture. The most cohesive clays may, by this process, be con- verted into a fine, dry, powdery soil as light as an ash bank ; and where rushes, and coarse grasses, and semi-aquatic plants have got hold, a new growth will come in, and the soil will become fertile and easily cultivated. The roots and fibers of weeds and plants, and all noxious seeds, maybe eradicated by paring and burning; and in a vast number of instances soils of a clayey nature that can not otherwise be brought into economical culture, may by this operation be rendered fruitful. The alteration in the ipert vegetable fiber existing in soils, when subjected to this operation, will often have a decided effect upon its productiveness, by converting useless and injurious matter into assimilable plant food ; or a product may be thus obtained haying an advantageous chemical action upon the inorganic constituents of the soil. The transformation of inert vegetable fiber by charring, or even roast- ing, will add to the absorbent quality of the soil in proportion to the amount of those substances in the earth; for it is known that charcoal has surprising qualities of absorption and conden- sation, not of water, but of those gases which have an evident influence upon fertility. The paring and burning process, though applicable and advantageous to deep clays that are barren from their closeness and their wetness, would be followed by disastrous consequences if applied to shallow arenaceous lands. In this case it would drive off or destroy even the scanty vegeta- ble matter that such a soil might contain, leaving an arid sandy waste. Sandy soils are frequently too porous, and the heat generated by paring and ANESTHETICS 41 ANALYSIS burning could not give consistence to such a material as silicious sand, since silex, however fusible when in contact with bases such as alu- mina, lime, magnesia and the alkalies, is refractory by itself. ALVEOLATE. Covered with Uttle pits; honey-combed. ALVINE. Relating to the bowels. AMALGAM. A compound of mercury with a metal. AMANITA. A genus of poisonous mush- rooms. AMAUROSIS. Total blindness, without loss of brilliancy in the eye. It is a disease to which horses are very subject, and should never be treated with the hope of cure. AMBLE. The same as the pace in horseman- ship. AMBUSTION. A scald or burn. AMELIORATING CROPS. Root crops; clovers and grasses fed on the land. AMENTABOLIANS. Insects which do not undergo metamorphoses. AMENTUM. The catkin; a deciduous spike, such as that of willows, poplars, etc. 'I'rees with this inflorescence are called amentaceous, and usually contain much potash in their ashes. AMERICAN BREEDS OF SWINE. (See Cheshire, Chester White, Jersey Reds, Poland China, and Victoria Swine.) AMI DINE. The soluble, internal portions of the starch globules. AMMONIA. Volatile alakli, spirits of harts- horn. Ammoniacal gas is the gaseous state of pure ammonia before it is dissolved by water, m which it is extremely soluble ; it is also rapidl}' absorbed by charcoal, clays, rust, etc. Ammo- nium is a hypothetic base of ammonia, consisting of nitrogen and hydrogen, The oxide of ammo- nium is the common base, as found in the salts of ammonia, and consists of nitrogen, hydro- gen and oxygen. (See Nitrogen.) AMNION. The delicate membrane which surrounds the foetus in utero; it contains the amniotic fluid, or liquor amnios. The fluid within the nucleus of the young seed, on which the embryo feeds, is called amnios. AMORPHOUS. Without regular figure or form. AMPHIBOLE. A variety of horn blende. AMPHITROPAL. In botany, an embryo which is turned round in the albumen, or curved upon itself in such a manner that both its ends are presented to the same point. aMPLEXICaUL. Clasping or embracing the stem. AMYWDALIN. A white, sweetish, soluble matter in bitter almonds, changeable into oil of bitter almonds by the action of emulsin. AMYfcrD \LOID. Rocks in which other min- erals are embedded ; pudding-stone. AMYGDVLUS The generic name of the peach and almond. AMYLACEOUS. Starchy; full of starch. AMYLIN. Pure starch. ANAESTHETICS, ADMINISTERING. An aesthetics are of value in rendering an animal wholly or partially insensible. Vapors, sprays and fumes are also valuable, and nearly related in the form of administering. When a surgi- cal operation is to be performed, anaesthetics may be administered, held directly to the nose by "means of a sponge, or a sponge may be placed in a net, fastened under the nose, and the ansesthetic introduced thereon. In diseases of the throat and windpipe, — as catarrh, sore throat and strangles, — steam, either clear or in combi- nation with belladonna, laudanum, sulphuroua acid, vinegar, etc., will often give quick relief. So vapors may be easily produced by charging a liquid, as water, with the medium to be used, by means of a hand-ball atomizer; these will be found useful for diseases of the nostrils, mouth and throat. Powders are also used to cause expulsion of the secretions of the nostrils, thus clearing the nasal passages or inner surface of the nose. A tube and hollow rubber ball is used for this purpose . A hollow section of alder, or sumac, charged with the powder, and one end furnished with a piece of rubber tubing, answers well the operation of blowing it into the nostrils with the breath. A good anaesthetic is com- posed as follows : One ounce alcohol, two ounces chloroform, three ounces ether. Shake the bottle well before using it, and two or three minutes time will cause the strongest animal to succumb, when used as heretofore directed. In chronic cough, flowers of sulphur or the fumes of burning tar will soon fill a stable, and is val- uable for treating the lining membranes of the breathing organs. The first is an agent of great value for disinfecting purposes. ANAL GLANDS. Glands for the secretion of various substances, situated near the anus . ANALYSIS. Analysis consists in determin- ing the constituent elements of the subject of analysis. By it we show either the organic or inorganic elements. In soils, for instance, we may find how much sand, lime, alumina, phos- phoric acid, potash, magnesia and other constit- uents are contained in the sample; but we can not through analysis arrive at any definite de- termination of the amount of plant food which is at the disposal of the present crop. It may or may not be locked up in insoluble forms. Hence it has been found that experience alone must demonstrate the productions of the soil. But an analysis of a soil may show its adaptation natur- ally to certain crops. Here, again, experience is sufficient in the generality of cases. It is the fact that the chemist may compound a soil artificially containing every element of plant food in abund- ance, and yet which will be perfectly sterile, because locked up in insoluble combinations. Nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash, are the three important constituent elements in soils, because these are, as a rule, the substances whose absence or deficiency impair fertility. Yet there are many cases when lime, magnesia, oxide of iron, chlorine, sulphuric acid, etc , may be needed, because absent or deficient, and hence they become prime integers. Analysis will show the absence of a constituent, and hence its value, in special cases, when particular crops are to be raised, the soil, perhaps, lacking only one or two of the constituents necessary to perfect the crop. When we come to the plants or grains them- selves, analysis becomes more practically im- portant, since it shows just the amount of nutri- tion contained. Thus, in special feeding, it becomes of especial value to know the constit- uents of certain foods. And in the feeding of calves, when skim milk or whey is to be used, analysis will show what should be added to either to form a comparatively perfect food We say comparatively, for in combined food, how- ANALYSIS 42 ANALYSIS ever perfectly or scientifically it may be com- pounded, it can not equal the whole and natural milk of the cow. This is the type of all animal food, milk being conceded to be practically as well as theoretically a perfect food. Several analyses of milk taken together wo have averaged as fol- lows : Water 80.0 Flesh-formers 5.0 Fat-formers 8 .Mineral matter 1.0 100.0 In the manufacture of butter the fat-formers are the principal constituent removed. Hence in practice, the addition of linseed meal, or mush from finely ground Indian com, or both, brings up the skimmed milk and buttermilk, relatively, to its normal condition as food for. calves, after . they are three or four weeks old. If the milk is •converted into cheese, the flesh-formers are also removed. Hence the difficulty of bringing whey again to a perfect food. To do so, the equiva- lent of the casein, albumen, etc., must be res- tored. This may be measurably attained by the addition of oatmeal mush, and a little of lin- seed cake. Economically, milk may be stated to contain the following constituents ; "Water 86.0 Casein 5.0 Fatty matter 3.5 Sngur 4.5 Mineral matter 1.0 100.0 The following table will show results of many analyses of various food substances, economic- ally considered, in comparative equivalents: a a ^ "SS ^4 ^ «i <- a «! a -c^ Foods. °i o ^s S'SS a>a M-fl ^a ogS: Pi"^ ii 13 CO 51 |l P4 Hi H ^ 1.4 245 3 Carrot O.B 6.6 T.lt 691.6 Parsnip 1 3 7 8 2 607 3 Jerusalem artichoke. . . . 1.0 9 18.8 19.8 251 5 Swedish turnip 1 5 2 6 2 803 2 Common white turnip 0.9 3.S 4.2 1185.7 Mangel-wurzel 1 13 6 13 6 367 6 Green pea etulks 9 7 9 8 B 565 9 Common vetch (green) 1.9 2.6 4 5 1106.6 Green oats (lodder) 1.0 H.5 9 5 524.2 4.0 Green red-top grass 3.S 8.7 U 415.0 Superior meadow hay 1.3.5 36.3 49.8 100.0 Ked clover (green) 2 3 6 5 6 t)07 1 While clover (^reen) 1.5 2.7 4.2 1185.7 Lucerne (greGDJ 1.9 3 6 6 5 405 4 28.5 18 7 White clover (hay) IS 7 40 58 7 84 Q T>ucerne (hay) 12.7 38.0 m.i 98.2 Wheat flour 14.7 66.4 81 1 61.4 Indian coria 11.0 66.7 77.7 64.2 ftye meal 14 8 55 8 70 1 71 Barley meal 18.0 52.0 65,0 76.0 Oat meal 18.0 51.1 69.1 72.0 Buckwheat m eal 9.0 52,1 61 1 81.5 Peas 23,1 41.9 65 n 76.0 Kidney beans 23.9 39.8 63 a 78.7 White field beans 24.0 22.2 39.7 48.6 63.7 70.8 '.8 2 American linseed cake 70.3 In relation to analyzing a soil, says Prof. Hitch- cock, in his report of the Geological Survey of Massachusetts, Br. Davy sets out by stating that geine constitutes the basis of all the nourishing part of vegetable manures. By the term geine, he means all the decomposed organic matter of the soil, chiefly derived from decayed vegetable matter. Animal substances, he says, produce a similar compound containing azote or nitrogen. There may be undecomposed vegetable fibres so minutely divided as to pass through the sieve, but as one object of this operation is to free the soil from vegetable fibre, the portion will be quite inconsiderable, and can only affect the amount of insoluble geine When so minutely divided, it will probably pass into soluble geine in a season's cultivation. Geine, or the vegetable nourishing matter of soils, exists In two states, in one of which it is soluble in water, etc., whilst in the insoluble state it resists the solvent power of water. Soluble geine he considers. the im- mediate food of growing plants, whilst insoluble geine becomes food after sutficient exposure to air and moisture. Hence the reason and result of tillage. We quote the following rules of analysis: 1. Sift the soil through a fine sieve. Take the fine part; bake it just up to browning paper. 2. Boil 100 grains of the baked soil, with 50 grains of pearl ashes, saleratus or carbonate of soda in four ounces of water, for half an hour; let it settle; decant the clear; wash the grounds with four ounces boiling water; throw all on a weighed filter, previously dried at the same temperature as was the soil (1) ; wash tiU colorless water returns. Mix all these liquors. It is a brown-colored solution of all the soluble geine. All sulphates have been converted into carbonates, and with any phosphates, are on the filter. Dry therefore that, with its contents, at the same heat as before. Weigh — the loss is soluble geine. 3. If you wish to examine the geine; precipitate the alkaline solution with ex- cess of lime-water. The geate of lime will rapidly subside, and if lime-water enough has been added, the nitrous liquor will be colorless. Col- lect the geate of lime on a filter ; wash with a little acetic or very dilute muriatic acid, and you have geine quite pure. Dry and weigh. 4. Re- place on a funnel the filter (2) and its earthy contents ; wash with two drachms muriatic acid, diluted with three times its bulk of cold water. Wash till tasteless. The carbonate and phos- phate of lime will be dissolved with a little iron, which has resulted from the decomposition of any salts of iron, beside a little oxide of iron. The alumina wiU be scarcely touched. We may estimate all as salts of lime. Evaporate the muriatic solution to dryness, weigh and dissolve in boiling water. The insoluble will be phos- phate of Time. Weigh — the loss is the sulphate of lime. (I make no allowance here for the dif- ference in atomic weights of the acids, as the result is of no consequence in this analysis ) 5. The earthy residuum, if of a greyish white color, contains no insoluble geine — test it by burning a weighed small quantity on a hot shovel — if the odor of burning peat is given off, the presence of insoluble geine is indicated. If so, calcine the earthy residuum and its filter — the loss of weight will give the insoluble geine; that part which air and moisture, time and lime, will convert into soluble vegetable food. Any error here will be due to the loss of water in a hydrate. ANALYSIS 43 ANASTOMOSIS if onu be present, but these exist in too small quantities in granitic sand to affect the result. The actual weight of the residuarj' mass is gran- itic sand. The clay, mica, quartz, etc., are easily distinguished. If your soil is calcareous — which may be easily tested by acids — then before proceeding to this analysis, boil 100 grains in a pint of water, filter and dry as before, the loss of weight is due to the sulphate of lime, even the sulphate of iron may be so considered; for the ultimate result in cultivation is to convert this into sulphate of lime. Test the soil with muriatic acid, and having thus removed the lime, proceed as before, to determine the geine and insoluble vegetable matter. In applying Dr. Dana's rales given in the text, to the soils of Massachusetts, I found it necessary to adopt some method of carrying forward several pro- cesses together. I accordingly made ten com- partments upon a table, each provided with apparatus for filtering and precipitations, also ten numbered flasks, ten evaporating dishes, and a piece of sheet-iron pierced with ten holes, for receiving the same number of crucibles. I pro- vided, also, a sheet-iron oven, with a tin bottom large enough to admit ten filters, arranged in proper order, and a hole in the top to admit a thermometer. The sand bath was also made large enough for receiving the ten flasks. In this manner I was able to conduct ten processes ■nith almost as great facility as one could have been earned forward in the usual way. As be- fore stated, Dr. Dana regards geine as the basis of all the nourishing part of vegetable manures. The relation of soils to heat and moisture, he says, depend chiefly on geine. It is in fact, under its three states of vegetable extract, geine and carljonaceous mould, the principle which gives fertility to soils long after the action of common manures has ceased. In these three states it is -essentially the same. The experiments of Sau.s- sure have long ago proved that air and moisture convert insoluble into soluble geine. Of all the problems to be solved by agricultural chemistry, none is of so great practical importance as the determination of the quantity of soluble and in- soluble geine in soils. This is a question of much higher importance than the nature and proportions of the earth}' constituents and sol- uble salts of soils. It lies at the foundation of till successful cultivation. Its importance has been not so much overlooked as undervalued. Hence, on this point the least light has been reflected from the labors of Davy and Chaptal. It needs but a glance at any analysis of soils, published in the books, to sec that fertility de- pends not on the proportion of the earthy ingre- -dients. Among the few facts, best established in chemical agriculture, are these: that a soil, whose earthy part is composed wholly or chiefly of one earth ; or any soil with excess of salts, is always barren ; and that plants grow equally well in all soils destitute of geine, up to the period of fructification, — failing of geine, the fruit fails, the plants die. Earths, and salts, and geine, constitute, then, all that is essential; and soils will be fertile, m proportion as the last is mixed with the first. The earths are the plates, the salts the seasoning, the geine the food of plants. The salts can be varied but very little in then- proportions, without injury. The earths admit of wide variety in their nature and proportions. I would resolve all into granitic sand; by which I mean the finely divided; almost impalpable mixture of the detritus of granite, gneiss, mica- slate, sienite, and argillite; the last, giving by analysis, a compound very similar to the former. When we look at the analysis of vegetables, we find these inorganic principles constant constit- uents — silica, lime, magnesia; oxide of iron, potash, soda, and sulphuric and phosphoric acids. Hence, these will be found constituents of all soils. The phosphates have been over- looked from the known diflSculty of detecting phosphoric acid. Phosphate of lime is so easily soluble when combined with mucilage or gela- tine, that it is among the first principles of soils exhausted. Doubtless, the good effects, the last- ing effects, of bone manure, depend more on the phosphate of lime, than on its animal portion. Though the same plants growing in different soils are found to j'ield variable quantities of the salts and earthy compounds, yet I believe that accurate analj'sis will show, that similar parts of the same species, at the same age, always contain the inorganic principles above named, when grown in soils arising from the natural decomposition of granite rocks. These inorganic substances will be found not only in constant quantity, but always in definite proportion to the vegetable portion of each plant. The effect of cultivation may depend, therefore, much more on the introduction of salts than has been gen- erally supposed. The salts introduce new force. So long as the salts and earths exist in the soil, so long will they form voltaic batteries with the roots of growing plants, by which, the gi-anitic sand is decomposed and the nascent earths, in this state readily soluble, are taken up by the absorbents of the roots, always a living, never a mechanical operation. Hence, so long as the soil is granitic, — using the term as above defined, — so long is it as good as on the day of its deposition ; salts and geine may vary, and must be modified by cultivation. Tiae universal diffusion of gran- itic diluvium will always afford enough of the earthy ingredients . The fertile character of soils, I persume, will not be found dependent on any particular rock formation on which it reposes. Modified they may be, to a certain extent, by peculiar formations ; but all our granitic rocks afford, when decomposed, all those inorganic principles which plants demand. This is so true, that on this point the farmer already knows all that chemistry can teach him. Clay and sand, every one knows ; a soil too sandy, too clayey, may be modified by mixture, but the best possi- ble mixture does not give fertility. That de- pends on salts and geine. If these views are correct, the few properties of geine which we have mentioned, will lead us at once to a simple and accurate mode of analyzing soils ; a mode which determines at once the value of a soil, from its quantity of soluble and insoluble vegetable nutri- ment; a mode requiring no array of apparatus, nor delicate experimental tact; one, Tyhich the country gentleman may apply with very great accuracy, and, with a little modification, per- fectly within the reach of any man who can drive a team or hold a plow. ANASARCA. A dropsy in the cellular tissue of the limbs. ANASTOMOSIS. The interlacing and union of small veins or arteries proceeding from dif- ferent parts. • Fonnerly supposed to be the open- ing of the vessels, and excretion of contents. ANIMAL POISONS ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. (See Horse, Anatomy of. ) ANATROPOUS. A vei-y common embryo, produced by one side of the ovule growing upon itself, while the other remains immovable, till, at last, that part of the ovule which was origi- nally next the apex is brought dovra to the hilum, the base of the nucleus in such cases being at the apex of the ovule. The common apple, and the greater part of plants, offer an example of this. ANBURY. In farriery, a spongy, soft tumor, commonly full of blood, gi'owing on any part of an animal s body. Sustances of this kind may be removed either by means of ligatures being passed round their bases, or by the knife, and the subsequent application of some caustic, in order to effectually destroy the parts from which they arise. ANCHYLOSIS. A stiff, immovable jomt. ANCIPITOUS. Having two edges. ANDROCEIIM. The male parts of the flower. ANDROGYNOUS. Hermaphrodite; a union of both sexes. ANELLIDES. AneUata. The class of artic- ulated animals formed of ring-like segments, as the earth-worms. ANELYTROUS. Without elytra or wing- cases. ANEMOMETER. An instrument for meas- uring the force or velocity of the wind ; a wind gauge. ANEMOSCOPE. An instrument showing the direction of the wind ; a weathercock. ANEURISM. In farriery, a throbbing tumor, produced by the dilitation of the artery coats in some part of the body of an animal. Aneurisms in the limbs may be cured by making an incis- ion, exposing the artery, and tying it above and below the tumor with a proper ligature ANGINA. In farrier}', a name sometimes applied to the quinsy, or what in animals is termed anticor; sore throat. ANGLE BERRY. In farriery, a sort of fleshy excrescence, to which cattle and some other animals are subject under different circum- stances, and are supposed to proceed from a rupture of the cutaneous vessels, which give vent to a matter capable of forming a sarcoma or fleshy excrescence. They frequently appear upon the belly and adjacent parts, hanging down in a pendulous manner ANGUSTATE. Narrow; diminishing rapidly m. breadth. ANGUSTURA BARK. The bark of the Guspa/ria febnfuga oi South America; used as a tonic. ANHYDROUS. Without water; a chemical term to express the entire absence of water in a. salt or acid substance. ANIMAL. Any object capable of vohmtary motion; a function dependent on the nervous system, ifhich is peculiar to animals and absent in plants. ANIMAL ACIDS. Acids existing in animals or produced from their tissues. The principal are the oily acids, choleic, lactic and uric. (See Acids.) ANIMALCULES. Infusorials. Miscroscopic life, both animal and vegetable; some of these vegetable forms have the power of motion. ANIMAL MANURES. (See Urine, Manure.) ANIMAL POISON-S. The bites of venom- 44 ANTIDOTE ous reptiles, rslbid dogs, the contagious diseases produced by decaying meat, cheese, infected cattle, glanders, are all called animal poisons. They usually produce great prostration, and call for the use of ammonia and stimulants. ANIMALS. The animals of the farm are horned cattle, horses, mules, asses, swine, sheep, goats, and in some sections of the country, as in some hill regions of the South and California, the alpaca. So, also, the llama, the guanaco and the vicuna have been introduced, but not suc- cessfully. Some years before the war, camels were introduced into Texas, but they did not prove profitable, although some specimens of them still exist in the far southwest and in Ari- zona, where they have been used for transporting^ goods to the mines. On the whole, however, mules prove better adapted to the necessities of the country. The productive farm animals will be treated of under their proper names, which see. ANISE-SEED. Pimpinetta anisum. The aro- matic seeds of a well known umbelliferous plant. The oil is a grateful aromatic to the stomach. ANISOTOMID^. A family of coleopterous insects, having moniliform or beaded antennse, sub-elongate, slender at the base, gi-adually in- creasing towards the apex, with a terminal club- shaped multarticulate joint; palpi various, gen- erally filiform ; head small and ovate; body con- vex, never linear. ANNUALS. Plants which perfect seeds in one year and die, as wheat, rye, etc. ANNULUS. An organ resembling a ring, as the collar which surrounds the stem of some mushrooms. ANODYNE. A drug which allays pain, as- opium, camphor, henbane, etc. ANOTTO (Annoto). An elegant coloring sub- stance used in the arts, and in the dairy for coloring butter and cheese, obtained from the pulp of the seed vessels of the Bi.va (xrellana. (See Dairy.) ANTACIDS. Medicines which neutralize the acid of the stomach in disease, as chalk, carbon- ate of soda, etc. ANTENNA. Antenna. The hair-like joinled organs on the heads of insects. They are very movable, and are supposed to be organs of sen- sation. ANTEPECTUS. In insects, the under side of the main trunk, in which the first pair of legs is inserted. ANTHELMINTICS. Drags which are used to destroy intestinal worms. Turpentine, worm- seed oil, pink-root and aloes are the most im- portant. ANTHER, The bilobate organ, containing pollen, situated at the summit of the filament, the two constituting the male organ, or stamen, of plants. ANTH(»DIUM. A head of flowers, as in the thistle or sunflower; a capitulum. ANTHOXANTHUM. A genus of grasses, of which A. odoratum is the sweet-scented vernal grass. (See Grasses.) ANTIBRACHIUM. The forearm. ANTICLINAL AXIS. The line lying be- tween strata which dip in opposite directions. ANTICOR. An inflammation of the throat and gullet in horses, attended with fever and pros- tration ; a kind of quinsy. ANTIDOTE. A remedy against a poison. APHIDES 45 APHIDES ANTIMONY, TARTRATE OF. (See Tartar Jlmetic.) ANTIPHLOGISTIC. Remedies opposed to an inflammatory state. ANTISEPTICS. Substances which prevent putrefaction. ANTISPASMODICS. Remedies which cure spasms or cramps, as opium, camphor, asafcEt- ida, etc. ANTITROP.iL. When in a seed the radicle of the embryo is turned to the end farthest away from the hilum. This, although a compara- tively unusual position of parts, is, nevertheless, the normal position, if the exact nature of the •development of an. ovule is rightly understood. ANTRUM. A cavity. ANTS. A genus belonging to the entomolo- gical classification HymeruypUra. The food of ants consists both of vegetable and animal juices. As a rule they are more troublesome than they are noxious, and not specially beneficial, since tlley do not kill insects but eat only such as they find dead or maimed. Ant-hills are readily de- stroyed by digging up in the depth of winter and scattering the earth; the exposure will thus destroy the entire colony. ANTS, BLVCK. To destroy, remove the upper portion of the hill, so as to form a basin as large as the entire nest. Let this be the deposit of dry ashes for one week, each morn- ing, as they are taken from the stove, or the hill may be excavated in the middle, and the hole filled with rough salt. About a house ants may be destroyed by placing bones about where they collect, and when covered with ants they can be burned, or killed with scalding water, and the bones replaced. Anise-seed oil is also said to drive them away. AORTA. The great arterial vessel which issues from the left ventricle of the heart, and by its branches distributes blood to every part of the body. APATITE. A greenish, crystalline mineral found in primary rocks, consisting of a phos- phate and silicate of lime. It is found in the eastern and northern States, but only in small quantities. In Spain and Norway large quan- tities are developed. It has been spoken of as a manure in the place of bones. A PERI K.NTS. Gentle purgatives. APETALOUS. Without corolla. APEX. The summit. APHANIPTERA. An order of apterous insects, with rudimentary elytra, and undergo- ing a change of form. The flea {PuUx irritans) is of this kind. APHIDES, or plant lice, as they are usually called, are among the most extraordmary of insects. They are found upon almost all parts of plants — the roots, stems, young shoots, buds and leaves — and there is scarcely a plant which does not harbor one or two kinds peculiar to itself. They are, moreover, exceedingly pro- lific, for Reaumur has proved that one individ- ual, in five generations, may become the progen- itor of nearly six thousand millions of descend- .ants. It often happens tliat the succulent extremities and stems of plants will, in an in- credibly short space of time, become completely coated with a living mass of these little lice. These are usually wingless, consisting of the young and of the female only ; for winged indi- viduals appear only at particular seasons, usually WOOLT APPLE-TREE BLIGHT. in the autumn, but sometimes in the spring, and these are small males and larger females. After pairing, the latter lay their eggs upon or near the leaf-buds of the plant upon which they live, and, together with the males, soon afterward perish. The genus to which plant lice belong is called Aphis, from a Greek word which signifies to exhaust. The following are the principal characters by which they may be distinguished from other insects: Their bodies are short, oval and soft, and are furnished at the hinder ex- tremity with two little tubes, knobs or pores, from which exude almost constantly minute drops of a fluid as sweet as honey; their heads are small, their beaks are very long and tubular, their eyes are globular, but they have not eyelets ; their antennae are long and usually taper toward the extremity, and their legs are also long and very slender, and there are only two joints to their feet. Their upper are near- ly twice as large as the lower wings, are much longer than the body, are gradually widened towards the extremity, and nearly triangular; they are almost vertical when at rest, and cover the body above like a very sharp-ridged roof. The winged plant-lice provide for a succession of their race by stocking the plants with eggs in the autumn, as before stated. These are hatched in due time in the spring, and the young lice immedi- ately begin to pump up sap from the tender leaves and shoots, in- crease rapidly in size, and in a short time come to maturity. In this state it is found that the brood, without a single exception, consists wholly of females, which are wingless, but are in a condition immediately to continue their kind. Their young, however, are not hatched from eggs, but are produced alive, and each female may be the mother of fifteen or twenty young lice in the course of a single day. The plant-lice of this second generation are also wingless females, which grow up and have their young in due time ; and thus, brood after brood is produced even to the sev- enth generation or more, without the appearance or intervention, throughout the whole season, of a sin- fle male. This extraor- inary kind of propaga- tion ends in the autumn with the birth of a brood of males and females, which, in due time, acquire wings, and pair; eggs are then laid by these females, and with the death of these winged individuals, which soon follows, the race becomes extinct for the season. — Harris' Insects Injurious to Vegetation. In the case of the oats aphis, we believe they are single-brooded; otherwise their habits are much the same as the other plant-lice, having honey PEAR TREE FLEA LOUSE. MAPLE BARK SCALE INSECT. APHTHA tubes, except that, although these are well devel- oped, they emit no honey and therefore are not followed by ants. They are also stated to freeze fast with the plants in "the fall and revive in the spring. The mussel-shell orange-scale insect (Agpidiotus alouerin) is found on the orange in Florida, where it does much injury to the orange trees, sometimes killing whole orange GRA.IN OR OAT PLANT-LOUSE. groves; it is found, also, on citron and lemon trees, and even sparingly on a camelia grown under an orange tree. The female scale resem- bles the upper half of a miniature brown mussel- shell, with its flat side downward on the leaf. These scales, when placed singly and not crowded together, are generally straight in form, but when in clusters, they are curved to suit the inequali- ties of the surface or contiguity of the neighbor- ing scales. The insect itself is sheltered under MUSBEL-9HELL SCALE INSECT OP ORANGB TREE. the scale, and is of a soft consistence, having the bodj' gradually tapering from near the tail to the anterior part, which ends somewhat obtusely. This insect, like the oyster-shell bark-louse of the North, is single-brooded each season. That is, unlike the plant-lice, they do not propagate for several generations by the fertilization of a common ancestor. APHTH.E. This contagious malady, after having been well known in Central Europe for more than two centuries, reached Great Britain in 46 APHTHA". 1839, Denmark in 1841, and the united States in 1870. It is supposed to have been introduced from cattle shipped from England in that year and landed in Canada. It made its appearance in Oneida county, N. Y , in September, from which it spread over various portions of the seaboard States. It is known by various names in Eng- land, principally as foot and mouth disease, and among veterinarians as epizootic, aptha and aphthous fever. Investigations under the direc- tion of the Commissioner of Agriculture at Washington, show the following facts in relation to the disease, its causes and cures: This conta- gious malady erf stock belongs to the class of zymotic disease, or, in other words, it is caused, like specific fevers generally, by the introduction into the system of a poison germ, which propa- gates itself, and increases in the blood and tissues in a manner allied to the gi'owth of a ferment in a saccharine solution. During this reproduc- tion of the virus in such fevers, the system passes through a series of successive stages of disease, the nature and duration of which are determined by the character of the particular poison taken in, and during which the poison germs (conta- gious principles) are given off abundantly by one or other or all of the secreting surfaces. Hence, like other zj'motic diseases, this is altogether specific in its cause, its nature, and its mode of propagation. As known in Western Europe and America, this disease is invariably due to a virus or contagion thrown off by some animal suffer- ing from the disease ; it is always manifested by a slight preliminary fever, and a period of erup- tion and decline, and these are respectively of constant and well defined duration. These dif- ferent periods of the disease are characterized by varied manifestations. The first period is that of incubation during which the poison germs are in the body of the animal, and propagating them- selves there, but have not yet affected ihe consti- tution so as to impair the functions, or give rise to the more manifest symptoms of illness. To- wards the end of this period, however, the ther- mometer shows an increase of temperature in the interior of the body, of about two degrees beyond the natural standard. This period lasts twenty-four to forty-eight hours, though in rare cases it may apparently extend to a week. It is followed by a period of craption, which is first manifested by the redness, heat and tenderness of the udder and teats, of the space between the hoofs, and of the membrane of the mouth. In the course of one day more, these parts are found to be the seat of numerous hemispherical eleva- tions or blisters, caused by the effusion of a clear yellowish fluid from the blood-vessels be- neath the cuticle or scarfskin. These increase in size for the next two or three days, burst, and dry up. The period of decline is marked by the dry- ing and scabbing over of the sores caused by the rupture of the blisters, and by the reproduction of the lost cuticular covering or scarfskin. The elevated temperature, which had declined some- what on the appearance of the blisters, now en- tirely subsides, unless maintained by exposure, or the irritation of the sores by dirt and other bodies. This period has passed and the disease is at an end by the fifteenth day, in favorable cases. The only known cause of itself capable of inducing the disease is contagion, or contact of a sound animal with the virus discharged from the sores of an aphthous patient. Many acces- APHTHA 47 APHTHA sory causes may be named, such as a wet, muddy season, which insures the contact of the virus deposited on the soil with the skiu about the top of the lioofs; the accumulation of cattle in large fairs or markets ; tlJe aggregation of large num- bers of live stock for the supply of armies in the field ; travel of stock by rail or road, and the like. Yet these are but means for the diilusion of the poison, while no one of themi nor all taken together, can call the disease into existence where the poison is not already present. Such compre- hensive facts as these narrow the list of real causes down to the simple contact of the virus with a healthy animal. This wrus, however, is perhaps the most contagious known. It is often carried on the clothes, boots and hands of man; on the fibers of hay or straw; preserved on the walls, floors, mangers, and other fittings of the building; on stable utensils ; in yards, parks, roads and railroad cars ; on drinking troughs ; or it may be carried on the legs or bodies of dogs, chickens, rats, and other animals which themselves escape the infliction. In short, any solid body may re- tain, and be a bearer of, this contagion. Fortu- nately, it does not spread to any extent in the atmosphere. Nothing is more common than to find a herd on one side of a road struck down by the disease, while another in a field on the oppo- site side of the road remains perfectly healthy. It may be carried by a strong wind in the form of a virulent saliva, or the virus may dry up on light bodies, such as paper, hay, etc., which are afterwards borne off by the wind. It may be carried by men or animals, or by water running from the diseased to the healthy lot ; but, in the absence of such agencies, the breadth of a com- mon road is amply sufficient to circumscribe the disease Cloven-footed animals appear to be the natural victims of this disease, and all species are about equally obnoxious to its attacks; but it may be communicated to many if not all other warm-blooded animals by inoculation or by con- tact of the. virulent discharges with the mucous membranes. Its transmission to man has been noticed during almost every great outbreak since that of 1695. It has been reported, among others, by Valentine, Nadberny, Levitzky, Kolb, Hert- wig,' Rayer, Bosquet, Londe, Levigny, Dun- dussy, Hilbner, Holmes, Balfour, Karkeek .and Watson. Cases of the disease in man have been seen in Albany and at South Dover, Dutchess county, N. Y., during the present outbreak. It shows itself in man by slight feverishness, and the formation on the tongue and inside the lips and cheeks, and sometimes on the hands, of small blisters, rarely amounting to t)ie bulk of a lentil. In children and young animals, feeding exclusively on milk, diarrhcea and fatal inflam- mation of the stomach and bowels occasionally supervene. It is further to be dreaded that the malady, gaining a lasting hold on the dairies of our large cities, may swell the list of mortality of the infant population by inducing those fatal diaiThoeas and enteritis reported by Hiibner, Bal- four and Watson. Its existence in horses is reported .by Sagar, Cleaver and Laubender, but the susceptibility of the soliped is very slight, and he can probably be affected only by inocula- tion. In chickens it has been frequently noticed — among others, by Hennicke, Sagar, Lamber- licchi, Dickens and Youatt. Chickens were attacked in December, 1870, on the farm of Mr. Eighmie, La Grange, Dutchess county, N. Y. The drinking of the castaway milk is probably the common cause. Dogs and cats have been noticed by Lagar, Younghu.'^band and others, to suffer from drinking the milk. A shepherd's dog at Mr. Eighmie's suffered from the disease, and another, Mr. Preston's, South Dover, N. Y., had only partially recovered when seen by th& writer. The victims maj- usually be picked out from a herd, twelve to twenty -four hours before they show distinct signs of the disease, by the increase of temperature indicated by a clinical thermometer introduced into the rectum and retained there for three minutes. In cattle the eruption may be concentrated on the mouth (including the muzzle and nostrils), on the udder and teats, or on the space between the hoofs, though it usually attacks all of these parts sim- ultaneously, and in rare cases even extends to the general integument or to the mucous membrane of the throat, stomach and bowels, or other inter- nal organs. The symptoms are slight shivering or roughness of the coat, neglect of feeding and rumination, redness, heat, swelling and tender- ness of the pasterns, teats and mouth, arching of the back, and a crouching, hesitating gait, accumulation of a white froth around the mar- gin of the lips, and a loud smacking noise made by the tongue and lips. On the second or third day the blisters may be seen on the gums, on the dental pad behind the upper lip, on the tongue, on the teats, and around the upper borders of the hoofs and between them. In twenty-four to thirty-six hours more (sometimes at once) these burst, the cuticle is detached, and raw pink sores are left, most noticeable on the mouth and teats. With care the process of healing goes on rapidly, and is completed about the fifteenth day. Com- plications are rare, unless as the result of neglect, and consist in inflammation and loss of the udder ; extensive formation of matter beneath the hoofs, causing them to be shed; extension of disease to the sinews, bones and joints of the foot, with wide-spread destniction of parts; eruption on the stomach and bowels, with dangerous or fatal inflammation ; or implication of the womb with abortion or long-continued weakening discharges. In sheep the feet are mainly affected, and the malady bears a strong resemblance to foot-rot, and, under neglect, may merge into this. Swine also suffer severely in the feet, and, as they are too commonly neglected and left to stand on mud and filth, shedding of the hoofs is frequent. When the mouth suffers they champ the jaws, and frothy saliva collects around the lips. Losses can only be estimated by considering that every ruminating animal and hog exposed to the poison will almost invariably contract the disease ; also, that the poison may be dried up in barns and elsewhere without losing its vitality or vinilence, and thus be preserved for months and years. The depreciation of ordinary store and feeding stock, which have passed through the affection, may be approximately stated at |5 to $10 per head — sheep and swine at relatively smaller amounts; but for dairy stock no such low esti- mates can be accepted. Then there are frequent consequences of loss of the bag, or of the hoofs, abortions, and chronic discharges from the womb, which unfit the subjects for dairy purposes ; and lastly, internal complications and fatal results. Such results imply serious losses for individuals, counties or States; but the great danger lies in the possible migration of the disease out west. APHTHA 48 APPLE and its final diffusion throughout the States. This is much less unlikely than was its importa- tion from Europe nine months ago. We had then the safeguard of a restriction on direct im- portation ; but now let a valuable Short-horn be sent from Massachusetts or New York, to Min- nesota, Illinois, Missouri, Kansas or Texas; let him contract the disease on the roads or railroad cars, and convey it to the stock among which he is sent, and the chances are that all the more eastern States will suffer in turn. The aggregate loss in such a case would be virtually incalcu- lable, and if the disease gained a permanent foot- ing among us it would be liable to occur more or less widely at intervals of a few years . Under the head of treatment little need be said. Keep- ing the bowels open b}^ soft diet, or, if necessary, mild laxatives, administering nourishing gruels if the adimal threatens to sink, and keeping the seat of eruption scrupulously clean, will usually suffice. No vaunted preparations for the cure of the disease will really cut it short, as it passes through its successive stages, and ter- minates in recovery in ten to fifteen days, the time at which the venders of specifics claim that a cure can be effected. A dry floor must be t secured, with perfect cleanliness, and the sores may be washed daily with a preparation of one part of carbolic acid dissolved in fifty or a hun- dred parts of water. For the teats, glycerine may advantageously replace the water. The milk must be fully withdrawn, using a silver milking tube if the teats are sore and the cow restive. Importation of ruminants and swine from all countries where it exists should be allowed only under the restrictions of a week's ■quarantine, examination by a competent veter- inary surgeon, and sponging of the skin with a solution of carbolic acid. Diseased stock should be carefully secluded, together with infected barns, yards, fields, fodder, rugs, buckets and other utensils. One person should be appointed to attend to them, and forbidden to go near other stock, or even to cross the road or other place I frequented by stock, until he has washed his I boots with the carbolic acid solution. All other persons and animals should be excluded. In- spectors should wash and disinfect on leaving. Infected roads should be closed for a month at least. In infected countries or districts, all movements of live stock (cattle, sheep and swine) should be prohibited except under a written permit from the local authority, who should assure himself of their soundness before granting it. Railroad cars, yards, and loading-banks on which diseased stock have been, should be well washed or scraped, and then thickly sprinkled with carbolic acid. A similar thorough disinfec- tion of infected buildings, yards, utensils, rugs, etc., is equally essential. Manure should be removed and plowed under by horses. No new stock should be brought on the same promises until after thorough disinfection, nor upon in- fected fields until one or more months after the last sick animal has left. While the disease pre- vails in the same State, or in an adjacent one, newly purchased stock should be placed on quar- antine, in a separate building or park, with sep- arate attendants, for a fortnight after purchase. During the prevalence of the disease the milk can not be safely used, but to young animals it may be given with impunity if it has first been boiled. The following will be found useful in the treatment of this disease: As a laxative, give a half povmd of Epsom salts (sulphate magnesia); as an astringent wash, use one ounce each of borax and tincture of myrrh and one quart of water; if there is a bad smell, use one drachm carbolic acid, two ounces honey, one pint each of vinegar and vvater. As a lotion for the teats, use one-half drachm carbolic acid and ten ounces glycerine ; as a dressing for the feet, apply, with a feather, one ounce of oil of vitriol, slowly poured into four ounces of water, first cleans- ing the feet. After dressing, tie up the feet in a tar bandage. The hind feet are easily dressed if two men raise each separately with a, long, stout fork handle, passed in front of the hock. In dressing the feet all detached horn should be removed and a poultice applied if inflamma- tion runs high. Soft cold mashes or thinly sliced or pulped roots are the best food throughout. APHYLLUS. Leafless; without fully devel- oped green leaves. APIARY. A bee-house. (See Bees.) APIS. The generic name of the bee. APOCARPOUS. When the carpels of a fruit do not hang together. APOCRENIC ACID. (See Humus ) APOPHYSIS. A protuberance, process, or projection. In anatomy, restricted to processes of the osseous system. APOPLEXY. This disease is rare in horses. Giddiness, megrims and vertigo are diseases of the brain analagous to apoplexy, occasioning loss of control of the muscles, loss of sensation, and slight spasms of the muscles, but without the exhibition of inflammation. The causes are over- work, tight collars, exposure to the sun, local irritation, as of worms, and hereditary tendency. The animal suddenly stops, reels, trembles, and perhaps falls suddenly to the ground, but again, after a time, staggering to his feet, and showing excitement and nervousness for some days. Remedial means are to bleed from the jugular vein, put the horse in a stable and give an active purge. In all diseases of this class, to which ^ animals are subject, care should be taken that no arteries are pressed upon, and that the collar and harness are easy. The special cause should be found if this does not give relief — a veterinary surgeon alone being competent to determine. When it occurs in a stallion, castration often avoids these difficulties. Any form of apoplexy constitutes unsoundness, and an animal afflicted is dangerous to himself and driver. APOTHECIUM. The shield of lichens. APPLE. Pyrn» malm. This is the most im- portant of the fruits of the temperate zone The time when it was first brought into cultivation is lost in the obscurity of the past. It is, without doubt, one. of the most ancient of fruits culti- vated, since it is found in the remains of the lake dwellings of the Neolithic period, having then been apparently cultivated. Again, its name, as found in most Indo-European lan- guages, is derived from a common root, Ab., Ap., Al , Av., Af. , implying its transmission successively from its original place of cultiva- tion, or home, through numerous tribes. It has one of the widest ranges of any fruit, being found in nearly the whole of Europe, Northern Africa, Northern Asia, China, Japan, in North America and in South Amenca, being abundant in Southern Chili. It is also found in Australia. In fact, wherever civilization. extends, and the "^-v CANADA REINETTE. (49) APPLE 50 climate is temperate, there this king of fruits may be found. In the United States, apple orchards are cultivated from Florida to Alaska Even at Sitka It blossoms the first of June, but does not usually perfect its fruit. It isheld to be descended from the wild crab of Europe, but the Siberian crab, and most probably the Russian apples, are descendants of the Pyrus prunifolia. The wild crab-apples of the United States are as follows. Pyrus augustifolia (Ait.), or American crab-apple, is found growing wild in Pennsylvania, south- ward and westward; supposed by some to be only a variety of P. coronaria (Linn.) is the common crab-apple of the United States, found growing in glades, in the forests, and in thickets in the edges of groves. The fruit is variable, intensely sour, but it makes excellent preserves and jellies, and rich cider, with the addition of sugar and water. (See GaUizing.) Some Western varieties are as large as a black-walnut. Pyrus Americana (S. C.) AMBBICAN ORAE-APPLE. is the American Mountain Ash. (See Ash.) Pyrus rimlaria (Doug.) or Oregon crab-apple, is found in Oregon and the Rocky mountains. It is a small tree, ranging from California on the Pacific coast, northwards, even into Alaska. The fruit is the size of a cherry, is used by the Indians as food, and is not unpalatable. The cultivation of the apple in the United States is almost as universal as husbandry itself. Nearly every farm, however small, has its orchard, and many extensive plantations are devoted princi- pally to this fruit. More than this, almost every person who owns or cultivates a garden, or vil- lage lot, has one or more trees. As an article of commerce it has assumed large proportions, being shipped extensively to England and the Continent of Europe, even from so far west as Michigan. It is also shipped to the North from the South early in the season, and again it is shipped to the South from the North later, since apples grown north keep through the winter much better and later than those grown south. It is only within the last 200 years that syste- matic attempts have been made in improving the quality of fruit by raising new and superior seedlings, and propagating them by grafting. And it is only within the last 100 years that varieties have multiplied, adapted to very early and very late ripening. It is probable that with- apple; in the last forty years, more superior varieties- have been given to the world than in all previous time heretofore. The apple may be propagated in a variety of ways — from seed, from cuttings, and by any of the many systems of budding and grafting. That they may come true to their kind, however, it is necessary that they be pro- pagated by some one of the three last-mentioned ways, since if the seed is planted, the chances^ are against more than one in five hundred or a thousand plants proving superior fruit. The most usual and successful manner of propa- gation is by grafting, which see. Much diffi- culty has been experienced in the West in th& cultivation of apple orchards, from the propaga- tion of varieties unsuited to the soil and climate, and much loss and discouragement ensued in con- sequence. The horticultural societies of the several States, have narrowed down the list of profitable sorts out of the many thousands of varieties on the catalogues, to comparatively a few, with directions as to soils, situations, etc., adapted to special va- rieties. The reader is referred to the transac- tions of the horticult- ural societies of his- State for such list, since those doing well in one locality or State, might, not do so in another. As an indication of va- rieties, we append the list adopted by the American Pomological Society, for the several sections of country and latitudes named. The plan is shown on the following . pages. We give illustrations, on pages 49, 51, 64, of four apples noted for quality or hardiness: Canada Reinette, Early Joe and Grimes' Golden, are fine in quality, and Tetof ski, hardy even far north, and a good cooking apple. It may be interesting to some of our readers ta know that the Mountain Ash belongs to the same class as apples and pears. The arrangement of the names of varieties in the cata- logue is alphabetical and according to the nomenclai ure adopted by the society. Synonyms are given in a few instances where it seemed necessary, and these are placed under the adopted names in italics. The columns are arranged thus: In the first, the names of varieties, in the next seven columns the description, and in the remain- ing columns the States or districts. The State or district columns are not placed in alphabetical order, but are- grouped in divisions somewhat similar in climate, and other characters affecting fruit culture. Thus: 1, Northern division, between 43° and 49°; «, Central division be- tween 35° and 42°; 3, Southern division, between 28° and 35°. The State or district in which a ft-uit is recommended for cultivation is designated by a star (*) and if the variety is of great superiority and value, two stats (**), if new and recently introduced and promising, by a dagger (t). Explanaiion of abbreviations: The size is nn|fer- Btood by 1. for large ; m. for medium, and s. for small. Theform— r.c. for roundish conical; ob. for oblong; r ob for roundish oblate; fl. for flat or oblate; r. for roundish The color— y. r. for yellow and red; r. s. for red striped; g. y. for sreenish yellow; rus. for russetted; y. rus. for- yellow russet. The quality ~g. for good;, v. g. for very good; b. for best. The use— F. fruit valuable for all family purposes; K. M. valuable for kitchen or market purposes ; F. M. family and market. The season— S for summer; E. A. for early autumn; L. A. for late autumn, and W. for winter. Rus. is for Russian; Bng., English - Am., American; Ger., German; F., Foreign. ' TETOPSKI. (51) APPLES 53 APPLES NAa GS. Alereon's Early Ale'xaudei' American Beauty American Golden Pippin American Summer Pearmain Arnold'e Beauty Aromatic Carolina Autumn Bough i Autumnal Swaar Bailey Sweet Baker Baldwin Baltimore (Cable's Gilliilower. Mahaska.) Baltzley Beauty of Kent Beldeu Sweet Belmont ~ Ben Davib (New York Pippin.) Bi-uoni Bentlej^'s Sweet Berkshire Spy Bethlehemite Bevaii's Favorite Black Apple (Jersey Black.) Blackshear Blenheim Pippin Blue Pearmain Boniim Bourassa Bower's Nonpareil Bowling's Sweet Broadwell Brittle Sweet Brown (Nottingham Brown.) Bruce's Summer Buckingham (Fall Queen of Kentucky, Bachelor, Equinetely.) Buff. Bufflngton's Early Bullock's Pippin (American Golden Euaset.) Burlington Pippin Calkins' Pippin Camak Sweet Campfleld Canada Reinette Cannon Pearmain Carolina Bed June ., . . . Carolina Watson Carter's Blue Cane Creek Sweet Chatt.ihoochee Chenango Strawberry (Sherwood's Favorite.) Clark's Pearmain Cliyton Clyde Beauty Cooper Cooper's Market Cooper's Early White Cogswell Cole's Quince DESCRIPTION. r. ob. r. ob, OD. tt. fl. r. c. r. ob, r. c. r. ob r. c. r. c. r. ob. r. ob. r. ob. r. ob. fl. c. fl. r. ob, r. c. r. ob r. c. fl. r. ob, r. ob, fl. r. c. fl. c. r. c. r. ob. r. ob. r. c. r. c. r. c. fl. 0. r, ob. r. fl. ob. c, r. ob. r. c. r. ob r. c. r. r. ob, r. ob r. 8. y. r. g- y- y r- y-r. y. r. g. y. g- y- r. B. y.r. I'-g. r. y. y.r. y.r. y.r. g- y- r, s. y-r- d. r. y- y-r. r. y-r. y-r. y.r. y.r. g- y- r. s. r. s. y.r. y-r. y- y. ruB, y.r. y-r- y. g-r. g- y- r. s. r. s. g-y-r. g-r- y- y- g-r. y- y.r. g-r. g-y- y-r. y- yr. g- y- v-g. g- v-g- V- v-g- v-g- v-g- V. g. f-g- v-g- v-g- g- g- t g- v-g- v-g- \'- g- g. g- v-g- g- v-g. g- v.g. g- V. g- v-g- v-g- v-g- g- v-g- g- g- g. v-g. ''•■g- v-g- g- v-g- g- g- v.g- v-g- g- g- K. K.M. P.M. P.M. P. P. P. P. P. F. M. K.M. P.M. P.M. F. M. K.M. P. P.M. K.M. P.M. P.M. P. F. M. P. P. P.M. P.M. M. M. M. P.M. M. P.M. P. P.M. P.M. P. F. F. M, P. M, F. M, P. M, M.K. P. M, P. P.M. M. P.M. P. M. P.M. M. P.M. P. M, M. M. M. F. M, F. M, S. E. A. W. W. S. w. A. E.A. L. A. L. A. W. W. W. A. L. A. W. W. W. S. w. B.W. W. S. w. w. w. w. L. A. L. A. W. L. A. L. A. E.A. L. A. S. E.W. W. S. W. w. w. w. w. w. w. S. s. E.A. s. w. E.A. W. W. w. L. A, W. A. W. W. Am. Rus. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Eng. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Eng. Am. Ger. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. N. S. Am. Am. P. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. I I ^ 2 Moderate bearer; showy. 5 Slender grower, but healthy. 13 A hardy tree; very productive. 15 A coarse, showy fruit. 17 Pine lor table; too tender to ship. 18 Valuable shipping sort. SO Pine winter variety. 22 Resembles Newtown Sp 27 Liable to drop, at the West. APPLES 53 APPLES NORTHERN DIVISION. Between 42° and 49°. 11 —CENTRAL DIVISION. Between SS"* and 42°. .n.-SOUTH. DIVISION. Between 28'* and 35*^. XI S P ;? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 IB 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 28 24 26 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 36 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 B6 57 58 59 1 S > * * ** * * * i o 1 * * * * * * * * if * * * •• ** * ■6 a * ** * * D O i a 6 t t + * * * * * * ** * + * t V * * * * * * * * * * * * 1 5 o * * * ** * * * * * □ y. Id o * * * * * ** * * * * * V * * * * * * * p a * * * * 4 s a * i 5 be d a o 3 1 S 1 * ** * .2 '5 a _> "F" d a * * * ** * V * * * ** >> Si ** * * * 6 a * '* * * B fi as ■a d & * * * * * * * " d '3& ;^ * * * * * * * * ** * * d 1 C3 o o d * * * * * ** * •■ ** * * * * * * * * * * * c3 n c3 d * ** ** ** * * ** * * * * * ;; * * s9 3 & > * d ** ** ** ** ** 6 i n d Eh * ** •• ** ** * o .9 * ** * * * * ** ** * * ** * e3 & * HP * *# * * * * a o CO * * * ** M ** t * + ** ** t 1 d e3 ** * + ** * * * * 4 s o § p * * * 'd 53 "d l^ *« * * v * * * * * * * ■I- * =3' d 1 u 3 CD * ** ** ** ** * * ** ** ** 1 * * ** ** * * ** * * * S3 < * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 4 5r ■A d -a d M 1 < * * * * * * ** ** ** a .5" 'S 1 * * * * oi d c3 "s c * ** ** * * ** * * ** * ** ** * * * ** * ** * * ** * * e3 X B * * * ** * * ** * * 6 'A ai § 43 Valued for stock and cider. 46 Esteemed South and West. 48 Valued at the South. APPLES 54 APPLES NAMES. Colvert Cornell's Fancy Cracking Creek Cross Cullasaga Curtis Sweet , Danvers' Winter Sweet Dean Disharoon Dominie Drap d'Or Dutch Mignoune Dnchess of Oldenburg Dyer, or Pomme Eoyal Early Har< est Early Ked Margaret Early Joe Early Pennock Early Strawberry Early Eipe Edgar Ked Streak (Walbridge.) Edwards' Early English BusBett ■ (Pou^hkeepsie Rnsset.) Esopus Spitzeuberg Eustis Eutaw Evening Party Ewalt Excel ■ Fallawater (Fornwalder, Tiilpehocken.) Fall Harvey FallJenneting Fall Orange FallPippin (Holland Pippin, erroneously.) Fall Queen, or Mass. Gros Pommier Fall Wine Fameuse (Pomme de Neige, Snow Apple.) Family Fanny Ferdinand Fereis Pink Fourth of July Foust'B Winter Foundling i Fulton Gabriel Garden Eoyal Garretson's Early Gilpin (CarthouBe, Little Eomanite.) Gladney's Bed Goff Golden Dixie Golden Busset, of Western New York. . Golden Sweet Granite Beauty Gravenstein Green Cheese Green Sweet Grimes' Golden DESCBIPTION. r. ob, 00. r. ob, 11. c. r. ob, r. c. r. c. r. ob 11. r. c. r. ob, r. ob, r. ob, r. ob. r. r. ob. ob. r. ob. 11. r. ob. c. r. ob, fl. r. r. ob, ob. c, r. ob, r. ob fl. fl. r. fl. fl. r. ob. r. ob, fl. r. ob, r. ob. r, c. r. c. r. fl. r. ob r. ob, r. r. ob. r. ob, fl. r. ob. r. ob, y-r. K- y-r. K- y- K- •V. I-- v.g r. e. V. K y. >-■ K- y. r. K- K. y. V. g r. s. v.g. S- K- S.r. V. g y. V. g. r. s. K- y-r. K- K- y- V. g fe'- y- v.g y-r. r. 8. y. !■■ y-r- g- y- g- y- g- y- y-r. g- y- y. r. r. y. y. r. o. y. y-r. y. r. r. 8. y-r. g- y- r. y. y-r. y- y-r- b. g- v-g- g- v.g. b. V. 2. V. g. g- g- g- g- v-g- V. g- V. g- v-g- g- g- g- g- P. M, F. M, K. P. M, P.M. M. K. F. M. P.M. F. M. P.M. F. M. M. P. P. M. P.M. F. M. P. P. P. P.M. P. P.M. M. P.M. M. M. M. K.M. P.M. P.M. P. P.M. M. P. M. P. M M. M. P. M. M. P. K. i A. M. ; V. L. A L. A, L. A, W. S. W. L. A.. W. E. A. A. W. S. W. S. E.A. S. S. S. S. S. S. W. W. W. E W. A. W. W. W. w. L. A. E.A. L. A. L. A. A. L. A. W. S. s. A. W. L.W. S. w. A. W. L. A. S, r. 8. g- y-r. V. g. g- y. v-g. y.rue. v-g. g- y- v.g. y-r. g- .y-r- v.g- g-.V- V-K- g- y- g- g- y- V. g. i*. >] K.M. F. M. F. M. F. M. F. M. F. M. F. M. K.M. F. v\ . S. S. W. s. w. L. A. W. w. w. Am, Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am, Am, Ger. Ger, Rus. F. Am. Ger. Am, Am. Am. Am. Am. Am, Eng. Am. Am. Am, Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am, Am. Am. Am. Am. F. Am, Am. Am. Am. Am. Gtir. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. ^m. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Ger. Am, Am. Am. 70 Productive and hardy. 73 One of the moet hardy varieties. 74 Valued for dessert. 75 Sncceede best on strong soils. 77 A delicious table sort: tree of small growth. 78 Popular market sort. 79 Continues a long time ripening; often called EBd Juneating, APPLES 55 APPLES NORTHERN DIVISION. Between 42° and 49°. II.-CENTRAL DIVISION. Between 35*' and 42°. III.-SOUTH. DIVISION. Between 28° and 35". 1 1 60 61 68 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 7S 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 ■82 83 84 85 86 87 88 ^89 90 •91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 10:j 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 118 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 1 V > * * ** * * * * * ** * ** * * X 3 1 * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * 3 I V -a o g * * * * ** :: * ** * a 3 t * ** '• * ** V o % * * * * * * ** * * * * * ** ** * * * * ■■ ** ** ** * + d * ** * * * ;: * * ■ * * i '% * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * ■ ■ * * R § ** ** ** ** .. ;; ** s g * * lie* :: 1 P n 1 a 1 6 1 o ! * * * * * 1 a 1 o * * * * * 5 a & ** * * * * * * *■ * * * * * * * * 'i V & CD * * * * * * ** * ** * * 3 y Q a ai ? 3J ■& ** ** * * * ** * * 2 a > _ * * * * * * ** ** * * * * * * S3 B o ;; ■• * 6 .3 o * * :; ■* * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * a a * * * * * V * ** * v > g til ** ** ** ** * * * ** :«:* ** P ** ** ** .^ ** o PI — ** ** * * * if * ** ** v ** * * 1 * ** ** ** * * ** ** * * ** * * * ** O <» 'X * * * * * * * * ** * * 1 o ;; * * t * * * t * ** if * ** * * * * * ** * * * * ** * * 1 i 1 * * * * * * * # * * * * * * * ♦ 1 > * .5 1 * ** * * * ** ** * * ** * * * * d O o 1 CQ * * * * ** * * ** 2 * * ** * * ** * ;; * + * * ** B * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * c3 i -3 E ■■ i g ■a < * ** ** ** 1 * * * * * * * a "3 * * * * * * * * ** * * ** * * * * * ** ** * * ** * * ** ** * ** d o § N <1 97 102 A hardy tree; one of the best for the North and West. Valuable as a very late keeper. 103 Very hardy tree and handsome fruit. 108 Of a delicious pear flavor. 117 Ripens early and keeps 118 One of the best South. late. APPLES 56 APPLES NAMES. DESCRIPTION. I.— Si S .2 03 1 o 5 E3 oi e o3 as * * * 1 I- 1 ■a * + t' i a i 121 123 Gully , Hall m. 8. 1. m. m. 1. 6. m. e. m. 1. m. m. m. 1. 1. in. 1. m. m. m. m. m. m. m. 111. m. 1. m. r. m. m. 11. fl. r. fl. r. ob; r. ob. r. r. c. r, r. ob. r. V. ob. r. fl. r. r. c. r. ob. ob. 1-. ob. r. r. ob. r. ob. r. r. ob. r. c. fl. c, r. ob. 1". c. r. c. r. c. r. fl. g- y- y. r. r.y. g. y. g- y- r. s. y. r. y.r- g- y. y-r- g- .V- y-r- y-r- g-1-- y-r- y. r. y. nis. y- y- r- r. B. y. ■■- y-1'- y-r- r. y-r- w. r. g- y-r- j-yUr g- y- y-r- v-g- v-g. g- v.g. g. g- ^■ v-g- v-g. g- g- g- v-g- v-g- g- V. g. y.g. v.g. g- V. g. g- v-g- V. g- g- g- v°g- g- g- g- v-g- g- F. p. F. M. F. K.M. M. Cider P. If. M. K. K.M. K. P.M. P.M. K.M. P.M. P.M. P.M. P.M. P.M. P. M. P.M. P.M. P. M. P.M. K. P.M. M. P.M. K.M. !■■. M. P.M. W. W. A. E.A. E.A. W. L. A. L. A. S. w. L. A. W. W. L.W. S. w. w. w. L. A. E.W. •w. E.A. E.A. W. W. S. W. L. A, A. E.A. E.W. W. w. w. E.A. E.A. W. W. W. S. L. A. W. W. W. W. E.A. E.A. E.A. W. W. W. E.A. W. W. W. W. W. W. w. Am. Am. Am. Am. F. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. F. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Eng. Am. Am. 12S 184 Haskell Sweet 185 Hawthorndeu 186 127 198 •129 Hightop Sweet .... 130 131 133 Holly . . 133 134 (Black Coal.) Horn 135 Horse ... ... 136 (Haas.) 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 Kentiickv Red Streak ... 150 (Bradford's Best.) 151 152 Kinnaird''s Choice 153 154 1. m. m. r. ob. fl. fl. r. r. fl. ob. 1. r. ob. r. ob. I'. fl. r. c. r. r. 1-. fl. r. Of. r. ob. r. ob. r. fl. r. fl. r. c. fl. fl. r. ob. r. c. y. r- g- y- y-r- y-r- y-r. y-r- g-y- y-r- V. r. y-1'- ruf. y.r. g- y-. g- y- .1-'- y- g-r. y. 1-- y-r- y-r- y. r- g-r. r. f . y-i- y-r- y-1'- g. r- v-g- g- g- v.g. v.g. g- v.g- v-g- v-g. g- g- •••- g- g- g- v.g. v.g. v.g. v.g. v.g. v.g. v-g. v-g. g- v-g- g- P. M. K.M. K.M. P.M. P.M. M. P.M. P.M. P.M. M. K. M. P.M. P.M. K.M. P.M. P.M. P.M. P.M. P.M. P.M. P. P.M. P.M. M. P.M. Am. Am. F. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am, Am. Am. Am. 1 Am. Am. Am. Am, Am. Am, Am. Am, N. S. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. * t .. * * 155 156 157 158 1. m. 1. m. 1. m. m. 1. 1. 1. m. 1. m. m. in. 1. 1. m. m." 8. m. m. 159 160 Lnneingburg 161 (Summer Sweet Bougli.) 162 (Autumn Strawberry.) 163 164 165 166 167 (Orange, Tallow Pippin, Queen Anne, Michigan Gol- den Pippin.) 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 * 176 178 179 Maxy 125 One of the most profitable of 137 A hardy tree and fine fruit. Sup- 143 Very valuable for market or stock. market sorts. . 127 Valued only for cider. ■128 A delicious dessert apple. Sosed to be identical with Gol- en Eusset of Mass., but not fully decided. 163 Hardy and productive southwest. 168 A profltable market sort. 172 A valued sweet apple. APPLES 57 APPLES NORTHERN DIVISION. Between 42° and 49°. U.-CENTRAL DIVISION. Between 35° and 42". III.-SOUTH. DmSION. Between 28° and 35°. Si 1 121 12a 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 13l> 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 1T5 176 177 178 179 a o g > * ** :: * * * * V * if ** * B 'qj 3 X3 § 1 s * V * ** * * * * ** * * * ■a P * * * ** * * * 3 i a a 6 ** t t ** * * * ** * * * * ** * ** ** * * * ** * * * It: * * * * 1 a * * * * * * a ZL % * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * a 1 $ * A? * * B m to a n * -■ * * a 1 s c o S3 ■a t + * 1 _> '>^ 1 & * ** ** * * * * * * * * ** * * * #* i 1 * * o J o C ■a q etj * il-- * * ** ;> * * * * * * * * ** ** * * * 1 a o a * d * * * * * ** * * * * * * ** as fl Id ■3 a * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** !3 a > ta * * * ** 6 ** *u ** * * ** ** ** 3) P g ** t * ** ** ** * * ** 5 p * * ** t t ** * * * * * + * * & O >:: * * * ** * * * * t ** ** 3 g * * * * * * * * .n * * * * ** * t ** * 1 * * *■ * * * ** 4 S ■i * * * * * * * * * V 03 o * * * * * * * * * 03 B o p o * ** ** ** * ** * ** v if* g * ** * * * * t * * V * si s •a < * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * 03 O P p 1 03 P S3 < ** * * 1 i * * * * ! 03" 3 P 3 f* * * ** *:; * * * ** * * * * * * * * ** * * * ** * * ** * * * 1 1 1 i M * * ** ** * * M V i < 173 A seeding from Eamho, which it resembles. APPLES 58 APPLES DESCRIPTION. NAMES. McAfee's Nonsuch (Large Striped Pearmain.) McLellan Mellinger Melon . Mexico Milam , Milden, or Milding Minister .' Monmouth Pippin (Bed Cheek Pippin.) Moore's Sweet Mother Munson Sweet (Orange Sweet.) Nansemond Beauty Newtown Pippin (Albemarle Pippin, Brook's Pippin.) Newtown Spitzenberg. '. (Vandevere, of New York.) Nickajack Nonpareil Russet Northern Spy Northampton Oconee (greening . . . Ohio Nonpareil Orange Pippin Ortley . (White Bellflower. Woodman's Long.) Otoe Red Streak Peach Pond Sweet Peck's Pleasant Perry Russet Pewaukee Phillip's Sweet Pickard's Reserve Pilot. Pittsburgh Pippin Pleasant Valley Pippin . Plumb's Cider Fomme Grise Porter . Premium President Primate Progress Frother'B Winter Pryor's Red Pumpkin Sweet (Lyman's Pumpkin Sweet.) Pyle'e Red Winter Ramsdell's Sweet Rambo Eawle's Genet Red Astrachan Red Canada (Old Nonsuch, Richfield Nonsuch, Steele's Red Winter of some.) Red Cathead Red Crab Red Ranee Red Winter Pearmain (Buncombe.) Red Stripe Rhode Island Greening Rhodes' Orange Ribston Pippin - •• ■• r. ob. r. c. ■. ob. •. ob. r. ti. ob. fl. ■. ob. r. ob. r. ob. r. ob. r. ob. r. r. c. fl. ob. r. ob. ob. ob. r. ob. fl. r. r. c. fl. r. 0*^. r. ob. r. ob. fl. r. ob. r. c. r. ob. ob. r. c. ob, . (i. ob. r. ob. r.obl. r. ob, ob. fl. r. c. r, r. ob. y. r. r. t*. y. r. r. s. g- y- y. r. r. p. y. g- y.r. r. s. y- y.r. y- g- y- y.r. r. s. g- y- rus. r. 8. r. y. g-y.r. g- y- g- y- g-y-r- y. rus. g- y- y- y- g- y- y- y.r. y.r. y- r. s. y.r. y.r. y.r. y.r. y.r. & r. ob. r. ob. ob. c. r. ob. r. ob. y.r. y.r. g. y. y.r. >■'■. V. g. v. g. V- V. g. g- v.g. g- v.g- I g- V. g- v-g- v.g. v.g. v.g. v.g. v.g. v.g. g- g. v.g. g- v.g. v.g. v.g. v.g. f; g- g. v.g. v.g. g. v.g. P.M. F. M. F. M. F. M. F. M, K.M. F. M. K.M. F. M. K. F. M. ii.M. P. M, F. U. P.M. F. M. F. M, F. M. F. F. M. P.M. F. M. F. M. F. F. M, P.M. F. M. P. M. F. F. M. F. M. F. M, K.M, P. F. M, F. M, F. F. P.M. F. M. F. M. K.M. F. M. K.M. P.M. F. M. K.M. F. M. W. W. E.W. W. A. W, A.W. L,. A. W. W. W. L. A. W. W. W. W. W. W. E.W. A. L. A. A. W. W. A. W. W. W. W. W. W, W. W. A. W. W. E.W, A. E. A. W. L.W, W. E.W, W. L. A. L. A. W. S. W. v.g. g. v.g. P.M. Cider P. M, F. M, K.M. P. M. F. F. M. L. A. L. A. E.W W. S. w. S. w. Am. Am. Am. Am, Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Eng. Am. Am, Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. F, Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. L— Am. Am. Am. F.' Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Eug. 183 One of the most delicious apples ; tree a poor grower. 190 Esteemed where known. 195 This apple is known South and West 202 An old variety: extensively by over forty different names. planted at the West twenty 200 Esteemed where known. or more years since. APPLES 59 APPLES 2T0RTHERN DIVISION. Between 42" and 49°. II.— CENTRAL DIVISION. Between 35'' and 42°. III.— SOUTH. DIVISION. Between 28° and 35". 1 180 181 18S 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 SCO 201 -202 203 204 205 206 207 208 Tim 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 2® 2i6 227 228 329 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 c > * .. * .. '' ■• * ** .. * * ** + d •s si * * * * * ** ■ ** ■■1 1 .1 ¥* ■a a a a 1 * * * _ * * * 1 ¥■* \ .^ O a Q 6 ■ ■ • * ■ ■ * t ** * ■ -1 "i 1 V * if * * * * ** * * ** * ** * v. * * * * * * ** * .. f* ■1 N* I 6 fl O * * * * # * ** "l * i 3 * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * *+ ** '\ * 1 a 'E fl i * * * * * ** g ■ ■ •■ ;; • • * 1 :: ;i '1 a a S o o S d o be a si * * •■ .. * [ i 1 o •■ * ** * * * i ■ 1 '3 *?) p * * * * # * T * * * ** * * ** 1-3 1 * 1 = P T3 P ea ■a 1 H * * * * ** * * * * * ** * ** ** 'B > * * * * * ** * * * ** * S3 B o a o 6 Id O * * * v * * * * * ** * * * * * ** ** * * a a * * * * *- * * * ** * * * * * * ■■ a ■a * ** 1 * P ** * * * * :: ■■ ■■ ** ** * ** ** i p p * * ** * * * * 'o p * * * * * if* * * ** ** ** & O * ;; ** ** .. ** p o * * ** * V * * * ** * M 1 V 1- # V * V * * * p * * * * ** ** 6 i a 4 * * * * * a =9 g 1 o * * ** * * * ;; •■ ** * * * * * * =3- B 1 s j3 P O * ** ** * ** ** 1 * 03 * * * * * ** * * * * * * * 03 1 p ■ ■ i CD P as * ** * 1 .s •• ;; * P * ** * * * * * ** ** ** * **■■ * c3 M ** * ** 6 a) i 214 220 A new variety; originated in Nebraslta. 230 A tree of small growtli; succeeds well at the Nortli. 232 Valued chiefly for its keeping qaallties. Best of all for cider. Extensively grown South and West. APPLES 60 APPLES. NAMES. Richard's Graft Ridge Pippin Robmson'B Superb Robertsou'e White Rock Pippin (Lemon.) Rockport Sweet Romanite, of the South Roman Stem Rome Beauty Roxbury RusBet Saint Lawrence Sarah Saxton . .■ (Pall Stripe.) heppard's Sweet Shiawassee Beauty Snockley Smith's Cider Smokehouse Somerset, of Maine Somerset, of New York Sops of Wine (Hominy.) Sonlard Southern Porter Spice Russet Stansill Stark Stevenson's Winter Summer Bellfleur Summer Hagloe Summer King Summer Queen Summer Pound Royal Summer Pippin (Champlain.) Summer Rose Summer Sweet Paradise Susan's Spice Sutton Beauty Striped Sweet Pippin Swaar Sweet Belle et Bonne Sweet Pear Sweet Winesap ' Taunton Tetof sky Tewksbury Winter Blush Tillaquah Tinmouth Talman'B Sweet Towneend (Hocking.) Transparent Zoar Trenton Early Twenty Ounce Apple (Cayuga Red Streak.) Utter Vandevere Victuals and Drink Virginia Greening Wagener Warfleld Washington (Washington Strawberry.) Washington Royal DESCRIPTION. r. ob. r. c. r, ob. c. 1-. ob. r. c. r. r. r. ob ti. fl. r. ob. r. c. fl. r. c. r. ob. r. ob. fl. r. c. r. r. ob r. c. fl. c. r. ob. r. c. r. ob. c. r. ob fl. r. c. ob. c. r. fl. r. oh, r. ob, r. ob r. ob, r. c. fl. r. c. B.C. r. ob. r. ob. fl. ob. fl. r. ob. fl. r. c. r. ob. g- y- y- g- y- y. r. y.rus. y. r. y.rus. y.r. r. s. y.r. r. 8. r. y. y.r. y. !•■ y.r. r. s. y.rus. y.r. y. ■■■ y. y.rus. g- y- y.r. y- y. r. p. y- r. y. '■■ y.rus. y.r. y.r. g- y- y.r. r. e. r. s. g. y. y.rus, y. r. s. y.r. y.r. y.r. y-r. y.r. g-y- r. 8. y- r. s. y. r- y.r. y.rus, g- y. y.r. y- y.r. g. y. & vg. g. g- g. y-g- V. g. v.g. g- T.g. v.g. v.g. g. g. v.g. g- g- g. v.g. v.g. g- g. v.g. v.g. g- g- g. g- v.g. g. g- g. g- b. v.g. g- v.g. V' v.g. v.g. v.g. g- g. v.g. g- v.g. v.g. g- v.g. g. v.g. g- g- g. g- v.g. F. M, M. F. M F. M, M. F. F. M, F. M, M. F. M, M. F. M. F. F. F. M, F. M F. M K.M. F. F. K.M. M. F. M, F. F. F. F. F. M. K.M. P.M. K.M. M. K.M. F. F. F. P. M, F. M, F. M, F. F. M. F. M, K. P.M. P.M. ¥. K.M. M. F. F. P.M. P.K. M. F. ■M. F. P.M. P.M. M. E.A. W. A. L. A. W. W. W. W. L. A. W. A. E.A. A. L. A. W. W. W. W. S. E.A. E.A. L. A. S. W. W. W. w. A. S. E.A. L. S. S. E.A. A. E.W. E.W. VV. E.W. A. W. A. S. w. w. w. w. s. E.W s. L. A. A. W. W. W. W. A. E.A. W. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am, Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am, Am. Eng. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am Rus. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. I It IS Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. APPLES 61 APPLES I^ORTHERN DIVISTON. Betweeu 4^° aud 49°. II.-CENTRAL DIVISION. Between 35° and 43". III.-SOUTH. DIVISION. Between 28° and 35°. S 237 238 289 240 241 242 243 244 24S 246 247 ii48 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 25b 257 2B8 259 260 261 262 2B3 264 265 261) 267 268 269 270 271 272 278 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 289 290 291 292 293 294 295 296 i 1 • # * * ** * > 2 d o to c i o * * 1 > a 1 * * * * ** * * * * * # * * * t C3 1 Q * * * * § o n 1=1 sQ a & * * ** ** ** 4: ** ** ** 5 1 * * * ** * * * * * 4< g o 1 o o * * * * t * * * * * + * * * * * as s ■o * * * * * * * * * -■ * * * * it' * * ** 2 ;> ** P * ** ** * ** * 1 + ** ** * * 3 a * * * A * * * * * OS M * * * * * * iC ** * * * * * ? * * * ** t * * * * * i a V ** * * * •* 3i * ** * * 4 :3 s 8 i p * * * * * * * |Z5 53 d O * * * * * * * * B 1 C3 Q a o CO * ** * ** * ** * * ** * 1 8 o ** ** ** ** 1 * * * * ** * * * * * * * * ai 1=1 i p < ** ** * * * * 1 1 1 ** a C3 3 o * * * 3): ** ** ** ** * * ** * * * ** ** ** * * * * 4:« 238 A long keeper. 343 Entirely distinct from Gilpin or Shockley. APPLES 63 APPLES 297 300 301 303 304 305 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 NAMES. Water Waiieh's Crab Wealthy Webb's Winter Wellford'B Yellow Western Beauty (Groah, Summer Eambo, etc.) Westfield Seek-no-f urther White Doctor White Juneatlng, May, Early May, Eic White Paradise (Lady Finger.) White Pippin White Winter Pearmain White Eambo Williams' Favorite Willis Sweet Willow Twig (James River.) Wine . . . -. (Hay's Wine, Pennsylvania Red Streals.) Winesap ; Winter Sweet Paradise Wythe Yates Yellow Bellefleur Yellow June (Nantahalee.) York Imperial Yopp's Favorite Zachary Pippin DESCRIPTION. r. c. r. ob. r. r. ob. r. ob. r. c. r. ob. r. fl. r. ob. r. c. r. ob. r. c. r. r. c. r. ob. H. fl. ob. r. ob. fl. r. c. fl. y.r. r. s. r. 8. y- g- y- r. s. y.r. g- y- g- y- y.r. g. y. y.r. g- y- y.r. y.r. y. n y.r. y.r. g- y- r. e. y.r. g- y- y- y.r. y- r. s. V. g. g- v.g. g. g. v.g. v.g. g. g. v.g. g- T.g. v.g. 1'. g- g- v.g. g. g. F. Cider F. M. F. M. F. M. F. M, K.M. F. M. M. F. M. F. M. M. M. K.M. K.M. F. M. F. M. F. F. F, M. F. M. F. F. M. F. F. M. E.W. W. W. W. W. s. w. E.A. s w w. w. L. A. S. S. w. w. w. w. w. w. w. s. w. A. E.W. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. F. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. 312 Valuable for late keeping. II. —APPLES— CRABS. I DESCRIPTION. 1 1 s NAMES. i i ^ t % 33 s a5 C3 5 CO t o 1 i ■3 CQ fH O O" t= m O ;z; ^ S Izi 1 2 r fl g- v.g. F. M F A Brier's Sweet (of Wisconsin) 1. r.y. F. M. A. Am. 3 Cherry s. r. y. r. g. K. A. F. Glover's Early Am. 5 Hislop , 1. r. r. g. F.M. A. Am. 6 Lady Elgin 1. r. ob. y.r. V. g. F. M. L. A. Am. 7 8 1 r fl y-r. y.r. g- g. F M W t Montreal Beauty ]. r. ob. F.M. A. Am. * + 9 10 11 12 g. F M, A. F. 1 r fl y.r. y.r, g- g- F.M. S. Transcendent 1. r. ob. F.M. A. Am. 13 Yellow Siberian m. r. y- g- F.M. A. F. __ APPLES 63 APPLES NORTHERN DIVISION. Between 42° and 49°. II.— CENTRAL DIVISION. Between 35° aud 42°. m.-SOUTH. DIVISION. Between 28" and 35°. Si s (3 ^ 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 > ** 1 s 1 ** * * ■6 1 o * ** * 3 O i t 1 * * * * * * * * * o s O -- 1 * + * * * * * .9 i * * if 1 V * o p OS « 1 a S o o .a s B i * * 1 o * ** * si '3 si 1 P a Hi * * * * * ** * * ** o © * * e3 el p * * B P a 03 T3 i ■& oi * * * * ** * ** 5 'Sb > * * * ** * ** P s o ja s t :: * -■ * * * * * * * * * P 2 -c p * if * * * * ** * * p ** ** ■3 P P ** * * ** ** 1 03 P P ** * ** ** '3 p * * * * c3 1 t * * * * * ** ** * i i * * * * * * 1 1 ** ** * ** 1 • - * * * ** 1 'o o i P * * * *• * * * 9} 4: 8S 1 * * * * ** _P 1 e3 O X] s o GQ * ** ! * * * i < * * * * * * c3 1 P p 1 * * i 1 * * * i 'p ** * * * ** ** c3 d ■« s " i II.— APPLES— CRABS. NORTHERN DIVISION. Between 48° and 49°. n.— CENTRAL DIVISION. Between 35° and 42°. III.-SOUTH. DIVISION. Between 28° and 35°. §i 1 1 P > 1 P 1 T3 p i 2h « p p o O * * i _ * * * d 1 5 p M 'n t * * * 1 * * * * * * * 1 P P s 1 p C3 1 g E o 6 P 1 g .5 P 03 a i 1 1 n o a 3 ■a i & OS s 3' 1 1 d IS S 1 5J > (a P til P P '0 P * * * P (0 ** *# P 4 ;; 5 d 1 1 a 03 1 s C3 C c P 03 P 1 P ** i CO "3 3 d 1 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 8 9 10 11 12 13 •• * ** 4! vC Mi/, 1 \ GRIMES' GOLDEN (64) APPLE-TREE BORER 65 APPLE-TREE BORER. APPLE-LEAP CRUMPLER. ' Phycita (Acro- iasis) nebulo. This insect is known under vari- ous names, as rascal leaf-erumpler, leaf-roller, and is found throughout the United States, especially in the more central latitudes. It is exceedingly voracious in its larval state, and from its habit of folding' the leaf, is often not observed until extensive damage has been done to the foliage. The cut shows the insect in its several stages, enlarged, the cross lines at d rep- resenting the size of the mature moth. Some- times the in>!Cfts so multiply, especially in young orchards and in the nursery, as seriously to affect APPLE-TBEE ORUMPLEK. a, worm case; 6, cape attached to a limb; c, head and first segments of caterpillar; rf, perfect moth. the growth and even the .life of the tree. This insect is one-brooded, the caterpillar attaining its growth in May or June, according to the lati- tude The chrysalis is^ found inside the worm case, and the moths appear in June or July, ac- cording to the latitude. The eggs are deposited, hatch, grow, and hibernate .in their cases. If these are picked in the autumn, winter or spring, and deposited in soniie vessel placed far from an ■orchard, the insects will die. for want of food; but the parasites infesting them will mature, thus accumulating in. numbers to destroy still others of the worms. The cases, if not removed, even form secure places for the deposit of eggs of other Injurious insects, especially the Canker- worm. APPLE-TREE BORER. There are a num- ber of species. The two-striped Sapertia (Saperda bimttata) is extremely destructive to apple orchards, from the borings of the grub into the wood of the trees. The mature beetle, appears during May and June, and being strictly nocturnal is seldom seen except by the entomolo- gist who hunts for it. The female deposits her eggs, mostly in June, in tlie bark near the foot of the tree, and also in the forks of the main branches. The eggs hatched, the minute grubs commence boring into the wood, generally downward the first year and upward and near the bark the second year. The borer live^ in the wood of the tree until the third year when it emerges as a perfect beetle. It infests healthy 5 as well as unhealthy trees and is very destructive. The illustration willshow the insect in its various stages. The ^rub remaining intact until the third spring, when it assumes the pupa form: ROUND-HEADED APPLE-TREE BORER. Fig. 1, perfect beetle; fig. 2. full grown borer; fig. 3, borer at beginning of second winter; tig. 4, lines showing varitius stages of growth from the minute insect just hatched; fig. 5, pupa; fig. 6, shows its manner of entering the tree and its work. The natural enemies of this insect are the wood- pecker tribe. Artificial remedies are to find the cast of the young larvse, and kill them by piercing with a flexible wire. Prevention is, however, the only sure rem- edy. Keep the base of every . tree quite clear of weeds and trash, and apply soft soap' thoroughly to the bark, laying cakes of strong bar soap in the forks of the trees, during May, June, and into July. The insect in- fests besides the ap- ple, the mountain ash, pear, quince and June berry. The' flat - headed Ijorers (Gliryaobuihris fmrw- rata), while worldng in the same class of trees, is totally un- like the others, bor- ing an oval hole twice as wide as high. The beetle flies by day instead of at night, and besides the apple, attacks the oak, peach, the soft maple, ash, willow, tulip FLAT- HEAD ED APPLE-TREE BORER. a. larva, showing its peculiar manner of curling i I self; 6, pupa; c, head and succeeding segments of body ; d^ beetle. APPLE-WORM tree, and even the elm and cottonwood. It also attains its full size in one year from the egg. The insect attacks limbs and trunk indiscnm- inately. The soaping is as efEectualf or this as the round-headed species, but must be applied more generally over the larger limbs. Once either of these species get firmly fixed in the tree, the only remedy is to cut them out. Hence the value of the preventatives named. APPLE-TREE CATERPILLAR. (See Yel low-necked Apple Caterpillar.) APPLE-WORM. Codling Moth, Carpocapsa pomenella. The cut -which we give below will represent the natural history of this noxious insect fully enough, since it represents the pest In all its .stages. It is two-brooded; the first brood appearing with the opening of the leaves in the spring, and the second brood pass the winter in the larval state. Yet the two broods often run into each other, since some worms leave the apple while others are entering. The female is wingless. The eggs require from four to ten days to hatch; the worm lives in the larval state about four weeks, and the pupal state remains from two to three weeks. Various APPLE-WOBM. a, section.' of apple showing the burrows and place of exit; i), the point at which the egg is laid, and maik of worm in entering; dZ, pupa; e, full grown worm; /, the moth* just escaped from the chrysalis; g, moth with wings expanded; A, head of worm magnified; j, insect within cocoon. remedies are proposed. Two shingles nailed togetlter and fastened to the trunks of trees, will catch^rge numbers. Paper or cloth bandages of seveml folds may be tied around the trunks, and removing them once in ten days, killing the worms by scalding, and again replacing them. Commence bandaging about a week later than early strawberry blossoms appear. Dr. Riley, in his Fourth Missouri Entomological Report, says: There has been some difference of opinion as to the best form of bandage to be used. To be thoroughly effectual and durable it should be sufficiently firm in texture that it can not be too easily cut through by the jaws of the worm, or drawn in folds and wrinkles by its silken threads. A stout and narrow piece of cloth or canvas, drawn around and fastened to the tree by a tack, is perhaps the simplest form of bandage and the most quickly fastened . Mr. James Weed, of Mus- catine, Iowa, uses strips of cloth one and a-half inches wide. Every one must decide for him- 66 ARAB HORSES self what will be cheapest and most expedient, according to the extent of his orchard and the facility with which he can procure rags, cloth, hay-bands, or other substances. A good bandage, ready-made, is greatly needed in the country, and if some enterprising firm would manufact- ure canvas strips about six inches wide, lined on one side with four inches of tow cotton wadding, or some other loose material, and would put it upon the market at a reasonable price per yard, there would be an unlimited demand for it. Such strips would last for years, and could be cut of any desired length, drawn around and tacked, with little labor, to each tree, while, by smearing with tar or molasses, it might also be made to do good service, after the Apple-worm season, in those orchards infested with the Canker-worm. The advantage of the looser, thicker inside lining (which should, how- ever, be closely and compactly pressed) would be, that it would enable us to fill up all the little inequalities of the bark, so as to absolutely pre- vent the young Canker-worms, as well as the moths, from ascending, and at the same time it would furnish a most enticing substance for the Apple-worm to spin up in. APRICOT. This, one of the most delicate of fruits of the temperate zone, belongs to the plum family. Its generic name is Piiinas ar- meniaea. Alexander the Great is reported to have sent this frait from Armenia to Greece and Epirus. Like the peach, the apricot is propa- gated by budding, but it may also be propagated by grafting. The tree requires a rich, dry loam, such as is suited to the peach and the plum. It is also subject to the same class of insect ene- mies as the peach — the curculio being the great drawback to its general cultivation. It is not hardy north of Maryland, and indeed does not attain full perfection of hardiness even in that State. Only in California is it much grown, ex- cept in conservatories and in the gardens of am- ateurs. South APTERANS, APTERA. Wingless insects. AP¥REXIA. The cool or quiet stage of intermittent fevers. AQUA FORTIS. Nitric acid, usually dilute. A(^UA SEGIA. A mixture of nitric and muriatic acids. AQUATIC PLANTS. Such as grow sub- merged, or partly so, in water; applied, also, to marsh plants. AQUEOUS HUMOR. The fluid in the an- terior chamber of the eye. ARAB HORSES. From the fact of the im- portation of Arabian horses into England, many years ago, for the purpose of improving the blood of the English horse, many persons suppose the Arab to be the type of all that is excellent in that noble animal — the horse. Others again suppose . that Arabia is the native country of the horse. This again is a fallacy. The horse of Arabia is a rather small, compact horse, possessed of great bottom, that is capable of going long journeys, and of continuing many hom-s in action at a moder- ate rate of speed. He is docile, spirited, sagacious, attached to his master, a strong constitutioned, active, intelligent animal, capable of enduring considerable hardship, and of continuing a jour- ney, without food or water, to a far greater extent than the more artificially reared horses of enlight- ened nations. Our Morgan horses come nearer the Arab in these respects than any other of our ARAB HORSES 67 ARAB HORSES better bred horses. Yet in eveiy trial with the modern-bred racer, even on the Arab's own des- erts, the English blood horse has left him behind. He can neither carry the weight, nor, to use a racing term, " stay the pace. " There is no evi- dence that there were horees in Arabia 900 years before the time of Christ; for then, while Solomon brought silver and gold and spices from Arabia, he brought his horses from Egypt; in fact, in the fourth century after Christ, 200 Cappadooian horses were sent by the then Roman Emperor, to one of the most powerful of the Arabian princes, as being the most acceptable present he could offer. So late as the seventh century after Christ, there were but few horses in Arabia, for when Mahomet attacked the Koreish near Mecca, he had but two horses in his army, and although vast numbers of camels and sheep were can-ied away and immense plunder in silver, not a single horse is mentioned as a part of the spoils ; in fact, the most credible testimony would s.-em to show that the horse was gradually introduced into Arabia at a compara- tively late period from Egypt, from whence, also, the adjoining Asiatic countries, derived their horses, and that from the same stock has also sprung the stock of horses in the whole south- eastern portion of Europe. What the Arabians have excelled in is in keeping their race of horses pure, by the most careful breeding, and attention to keeping the blood pure and without stain of intermixture; hence, when crossed upon other stock, the pre-potency of the blood has always shown itself. This has been especially shown in the English race-horse, and yet to-day so intel- ligently has this sub-family of horses been bred in England and America, that a further admixture of Arabian blood would prove disastrous to the stock. In England, an allowance of one stone (fourteen pound) is made in favor of the Arabians, in racing for the Goodwood cup, and yet none have ever won it. In India, a difference of from fourteen to twenty-one pounds is made in the carrying weights in favor of Arabian horses over English blood horses. Captain Shakspear, in his work on Wild Sports in India, gives a minute descrip- tion of the Arab horse as it is found in India, as follows: The points of the highest caste Arab horse, as compared with the English thorough- bred, are as follows: the head is more beautifully formed, and more intelligent ; the forehead broad- er; the muzzle finer; the ej'e more prominent, more sleepy-looking in repose, more brilli ant when the animal is excited. The ear is more beautifully pricked, and of exquisite shape and sensitiveness. On tlie back of the trained hunter, the rider scarce- ly requires to keep his eye on anything but the ears of his horse, which give indications of every- thing that his ever- watchful eye catches sight of. The nostril is not always so open in a state of rest, and indeed often looks thick and closed; but in excitement, and when the lungs are in full play from the animal being at speed, it expands greatly, and the membrane sitiows scarlet and as if on fire. The game-cock throttle — that most exquisite for- mation of the throat and jaws of the blood-horse — is not so commonly seen in the Arab as in the thorough-bred English race-horse, nor is the head quite so lean. The jaws, for the size of the head, are perhaps more apart, giving more room for the expansion of the windpipe. The point where the head is put on the neck is quite as delicate as in the English horse. This junction has much more to do with the mouth of the horse than most people arp aware of, and on it depends the pleasure or otherwise of the rider. The bones, from the eye down towards the lower part of the head, should not be too concave, or of a deer's form; for this in the Arab as in the English horse denotes a violent temper, though it is very beautiful to look at. Proceeding to the neck, we notice that the Arab stallion has rarely the crest that an English stallion has. He has a strong, light, and muscu- lar neck, a little short, perhaps, compared to the; 01 her, and thick. In the pure breeds, the neck runs into the shoulders very gradually; and gen- erally, if the horse has a pretty good crest, comes down rather perpendicularly into the shoulders ; but often, if he is a little ewe-m eked, which is not uncommon with- the Arab, it runs in too straight, and low down in the shoulders. The Arab, however, rarely carries his head, when he is being ridden, so high in proportion as the English. He is not so well topped, which I at- tribute to the different way he is reared, and to his not being broken in regularly, like the English horse, before he is put to work. His shoulders are not so flat and thin, and he is thicker through in these parts generally for his size, than the Eng- lish thorough-bred horse. His girth does not show so deep, that is, he does not look so deep over the heart ; but bel ween the knees and behind the sad- dle, where the English horse very often falls off, the Arab is barrel-ribbed ; and this gives him his wonderful endurance and his great constitutional points. This also prevents him from getting used up in severe training or under short allow- ance of food, and in long marches. His chest is quite broad enough and deep enough for either strength or bot'om. The scapula, or shoulder- blade, is both in length and backward inclination, compared to the humerus, or upper bone of the arm, quite as tine in the high-caste Arab as in the English horse ; while both bones are better fur- nished with muscles, better developed, and feel firmer to the hand. But some of the very fastest Arabs have their fore legs very much under them ; indeed, so much that no judge would buy an English horse so made. Yet, whether it be that this form admits of the joints between these bones becoming more opened, when the horse extends himself, or whatever he the cause, it is a fact that blood-horses thus made are almost always fast horses. The upper part of their shoulder-blade seems to run back under the front part of the saddle, when they are going their Ijest. This formation is most common in the lower-sized Arab, and apparently makes up to him for his deficiency in height. The very finest-actioned Arabs have had this peculiarity of form. They are rather apt to become chafed at the elbow-points by the girths, and almost require to have saddles made on purpose for them. The elbow-point, that essential bone, which for sake of leverage should be prominent, is fine in the Arab, and generally plays clear of the body. The fore-arm is strong and muscular, and is pretty long ; the knee square, with a good speedy cut for the size of the animal, equal to the English horse; while below the knee the Arab shines very conspicuously, having a degree of power there, both in the suspensory ligaments and flexor tendons, far superior, in proportion to his size, to the English horse. These are dis- tinct and away from the shank-bone ; they give a very deep leg, and act mechanically to great The bone looks small, but then it is ARAB HORSES 68 AltBOR VIT^ very dense, the liollow which contains the mar- row being very small, and the material solid, more like ivory than bone, heavy, and close- drained; The flexor tendons are nearly as large and as thick as the canon bone. The pasterns and their joints are quite in keeping with the bones above them, and are not so long, straight, and weak as those of the English horse. The feet are generally in the same proportion; but the Arabs themselves appear to be very careless in their treatment of them. The body or centre piece of; the Arab horse has rarely too great length. This is a very uncommon fault in the pure breed ; and there is no breed of horses that are more even in tliis respect than the Arab. Behind this, we come to- a great peculiarity in the breed — his croup. I might say au Arab horse is known by it; he is so much more beau- tifully made in his hind quarters, and in the way his tail is put on, than most other breeds. His loins are good; he is well coupled; his quarters are powerful, and his tail carried high ; and this even in castes that have very little more than a high-bred stallion to recommend them. The - straight-dropped hind leg is always a recommend- ation, and almost all racing Arabs have it; and this, when extended, brings the hind foot under the stirrup, and ■ the propellers being of this shape give a vast stride without fear of overreach. The thighs and hocks are good; the latter very rarely know either kind of spavin or curbs. The points and processes are preeminently well adapted for the. attachment of the mus- cles, while the flexor tendons of the hind legs generally corre- spond with those of the fore. The hocks are not so much let down, nor the hind legs so grey- hound-like, as in the thorough- bred English horse. In stride, too, he is somewhat diflferent, inasmuch as it is a rounder way • of going, and is not so extended ■ or so near the, ground, but is more like a bound. However, there are exceptions ; and I have bred pure Arabs whose stride, for their size, was very extended, and quite like that j of Englisbi race-horses. Ali Bey, an acute • and apparently disinterested Ori- ental waiter, describes six dis- tinct breeds of Arabs. The first " Dgelfe, '■' found in Arabia Felix. They are lofty, in stature, with long ears, narrow in. the chest, but deep in the girOi ; swift, high-strung animals, and yet docile in temper, and capable of supporting hunger and thirst for a long time. ; The second breed, named " Seclaoni," is reared in the eastern part of the desert and resembles the ' ' Dgelfe, " but is not con- sidered .so valuable. The third breed, "Mefki,", is handsome, resembling the Andalusian horse in figure, but not remarkable for speed. The fourth, called "Sabi," resembles the "Mefki." The fifth, named "Fridi," are quite common, but apt to be vicious. The sixth breed, naiped "Nejdi,"is from the neighborhood of Bussora,- and considered equal to the first-named breed, the "Dgelfe," and either the first or last named, will sell at two years old for about 3000 Turkish piasters ($160). ARABLE LAND. So called from the Latin word arare (to plow), is that part of the land which is chiefly cultivated by means of the plow. ARACjE. The natural family of plants, including the Arum, Indian Turnip, and Skunk Cabbage. ARACHNIDANS. ARACHNIDA. A class of apterous, spider-like condyhpes, having the head confluent with the chest, and the body; Inclined to, or becoming SrBEBIAN ARBOR VIT^. consequently, consisting of but two segments, with eight legs, smooth eyes, and the sexual orifices situated on the thorax, or anterior part of the abdomen. ARBORESCENT. woody. ARBORICULTURE. The cultivation of trees. (See Horticulture, Forestry,- and trees under their proper names ) ARBORETUM. A place for the cultivation of trees. ARBOR TITj:. The Arbor Vitse belongs to the sub-order CtipressinecB (the cypress sub- family), and is sometimes called, incorrectly, White Cedar. The "White Cedar is Cupressua ARCHITECTURE 69 ARCHITECTURE The Arbor Vitse is thuja-occidentalis. Arbor Vitse occurs in cool, swampy situations from New England to Pennsylvania, and sparsely in Northern Indiana and Illinois. In Wisconsin and Michigan, and north, there are extensive swamps of this ti-ce, where it is much valued for posts, telegraph poles, and other purposes where strength combined with lightness is necessary. As a tree for ornamental hedging it is extensively used and is surpassed by few. Prom cultivation and hybridization, it is now broken up into numerous varieties. Some of them are very inter- esting, and which must be propagated from cuttings to get them true. Some of the golden and variegated varieties are most beautiful, while others are so extremely dwarf and compact as to prove valuable for the borders of walks, edgings, etc., in ornamental gardening. The cut of Siberian Arbor Vitse, is one of the "sports," and does not come true from seed. It must be prop- agated from cuttings or by layers. ARBUTUS. A genus of evergreen shrubs characterized by its fruit being a beny, contain- ing many seeds. Arbutus unedo, or Strawberry Tree, is a well known variety. ARCESTHIDA. A small succulent core, as the juniper berry. ARCHIL. A purple dye-stuflf procured from the Bocella tinctoria and IPuci formis, lichens growing on the rocks of the Canary Islands. ARCHITECTURE. The architecture of the farm is generally of the simplest kind, and em- braces dwellings, barns and stables for the vari- ous animals and birds kept; also gi'eeu-houses, conservatories, hot-houses, and the simple frames used in forcing plants. In all farm structures, the object should be to combine as much prac- tical utility with strength as may be possible. Where the pecuniary means of the individual will allow, ornamentation may be extended ac- cording to the length of the purse. The subject is too broad to be exhaustively treated in a work of this kind. Thus we shall only notice some of the more simple forms of dwellings here, but, under their appropriate heads, will give instruc- tions for the more simple farm buildmgs, which see. The new settler must be content with the crudest structure until his means will allow him to build better. Thus, a log house where tim- ber is handy, afford the means of a most com- fortable dwelling. Straight logs, of a nearly uni- form size and of equal lengths, are selected. These may be hewed square, or the two sides — outer and inner — may be hewn straight. The under side of the logs are then notched, eight or ten inches from the end, and the upper sides scarfed to fit, so the bark will come just near enough together to meet without riding one on another. They are then laid up, chinked when necessary, with slabs, which are pinned or nailed. The interstices are then stopped with clay or mortar. At the proper hfeight from the ground for the ceiling, poles, hewed to a size of four by eight, are let into the logs to foiTn the floor. This is covered with flooring, or in lieu of that with puncheons — slabs split out of free rifted timber and hewn into planks. The lower floor is usually laid on timbers placed directly on the leveled ^ound. The supports for the roof are made of rafters hewed fair on one side; a ridge-pole is laid on the top, and the .supports for the shingles are placed at proper intervals. The shingles are generally made three feet long, split out of free rifted timber, and are nailed or held in place by straight poles pinned down at proper intervals. Thus we have the simplest structure possible, in a timbered country, combining strength with warmth in winter, and coolness in summer. The window and door places are then out out and the casings put in, ready for the doors and windows. A space is then cut out at one end for a flre-place, six feet wide and five feet high; or calculation maybe made for this and also the doors and windows when the logs are hewn. To do this, however, the measure- ments must be accurate ; there must be no guess- work. In time, the log cabin, the Kansas dug- out or the rough shanty gives place to a dwelling where taste and comfort are combined with prac- tical utility. jNIistakes are too often made in the endeavor to have something showy and stylish. A farm house should be in keeping with its sur- roundings, unless money is to be spent to make the surroundings beautiful. A plain, comfort- able house is more in harmony with the ordinary farm suri'oundings than an expensive building with all bare or semi- wild outside. A house should be in harmony with the situation. Just as a house and its surroundings exert its influ- ence on the family and neighboring inhabitants, just so the lay of the country and the scenery should exert its influence, so the buildings may harmonize. For instance, where there are sharp hills, ravines, bluifs, broken rocks or mountains, flat roofs, horizontal lines and broad verandas would be out of place. There should be gables and steep roofs to harmonize. In other words, the architectural features of the buildings should be broken to harmonize. There lofty tun-ets, steep gables and grouped chimneys may mark the dwelling of the man of wealth, while his less plethoric (in purse) neighbors may profit by the example in his modest cottage. ,0n a level plain or in a gently undulating country, such as is characteristic of the gTeatcr part of the west, this style of architecture would be out of place. The summers are torrid and the winters often arctic. There are often sweeping winds. Hence these must be provided for. The roof should be steep enough to quickly carry oif drenching rains. There should he caps to the windows for shade. There must be stability to the whole. Thus the square form, or nearly so, will not only be economical, but at the same time in good taste with the surroundings. A cottage, with honeysuckles and morning-glories climbing over the porch and windows, or the log cabin in the woods with vines nestling around it, is mOre truly beautiful than the pretentious mansion with bare walls, weeds and rank grass, muddy or dusty walks and roadways, with, perhaps, a Virginia fence in front to keep out the pigs. In building, always have the best possible cellar the situation will allow. In very many country residences, a fatal mistake is made in having the walls of the rooms too low. Nine feet below stairs and seven and a half for the chambers is little enough. Ten feet below stairs and eight feet walls for the chambers would be better. Use large glass for the windows, and have them to slide top and bottom by means of cords and pulleys. Do not build a bracketed house. Use good sheathmg, felting paper and the best siding. If the walls are to be of sound brick, so much the better. Never build a large, infe- rior house. It is better to build smaller and ARMY-WORM 70 substantial. Do not forget the porches and ve- randas. They are most comfortable in summer, and give stability to the whole building. Pro- vide, also, double or storm windows for the en- tire lower part of the house. The extra expense will be repaid the first hard winter. In the spring, these may be taken down and placed where they may be kept dry. The same may be said of the cellar, one of the most important parts of the farm dwelling. This should always have double windows, and also be fur- nished with blinds to darken it at will. If large, it should be divided into compartments, and for the reason that some portions of the cellar are required to be kept warmer than others. When hardy vegetables are to be kept, and canned fruits and vegetables, the temperature should be just above freezing. Squashes, sweet potatoes, pumpkins, and half-hardy plants, bulbs and tubers, must be kept where the temperature is dry and of about 50° Fahrenheit. Other apart- ments in the cellar may be kept down to the freezing point. Thus, by having the cellar divided as we ha^e shown, convenience and economy may be both preserved. ARCHITRAVE. The chief beam or .struc- ture resting immediatel}^ upon the colunms of an edifice; the lowest number of the entablature. ARECA. An East Indian ijalm, the nut of which is chewed with the betel. ARKNACEOUS. Sandy; relating- to sand, as arenaceous soils. AREOL.iE. In entomology, the small spaces between the nervures of the wings. AREOMETER. An instrument for taking specific gravities. (See Hydrometer.) ARGI LLAC KOUS. Clay ; clayey. ARILLA, ARIL, ARIEL. A membranous prolongation of the placenta over a seed, as the mace of the nutmeg. AR.»l OF A HORSE. The upper part of the fore legs. ARMY-WORM. Lntrania (HeliopMla) uni- puncta. Of this insect, Dr. Riley, in his Ninth Missouri Entomological Report, says it is with us every year. In ordinary seasons, when it is NOETHEKN ABMY-WORM. not excessively numerous, it is seldom noticed : 1, because the moths are low, swift fliers, and nocturnal in habit; 3, because the worms, when young, have protective coloring, and, when mature, hide during the day at the base of meadows. In years of great abundance the worms are generally unnoticed during early life, and attract attention only -when, from crowding too touch on each other, or from having exhaust- ed the food supply in the fields in which they hatched, they are forced, from necessity, to mi- grate to fre.sh pastures in great, bodies. The NORTHERN AKJIT-WORM. ARROW-ROOT earliest attain full growth and commence to travel in armies, to devastate our fields, and to attract attention, about the time that winter wheat is in the milk — this period being two months later in Maine than in Southern Missouri; and they soon afterwards descend into the ground, and thus suddenly disappear, to issue again two or three weeks later as moths. In the latitude of St. Louis the bulk of these moths lay eggs, from which are produced a second generation of worms, which become moths again late in July or early in August. Ex- ceptionally a third generar tion of worms may be pro- duced from these. Further north there is but one gen- eration annually. The moths hibernate, and ovi- posit soon after vegetation starts in spring. The chrysalides may also hiber- nate, and probably do so to a large extent in the more northern States. The eggs are inserted between the sheath and stalk, or secret- ed in the folds of a blade; and mature and perennial grasses are prefeiTed for this purpose The worms abound in wet springs preceded by one or more very dry years. They are preyed upon by numerous enemies, which so effectually check their increase, whenever they unusually abound, that the second brood, when it occurs, is seldom noticed; and two great army- worm years have never followed each other, and are not likely to do so. They may be prevented from invading a field by judicious ditching; and the burning over of a field, in winter or eai'ly spring, effectually prevents their hatching in such field. It has numerous natural enemies, among which may be noticed, some parasites, the Red-Tailed Tachina Fly, the Yellow-Tailed Tachina Fly, also Ich- neumon flies. Various predaceous beetles and their larva also prey upon it. ARRACACHA. The South American name for an umbelliferous plant (the Arrncada escu- lenta of botanists) whose flesh}' sweet roots are cultivated in Colombia and Jamaica, in the mountainous parts of those countries, in the same waj- as parsnips and carrots in Europe. The roots are of large size, and in quality are, when cooked, between a sweet chestnut and a parsnip. Attempts to introduce it into common European cultivation have uniformly failed; so says Dr. Brande. ARROW-GRASS. The genus Trighcliin. They are small marsh grasses, perennial, and flowering in July; some grow on salt marsh. They are eaten by cattle. ARROW-HEAD. Sagiitaria aagitttfolia. A common indigenous, perennial, tuberose plant, with aiTow-shaped leaves, growing in brooks. It is cultivated by the Chinese for its roots, which are mealy. ARROW-ROOT. Maranta arundinacea. A herbaceous plant of the family Cannse; with fleshy perennial roots, readily propagated by root-cuttings. It is cultivated in Bermuda, the West Indies and Florida. Arrow-root is a nearly pure starch, of agreeable flavor, but little ARTICHOKE 71 ASH nutrition. Good potatoes, rasped into a pulp and treated in the same way, produce a starch, which is often used to adulterate the genuine article. AKSENIC. Arsenious acid; white oxide of arsenic; a violent and irritant poison. The safest antidote is the recently prepared hydrated oxide of iron; by precipitating a solution of per-nitrate of iron by solution of potash. Lime water is much less certain. AKTEMISIA. The genus of wormwoods. ARTERIOTOMY. The opening of an artery to let blood. ARTERY. The vessels which convey red blood are so called. ARTESIAN WELLS, or fountains, are those springs or wells which constantly overflow their summits. In many parts of the country streams are reached at various depths, which, being tubed, continue to give a full flow at the surface from year to year. ARTICHOKE. The true x\rtichoke {Gynara scolymns), an herbaceous annual plant as to its top. with a perennial root. The plant is three to five feet or more high, with large, entire or lobed and spinose (spined) leaves; the thick receptacle, together with the fleshy bases of the scales of the flower head, being the parts usually eaten. It is nearly allied to the Cardoon, C. cardunculus. The plant usually cultivated under the name of artichoke is a true sunflower, Helicmthua. The tuberous variety is ca"lled Jerusalem Artichoke, a coiTuption of the Italian name Girasol. There are several wild varieties in the West, found growing generally in rich valleys and river bot- toms, the roots or tubers of which are eagerly sought in the autumn and spring by swine. The variety usually cultivated is a native of Brazil and has many valuable qualities aside from its well known hardiness, standing, as it does, our coldest western winters perfectly. As food for hogs, it should be cultivated extensively, since its tubers are eagerly eaten and ai-e highly con ducive to the health of swine. It has usually been considered a watery, innutritious tuber. It is, however, quite as nutritious as the potato, as the following analysis of the artichoke and potato will show: 1. Proximate analysis of the tubers of the Jei-usalem Artichoke, l)j' Braconnot : TJncrystalizert siigai- 14.80 Iniiline ." 8.00 Gum 1.2J Albumen 1.00 Fatty matter 0.09 Citrates of potash and lime 1.15 PhosphatcM of potash and lime 0.20 Sulphate of potash 0.12 Chi ride of potassium 0.08 Malates and tartrates of potash and lime 0.05 "Woody fibre 1.23 Silica 0.08 Water 77.05 31. Payen found a larger proportion of sugar in this tuber than that stated above, and he ascer- tained that the fatty matter consists of stearine and elaine. Boussingault found : Of dry matter, 20.8; water, 79.2. 2. Proximate analysis of the potato in a fresh state, by Johnston: TVater 75.62 •Starch 15 72 Dextrine 55 «ugar 380 Albumen, casein, gluteit 1.41 Fat ' 0.24 Fibre 8.26 The Cultivation of the artichoke is exceedingly simple. Furrow the ground — a well drained soil — four feet apart, and plant the tubers an inch below the surface and about ten inches apart, covering about two inches. Keep free from weeds with the ordinary two-horse corn cul- tivator. Dig in the fall, and leave the tubers to be rooted out by the hogs in the autumn, winter and spring. They bear great heat and drouth, and are excellent food for horses, cows and sheep in winter, if used in connection with dry food and salt. ARTICULATA, ARTICULATES. A term applied by Cuvier to a primary division of the animal kingdom, characterized by an external skeleton in the form of a series of rings articu- lated together and surrounding the body; by an internal gangliated nervous system, the ganglions being arranged symmetrically along the middle line of the body, and by having distinct respira- tory organs. Insects and various worms are of this order. * ARTICULATED. Jointed In botany it signifies a slight connexion, such as that of the leaf with the stem in exogens, which allows them to fall off when dead. ARTICULATION. The connexion of the ' bones of the skeleton by joints. ARUM. The genus of the Indian turnip. ARUNUO. '\ he reed plants. Several species, growing on sand, bind it together; arundina- ceous, reed-like. ARVICOLA. The genus of field-mice. ASAF(ETIDA. A fetid gum resin obtained from the root of the Ferula asafatida, whence it exudes, by incision, in the form of a milky juice, which, when dried by exposure to the sun, acquires a mottled appearance and pink color. It is a native of the south of Persia, and is used in medicine as a stimulant and anti-spasmodic in hysteric and nervous disorders, and in spasmodic cough, asthma, and flatulent colic ASCARIS, ASCARIDES. Intestinal worms. ASCI. Little membranous bags containing sporules; Ascidium, the Leaf -pitcher. AkSCITES. Dropsy of the belly. ASH. The ash (Fraxinus Americana) con- tains five well known species : White Ash, Blue Ash, Black Ash, Red Ash and Green Ash. They occupy an important rank as timber trees of value, and thrive on a variety of soils — a cool deep moist soil being congenial to the most of the species. White Ash will thrive on rather poor soil. Blue Ash is found on rich river bot- toms. Black Ash grows in swamps. Red Ash on river banks, and other rich soils, like the White Ash. The same situation suits the Green Ash. A European species {F. excelMor) has- been introduced, but is inferior to our White and Blue Ash. The Acuba-leaved Ash is one of the most ornamental varieties. The cut, page 73, shows leaves one quarter the natural size. The White Ash is quite commonly known as the American Ash. Of it Arthur Biyant, Sr., says: Branchlets and petioles, smooth; leaflets, seven to nine, ovate or lance-oblong, pointed, pale, smooth or pubescent underneath, somewhat toothed or entire; fruit, terete, and marginless below; above, extended into a lanceolate, oblan- ceolate, or wedge linear wing. Among the Amer- ican species of ash, the White Ash is one of the most valuable and worthy of culture, for the qual- ities of its wood and the rapidity of its growth. When full grown, it is one of the largest trees of ASH our forests, I well recollect trees, in Western Mass- achusetts, three feet in diameter, with a straight shaft free from branches to the heiglit of forty feet or more, but such are no longer to be found n ASH less frequent in proceeding southward. A cold climate appears to suit it best. I have never met with very large trees of the ash in the vicinity of the prairies of Illinois and Iowa, although the soil is well suited to its growth ; but this may readily be accounted for from the fact that it is one of the trees most easily destroyed by the flres which annually ravaged these coun- tries pi-evious to their settlement. I have been informed that in South- ern Kansas the White Ash is small, crooked, and worthless for any pur- pose except fuel. The White Ash will not thrive in very poor, dry lands. A cool, deep, moist soil seems most congenial to its growth. The trees which have grown most rapidly afford the best timber; that taken from stunted, slow-prowing trees, is comparatively weak and brittle. The prairie soils of Iowa and Northern and Central Illinois are well adapted to the giowth of the White Ash. Other species would, perhaps, be of more value further south. Besides its employment in the manufacture of agricultural implements, ash timber is extensively used in the construc- tion of carriages and furniture. It is esteemed for pre- wood. The sup- ply is fast dimmisbing, and the de- mand increasing, and those who pro- pose to CAgage in tree planting can not be too scon in taking measures to meet it. The American species of ash are dioecious, that is, the fertile and barren flowers are on different trees. Seed is produced by White Ash trees which grow in open ground. The seed are ripe by the first of October, and with the first sharp frosts. If sown in the fall, it should be thinly covered with earth, and straw or litter laid over it to prevent it from being washed out by heavy AMERICAN ASH. in the thickly .settled parts of the country. Tlie largest ash tree I ever met with was one near my native place, which was felled more than forty years since for the manufacture of scythe snathes. The trunk was five feet in diameter, and per- fectly sound. The tree was not lofty, the top having been broken off by a tornado many years before. The White Ash abounds in the Provinces of the Domin- ion, in most parts of New Eng- la,nd. New York, and the north- ern States generally, but is fast becoming scarce. It is common, but not abundant, in Northern Illinois and Iowa, and becomes LEAVES OP THE ACUBA-LEAVED ASH. ASHES 73 ASPARAGUS- rains. The litter must be taken off in spring. If to be sown in spring, it sliould be mixed with moderately damp sand. If kept dry through the winter it is not likely to vegetate. The White Ash bears transplanting well, even when of con- siderable size. It is a handsome ornamental tree, and is rarely attacked bv insects. The only exception I know of is the May-bug {LachnosterrM fusca), which sometimes devours the leaves early in the summer. The Mountain Ash is not an ash, but belongs to the apple (Pyrus) family. It is one of the most ornaniental of our small trees, with its peculiar ash-like foliage, white flowers and its handsome red berries. The American species is Pyrus Amer- icana, and the European species, P. auciiparia, also called Rowan Tree. The Mountain Ash scarcely requires pruning and never grows unshapely. The American Mount- ain Ash is sometimes used as a stock upon which to graft the apple, but can not be recom- mended. It is subject to the attaclcs of borers fully as much as the apple-tree, and the same means must be used for protection as given in the arti- cle. Apple-tree Borers We give cut of the Oak-leaved Mountain Ash, and fruit, one of the rarer ornamental varieties. ASHES. The earthy residuum, from the combustion of any organic substance as vegetable matter, wood, coal, etc., is termed ash or ashes. In an agricviltural sense they are valuable as containing pot- ash, one of the important constituents in all fertile soils. The ancients were well acquainted with the u.se of ashes as ma- nure, even to the burning of twigs and dry branches, for the sake of the ashes they contained. The burning of stubble, for the same purpose, was practiced both by the Jews and Romans, and also by the ancient Britons. Ashes vary in potash, according to the wood employed. The wood of the oak, divested of the bark, contains but about 3 parts of ash in 1,000 parts, while the bark contains 60 parts. Poplar wood contains 8 parts of ash, and the bark 12 parts. The wood of the mul- berry 7 parts in 1,000, and the bark 89 parts. The wood of horse chestnut con- tains 35, and wheat straw 43 parts in ~ 1,000. Yet this is no criterion of their ■'__ value as manure, since it is no index to the potash they contain. The following fable will show the potash (parts) contained in 10,000 parts of some well known substances, compiled by Davy, as follows: Poplar, lO.OOn parts produced 7 Bei-ch, " '■ ' 12 Oak, " " i.-i Kim, '• " 31 Vine, * " 5"j Thistle, " " m Fern, " " (ia CowThistle," " IBIi Beuns, " '■ ■ -SM Vetclies, *' " 275 Wormwood," " 7U) Fumitory, " " 790 Corn-cobs are so rich, that the ash has b;'en used as a substitute for saleratus. for raising bread, and the ashes are now carefully saved in many of the great corn regions of the West, as a manure for the land. Coal ashes contains but little potash — the constituents of value being OAIC-LEAVED MOUNTAIN ABU. lime and gypsum, about two per cent in a hun- dred of each. They are valuable, however, as a divisor of the soil, and on .stiff clays maybe used until it composes about one quarter of the soil. (See articles. Alkali and Potash.) ASPARAGIN. The white crystalline prin- ciple found in the Juice of the asparagus. It is resolved by boiling in water with magnesia, into ammonia and aspartic acid. ASPARA(iUS. A well known garden plant, a hardy perennial, maratime species, cultivated for its young tender stalks. Its cultivation is exceedingly easy, but to secure large succulent shoots the ground must be deeply trenched and ASS made exceeding ricli, at least four inches of manure being incorporated with tlie soil. Plant one year ola roots in deep furrows, covering fully five inches, the rows three feet apart, and the plants twelve inches in the row. Keep clear of weeds for two years, digging in lightly, annu- ally a top dressing of manure. The third year the shoots may be cut, and thereafter annually for many years. ASPARAGUS STONE. A variety of apatite. ASPEN. Populus tremula and Tremuloides. Species of the great genus of poplars, remark- able for their lightness and shade. The timbei' is white, soft, and readily decays. 74 ASS doubtedly domesticated before the horse. The first mention of the ass in the Scriptures is when Abraham went into Egypt at the time of a great famine in Palestine. Wild asses are still found in the mountains of Sjrria and adjacent countries, so fleet that the swiftest horses can not overtake them. The usual color of the ass in domestication is gray, mouse-color or black. The teeth of the ass assimilates to that of the horse, and the age is indicated as in the horse by the changes in growth of the teeth. The male is capable of propagating at the age of two years, and the female somewhat sooner; like the "mare the female carries her young eleven montlis. SPANISH JACK. ASPERdilLLUM. One of the commonest mildew plants, (See Fungus.) ASPHODELEjE. The family of plants to which the onion belongs. ASPIDIOTUS. "A genus of insects resem- bling the bark-lice, or scale insects, and of the same habits and family. They are found on the oleander, rose, bay, cactus and other plants. ASS. Equiis asinus. An animal considered the humblest member of the horse family, but really second only in value to man, when we take into consideration the important place he occupies as a beast of burthen, among the poorer classes in all parts of the civilized world, and also the importance of the mule, the product of the male ass and the mare. The a.ss was un- The hybrid obtained between the male ass and mare is called a mule, and that between the stal- lion and the female ass a hinny . Although the word mule is correct, as applying to a hybrid of any two species, yet the word mule has now come, by common usage, to be applied distinctively to the produce between the "jack" and mare. The ass is but little used in the United States except for service in producing mules. These are bred more or less, in all the western and southern States, but principally in Texas, Kentucky, Ten- nessee, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois and Missouri, form- ing an industry of great value, and upon which large sums are yearly spent for superior jacks. These have, from time to time, been imported, until now it is probable no country possesses finer ASTER 75 ATMOSPHERE jacks or more able mules. The raising of mules in the United States is principally confined to the States of Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Southern Kansas and Texas, although more or less are raised in nearly every State in the Union, and, as a rule, they sell about twenty-five per cent, higher thaji the ordi- nary horse stock of the country. ASSOCIATION, FARMERS. (See Grange and Pairs.) ASTER. The China-aster has always been a ASTER FI.OWEK. favorite in the garden. Of late vear.s, the Ger- man Asters, produced by hybridization and care- ful culture, are among the most beautiful of garden flower.';. The seed is better sown in a A8TEB PLANT IN BIOOM. slight hot-bed, in March, and pricked out three inches apart in another frame when large ^enough. About the middle of May, or when .«orn is fairly growing, they may be transplanted in beds, at a distance of twelve inches apart, where they will bloom profusely from the mid- dle of summer until frost. The cut shows the fiower, and also the plant in bloom. The Cape Aster is a pretty and showy plant for stand or window. The whole genus is easy of culture, iybridize freely with each other, and are held in general estimation. They are nearly hardy, hut are always grown in pots, as they flower so early that in the open ground the buds would be liable to be nipped by the frost. They are grown in light, rich soil, and only require ordinary care in watering. This plant is propagated by divid- ing the roots in August by cuttings struck in autumn, or by seeds which they ripen in abun- dance. The seed should be sown in May, on a slight hot-bed, and the young plants pricked out inio small pots and shifted frequently during the summer. If they are wanted to flower in De- cember, they should be kept in the green-house all the year and will begin to throw up their flower stalks in October; but if flowers are not wanted before April, the usual time, they may stand in the open air, and be re-potted two or three times during the summer. In October, they may be put in a cold pit, where they must remain just protected from the frost till Jiarch, when they will begin to send up their flower stalks. ASTHMA. Heaves or broken wind are em- physematous asthma. The cau,>;e is rupture of the small cells of the lungs, occasioned by hard work and insuflicent, musty or coarse food, and hereditary predisposition. Thus, the animal can not expel'the air drawn into the lungs with- out a distinct double effort. The cough attend- ing this disability is peculiar, a hollow, muffled sound, easily brought on by pressing on the upper part of the windpipe. A cure is impossi- ble, but relief may be obtained by placing the animal on clean short grass, or better, a summer on the prairie where resin weed grows. Such horses should be fed on light nutritious food. Indigestion is alwaj's an accompaniment of this disease. This should be improved by tonics, and the bowels should be kept regular, if consti- pated, by light purgatives. Prof. Law recom- mends, as most useful in this desease, the fol- lowing: One ounce Fowler's solution of arsenic, one drachm extract belladonna, half drachm tincture of ginger; mix with a pint of water and give as a drench daily, in the morning, for one or two months. Heaves are incurable and constitute unsoundness. ASTRINGENT. In farriery, a term applied to such remedies as have the property of constriug- ing, or binding the parts, as oak bark, sugar of lead, etc. ATMOSPHERE. From two Greek words, signifying vapor and a sphere, is the body of air which surrounds the globe, and besides being necessary to the life of all terrestrial animals, is of special importance to the agriculturist, since upon its condition are we dependent for rain, the motion of the air tempering the heat of sum- mer, and various meteorological conditions, with- out which, the labors of the farmer would be void. The air is in fact the great reservoir of the fertility of the earth. Elements noxious to animal life are constantly being poured into it, from various sources of contaminations; from all decaying bodies, whether animal or vegetable; from the lungs of all animals in breathing; from ATMOSPHERE 76 the miasma of marshes; from volcanoes, and the various other sources of contamination. On tlie other hand, living vegetation is constantly giving forth by day, during the growing season, fresh supplies of oxygen to keep it up to its normal state, else the oxygen consumed by animals in breathing would at length exhaust the air of this very necessary element. Upon some of the phenomena of the. atmosphere, Appleton's New American Encyclopedia says : Air consists essen- tially of two gases, oxygen and nitrogen, in a state of mechanical mixture. But with these are always present a small proportion of carbonic acid gas and aqueous vapor. In the vicinity of large cities, ammonia is found too, in small quantity; and nitric acid is generated in thunder- storms by the chemical combination of nitrogen and oxygen induced by the electrical shock. These, which may be regarded as accidental im- purities, are soon dissipated in the great bulk of the atmosphere, or they enter into new combi- nations, and are precipitated upon the earth, or are washed down by the rain. The proportions of. the two elements of the air hardly vary — whether this is taken from the summits of the highest mountains, from extensive plains, from thickly populated cities, or from crowded hos- pitals — nor are they affected by season, climate, or weather. In closely confined places exposed to putrescent exhalations, the purity of the air is necessarily much afEeoted; the proportion of oxygen diminishes, and nuphitie gases, as sul- phuretted hydrogen and carbonic acid are in- troduced. Prof. Nicol gives an analysis of air collected in a filthy lane in Paris, in which the oxygen constitutes 13.79 percent, only, instead of 33 per cent., its usual proportion; nitrogen was present to the amount of 81.24 percent, carbonic acid 2.01 ; and sulphuretted hydrogen 2.90 percent. Carbonic acid gas and aqueous vapor are more variable in their proportions, and the former, though found in the highest altitudes, has sometimes escaped detection in air collected at sea. Its composition is : ATMOSPHERE. Name. Nitrogen Oxygi^n Aqueoue vapor. ■Carbonic ac]d. . Measure. 77.50 21.00 0.U8 100.00 75..'i5 23.82 1.03 0.10 ino.on Regnault calculates, from numerous analyses, that ii is by measure oxygen 20.90, and nitrogen 79.10; and the article Atmosphere, in the Ency- clopaedia Britannica, gives as the mean of ten careful trials a proportion by volume of 79.9735 parts of nitrogen, and 20 0265 of oxygen. The near approach of the-se two gases to the number 80 of the one and 20 of the other, cannot fail to strike the attention of those who study the analyses made by Cavendish, Davy, Gay, I^ussao, Humboldt and others. And as a volume of nitro- gen is equivalent to one atom, the inclination is very strong to consider air as a compound of these gases in the equivalent proportions of two atoms of nitrogen and one atom of oxygen. But the differences of specific gravity, of tem- perature, structure or form, which usually accompany the change by chemical combina- tion are here wanting ; and, moreover, air is recomposed by simple mixture of its elements, with no evidence of any chemical change taking- place. The phenomena of refraction are sucJS. as indicate a mixture ; and a still more conclusive proof is that air held in solution in water does not consist of Ihe same proportions of its ele- ments ; but from the greater solubility of oxygen, it contains of this about thirty-two per cent , and of nitrogen sixty-eight per cent. • We are there- fore not authorized in the conclusion that air can be otherwise than a mechanical mixture of its elements. Carbonic acid gas, increased to the proportion of five to six per cent., renders air unfit for sustaining animal life. A candle ceases to burn when it contains three per cent, of this gas. One may live, however, in an atmosphere containing thirty per cent of it for a short time, but not without sufliering. But if carbonic oxide, which has only one atom of oxygen, instead of two atoms to one of carbon, is present, even in the small proportion of one per cent., it may prove instantly fatal. This poisonous gas is generated by the combustion of charcoal in con- fined places. Carbonic acid is generated by combustion of carbonaceous substances; with free access of air, and by the analogous process- of the breathing of animals, an atom of carbon unites with two atoms of oxygen, and the solid matter takes the form of this invisible gas. By several processes it may be restored to a fixed or tangible shape. Man requires from 212 to 353 cubic feet of air per hour. In breathing, the oxygen in part unites with carbon in the system, and the air expired contains four and a half per cent, of carbonic acid gas. This is immediately dispursed through the atmosphere by the property of ditfusibility, possessed in such a remarkable degree by the gases; but if confined in close places it soon accumulates and contaminates the air. Though this is the heaviest of the gases, and is generated near the surface, it is found in larger proportion in the air of elevated places, than in that below. The reason ascribed is, that this is owing to the plants absorbing it in the lower strata, and is not satisfactory, as it is in these strata produced. Growing plants are the compensating agents, that counteract the noxious influences of combustion and the breath- ing of animals; as in the ocean the coralline insects as quietly perform their great office of separating from the water the soluble con- taminating ingi-edients, poured in from the innumerable rivers that feed it. Plants as well as animals breathe the air, but the effect of this respiration is just the reverse of that of animals. The carbonic acid gas is decomposed in the laboratory of their vessels, the solid carbon is added to their structure, and the pure oxygen is expired. It is true the process is reversed in the night, but with much less effect. This change in the action of plants at night is the reason why they should not be kept in sleeping apartments. Oxygen thus appears lo be the life-sustaining element of the air for animals, while nitrogen has the negative duty of restraining, by its bulky proportions, the too active influence of its fiery partner. Oxygen is diluted with it, as strong food is with water, to make it wholesome. Both the weaker elements, however, have some other uses, being found as constituents of "veg- etable and animal substances. Water, more- over, in the form of vapor, manifests its pres- ence by condensing in , visible moisture _ and. ATMOSPHERE drops upon cold surfaces. When the air is warm, its capacity of liolding water is great; as It hecomes cool this capacity diminishes, and the water that is now, in excess appears as dew, or mist, or rain. Tlie atmosphere is said to be dry when it has not so much moisture in it as it is capable of holding at its temperature; evapora- tion then takes place. But let the temperature fall, and the same air that was called dry is now ■damp. The absolute quantity of vapor has not changed, but the relative quantity of what the air is capable of holding, and that actually in it. As the air becomes cool, and reaches a degree at which it is saturated with the water it contains, and this begins to condense upon cold surfaces, this degree of temperature is called the dew- point. If it is high, the absolute quantity of vapor in the air was great ; if low, there was little vapor in the air. The relative quantity was the same in both instances, as it always must be at the dew-point. As the hot airs of the tropics -aj'e swept over the Atlantic in the trade winds they suck up the moisture like a dry sponge. Saturated with it, as they pass over the snowy summits of the Cordilleras, and their particles are compressed together with the cold, they shed it, like the same sponge squeezed in the hand. Thus does the atmosphere fill its office as a com- pensating agent, carrying away the excess of .waters of the ocean, that, though all the rivers flow into it, it shall never be full, feeding, too, the dry places of the earth, that its wells and •springs shall never lack its supplies. Air being a material substance, though invisible, possesses many of the physical properties of the solid and liquid bodies, as weight, inertia, elasticity, im- penetrability, capacity for heat, etc. A vessel exhausted of air is found to weigh less than when tilled with it; and in this manner it has been ascertained that 100 cubic inches of pure .and dry air, at a temperature of 60°, and under a pressure of thirty inches of the barometer, weigh 31.0117 grains. Other gases are referred to air at this temperature for the expression of their comparative weight. AVater is 815 times heavier than air; but at the freezing point the difference is as 770 to 1. From its weight result its inertia and the pressure o( the atmospliere. It can not be set in motion without exertion of ■force, nor in motion be retarded without opposi- tion of force. Its momentum, as with other bodies, is- its weigjit multiplied by its velocity. Air in- motion is a mechanical force, applied to propelling, ships and wind-mills. The pressure of the atmosphere is the weight of the column of air. If this were alike dense throughout its height, the upper limit of the atmosphere would be easily calculated from tlie weight of a cubic •inch, and th& pressure of 14.6 pounds, upon the square inch.' It would be about five and. one- fourth miles. But fi'om the property possessed by the gaseous bodies of expanding in bulk or becoming more rare, in proportion as the force that confines them is removed; the weight of a column of. air is not directly ^proportional to its height. ■ This tendency of the particles of air to separate from each other, as the pressure that confines them is taken off, is called the elasticity of the air Its effect is, that every successive layer of air of any given thickness is of less density and ■ weight than the layer of the same ■thickness beneath it. The rate of this decrease of weight may be thus expressed: When the 77 ATMOSPHERE height increases in an arithmetical ratio, the volume increases in. a geometrical ratio and the weight diminisliQs in the same. For example, at the level of the sea, calling the volume one, and the density or weight one; at the height of 3.705 miles, the volume is two and the density one-half; at twice the height, the volume is four and the density one-fourth; at three times the height, the volume is eight and the density one-eighth. But notwithstanding this tendency of expansion, the atmosphere is proved by calculations based on its refractive properties to find somewhere a limit, and this appears to be not far from fort}'- five miles above the surface. ' The pressure of the atmosphere is made apparent by removing the air from any tube, ihe lower end of which is immersed in water or any other fluid. This fluid will be pressed up the tube to a height corres- ponding to the pressure upon its surface. If this be at the level of the sea, where the pressure is 14.6 pounds on the square inch, water will rise thirty -three feet and mercury twenty -nine inches. At any greater elevation, the pressure being less, a less height of the fluid will balance it. Such an instrument as this tube is the barometer, by which the difference of elevation is determined by the different heights of the column of mercury, the calculation being made on the principal above described, and corrected for temperature and the latitude of the . place. There is another instrument used for the same purpose, based on the properly of water boil- ing at less temperature, as the pressure .of air upon its surface is taken off. For every 549^ feet increase of elevation, it is found, that the boiling point is one degree less. Coi'rection is in this case also to be made for the tempera- ture of the air. Well constructed instruments of this kind have been made to produce very fair results in experienced hands. Familiar illustra- tions' of tlie pressure of the air are afforded by the common pump, which is but such a tube as has been already referred to, furnished merely with a proper valve for lifting out the air, and then the water which follows it. The power applied to lift the air is equal to its pressure at the place multiplied by the height it is raised, or to the weight of the column of water. There can, therefore, be no expedients that will lessen the power required to work a pump, unless they can present some form more simple, and which involves less friction than the ordinary foim of the pump, and this seems hardly possible. The pressure of the air is also well illustrated by. the common leather ' ' sucker, " which the boj's make for a toy — a mere disk of soft leather with a, string knotted at one end passed through the centre. When moistened and applied to any smooth surface, care being taken to expel the in- tervening air, it is attracted to it by the external pressure. By the same princijjle insects walk upon the ceiling, and the patella or limpet, and soijne otlier shell fish, hold fast upon the smooth rock. So great is this pressure, that the force exerted upon the body of a moderately sized man is estimated at about fifteen tons, sufficient to crush him, as it inevitably would, if applied to only a portion of the body; but quite harmless wlieu pressing with perfect elasticity everywhere alike — from the external parts inwardly, and from those within outward. Let the pressure be taken off from any portion, as by the cupping instrument, and one is immediately sensible, of ATMOSPHERE the power that is exerted upon the parts around, painfully pressing them into the vacant space of the instrument. Elasticity Is possessed in a re- markable degree by gaseous bodies. If the pressure is removed from them their particles repel each other, and the tendency is to expand indefinitely. This fol-ce, as expressed by the law of Mariotte, its discoverer varies in exactly the same proportion as the density of the air. But as air has been made to expand to more than 2,000 times its usual bulk, and been com- pressed into less than one-thousandth— and at these extreme degrees of rarefaction and con- densation it is difficult to determine its elasticity with vigor. From the freezing point upward air expands 1.493 of its bulk for every degree of its temperature. This is easily exemplified by heat- ing air confined in a bladder. Its expansion soon swells the bladder and causes it to burst. As the bulk increases, its density or weight dimin- ishes. The colder and heavier air presses through it, and the more buoyant fluid is lifted up. On this principle were constructed the first balloons. It is this principle that gives rise to the currents of air or wind, the colder bodies flowing along the surface to fill the space left by the ascending columns. Thus the trade winds blow from the temperate regions toward the torrid equatorial belt. The whirling tornado, and all the phe- nomena of the winds, owe their origin to local heating and rarefaction of the atmosphere. The rays of the sun pass through the upper strata of the atmosphere, imparting to them no heat. This the air receives only near the sur- face. As we ascend the temperature diminishes one degree for every 352 feet. Near the equator perpetual snow covers the mountains at a height of 15,207 feet; in latitude 60° it is found at 3,818 feet; and in 75° at 1,016 feet. Did the sun's rays impart no effect to the atmosphere, the gTeat body of it would be seen as blank dark- ness ; but a partial absorption of a portion of the rays takes place, and reflection of the blue rays. This gives the color to the sky, while that of the clouds and the rainbow comes from the effect of the light upon the particles of vapor floating in the atmosphere. These colors are too faint to be perceived in any small quantity of air. It is only by looking into the great depths of the atmosphere that they may become visible, as the color of the ocean is only apparent when the waters are seen in a mass. ATMOSPHERE, GASES AND VAPOR OF. The invisible fluid surrounding the earth is termed the atmosphere. It is composed of oxygen 20.84 and nitrogen 79.16, in 100 parts water, in the form of vapor, and carbonic acid gas is also held mechanically, the former aver- aging one per cent., but varying with tempera- ture, etc., and other meteorological conditions; and the carbonic acid gas forming 0.1 per cent., or by weight as compared with a volume of an one-thousandth part. In relation to the effects of yapor on the atmosphere, it is stated that, on the supposition that the vapor is uniformly dis- tributed through the atmosphere, which will not be far from the truth if considered with refer- ence to the principal zones of the earth, we can calculate the whole weight of water contained. Thus we find, if the water were at the boiling point, its elastic tension or pressure would be equal to the pressure of the atmosphere, and in this case it would support thirty inches of mer- 78 ATOM cury, or its equivalent, 407.4 inches of water; and since transparent vapor observes the same law of expansion and contraction by variations of pressure and temperature that dry air does, it is clear that we shall have the following relation for any other temperature, namely, as thirty inches is to the quantity of mercury expressing the elasticity of the air at any temperature, so is 407.4 inches of water to the whole weight of the aqueous vapor, provided the weight of vapor is the same as that of the air. It has, however, been proved that vapor is only five-eighths of the density of air, and therefore, the quantity found by the foregoing relation must be reduced in this^ ratio. If we assume that the dew-point is on an average of 6° below the temperature of the air, and allowing the temperature of the tropical regions to be 82°, we shall have the following proportion: 30 : 0.897 :: 407.4 : 12.81. This last number must, however, be multiplied by |, and this will give us 7.61 inclies. From this it will appear that if the atmospheric columns at the equator were to discharge their whole watery store, the moisture precipitated would cover the the earth to the small depth of 7.61 inches; and from a similar calculation we find that, if the columns of air resting upon the city of Washing- ton were to precipitate at once all their moisture, the quantity of water would be indicated by about three inches of the gauge. To supply, therefore, thirty or forty inches of rain in the course of a year it is necessary that the vapor contained in the atmosphere should be very fre- quently renewed, and that, consequently, locali- ties wifiich can not be reached by moist winds must be abnormally dry. AXOJI. In chemistry, the ultimate part of a body which combines with other atoms. Theo- retically, these are of a determinate magnitude in every case. , Atoms are simple or elementary when they can not be separated by chemical forces, and compound when they are liable to decomposi- tion . Chemical compounds consist of a definite number of atoms, bound together by chemical force or affinity ; but the value of this force is different in different compounds. In conse- quence, however, of the union of atoms in invari- able weights, determined by experiment, each chemical body has attached to it a distinct pro- portional weight, termed its atomic weight, equiva- lent, or combining number. The study of these is the essential of all chemical inquiries; it is this remarkable adherence to a precise quantity in all cases of combination which gives exactness to • our investigations, and forms the difference be- tween a mere mixture and chemical union. The following are the atomic Weights or proportionals of various elementary bodies interesting to agri- culture, and their initial equivalent or contrac- tion ; Hydrogen (H.) 1 . Uxygen(O) 8. Nitrogen (N.) 14. Cnrbon (C ) 6. Sulphur (S.) 16. Phosphorus (P.) ?.3I. Chlor ne (CI.) 35.5 Silicon (Si.) 22. These are on the basis that hydrogen is 1., and may be understood by the following case: Water is a compound of one atom of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen; and, supposing a given quantity- weighs nine grains, we know, by the laws of chemi- cal combinations, that it contains one grain of Potassium (K.) 39. Sodium (Na.) S3. Calcium(Ca.) 20.5 Magnesium (Mg.) ia.7 Aluminium (Al.) 13.7 Iron(Fe.) 37. Maganese (Mn.) 27.7 AYRSHIRE CATTLE 79 AYRSHIRE CATTLE hydrogen and eight grains of oxygen; or, if the weight of water be other than nine grains, these constituents are united in the rigorous proportion of one to eight Atomic theory is the theory of Dr. Dalton, that chemical union taltes place only in definite atoms. Atomic weight is the equiva- lent or combining weight. ATROPY. In farriery, a morbid wasting and emaciation, attended with a great loss of strength in animals. ATROPIA. The poisonous alkaloid of the . deadly Night-shade. AUCHENI A. The region of the neck, inmam- mals, below the nape. AUK V LI A, lUUELIAN. Pupa or nymph of the higher insects. AUKIt'LE. The external ear; the venous chambers of the heart. AURICULAH. Appertaining' to the ear. AURICULATE. When the base of a leaf is lobed on each side the midrib . AUSUULTaTION. The examination of the sounds within the body to detect diseases, etc. AUT»»PSY. Examination by the eye. It is generally used to designate examinalions of the body after dfisith, for the discovery of the causes of disease. AVENA. The generic name of a family of grasses, of which the A. sativa (oats) and A. elaiior (Andes Grass) are best known. Several species, as the A. fiawscens and pubescens, are found in English meadows, and the latter is well worthy of cultivation ; it is the downy oat-grass of agri- culture. AVENUE. Any broad, gravelled, or properly made road, bordered by trees; a side road, or approach to a house. AVERSE, AVERSUS. Turned back. AVIARY. A place to keep birds in. AWN. The stiff beard or bristle of some grasses. Arista. AWNING. A covering of some kind of cloth, to protect plants, etc., from sun or rain. AXIL, AXILLA. The armpit; the angle between the leaf and the stem; buds placed here are termed axillary. AXI <, AXL E-TRE E. The spindle or central rod around which parts of machinery, etc., re- volve or are developed. AYR««HrKE CATTLE. The Aryshire are undoubtedly a composit breed and of compara- tively modern date, originating in the county of Ayr, Scotland, whence their name, and within the last sixty or seventy years disseminated gen- erally throughout England and Ireland, where they are generally esteemed for their superior milking qualities. Importations wer.e made into the United States over forty years ago. Of late years superior specimens have been introduced over the East and West, and where handled, they have given general satisfaction. Their his- tory and characteristics is as follows : Aiton, in his Dairy Husbandry, speaks of the cattle which occupied Ayrshire fifty years before the time, when he wrote (1806) as follows: The cows kept in the districts of Kyle and Cunningham (dis- tricts of Ayrshire) were of a diminutive size, ill- fed, ill-shaped, and yielded but a scanty return m milk; they were mostly of a black color, with stripes of wliite along the chine or ridge of their backs, about their flanks, and on their faces; their horns were high and crooked; their pile (hair) was coarse and open, and few of them yielded more than three or four Scotch pints (six to eight wine quarts) of milk a day . A com- parison of these points with those presented by the present breed of Ayrshire cattle renders pro- bable the conclusion of Youatt, that the stock of that day could not have arisen entirely from the old. It follows, therefore, that the modern breed, like various other valuable breeds of domestic- animals, originated in crossing. The question as to the breeds from which it was derived will be briefly considered. Various accounts repre- sent that the Earl of Marchmont, sometime between 1734 and 1740, introduced to his estates in Berwickshire some cattle, conjectured (their history was not positively known) to be of the Holderness orTeeswater breed, and that not long afterwards some of the stoclc was carried to estates belonging to the same nobleman in that part of Ayrshire called Kyle. But it is not im- probable that the chief nucleus of the improved breed was the "Dunlop stock," so called, which appears to have been possessed by a distinguished family by the name of Dunlop, in the Cunning- ham district of Ayrshire, as early as 1780. This stock was derived, at least in part, from animals imported from Holland. The Dunlop cows soonu became noted. Rawlin (as quoted by Y'ouatt), who wrote in 1794, speaking of the cattle of Ayrshire, says: They ha^-e another breed, called the Dunlop, which are allowed to be the best race for yielding milk in Great Britain or Ireland, not only for large quantities, but also for rich- ness and quality. This, though perhaps extrav- agant praise, shows that the stock possessed, remarkable properties at that early day. It was, indeed, held in great esteem still earlier. In Youatt's Treatise it is mentioned, Avhen speaking of the cattle of Dumfriesshire, that the poet Burns, when he occupied a farm near the cil)' of Dumfries, not content with the Galloway breed, introduced some of the west country cows, whicli he thought would produce more milk. In the poet's published correspondence allusion is made, in a letter dated November 13, 1788, to a heifer which had been presented to him by the pro- prietor of Dunlop house as ' ' the finest quey in Ayrshire." Mrs. Dunlop, it will be recollected, was a special friend and correspondent of the poet. As a further explanation of the preference given by Burns for the west country cows, it maj' be mentioned that the writer, when visiting Scotland for the pvu'chase of Ayrshire cattle in the year 1858, had several interviews witli the poet's sister, the late Mrs. Begg, of Ayr, in one of which she stated that her brother, during his occupancy of the farm of EUisland, near Dumfries, kept a dairy and made considerable of cheese. His efforts to procure the Aryshire cows show that they had, even at that time, a high reputation for this object. Colonel Le Couteur, in a paper on the Jersey or Alderney cow, published in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, refers to a statement by Quayle, that the Ayrshire was a cross of the Short-horn and Alderney, and adds, himself, that there is consid- erable affinity between the two breeds, meaning the Ayrshire and Alderney. Rawlin also says, in reference lo the AjTshire breed: It is said to be a mixture by bulls brought from the Island of Alderney with their own, or the old race of cows, Martin says : At some period or other there has evidently been a cross with the Durham or Hold- erness, and perhaps, also, with the Aldernej' AYRSHIRE CATTLE breed. Prof. Low, in his Illustrations of British Quadrupeds, says : From the evidence of which, in the absence of authentic documents, the case admits, the dair}^ breed of Ayrshire cows owes tlie characteristics which distinguish it from the older race, to a mixture of the blood of the races of the continent, and of the dairy breed of Alderney. In addition to the foregoing evidence respecting tlie origin of the Ayrshire cattle, it should be stated that the present leading type of the breed was formed, in part, by an infusion of the blood of the Kyloe or West Highland breed. This ap- peared in the first instance, probably, in what has been called the Swinley variety. The facts, as authentically obtained in Scotland, on this point, are substantially as follows : Theophilus Parton, of Swinley Farm, near Dairy, Ayrshire, took great pains to establish a herd of what were deemed Xhe best Ayrshire cattle, mto which he infused a strain of the West Highland blood, the particular degree of which is not publicly or generally known. The Swinley stock differs from the older Ayrshire cattle in having a shorter head, with more breadth across the e3'es, more upright and spreading horns, more hair, and that of a more m.ossy character, and generally better constitu- tions. They are also somewhat smaller boned than old. stock, though from their superior sym- metry and greater tendency to fatten they are fully equal to the former in weight of carcass when slaughtered. The following points given by the Ayrshire Ajjricultural Association in 1853, as indicating superior quality; will give an idea of tlie standard of Ayrshire cattle as recognized by the leading breeders: Head short ; forehead wide; nose flne, between the muzzle and the eyes; muz- zle moderately large; eyes full and lively; liorns widely set on, inclining upwards, and curving slightly inwards; neck long and straight from the head to the top of the shoulders, free from loose skin in the underside, fine at its junction with the head, and the muscles symmetrically enlarging towards the shoulders ; shoulders thin at the top ; brisket light; the whole fore-quarter thin in front, and gradually increasing in depth and widtli backwards; back short and straight; spine well defined, especially- at the shoulders; short ribs arched; the body deep at the flanks, and the, milk veins well developed; pelvis broad and straight: hook (or hip) bones wide apart, and not much overlaid with fat ; thighs deep and broad ; tail long and slender, and. set on a level with the back; milk vessels (udder) capacious, and extending well forward ; hinder-part broad, and firmly attached to the body; the sole or under surface nearly level; the teats from two to two and a half inches in length, equal in thickness, and hanging per- pendicularly; their distance apart at the sides should be equal to about one-third the length of the vessel, and across to about one-half of the breadth; legs short, the bones fine, and the joints firm; skin soft and elastic, covered with soft, close, and woolly hair; the colors preferred are brown, or brown and white, the colors being dis- tinctly defined; weight of the animal when fat- tened about forty imperial stones (that is 560 pounds), sinking the offal. As to the annual re- turns of Ayrshire cows in dairy produce. Prof Low says : Healthy cows in good pastures give 800 to 900 gallons of milk in a year. Alton says 600 gallons a year may be deemed about an average of this breed. And the author of British Husbandry says, in reference to this yield: If equalled, we 80 AYRSHIRE CATTLE believe it will not be found excelled by any other breed in the kingdom. Martin says: The milk of a good Ayrshire cow will afford 250 pounds of butter, or 500 pounds of cheese annually. Mil- burn's estimate is, that cows of this breed will give from 600 to 800 gallons of milk in the course of the year, and as much as 260 pounds of butter. Haxton cites many statistics, from which it ap- pears that in one dairy of thirty cows the average annual yield of milk was 633 gallons; that nine and a quarter quarts afforded a pound of butter, amounting to an aggregate of 274 pounds in a year. He adds: From these data, it appears that the milk of the Ayrshire breed of cows is not only abundant in quantity, but al.'^o rich in those substances which constitute excellence of quality, and when with these qualities is consid- ered the small amount of food consumed the rcr suit is so favorable to this breed that few thor- oughly acquainted with the subject will refuse to rank the Ayrshire cow among the most valuable for dairy purposes in the United Kingdom : In the conipetition at Ayr in 1861, for a prize offered by the .Duke of Athoi, the average weight of milk per day, for two days, from six, cows, was about fifty pounds, the cows being milked twice a day. The cow which took the first prize gave an aver- age of lifty-seven pounds per day. Qn this occa- sion, the Duke of Atliol stated that the cow (then in his possession) which received the first prize at the previous year had given an average of up- wards of twelve quarts of milk per day for a year, actual measurement having; shown a pro- duct of l,110i gallons in sometliing less than twelve months. Comparatively few accurate trials have been made with specimens of the breed in this country. One of four imported Ayrshire cows, owned several years, since by the late J. P. Cushing, of Watertown (now Belmont), Mass., gave in one year 8,864 quarts of milk, beer measure. One of the cows, imported by the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agricult- ure, in 1887, while kept by the late E Phinney; Esq., of Lexington, Mass., was said to have af- forded sixteen pounds of butter per week, fot several weeks in succession. The imported cow, Jean Armour, owned by H. H. Peters. ,of South- boro', Mass., in 1863, gave an average of fortyt nine pounds of milk a day for 114- days, com- mencing June 1 ; and for the month of July her average was fifty-one pounds thirteen ounces per day. Her milk for three days in July yielded six pounds of butter. Her live weight at the close of the trial was 967 pounds. It will be understood, from what has already been said,. that the dairy is the leading object with the breeders of. Ayrshire cattle. At the same time the important fact has not been overlooked, (hat to breed and perpetuate a profitable dairy-stock regard must be had to hardiness and strength of constitution, and also to such fattening tenden- cies as will insure a profitable return from calves fattened for veal, from steers reared for beef, and from cows, which, having served their turn in the dairy, are at last dried of their milk and prepared for the shambles The importance of these properties is not suflHciently regarded by keepers of dairy stock in this country. Even if milk were the sole object, it would be impossible to preserve a breed poss!'ssing superior qualities in this respect, without giving attention to I hose points of form which denote strength of constitu- tion. It has been well observed by Magne that AYRSHIRE CATTLE in the breeding of dairy stock we should make choice oDly of animals possessing the two-fold character of general vigor and activity of the mammary system. These principles have been followed to a considerable extent by the leadino- l)reeders of Ayrshire in Scotland. Hence they claim a high rank for the breed in reference to gen- eral usefulness. Alton, in speaking of what the Ayshire cow will do, says she yields much milk. and that of an oily or butyraceous, or caseous nature, and after she has yielded very large quantities of milk for several years she shall be as valuable for beef as any other breed of cows known; her fat shall be much more mixed through the flesh, and she shall fatten faster than any other. Whatever may be said in regard to the extent of these claims, it will be admitted that they indicate the confidence which 81 AYRSHIRE CATTLE Haxton observes, for all medium soils and climates throughout the United Kingdom, there is no breed equal to the Ayrshire for profit, whether the produce is converted into cheese, butter or veal. Scotch farmers, who are in the practice of fattening stock of various breeds, state that Ayrshire steers at the age of three to three and a half years fatten to as much profit as any, reaching the weight of 700 to 800 pounds (the four quarters), and affording beef excelled in quality only by the West Highlanders and Galloways; two of the most superior for beef of any in England, quality, being the test. Ainong the letter class of Ayrshire breeders any animal showing a disposition to feed instead of to milk is immediately disposed of, and even those bulls are preferred having the most feminine character about the head. The system MODEL AYRSHIRE COW. was long ago placed in the breed in regard to the properties mentioned. Youatt, who wrote twenty-five years after Aiton, says: The breed has been much improved since Mr. Aiton described It. In the early part of the century Mr. Youatt made this remark, and since that time the breed has been still further improved in reference to general usefulness. It is the unani- mous testimony of the most experienced breeders in Scotland, that while nothing has been lost on the score of dairy properties, considerable has iDeen gained in hardiness and thrift, and in the faculty of giving a greater return both in milk and flesh, for the food consumed. The common •course in Scotland with calves of the Ayrshire breed that are not wanted for keeping up the dairy stock, is to fatten them for veal, or turn them for beef at an early age. The larger por- tion, perhaps, of the males are killed for veal. In some districts the fattening of calves is an object of considerable importance, and the superiority of Ayrshire cows for producing the best quality of veal is acknowledged. Thus 6 of keeping and rearing also conduces to increase their disposition to milk. The calves are never allowed to suck their dams, but are fed new milk for five or six weeks, at the end of that time it is gradually diminished for two or three weeks longer, when the calf is left to shift for itself. After the first year the heifers are gener- ally turned upon the poorest, coarsest pasture on the moor-edge where the sedgy grass contains so little nutriment that to satisfy their hunger they are obliged to consume a large quantity of It; this bulk of food, of course, enlarges the paunch, distending its walls and the belly plates of the young animal, and producing the large belly the Ayrshire farmer so values. The heifers usually calve at two and a half to three years old, though some are in milk at two years old. The usual yield of the cow is from thirty to fifty pounds of milk per day, producing in the season about 150 pounds of butter, or her own weight in cheese, as the phrase is; though we think 375 to 400 pounds would be nearer the average. (These are good results, and would be even to-day.) AYRSHIRE CATTLE Touatt, in his account of the Ayrshires, gives much greater products as being obtained, and no doubt instances are found of such extraordinary- yields. We quote a few of his figures: An Ayrshire cow may be reckoned to yield two hundred and fifty-seven pounds of butter per annum, or five pounds per week, all the year round. Six hundred and fifty gallons of milk is called an average yield of a cow, making four hundred and thirty pounds of cheese, or one hundred and seventy-five pounds of butter. This was the average of a herd kept near a town, and highly fed and well cared for, and this would, no doubt, exceed the average of dairies. Thirty- six quarts per day have been milked from a cow, and twenty-eight quarts from a three-year-old heifer, and this last for six weeks after calving. Though this breed are chiefly celebrated for the dairy, the oxen work kindly, and the steers can be turned off at three years old, weighing seven or eight hundred pounds. Curiously enough, there seems a lurking tendency in them to fatten, whether resulting from the short-horn cross, or from their natural vigor, it is impossible to say, but it is certain that when transferred to the fertile pastures of England or of America, they are apt to lose, in a degree, their extraordi- nary milking property, and begin to lay on flesh, •and the time of their remaining in milk is shortened when removed from their native pastures. The illustration we give of a mature Ayrshire cow will not only show the form of this breed, but that of deep milking cows generally. It will be a good place here to notice in relation to milking qualities some general characteristics, which will apply to all dairy cows. Thus we find that the usefulness of any dairy cow is in her udder, and toward the udder, its shape and its yield, all the capabilities of the cow should be directed. This will apply to all milk breeds. Viewed as a reservoir for the milk, it must be large and capacious, with broad foundations, extending well behind and well forward, with distant attachments; broad and square, viewed from behind; the sole level and broad; the lobes even-sized, and teats evenly distributed; the whole udder firmly attached, vpith skin loose and elastic. Such a form gives great space for the secreted milk, and for the lodgment of the glands, while allowing the changes from an empty to a full vessel. The glands should be free from lumps of fat and muscle, well set up in the body when the cow is dry, and loosely cov- ered with the soft and elastic skin, without trace of flabbiness. Such a covering allows for exten- sion when the animal is in milk, while the glands are kept in proximity with the blood-vessels that supply them. The necessities of the lacteal glands are larger supplies of blood from which milk can be secreted, and this harmonizes with the demands of the udder as a store-house For broad attachments means broad belly or abun- dance of space for the digestive organs, from which all nutriment must originate. The blood is furnished to the glands of the udder by large and numerous arteries. As secretion is depend- ent on the freedom of supply of blood to the part, and a copious flow, we find branches com- ing from different arterial trunks and freely anastomosing with each other. Although these arteries are internal and out of sight, yet fortu- nately the veins which carry the blood from the udder pass along the surface, and from their 82 AYRSHIRE CATTLE size and other characteristics indicate riot bnly- the quantity of blood which they carry away, but which must have passed through the glands from the arteries. These return veins pass both backward and forward. Those passing forward are known as the milk veins, and the size of these superficial veins on either side of the belly, and the size of the orifices into which they dis- appear, are excellent points to determine the milking probability of the cow. Still better is it to find, in addition, the veins in the perineum, which also return from the udder, prominent and circuitous. The escutcheon is now gener- ally conceded to be a good indication of milk in the cow. This mark is sufficiently well known not to require description in detail. I think the broad escutcheon is full as good a sign as a long one; that quantity or quality means more than shape, yet I will not discard the shape entirely. One error must, however, be avoided. It may be well to compare the size of escutcheon of cows of one breed, but never to compare the size of escutcheon in cows of different breeds. I think this point means more relative to size in the Ayrshire than in the Holstein or Dutch; and I am certain that, while it may be safe to follow it in the Ayrshire in the majority of instances, it would be equally unsafe to adopt it in selecting a Short-horn, for the obvious reason that that breed has been bred for generations for other puposes than the dairy'. The udder and its de- pendencies, the milk vein and the escutcheon mark, may be considered the foundation of the Ayrshire cow. These notably influence profit, as they also do the shape of the body and the form of the animal. The milk vessel is placed in the pubic region of the cow, and is pro- tected on either side by the hind limbs. The breadth of its attachments secures breadth of the body, and the weight requires also a depth of quarter and of flanks. The breadth below requires breadth of hip above, and length of bone here appears related to length of pelvis. So much for the physical portion. The physiologi- cal functions of milk-producing demands a great and continuous flow of blood, for it must not be forgotten that milk is blood, so to speak. This flow is dependent on the supply of food, and on the facilities of digestion. To gain this a large body is required in order to hold the suitable digestive organs. To gain further room for these, we desire to see arched ribs, depth, yet no heaviness of flank, and the breadth of hips which we see was also required for the broad udder. To sustain this body, a strong, firm back is needed. To gain the most of our blood after it has absorbed the chyle from the digestive organs, reason shows that it should find its way freely and speedily through the system on its labors of supply and removal, cleanse itself in the lungs, and again pass on to its duties. All this points to a healthy heart, not cramped, and lungs of sufBcient capacity ; for the yield of milk drains much nutriment from the system, and the con- stitution must needs have the vigor given by healthy and active heart and lungs. In this way, then, the chest is correlated with the udder. The reproductive functions require hook bones of good size, and a broad pelvis desirable, as under, lying which are the generative organs. Thus the necessities of the body of a good milking cow require the wedge shape, and this not only from the flank, but also when it is viewed from abovfe. AYRSHIRE CATTLE 83 AYRSHIRE CATTLE To sum up the points of a good dairy cow, we should find the wliole fore quarters thin in front, and gradually increasing in depth and width backward, yet being of sufficient breadth and roundness to insure constitution. The back should be straight, the loins wide, the hips high and well spread; pelvis roomy, long, broad and straight, hook bones wide apart; quarters long, tolerably muscular, and full in their upper por- tion, but moulding into the thighs below, which should have a degree of flatness, thus affording more space for a full udder ; the flanks well let down, but not heavy ; ribs, behind, springing out very round and full, affording space for a large udder — the whole carcass thus acquiring in- creased volume towards its posterior portion. The points as given are those of utility, and we see the udder points and body points are corre- lated. In connection with the body and the udder, the skin is of great value in assisting our judgment. Between that portion of the external covering used for leather and the muscle, there occurs a layer of cellular tissue, which contains a larger or smaller amount of fat cells, and the mellow handling caused by these cells indicates a free circulation throughout this meshwork. The skin varies from a thin, papery hide, cov- ered with silky hair, to a thick, supple, elastic hide, well coated with hair, on the one hand, and a similar variation, with harsh hair and coarseness, on the other. The thin, papery hide indicates quick fattening and a delicate constitu- tion; the thick, elastic hide cushioned on fat, and which, on the flank, comes into the hand, almost without grasping, indicates the height of vigor, accompanied by the fattening tendency, and the possessor of this handling endures climatic changes, low quality in his food, and neglect, with remarkable hardihood, and quickly responds to full feed and good care. The harsh handler is a dull feeder, consumes much food, and generally contains more than a just propor- tion of offal or waste. In the Ayrshire cow we desire neither of these extremes, for it is in the milk product that we wish the food to be util- ized, and it is almost an unchanging law of nature that deficiency in one direction must be compensated for by excess in another direction, and vice versa. At any rate, the cow that lays on fat too quickly is seldom a first-class milker, and how well known is it that the cow of large yield milks down her condition. A cow that has a moderately thin, loose skin, of sufficient elas- ticity and suppleness of touch, without being fat- cushioned, as it were, with hair soft and mossy, or woolly, if of correct form otherwise, will usually milk a large quantity, and when she be- comes dry, will rapidly come into condition. In truth, the handling of the Ayrshire cow must be good; it can not be too good; but it must not be of exactly that quality sought for in the grazing breeds. There, as everywhere, the dairyman must keep to his line; milk, not fat, is his profit; and in seeking excess of both, he will be liable to fall below the average of either. It is an axiom of breeders to diminish the useless parts of an animal as much as possible; or, in other words, reduce the proportion of those parts not condu- cive to profit to as great extent as possible. Ap- plying this rule to a dairy breed, we should desire a small neck, sharp shoulders, small brisket and small bone. Moreover, small bone usually accompanies thrift, and is universally found in improved breeds. We thus have a reason for these other points, which are here quoted: Shoulders lying snugly to the body, thin at their tops, small at their points, not long in the blade, nor loaded with muscle; brisket light; neck of medium length, clean in the throat, very light throughout, and tapering to the head ; tail long and slender ; legs short, bones fine, joints firm. If the dairyman's policy were otherwise, he would have to supply extra food for the supports of parts useless to him, and whose larger development is. of no especial value. The head should be small, in shape either long and narrow, or broad in the forehead and short, according to the type of the animal preferred by the breeder, generally preferred somewhat dishing; the nose tapering to an ex- panded muzzle, with good, clean no.strils. Opin- ions differ as to the general shape of the head. A broad forehead and short face occurs more frequently in bulls, and is generally esteemed a masculine characteristic ; a more elongated face ia called feminine. Yet some families of well- bred and good milking Ayrshire cows have the broad and short head, and such were, at one time, if not now, the favorites in the show-yards in Scotland. The eye should be moderately full, lively yet placid-looking. The eye is a mirror of the disposition, and interprets the character of the cow; a fretful, irritable animal is seldom a quick fattener, and usually disappoints at the pail. It also gives expression to the features, and physiognomy aids our judgment. The ears should be of a good size, but thin, and their skin of rich yellow color. Coarse ears are usually found on ill-bred animals, and thus may be considered, to a certain extent, indicative of general coarseness. The color of the skin, as shown inside the ear, is usually considered indicative of the richness of the milk in butter. The horns should be of medium size, of fine tex- ture, with an outward and upward turn, or inclining upwards and coming slightly inwards, .according to the taste of the breeder. They should be set on rather widely apart. A coarse horn may indicate a coarse and thick hide, as there seems an intimate relation between the composition of the horn, hair and hide; and the influence of climate on the horn and hair gives an appearance oftentimes of correlation between the two. The neck should be of medium length, very light throughout, and tapering to the throat, which should be free from loose, hanging skin . Yet a too thin neck is not desirable, as it usually indicates a delicate animal. A thick-set neck, well covered, yet not overladen with mus- cle, accompanies hardiness and vigor of constitu- tion. The junction of the neck with the body and over the shoulders is called the crops; on a horse it would be called the withers A hollow behind this point is a never-failing sign of weak- ness. The crops should blend in easily with a thin shoulder, lying snugly to the body. This shoulder and a well-defined spine produce the sharpness of shoulder so much admired. The back should be straight, with spine well-defined, especially forward. The tail long, firm in the bone, and set on a level with the back, without depression or notch. A fine tail usually accom- panies fine bone, and fine bone is not only de- crease of offal over heavy limbs, but accompa- nies early maturity and a tendency to thrift. The limbs should be fine-boned, flat-boned, and BALK 84 BALL with joints of moderate size. On tlie forward limbs the cow should stand low. Large joints and round bones are found very frequently on dull feeders and on animals of little profit. The teats should be of medium length, evenly set, and project slightly outward when the bag is full ; of even thickness throughout; and of fine texture. They should be placed about one-third of the vessel apart in one direction, and about one-half the other. When the udder is not distended, they should hang perpendicularly. Large teats, however desirable to the milker, are usually accompanied by coarseness of build in the cow. They are seldom found on well-bred animals; yet exceptionally they so occur, and are much Uked. A teat should be large enough to grasp, say from two to two and a half inches in length. A shorter one would be an objection; with larger I should fear coarseness. To return to Ayrshires: In color they vary greatly. Brown red and white appears to good advantage, and is fashionable. A good quantity of white, well distributed, adds style and showiness to the ani- mal. Yellow and white is frequently seen, yet while this color is sometimes stated as indicating lack of hardiness, I am not aware of any proofs or argument having been brought forward to support this view. Color is as yet a matter of taste, for its correlations are hardly guessed at; and from almost pure black, through the reds to almost pure white, are colors found on the best cows. Black spots on the skin, barely percepti- ble through the hair, often occur on the best cattle. Strawberry-blotched and red and white are perhaps the more common colors. A self- colored animal, or a roan, or an animal with white on the ears, the writer has never yet seen among the Ayrshires in Scotland or in this coun- try, when the pedigree was unquestionable. The carriage should be light and active, the head well-up, and the hind legs should not cross ^n walking. The condition should be neither fat or lean, but that average which a good cow holds when in good flesh at calving, and liberally fed while in milk. AZALEA. A genus of small ornamental shrubs with large, trumpet-shaped flowers, allied to the Rhododendron. Choice varieties are culti- vated under the name of Rhododendrons. AZOREAN FENNEL. Anethum azoricum. A kind of fennel. AZOTE. (See Nitrogen.) B BACCA. A berry. BACCIFEROUS. Bearing berries, suchasthe currant. BACK. The spine; also applied to those parts between the shoulders and rump. BACK-RAKINtr. An operation in farriery, by which hardened faeces (dung) are withdrawn from the rectum. BACK SINEWS, SPRAIN OF THE. Oc casioned by the horse being overweighted, and then ridden far and fast, especially if his pasterns are long; but it may occur from a false step, or from the heels of the shoes being too much low- ered. Sprain of the back sinews is detected by swelling and heat at the back of the lower part of the leg; puffiness along the course of the sinews; extreme tenderness, so far as the swell- ing and heat extend ; and very great lameness To treat this disability local applications should be made to the back of the leg, in the form of fomentations of water sufficiently hot and fre- quently repeated. At the same time, as much strain as possible should be taken from the sinew by such appliances in the stable as will enable the animal to stand at ease. Absolute rest is necessary to insure a cure. (See Fomentation.) BACK, SORE. A complaint common to young horses when first worked or ridden. To prevent it, their backs should be cooled every time they are rested, and at night, where the harness or saddle have pressed, the parts should be washed with warm water and wiped dry with a linen cloth. One drachm of sugar of lead with one pint each of vinegar and water is a good remedy for this disability. BACO-^, TO KEEP. Wash clean with soap- suds, wipe and then rub well with ground black pepper. Hang in a dry dark place, and smoke occasionally. BALK. A piece of whole timber squared. In plowing, strips of unplowed land between furrows, or at the end of the field. BALL. Bolus. In farriery, a well-known form of medicine, for horses or other animals, which may be passed at once into the stomach. They should be made of a long oval shape, and about the size of a small egg, being best conveyed over the root of the tongue by the hand. This method of administering medicines is preferable in most cases to that of drenches, but should never be given unless the actual necessity exists, since good nursing, and bran mashes will effect a cure in ordinary ailments. The recipes for a few forms of ball, are appended- Mild physic ball — six drachms Barbadoes aloes, two drachms powdered ginger, two drachms castile soap, twenty di'ops oil of cloves; syrup of buckthorn sufficient to. form a ball Strong physic ball — eight drachms Barbadoes aloes, two" drachms powdered ginger, two drachms castile soap, twenty drops oil of cloves; syrup of buckthorn sufficient to fonn a ball. Calomel ball for a light horse — one drachm calomel, six drachms powdered aloes, two drachms powdered ginger, two drachms castile soap, tweiity drops oil of cloves; syrup of buckthorn sufficient to make into a ball. Calomel ball for a heavy horse — eight drachms powdered aloes; otherwise same as the last. Diuretic ball — four ounces castile soap, two outices powdered nitre, two ounces powdered rosin.half ounce oil of juniper; anise-seed powder and treacle sufficient to make into eight balls. Cordial ball— four ounces powdered cummin seed, four ounces powdered anise-seed, four ounces powdered caraway seed, four ounces liquorice powder, two ounces powdered ginger; honey sufficient to make into balls the size of a hen's egg. To give a ball properly, a balling iron (a ring sufficiently large to admit the hand, and with cheek pieces) should be used. Have the horses head held well up, pull out the tongue, but do not pull on it strongly. Introduce the ball well back at the root of the tongue, with- draw the hand, return the tongue to the mouth, BALSAM 85 BANTAMS close the jaws and hold the head for a short time or until the ball is swallowed. '1 his may be facili- tated by gently stroking the throat between the jaws, or by slightly pinching the throat, or, rather, by slight but direct pressure on the throat, under the jaws. BALH. Melissa officinalis. A perennial plant, having a fragrant odor, the flowers of which are exceedingly attractive to bees. Hence its name, Melissa, from the Greek word signifying honey. It is propagated from seeds, by offsets from the roots, or by cuttings of the young shoots. Place them in a shady border to root, and, well rooted, transplant to a distance of ten inches apart, where they are to stand. ..A poor but friable soil is best suited to the plant. By distillation, balm yields a fragrant oil, which, diluted with water, is held to be beneficial in cases of fever, or to persons of a lax or debilitated habit. A strong infusion of the young shoots may be used for the same pur- pose. For drying, gather the stalks when the flowers are in bloom, and dry in the shade or in a cool oven. BA.LSA.M. Impatiens. This common and pretty annual has long been cultivated in gardens for its variety of color and abundance of bloom. DOUBLE BALSAM. It is commonly known as Lady -slipper, and Touch- me-not, from the habit of the ripe pods suddenly flying open upon being touched, and casting their seeds to some distance. This plant must not be confounded with the stemless Cypnpedium—a, semi-aquatic plant, also called Lady-slipper. Many of the new varieties are quite beautiful. The plant is also attractive, especially when properly trained by pinching or pruning. The cut shows a double flower full size, also a plant in flower, pruned to three branches; and still another with the side branches shortened in by pinching back. The whole genus are killed with the slightest frost; hence the seeds should not be planted until about the time for planting cucumbers, or when Indian corn is up and growing. If bloom is wanted very early, sow the seeds in a gentle hot- bed about the time of sowing spring wheat, and transplant when the days and nights are warm. They transplant easily, but should be set so deep that a part of the stem is buried; thus they will make new roots along the buried stem. Several species of the genus are found in the United States. One of these, the Pale Impatiens, known by the popular names of Yellow Balsam, Snap- weed, and Touch-me-not, is frequent in moist, shaded grounds, and along streams where its gamboge yellow flowers appear from July to September. The most common species, however, is the Fulvous or Tawney Impatiens, the flowers of which are of a deep orange color, with numer- ous reddish brown spots. The tender and succu- lent stems of this plant afford a domestic applica- tion to inflamed tumors, being bruised in the form of a poultice. It has sometimes been used for dying salmon-red. BANTAM FOWLS. The smaller varieties of poultry are generally known under the name of bantams. They are not especially valuable, being kept entirely as pets or for ornament. Dwarf fowls have been known since the time of Pliny, who says of them: They are extraordi- SEABBIGHT BANTAMS. narily small, and yet fruitful. Aldovraudus describes a dwarf hen, and Willoughby, in 1678, says of bantams, that they are called trigs. Mnce the date mentioned, they have become common, and during the last century many new varieties, have been originated, so that there are now bantams of all the principal breeds. Those in most repute, however, are the Game Bantam, the White, the Black, and the Seabright or Gold and Silver-laced Bantams. So there are bantams of the Asiatic fowls. Cuckoo Bantams and Japanese Bantams, the latter the most curious of all. The cut shows the Golden Seabright Ban- tam, the only difference between these and the Silver Bantams being, that the first is marked with yellow, while the latter is marked with white lacings. The Game Bantams .are, without doubt, among the finest specimens of bantams, as they are the smallest; and yet a cockerel, not larger than a pigeon, will drive one of the large Asiatic breeds. The Game Bantams should be exact and diminutive representatives of the large breed of games they are to represent, whether Black-red, Brown-red, Duckwings or Pile Game Bantams. The smaller these are the better, and to reduce BARK 86 BARLEY the size it is usual to rear chickens from late fall broods. For competition, cocks must weigh less than twenty-four ounces, and hens less than twenty ounces each. BARB. The horses of Barbary are called "Barbs." All that region, including Algiers, Fez, Morocco, Tripoli and Tunis, lying on the northern coast of Africa, west of Egypt, has long been celebrated for its superior horses. The Oadolphin Arabian was said to have been a fine Barb. Others that have exercised an influence in the make-up of the modern blood-horse were Burton's mare, Comptou's, Croft's bay, Curwen's bay, Dodaworth's, Fairfax's Morocco, Grey- ■ hound, Harper's, Hutton's Gray, Layton's mare, Taffolet, Thoulouse, and Numidian. The true Barb is described by Beranger as follows : The forehead is long, slender and badly furnished with mane; but the neck rises distinctly and boldly out of the withers; the head is small and lean; ears of good size and well placed; shoul- ders light, obliquely sloping, and broad ; withers thin and high; loins straight and short; flanks and ribs round and well developed; haunches strong; croup somewhat too long; quarters mus- cular and full ; legs clean, and the tendons clearh^ marked and separate from the bone; pasterns , somewliat too long and slanting; feet sound and of good shape. In size, they are lower than the Arabs, seldom measuring more than fourteen and a half hands, and they have not so much spirit, speed and endurance, altliough in external things they are, perhaps, superior. BARB FENCE. (See Fencing.) BARILLA. The ashes of sea-shore plants, containing about twenty per cent, of soda; used in the manufacture of hard soaps. The manu- facture of soda from other sources now furnishes the soda of commerce. (See Alkali.) BIKK. The rind or covering of the wood}^ parts of a tree. The bark of trees is composed of tliree distinct layers, of which the outermost is called the epidermis, and the next the parenchyma, and tlie innermost, or that in contact with the wood, tire cortical layers. Tlie epidermis is a thin, transparent, tough membrane; when rubbed oflE, it is gi-adually reproduced, and in some trees it cracks and decays, and a fresh epidermis is form- ed, pushing outwards the old ; hence the reason why so many aged trees have a rough surface. The parencliyma is tender, succulent, and of a dark green. The cortical layer, or liber, consists of thin membranes encircling each other, and these seem to increase with the age of the plant, The liber, or inner bark, is known by its white- ness, great flexibility, toughness and durability; tlie fibres in its structure are ligneous tubes. It is the part of the stem through which the juices descend, and the organ in which the generative sap from whence all the other parts originate, is received from the leaves. The alburnum is the white or softer wood between the bark or sap- wood or duramen. The bark in its interstices ■contains cells which are filled with juices of very varying qualities; some, like that of the oak, re- markable for their astringency; others, like the cinnamon, abounding with an essential oil; others, as Peruvian Cinchona bark, containing an alkali; some mucilaginous ; many resinous. Several of these barks have been analyzed by various chem- ists ; they have found them to consist chiefly of car- bon, oxygen and hydrogen, with various saline and earthy substances. BARK-BOUND. Trees, the bark of which appears stretched over the wood, and which does not split ofE kindly, are said to be bark-bound. Cutting a slit through it from the branches to the root, relieves the tree, and when the wound is kept clean from insects, does good. Manuring and good cultivation, scraping the bark and washing, are the real remedies. BARK CLEANING. Fruit trees sometimes become infested with lichens or moss; the rongh bark offers a hiding place for various insects as a nidus for their eggs. To prevent these, the bark should be scraped in the spring, as far as rough bark is concerned, and afterwards washed with strong lye, brine, whale oil soap dissolved in wa- ter (one pound to three gallons), lime water, soft i soap, or other alkaline wash. BARKING IRONS. Insti-uments for remov- ing the bark of oak and other trees, required for the tanner's use. They consist of a blade or knife for cutting the bark, while yet on the trunk, across at regular distances, and of chisels or spat- ulas of different lengths and breadths. BARLEY. Hardeum milgare. This grain, from the fact that it has been used from time immemorial in Oriental countries as food for horses, and to a great extent as food for man among barbarous people ; and from its easy con- version into malt and thence into beer, ale and other spiritous liquors, it has acquired an im- portance not warranted as a food grain. It is far below Indian coi'n, wheat, or even oats, in money value to a country, except in certain cli- mates where it may be easily cured bright for malting. When heavy, and perfectly bright, it commands high prices from maltsters, but when it is dark and discolored it hardly brings the price of good oats per bushel. In Europe, where barley is extensively raised as one of the crops of a rotation, it is much employed as food for horses after a hard day's work. It is given after having been boiled, in which condition it acts as a gentle aperient and sudorific, opening the system and softening the skin. In the United States there is a prejudice against the use of bar- ley as food for horses. This is entirely unfounded. Six or seven pounds may be given at a feed with- out injury, and if soaked twenty-four hours be- fore feeding, a horse may eat what he will natur- ally take at a meal, and witliout injury. Certain it is that in Oriental countries, where it forms the bulk of the grain fed, it agrees perfectly with the horses. The same may be said of its use in New Mexico, on the plains and in California. It is nutritious, and in every way adapted either to horses of fast or slow work In the great grain region of the United States, oats are more pro- lific and certain, and hence but little attention is paid to barley. Barley is less nutritious than wheat, but one-seventh more so than oats. The ancient Romans, besides using it as food for horses, considered it the best food for swine, especially after boiling, the flesh so made having been reckoned especially tender and sweet. The first record of barley sown in America, is at Martha's vineyard in 1603, and in Virginia in 1611. In the New England States it has long been held valuable as food for hogs, milch cows and poultry. There is no doubt that the only drawback to its use is the high price which bright grain brings for malting. Barley is held to contain less of the flesh and blood-making principles than wheat, hence its use as a demulcent and for BARLEY invalids in febrile complaints, and as an emollient in inflammatory disorders; but from its well known tendency to act on the bowels, it should not be eaten by persons subject to diarrhoea, or when bowel complaints are prevalent. Barley ■contains of — Flesh-forming principles 6.1 Heat and fat producing principles 69.3 Husk 13.8 "Water 10.8 100.0 Or, according to another analysis : Water 13.9 ■Oluteu 13.0 Starch 47.5 Sugar 4.1 -Gum 3I5 Fat 0.4 Fiber 13.4 Mineral matter 4.2 100.0 'Or, economically: "Water 13.8 TPlesh-formers 13.0 iFat-formers 52.0 Accessories 1 16,9 Mineral matter 4.2 100.0 In Europe and the Oriental countries barley is ■ext«n.sively cultivated for fodder. In Germany ;and Russia it is extensively used for making bread. Scotland has long been celebrated for its barlc)' meal, an-d its use is constantly extending in the form of mush with milk in all civilized countries. Barley grows best in a sandy soil and must have dry weather for ripening and curing. Hence the superior quality of the crop when frown on the plains of the far "West and in Cali- ornia. In that State it is sown at any favorable time during the winter, or even to the end of March. In the West the crop is sown on newly plowed rich soil, reduced to a fine tilth in April ■or early in May, at the rate of about one and a half bushels drilled, or one quarter more sown broadcast; occasionally three or more bushels are sown. The varieties usually sown are the two- rowed {HordeiiM distichun) and the six-rowed {H. Jiexastichon). The usual yield on fair soils is from twenty to twenty-five bushels, though under ex- •ceptional circumstances fifty and even sixty bush- ■els per acre have been taken. Pot or hulled barley is barley denuded of its husk, in a null, and is used in making mush, puddings, etc. Pearl or pearled barley is when all the integments are removed and the grain rounded and polished; in which form it is much used in soups. Pearled barley, ground into flour, is called patent barley. More care is required in harvesting barley than in any other of the grain crops. It should be allowed to become ripe, but not dead j'ipe. It is very apt to be de- stroyed on account of weather, causing germina- tion of the grain, and the consequent deprecia- tion of its value as malt. Hence it should not be stacked or put in the barn unless thoroughly dry. None should be put away when the dew is upon it, as, from the softness of the stem and the ten- ■dency of the ears to vegetate, it will be heated, the vitality may be destroj^ed, and maltsters will purchase it only for grinding, a"nd then at greatly reduced rates. The English plan of harvesting is as follows ; The grain must be ripe, but not dead- dry ripe, in order that it may germinate evenly. Wait until the red streaks which runs longitudi- nally on the ripening grain disappear, the head 87 BARLEY begins to hang down, and the straw assumes a golden hue. Then cut, and if sufficiently long tie up into small sheaves, in the event of bad weather. This will better protect it from staining than if lying loose. Barley stacked loose gets into better condition than when tied up ; the sweating is more uniform and the sample a shade mellower. Still the evidence is in favor of tying. It is also re- commended to avoid threshing with a machine, as the germinating "spear" is bruised, and is as much injured by it as if heated in the mow. It SPRIKG BARLEY. WINTEK BAELEY. is likewise important, on account of the fineness of the texture of the chaff, that the grain should not be thrown in very large heaps without daily examination, to prevent heating and fermenta- tion. The necessity for all these cautions will readily appear when the process of malting is un- derstood. Among the new varieties introduced within the last few years are, Saxonian, Probstier, Chevalier barley. The latter, a pedigi-ee sort, that is a variety obtained by careful selection and cultivation through a number of years. In the first half of the last decade the cultivation of barley received a strong impulse from the high prices obtained. Since that time its cultivation has presented fluctuations. In 1874-75, exports dropped to 91,118bushels, the value of which was 67,4 cents per bushel as against 330,399 bushels the previous year, worth 65. 8 cents per bushel. In 1875-76, exports reached 317, 781 bushels, worth 66.3 cents per bushel. In 1876-77, it reached 1,186,139 bushels, worth 59.8 cents per bushel. BARLEY 88 In 1877, the number of bushels of barley raised in the United States was 34,441,440, from 1,614,- 654 acres, valued at $22,028,644. The average yield per acre being 21.3 bushels, the average price 63.9 cents per bushel, and the average value being $13 64 per acre. In 1879 the acres in barley were, 1,680,700; bushels harvested, 40,283,100; and the value, $23,714,444 — an average of $14.11 per acre, and an average yield of 24 bushels, nearly, per acre. Barley is subject to many disabilities, other than the most prevalent one of discoloration of the grain in curing. Those, during growth, are smut, blight and mildew. Those, during har- vesting and succeeding harvesting, are germina- tion in wet weather. Discoloration is produced by dew and damp weather during curing, and from heating in the stacli. To obviate this in the United States, when little danger of rain and dew is feared, the grain is placed in wind- rows, set up in gavels without binding. Since the introduction of automatic binders, binding is again coming into favor, the shoclis being care- fully capped if rain is feared, and also at night THREE-STOltT BABN. to prevent the heads taking dew. On the great plains of the West, in the valleys between the Kocliy mountains and the Sierra Nevada, and in California, where there is neither dew or rain during harvest, the brightest samples of barley are produced. There the grain is harvested, bound and shocked, and either tlireshed imme- diately from the shocks or else stacked and threshed after sweating, which always takes place in grain or hay when stacked. This sweat- ing usually occcupies six weeks or two months, after which grain is usually dry enough for keeping in bulk or during transportation to dis- tant markets. In threshing, there is an objec- tion to that threshed with spiked cylinder machines. That threshed with the flails or tramped out by horses is less likely to have the germ broken, which injures it for malting or for seed. This, however, is too slow and tedious; hence machines, called beater machines, are pre- ferred in threshing. The best soils for barley are rich sandy soils, or free loams, that is, loams not containing too much clay. All heavy (retentive) soils should be drained, else the outcome for barley or wheat need not be relied on to be remunerative. As a green crop for feeding, bar- ley is better than rye. It should be fed sparingly to horses at first, as it is apt to purge them ; but after a time the quantity may be increased with- BARN out danger. For cattle, and especially for sheep, it is undoubtedly one of the best of forage crops. In the United States, however, it is but little sown except for its grain, and this almost ex- clusively for malting. BARLEY BRASSES. Grasses of the genus Hordeum. They are coarse, and of little moment in agriculture . (See Grasses.) BARLEY, PEARL. The small round kernel which remains after the skin and a portion of the barley haVe been ground off. (See Barley.) BARM. Leaven; yeast. BARN OWL. The owls are all helps to the- farmer, from their habits of destroying rats, mice, young rabbits and other verminous animals. (See Owl.) BARN. Buildings for storing hay, grain in- the straw, and fodder of various kinds. Have always been considered as among the most im- portant in farm economy. Hence, in all old settled countries, the fertility of a farm, and the wealth of its owner, may be pretty accurately known by the completeness of its barns and other out- buildings. Of late years, how- =- — ever, barns are becoming more and more of a mixed charac- ter ; that is, they are built with special reference to the shelter- ing of stock, and the storing and saving of hay and fodder, rather than for the storing of grain, since the practice of thatching allows the stacking of grain outside, and the mod- ern facilities for warehousing^ and transportation of threshed grain, and modern systems of ventilation prevents CD s O (91) BAKN 92 room upon the other for a horse power and hay cutter, toy which most of the coarse fodder is chopped up before being delivered at the feed trough on the floor below. Each grain and meal bin communicates by a chute with the feeding floor, where its contents may be drawn ofif. The greater part of this floor is occupied by the im- mense hay mows through which pass the four great ventilators coming from the feeding floor. Doors open with the ventilating trunks at differ- ent heights, so, when desirable, hay, straw, oats in the sheaf, etc. ,may be thrown down to the stock. From this floor there are stairs which ascend to the cupola or observatory. The horse stables BARN two-inch chestnut plank, with cleats, half an inch thick, covering the cracks between the planks. Upon this water-tight floor is another made in three parts ; for two feet at the upper end the- floor is of white oak plank nailed fast; the rest of the floor is formed of narrow oak xjlank fast- ened together by strong oak cleats let in flush so- as to form two doors, as it were, hinged at either side, so as to be lifted and set up, as shown in right hand stall of the cut, for the perfect cleans- ■ ing of the lower floor. A channel at the rear- carries off the urine, and the solid manure is- thrown into the cellar through the trap-door seen open in cut. Between the cattle-stalls in the south STALL, WITH HOESE. throughout the barn are airy and roomy. There are three loose boxes as shown in the ground plan (page 90), one twelve feet square, for horses, and two somewhat smaller, which are used for horses, or as Ijring-in stalls for cows. The horse-stalls are models of convenience and excellence. Each has the following dimensions: ten feet from front to rear, five feet one inch wide, nine feet four inches high. The stalls are separated by plank parti- tions four and a half feet high, surmounted by strong woven-wire cloth extendiug two feet higher. The same style of partition foi-ms the front of the stalls. The hay rack is of iron, in' one corner, and an iron feed box is in the opposite corner, accessible from the passage way in front of the stalls by a small door in the wire cloth. There are two floors, the lower one being laid of wing> (page 93) there is a passage way ten feet wide, through which carts with green food, roots, etc , may be driven, making a complete system of soiling in summer practicable and convenient. The passage way through the east wing is not quite so wide, but might easily be used in the same way. All the cattle-stalls are made upon the same principle, though of different sizes, f or- fattening cattle, milch cows, and young stock. The cow-stalls are represented on page 93. The feeding boxes are two and a half feet wide, the floors five and a half feet from the feeding trough to the gutter, which is fourteen inches wide, and the passage in the rear is tliree feet, making in all about twelve feet for the stalls. The stalls are six and a half feet wide, arranged for two ani- mals, which are fastened by a neck strap or chaiit :barn attached to a short chain and ring, playing up and down upon a rod bolted to the partition between the stalls. A pei-pendicular rack is in front of the manger, and a shutter is hinged below it, and when open is held in an inclined position by a chain. This affords space below for a good forkful of hay between the shutter and the rack. Great economy of space is thus secured, for the encroachment upon the gangway is rarely of any inconvenience, and when carts are driven through it is easy to close the shutters. Light and air are abundantly provided for the stock, as one may see by a casual inspection of the plans. In fact, these are the first features that 93 BARN ducted off, none going into the yard, and there is no necessity for husbanding it. The gables on the sides of the bam and south wing give great strength to the frame, afford light to the floor, and in summer give a splendid draft of air over the floor, to say nothing of the beauty added to the building. A cheap barn can be built on this general plan of, first, basement for stock cattle ; second, floor for stock, wagons and tools; third, floor for hay, grain, hay-scales and other conven- iences. To come to more simple barns, intended principally for storage of hay and grain, all that will be necessary to decide will be the size intended. In those localities where there is a lack of build- 'ilr ' If — I cow STALLS. impress one. The ventilating trunks are four feet square, and rise from the feeding floor directly to the roof, where they terminate in ventilators of the largest size. The current of air caused by one of these is all times percepti- ble, and usually amounts to a considerable flow. The windows on the stock floor are numerous, and are each provided with two glazed sashe.s, hung by weights, so that any one, or all, may be opened to any degree desired, making the floors cool and airy in the closest weather. The yards open to the south and east, and are so arranged that the wash may be turned to flow into tanks for wetting down the manure in the cellar, which operation is frequently necessary, especially in summer. The water from the eaves is all con- ing stone for the foundation, it is better that there be no basement, A barn forty by eighty feet, or larger, should not have less than twenty- five feet posts, since with a horse fork and run- ways, hay may be carried icasily and economic- ally. Such a barn, to be built internally of timber and boards, should be sided vertically, and battened, or not, as the taste of the owner may suggest. For an average farm we present a cut of barn thirty-two by forty-four, with base- ment. This barn has eighteen feet posts, but we should prefer in a barn of this size that the posts should be twenty feet. The inside arrange- ment may be figured upon according to the special wants of the owner. By studying the plan of large barn, the fixtures may easily be BAROMETER altered for smaller. In such a barn the entrance should be from the end, the doors being hunj; on iron rollers; the siding may be of rough boards, placed vertically, the floors of two-inch 94 BARROW A SMALL BAKK BARN. plank, planed and matched, with the shed and corn stables in the basement, and horse stables on the floor above. BAROMETER. The word is derived from two Greek words, which signify the measurer of weight. This, the most valuable instrument for meteorological observations in the farmer's pos- session, was invented about the middle of the 17th century, by Torricelli, an Italian philoso- pher. It was found by Torricelli, that a column of water of about thirty-two feet exactly balanced the weight of the atmosphere which surrounds our earth, and that this was equal to the weight of a column of mercury of about twenty-eiglit inches. This column of mercury under various forms is the barometer. As the pressure of the atmosphere commonly varies with approaching changes in the weather, the consequent rise or fall of the mercury merely marks its amount; one end of the mercurial tube is hermetically sealed and is void of air, so that the mercury rises or falls in it unresisted; but the other end of the tube is open, and the atmosphere forces the mercury through this, by pressure on the surface of the fluid mercury in the cistern. Thus, the atmosphere operates by its varying pressure. When, therefore, the mercury rises, the atmos- pheric pressure is increasing; when it falls, the pressure is diminishing. The more dense the atmosphere, the higher the mercury will rise in the instrument . It is a popular notion that the atmospheric pressure must be greater when the air is thick and cloudy. The term density, when applied to the condition of the atmosphere and its relations with the barometer, means specific weight, without reference to its clearness or cloudiness. Vapor or moisture in the air always lessens its weight, and the more vapor, whether this be invisible, or in the condensed states con- stituting fogs and clouds, the less the weight or density and pressure upon the barometer. It is more from this rising and falling of the barome- ter, observes Mr. Forster, that from its height or lowness, that we are to infer fair or foul weather. In very hot weather the falling of the mercury indicates thunder; in winter, the rising indicates frost; and in frosty weather, if the mercury falls three or four divisions, there will follow a thaw; hut in a continued frost, if the mercury rises it will ^now. When foul weather happens soon after the falling of the mercury, it will not con- tinue; and, on the contrary, you may expect, if the weather becomes fair as soon as the mercury rises, that it will be of short duration. In foul, weather, when the mercury rises much and high, and so continues for two or three days before the foul weather is quite over, then expect a con- tinuance of fair weather to follow. There are many catch-penny, cheap barometers of late years. To buy them is money thrown away. If the farmer wishes a barometer, he had better ^et a mercurial instrument at once, since the hrst cost will be amply re-paid in the end. BARRA8. The resin which flows from the bark of flr-trees. BARREL. An English beer measure of thirty-four gallons. In the southern States, a measure of corn equal in the ear to ten bushels, or five bushels, shelled. A barrel of flour con- tains 196 pounds. BARREN FLOWERS. Those which contain stamens only; they are easily known by the absence of the swelling under the (ovarium) flow- er. By high cultivation flowers become barren, and contain no stamens; when these bear fruit, it is without seeds; hence seedless varieties of orange, grape, etc. Thus entirely double flowers are seedless. These, botanically, are monstrosi- ties, yet very beautiful to the eye. BARRENNESS. Barrenness or sterility is produced by a variety of causes. High and stimulating food; want of exercise, fatty and sweet foods, lack of vigor, disease, over-milking and innutritions food are among the more com- mon among the artificial causes. Natural causes, are a female twinned with a male; incomplete growth of the ovaries and incomplete genital organs are among the natural causes. If the male be old, diseased, very fat or very lean, or if his copulation has been excessive, the females coupled with him may not breed. The proper remedies will naturally suggest themselves. Mal- formation, of course, cannot be remedied. BARRENS. A term applied in the West to sandy soils, sparsely covered with trees. They are not necessarily barren soils. Since those bearing bur oak are among the most productive soils in the West. Soils may be barren not always from the lack of fertility ; excessive dryness and porosity may prevent fertility. Indurated clays may lack fertility because the roots cannot pene- trate the soils. Others again are barren from the presence of tannin, metals, as iron, sulphur, etc., in combination with acids. Inigation is necessary to the first named, deep filth to the second, and the third class of soils are usually benefited by dressings of lime. BARROW. In the United States, a pit or cave. In agriculture, a mound of earth, some- times called camps, under which potatoes or other roots are stored for protection from frost. They are made by excavating the ground, when possible, which should be high and dry, about one foot and a half deep, from three to four wide, and of a length proportionable to the num- ber of bushels to be stored. The earth dug out is thrown evenly on both sides of the trench. Before storing, a layer of straw is put down; but this is unnecessary; the roots, etc., are next piled up in a rounded form, with the greatest height of three or four feet in the middle of the mound; straw is laid over them, and dry earth of the excavation piled on from two to two and a half feet, and flattened with the spade. Around the barrow a ditch is dug, deeper than the floor within, to drain oflE water. What BATRACHIAN 95 BEAN" ever is stored should be sound, and previously well aired. They should be placed in a shaded place. When severe frost is expected one foot of earth is thrown on the first layer of straw, and another layer of straw is placed over this, and another foot of earth over all. The severest frosts will not enter a pit thus made. When the soil is too wet to be excavated, the roots may be placed directly on the surface, and a mound raised over the heap as before directed, but in this case it will require one-quarter more earth for covering than in the case of a pit. BARS. In farriery, those portions qf the crust or hoof of horses that are reflected inward, and from the arches situated between the heels and the frog. BARS OF A HORSES MOUTH. The fleshy rows that run across the upper part of the mouth, and reach almost to the palate; they form that part of the mouth on which the bit should rest, and have its effect; the tongue of the curb bit,pressing directly thereon, when pulled upon by the reins. BAR-SHOE. A particular kind of shoe, which is sometimes of necessity used to protect a tender frog from injury, the hinder part of the shoe being thickened and hollowed over the frog ; but unless it is made exceedingly heavy it will soon be flat- tened down, and press injuriously upon the heels. BARTTA. The oxide of barium, an alkaline earth closely resembling lime, but not very abun- dant. Many of its salts are Isomorphous with those of lime. BASALT. A rock of great hardness, contain- ing iron, lime and sand. It does not differ from trap except in color, and occasionally in putting on the columnar form. The Palisades of the Hudson are a range forty miles long of this rock. BASE. In chemistry, a term used to desig- nate those substances which readily combine with acids, as alkalies, metallic oxides, etc. ; in general terms, all substances which readily combine with others ; in architecture, a pedestal. BASIL. Ocymum iadlicum. Two species. The one named is most usually cultivated for culi- nary purposes ; an aromatic annual; the fragrance resembling cloves; a native of India. Among the French it is considered important in some soups, especially mock turtle ; also ia sauces and salads, the young leaves being the portions used. As an edging for large beds it is pretty. In the United States it is little used in cooking. The seed should be sown north, in a cold frame about the first of April and transplanted as soon as dan- ger of frost is over. It requires a fertile, mellow soil and a warm exposure, and should be planted in rows one foot apart, the plants about eight inches in the rows. The stalks are cut for dry- ing when in flower. BASS. 1. The inner bark of the Lime or Lin- den Tree {TUia glabra) ; used by gardeners to bind plants, and in the form of mats, to protect trees, frames. The American Linden Basswood, fur- nishes good bass. 2. Afreshwaterfish. (SeePish). BATH. In chemistry, sand, water, or oil heated in a metallic vessel communicating a steady and regulated heat to chemical vessels in distilation, drying, or evaporation. BATRACHIAN, BATBACHIA. An order of reptiles including the frogs and toads, and all reptiles which, like them, have naked skins and external Ijranchise in the early stage of existence ; those batrachia which retain the gills or gill aperatures throughout life are called "perenni- branchiate," or amphibious. BATTATAS. A name for the sweet potato. BATTENS. Strips of wood two to four inches broad, nailed over the cracks in the verti- cal siding of buildings; any strip nailed over a BAUME'S AREOMETER, or HYDROME- TER. A hydrometer, the zero of which is pure water at 58° Fahrenheit, and the 15° is the den- sity of a mixture of fifteen parts common salt and eighty -five parts water, -by weight. BAY. 1. The term for a color inclining to a chestnut. In reference to the horse this color has various shades, from the very light bay to the dark bay, which approaches nearly to the brown; but it is always more bright and shin- ing There are also dappled bays. All bay horses are really called brown. Bay horses have generally black manes. There are light bays, and gilded bays, which are somewhat of a yel- lowish color. The chestnut bay is that which comes nearest to the color of the chestnut. The bay is one of the best colors of horses, and horses of all the different shades of bays are generally sought after as indicating good temper and con- stitutional vigor. 2. Bay, in forestry, is a com- mon name for the laurels, especially Laurus iwbilis. Bayberry is the Myrica eerifera. 3. Bay of a barn ; that part where the mow is placed. Hence such barns as have the threshing floor in the middle, and a space for a mow on each side,, are called barns of two bays. BEAK. The rostrum or sharp termination of a -fruit. BEAM. A horizontal timber used to resist or sustain weight. BEAN. Phasolus. In the United States the bean is a tender annual, either dwarf or climbing, and is cultivated both for the succulent green pods and ripe seeds. The dwarf varieties vary in height from twelve to twenty -four inches, and require no poles. ^ The climbing varieties require poles for their support. There are varieties inter- medial between the bush and climbing bean, but which do not require support as the White Mar- row, one of the best of the white varieties to be used as dry, ripe beans. Among the varieties used as string beans, the Turtle Soup or Tampico Bean produces abundant runners two feet or more in length. Beans when planted in drills — the usual and proper way for all the dwarf and half dwarf varieties — should be sown, as to the drills, thirty inches apart, to allow of horse cultivation; and if the drills are bedded up by running a horse hoe lightly between before sowing, on ordinary prairie land, it will increase their earlLness and assist in the ease of cultivation, and subsequently the hilling with the horse hoe. When ripe, the crop is allowed to stand until the pods are quite dry, and pulled by the roots while moist with dew, the roots being pressed together in the hand and the handfulls set upon their tops in windows to dry. When sufficiently cured, they are to be laid loosely on scaffolds or laid around branched stakes, the roots in and the tops pointing down, to become quite dry before threshing. When threshed, the beans should be cleaned from the chaff in a fanning mill and be spread on a smooth airy floor and turned, from time to time, until they are entirely cured ; thus they will not heat and mould when put in barrels. For the general crop of dry beans, they should not be planted BEA.N until the days and nights are warm, or about the first week in June in the North, since the whole family are inter-tropical plants and exceedingly impatient, not only of frost, but cold storms. The pole varieties should be planted, the lower growing sorts three feet apart one way, by about two feet the other, and the taller climbers, as Scarlet Runners, Lima, etc., four feet one way, by three feet the other. Among the dwarf varie- ties, the China Red-eye is one of the most hardy and also moderately early. Early Valentine is productive and among the earliest; planted in June, they will afford green pods in fifty days, and ripen in eleven weeks. Long Yellow Six- weeks is also among the earliest of the early sorts, productive and excellent for a string bean. The so-called wax varieties are now generally cultivated for their succulent pods. The White Kidney Bean makes an excellent family bean for shelling green, coming in about the time of the first green corn, and is much used for making succotash. The pole or running varieties are less hardy than the dwarf varieties, and must not be planted in the open air until the days and nights are permanently warm, or about the time the earliest peas come in blossom. The Carolina and large Lima are the best of their class. Concord is a good shell bean, healthy and vigorous. The Corn Bean makes an excellent string bean. In- dian Chief known also as Wax and Butter Bean, makes an excellent string or shell bean. Sabre or Cimeter, is productive and an excellent string ' or shell beau, and valuable for pickling. Among those considered ornamental, may be mentioned the Scarlet Runner, the Painted Lady and the White Runner. In England, Horse Beans (vicia), a family different from the garden bean and the bean of commerce (Phaseolus). There are a num- ber of varieties of the horse bean raised in Eng- land as food for horses, and in Germany they are sown to some extent for soiling. All varieties of beans are considered to leave the soil open, porous and mellow. Again they are not an exhausting crop, notwithstanding the abundance of nutritive substance they contain, and this rich in azotized matter. The proportion of nutritive matter in beans, as compared with other grain is given by Einhof, as follows: Wheat Eye Barley Oats Peas Kidney Beans Per cent. Pounds by weight. per bushel 74 47 70 39 65 33 58 23 75 49 84 54 Von Thaer, in his experiments in feeding, to determine the value of beans as food for cattle, in his comparative estimate rates field beans as equal in value to one-third of wheat, and two- thirds of Indian corn or barley. The probability is that in countries adapted to the crop, that beans and Indian corn will admirably supple- ment each other in feeding, since Indian corn is rich in carbon, oil and starch, and beans are rich in nitrogen, as much as thirty per cent, of casein being, found in the ripe seeds. Stock, however, must be learned to eat beans. We have never succeeded in getting any farm animals to eat beans except they were ground and mixed with grains. 96 BEE-MOTH BEARD. The awn of cereal grains and grasses. BEARER. In building, any upright which supports timbers. WEAR'S FOOT. Hellebore. BEASTS. A term used in England to desig- nate neat or horned cattle. BEDS. In geology, seams of strata, as coal beds. In agriculture, a raised surface designed for the special care of a crop, as bedding up land with the plow. BEE. (See Bees.) B EECIL Fagui. One of the loftiest trees of the Amerrcan forests, and widely distributed. The beech likes a deep, rich, moist soil, in f avora^ ble situations sometimes attaining an immense size, even to four and five feet in diameter. Fagus syhatica is the European variety, and F. ferrugina (Red Beech), tlie variety usually found in our forests. The beech belongs to the natural botanical order (Cupulifera), and is de- scribed as follows : Staminate flowers numerous, in globose, pedunculate, pendulous catkins; fer- tile flowers in pairs, on a short peduncle, in an ovoid, prickly involucre; pistil, with the base covered by the calyx; styles three, awl-shaped; the nut triangular. Fagus ferrugina (American Beech), leaves are oblong, ovate, taper-pointed, distinctly and often coarsely toothed; petioles and midrib nearly naked; prickles of the fruit recurved or spreading. The beech is one of the most beautiful trees of the forest, and some of the nursery -grown varieties highly ornamental. The illustration we give will show the general characteristics f o the species, when grown singly, but also one of the most ornamental forms. It can, however, hardly be recommended for forest planting, since its wood quickly decays if ex- posed to alternate wet and dry. Its wood is firm, hard grained, compact, and when well seasoned does not warp, and is much used for shoe lasts, the wood of planes and other mechan- ical tools. The nuts are triangular in shape like buckwheat, small, and should, if intended for germination, be preserved in moist sand until planted. The beech is a superficial rooted tree, and if the trees be cut down in winter sprouts are thrown up the next spring. Thus the beech, like the chestnut, is easily renewed. The wood is liable to the attacks of insects, is inferior to the maple for fuel, but yields a large amount of potash in its ashes. The bark con- tains sufficient tannin for tanning leather, but is not used extensively for this purpose. BEE MOTH. OaUeria cereana. This insect belongs to the family of snout moths, Fyralida. The snout is not the tongue, but the palpi, which fact was not known by Mr. Langstroth, who is usually so accurate, as he essayed to correct Dr. Harris, who stated correctly, that the tongue, the ligula, was very short and hardly visable. This family includes the desti-uctive hop moth, and the noxious meal and clover moths, and its members' are very readily recognized by their unusually long paipi, the so-called snouts. The eggs of the bee-moth are white, globular and very small. These are usually pushed into cre- vices by the female moth as she extrudes them, which she can easily do by aid of her spy -glass- like ovipositor. Tliey may be laid in the .hive, in the crevice underneath it or about the en- trance. Soon these eggs hatch, when the gray, dirty looking caterpillars, with brown heads. BEE-MOTH seek the comb on which they feed. To better protect themselves from the bees, they wrap themselves in a silken tube which they have the power to spin. They remain in this tunnel of silk during all their growth, enlarging it as they eat. By looking closely, the presence of these larvse may be known by this robe of glis- tening silk, as it extends in branching outhncs 97 BEE-MOTH erpillars— are plainly visible. These larvse are about an inch long. They now spin their co- coons, either in some crevice about the hive, or, if very numerous, singly or in clusters on the comb, or even in the drone-cells in which they become pupse, and in two weeks, even less, sometimes, during the extreme heat of summer, the moths again appear. In winter, they may KIVERS' PURPLB-LEAVED BEECH. along the surface of the comb. A more speedy detection, even, than the defaced comb, comes from the particles of comb, iijtermingled with the powder-like droppings of the caterpillars, which will always be seen on the bottom-board in case the moth-larvse are at work. Soon, in three or four weeks, the larvaa are full grown. Now the six-jointed, and the ten prop-legs — making sixteen in all, the usual number of cat- remain as pupse for months. The moths or millers — sometimes incorrectly called moth mil- lers— are of an obscure gray color, and thus so mimic old boards, that they are very readily passed unobserved by the apiarist. They are about three-fourths of an inch long, and expand nearly one and one-fourth inches. The females are darker than the males, possess a longer snout, and are usually a little larger. The wings, when BEES 98 xiEJjjO' the moths are quiet, are flat on the back for a narrow space, then slope very abruptly. They rest by day, yet, when disturbed, will dart forth with great swiftness, so RSuamur styled them nimble-footed. They are active by night, when they essay to enter the hive and deposit their one or two hundred eggs. If the females are held in the hand they will often extrude their eggs; in fact, they have been known to do this even after the head and thorax were severed from the abdomen, and still more strange, while the latter was being dissected. It is generally stated that these are two-brooded, the first moths occur- ring in May, the second in August. . Yet, as I have seen these moths in every month from May to September, and as I have proved by actual observation that they may pass from egg to moth in less than six weeks, I think under favorable conditions there may be even three broods a year. It is true that the varied conditions of temperature — as the moth larvse may grow in a deserted hive, in one with few bees, or one crowded with bee life — will have much to do with the rapidity of development. Circum- stances may so retard growth and development that there may not be more than two, and possibly, in extreme cases, more than one brood in a season. — Manual of the Apiary. BEER. The fermented infusion of malt, flavored with hops. But other sweet infiisions, treated in the same way, or without hops, are also termed beers, as persimmon beer, sassafras, spruce, liquorice and sarsaparilla root beer. BEES. Apiculture, or the care of bees, has a peculiar fascination for its votaries, and is espe- cially adapted to the tastes of women and men who have a few hours leisure each day. It is a fact that some of the most successful bee-keepers in the country are women, the danger of being stung amounting to almost nothing, if the bees are rightly handled. So, also, some of the most intelligent writers on bees are, and have been, women. Bee literature is by no means wanting. Besides the many foreign works of value, the field of bee literature is fully covered in the United States. The illustrations we give will show the different genders of the honey-bee per- fectly; a being the drone or male bee; b, the female or fertile bee; and c, the neuter or work- ing bee. The honey-bee belongs to the order Mexapods, or true insects; to the sub-order Hymenoptera, which' also includes the wasps, ants, ichneumon-flies, and saw-flies. The group embraces insects possessing a tongue, by which they may suck fluid food, and also strong jaws for biting and gnawitig. The honey-bee belongs to the family Apidce, which includes all insects that feed their young or larvse, on pollen and honey. Of the natural history of the honey-bee, Prof. Cook, in his Manual of the Apiary, says: The insects of this family have broad heads, el- bowed an tennaj which are usually thirteen-jointed in the males and only twelve-jointed in the fe- males. The jaws or mandibles are very strong, and often toothed ; the tongue or ligula, as also the second jaws or maxillae, one each side the tongue, are long, though in some cases much shorter than in others, and frequently the tongue when not in use is folded back, once or more, un- der the head. All the insects of this family have a stiff spine on all four of the anterior legs, at the end of the tibia, or the third joint from the body, called the tibial spur, and all — except the genus Apis, which includes the honey-bee, in which the posterior legs have no tibial spurs — have two tibial spurs on the posterior legs. All of this family except one parasitic genus, have the first joint or tarsus of the posterior foot much widened, and this together with the broad tibia is hollowed out, forming quite a basin or basket on the outer side, in nearly all the species ; and generally, this basket is made deeper by a rim of stiff hairs. These receptacles or pollen baskets are only found, of course, on such individuals of each community as gather pollen. A few of the Apicke — thieves by nature — cuckoo-like, steal unbidden into the nests of others, usuallj' bumble-bees, and here lay their eggs. As their young are fed and fostered by another, they gather no pollen, and hence, likfr drone bees, need not, and have not pollen baskets. The young of these lazy tramps, starve out the real insect babies of these holnes, by eating their food and in some cases, it is said, being unable, like the young cuckoos, to hui'l these rightful children from the nest, they show an equal if not greater depravity by eating them, not waiting for starva- tion to get them out of the way. These parasites illustrate mimicry, already described, as they look so like the foster mothers of their own young, that unscientific eyes would often fail to distin- guish them. Probably bumble-bees are no sharper, or they would refuse ingress to these merciless vagrants. The larvse of all insects of this family are maggot-like — wrinkled, footless, tapering at both ends, and as before stated, feed upon pollen and honey. They are helpless, and thus, all dur- ing their babyhood — the larvae state — the time, when all insects are most ravenous, and the only time when many insects take food, the time when all growth in size, except such enlargement as is required by egg-development, occurs, these infant bees have to be fed by their mothers or elder sis- ters. They have a mouth with soft lips and weak jaws, yet it is doubtful if all or much of their food is taken in at this opening. There is some rea- son to believe that they, like many maggots — suck as the Hessian-fly larvae — absorb much of their food through the body walls. From the mouth leads the intestine, which has no anal opening. So there is no excreta other than gas and vapor. To this family belongs the genus of stingless bees (Melipona), of Mexico and South America, which store honey not only in the hexagonal brood-cells, but in great wax reservoirs. They, like the un- kept hive-bee, build in hollow logs. They are ex- ceedingly numerous in each colony, and it has thus been thought that there were more than one queen. They are also very prodigal of wax, and thus may possess a prospective commercial im- portance in these days of artificial comb-founda- tion. In this genus the basal joint of the tarsus is triangular, and they have two submarginal cells, not three, to the front wings. They are also BEES 99 BEES smaller than our common bees, and have wings that do not reach to the tip of their abdomens. Another genus of stingless bees, the genus Ti-i- gona, have the wings longer than the abdomens, and their jaws toothed. These, unlike the Mdi- pona, are not confined to the New World, but are met in Africa, India and Australasia. These build their combs in tall trees, fastening them to the branches much as does the Apis dorsata, not here mentioned. Of covu-se insects of the genus Bombus — our common Bumble-bees — belong to this family. Here the tongue is very long, the bee large, the sting curved, with the barbs very short and few. Only the queens survive the win- ter. In spring she forms her nest under some sod or board, hollowing out a basin in the earth, and after storing a mass of bee-bread — probably a mix- ture of honey and pollen — she deposits several eggs in the mass. The larvse so soon as hatched out, eat out thimble-shaped spaces, which in time become even larger, and not unlike in form the queen-cells of our hive-bees. When the bees is- sue from these cells the same are strengthened by wax. Later in the season these coarse wax cells become very numerous. Some may be made as cells and not formed as above. The wax is dark, and doubtless contains much pollen, as do the cappings and queen-cells of the honey-bees. At first the bees are all workers, later queens ap- pear, and still later, males. In Xyhmpa, or the Carpenter-bees, which much resemble the Bumble- bees, we have a fine example of a boring insect. With its strong mandibles or jaws it cuts long tunnels, often one or two feet long in the hardest wood. These burrows are divided by chip par- titions into cells, and in each cell is left the bee- bread and an egg. The Mason-bee — well named — constructs cells of earth and gravel, which by aid of their spittle they have power to cement, so that they are harder than brick. The Tailor or Leaf -cutting bees, of the genus Megachile, make wonderful cells from variously shaped pieces of leaves. These are always mathematical in form, usually circular and oblong, and are cut — by the insect's making scissors of its jaws — ^from various leaves, the rose being a favorite. I have found these cells made almost wholly of the petals or flower leaves of the rose. The cells are made by gluing these leaf -sections in concentric layers, let- ting them over-lap. The oblong sections form the walls of the cylinder, while the circular pieces are crowded as we press circular wads into our shot-guns, and are used at the ends or for partitions where several cells are placed together. When complete, the single cells are in form and size much like a revolver cartridge. When several are placed together, which is usually the case, they are arranged end to end, and in size and form are quite like a small stick of candy, though not more than one-third as long. These cells I have found in the grass, partially buried in the earth, in crevices, and in one case knew of their being built in the folds of a partially-knit sock, which a good house-wife had chanced to leave station- ary for some days. These leaf-cutters have rows of hair underneath, with which they carry pollen. I have noticed them each summer for some years swarming on the Virginia Creeper, often called Woodbine, while in blossom, in quest of pollen, though I never saw a single hive-bee on these vines. The Tailor-bees often cut the foliage of the same vines quite badly. The genus Osmia, are also called Mason-bees. Their glistening colors of blue and green possess a lustre and reflection unsurpassed even by the metals themselves. These rear their young in cells of mud, in mud-cells lining hollow weeds and shrubs, and in burrows which they dig in the hard earth. In early sum- mer, during warm diiys, these glistening gems of life are frequently seen in walks and drives intent on gathering earth for mortar, or digging holes, and will hardly escape identification by the ob- serving apiarist, as their form is so much like that of our honey-bees. They are smaller; yet their broad head, prominent eyes, and general form, is very like tliat of the equally quick and active, yet more soberly attired, workers of the apiary. Other bees — the numerous species of the genus Nomada and of Apaihus,iiTe the black sheep in the familj Apidm. These tramps, already referred to, like the English Cuckoo and our American Cow- blackbird, steal in upon the unwary, and, though all unbidden, lay their eggs; in this way appro- priating food and lodgings for their own yet un- born. Thus these insect vagabonds impose upon the unsuspecting foster-mothers in these violated homes. And these same foster-mothers show by their tender care of these merciless intruders, that they are miserably fooled, for they carefully guard and feed infant bees, which with age will in turn practice this same nefarious trickery. In relation to the anatomy and physiology of the *honey-bee. Prof. Cook says : A very remarkable feature in the economy of the honey-bee, de- scribed even by Aristotle, which is true of many other bees, and also of ants and many wasps, is the presence in each family of three distinct kinds, which differ in form, color, structure, size, habits and function. Thus we have the queen, a number of drones, and a far greater number of workers. Huber, Bevan, Munn and Kirby also speak of a fourth kind blacker than the usual workers. These are accidental, and are, as conclusively shown by Baron Von Berlepsch, ordinary workers, more deeply colored by loss of hair, dampness, or some other atmospheric con- dition. American apiarists are too familiar with these black bees, for after our severe winters they prevail in the colony, and, as remarked by the Baron, they quickly disappear. Munn also tells of a fifth kind, with a top-knot, which ap- pears at swarming seasons. I am at a great loss to know what he refers to, unless it be the pollen masses of the Asdepias, or Milk-weed, which sometimes fasten to our bees and becomes a severe burden. The queen, although referred to as the mother bee, was called the king by Virgil, Pliny, and by writers as late as the last century, though in the ancient Bee Master's Farewell, by John Hall, published in London in 1796, I find an admirable description of the queen bee, with her function correctly stated. Reaumur as quoted by Wildman on Bees, published in London in 1770, says; This third sort has a grave and sedate walk, is armed with a sting, and is mother of all the others. Huber, to whom every apiarist owes so much, and who, though blind, through the aid of his devoted wife and intelligent ser- vant, Frances Burnens, developed so many inter- esting facts, demonstrated the fact of the queens maternity. This author's work, second edition, pubhshed in Edinburgh in 1808, gives a full history of his wonderful observations and ex- periments, and must ever rank with Langstroth as a classic, worthy of study by all. The queen, then, is the mother bee — in other words, a fully BEES 100 BEES developed female. Her ovaries are very large, nearly filling her long abdomen. The tubes already described as composing them are very numerous, while the spermatheca is plainly visible. This is muscular, receives abundant nerves, and thus, vpithout doubt, may or may not be compressed to force the sperm cells in contact vfith the eggs as they pass by the duct. Leuckart estimates that the spermatheca vs-ill hold more than 35,000 000 spermatozoa. The possession of the ovaries and attendant organs, is the chief structural peculiarity which marks the queen, as these are the characteristic marks of females among all animals. But she has other peculiarities worthy of mention: She is longer than either drones or workers, being more than seven-eighths of an inch in length, and, with her long tapering abdomen, is not without real grace and beauty. The queen's mouth organs, too, are developed to a less degree than are those of the worker-bees. Her jaws or man- dibles are weaker, with a rudimentary tooth, and her tongue or ligula, as are also the labial palpi and maxillae considerably shorter. Her eyes, like the same in the worker-bee, are smaller than those of the drones, and do not meet above. So the three ocelli are situated above and between. The queen's wings, too, are relatively shorter than those either of the workers or drones, for instead of attaining to the end of the body, ' they reach but little beyond the third joint of the abdomen. The queen, though she has the characteristic posterior tibia and basal tarsus, in respect to breadth, has not the cavity and sur- rounding hairs, which form the pollen baskets of the workers. The queen possesses a sting which is longer than that of the workers, and resembles that of the bumble-liees in being curved, and that of bumble-bees and wasps, in having few and short barbs — the little projections which point back like the barb of a fish-hook, and which, in case of the workers, prevent the witlidrawing of the instrument, when once fairly inserted. While there are seven quite prominent barbs on each shaft of the worker's sting, there are only three on those of the queen, and these are very short, and, as in a worker's sting, they are succes- sively shorter as we recede from the point of the weapon. Aristotle says that the queea seldom uses her sting, which I have found true. I have ofte'i tried to provoke a queen's anger, but never with a ly evidence of success. Neighbour gives three cases where queens used their stings, in one of which cases she was disabled from further egg- laying. She stings with slight effect. The queen, like the neuters, is developed from an impreg- nated egg, which, of course, could only come from a queen that had previously mated. These eggs are not placed in a horizontal cell, but in one specially prepared for their reception. These queen-cells are usually built on the edge of the comb, or around an opening in it, which is necessitated from their size and form, as usually the combs are too close together to permit their location elsewhere. These cells extend either vertically or diagonally downward, are composed of wax mixed with pollen, and in size and form much resemble a peanut. The eggs must be placed in these cells, either by the queen or workers. Some apiarists think that the queen never places an egg in a queen cell, but I have no doubt of the fact, though I never witnessed the act. I have frequently seen eggs in these cells, and, without exception, in the exact posi- tion in which the queen always places her eggs in the other cells. John Hall, in the old work already referred to, whose descriptions, though penned so long ago, are wonderfully accurate, and indicate great care, candor and conscientious trutlifulness, asserts that the queen is five times as long laying a royal egg as she is the others. From the character of his work, and its early publication, I can but think that he had wit- nessed this rare sight. Some candid apiarists of our own time and country — E. Gallup among the rest — claim to have witnessed the act. The eggs are so well glued, and are so delicate, that, with Neighbour, I doubt the possibility of a re- moval. 'The opponents to this view place their belief on a supposed discord between the queen and neuters. This antagonism is inferred, and I have but little faith in the inference or the argument from it. I know that when royal cells are to be torn down, and inchoate queens destroyed, the workers aid the queen in this destruction. I have also seen queens pass by unguarded queen-cells, and yet respect them. I have also seen several young queens dwelling amicably together in the same hive. Is it not probable that the bees are united in whatever is to be accomplished, and that when queens are to be destroyed all spring to the work, and when they are to live all regard them as sacred? It is true that the actions of bees are controlled and influenced by the surrounding conditions or cir- cumstances, but I have yet to see satisfactory proof of the old theory that these conditions im- press differently the queen and the workers. The conditions which lead to the building of queen- cells and the peopling of the same are — loss of queen, when a worker larva from one to four days old will be surrounded by a cell ; inability of a queen to lay impregnated eggs, her sperma- theca having become emptied; great number of worker-bees in the hive; restricted quarters; the queen not having place to deposit eggs, or the workers little or no room to store honey; and lack of ventilation, so that the hive becomes too close. These last three conditions are most likely to occur at times of great honey secretion. A queen may be developed from an egg, or from a worker larva less than three days old. Mr. Doolittle has known queens to be reared from worker larvae taken at four and a half days from hatching. In this latter case, the cells adjacent to the one containing the selected larva are re- moved, and the larva selected by a royal cell. The development of the queen larva is much like that of the worker, soon to be detailed, except that it is more rapid, and is fed richer and more plenteous food, called royal jelly. This peculiar food, as also its use and abundance in the cell, was first described by Schirach, a Saxon clergy- man, who wrote a work on bees in 1771. Ac- cording to Hunter, this royal pabulum is richer in nitrogen than that of the common larvae. It is thick like rich cream ; slightly yellow, and so abundant that the queen larva not only floats in it during all its period of growth, but quite a large amount remains after her queenship vacates the cell. We often find this royal jelly in incomplete queen-cells, without larvae. The larval queen is longer and more rapid of development than the other larvae. When devel- oped from the egg — as in case of normal swarm- ing — the larvae feeds for five days, when the cells BEES 101 BEES are capped by the workers. The infant queen then spins her cocoon, which occupies about one day. The end of the cocoon is left open. Some one has suggested that this is an act of thought- ful generosity on the part of the queen larva, thus to render her own destruction more easy, should the welfare of the colony demand it, as now a sister queen may safely give the fatal sting. The queen now spends nearly three days in absolute repose. Such rest is common to all cocoon-spinning larvae. The spinning, which is done by a rapid motion to and fro of the head, always cariying the delicate thread, much like the moving shuttle of the weaver, seems to bring exhaustion and need of repose. She now as- sumes the nymph or pupa state. At the end of the sixteenth day she comes forth a queen. Ru- ber states that when a queen emerges, the bees are thrown into a state of joyous excitement, so that he noted a rise in the temperature of the hive from 92° to 104° Fahrenheit. I have never tested this matter accurately, but I have failed to notice any marked demonstration on the natal day of her ladyship, the queen, or extra respect paid her as a virgin. When queens are started from worker larvse, they will issue as imago in ten or twelve days from the date of their new prospects. Mr. Doolittle has known them to issue in eight and one-half days. As the queen's development is probably due to superior quality and increased quantity of food, it would stand to reason that queens started from eggs are prefer- able; the more so, as under normal circumstan- ces, I believe they are almost always thus started. The best experience sustains this position. As the proper food and temperature could best be secured in a full colony — and here again the natural economy of the hive adds to our argu- ment — we should infer that the best queens would be reared in strong colonies, or at least kept in such colonies till the cells are capped. Experience also confirms this view. As the quantity and quality of the food, and the general activity of the bees is directly connected with the fuU nourishment of the queen-larvae, and as these are only at the maximum in times of active gathering — the time when queen-rearing is natur- ally started by the bees — we should also conclude that queens reared at such seasons are superior. Five or six days after issuing from the cell — Neighbour says the third da}' — if the day is pleasant, the queen goes forth on her ' ' marriage flight;" otherwise she will improve the first pleasant day thereafter for this purpose. Huber was the first one to prove that impregnation always takes place on the wing. Bonnet also proved that the same is true of ants, though in this case millions of queens and drones often swarm out at once. I have myself witnessed several of these wholesale matrimonial excur- sions among ants. I have also frequently taken bumble-bees in copulo while on the wing. I have also noticed both ants and bumble-bees to fall while united, probably borne down by the expiring males. That butterflies, moths, dragon-flies, etc., mate on the wing_ is a matter of common observation. That it is possible to to impregnate queens when confined, I think very doubtful. The queens will caress the drones, but the latter seem not to heed their advances. That this ever has been done I also question, though many think they have positive proof that it has occurred. Yet, as there are so many chances to be mistaken, and as experience and observation are so excessive against the possi- bility, I think that these may be cases of hasty or inaccurate judgment. Many, very many, with myself, have followed Huber in clipping the queen's wing, only to produce a sterile or drone- laying queen. Prof. Leuckart believes that suc- cessful mating demands that the large air-sacks of the drones shall be filled, which he thinks is only possible during flight. The demeanor of the drones leads me to think, that the excite- ment of flight, like the warmth of the hand, is necessary to induce the sexual impulse. Parthe- nogenesis, in the production of males, has also been found by Siebold to be true of other bees and wasps, and of some of the lower moths, in the production of both males and females. "While the great Bonnet first discovered wha!t may be noticed on any summer day, all about us, even on the house-plants at our very windows, that parthenogenesis is best illustrated by the ApMdea, or plant-lice. In the fall males and fe- males appear, which mate, when the female lays eggs, which in the spring produce only females, these again produce only females, and thus on, for several generations, till with the cold of autumn come again the males and females. Bon- net observed seven successive generations of pro- ductive virgins. Duval noted nine generations in seven months, while Kyber observed produc- tion exclusively by parthenogenesis in a heated room for fouryears. So, we see, that this strange and almost incredible method of increase, is not rare m the insect world. About two days after she is impregnated, the queen, under normal circumstances, commences to lay, usually worker- eggs, and as the condition of the hive seldom impels to swarming the same summer, so that no drones are required, she usually lays no others the first season. The queen, when considered in relation to the other bees of the colony, possesses a surprising longevity. It is not surprising for her to attain the age of three years in the full possession of her powers, while they have been known to do good work for five years. Queens, often at the expiration of one, two, three or four years, depending on their vigor and excellence, either cease to be fertile, or else become impotent to lay impregnated eggs — the spermatheca hav- ing become emptied of its sperm-cells. In such cases the workers usually supersede the queen ; that is they destroy the old queen, ere all the worker eggs are gone, and take of the few remain- ing ones to start queen-cells, and thus rear young, fertile and vigorous queens. The function of the queen is simply to lay eggs, and thus keep the colony populous ; and this she does with an energy that is fairly startling. A good queen in her best estate will lay 3,000 or 3,000 eggs in a day. I have seen a queen in my observ- ing hive, lay for some time at the rate of four eggs per minute, and have proved by actual com- putation of brood-cells, that a queen may lay over 3,000 eggs in a day. Langstroth and Ber- lepsch both saw queens lay at the rate of six eggs a minute. The latter had a queen that laid 3, 021 in twenty -four hours, by actual count, and in twenty days laid 57,000. This queen continued prolific for five years, and must have laid, says the Baron, at a low estimate, more than 1,300,000 eggs. Dzierzon says queens may lay 1,000,000 eggs, and I think these authors have not exagger- ated. The drones — ^the male bees — are usually BEES found in the hive from May to Novemher. Their presence or absence depends on the present and prospective condition of the colony, there being usually several hundred to each hive. It was discovered by Dzierzon in 1845, that the drones hatch from unimpregnated eggs. Drones may also come from a fertile worker, occasion- ally seen, or from an unimpregnated queen, but usually from an impregnated queen which has vol- untarily prevented fertilization necessary to pro- duce a worker. The drone is fed six and a half days as a larva, before the cell is capped. The caps being quite convex so as to be easily distinguish- ed from the worker brood. After mating, the drone organs adhere to the queen, the act of cop- ulation always proving fatal to the drone. In relation to ihe neuter or worker-bees, says Prof. Cook, in this connection, they were called the bees by Aristotle, and Wildman and Bevan say ihey are by far the most numerous individuals of the hive — there being from 1,500 to 4,000 in every good colony. It is possible for a colony to be even much more populous than this. These are also the smallest bees of the colony, as they measure but little more than one-half of an inch in length. The workers — as taught by Schirach, and proved by Mile. Jurine, of Geneva, Switzerland, who, at the request of Huber, sought for and found, by aid of her microscope, that abortive ovaries are undeveloped females. Rarely, and probably verj' rarely, except that a colony is long or often queenless, as is frequently true of our nuclei, these bees are so far developed as to produce eggs, which, of course, would always be drone eggs. Such workers — known as fertile — were first noticed by Reim, while Huber actually saw one in the act of egg-laying. Except in the power to produce eggs, they seem not unlike the other workers. Huber supposed that these were reared in cells contiguous to royal cells, and thus received royal food by accident. The fact, as stated by Mr. Quinby, that these occur in colonies where queen-larvse were never reared, is fatal to the above theory. Langstroth and Berlepsch thought that these bees, while larvas, were fed, though too spar- ingly, with the royal aliment, by bees in need of a queen, and hence the accelerated development. The workers, as might be surmised by the im- portance and variety of their functions, are structurally very peculiar. Their tongues, labial palpi, and maxillae, are very much elongated, while the former is very hairy, and doubles under, the throat when not in use. The length of the ligula enables them to reach into flowers with long tubes, and by the aid of the hairs they lap up the nectar. When the tongue is big with its adhering load of sweet, it is doubled back, enclosed by the labial palpi and maxillse, and then extended, thus losing its nectar, which at the same time is sucked into the large honey- stomach. The bees, at will, can force the honey back from the honey-stomach, when it is stored in the honey-cells or given to the other bees. The jaws are very strong, without the rudiment- ary tooth, while the cutting edge is semi-conical, so that when the jaws are closed they form an imperfect cone. Thus these are well formed to cut comb, knead wax, and perform their various functions. Their eyes are like those of the queen, while their wings, like those of the drones, attain the end of the body. These organs as in all insects with rapid flight, are slim and strong, 102 BEES and, by their more or less rapid vibrations, give the variety of tone which characterizes their hum. Thus we have the rapid movements and high pitch of angei-, and the slow motion and mellow note of content and joy. On the outside of the posterior tibia und basal tarsus is a cavity, made more deep by its rim of hairs, known as the pollen basket. In these pollen baskets is compacted the pollen, which is gath- ered by the mouth organs, and carried back to the foiu: anterior legs, Opposite the pollen bas- kets are regular rows of golden hairs which probably aid in storing and compacting the pollen balls. On the anterior legs of the workers, between the Amur and tibia, is a curious notch, covered by a spur. Some have supposed that it aided bees in reaching deeper down into tubular flowers, others that it was used in scraping off the pollen, and still others have thought that it was to enable bees to hold on when clustering. The first two functions may belong to this, though olhor honey and pollen-gathering bees do not possess it. The latter function is performed by the claws at the end of the tarsi. The work- ers, too, possess an organ of defense which they are quick to use if occasion requires. This is not curved as in the queen, but straight. The gland which seci'etes the poison is double, and the sack in which it is stored, is as large as a flaxseed. The sting proper, is a triple organ consisting of three sharp spears, very smooth and of exquisite polish. The most highly- wrought steel instruments, under a high mag- nifier, look rough and unfinished, while the parts of the sting show no such inequalities. One of these spears is canaliculate — that is, it forms an imperfect tube — and in this canal work the other two, which fill the vacant space, and thus the three make a complete tube, which con- nects with the poison sack and pass the poison. The slender spears which work in the tube, are raarvelously sharp, and project beyond it when used, and are worked alternately by small but powerful muscles, so they may pass through buckskin, or even through the thick scarfskin of the hand. These are also barbed at the end with teeth, seven of which are prominent, which extend out and back like the barb of a fish-hook. Hence, they cannot be withdrawn, if it pene- trates any firm substance, and so when used, it is drawn from the bee, and carries with it a por- tion of the alimentary canal, thus costing the poor bee its life. The workers hatch from an impregnated egg, which can only come from a queen that has met a drone, and is always laid in the small, horizontal cell. These eggs are in no wise different, so far as we can see, from those which are laid in the drone or queen cells. AU are cylindrical and slightly curved, and are fastened by one end to the bottom of the cell, and a little to one side of the centre. As already shown, these are voluntarily fertilized by the queen, as she extrudes them, preparatory to fastening them in the cells. These eggs, though so small — one-sixteenth of an inch long — may be easily seen by holding the comb so that the light will shine into the cells. With experience, they are detected almost at once, but I have often found it quite difficult to make the novice see them, though very plainly visible to my experi- enced eye. The egg hatches in three days. The larva, incorrectly called grub, maggot — and even caterpillar, by Hunter — is white, footless, and BEET 103 BEET lies coiled up in the cell till near maturity. In six days the cell is capped over hy the worker- bees. This cap is composed of pollen and wax so it is darker, more porous, and more easily broken than the caps of the honey-cells; it is also more convex. The larva, now full grown, hav- having lapped up all the food placed before it, surrounds itself with a silken cocoon, so exces- sively thin that it requires a great number to aj)- preciably reduce the size of the n-\h. These al- ways remain in the cell after the bees escape, and give to old comb its dark color and great strength. Yet they are so thin, that cells used even for a dozen year.^, seem to serve as well for brood as when first used. In three days the insects assume the pupa state and in twenty-one ■days the bee emerges from the cell. The worker- bees never attain a great age. Those reared in autumn may live for eight or nine montli.'^, and if in queenless stocks, where little labor is per- formed, even longer; while those reared in spring will wear out in three, and when most busy, will often die in from thirty to forty-five days. None of these bees survive the year through, so there is a limit to the number which may exist in a colony. The function of the worker-bees is to do all the manual labor of the hives. They secrete the wax, which forms in small pellets under the over-lapping rings, un- der the abdomen. I have found these wax-scales on both old and young. According to Fritz Milller, the admirable German observer, so long a traveler in South America, the bees of the genus melipona secrete the wax on the back. The young bees build the comb, ventilate the hive, feed the larvae, and cap the cells. The older bees — for, as readily seen in Italianizing, the young bees do not go forth for the first one or two weeks — gather the honejr, collect the pollen, or bee-bread, as it is generally called ; bring in the propolis or bee-glue, which is used to close openings, and as a cement, supply the hive with water (?) ; defend the hive from all improper in- trusions; destroy drones when their day of grace is past; kill and arrange for replacing worth- less queens; destroy inchoate queens, drones, or even workers, if circumstances demand it, and lead forth a portion of the bees when the conditions impel them to swarm. When there are no young bees, the old bees will act as house-keepers and nurses, which they otherwise refuse to do. The young bees, on the other hand, will not go forth and glean, fiven though there be no old bees to do this necessary part of bee-duties. An indirect function of all the bees in the hive is to supply animal heat, as the very life of tlie bee.s require that the temperature inside the hive be maintained at a rate considerably above freezing. In the chemical process at- tendant upon nutrition, much heat is generated, which, as first shown by Newport, may be con- siderably augmented at the pleasure of the bees, by forced respiration. The bees, too, bj' a rapid vibration of their wings, have a power to venti- late their hives, and thus reduce the temperature, when the weather is hot. Thus they moderate the heat of summer, and temper the cold of winter. BEET. Beta vulgaris. This is the common beet of the garden, a half hardy perennial plant, forming its esculent root the first season and producing its seed the second. The roots which attain their full development the first season. must be eared for before cold weather, since they do not stand actual freezing. In harvesting, care should be taken not to bruise the skin, since it causes the root to bleed and impairs their quality. In topping beets, when they are intended for the table, it is usual to wring off the leaves, and this for the reason that they are supposed to keep better. This, however, is an' error, and need only be observed when roots are wanted for seed. When they are raised for making sugar the entire crown is taken off below the marks formed by the leaves, since this portion of the root contains nitre and other salts, inimical to the production of sugar. For home use it is usual to twist ofE the tops, and to keep them in full perfection over winter the roots should be packed in sand. For use on the table the seed may be sown in the spring as soon as the ground can be worked, this will give early roots for cooking. From the first to the middle of June, another sowing may be made for winter and spring use, since the half grown roots are more succulent and tender than the full grown ones. The beet is produced entirely within the earth, except some of the varieties, as the mangel-wurzel, which are raised for cattle-feeding. The varieties are numerous, the Bassano being one the earliest but of inferior quality; the Bark-skinned, Early Blood Turnip, and Egyptian are the earliest. Wyatt's Dark Crimson is especially fine for long keeping. The improved Long Blood is the sort usually raised for winter, the root being long, tapering, of proper size for slicing, and particularly rich in color and flavor. The varieties of mangel-wurzel usually cultivated for stock-feeding are, the Long Yellow, Eed Globe, Yellow Globe, and Cow Horn. The beet has attained its chief importance from its extended cultivation in Europe for the manufac- ture of sugar. France, Belgium, Germany, Austria and Russia being the largest producers of sugar. It will perhaps be sui-prising to many to know that one-third of all the sugar produced in the world, is made from beets; yet such is the fact. The sugar produced is fully equal to that made from the sugar cane, and identical in its chemical composition, being really cane sugar, as distinguished from glucose, as the sugar made from the starch of corn, potatoes, etc., is called. The varieties generally cultivated for sugar are the White Silesian or some of its sub-varieties. In Europe, so particular are manufacturers as to the purity and quality of the seed used, that large estates are devoted exclusively to the cultivation of particular varieties pure. In.the United States, several attempts have been made in Illinois, Wis- consin, California and Maine, to produce sugar from the beet, but so far the enterprise has not been successful, pecuniarily, principally from the excessive cost of labor. The manufacture of sugar from the beet is a nice process from first to last, requiring the strictest care and manipula- tion. The attempt made at Chatsworth, 111., to make beet sugar, was intended to test the matter thoroughly, and a large capital and 3,400 acres of land were devoted to the purpose for ten years. At last, however, the company were obliged to give way before the obstacles pre- sented; first, from the strong nitrous nature of the soil, but principally from the want of water to work the crops, after about |13,000 had been expended in boring for a supply. After the breaking up of the company at Chatsworth the machinery was moved to Freeport, where the BEETLES 104 BEETLES water supply was abundant, and the soil sup- posed to be eminently adapted to the crop. Here, however, the failure was more pronounced than at Chatsworth. Li Wisconsin two factories were started and both abandoned. In California the industry is languishing, and in Maine the enterprise has not yet been prosecuted long enough to allow an estimate to be made of its probable success. As showing the importance of the production of sugar from beets, and the relative proportion as between beet and cane sugar, it may be stated that in 1875 the con- sumption of sugar in tlie United States was thirty-eight pounds for eacli individual. In 1876 it was thirty-six pounds. The sugar supply of the world in 1875 was 3,457,623 tons. Forty per cent of this was beet sugar, made in Europe. The production of maple sugar in the United States in that year was 13,000 tons, and of beet sugar and sorghum only 3,000 tons. The pro- duction of cane sugar in the United States, (Louisiana) was 95,000 tons. According to the report of the State Agricultural Society of Cal- ifornia, the production of beet sugar in Califor- nia has been as follows: 500,000 pounds of sugar in 1870. In 1871 there were 800,000 pounds made, in 1873 it amounted to 1,125,000, and in 1878 to 1,500,000 pounds. In 1878 the report of beets raised was 10,073 tons, so the yield of sugar may be set down as having been seven per cent. , a yield that should afford a handsome profit, if economy and business tact was used in the man- ufacture. In the latter part of 1880, a company^ European and Canadian — are said to have capi- talized a large sum, with a view of thoroughly testing the feasibility of beet sugar manufacture in Canada. With cheaper labor than in the United States, and a climate where the pulp may be utilized in feeding stock, it is hoped the pro- ject will be successful and profitable. BEETLE. A heavy wooden maul for driving wedges or other metal implements, when it is not wished to destroy the form of the metal. (See Beetles.) BEETLES. The common name of the larger coleopterous insects, having hard wing-cases. The late Dr. Le Baron, in his Fourth Entomo- logical Report for the State of Illinois, gives a synopsis of the tribes of the coleoptera, which will be of value to the reader as a means of identification. The tribes of beetles are as fol- lows: 1. Predaceous ground beetles. II. Predaceous water beetles. III. Water scavenger beetles. IV. Land scavenger beetles. V. Short-winged scavengers. VI. Stag beetles. VII. Lamellicorn dung beetles. VIII. Leaf-chafers. IX. Saw-horn.d wood beetles. X. Aberrant wood beetles. XI. Soft-winged predaceous beetles. XII. Parasitic b etles. XIII. Heteromerous bark beetles. XIV. Heteromerous ground beetles. XV. Heteromerous fungus beetles. XVI, Snout beetles. XVIt. Short-horned wood-borers. XVIII. Long-homed wood-borers. XIX. Tetramerous plant beetles. XX. Trimerons fungus beetles. XXI. Plant-louse beetles. The synopsis of the tribes of the coleoptera is as follows; Tribe I. Tarsi, usually five-jointed, sometimes four or three-jointed in very email species, slender and sparsely haired, except Tribe XI, and except that the interior, or anterior and middle tarsi arc sometimes dilated and brush-like beneath in the males. Elytra covering the whole or nearly the whole of the abdomen. Anti-nnse filiform and simple; outer lobe of ma illse palpiform, giving the appearance of six palpi. Legs long and fitted for running; hind trochanters large, egg-snaped and prominent; tarsi always five-jointed. Tribe II. Hind legs flattened and fringed for swim- ming: trochanters not prominent; the fourth joint of the- anterior and middle tarsi sometimes Indistinct in very small species. Tribe III. Antennte clavate or capitate. Palpi usually very long, sometimes longer than the short antenna;; antennae six to nine jointed, strongly clavate; middle and hind coxiE dilated; middle and hind tarsi sometimes fringed; h'lbits aquatic. Tribe IV. Antennae clavate, but with the club neither pectinate nor lamellate, and nearly or quite filiform in the exceptional group of sub-clavicornes; size small or very small (except Silphidffi). Tribe V. Blytra much shortened, usually covering less than half of the abdomen; antennae more or less monili- form. Tribe VI. Palpi not elongated; antennie eleven- iointed, rarely ten or nine jointed; coxae not dilated; habits not aquatic. • lub of antennae pectinate ; mandi- bles usually strongly toothed or even branched; size large or medium. Tribe VII. Club of antennfe lamellate; size often large; sometimes small, but never very small. Abdomen wholly covered by the elytra (except Copridse); hind legs set far back. Tribe VIII. Tip of abdomen exposed; hind legs not set far back. Tribe IX. Antenna filiform and usually serrate; outer lobe of maxillae not palpiform. Prosternum pro- longed to a point behind and received in the mesoster- num; body very firm; legs short; tarsi always five- jointed; joints not dilated and brush-like beneath, but often furnished with membranous lobes on the under side. Tribe X. Presternum not prolonged behind. Body moderately firm; legs more or less elongated; tarsi various. Tribe XI. Body soft, elytra thin and fiexible; tarsi usually somewhat dilated and brush-like beneath, with the fourth joint bilobed; last joint of palpi sometimes dilated. Tribe XII. Anterior and middle tarsi five-jointed, hind tarsi four-jointed; the joints slender, sparsely haired or spinous!, sometimes silky or pubescent beneath, but never dilated, brush-like and bilobed as in the remain- ing sections; except sometimes the penultimate joint in parts of Tribes XII and XIII, Head as wide as the thorax, and attached to it by a neck; body rather soft and elytra flexible; aiitennge filiform sometimes serrate or pectinate; anterior coxffi prominent and contiguous; colors various, and of ten diversified; larvse usually para- sitic. Tribe XIH. Head narrower than the thorax, and usu- ally partly inserted in it; body firm ; color black or brown, rarely diversified. Antennae filiform ; anterior coxie some- w^hat prominent, and nearly or quite contiguous; color mostly brown, sometimes black; 1, rvae sub-cortical. Tribe XIV. Antennae sometimes filiform, but usually more or less clavate; anterior co>ae small, depressed, and never contiguous. Antenme usually moderately and grad- ually enlarged towards the tip, but sometimes filiform^ and usually as long as the head and thorax; body oblong; color black or dark metallic; larvae mostly terrestri'd. Tiibe XV, Antennae usually short and peifoliate; body short, oval or subquadrate; color brown, or black, with red spots, sometimes metallic ; larva; f ungivorous. Tribe XVI, Tarsi apparently four-jointed, with all the joints, except the last, dilated, brush-like beneath, and wiih the penultimate joint usually bilobed (except Scoly- tidse). Head more or less prolonged into a snout or ros- trumj antennae usually capitate; hirvae fructivorous. Tribe XVII. Head not prolonged into a snout, An- ten ae clavate or capitate: tarsi not dilated; form sub- cylindrical; size small; color brown or black; larvae lig- nivorous. Tribe XVIII. Antennae usually filiform or setaceous: somi times slightly widened towards the tip; larsi always dilated and Irush-like beneath, with the penultimate joint usually bilobed. Form elongated; antennae almost always long, and filiform or setaceous; often as long as the body or longer; size and colors various ; larvie ligniv- orous. Tribe XIX. Form short, and more or less oval; an- tennae filiform, or a little thickened towards the end, and never much more than half as large as the body; size below medium or small; colors various; larvae herbiv- orous. Tribe XX. Tarsi usually apparently three-jointed, sometimes four or flve-jointed, the joints dilated and BENE 105 BERKSHIRE SWINE brush-like beneath, with the penultimate joint usually deeply hilobed; antennae usually strongly c'lavate, rarely Bub-clavate. Form oval or oblong; antcnnse of moderate length; colors red and black, usually arranged in large spots or stripes ; habits f ungivorous . Tribe XXI. Form rounded, or sub-hemispherical; antennee very short; colors mostly red and black, arranged In dots ; habits carnivorous. As being of interest we give cut showing the largest of our native beetles (Dynasitig tityus, Linn.) a species, however, not injurious. (See, also. Insects, Entomology, and articles under proper names of the species noticed, as injurious or beneficial.) BELLADONNA. The deadly Night-shade, Airopa belladonna. It is valuable in medicine as an anodine, antispasmodic and narcotic. Dose for horse or ox, two ounces; sheep, five grains. If the extract is used the dose would be two drachms for the horse, two-thirds of a drachm for the ox, and one-half drachm for a sheep. BELT. In planting, a strip or portion of land planted with trees for the purpose of orna- ment, or warmth or shel- ■ ter. The planting of belts or wind-breaks for protection, is variously estimated by practical men, but there is no doubt of their value in agriculture in the pro- tection of orchards, nur- series, for stock and homesteads. BELVIDERE. Is a small place at the top of a house for a lookout. BENE. Sesniumii, ori- entale. An annual plant of the family Bignonia- cecE. Successfully culti- vated south of Pennsyl- vania. The seeds abound in oil, are nutritious, and eaten by the Italians roasted, boiled, and made into flour resembling buckwheat. The oil may be substituted for com- mon olive oil. The seed is sown in drills three or four feet apart. The plant attains the height of four or five feet.. The crop ripens gradually, and is taken in the early autumn; fifteen to twenty bushels are given per acre, from which forty to fifty gallons of oil may be obtained. Its cultivation is not remunerative in the United States. BONOT. An old name for a double mould- board plow. BENT GRASS. Affrosfy. A family con- taining some of our most valuable grasses, as Red Top and "White Bent Grass (Fiorin), and others not valuable to tlie agriculturist. The family have decidedly creeping, subterranean stems, and some of them are difficult to exterminate. Yet there are but few plants, however noxious, but will succumb to a, summer fallow, followed by a cleanly-kept, hoed crop, and most of the grasses may be subdued by a thoroughly culti- vated crop of corn. (See article Grass.) BENZINE. It should be generally under- stood that benzine, which is so freely used to re- move grease and other stains from clothing, is a very dangerous article. It is distilled from pe- troleum, and is extremely volatile and inflam- mable, and if this vapor is mixed with air it be- comes explosive. Some people are very careless with it, allowing a vial of this fluid to stand near a fire or a lamp, while its odor prevades the room. This is dangerous, for it takes very little to do mischief. A four-ounce bottle overturned and vaporized, would make the air of a room ex- plosive ; and if ignited, might occasion loss of life. Another important fact to know is, that if the vial containing benzine is left uncorked, flame will run to it several feet. Most all the compounds sold by the druggist under fanciful names for the purpose of taking out grease, have benzine for one of their ingredients, therefore anything suspected of containing it, either pure or mixed, should be kept tightly stopped, in a cold place and entirely away from possible con- tact with flame. BENZOIC ACIB. A vegetable acid found in balsams and some grasses. BENZOIN. The concrete exudation of the Styrax benzoin of the East. It is a resin com- bined with benzoic acid. BEBGAMOT. Cilnis bergamia. Cultivated in 'the South of Europe for the fragrant oil of the rind of its fruit. Mentha citrata, a com- PRIZE BERKgHIRE OF TO-DAT. mon species of mint, easily cultivated, yields an oil nearly as fragrant as the bergamot. BERKSHIRE SWINE. The Berkshire's are to swine what the blood-horse is among horsemen — a type of high breeding, possessing firm bone, great muscularity, and good constitu- tion, so far as this may be compatible with high fattening qualities. They are more uniform BERMUDA GRASS 106 BIRCH in color, than any of the white and black breeds. The fashionable color now being white feet, tips of tails, and a little white in the face, the rest of the body being jet black. More than forty years ago, as we then knew and bred them, there were many upon which a sandy color would crop out. They were larger boned and coarser in their makeup, but nevertheless, perhaps, containing more lean flesh (muscle) than at the present day; not so kindly in fattening, neither did they contain so much lard, but their hams, shoulders and bacon were, we think, superior to the more modern Berkshires, or those of to-day. The illustration will show the perfection of Berkshire breeding (fat) as we now see them at our fairs. The best type of this breed of to-day have short noses; slightly dished faces; small, fine, erect car.': ; C3'es wide apart ; straight backs, preserving its width from the neck to the rump; muscular hams and shoulders; the bacon pieces well broken with strips of lean, fine hams, short legs, excellent hoofs, and in killing sho'^\'ing but little offal. Their vigor make them excellent gleaners, to follow cattle fattened in the field, and their weight, from 300 to 600 pounds, render them sought after by the packers, especially of hams and bacon. They have been with us always a favorite breed on account of their muscular development, as among the middle breeds, as the Essex have been among the small breeds. It is, however, not to be denied, that they will not stand starving. They require strong feed and plenty of it, to reach the best development, and what animal does ndt? Nevertheless, we do not think they assimilate, quite so much of their food, when the bulk of it is corn, as do some of the breeds more inclined to lard. Yet, no breed will reach good development on scant food, and when muscle as well as fat is wanted, the breeder or feeder would have to hunt far for a hog better combining all good qualities, and of medium weight. BERMUDA GRASS. Scutch Grass, Cymdon dactylon. One of the most valuable of the grasses in the South. It is not recorded as having seeded in the United States, being an introduced exotic, a native of Africa, intro- duced into the West Indies and thence to the United States. It is propagated by the root or creeping stems. Planted in squares of from two to three feet apart, it quickly covers the ground. The soil should be put in complete tilth by deep plowing and thorough harrowing, when the best returns are to be expected. It is consid- ered one of the heaviest croppers, and as making hay fully equal to any grass cultivated south of Tennessee. As high as six tons have even been recorded as the product of hay per acre. In the middle States of the South this grass is not of so much value as in the extreme southern States. In the true grass region, stock, other than sheep, prefer the regular pasture grasses to the Bermuda. Its persistent hold on the soil, when it will sur- vive the winter, makes it most valuable for hill- sides liable to wash, and for other situations where a tough mass of roots are required to hold the soil together. Its strong, creeping rhizoma root-stalks, tenacity of life even in the hottest weather, and its dense, firm, tough sward, making it almost impossible to be plowed up, has ren- dered it obnoxious to cotton farmers of the South ; yet its value in restoring fertility to worn-out soils should not be overlooked. It is in fact only by cotton farmers that this grass is really dreaded. It delights in a warm, sandy soil, does not like shade, and hence the roots are planted. The weeds should be mown off the first year. (See Grasses for cut.) BERRY. In botany, a fruit filled with pulp, in which the seeds are imbedded, as the currant and gooseberry; also called Jacca. BETEL. The leaf of an acrid narcotic pep- per, chewed by the natives of the East Indies. BETUIA. The generic name of the birch family. The populifolia (white), exceUa (yellow), 'rubra (red). (See Birch.) BEVEL. An instrument to take angles. BI. From his, twice; a common chemical pre- fix to words meaning two or twice, as bi-tartrate, bi-noxide. BIBULOUS. Absorbent. In chemistry blot- ting-paper is often termed bibulous paper. BIENNIAL. This tei-m is usually applied to plants which grow one year and flower the next, after which they perish. Many tender bien- nials, if sown early in the spring, will flower in autumn and then perish, thus actually becoming annuals; so winter wheat, a biennial, may by cultivation be turned into an annual wheat. BIESTINGS. Firstmilkof cows after calving. BIFURCATE. Two-pronged, or forked. BICrNONIA. A handsome genus of shrub- bery climbers. Bignonia radicans, the well known trumpet flower, belongs to this class. It is not entirely hardy west of Lake Michigan and north of 40° ; south of this line and up to 42° east of Lake Michigan it is one of the most beau- tiful of perennial climbers. BIKH. Aconitum ferox. A very poisonous Eastern monkhood. BILABIATE. Two-lipped, or petalled; ap- plied to flowers. BILBEKRY. Whortleberry. (See Cranberry.) BILE. The secretion of the liver. Any in- teiTuption in its production is attended with great lassitude, sickness, fever, and yellowness of the eyes and skin. Moist, marshy places, and food rich in oil, as butter and fat. produce bilious at- tacks. Fall and sj)ring are the seasons most like- ly to produce bilious attacks in .new countries. Sometimes biliary calculi, or stones, are formed. The composition of the bile is very complex, ac- cording to the analyses of some physiologists. Liebig, regarded it as a natural soap, nearly con- sisting of chelate of soda. BILL. A hedging knife with a curved point. BIND-WEED. A common name for most climbing plants, but especially directed to the convolvulaceous species. BIOCELLATE. When an insect's wing is marked with two eye-like dots. BIPINNATE. Leaves that are doubly pin- nate; in which the secondary stalks or petals are pinnated. BIRCH. Betnla. The birches are mostly na- tives of northern latitudes, or elevated situations, generally above latitude 40°, and extending well up toward the arctic circle. The foliage is gen- erally thin and light, and the whole tribe are grace- ful, and some of them elegant. The Black (sweet) or Cherry Birch {B. lenta) is one of the hand- somest and most valuable for its timber. It is widely distributed from New England West, well up in Canada, and south along the mountain ranges. It grows to a height of sixty or seventy feet, and some trees two to*three feet in diameter; BIRCH lor BIRCH a most excellent fuel and most valuable for cabi- net ■wx)rk. It likes a ricb soil, such as is suited to the Sugar Maple, and ripens its seed in late autumn. The seeds of all the birches should bo kept moist and £old until sown, and thinly cov- ered and moist until they germinate. Red Birch {B. nigra), also called Ri%'er Birch, is foimd on the banks of rivers, growing to a lofty stature and often two feet in diameter. It is found in the warmest situations of any of the birches, and its ■wood is similar in quality to the Yellow Birch. The seeds ripen in June and should be sown be- fore they become fully dry. The Yellow Birch {B. excelsa) is a handsome-growing tree far north, with a straight trunk, usually found in cool, moist soils. The wood is strong and fine grained and much used for turning, also for furniture. It does well on prairie soils, except dry, sandy or gravelly soils. The Canoe Birch (B. papyracea), also called Paper Birch, is found north of 40° and well north in the British possessions where it attains great size. It is most valuable and highly prized for the many uses its bark may be put to; is an ornamental tree, and thrives in most ■'"^^^'^ffm^^c' ^ CUT-LEAVED WEEPING BIRCH. BIRCH 108 BIRDS. situations, growing rapidly. Tlie seeds ripen in July and should be sown immediately. The White Birch (B. populifolia) is a small tree, but ornamental, growing in waste barren soils. The European White Birch is often planted for orna- ment, and thrives in the most barren soil. Some of the cut-leaved varieties are highly ornamental. The Cut-leaved Weeping Birch, of which we give an illustration, being among the handsomest. The birches have been sung by many poets. Coleridge calls it — "—most beautiful Of forest trees,— the lady of the wood." Bryant says: " The fragrant birch above him hung Her tassels in the sky, And many a vernal blossom sprung, And nodded careless by." The following are varieties of the birch family (the alders belonging to this group) not men- tioned above. Western Birch (Betula ooeiden- taMa), Rocky mountains. This species is a small "WHrrE PENDULOUS BIRCH, tree, rarely over twenty-five feet high and six inches in diameter. It is found in the Rooky mountains, along streams in Colorado, Utah, etc. Speckled Alder {Alnus inccma), northeastern United States. It is a shrub, or very small tree, growing along streams in New England, New York, and northward, and of no particular value. California Alder {Alnus rhonMfolia), California. Oregon Alder {Alnus Oregona), California and Oregon, quite often become large trees, sixty to eighty feet high, with trunks two feet im diameter. We give herewith a cut of a lovely weeping birch. This is a variety of the white- birch, first exhibited at the Paris Exposition in 1867, and must be grafted on another stock. The branches, as will be seen, ran directly parallel with the stem, and directly to the ground; and its unique habit, elegant form and beautiful foliage, renders its name decidedly appropriate, and one of the prettiest objects for a small lawn. BIBD-LIME. A glutinous vegetable product prepared by first boiling mistletoe berries in. water until they break, Sien pounding them in a mortar, and washing away the husky refuse- with other portions of water; and made also from the middle bark of the holly. The bark i& stripped in June or July, and boiled for six or eight hours in water, until it becomes tender;, the water is then separated from it, and it is left to ferment for two or three weeks, until it be- comes a mucilage, which is pounded in a mortar into a mass, and then thoroughly rubbed by the hands in i-unning water till all the fibrous mat- ters and other impurities are washed away; the bird-lime is then suffered to remain fermenting by itself in an earthen vessel, in a soft heat, for some weeks. The bark of the Wayfaring Tree is sometimes employed. The fragrant gum which exudes from the Styrax, or American Sweet Gum — a large tree, growing in the middle and southern States — also makes a good bird-lime, being extremely tenacious. It is also made chemically. BIRD "pepper. a species of capsicum which affords the best Cayenne pepper. Started in a hot bed in March, any of the capsicum family may be cultivated up to 44° north, and still farther northward in favored localities. BIRDS. The feathered tribes are among the most highly organized of created beings except man, possessing, as so many of them do, either elegance of plumage, great vivacity, or fine vocal powers. The increased prevalence of insect life in all thickly settled countries, is due, in a meas- ure, to the indiscriminate destruction of birds and insect-eating animals. The objection from pomologists, that the)' also eat fruit, although well founded as to the thrush family and some others, is no argument against the wholesale destruction of birds, especially in breeding time. To the farmer birds do not labor under the same objection. The moiety of grain they consume being too insignificant to be weighed for a mo- ment against the good they accomplish. As against the thrush family, -which in Illinois for instance, comprises nine species, viz : the Robin, the Cat-bird, the Brown Thrush, the Wood Thrush, the Hermit Thrush, Swainson's Thrush, the Alice Thrush, the Mocking Bird and Wilson's Thrush or the Wren, from the fact that the thrush tribe, the Robin and Brown Thrush especially, prey largely on predaceous beetles, or those insects whose food is other insects, we must consider carefully whether the injury done in. eating predaceous beetles is more than counter- balanced by the good accomplished in eating insects injurious to vegetation. During the nest- ing season there is no doubt as to the benefits- accomplished by insect-eating birds. The careful BIRDS 109 BIRDS Investigations of Prof. Forbes, director of the | Illinois State Department of Natural History, would seem to cast a strong doubt on the fact that the thrush family is beneficial to fruit grow- ers. Nevertheless, taking singing birds as a whole, when they are driven away insect life ■does increase unduly. Prof. Forbes seems to be of the opinion, from his examinations, that at least the good accomplished by the birds is not unmixed with evil, and acknowledges that the experiments must be continued much longer to be able to arrive at any accurate conclusion. It must be borne in mind, also, that the food of the young birds is almost exclusively insect. Prof. Treadwell, of Cambridge, was obliged to feed young Robins their weight in insects every day, to keep them from starving to death. Thomas 31. Bremer, M.D., an eminent oraothologist of Boston, 3Iass., in a paper read in 1879, mentions AS one of the prominent causes of the increase of insects in Europe, to be the wholesale killing of birds. The great Frederick of Prussia once nearly ■exterminated the sparrows in his kingdom, in a fit of royal wrath, because they took agrarian liberties with his fruit; and what was the conse- quence? The caterpillars, which the sparrows had kept in check, having no one now to prevent tJieir increase, multiplied at such a fearful rate that they swept before them the foliage, and with the foliage all the fruit also. It is said that for two years not a cherry, apple, peach, plum, cur- rant or any kind of fruit could be raised in any portion of the kingdom. Sensible at last of his mistake, this great king, conquered for the first time, in a field where his impotence was but too apparent, yielded to the necessity, and expended more money in reintroducing the sparrow than he had wasted in destroying them, but only after a loss to his subjects of a million of dollars. It has been ascertained that one pair of jays will feed lis young on half a million of caterpillars in a season, and that each bird will destroy, during the winter, eggs that in the following spring would have hatched Into at least a million or more of the larvae. Our blue-jays would do the same if we would let them and not persecute them. Their favorite food is the egg of our apple tree, or tent-caterpillar, and for their young the larva of this same insect is also their choice. A pair of blue-jays in an orchard have cleared it so eilectually of every caterpillar in a single sea- son, that not one single insect could be found. This is not merely theory, but absolute fact, demonstrated hy the careful investigation of the venerable Dr. Kirtland, of Cleveland. So com- pletely did his carefully protected jay extirpate these pests from the lake shore of that part of Ohio, that absolutely not a single individual specimen could be found for miles around Cleve- land. The investigations of M. Prevost, acting for the French government, demonstrated that those birds generally regarded as being insect- ■eaters, are not as a. rule the most beneficial; but that for the most part, the birds which render the greatest service are those against which the popular predjudices are strongest. Thus the sparrows, the starling and crows are the great destroyers of the cockchafers, and so our "crows and black-birds are of the May-beetles, and we are but just finding out that many birds we have deemed to be our enemies are really our best friends. Another important law of nature revealed by M. Prevost's investigation is of especial interest. This is, that nearly all birds, during' the period of reproduction, whatever may be their natural food at other times, are almost entirely insect-eaters, and that they feed their young almost exclusively with insect food. Then the amount of insect food a young bird will con- sume is enormous. Dr. Wyman took from the crop of a young pigeon a mass of canker-worms that was more than twice the weight of the bird itself. Charles V. Riley, Ph. D., Chief of the United States Entomological Commission, in his report upon the subject of usefulness of birds, following some experiments in feeding two plovers with grasshoppers and other insects, under which they consumed 1,616 insects, says: At this rate twenty old plovers would eat 3,000 insects each dajf, or 90,000 in a month. And suppose, further, that these twenty plovers had ten nests, which averaged four young ones each. At sixty insects each day for each young plover, the forty would consume 2,400 every twenty- four hours, or 72,000 a month. The twenty plovers and their progeny together, would con- sume 162,000 insects each month. At this same rate 1,000 plovers and their young would con- sume in one month 8,100,000 insects. That many locusts removed in one year from a farm of 160 acres would probably render it capable of producing crops even when these insects are doing their worst. As there are many birds that eat more insects than do the plovers, as well as many that eat less, 150 insects a day is probably a fair average for all insectivorous birds. The prairie chicken (Grouse) has been ruthlessly de- stroyed by farmers, under the supposition that they destroy large quantities of grain. Such, however, is not the fact. The losses from the eating of the grain before harvest time is quite insignificant in proportion to the good these birds accomplish. Their food in summer is almost wholly insects, and in winter they eat the seeds of weeds, to far more than compensate for the little corn they destroy in the fields, as the following from Dr. Riley, will show : Four pi'airie chickens were examined. The contents of the first were one grain of corn, five grains of wheat, thirty-eight seeds of polygonums (mostly P. amphibium), seven seeds of cassia, and thir- teen of sunflowers, and seventeen not identified. The contents of the second were fourteen seeds of polygonums, thirty-one of sunflowers, three of cassia, eleven of verbenas (wild), four euphorbias and 113 wild rose seeds. The contents of the third were thirteen seeds of cassia, twenty-nine of wild roses, twelve seeds of polygonums, two grains of wheat, one grain of barley, and thirty- four not identifled. The fourth chicken had in its stomach fifteen seeds of the gentians, thirty- three of rag-weeds, three of wild roses, four of euphorbias, and twenty-nine minute seeds not identified. Of the eight quail examined dur- ing the same month, only one had a few grains of wheat in its stomach. All the rest were filled with grass-seed and the seed of weeds, principally the latter. Those examined in the winter of 1875 gave the same average results. The following are among the more common of the insect-eatmg birds of the prairies and groves of the West: ORDER PASSEEES: PercherB. Sub-obder Oscinbs: Singing birds. Fa niLY Turu.e: Tliruslies. Robin (rMJ"- dus mgratorius); Wood tbrushfT'. Mmlelinus); Her- mit Ttiruab (T.paUasl); Olive-backed Tlirush (T. Swain- aoni); Wilson's Tlirush, Tawny Tlirash {T.fuscescens); BIRDS 110 BIRDS Mocking-bird (,Mlmu8 polygloltus) ; Catbird ( M. Oaroli- nemis); Sandy &lockiDi;-i)ii-d; Thi-aBhcr (Harporhyn- chus rufus); Eastern Bluebird (Slalla sialis). Family SAxicoLiDyE: Stone Chats. Koclcy Mountain Bluebird (Stulla arctica). Familit Sylvid*: Sylvias. Ruby-crowned Kinglet (Segulus calendula); Golden Crested Kinglet (Jiegulus satrapa). , PA.M1LY CiNCLiD*: Dippers. Water Ouzels, Western Bluebird, ( Uinclus Mexicanas) ; Blue-g.-ay Gnat-catcher {Polioptila ctje.-ulea). Family Parid.e: Titmice. Tufted Titmouse (Lopho- p/ianes bicolor) ; Plain-crested Titmouse ( /,. inornatus) \ Lung-tailed Chickadee {Paras atrieapillus septentrio- FamilySittfd/e: Nuthatches. Slender-billed Nuthatch (Sitta Carolinensls aculeata) ; Eed-bellied Nuthatch (5. Canadensis). Family CEKraiiD^; Creepers.' Brown Creeper (Cer- thiafamiliaris). Family Teoslodytid-e: Wrens. Rock Wren {Sal- pinctes obsolelus); Great Carolina Wren {Thj'yothoras Ludovicianus) ; Bewick's Wren ( T. Bewicki) ; House Wren (T. cedoni; Western House Wren (7'. (edon); Water Wren {AnortliiLra troglodytes hyemalis) ; Long-billed Marsh Wren (I'elmalodytes palustrls) ; Short-billed Marsh Wren ( Cistothorus stellaris). Family Alaudid.e; Larks. Horned Lark, Shore Lark {Eremophila alpestrls). Family Mo rACiLLiD.^: Wagtails. Titlark, Pipit, Wag- tail (Anthus Ludovlciauus) . Fahily Sylvicoud^: American Warblers. Black- and-White Cr eping Warbler (Mniotilta varia); Blue Tellow-baoked Warbler (Parala Americana); Prothono- tary Warbler (Protonotaria citrea) ; Worm-eating Warb- ler (Jletmitherus vermivorus) ; Blue-winged Yellow Warb- ler (ffelmlnthophaga pinus) ; Blue Goldeu-wiuged Warb- ler (H. cfirysoptera) ; Nashville Warbler (//. rufica- pilla): Virginia's Warbler (H, Virgmioi) ; Tennessee Warbler {H. peregrina) ; Blue-eyed Yellow Warbler, Golden Warbler, Summer Warbler (/Jendroica a;stiva); Black-throated Green Warbler (D.mrem); Black-throated Green Warbler (D. cmrulesaens) ; Cerulean Warbler (Z). carulea); Yellow-rump Warbler (O. coronata); Black- burnian Warbler (Z). Blackburnlce) ; Blacn-poll Warbler (Z». striata) ; Bay-breasted Warbler (D. castanea) ; Chest- nut-sided Warbler (/;. Pennsylvanica) ; Black-and-Yellow Warbler (Z). maculosa); Prairie Warbler {D. discolor); Yellow-throated Warbler (fl. domlnlca); Yellow Red- poll Warbler (D. palmarum)- Pine-creeping Warbler (Z). pinus) ; GoldCii-crowned Thrush, Orange-crowned Accentor (Seiurus aiirocaplllus) ; Water Thrush (S. ncevius) ; Large-billed Water Tnrush (3. motacllla) ; Ken- tucky Warbler C/pororftis formosa); Maryland Vellow- throat ( GeothlypU trichas) ; Mourning Warbler ( N.\sRiD^: Tanagerp. Scarlet Tanager (P>/- ranga rubra); Summer Redbird (P. cestiva); Louisiana Tanager (P. Ludovlclana) . Family Hirundinii).e: Swallows. American Bam Swallow (Birundoerythrogastra); White-bellied Swallow (Tachycinefa bicolor); Violet-green Swallow ('/'. thalas- sina); Cliff Swallow, Eave Swallow ( Pelrochelidon luni- /ro»«); Bank Swallow (Cotyle riparia) ; Rough-winged Swallow (Stelgldopleryx serrlpennls); Purple Martin (Progne purpurea). Family AMPELiDiE: Waxwinga. Bohemian Wax- wing (Ampelis garrulus) ; Cedar-bird, Cherry-bird, Car- olina Waxwing (.4. eedrorum); Townsend's Fiy-catch- IngThrush (Myladestes Towneendi). Family ViRBoNin.E: Greeulets. Red-eyed Vireo CVireo olivaceus); Brotherly-love Vireo ( F. Philadel- phicus); Warbling Vireo (F. gilvus); Yellow-throated Vireo (V. fiavifrons); Blue-headed or Solitary Vir.^o IV. solitarlus); White-eyed Vireo (F. Noveboracensis); Bell's Vireo (F. 6««i). Family Laniid^: Shrikes. Butcher-bird, Northern Shrike (Collurlo borealis); White-rumped Shrike (G. Ludovicianus excufltorides) . Fa»ily Fbivgillid-e: Finches, etc. Evening Gros- beak (Hesperiphona vespertina) ; Pine Grosbeak (Pinl- cola enucleator) ; Purple Finch ( Carpodacus purmreus) ; Gray-crowned Finch ( I.eucosticte tephrocotis) ; Red-poll Linnet {^giothus linaria) ; American Goldftnch, Thistle- bird, Yellow-bird (Chrysomitris trlstis); Snow-bunting, Snowflake (Plectrophanes nivalis); Lapland Longspur (P. Lappomcus)\ Chestnut-collared Bunting, Black-bel- lied Loni'spur (P. ornalus); Maocown's Bunting (P. Maecownl); Biy-winged Bunting, Grass Finch (Pomce- ies gramlneus); Yellow- winged Sparrow (Coturniculus pasaerlnua); Henslow's Bunting {C. Henslowi); Lin- coln's Sparrow {Uelospiza lAncolnl) ; Song Sparrow (.M, melodia) ; Eastern Snowbird (Junco hyemalis) ; Cana- dian or Tree Sbarrow (Spizella monticola); Chipping- Sparrow (S. soclalls); Clay-colored Sparrow \S. pallida) ; White-throated Sparrow (ZonoWcAjaaWiooKJs) ; White- crowned Sparrow (Z. leucophrye); Harris' SpaiTOw {Z. querula); LarK Finch (Chondestes grammlca); Lark Bunting (Calamospiza bicolor); Black-throated Bunting (Eusplza Americana)- Rose-breasted Grosbeuk (Gonv- aphea Ludovlclana); Black-headed Grosbrak {G. melan- ocephala); Blue Grosbeak (G. cmrulea)- Indigo-bird ( Cyanosplza cyanea) ; Cardinal Grosbeak, Virginian Red- bird (Cardlnalls Vlrginianus) ; Gro\ind Robin, Marsh Robin, Towee Bunting, Chewink (Pipllo erylhrophthal- mus). Family Icterid/e: American Starlings. Bobolink, Rfed-blrd, Rice-bir'l i Dolichonyx oryzlvorus); Cow-bird,. Cow-blackb rd (itoloihrus ater); Red-winged Blackbird {Ageloius phcenlceus); Yellow-headed Blackbird (Xan- thocephalus Icterocephalua); Meadow-lark, Field-lark (Sturnella Tnagna); Orchard Orioie, Chestnut Hangnest (Icterus spurlus); Baltimore Oriole, Golden Robin, Hang- nest (/. Baltimore); Bullock's Oriole (/. Bullockl) ■Haaty Grackle {Scolecophagus ferruglneus); Blue-neaded Grackle, Brewer's Blackbird (S. eyanscephalus) ; Purple Grackle, Crow-blackbird (Qulscalus purpureus) . Family Corvid.e : Crows, etc. Raveu (Corvus corax) ; White-necked Raven (G. cryptoleucus); Common Crow (O. Americanus); Clarke's Crow, American Nutcracker (Picicorviu Columbianus); American Mngpie (Pica mel- anoleuca Hudsonlca); Blue Jay (Cyanurus cristatus). SOB-ORDBR Clamatores. FAMILY Tyranniij.,e: Amer- ican Fiy-catcher, Kingbird, Bee-martin (ri/rannas Caro- linensls); Arkansas Fly-cafcber (T. vertlcalis); Great CrestJd Fly-catcher (Mylarchus crinitus); .Soy's Fly- catcher (Sayorn s sayus); Pewit Fly-catcher, Phoebe Bird {.S.fuicus); Olive-sided Fly-catcher (C7onfera<\ Semipalmateit or Ring Plover {^E. 'semi- palmatai; Piping Plover, Ring Plover {^. meloda cir- eumclncta); Mountain PiovenlSudromias Montanicsi. Family RECuitviRoSTRiDiE; Avocets. Avocet {liecur- virostra Americana), Family Phvi.aropodid*: Phata'opes. Wilson's Plia- larope {Steganopus WUsoni), Family Soiloi'acid.e: Snipes, etc. American Wood- cock (Fhilohela minor); American Snipe, Wilson's Snipe tOaUinago IVilsoni); Red-breasted Snipe, Gray Snipe (Macrorliamphiis griseus) ; Semipalmated Sanlpiper ( Br- eunetes pusiUm:; Least Sandpiper (Tringa minutilla); Baird s Sandpiper (7. Bairdi); B inanarte's Sandpiper, White-rumped Sandpiper ('/'. fuscicollie); Red-brea,-ted Sandpiper. Robin Snipe (T. canuius): Great Marbl'd Godwit (LimosafeJoa); Greater Telltale, Tattler {'/'ota- nus melanoleucus); Lesser Telltale, Lesser Yellowshanks (7'. Jlavipes); .s.ilitary Tattler, Wood Tatller (^T. sollta- rlits); Spotted Sandpiper (7'rt«g'oi*smejCM(a7'iMs); Bait- ramian Sandpiper or Tattler, Upland Plover iActiturus Bartramlus); Buff-breasted Sandpiiier {Tryngltes rufes- cens); Long-billed Curlew (Numetiius longirostris); Uud- Eonian Curlew {N. Hudsonicus); Esquimaux Curlew (N. borealis). SoB-OBDEB HER0DI0N.E: Herons and their Allies. Family Abdeid^: Herons. Great Blue Heron (-irdea i?croc(ias); Great White Egret, White Heron (FTerodias egretta) ; Little White Ejret, Snowy Herop ( Oazzelta Can- didlssima); American Bittern (^Boiaurus minor) . SuB-OEoER Aleotoriues: Cranes, Rails, etc. Family GBuiDiE: Cranes. White or Whooping Crane (Grus Americana,); Sandhill Crane (ff. Canadensis). Family RALLn>.ffi: Rails. King Rail, Fresh-water Marsh Hen (Rallus elegans); Carolina Rail. Ortolan (Porzana Carolina): Little Black Rail (P. Jamaicen- sls); Florida Gallinnle ('iallinula galeata); American Coot, Mud H 'n {Fulica Americana). ORDER LAMELLIR0STRE8: Anserine birds. Fam- ily Anatid*: Swans. Geese and Ducks. Trumpeter Swan (Cygnus buccinator); Snow Goose, White Brant (Anser hyperboreus) ; Canada Goose, Common Wild Goose (Branta Canadensis); Mallard (..inas Boschas); Dusky Duck. Black Duck (A., obscura) ; Pintail, Sprio;tail (Dafila acuta); Green-winged T^al (Querguedula Caro- llnensis); Blue-winged Teal (Q. diecors); Shoveller, Spoonbill Duck {Spatula clypeata) ; Summer Duck, Wood Duck (Aix sponsa); Butter-ball, Dipper, Spirit Duck {BucepTiala albeola); Ruddy Duck {Jirismatura Tublda) . ORDER STEGANOPODES: Totipalmate birds. Fam- ily Pelecamd.*:: Pelicans. White Pelican (Pelecanus trachyrkynchus) . ORDER LONGIPENNES: Long-winged Swimmers. Family Larid.^: The Pomarine Jeager (Stercorarius pomatorklnus) ; Great Black-backed Gull ( Larus mar- inus); Herring Gull (Lams argentatus); Ring-billed Gull (L. Delawarensis); Franklin's Rosy Gull (H/ircecoce- phalus Franklini) ; Forster's Tern {Sterna Forsteri) ; Arctic Tern (5. macrura); Least Tern (S. superclliaris antillarum) ; Black Tern {Hydrochelidon lariformXs) . ORDER PYGOPODES: Di iug birds. Family Podi- cipiDvE: Grebes. American Eared Grebe {Podiceps auri- tus Calif ornlcus). BIRD'S-FOOT TREFOIL. A European plant of the lotus family, a small, clover-like plant, growing in pastures. It has the power of preserving its verdure in extreme hot weather. The lotus, In its varieties, is inferior to red clover, with the exception of L. villosus, which is cul- tivated in some portions of Europe, especially in Prance, on light soils. The plant may possi- hly possess some value in California, and other sections subject to extreme heat and drought. Elsewhere it would be inferior to the true clov- ers and grasses. BISEXUAL. In plants, having stamens and pistils in the same flower; now termed her- maphrodite. BISHOPING. A cant word for disguising the age of a horse; from the name of the scoun- drel who invented it. It is performed by filing the teeth of an old horse, burning the cups or corrugations black, to give them a resemblance to the teeth of a young horse. BISON. The American bison {Bos Ameri- ca nus) once roamed over nearly the whole of the North American continent from latitude 33° to (34°., It is fast disappearing, and is now confined to the Far West and the gorges of the Rocky mountains, ranging from Slave lake in the British possessions to Southern New Mexico. The bison has been repeat- edly domesticated, and easily becomes tract- able. The flesh has been much extolled by plainsmen, but really is inferior to beef, except the hump, which is rich, tender, and of fine flavor. The flesh bears the same relation to beef that venison does to mutton, and the only use in domestication of the animal would be to furnish another to the list of flesh foods and agricultural products. In its osteology — bony system — it dif- fers from the ox species in every part of the world, having fifteen ribs on a side, while the ox has only thirteen. One of the principal values of the buffalo is in the hide, from which buffalo robes are made. In winter . his body is covered with long, coarse hair, mixed witli much woolly and finer hair. The hair of the forehead is often more than a foot long. The fleece of a single animal has been found to weigh, some- times, as much as eight pounds. This 'the In- dians work into cloth, gloves, leggings, etc. A full grown buffalo will weigh from 1,200 to 2,000 pounds. Instances have been cited of greater weights. He can withstand great ex- tremes of heat and cold, and has fleetness, vigor of constitution and muscular strength far superior to that of the ox. As a beast of draft and burthen suited to the arid plains of the "West, if he could be rendered perfectly tractable, this animal might perhaps become as profitable in some cases there as the camel is in the desert. American enterprise, however, builds railroads almost in advance of civilization, and hence the buffalo will probably never be used for this jour- pose. Before the present generation of men pass away, it is more than probable the buffalo will become practically extinct in North America. The buffalo has been crossed in a number of instances upon the coriimon cow, and is entirely fertile therewith. We knew of no instance where the experiment has been fully carried out with a view of ascertaining the subsequent and continued fertility of the progeny, nor of their adaptation to the production of economi- cal food, or as beasts of burthen or draft, though the extraordinarj^ journeys thej^ perform, and the distance they will travel in a day, show their powers of endurance to be nearly equal, if not fully equal, to that of horses, when kept only on grass. BISTORT. Polygonum Mstwta. An acrid plant when fresh ; of the knot-weed family • BISULCATE. With two fissures; also two- hoofed, as in cattle. BIT. The iron part of the bridle which goes into the mouth and serves to guide the animal. BITTElt ALMOND. A variety of the almond of a bitter tasle. BITTER DOCK. (See Dock.) BITTERNS. The residue in evaporating sa- line water for the salt. It contains sulphate of magnesia and chloride of magnesia, as well as small quantities of soda, potash and bromides. It is used to take up superabundant moisture in BLACKBERRY 112 BLACK CATTLE fruit-preserving and other liouses, where low tem- perature and dry air is required. BITTER SWEET. An extensive genus (Sol- ■anum), the berries of which, of a red and dark color are considered to be poisonous. BITUMEN. A mineral pitch. Several varie- ties, as petroleum, asphaltum, mineral tar, and naphtha, are distinguished ; the tar of gas works is bitumen. BIXA. The genus yielding the B. orellana, or annotto. (See Dairying.) BLACKBERRY. Bubus. The common erect blackberry (B. viUosua) and B. tnvialis, or dewberry, are those generally planted; the latter, however, but seldom. The upright varieties delight in a rather compact soil and arc found wild in glades of the forest, shaded banks, openings, and the edges of groves. Of late years its cultivation has become quite extended for market, and it may now be found plentifully, m season, in all our principal city and village markets. It has a wide range, extending even to 45° north, and south nearly to the Gulf of Mexico, on favorable ■ situations. The root is astringent and is used in cases of diarrhoea. The varieties adapted to general cultivation in various parts of the United States are, Kittatinny, Lawton, Wilson and Snyder. Of the list the last named is being generally adopted in the northwest on account of its bearing qualities and hardiness. The dis- tance apart at which to plant the bushes is from five to six feet between the rows and about four feet in the rows. If the rows are six feet apart, the plant may be three and one-half feet apart in the row . BLACKBERRY WINE. (See Gallizing.) BLACK CATTLE. The Highland cattle of Scotland of which the West Highlanders may be considei'ed the modern type, used to be designated as Black Cattle and also as Kyloes, from the fer- ries they were obliged to cross in being driven to market. The word Kyloe is thought perhaps to be a corruption of the Gselic word, signifying highland, and pronounced kael. They are well adapted to take care of themselves on the bleak hills of Scotland, and the outlying islands, and, when mature, fatten easily and kindly. Their beef is considered the finest which reaches the Lon- don market. We believe they have never been imported into the United States with a view of introducing the breed. They are described by Youatt as follows : The Highland bull should be black, the head not large, the ears thin, the muzzle fine, and rather turned up. He should be broad in the face, the eyes prominent, and the counte- nance calm and placid. The horns should taper fine- ly to a point, and neither drooping too much nor ris- ing too high; should be of a waxy color, and widely set on at the roots. The neck should be fine, particularly where it joins the head, and rising with a gentle curve from the shoulder. The breast (briskef) wide, and project- ing well before the legs. The shoulder broad at the top, and the chine so full as to leave but little hollow behind them (that is, the crops are full). The girth behind theshoulderdeep ; the back straight, wide, muscular and flat; the ribs broad, the space between them and the hips well ribbed home; the belly not sinking low in the middle; yet, in the whole, not forming the round and barrel-like carcass which some have de- scribed. The thigh tapering to the hock-joint; BLACK WATER 113 BLAIN the bones larger in portion to the size than in the breeds of the southern districts. The tail set on a level with the back. The legs short and straight. The whole carcass covered with a thick, long coat of hair, and plenty of hair also about the face and horns, and that hair not curly. As to their value he adds : The value of the West Highland cattle consists in their being hardy and easily fed; in that they will live, and sometimes thrive, on the coarsest pastures; that they will frequently gain from a fourth to a third of their oi'igiual weight in six months' good feeding; that the proportion of offal is not greater than iu the most improved larger breeds ; that they will lay their flesh and fat equally on the best parts; and that, when fat, the beef is close and fine in the grain, highly flavored, and so well mixed or marbled, that it commands a superior price in every market. BLACK FLY. The small black beetle (Haltica nemorum) which infests cruciferous plants, and especially the turnip. (See Flea Beetle.) BLACK €rUM. Nyssa mulUflora. A tree sometimes attaining often more than from fifty to seventjr feet or more in height, and twenty inches in diameter. Natural to the United States south of 40° The wood is solid and little liable to split; it is used for naves or hubs, and in ship-building for the caps of masts. The berries are dark, and eaten by birds. N. quatica, or Tupelo, is less in size, and grows as far north as Canada. It is valuable as a dense wood, and used by carriage-builders. BLACK LEG. (See Blain and Murrain.) BLACK THORN. The European sloe, Pru- nibs spinosa. Sometimes the Gratwgus flava is called by this name in America. BLACK, TO DTE. For a large dress, take two ounces of extract of logwood and the same of blue vitriol ; dissolve the vitriol in sufiicient soft water to cover the goods; put them wet into suds, simmer two hours; then wash in three good suds. Throw away the vitriol water and wash the kettle. Make the dye with the extract in plenty of water; put in the goods and let them simmer two hours longer, stirring very often to prevent spotting. Rinse well in cold water, and wash clean in suds. BLACK TONGUE. (See Blain and Murrain.) BLACK TWITCH, or COUCH. Agrostis alba. Marsh Couch Grass. BLACK WATER. Hematuria. A disease to which horses and mares are sometimes sub- ject, but under good care rarely found. A disease of the general system, characterized by excess of urea in the blood, by urine of a nearly black (dark coffee color), and by spasms of the hind quarters. Mares are especially subject to attacks during the period of heat. Sudden exer- tion, after a period of inaction, may bring it on, also congestion and torpidity of the lungs and liver. The animal will be restless, will sweat profusely, and want to lie down. Spasms of the muscles of the hind quarters ensue, sometimes extend to the shoulder, with partial paralysis of the hind limbs, with respiration and pulse rapid, and voiding of quantities of dark urine. Breath- ing grows difficult, general spasms, and tetanus ensue, and the animal dies. The treatment con- sists in placing the animal In a roomy place, entirely free. If paralyzed, turn the animal over occasionally. Induce free action of the bowels, by means of the following: Four to six drachm powdered aloes, and one to two ounces cream of tartar, mixed in one or two parts of warm water. If it does not act in five or six hours, repeat. In any case assist the medicine with injections of a quart of soap suds and four ounces oil of turpentine, and give what cool water will be drank. Use no stimulants, sedatives, bleed- ing or blistering. When the disease abates, raise the animal to its feet, support it if necessary in slings, and rub the limbs briskly to restore cir- culation, and give three times a day the follow- ing ball : One drachm powdered nux vomica and two drachms sulphate of iron. Give complete rest and light nutritious food until the animal recovers, with plenty of fresh air, and such exer- cise as will be naturally taken. BLACK WATER OF CATTLE. This is known also as red water and bloody urine, and is an entirely different disease from black water in the horse (which see). The urine always con- tains albumen and broken down corpuscles. The kidneys do not indicate inflammation, but is somewhat similar in character to Bright's disease. It attacks cows in a low state soon after calving, and is induced by poor and generally bad feed- ing. There will be prostration, rapid and tremb- ling pulse, palpitation of the heart, bloody, followed by very dai-k urine, and diarrhoea, as well as by great constipation of the bowels. In cows, soon after calving, will be loss of milk, which sometimes froths, and standing in the pail deposits a reddish sediment. The vagina will also be contracted. The first step is to thoroughly open the bowels and keep them open. If there be diarrhoea, do not try to stop it. Give at a dose, and repeat every two days for six or eight days, or until comparatively natural evac- uations take place, the following: Two ounces castor oil in one pint of linseed oil. When the succeeding constipation is released, remit the doses. Generous food, easily digestible, fresh succulent grass in summer, or in winter ground oatmeal and cornmeal boiled, also half a dozen eggs beaten up in a gallon of milk, three times a day should be allowed. In addition to the oil, the following mixed in a pint of gxuel, and given twice a day will be indicated : One- half ounce chlorate of potash, one-half ounce tincture of chloride of iron. BLADE. In agriculture, a shoot or spire of grass, wheat, etc. BLADE-BONE. The scapula, or broad bone of the shoulder. BLAIN, BLACK TONGUE. This is a dis- ease varying in its form, and known under vari- ous names, as charbon (a coal) of the French, con- tagious anthrax of the English, and under various names in England and America, as black quarter, black tongue, bloody murrain and quarter ail. When it attacks the tongue, it is called blain; when in the throat, it assumes the form of putrid sore throat, or malignant sore throat. When the intestines ai'c attacked, it is bloody murrain. When the spleen is attacked, it may assume the form of apoplexy of the spleen, or splenic fever; so, also, it may take on the form of inflammatory fever, which assuming a low typhoid form, ends in death. If malignant inflammation attacks the internal organs, the disease becomes anthrax fever, or, as stated before, bloody murrain, with bloody urine, bloody effusions from the nose, eyes and ears, which if prompt relief be not given, carries off the animal within one or two days. In its malignant forms, every portion of the ani- BLEACHING 114 BLISTERING mal carries deadly contagion with it, even to otlier animals, and man. It is a blood-poison- ing. No fully successful treatment has ever been discovered; hence the cheapest and most merciful treatment (except in the case of partic- ularly valuable cattle, where sure means of inso- lation may be had) is to kill and then bury the carcass deeply in the ground. In ordinary cases of murrain, a change to high, dry pastures will often effect a cure. "When the disease, in any of its epidemic forms appear, the germs of the disease should be an-ested by fumigating the quarters of the animals afflicted, with sul- phur and tar, in the proportion of one pound of sulphur to two quarts of pure tar. Saturate tow with the mixture, and burn so it may thoroughly smoke the building. (See Fumigation.) In all forms of this disease, bleeding, purging, and all so-called heroic treatment is worse than useless, and aU local applications to "kill" the swell- ings and ulcers are injurious. The idea is to divest the blood of its poison; it is the true one. Put a seton in the dewlap (a coarse tape an inch wide and twelve or more inches long), smeared with powdered eantharides and turpentine, each one part, and eight parts balsam of fir. The two should stand together in a vessel of warm water for two hours, when the balsam may be added. The seton should be put in at the first symptoms of the disease. Probably the best method of treating the disease internally is by giving one or even two drachms of quinine every two or three hours in severe cases, with hypodermic in- jections every hour, of the following solution: Two grains of iodine, five grains of iodide of potassium, and one ounce of water. Use a syringe full in severe cases. In very severe cases this may be thrown directly into a vein, but hypoder- mic treatment must be perfonned by a veteri- narian or a physician. In ordinary treatment the vesicles or pustules should be opened and swabbed with a solution of twenty grains of chloride of zinc, an ounce of water, or in this proportion; or, touch them with nitrate of silver, or even the hot iron. One ounce each of chloride of potash and sulphite of soda, in one or two quarts of water, should also be given two or three times a day. As a stimulant especially useful, two to four drachms carbonate of ammonia dissolved in half a tumblerful of whisky, and diluted with two tumblerf uls of water should be given sev- eral times a day, as occasion may seem to require, by allowing it to trickle slowly down the throat from a bottle or horn. (See article Murrain.) BLANCHING. In gardening, the whitening of the stems, stalks, or leaves of plants, by tying them together, or earthing them up so as to exclude the light, and thus diminish the intensity of their native properties and make them sweet, as with celery. Lettuce, endive, cauliflower, etc. , are blanched by tying the outer leaves together over the head. BLASTEMA. A term sometimes used to des- ignate the embryo. BLATTA. The cockroach genus. BLAZE. A white mark or star in the face of an animal. BLEACHING STKAW GOODS. Wash soiled straw hats, bonnets, or other straw goods, in pure water, and then put them into a box with burning sulphur. The fumes arising unite with the moisture of the bonnets, and this (sul- phurous acid thus formed) bleaches them. BLEMISH. 1. Any kind of imperfection in a horse or other animal. In horses they con- sist of broken knees, loss of hair in the cutting- places, mallenders and sallenders, cracked heels, false quarters, splents, or excrescences which do not occasion lameness; and wind-galls and bog- spavins, where they prevail to any great degree. 3. The knots on the outside of trees, and shakes, internally, are termed blemishes. BLIGHT. A general term for the diseases of trees and crops, whether produced by tempera- ture, moisture, insects, or parasitic fungi. BLIGHT, AMERICAN. The Eriomm (aphis) lanigera, or woolly plant-lice. If is not, however, an insect native to America, but was originally imported from Europe. BLINKERS, BLINDERS. Expansions of the- sides of the bridle of a horse, intended to prevent him from seeing objects on either side, but at the same time not to obstruct his vision in front. In training horses, they should always be learned to travel kindly without blinkers. BLISTER BEETLE, BLACK. (See Can- tharides.) BLISTERING. The operation of stimulating the surface of some part of the body of an animal, by means of acrid applications, so as to raise small vesicles at the surface. It is frequently employed for the purpose of removing local aflections of different kinds, such as hard, indolent tumors. The ordinary horse-doctor resorts tO' blistering whenever he suspects internal inflam- mation. It is as disreputable as it is vicious, since in deep-seated inflammations, it causes pain and irritation of the viscera, and also leaves a blemish often difficult to eradicate. The use of blisters is, after acute inflammation has ceased, to absorb deposits, or effect some organic change by stimulation, as in reducing, for instance, an enlarged gland, the ripening (suppuration) of an abscess, hastened, etc. A strong blistering oint- ment is made of one ounce each of powdered resin and powdered eantharides (blistering fly), and four ounces of lard ; place the lard and resin in a vessel and set in boiling water until heated; then add the flies and stir until cool. Blistering ointment of medium strength may be made of one ounce powdered eantharides and six ounces- of lard, treated as before directed. A mild oint- ment that will not blemish, but thoroughly applied will raise a good blister is made with one ounce of powdered eantharides and twelve ounces of lard, made as before directed. Avoid the addition of arsenic, corrosive sublimate, and other poisons; they are useless and dangerous. Blistering ointments are applied by first shaving off the hair, washing and drying the skin, and rubbing the ointment in with considerable fric- tion. If first brushed over lightly with turpen- tine it will act quicker, but this is not to be used in ordinary cases. If it be required that the blister vshall act for a considerable time, dress the part with the blistering ointment diluted with oil from one-half to one-quarter the original strength. If this is not necessary, foment the blistered part with warm water the second day, and dress the part with lard or olive oil. When any animal is blemished it must be so secured that it can not bite or rub the irritated part. A tincture or sweating lotion that wiU not raise a full blister, but simply irritate the part, is made by steeping for ten or fifteen days, in a warm place, one ounce of best powdered eantharides in a pint of proof BLOOD HOESE 115 BLOOD HORSE alcohol. This strength may be increased if neces- sary by adding from one to tour ounces of solution of ammonia to a preparation containing one ounce of cantharides. This sweating blister may be ap- plied repeatedly and without shaving the hair. A very strong blistering solution may be made by adding a quart of spirit of turpentine to four ounces of powdered cantharides, and macerating the whole for a month, when the clear fluid will form a very strong liquid blister. If so powerful a stimulant be not required, the liquid may be diluted with an equal part of oil. As a rule cattle are not blistered. A mustard plaster made with hot water and well rubbed in is usually all that will be needed to produce the necessary irritation. In blistering always remember the following rules: Avoid much blistering in hot weather. Never blister more than two places at one time; or an inflamed part, or when erysipelas or mortification is suspected. Blistering is apt to produce stranguary in horses, if not watched. In case of nervous UTitability, loss of appetite, or stranguary (inability to urinate), following blis- tering, give the horse two drachms of opiurs; wash the blistered part with strong suds of warm water and soft soap ; dry, and dress with sweet oil. Instead of opium, five to ten grains of mor- phia may be used, or inject hypodermically one or two grains of morphia under the skin. BLOOD. The fluid which circulates through the body, giving nourishment to all parts. It consists of albumen, fibrin, red globules, fatty matters, water, and saline substances. The com- position of blood is nearly identical with that of flesh. BLOOD HORSE, AMERICAN. The thor- oughbred horse of America derives its existence directly from the best blood of that wonderful sub-family of British horses, the English thor- oughbred. That they have not degenerated, has from time to time been amply attested on our own racing grounds, and especially so of late years, upon the English turf by American horses laboring under the disability of having been carried from their native climate to one less congenial to this noble animal. In the history of the English blood horse, will be given the salient parts relating to the origin and improvement of the English thoroughbred. Here it will be simply necessary to state something of the dates of the importation of the sires and dams to this country, and what they have performed. That the thoroughbred horse is the foundation upon which must be built all that is of most value in the trotting horse, the roadster, the carriage horse, and even the horse of all work, is now so generally acknowledged, that it seems almost un- necessary to so state. It would not have been done, were it not for the fact that occasionally some narrow-minded individual will decry this wonderful sub-family of horses, because gam- blers and other disreputable men have used them on the race-course for the purpose of cheating and swindling. As well might the trotting horse of America be consigned to oblivion, and, in- deed, all horses of speed and pleasure, because their veins were strongly imbued with the blood of that wonderful make-up of bone, sinew, muscle, and nerve force — the thoroughbred horse. P^ortu- nately at the South, soon after the settlement of the colonies, and later in the West, the value of his blood was justly appreciated. So in the mid- dle states. In New York, New Jersey and Pennsyl- viinia, tlie blood horse has long had an existence. Yet in JIaryland and Virginia, and in Kentucky and Tennessee, the thoroughbred has been bred in his greatest perfection, and has produced a most glorious galaxy of sires and dams, inferior in speed, strength and stoutness to none on earth. The late William Heniy Herbert, under the nom de plume of Frank Forester, carefully col- lected a mass of valuable historical informa- tion in his Horse and Horsemanship of the United States, and the British Provinces of North America, and wc give therefrom a synop- sis of the salient points : In the reign of Queen Anne, the last of that house who sat on the royal throne of England, the English thoroughbred horse maj' be regarded as fully established; the Darley Arabian, sire of Flying Childers, Cur- wen's Barb, and Lord Carlisle's Turk, sire of the Bald Galloway, being imported in her reign. Sixteen years after her death, and three years before the foundation of Georgia, the youngest of the royal colonies, twenty-one foreign and fifty native stallions, some of them the most celebrated horses the world has ever seen, such as Childers, Bartlett's Childers, the Grey Child- ers, the Bald Galloway, Bay Bolton, Coney- skins, Crab, Fox, Hartley's Blind Horse, Jigg, Soreheels and Tnieblue, were covering in the United Kingdoms ; and from some of those are descended almost all our racers of the present day. Six years before this the first Racing Calen- dar was published in England, with nearly seven hundred subscribers. During this period it was, precisely, that the American colonies were planted ; and, as might be anticipated, English horses of pure blood were at an early date intro- duced ; and in those regions, where the settle- ment was principally effected by men of birth, attached to the Cavalier party, race-horses were kept and trained, race-courses were established, and a well authenticated stock of thoroughbred animals, tracing to the most celebrated English sires, many of which were imported in the early part of the eighteenth century, was in existence considerably before the outbreak of the old French war. In the Eastern States, the settlers of which were for the most part attached to the Puritan party, and therefore opposed to aU amusements and pastimes as frivolous at the least and unprofitable, and to horse-racing more es- pecially as profane and positively wicked, very few horses of pure blood were imported ; racing did not take strong root in them, nor in the last century were stables of racers kept to the east of New York. Virginia and Maryland as the head- quarters of the Cavaliers — the former State having for a long time refused submission to the commonwealth and to stout old Oliver — as the seat of the aristocracy, fashion and wealth of the colonies, prior to the Revolution — took an early and decided lead in this noble pursuit; and, while the love of the sport continues to distin- guish their descendants, who are by far the most equestrian in their habits of any other citizens of the Republic, the result of the liberality of the free settlers is yet visible in the blood of their no- ble steeds. It is probable that racing may have commenced simultaneously, or very nearly so, in the two States above named. It was an attribute of the principal towns of Maryland some years previous to Braddock's defeat in 1753, and it is nearly certain that Spark, owned by Governor Ogle, of that colony, presented to BLOOD HORSE 116 BLOOD HORSE him by Lord Baltimore, who received him as a gift from the Prince of Wales, father to King George III. , came hither previous to that event, and was among the first horses of great distinc- tion brought to America, though it can not be shown, what was the date of liis importation. About the year 1750, Colonel Tasker imported into Maryland the celebrated English mare Seli- ma, a daughter of the Godolphin Arabian, one of the most distinguished mares that ever ran in America, and progeinitrix through Rockingham, Mark Antony, and many others, of half the best and most fashionable blood in America. Nearly about the same time, there were imported into Virginia, Routh's Crab, by old Crab, dam by Counsellor, daughter of Coneyskins, supposed to be in or about 1745. In 1747, Monkey, by the Lonsdale Bay Arabian, dam by Curwen's Bay Barb, daughter of the Byerly Turk and a Royal mare. He was twenty-two years old when im- ported, but left good stock. In 1748, Roger of the Vale, afterwards known as Jolly Roger, by Roundhead, out of a partner mare, Woodcock, Croft's Bay Barb, Dickey Pierson, out of a Barb mare. Roundhead was by Plying Childers, out of Roxana, dam of Lath and Cade, by the Bald Galloway, out of a daughter to the Acaster Turk. Woodcock was by Merlin, out of a daughter of Brimmer. Dickey Pierson by the Dodsworth Barb out of the Burton Barb mare. In about 1764, was imported Fearnought, got by Regulus, out of Silvertail, by Whitenose, grand-dam by Rattle. Thus Fearnought is come of the very highest and purest blood in England, and has left his mark largely on the blood-horse of Vir- ginia. It is said that before his . time there was little beyond quarter racing In Virginia, that his progeny were of uncommon figure, and first intro- duced the size and bottom of the English race- horse into America. This must be taken, how- ever, with reservations, as it is evident from what has been stated in regard to Selima, that four- mile racers were the fashion, in Maryland at least, fifteen years before that date, and it is only to be understood in the case of second-rate racers, that quarter running was in vogue at this period. These capital horses were shortly followed by Morton's Traveller, who was probably got by Partner, a grandson of the Byerly Turk, and grandsire of King Herod, dam by the Bloody Buttocks Arabian. . These were probably the best early horses that were imported into America ; and to these, with the mares Selima, Queen Mab,- Jenny Cameron, Kitty Fisher, Miss Colville and a few others of about the same period, may be traced all, or almost all, the families of running horses now existing in the United States, in a greater or less degree, and with nearly as much certainty as the English champions of the olden day may be followed up to imported Arab and Barb on both sides. Fron: Virginia and Mary- land, the racing spirit ex .ended itself rapidly into the Carolinas, where it has never to this day flagged. The oldest race-courses in this country, which are yet kept up for purposes of sport, are the Newmarket course, near Petersburgh, Va., and the Washington course, near Charleston, B.C. At Alexandria, Va., there was a, race-course early in the last century, and the courses in the neighborhood of Richmond have been in existence above seventy years. Not very long after this date, and previous to the Revolutionary war, there were two race-courses on Long Island, in the State of New York — one called Newmarket, near the centre of Suffolk county, and the other near Jamaica in Queens county, at both of which trials of speed were frequently had; but whether there were meetings at stated intervals and for regular prizes is not known. It was not until about the commencement of the present century, however, that what may be called race-courses proper were established in New York ; the first club for the promotion of the breed of horses by means of racing, taking date from 1804, in which year the old Newmarket course was remodelled, and regular meetings with two and three-mile heats were established. Long prior to this time, however, the improvement of the breed of horses had created much interest in that State, and as early as 1764 and 1765 two celebrated horses were imported ^ Wildair, by Cade, and Lath, by Shepherd's Crab — by Colonel Delancy of King's Bridge, who also imported the Cub mare, dam of Mr. Gibson's Cub mare, killed on the course at Lancaster. Both Wildair and Lath greatly distinguished themselves as sires; the f<5rmer was esteemed so valuable that he was reimported to England. Another horse, Sloven, said to be by Cub, is stated by Skinner and by Edgar, on the faith of a pedigree signed Jacob Adlie, to have been imported also into New York in about 1764; he is not, however, to be found in the British Stud-book — Weatherby's; and I am not aware that any of the greater champions of the American turf trace their descent to Sloven. In North and South Carolina racing commenced with spirit, second (if second) only to the date of its commencement in Virginia and Maryland. Flimnap, Sweeper and Toby, all horses held in high estimation at the time, were imported be- tween the years 1760 and 1770; the former a grandson on both sides of the Godolphin Ai-abian, and both the others tracing to the same great progenitor, and to other ancestors scarcely of inferior note; the last named was imported by Colonel Alston, of racing celebrity in North Carolina. Into Pennsylvania, which State has never shone particularly on the racing turf, were brought two horses, Gray Northumberland, also called Irish Gray, said to have been bred by Lord Mazarine, and to have been a racer in high form, supposed imported by Mr. Crow, and about the same time. Old England, pedigree also unknown, but supposed begot by Old England, son of Go- dolphin Arabian. To these must be given the credit of running one of the oldest great Amer- ican time races on record, so long ago as 1767, against two other horses, one of whom, Selim, it is not easy to identify, three of the same name appearing to have covered nearly at the same time. The English sires most renowned in post-revolu- tionary days, until we come down to the day of the Leviathans, Sarpedons, Trustees, Priams and Glencoes, have been : Medley — imported into Vir- ginia in 1783, by Gimcrack; dam Arminda, by Snap. Shark — foaled in 1771, and imported into Virginia byMarske, out of the Snap mare. Dio- med— foaled in 1777; imported into Virginia, 1798. He was by Florizel, dam by Spectator. Diomed is probably the greatest sire of the great- est winner-getters ever brought into this country. Had he got none but Sir Arohy, out of imported Castianira — who brought him to America in her belly — that renown alone would have been more than enough ; for scarce a recent horse in England, unless it be Pot8o's, has so distinguished himself BLOOD HORSE 117 BLOOD HORSE as a progenitor. Gabriel — foaled 1790; import- ed into Virginia, was got by Dorimant; dam Snap mare. The year of Bedford's importation is not exactly known. He was a great stallion, and there is hardly a family of horses in the Southern States which do not in some degree, more or less, partake of his blood. He was a singularly formed horse — a rich bay — with a peculiar elevation on his rump, amounting in appearance to an unsight- liness, if not to an absolute deformity. This mark, known as the Bedford Hump, he has trans- mitted to his posterity, and, whatever may have been the original opinion as to its beauty, it has been worn by so many celebrated winners, that it has come of late to be regarded as a fore-shadow- ing of excellence, rather than a deformity. It has been worn by Eclipse, Black Maria, her brother, Shark, Boston, Argyle, and many others of note. The editor would here remark that what one authority says of Tennessee may also be said of Kentucky, whicli immediately that her sons be- came forehanded enough they commenced to breed thoroughbred horses. At the north, as settlement made good roads practicable, the attention of breeders was turned to trotting horses. That they also were indebted to the staunchest thorough blood for their success, the record of the modern trotting pheuomenans will attest. It will not be necessary here to follow the account of successive sires and dams as they have appeared. It will be sufficient as a matter of interest, to present a record carefully prepared of the fastest and beat niuning time, and most creditable performances made at all distances, to end of year 1879; the time being in minutes, seconds, and quarters of a second : Half a mile:— Olitipa, by imported Leamington, Sara- toga, Jnly 25, 187*, 0.47,'i. Five-eighths of a mile: — Bonnie Wood, by imported Bonnie Scotland, Saratoga, July 20, 1878, 1 .02%. Three-quarters of a mile : — i irst Chance, by Bay wood, Philadelphia, Pa., October 17, 1876, 1.15. One mile:— Ten Broeck, by imported Phseton, Louis- ville, Ky., May 24, 1877, 1 .39Ji. Mile Heats: — Kadi, by Lexington, Hartford, Conn., September 2, 1875, fastest second heat, and fastest two heats ever run, 1.42'^^, 1.41^4. One mile and one-eighth: — Boh WooUey, by imported Leamington, Lexington, Ky., September 6, 1875, 1.54. One mile and a quarter: — Charley Gorham, by Blarney- stone. Lexington, May 18, 1877, 2.8i4. One mile and three-eighths : — Spendthrift, by imported Australian, Jerome Park, June 10, 1879, 2.25?^. One and a half miles: — Tom Bowling, by Lexington, May 12, 1874, 2.345£. This horse was permitted to extend the run to two miles. One mile and five-eighths: — Ten Broeck, by imported Phseton, Lexington, Ky., September 9, 1875, 2.4914. One and three-quarter miles:— One Dime, by Wanderer, Lexington, September 12, 1879, 3.O514. Two miles :— Ten Broeck, by imported Phseton, against time, Louisville, May 29, 1877, 3.27!^. Two mile Heats : — Brandemante, by War Dance, Jack- son, Miss., November 17, 1877, 3.32J4, 3,20. Doubtful. Willie D., by Eevolver, Prospect Park, September 11, 1879,3.341/2,3.35. Two miles and one-eighth : — A ristides, by imported Lea- mington, Lexington, Ky., May 10, 1876, 3.451/2. Two miles and a quarter: -Preakness, by Lexington, Springbok, by imported Australian, dead heat, 3.56X. Two and a half miles:— Ariatides, by imported Lea- mington, Lexington, Ky., May 13, 1876, i.S.7% Two miles and five-eighths:— Ten Broeck, by imported Phieton, Lexington, Ky., 1876, 4.58^. Two miles and three-quarters:— Hubbard, by Planet, Saratoga, 1873, 4.58%. Three miles:- Ten Broeck, by imported Phseton, Louis- ville, Ky., September, 23, 1876, 5.26!4. Three mile Heats : — Brown Dick, by imported Margrave, New Orleans, April 10, 1865; the best second heat on record, and second best three-mile heat race, 5.30%, 5.28. ■Pour miles:- Ten Broeck, by imported PhsEton, vs. Fellowcraft's time, Louisville, Ky., September 7, 1876, 7.14%. -Lecompte, by Boston, at New Or- beating Lexington and Reube, 7.26, Four mile Heats : leans, April 8, 1854, 7.38)4. Hurdle Races:— Joe Rodes, by Virgil, mile heats, over four hurdles, St. Louis, June 4, 1878, 1.50%, I.6O14. Steeple Chases:— Dead Head, by Julius, about two and three-quirter miles, thirty-six leaps, Saratoga, August 26^ 1878, 5.33"/j. BLOOD-HOESE, ENGLISH. The history of the blood-horse in England has been so accurately and carefully traced by the late William Henry Herbert, one of the most accomplished writers of horses and field sports, in America, from an Eng- lishman's view, that we accept therefrom so much as will give a correct idea and history of the origin and growth of the blood-horse in England. Our authority says: It being, in the first place, admitted that the English blood-horse is the most perfect animal of his race, in the whole world, both for speed and endurance, and that the American blood-horse directly traces, without mixture, to English, and, through the English, to Oriental parentage, it is absolutely necessary t o revert to the origin and original creation of the former variety, in order to come at the ped- igree, characteristics, and history of the latter. With American blood-horses, it is not as it is with American men; the latter may, in many cases, trace their descent to an admixture of the blood of many nations ; the former, on the con- trary, must trace to the blood of the English thoroughbred ; or, if it should fail to do so, must suffer in consequence of the taint of any foreign strain. I do not, of course, mean to assert that, in a horse of unquestioned excellence and per- formance, it would be a defect to trace to a new and recent cross of Arab or Barb blood ; but I do mean to say, that such pedigree would be of no advantage to the character of the animal ; since it is clear that, by no Oriental horse recently im- ported into Great Britain has the Briiish blood- horse been improved — the Wellesley Arabian having got but one offspring of even moderate racing celebrity. Pair Ellen — while no horse of the pure blood of the desert, by any allowance of weight, has been enabled to win a race on the English turf, though, within ' the last twenty years, many have been started for prizes. It is believed that no Barb, Arab or Turk, imported into America, has ever got a horse of true pre- tensions on the turf, or which has an impor- tant race; and yet, within a few years, or during the second quarter of the century, a considerable number have been introduced to this country, many of them gifts from sovereign potentates to different Presidents of the United States, reputed to be of the noblest breed, and surely, as regal gifts, presumable to have been of true blood. The theory and presumed cause of the worthlessness of Arab Sires at the present day, will be discussed hereafter, when we come to treat of breeding and the influence of lineal descent on the production and transmission of hereditary qualities in the horse. It suffices, at present, to observe that the English race-horse is now on all hands admitted to be an animal of superior hereditary qualities to the pure-bred horse of the desert ; and that the race horse in America — the only country wherein he does not appear to have degenerated from his an- cestry — is identical in breed and qualities with the progenitors, to whom he traces his pedigree. Quot- ing from various sources the author continues; That horses were introduced into Britain long be- fore the Christian era, we have abundant evi- dence, and that the inhabitants had acquired great BLOOD HORSE 118 experience in their use is equally certain. In the ancient British language rtiediad is the word for a race — rheder, to run — anArliedeefa, a race. All these spring from the Gaulish rheda, a chariot. Here, then, is direct evidence that horses were introduced from Gaul, and that chariot races were established at a very early period. 1 would here observe, that this evidence is not to my mind dii-ect or conclusive, as to the fact of the introduc- tion of the horse from Gaul; although it is so, as to the antiquity of chariot-racing in both coun- tries, and to the non-Roman descent or introduc- tion of the British or Gaulish animal. And my reason for so saying is that, as the blood, the re- ligion and the language of the Britons were cog- nate if not identical with those of some, at least, BLOOD HORSE immediate moment, and is more curious and in teresting to the scholar and the antiquary, than to the horsemen or horse-breeder. From the differ- ent kinds of vehicles, noticed by the Latin writers — the carruca, the covinua, the esaedum, or war- chariot — it would appear that the ancient Britons had horses trained to different purposes, as well domestic as warlike. It is well observed by Youatt, in his larger work on the horse, that from the cumbrous structure of the car and the fury with which it was driven, and from the badness or non- existence of roads, they must have been both active and powerful in an extraordinary degree . Cassar, he adds, though without stating his authority, thought them so valuable, that he carried many of them to Rome ; and the British horses were, for GIMCEACK. of the Gallic tribes, it is no more certain that the Gallic rheda is the theme of the British rlieder, than that it is derived therefrom. It does, how- ever, in a great degree prove that the Gallic and British horses were identical, and descended not from any breed transmitted through Greece and Italy, but from one brought inland to the north- ward of the Alps; perhaps by those Gauls, who ravaged Upper Greece and Northern Italy, almost before the existence of authentic history; perhaps by their original ancestors; at all events, of an- tique Thracian or Thessalic descent, and, there- fore, of remote but direct Oriental race, in all pro- bability again improved by a later desert cross, derived from the Numidian cavalry of the Carth- aginian Barcas, long previous to the Caesarian campaigns in Gaul or the invasions of the sacred island of the Druids. This, however, is of small a long time after, in great request in various parts of the Roman empire. I regret that, owing to the omission of giving authority, I have been unable to verify the latter statement; I have failed to discover any allusion to the facts stated in the writings of Caesar himself; nor can I recall to mind any mention of British horses, in any of the classical authorities, whether in prose or poetry; nevertheless, I presume, from the general care and tmthfulness of this able writer, that there is no doubt as to the accuracy of his assertion. During the occupation of Eng- land by the Romans, the British horse was crossed to a considerable extent by the Roman horse — continues the author in the volume first quoted ; for which I would myself, for reasons above stated, prefer to substitute by the forcing horses of the Roman mercenary or allied cavalry, BLOOD HORSE 119 BLOOD HORSE and yet strange to say, no opinion has been given by any historian, Roman or British, as to the effect of this. After the evacuation of England by tlie Romans and its conquest by the Saxons, considerable attention was paid to the English breed of horses, and we know that after the reign of Alfred, running horses were imported from Germany; this being the first historical intimation we have of running horses in Eng- land. It is scarcely to be doubted that this im- portation produced a marked effect on the char- acter of the native breed; but here, as before, no historian has thought it worth his while to record the fact of either improvement or deteri- oration. English horses, after this, appear to have been highly prized on the continent, so that the German horses which were ijresented by Hugh Capet to Athelstan had been turned to good account. The English themselves, were, however, anxious to preserve the monopoly of the breed, for in 930 A. D., a law prohibited the exportation of horses. In Athelstan's reign many Spanish horses were imported, which shows the •desire of the English, even at that early period, to improve the breed. It is no wonder that their descendants should have produced the finest horsey in the world. Shortly before the Norman ■conquest a horse was valued at thirty shillings, a mare or colt at twenty shillings, an ox at thirty pence, a cow at twenty-four pence — these prices in case of their being destroyed or negligently lost — and a man at a pound. Money, it should be noted, then being equivalent to at least fifteen times its present value. William the Conqueror took great pains to improve the English breed, . introducing many fine animals from Normandy, Elanders and Spain. This monarch owed his success at Hastings chiefly to his cavalry ; his own horse was a Spanish one. In this rtign we iave the first notice of horses being employed in agriculture. They had been used for the saddle for many centuries — Bede informing us that the English began to use horses as early as 631 A. D., and that people of rank distinguislied themselves by appearing frequently on horseback. During the Conqueror's reign, the then Earl of Shi-ews- bury, Roger de Belesme, brought a number of Spanish horses to his estate of Powisland. The breed issuing from these is highly eulogized by Giraldus, Cambrensi.i and Dayton. In the reign of Henry I. we have an account of the first Arab horse imported into the country. It was pre- sented by Alexander I. , King of Scotland, to the church of St. Andrew's, with many valuable accoutrements, and a considerable estate. His- tory, however, is silent as to the purposes to which this animal was devoted, and as to what ultimately became of him there is no record. Coming down to the time of King John, we find, according to Youatt, that he impoi-ted many ■chosen stallions, 100 on a single occasion, and such was his anxiety to possess the best, that he would accept strong horses for the rent of crown lands, and as fines for the renewal of leases, and that his personal stud was both numerous and excellent. Edward HI. bought fifty Spanish horses and such care was taken that a formal ap- plication was made to the King of France for safe conduct to the troop having them in charge. This monarch, says M. Youatt, had many run- ning horses, though M. Youatt professes himself not clear whether it meant speedy horses in opposition to war horses, or those used specially for racing purposes. Mr. Herbert says : In the reign of Richard II. horse-jockeyship and the tricks of dealers had increased to such an extent, that a special proclamation was issued, regulating the price of animals of various kinds, and fixing a maximum value. Like all other sumptuary laws and prohibitory statutes effecting to regulate trade, this proclamation proved wholly useless and fell dead. It is curious, however, as proving the gi-eat increase in the value of horses, since the preceding reign, and showing what were, four hundred and fifty years ago, and what are still, the chief breeding districts. It was ordered to be published in the counties of Lincoln and Cam- bridge, and in the north and east ridings of York. The price was restricted to that determined by former sovereigns. Exportation of horses was strictly forbidden, especially to Scotland, as a kingdom with which England was constantly at war ; and it is remarkable, that even in the time of Elizabeth, it was felony to export a horse to Scotland. These prohibitions, how contrary, so- ever, to recent and more enlightened views as to the injurious effects of such restrictions on the freedom of trade, distinctly proved two things. First, that the people and monarchs of England had now become fully awake to the value of race and breed in horses ; and second, that the supe- rior quality of English horses was thus early acknowledged abroad, and that the demand for them was supposed to be greater than the super- fluity. We can now — quoting again from Mr. Youatt — collect but little of the history of the horse until the reign of Henry VII. at the close of the fifteenth century. He continued to pro- hibit the exportation of stallions, but allowed mares to be exported, when more than two years old, and under the value of six shillings and eight pence. James I. coming to the throrte of England, purchased the Markham Arabian for £500 (an extraordinary price in those times), but he was found to be deficient in speed. Race meetings were now regularly held at Newmarket, and vari- ous other places, in addition to those already held at Chester, there being an account of a race being ran there in 1665. Mr. Youatt also mentions races previous to King James' time, and says those of King James were in gi'eat part, matches against time, or trials of speed and bottom for absurdly long and cruel distances. Thus, from the time of James, the history of racing and English race- horses, and of course increased care in breeding and management, may be said to commence. Com- ing down to the time of Cromwell, Mr. Herbert says: During the protectorate, though he was compelled by the necessity of conciliating the ab- surd prejudices of the Puritans, to forbidracing, was yet an ardent lover of the horse, and an earn- est promoter and patron of all that belongs to horsemanship, purchased of Mr. Place, afterwards his stud-master, the celebrated White Turk — still recorded as the most beautiful southeastern horse ever brought into England, and the oldest to which our present strain refers. To him succeeds Vil- liers, Duke of Buckingham, his Helmsley Turk, and to him Fairfax's — the -same great statesman and brave soldier, who fought against Newcastle at Marston — Morocco Barb. And to these three horses it is that the English race-horse of the old time chiefly owes its purity of blood, if we except the royal mare, specially imported by Charles II., to which it is — mythically, rather than justly — held that all English blood should trace. Of all BLOOD HORSE 120 BLOOD HORSE succeeding importations, those, which are princi- pally known and referred to, as having notorious- ly amended our horse — by proof of stock begot- ten of superior qualities, and victorious on the turf through long generations — but few are true Arabs. We have, it is true, the Darley Arabian, the Leeds Arabian, Honeywood's White, the Ogle- thorpe, the Newcome, Bay Mountain, the Damas- cus, CuUen's Brown, the Chestnut, the Londsdalo Bay, Combe's Gray and Bell's Gray Arabians ; but what is generally called the Godolphin Arabian, as it seems now to be the prevailing opinion — his origin not being actually ascertained — was a Barb, not an Arab from Arabia proper. Against these, again, we find Place's White Turk, D'Arcey's Turk, the Yellow Turk, Lister's or the Straddling Turk, the Byerly Turk, the Selaby Turk, the Acas- ter Turk ; Curwen's Bay Barb, Compton's Barb, the Thoulouse Barb, Layton's Barb Mare, great- great-grandam of Miss Lay ton ; the Royal Mares, which were B.irbs from Tangier, and many other Barb horses, not from the Eastern desert, heading the pedigrees of our best horses. In this connec- tion, I would observe that the very reasons for which the Marquis of Newcastle condemned the Markham Arabian, viz. . that when regularly train- ed he could do nothing against race-horses — on ac- count of which condemnation he has received a sneer or a slur from every writer who has discussed the subject, are those which, at this very moment, prevent prudent breeders from having recourse to to Oriental blood of any kind. They can not run or last against the English horse. They have not the size, the bone, the muscle, or the shape, if we except the beautiful head, the fine neck, thin withers, and admirably long, deep and sloping shoulders, which are the inevitable characteristics of the race. Therefore, all men who breed with an eye to profit — and howsoever it might have been in the olden times of the turf, there are few now who have not an eye to it, either as hoping Vo win on the turf, or to produce salable stock — prefer to put their mares to known English winning horses, proved' getters of winners, of unquestioned bottom and stoutness, rather than to try stallions of the desert blood, concerning which nothing is known beyond the pedigree. It is not necessary to follow the history of the English blood-horse further. It has been written voluminously by various English and American writers. Prom the writings of Youatt in Eng- land, and Herbert in America, the horseman may thoroughly inform himself. He is not a pure breed, but made up of various bloods, and in- herits from Oriental blood, style, and soundness in vnnd, limb and hoof. By careful breeding through many generations, his speed has been increased, while the general constitution of the thoroughbred, has not specially suffered. Arti- ficial care has made an artificial animal of him, yet certainly, the blood-horse of the present day is far superior to his masters either on the Orien- tal or British side, as far superior in speed and stoutness, as is the modern Short-horn and Here- ford cattle superior in beef points to their pro- genitors of 150 years ago. Fleet and enduring as is the English thoroughbred in Great Britain, the American descendants, have fully kept pace with them, as is well attested in many hard fought races in England and America. As to the thoroughbred twenty-five or thirty years ago, Stonehenge, an English writer, as honest as he was graphic, says: By an examination of the racing time-tables as recorded of late years, it will be seen that from thirteen and a half to four- teen seconds per furlong is the highest rate of speed attained in any of our races, above a mile, and with eight stone seven pounds, carried by three-year-old horses. In 1846, Surplice and Cymba won the Derby and Oaks, each running the distance in two minutes forty-eight seconds, or exactly fourteen seconds per furlong. This rate has never since that time been reached ; the Flying Dutchman having, however, nearly at- tained it, but failing by two seconds — making his rate fourteen seconds and one-sixth per fur- long. But the most extraordinary three-year-old performance is that of Sir Tatton Sykes over the St. Leger Course, one mile six furlongs, and 132 yards in length, which he ran in three minutes and sixteen seconds, or at a rate of as nearly a& possible thirteen and a half seconds per furlong. With an additional year and the same weight, this speed has been slightly exceeded by West Australian, even over a longer course, as at Ascot in 1854, when he defeated Kingston by a head only; running two miles and four furlongs in four minutes and twenty-seven seconds, or as "' nearly as possible at the rate of thirteen and a half seconds and one-third per furlong. , This- performance is the best in modern days, consid- ering the weight, the age, and the distance; and it will compare very favorably with the often- quoted exploit of Childers over the Beacon Course in 1721, when, being six years old, he beat Al- manzor and Brown Betty, carrying nine ston& two pounds, and doing the distance in six min- utes forty seconds, or at the rate of fourteen seconds and one-third per furlong. Thus, allow- ing him his year for the extra mile in the course, and for the two pounds which he carried above Kingston's weight, he was outdone by the latter horse at Ascot by one second per furlong, and likewise by West Australian at the usual allow- ance for his age. Again ; comparing these per- formances on the English turf with the recently lauded exploits of the American horses, it will be found that there is no cause for the fear lest our antagonists in the ' ' go-ahead " department should deprive us of our laurels. On the second of April, 1855, a time-match was run at New Orleans be- tween Lecomte and Lexington, both four years old, in which the latter, who won, did the four miles, carrying seven stone five pounds, in seven minutes nineteen and three-quarter seconds, or, as nearly as may be, thirteen and three-quarter seconds per furlong. This is considered by the Americans the best time on record, and is un- doubtedly a creditable performance; though when the light weight is taken into account, not so near our best English time as would at first sight appear. On the 14th of April, Brown Dick and Arrow ran three miles over the same course ia five minutes twenty-eight seconds, or at the rate of thirteen seconds and two-thirds per furlongs the former a three-year-old, carrying six stone two pounds, and the latter five years old, six stone twelve pounds. Thus it will appear that Kingston, of the same age as Arrow, and carry- ing nine stone instead of seven stone twelve- pounds, ran two and a half miles at a better rate- than Arrow did his three miles, by one-third of a second per furlong. And it has been shown that in the year last past, two horses exceeded the greatest performance of the olden times by a second per furlong, and beat the best American BLOOD-ROOT 121 BLOWN time of modern days by one-third of a second per mile. Tlie assertion, therefore, that our present horses are degenerated in their power of staying a distance under weight, is wholly without foun- dation ; since I have shown that, even taking the time of the Childers' performance as the true rate, of which there is some doubt, yet it has recently been beaten very considerably by West Australian and Kingston. Many loose assertions have been made as to the rate of the horse, for a single mile in the last century, but there is not the slightest reliance to be placed upon them. That any race-horse ever ran a mile within the minute, is an absurd fiction ; and it is out of the question to suppose that if Childers could not beat our modern horses over the Beacon Course, he could beat them a shorter distance. Stoutness was undoubtedly the forte of the early race- horses ; they were of small size, very wiry and low, and could unquestionably stay a distance, and could race month after month, and year after year, in away seldom imitated in these days; but that they could in their small compact forms run as fast in a short spin as our modern three-year- olds, is quite a fallacy, and no racing man of any experience would admit it for a moment. The size and shape of the modern thoroughbred horse are superior to those of olden days, if we may judge by the portraits of them handed down to us by Stubbs, who was by far the most faithful animal painter of the eighteenth century. In elegance of shape we beat the horses of that day very considerably, more especially in the beauty of the head and the formation of the shoulders, which have been much attended to by breeders. In size, also, there has been an immense stride made, the average height of the race-horse hav- ing been Increased by at least a hand within the last century. This enlargement is, I believe, chiefly due to the Godolphin Arabian, who was the sire of Babraham, the only horse of his time which reached sixteen hands, and sire or grand- sire of several which were more than fifteen hands, much above the average height of horses atthattime — as, forinstance, Fearnought, Genius, Gower Stallion, Infant, Denmark, Bolton, Cade, Chub, Lofty and Amphion. Indeed it will be found, by an examination of the horses of that time, that out of 130 winners in the middle of the eighteenth century, there were only eighteen of the height of fifteen hands and upwards, of which eleven were by Godolphin or his sons, three de- scended from the Darley Arabian, two from the Byerley Turk, and two from other sources. It may therefore be assumed, with some degree of probability, that the increase in size is in a great measure due to the Godolphin, in addition to the extra care and attention which the horse has re- ceived during the same time. Nevertheless, all the care and forcing in the world will not increase the size of some breeds; and unless there was this capability of being forced, no amount of attention would have brought the horse to the present average, which may be placed at about fifteen hands three inches. BLOOD-ROOT. Sanguinaria Canadenm. This root is of a red color; is valuable in medi- cine, being used as an emetic, and in coughs. In large doses it is poisonous, and should not be f".ven except under the advice of a physician, he leaves are sometimes given to horses to assist in shedding the hair in the spring, and the root, also, to exterpate bots. BLOOD-SHOT. In farriery, a popular term for that red appearance which the eye exhibits when inflamed". The best treatment is to bathe the eye with a lotion composed of one drachm of white vitriol (sulphate of zinc) dissolved in half a pint of water. BLOOD SPAVIN, or BOG SPAVIIV. In farrierjr, a swelling of the vein that runs along the inside of the hock of the horse, forming a soft tumor in the hollow part, often attended with weakness or lameness of the hock. (See Spavin.) BLOOM, or BLOSSOM. A general name for the flowers of plants, but more especially of fruit- trees. The oflice of the blossom is partly to afford protection, and partly to draw or supply nourishment to the fertilizing organs of the plant, for the perfecting of the embryo fruit or seed. Bloom is a term applied to the delicate powder which coats the outer surface of such smooth- skinned fruits as the grape and plum. In gather- ing such fruits, care should always be observed to prevent this bloom from being removed by handling or otherwise, as it injures the appear- ance. BLOW-FLT. The Musca camaria. It de- posits eggs upon meat, which in a few hours become maggots, and hasten the decay rapidly; gauze cloths are used to keep them off; salt or cayenne pepper serves as a preventive, by indis- posing the fly to lay eggs on surfaces smeared with them. BLOWN, or COLIC. Undue distention of the stomach, from fermentation of food, as wet grass, bad fodder, musty hay, ergoty, or even sound grain eaten in undue quantities, causing the liberation of gas faster than it can be passed off, is usually termed hoven in cattle, and also blast, blown, colic and wind-dropsjr in farm animals. In cattle and sheep the trouble is in the third stomach, and if relief is not given, often ends in death. There will be swelling of the belly on the left side. The bowels will be torpid and constipated, the breathing dilEcult, the eyes wild, with other indications of intense pain. If the distension has extended to both sides, the danger is imminent. A trocar, or in lieu thereof, a sharp- pointed pen-knife, should be thrust into the- rumen, where the swelling is greatest, and the opening kept apart by a. silver tube, or a large quill thrust in the opening, to allow the escape of the gas. In cases not so severe, pressing and kneading of the stomach, to force the gas up the gullet, may give relief, or a half inch rubber tube well oiled, and furnished with a button of wool also well oiled, may be carefully worked down into the stomach. As a stimulant, one drachm of green mustard and one ounce of whisky, mixed in a little water, may be given by allowing it to trickle down slowly, to insure its safe passage into the third stomach. This may be repeated as may be deemed necessary. If this does not give relief, four drachms of the solution of potash, and one ounce of lard-oil and of com- mon salt may be mixed in a gill of water, and be given. Preventives are, not to turn stock into flush pastures wet with dew when hungry. Sheep may have one quarter of the above dose. Colic or gripes in the horse must not be con- founded with this affection. It is a contraction of the muscular coats of the stomach, and is caused l)y bad food, exhaustion, drinking cold water, change of food, and various other causes. BLUE-GRASS 123 BLUE-GRASS Intestinal colic, is shown by severe pain, look- ing at the flanks, pawing, lying down, rolling, and then suddenly getting up. The pulse and breathing are quick, and there are sometimes small discharges, both of dung and water. The bladder being generally distended. The most prompt means is the injection under the skin, of ten grains of morphia by means of a hypodermic syringe, and repeated in one hour if necessary. Give a ball by the mouth of five to ten drachms of powdered aloes. (See article Ball, or Bolus.) Assist this with an injection of half a pint of tur- pentine mixed with one quart of soapsuds. Avoid all dosing with alkaline drenches so much in vogue with the ignorant. In simple cases, one ounce each of chloroform, laudanum and sulphuric ether, and eight ounces of linseed -oil will answer, if aided by the injection as given above. If there is much gas and swelling, give the following : Mild spirits of ammonia and sul- phuric ether, of each one ounce, and powdered aloes one-half ounce; mix in a pint of tepid water, and "give at one dose. Gentle walking exercise will also tend to give relief and assist in the action of the medicines. BLUBBER. The cellular substance in which whale oil or fat is stored. BLUEBIRD. Sylva milis. A familiar in- s?ctivorous bird that should be encouraged on farms, BLUE-GRASS. Poa pratensis. The ^enus poa is one of the most important of the family of grasses, being decidedly the most valuable of our pasture grasses in soil suited to it. Upon rich, open, argillaceous soils, containing lime, and upon rich dry limestone soils proper, it is entirely at home, furnishing an abundance of early and late pastures, and south of the latitude of 40° north, and thence south it furnishes much valuable winter pasture. In Kentucky, the Blue-grass region has become famous, the world over. The profusion of nutritious, radical leaves constitute the superior excellence of this grass. It is also known as Spear-grass, Green-grass, and Smooth Meadow-grass. It is a perennial creeping rooted grass, smooth-stemed, flowering in May and June, according to the latitude, and ripening a month later. In poor soils it soon deteriorates and is of little value. Poa compressa, to which the name of Blue-grass might more properly be applied, is also known as Blue-grass in some por- tions of the Xorth, also as Wire-grass and Flat- stalked Meadow-grass, This also is a perennial creeping rooted grass, the plant smooth, but with short and fewer radical leaves than the so- called . Kentucky Blue-grass. It has found its way into most pastures in the North, and if less flush, certainly is as rich or richer pasturage than Poa pratensis. Both species are said to have been introduced, but if so, they have taken kindly to their adopted home, and have proved most valuable wherever acclimated. The cut shows the Kentucky Blue-grass (Poa compressa.) Kentucky Blue-grass is chiefly distinguished by the woolly web at the base of the floret, and the hairs on the lateral nerves of palea; the inner palea is a very little shorter than the outer, and is occasionally bifld at the summit. The culms are generally smooth, as are the sheaths, but they are occasionally a little rough ; the upper sheath is much longer than its leaf. It is indigenous in all the Northern States, gen- ■erally found on calcareous soil. The following from various authentic sources, will give an idea of the value of this grass, and of the general estimation in which it is held. No grass varies so much from alterations of soil and climate and exposure, as this. The flowers are sometimes tumid and tinged with red; under other circum- stances, they are a pale green, and compressed. The culms and leaves are sometimes a dark blu- ish green; soinetimes of a pale yellowish green; sometimes one foot high, and at others over three feet. British authors enumerate six or seven sub-varieties of it, with a view of classifying these differences; we have representatives of KENTtrCKT BLUB-OBASS. fl, the plant; &, a epikelet, and c, a pistil, removed from the palea, showing the scales at the base of the ovary. most of them in this country. This great differ- ence of habit causes a very different value to be assigned to it in different sections of the country. Thus, Mr. Klippart says, that it is very much in favor in Southern Ohio, whilst in Northern and Northeastern Ohio it is considered a very unwel- come guest in the grass lands. A Kentucky farmer, quoted by Mr. Flint, says of it: In our climate it is not only the most beautiful of grasses, but the most valuable of crops. It is the first deciduous plant which puts forth its leaves here, BLUE-GRASS 123 BLUE-GRASS Tipens its seeds about the lOth of June, and then remains green, if the summer is favorable in moisture, growing slowly till about the last of August, when it takes a second vigorous growth until the ground is frozen by winter's cold. If the svimmer is dry, it'diies up utterly, and will burn if set on fire, but even then, if the spring growth has been left upon the ground, it is very nutritious to all grazing stock, and especially to :sheep and cattle and all ruminating animals. When left to have all its fall growth, it makes fine winter pastures for all kinds of grazing animals. Cattle will not seek it through the snow, but sheep, mules and horses will paw it off 'and get plenty without any other food. When cov- ered with snow, cattle require some other feeding; otherwise, they do well all winter upon it. It makes also the best hay. I have used it for twenty years. It should be cut just as the seeds "begin to ripen, well spread and protected from the dew at night. When properly cured, stock seem greatly to prefer it to all other hay. Thus much for the Kentucky farmer, who testifies that it is about as good as any grass can be. Dr. * Darlington tells us, in his Agricultural Botany, that it is, indeed, as Muhlenberg terms it, opfo'- mum pabulum, being decidedly the most valuable of all the grasses known to our pastures. Prof. Buckman, of the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester, says that it yields a good bulk for the rick, and sends up a quantity of herbage for the aftermath, which is less injured by the cold and other climatic changes than almost any other species. We have extracted these widely differ- ing opinions respecting this grass, that our readers may see how little is really known about the grasses and how imperfectly our observations of them have been made. This Is one of the most widely diffused grasses in the world. We have had the amplest opportunities for observing it, and yet we can come to no agi-eement upon its merits. Some things about it are admitted upon all hands. It enters into the composition of the best meadows and pastures in Europe and America. The famous pastures of Kentucky, which will fatten animals faster than any other in the known world, are filled with this grass. The fine meadows and pastures of Vermont, on the western slope of the Green mountains, con- tain a very large proportion (at least two- thirds) of it. Wherever the sweetest and best keeping butter is made, this grass will occupy a very conspicuous place in the pastures; the best but- ter can not b6 made where this is wholly missing in the pasture. Although some gi'asses start earlier In the spring, yet it affords a good bite much earlier than most species. There is no grass known that bears the extreme cold as well as this, even as far north as Vermont; after lying exposed to the cold and snow all winter it is eaten greedily by the cattle in the spring, and they are found to thrive upon it ; sheep and even horses will paw away the snow in winter and eat the grass beneath with great avidity. It only sends up one flowering culm in a season, and these stand far apart; hence, at the first cutting, the burthen of hay is less than that afforded by several other species, bnt in August there is a .great growth of root leaves which give a heavy bulk at the second cutting; the rowen, which is more abundant than any other, fully makes up for the deficiency of the first crop. In the west, wherever it will grow, and in the northern por- tion of the Southern States it is the chief reliance for winter pasture. It succeeds in light lands where fibrous rooted grasses would fail. Its nutritive properties, as given by Mr. Way, are as follows : In one hundred pounds of grass there are 67.14 pounds of water; 3.41 pounds of albuminous or fiesh-formlng principles; 0.86 pounds of fatty matters; 14.15 pounds of heat- forming principles, such as sugar, gum, etc.; 13.49 pounds of woody fibre, and 1.95 pounds of mineral matter or ash. According to the analyses of Scheven and Ritthausen,Poa pratensis gave for 100 pounds of grass, sixty-two pounds of water, four pounds of albuminous matter, 1 . 1 pounds of fatty matters, 15.4 pounds of heat- producing principles, 15.6 pounds of woody fibre, and 1.8 pounds of ash. The Woburn experiments show the production of an acre to be 10,209 pounds, which lost 7,337 pounds in drying, and gave 279 pounds of nutiitive matter. When the seed was ripe, it yielded 8,507 pounds to the acre, which lost 5,104 pounds in -drying, and gave 199 pounds of nutritive mattei-. The produce of the aftermath was 4,088 pounds to the acre, and yielded 111 pounds of nutritive matter. The discrepancies in these estimates of Its nutritive value are undoubtedly due in a great measure to differences In the soil and climate of the places of its growth. We have never seen the culms longer than two and a half feet. Its average height In the regions that we are most acquainted with does not exceed eighteen inches. We have never seen any record of its producing more than three tons of hay to the acre, and have never actually seen a greater yield than one ton to an acre. It is well adapted for irrigation. When irrigated lands are ridged this always occupies the crowns of the ridges. Its favorite habitat Is a limestone soil, which, if not too dry, will produce it in the greatest abundance. It is found in positions 3, 000 feet above the level of the sea, but its valuable qualities are not mani- fested at over half that altitude. The seeds are acuminate or pointed, furrowed on the fiat sides, and are furnished with a thick, woolly web, which entangles the seed. It weighs about thir- teen pounds to the bushel. With the aid of a glass they may be clearly distinguished from the seeds of P. trimalis, the latter being shorter, rounder and nearly quite flat on the face. Dr. Darlington says that it is unnecessary to sow the seed In Pennsylvania If the field is well limed and manured. It will at once take possession of the land and grow vigorously. Hence, in that region the prevalence and the luxuriant growth of this grass is one of the best evidences that the land is in good condition and well managed. In many parts of Illinois, where the prairie is once depastured, although not a spear of this grass was seen before, the whole ground will be cov- ered with it, to the complete and the permanent exclusion of the former prairie plants. In poor lands, and In those ill adapted for this grass, its growth is exceedingly dwarfish, and it would hardly be recognized by a superficial observer as belonging to the same species as that which he sees in more favored localities. It is probably owing to this cause that so many contradictory statements have been given with respect to Its qualities. The straw of this grass, when bleached, is plaited like leghorn for bonnets, which are quite'equal to the leghorn in beauty, and superior in fineness. None of the grasses surpass it in the BOG 134 BONES beauty of its forms and the gracefulness of Its movements. Nowhere can we find more fairy- like delicacy of structure and contour, more graceful curves of motion, or greater softness and purity of color, than in the expanded panicles of Blue-grass. Poa Gompresm is also called Blue- grass and Wire-grass. The panicle is somewhat spreading in flowering time, but otherwise con- tracted; the branches in pairs or threes, short, flexuous, rough, often one-sided, the lowermost rather remote. Culm much compressed, decum- bent, nine to eighteen inches long, usually about a foot long, geniculate at the base. It bears four or five leaves with smooth, striated sheaths. The leaves are smooth, short, linear, keeled, of a dark bluish green color. We know no grass of so dark a color except, perhaps, some specimens of Festuca nutans. Upper leaf about equal in length to its sheath. Perennial ; rhizoma creeping, and flowers in June and July. It seems to be the prevalent opinion among botanists that it was introduced from abroad ; but in some regions it certainly appears to be indigenous. It is found in dry fields and banks. Frequently it iftay be seen growing in the joints of slaty rocks. It is also often found in damp claj's, which are inter- mingled with gravel and small boulders, and it would be difficult to say in which of these soils it flourishes best. It never forms a close turf, and is rarely found intermixed with other grasses. Hence it never yields a great bulk of hay, but this bulk weighs very heavily, so that the hay from an acre will weigh a ton or a ton and a half. We have often cut this amount from land on which a person unacquainted with the grass would not expect to get half a ton. It is certain that cows that feed upon it both in pasture and in hay give more milk and keep in better condi- tion than when fed on any other grass. Horses fed on this hay will do as well as when fed on timothy hay and oats combined. This we have verified abundantly. The crops are remarkably even ; it rarely suffers from excessive wetness or dryness. Sinclair says that heavy manuring very slightly increases the crop. This differs from our experience. We never, indeed, succeeded in making a thick sod, but we have by manuring caused the culms to approximate more closely than they did before, and their length has been increased to two feet, while the diameter has been at the same time enlarged. The objection to the wide interspaces between the plants may be obviated by sowing the seeds of some other grass flowering about the same time with it. Perhaps P. trimalis would be found to answer the purpose. It is one of the hardiest grasses known, and will grow in many places where no no other species will flourish. Sheep fatten as- tonishingly when fed upon it, and all grazing animals eat it with avidity. It keeps green and succulent after the seeds are ripe, even until the heavy frosts of winter. It loses less weight in drying than any other species. It is objected in some quarters that it is very difficult to exterm- inate from the soil, and probably in some cases the objection is well founded; but there is no difiSculty in raising goed corn from its sod with the free use of the cultivator. BLUE STOKE AND BLUE VITBIOL. The sulphate of copper. It is used as a caustic to sores, and as a steep for wheat, to save it from smut. BOG. This term is commonly used in agricult- ure to designate a slough or morass containing- much vegetable mud or muck ; often the deposits are extensive, and many feet deep. A peat bogr contains peat chiefly. When bogs become con- solidated or compressed, they are called peat mosses. BOG EARTH. This earth often contains- twenty or thirty per cent, of vegetable matter, and when well broken, with lime, and by exposure to air, forms a rich soil. BOIL, or BILE. A tumor containing mat- ter, or pus. It is the result of local inflammation. It should be brought to a head by poultices of" flour or linseed, and when soft and fluctuating, opened freely with a lancet. The wound should be kept clean, and healing induced by simple dress- ings, after the matter is exhausted. BOILING POINT. The temperature at whick fluids boil. Thus, water at 212°, alcohol 176°, oil of turpentine 316°, ether 96°, mercury 662' Fahrenheit. BOLE, or BOLL. In Scotland, once a comr mon measure of giain, containing four bushels. In the old measure of Scotland, for oats and bar- ley, four lippies made one peck; four pecks made one flrlot; four flrlots made one boll ; sixteen bolls- made one chalder. The boll of oatmeal weighs- 140 pounds. For wheat, peas and rye, three oat flrlots make one boll. English measures are now- used. The bole of a tree is the trank. BOLETUS. A genus of mushroom, of which several species, subjected to analysis, have been found to yield bolitic acid. BOLTING FOOD. Swallowing food without proper chewing; a prolific cause of indigestion im animals as well as in man. It may be hindered by feeding the animal at short intervals, and using chopped food, meal mixed with cut straw.. It is often brought about by irregular feeding in connectioa with exhausting work until bolting- becomes a habit. BOMBAX. A genus of large trees produciug^ a cottony substance. BONE EARTH. (See Bones.) BONES. The importance of bones is gener- ally underestimated. They form the framework of all verterbrate animals, are of great value in. many of the arts, and crushed, form, one of the- most valuable of manures. They consist in 100- parts — of mineral matter, fifty-six, the balance being gelatinous and other destructable matter. The mineral portion — the valuable part — con- tains about fifty per cent, of phosphate of lime, of which twenty-four per cent, is phosphoric acid. The gelatinous part of the bone consists of car- bon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulphur. One hundred parts of gelatine of Isones produce^ when fermented, twenty-two pounds of ammo- nia, together with carbonic acid. Sulphur is also- an ingredient of plants. Phosphate of lime is soluble in all acids, and we may say that all the- the phosphates are soluble in an excess of acid. When bones are surrounded by fermenting or- ganic matter, such as is offered in a manure or compost heap, the phosphate of lime is dissolved, in the humidity by the carbonic acid which is constantly being evolved by the fermenting mass. This operation is more or less prompt, according- to the activity of the fermenting heap. In the- field, where carbonic acid is always present, this process is constantly going on; but, owing to the- presence of the cartilaginous or gelatinous por- tion which surrounds the particles of phosphate,. BONES 125 BONES the action is less apparent on a large bone than if it were in powder, and the finer the powder the more rapid the decomposition. Bones vary much in their composition, according to the age •or variety of the animal. The amount of mineral matter is less in a young animal than in an old ■one, and the quantity increases gradually with «,ge. Schreger found that the bones of a child contain one-half of phosphate in the entire mass of earthy matter, while those of a full-grown person give four-flf ths, and an aged person not less than seven-eighths. The bones of adults contain less water than those of children. "When :a bone is suflBciently digested in muriatic acid, the mineral part is dissolved, leaving the gelatine, or cartilage, intact, which retains the original form of the bone. Large amounts of gelatine, •or glue, are thus made. That portion of the bone dissolved in the acid consists of phosphate of lime and magnesia, fluoride of calcium, and car- bonate of lime, with small quantities of salts of potash and soda. All who work the soil know that bones are most valuable applied to all cereal crops, and the grasses and in root crops. The following method of preparing bones on the farm, is from Mr. Pusey, a practical English farmer : The process depends upon the fact that bones consist, to the amount of one-third their weight, of cartilage or animal matter, which, under the influence of warmth and moisture, readily decomposes (ferments or decays) and loses its texture, so that the bones fall to dust. From the closeness and solidity of the bony structure, decay is excited and maintained with some difficulty. A single bone, or a heap of bones, never decays alone, but dries and hardens on exposure. If, however, bones in quantity be brought into close contact with some easily fer- mentable moist substance, but little time elapses before a rapid decay sets in. So, too, if fresh crushed bones are mixed with sand soil,' or any powdery matter that fills up the spaces between the fragments of the bone, and makes the heap compact, and then are moistened with pure water, the same result takes place in warm weather, though more slowly. The practical process may be as follows : The bones, if whole, should be broken up, as far as convenient, by a sledge-hammer, and made into alternate layers with sand, loam, saw-dust, leached ashes, coal ashes, or swamp muck, using just enough of any one of these materials to fill compactly the cavities among the bones, but hardly more. Be- ^in with a thick layer of earth or muck, and as the pile is raised pour on stale urine or dung ieap liquor enough to moisten the whole mass thoroughly, and finally, cover a foot thick with soil or muck. In warm weather the decomposi- tion goes on at once, and in from two to six or more weeks the bones will have entirely or nearly disappeared. If the fermentation should spend itself without reducing the bones sufficiently, the heap may be overhauled and built up again, moistening with liquor manure and covering as bef orfe. By thrusting a pole or bar into the heap, the progress of decomposition may be traced, from the heat and odor evolved. Should the heap become heated to the surface, so that am- monia escapes, as may be judged by the smell, it may be covered still more thickly with earth or muck. The larger the heap, the finer the bones, And the more stale urine or dung-liquor they have been made to absorb, the more rapid and complete will be the disintegration. In the heaps, horse dung or other manure may replace the ashes, etc., but earth or muck should be used to cover the heap. This bone compost contains the phosphates of lime in a finely divided state, and the nitrogen of the cartilage, which has mostly passed into ammonia or nitrates, is re- tained perfectly by the absorbent earth or muck. When carefully prepared, this manure is adapted to be delivered from a drill-machine with seeds, and, according to English farmers, fully replaces in nearly every case the super-phosphate made by help of acid. And this we can indorse. As showing the value of bone phosphate in re- storing fertility to soils worn under successive croppings of wheat, we append the following from the report, the results as stated by a com- mittee of experts: An analysis of the grain of wheat, that part of the plant which is not again returned to the soil, shows that nearly fifty per cent, of the ash constituent is phosphoric acid, and this is equally true of nearly all the cereal crops. When it is considered that our most fertile soils contain a very small percentage of this essential element, and that in many soils there is scarcely a trace, its real importance in an agricultural point of view can not be questioned. Under our system of cropping, the mineral elements first exhausted are the phosphates, and while conced- ing that no special manure can be regarded as a substitute for barn-yard manure, the question arises, can the farm be made to sustain its pro- ductiveness by the use of manures made solely from the products of the farm ? Every bushel of grain and roots ; every pound of cheese, butter, and wool; every ton of hay and straw sold, carries away a portion of the organic mineral elements of the soil; and, if something is not added to supply this deficiency beyond the ordinai-y accu- mulations of the barn-yard, gradual but certain deterioration of the soil must necessarily follow. The largely increased yield of wheat by the use of clover and plaster on fields partially exhausted by tillage, the clover being plowed under as a green crop, has led some to suppose that nothing else is needed to retain or restore the fertility of their land. Without doubt there are important benefits derived from the use of clover and plaster as fertilizers ; indeed, a soil may have an available supply of minerals for a wheat crop of forty bushels per acre, but if deficient in ammonia, the crop, depending solely upon the atmosphere for its supply, the yield will not exceed eighteen or twenty bushels, under the most favorable circum- stances of weather, ammonial manures being necessary to increase the yield. Yet, valuable as is the clover crop in furnishing this essential organic matter to the cereal crop, it adds no mineral matter to the soil. The clover crop and the ordinary accumulations of the barn-yard are not sufficient to restore the mineral elements of which the soil is deprived by successive grain crops, and it is necessary to resort to other fertil- izers to restore this deficiency. The phosphates, among the mineral elements, necessarily first disappearing on a wheat farm, the value of bone- dust and super-phosphates can not be questioned, the former containing about fifty per cent, of phosphoric acid. But it will not do to rely upon this alone, as will be apparent when the constitu- ents of bone-dust are considered. One hundred pounds of raw bones may be estimated to con- tain eleven pounds of water, forty-flve pounds BONES 126 BOS- phosphate of lime, thirty-eight pounds fat and gelatine, of which about five pounds are nitrogen ; of the phosphates about fifty per cent, are phos- phoric acid. If all the nitrogen is preserved, 100 pounds of bones would furnish the amount ex- pended in growing a bushel of wheat ; an appli- cation of 400 pounds per acre would furnish only twenty pounds of nitrogen, about one-third the quantity contained in clover, equalling one ton of hay. The committee think, that in connection with a proper use of clover as an organic fertil- izer, the wheat crop majr be largely and profit- ably increased on impoverished soils by an appli- cation of 300 to 400 pounds of bone-dust per acre ; on soils not greatly impoverished a smaller quantity may be used. It is sometimes the case that bone-dust, when no other manures are used, fails to materially benefit the wheat crop to which it is immediately applied. This is attributed chiefly to a deficiency of ammonia ; and when the wheat crop, under such circumstances, is only slightly benefited, the clover sown the suc- ceeding spring, which obtains a large proportion of its ammonia through its broad leaves from the atmosphere, will be largely increased by the de- composing phosphates applied in the fall, thus accumulating ammonia for the succeeding wheat crop. The failure of bone-dust to benefit the crop to which it is first applied is owing also to its undecomposed condition. In one instance given, 500 pounds per acre was applied to corn without benefit; the second year it helped the corn, and the third year after the application, the yield of wheat was four bushels per acre greater than the product of land in the same field not so dressed. On soils where no phosphates have been applied, an immediate fertilizer being needed for a summer crop, a well-prepared super-phosphate is recommended as preferable to undecomposed phosphate. The effects of a properly -prepared super-phosphate upon a turnip crop are frequently almost magical, the crop being increased four or five fold by an application of 400 to 500 pounds per acre. When used for wheat and clover, it should be well mixed with the surface soil, in a partially fermented condition, before the wheat is sown. Ample time will thus be given for a portion of the phosphates to be decomposed, and taken up in solution by the roots and plants, and organized in the grain. After the wheat crop has matured, the clover sown in the spring will be still further benefited by the gradual decomposi- tion. Ashes, both leached and unleached, are highly valuable as additional fertilizers in fur- nishing potash and other minerals for the culti- vated crops. In closing their report, the com- mittee state, that under the system of cropping, so widely prevalent, the most careful preparation and use of all the available bones in Michigan will not replace the phosphates withdrawn from the soil by the frequent recurrence of the wheat crop; and that, to increase the productiveness of their lands, farmers must lessen the proportion of acres annually devoted to wheat, keep more stock, and thus manure more highly from the products of the farm, and with other valuable fertilizers. One of the best means the editor of this work has ever found for making super-phosphate is in the bone-black, or animal charcoal, used in refining surgars, and for filtering any substances requiring refining. Bone-black is made by burning bones in a closed vessel, by which they are converted into bone charcoal. They are then ground and used in the refineries. The waste bone-black — about twenty-five to forty per cent, of the quan- tity used — which accumulates in twelve months, is no longer of value in the refining. This is treated with sulphuric acid and converted inta super-phosphate of lime and sold for fertilizing purposes. Bone ash is obtained by burning bones with access of air or oxygen. Thus the organic matter, gelatine, etc. , is burned out, and the fri- able residue is easily acted on by sulphuric or other acids. When mills for crushing are not available, and bones and sulphuric acid are cheap, this is an easy way of obtaining bone ash, which may be converted for use by means of sulphuric acid. BONE SPAVIN. A disease of the hock joint in horses, brought on by over exertion. While forming there is continued lameness. (See Spa- vin.) BORAGE. Borago officinalis. A rough weed growing two feet high. It is used as a fallow crop in Germany, and, according to Lampadius, con- tains nitre. It seems to be admirably adapted for this purpose. BORAX. Borate of soda, used as a flux in welding steel, in washing clothes, etc. Borax is now extensively prepared in California. BORDER. In gardening, the edges of beds. They should be well spaded and manured, so as to be made the richest parts of the garden ; thus, when we are directed to plant in borders, it is usually meant that deep, good soil, and free space are required. The word is also used to desig- nate a bed specially prepared and protected, for assisting the early growth of plants that requir& some forcing to enable them to mature before the autumnal frosts, and also used for hardening plants before their transplanting, for ripening in the rows where they are to stand. BORECOLE. Bramea oleracia (called by the Scotch, Kale) is one of the many varieties of the cabbage family. It is distinguished by a large open head, and generally' by curled or wrinkled leaves, and is almost hardy. It is thought very valuable for cultivation in the Southern States, because it requires little or no protection during the winter months. The principal sub-varieties are — Scotch Kale, Green Curled, .Caesarian Kale, and Thousand-headed Cabbage. i?ow the seed — one ounce of which wiU furnish four thousand plants, or about that number — about the time of sowing late cabbage seed. Transplant in July into rich, mellow soil, and cultivate as cabbage. For preservation in the open air through the cold weather, the plants should be set quite close to- gether in a trench, with the earth drawn up to the lower leaves and covered with straw or litter; when a head is wanted, it is only necessary to re- move the covering and cut off the stalk with a knife, leaving the stump in the ground, where it will produce fine gi-eens in the following spring, south of the latitude of 39° and even up to 40°, with protection. BORERS. The larvse of a class of beetles — the Long-horned, or Capricorn beetles (CerambyddoB), although there are many borers or wood-eating larvse which do not belong to this tribe. They will be treated under their appropriate names. The Short-horned Wood-borers {SeoVytidm) do com- paratively little damage to the agriculturist. BOS. The generic name of ruminating quad- rupeds, having the characters of the ox and buf- falo. (See Cattle.) BOTANY 137 BOTANY BOTANY. Botany lias been defined as being the science whicli treats of tlie structure of plants, the functions of their parts, their places of growth, their classification, and the terms which are employed in their description and denomination. Economic botany may be defined as teaching to distinguish between useful and noxious plants, and a correct knowledge of those plants necessary in daily life. Botany, in a strict sense of the term, is the science which teaches the arrangement of the members of the vegeta- ble kingdom in a certain order or system, by which we are enabled to ascertain the name of any individual plant with facility and precision. Such arrangement is only to be con- sidered as useful in proportion as it facilitates the acquirement of a knowledge of their eco- nomical and medicinal quali- ties, which cannot be perfectly ascertained without an ac- quaintance with vegetable physiology, the parts of plants, their functions and uses. Bot- any, in its most comprehensive form, teaches us the names, arrangement, parts, functions, qualities and uses of plants. It will not be neces- sary here to go into structural botany. It will be Interesting, however, to become acquainted with leaf forms. Consequently we give a series of carefully prepared illustrations, showing the various shapes they assume. The cuts. Figs. 1 and 3, show the apex and bases of leaves, with their forms and names. Coming now to the forms of leaves, the accompanying cut. Fig. 3, eye. Some are hairy, some are smooth, and others covered with an enamel of silex, present- ing a glistening surface. The quince and lily have their margins entire and even. The wil- low is notched in the margin like a saw, but the teeth all point one way, like those of a saw for ripping boards. Thus they are serrate, or if the notches are very fine, serrated. If the teeth point neither foi'ward or backward, but out- FiG. 3. will show, a, repand leaf of Enchanter's Night- shade; b, double serrate leaf of Elm; c, undulate leaf of Shingle Oak (Q. vmhi-icwria); d, crenate leaf, Catmint; e, dentate leaf of Arrow-wood ( F»- burnum dentaJmn); f, serrate leaf of Chestnut; g, lobed leaf (Chrysanthemum). Leaves, it may be remarked, are described by their forms, pat- terns of the borders, or margins. These are various, and always beautiful to the educated Fig. 8. Fig. l.Apex or leaves; a, obcordate; 6, emarginate; c, rotuse; d, truncate; e, obtuse; /, acute; g, raucronate; A, cuspidate; ^, acuminate. Fia. 2. Bases of leaves: I, hastate; m, n, sagittate; o, auriculate; p, cordate; q, renlform. ■ ward, they are dentate, or like teeth; and again, if the teeth are quite small they are denticulate. But the teeth themselves may be again toothed. Then they are doubly dentate ; or, the serratures of a leaf may be notched. They are then doubly serrate, as in the elm. Fig. 3. So, in the apex of leaves there is something to learn. The apex may be acuminate, ending in a long, tapering point; or cuspidate, suddenly contracted to a sharps slender point; mucronate, tipped with a spiny point ; acuti, simply ending with an angle ; obtuse, blunt. Or the leaf may end without a point, being truncate, as if cut square off ; retuse, with a rounded and slightly depressed end where the point should be; emarginate, having a small notch at the end ; ohcordate, hav- ing a deep indentation at the end. This may seem to some readers of but lit- tle practical value, never- theless, it is one of the im- portant things upon which the study of botany rests, and valuable to every child who studies botany, even from a purely practical standpoint. Thus we have delineated something of the more simple form of leaves. In the scope of this work, while giving condensed information from an experience of over a quarter of a cen- tury, of manual labor on the farm, supplemented by constant reading of the best authorities, careful experiment, and the close application of all to the practical working of the farm, we have followed authorities only so far as they do not conflict with the practical application of science. Scientific names are of value to a lar^e class of readers, and for the reason that the Latin has been adopted where civilization BOTANY 138 BOTANY Fie. 4. extends, as a language with which scholarly men are acquainted, and hence is a me- dium used which all readily understand. Thus, whatever common names may be used for one and the same object, its true name is always expressed scientifically by a name, synonyms scarcely ever being allowed, except inserted in parenthesis. In the above cut. Fig 4, are shown at a, reniform leaf of Wild Ginger; b, reniform leaf of Pennywort; c, peltate leaf of Penny- wort; d, oblong leaf of Toothed Arabis; e, arrow-shaped leaf of Scratch Knot-grass; /, obovate-spatulate, articulate at base, Era- ser's Magnolia; g, spatulate leaf of Silene Virginica; h, three-lobed leaf of Liverwort. In the next cut, Fig. 5, the form shown at d.runcinate leaf of Wild Lettuce; ft, pin- uatifid leaf of Celandrine; c, pinnatisect leaf of Fennel-flower. The next series of leaves. Fig. 6, shows a, ovate leaf of Pear- tree; ft, lanceolate leaf of Flowering Al- mond; c, narrow lanceolate leaf; d, del- toid leaf of White Birch. The next series. Fig. 7, shows a, obovate leaf of Smoke-tree (Bhus cotinus); ft, orbicular leaf of Winter- green (P^rofa); c, oval leaf of Plum-tree; d, elliptical leaf of Black Haw; e, oblong leaf with palmate, three-toothed leaflets {Potentilla tridentata); c, binate leaf (Jeffersonia di- phylla); d, simple leaf jointed to the petiole. Lemon. Fig. 9, rose leaves (compound leaves); at a, in this cut, shows the stipules adnate (a stipule is an appendage at the base of a leaf somewhat resembling a small leaf in texture and appearance); ft, shows a leaf of violet ( F. tri- color) with gashed stipule. The next cut. Fig. 10, shows Red Clover; a compound leaf at ffi; ft, simple leaf , Weeping Willow; c, ensiform (sword- shape) leaf of Iris, or Fleur- FiG. 6. of willow. In the next illustration. Fig. 8, are still other forms, as a, leaf with five cut lobes, almost guinate (Potentilla anserina); ft, ternate, delis ; d, acerose (needle- shaped) leaf of Scotch Pine. In the next illustration. Pig. 11, still other forms of leaves are given, as a, amplexicaul leaves (Aster tews); ft, per- foliate leaves of Bellwort {TJvularia perfoliata); c, con- nate leaves of Honeysuckle (Lonicera sempermre7is). The next cut. Pig. 13, shows at a, an orbicular leaf of Round- leaved Orchis; 6, a sagittate leaf of Arrowhead; c, a cor- date leaf of Pond-weed; d, lanceolate leaves stem and flower of Lily of the Val- ley; and e, linear leaves of Blue-eyed grass (Sisyrin- chium). The next illustra- tion. Pig. 13, will show foiins of leaves, including some of the oaks and other curious forms, as a, bi-pin- natifid leaf of Pig- weed (CJoose-foot family); 6, sinnate-lobed leaf of White Oak; e, undulate- BOTANY 139 BOTANY Catalpa, or may Tie clothed with Jong haiis, called coma. The silk of Silk-grass (Ascle- pias) is the coma of the seed, and cotton is the coma of cotton seed. The seed of poplar (cotton-wood) or .wil- low is also furnished w,ith coma. The first stage of growth is called germination. (See article on Germination.) As to how it grows, the water which the plant imbibes by- its roots becomes .«ap in the stem, and circulates in every part as the blood circulates in the animal frame The leaves, by their broad, thin ' forms, serve as lungs, to bring all the sap passinsj through them into contact Fie. 9. 6 lobed leaf of Jack Oak; d, lyrate leaf. Moss-cup Oak ; e, lobed leaf of Blue Milk- weed {MvXgedium). The two figures in the next illustration. Fig. 14, will close the forms of leaves exhibited. They are, a, tri-pinnate leaf of Honey Locust; S, tri- pinnate leaf of Poison Hemlock. The very com- plete glossary of botanical terms appended to this article, will explain not only the meaning of the terms used, but also, others in general use among botanists. They are given, as are the forms of leaves, not as constituting a text work to the student in botany, but as helps to those who wish to acquire practical knowledge in the science, as brought into the every day life of the worker of the soil, and especially as a means of initiating the young into a love of this important and interesting study. That every farmer should know something of the history and characteristics of plants is certainly neces- sary. Indeed, there is no farm laborer, however Ignorant, but what acquires a very considerable knowledge in this direction, simply by observa- tion. To assist all who have not pursued botany as a study, this article and its object-lessons will be of value. The history of the development of the seed, and the essentials in the biography of the plants is contained as follows: The shell of a seed may be of any color, as white, black, yel- low, red, etc. ; may be polished and shining, or dull and rough ; may be of any shape, as round, or oval, or egg-shaped; may be winged, as in 9 Fig. 10. BOTANY ■with the air and light. By this means the sap is changed into a nourishing food, fitted to sustain the growth of the plant in every part. Thus the leaves are design- ed, not only as an ornamental robe, but as organs of breathing and di- gestion. In the second stage of growth, when the plant depends no longer upon the seed for nour- ishment, it goes on increasing in 130 BOTANY stature and multiplying its leaves and branches. It now consists of three parts, viz: root, stem and leaves. These- are called the organs of vege- tation. The third stage of plant-life is the period of flowering. Before this period all its activity was devoted to its own nourishment and growth. Now it begins to live and act for the continu- ance of its own kind after it upon the earth, according to the Divine decree in Genesis, 1, 11. Some of its buds un- dergo a striking change, and Fio. 12. Fig. 11. open each a flower instead of a leafy branch. A flower is therefore a, leaf}"^ branch transformed having its axis undeveloped, its leaves in crowded circles, moulded into more delicate forms and tinged with brighter colors, not only pleasing to the eye, but also as a means of attracting insects to assist fertilization to prepare the way for fruit. (See illustration ) The fourth stage of plant-life is the period of its fruit-bearing. The flowers have gradually faded and disappeared, but the pistil, having received the quickening pollen, remains in its place, holds fast all the nourishing matter which continues to flow into it through the flower-stem, grows, and flnally ripens into the perfected fruit and seed. The fifth and last stage in the biography of the plant is its hibernation, the winter, cessation of growth, or its- death. If the event of flower- ing and fruit-bearing occur within the flrst or second year of the life of the plant, it is generally followed by its speedy death. In all other cases it is followed by a state of needful repose, wherein it is commonly stripped of its leaves, and gives few, if any, indica- tions of life, until awaked, with renewed vigor, in the- BOTAKY 131 BOTANY following spring. According to their different terms of life, we distinguish plants as annuals, biennials, and perennials. An annual herb com- pletes its whole history in one year. In the spring it germinates ; in summer it grows, blooms, bears fruit; and in autumn its work and life are ended. Tlie mustard, maize and morning-glory are such. A biennial herb lives two years. Dur- ing the first it germinates, grows, and bears leaves only; and in its second year it blossoms, bears fruit and dies. Such is the beet and radish. A perennial plant survives several or many years. There are herbaceous perennials and woody per- ennials. The herbaceous perennials, or peren- nial herbs, are such as survive the winter only by their roots or their parts which grow under- ground. These in spring send up leaves, flowers and often stems, all of which per- ish in autumn, leaving only the parts under the ground alive as before. Such are the hop, asters, violets. Woody perennials sur- vive the winter by their stems as well as roots, and usually grow for several years be- fore fl,owering, and then flower annually during their existence. According to their size, such plants are trees, shrubs, under- shrubs. A tree is the largest among plants, having a permanent, woody stem, usually unbranched below, and dividing into branches above. The oaks, elms and pines are familiar examples. A shrub is smaller than a tree, usually growing in clusters from one under- ground mass of roots. 'The lilacs, roses, alders, are shrubs. Small shrubs, about of our own stature, as the currants, brambles, we call bushes. Very low shrubs, as the blueberries, box, etc., are undershrubs. Plants are divided into phaenogamous or flowering plants, or cryp- togamous or flowerless plants ; the first comprise the more noble; the second having spores instead of flowers. To these belong the Scouring Rush, Ferns, Club-moss, Mushrooms, etc. Flower- ing plants are vegetables bearing proper flowers, having stamens and pis- tils, and producing seeds which contain an em- bryo. They are dicoty- ledonous or exogenous, and monocotyledonous or endogenous plants. Di- cotyledonous or exogen- 5i ous plants have the stems formed of bark, wood and pith ; the wood forming a layer between the other two, increas- ing, when the stem con- tinues from year to year, by the annual addition of a new layer to the out- side, next the bark. Leaves netted-veined ; embryo with a pair of opposite cotyledons, or rarely several in a whorl; flowers having their parts usually in fives or fours. Monocotyledonous, or endogenous plants, have stems with no manifest distinction into bark, wood and pith; but the woody fibre and vessels collected into bundles or threads, which are irregularly imbedded in the cellular tissue ; perennial trunks destitute of annual layers; Leaves mostly parallel-veined (nerved) and sheath- ing at the base, seldom separating by an articula- FL0WER9 OP THE MAGNOLIA SPEOIOSA. (ONE-POHBTH NATURAL SIZE.) tion, almost always alternate, or scattered and not toothed. Parts of the flower commonly in threes. Embryo with a single cotyledon (and the leaves of the plumule alternate). Indian corn, the other grasses, etc., are examples of the latter; the oak, elm, apple-tree and many others, are of the former. Species of plants are comprised of all individuals of the same kind, and are BOTANY 132 BOTANY descended from a common stock. A genus is an assemblage of species whicli are much alike, especially in their flowers and fruit. Thus, flax is a genus made of similar species. Clover is a genus composed of 150 species. Pine is a genus, embracing as species White Pine, Yellow Pine, Pitch Pine, Long-leaved Pine, and many others. Individuals of the same species may differ some- what among themselves, and these differences constitute varieties. Thus apple trees differ in their fruit, and there are hundreds of varieties although only one species. Roses differ in their form, color, and fragrance of their flowers, forming many varieties under each species. Nat- ural orders are made up of genera. Just as simi- lar species form a genus, so similar genera form natural orders. Thus individuals, fonn species, species form genera, and genera form orders. These, as previously stated, are again divided into the two sub-kingdoms — flowering plants and flowerless plants. The first called Phcunogamia and the latter Cryptogamia. Exogens have the wood in concentric rings or layers, formed year by year, the outer the newest. By counting these, one may form a definite idea of the age of the tree. The leaves of this class are net- veined, the flowers seldom or never completely three- parted, and the seed two-lobed. The endogens have their wood, if any, confused, the inner portion being the newest. Their leaves are par- allel-veined, flowers three-parted, and seeds one- lobed. Exogens are of two forms, vessel seeded, called angiosperms, and naked seeded called gym- nosperms. Exogens generally have pistils to the flowers, with young seeds inclosed in their ovaries. The pines, yews, etc., have no pistils, or at least no stigmas to their inflorescence, and produce naked seeds, and hence are called gym- nosperm, from the compound Greek word signi- fying naked-seeded. The grasses, endogens, have their flowers enveloped in green alternate scales, glumes, instead of the circle of pistils common to other flowers. Thus the division is made into glume plants and glumeless plants, called glumiferm and petaliferce. Thus, all flower- ing plants are divided into four classes, as fol- lows: Angiosperms; exogens bearing stigmas and seed-vessels. Oynmosperms; exogens with no stigmas, and with naked seeds, as the pines, firs, larches, cedars, cypresses, yews, etc. Peta- lifercB; endogens with no glumes and ordinary flowers. Qlumiftra; endogens with glumes instead of petals, as the Grasses, Sedges, Grains. Angiosperms may be readily distinguished .from gymnosperms, from the fact that nearly all the latter are cone-bearing, as the Pine, Cedar, Larch, etc. Below we give a tabular view of the natural system of classification of plants : 2. Leaves parallel-veined. Flowers three- parted Endogens. 3. Stigmas present. Seeds in seed-vessels. Angiosperms. 3. Stigmas none. Seuds naked. Pines, Bprucee, etc Gymnosperms, 4. Flowers without glumes, having petals, etc P, taliferte. 4. Flowers with green, altL-rnate glumes, no petals Glumif eras. 5. Petals distinct and separate Polypetalse. 5. Pet lis united more or less Gamopetalse. 5. Petals none Apetalas. 6. Tne cone-bearing plants; as cedars, Inrchea Conoids. 7. Inflorescence a spudix Spadiciflorffl. 7. Inflorescence not a spadix Flur deae. 8. Grass-like plants Grammoids. 9. Ferns, mosses, lichens, sea-weeds, mushrooms. Abbreviations and scientific signs, often used in descriptive botany (omitting contractions for signs of the compass, the months and the States, as being generally understood) are as follows: invol.. involucre. irreg.. irregular. leg. legume. If., li'af; Ivs., leaves. Ifts., leaflets. ova., ovary. pet., petals. r . rare, uncommon. recp , receptacle. req , regular. rfiiz., rhizome. rt . root. 8d8.. 6e<'ds. ssg., segments. Sep . sepals. St stem. sfa.. stamens. etig., stigmas. sty., styles. ach., achenia. cest.. aistiviition. alter., alternate. anth., anther. axilL. axillary. c. common. cal.. calyx. caps., capsule. cor . corolla. decid., deciduous. diarn., diameter. emarg., emarginate. / nvft., feet. Jil., filament. Jl.. flower; jls., flowers. fr., iruit hd , head; hds., heads, hyp.. hypogynouB. imbr.. imbricate. inf., inferior. /. (with or without the period) a foot. ' (a singl e accent) denotes an inch (a twelfth of one foot) . " (a double accent) a second, a line (a twelfth of an inch). O An annual plant. O A biennial plant. 2f A perennial plant. ^ A plant with a woody stem. 5 A staminate flower or plant. ? A pistillate flower or plant. ^ A piTfect flower, or a plant bearing perfect flowers. 8 Monoecious, or a plant hearing staminate and pistillate flowers. $ ^ Dioecious ; pistillate and staminate flowers on sepa* rate plants. S ^ (5 Polygamous: the same species, with pistillate, perfect, and staminate flowers. (a cipher) signifies wanting or none, as "Petals 0." § (plaC3d after) a naturalized plant. t (placL^d after) cultivated for ornament. X (placed alter) cultivated for use. CO Indefinite or numerous. The very complete glossary, compiled by the late and lamented Dr. Darlington, will be found important and very interesting in connec- Kingdom. Sub-kingdoms. Provinces. Classes. Cahorts. 1 Phoenogamia f Expgens Angiosperms DialypetilouB. < Gamopetalous. Apetalous. Gymnosperms —Conoids. J Spadiciflorse. 1 Floridese. I Petaliferae ( Glumifera! 1. Flowering plants, (See No. 2) Phsenogamia. 1. Flowerless plants. (See No. 9) Cryptogamia. 2. Leaves net-veined. Flowers never quite three-parted Exogens. tion with botany in its relation to agricul- ture. The reader will bear in mind, that where compound descriptive terms are employed BOTANY 133 BOTANY the last member of the compound word is in- tended to give the predominant character, and that the word or syllable prefixed merely indi cates a modification of that character; as for example. Ovate-lanceolate signifies lanceolate, but inclining somewhat to ovate; while lance- ovate means ovate with something of the lance- olate form, etc. So of colors: yellowish-green, bluish-green, signify that green is the prevail- ing hue, but that it is tinged with a shade of yellow, blue, etc. Terms indicative of the size of any organ, or portion of plant as large, small, or middle-sized, are of course, relative, and have reference to the usual or average size of such parts, or organs, in other species of the same genus, or family, A; at the commencement of a word, signifies the absence of some part; as apetalous, destitute of petals When the word ommences with a \owel, an is prefixed Abnormal; different from the regular or usual structure. Aoortiori; an imperfect development of any organ Abortive; not arriving at perfection; producing no fruit. Abrupt. Not gradual; sudden. Abruptly a.c\im\uQXQ\ suddenly narrowed to an acumina- tion. Abruptly pinnate. (See Even-pinnate.") Acaulescent; apparently stemless. Accessory; addit oual, or supernumerary. ^ccMm6e/i^ cotyledons; having the radicle applied to the cleft, or recurved along the edges of the cotyltedons (re- presented by this sign, o=), as in some Cruciferous plants. Acerose; linear and needle-like, as Juniper leaves etc Achenium. (See Akene.) Achlamydeous; applied to flowers that have no floral envelopes. Acicular; needle-shaped. Acotylei^nous; destitute of cotyledons, or seed-leaves. Acrogenous plants. Plants which grow or develop from the apex or summit, only, of the steui. Acrogens ; Apex-growers, or acrogenous plants. Aculeate. Prickly; armed with prickles. Aculeqlate; armed with little prickles. Acuminate; ending in a produced tapering point. Acumination; An extended tapering point. Acute; sharp; ending in an angle, or point not rounded. Adherent; attached to. or united with another different organ, as the calyx-tube to the ovary, etc. Adnatei adhering laterally; fixed or growing to. Adventitious; happening irregularly; not produced nat- urally or usually. JBquilateral. Equal sided; not oblique. Estivation. The mode in which sepals and petals are arranged in the flower-bud before they expand^ Aftermath. The second growth of the grasses in the same season, after being cut off. Aggregated; crowded, or standing together on the same receptacle. Akene. or achenium. A oife-seeded fruit with a dry in- dehisci^nt pt'ricarp; often bony or nut-like. Mce. Wings, or membranous expansions. Alate. Winged; having a membranous border. Albumen. A deposit of nutritive matter, distinct from the embryo, found in many kernels, and sometimes (as in the grasses) constituting their chief bulk. Albuminous seeds; furnished with, or containing albumen. Alternate. Not opposite; placed alternately on the axis, or receptacle. Alveolate; having pits or cells like a honey-comb. Anient. A slendiT spike of naked and usually separated flowers, with imbricated scales or bracts. Amorphous; without definite form. Amplexlcaul; embracing or clasping the stem. Amphitropouit ovule; when it is half inverted and stands across the apex of the stalk or funiculus. Amylaceous; starch-like. Analogue. A body fir organ resembling, substituted for, or equivalent to, another body or organ. Anastomosing; applied to branching vessels which in- osculate, or unite again, like net-work. AnatropoiiS ovvi\e or seed. Turned; inverted on the funi- culus, so that the orifice or apex points towards the placnta. Ancipital. Two-odged; somewhat flatted with opposite edges, Andrcecium; a term employed to designate- the staminaf? portion of a flower; the stamens or fertilizing organs in the affgregate. Androgynous; hnvlns staminate and pistillate flowers distinct, but on the same spike, or plant. Angiospermous; having the seeds contained in a distinct pericarp, or seed-vessel. Angulate; having angles, or corners, mostly of a deter- minate number. Annotinous; applied to leaves, etc., which are annual, or renewed every year. Annual; living or enduring but one year. Annular; in the form of a rin^. Annulate; having a ring oi belt. Anomalous. Not according rorule or system; forming an exceplion to usual appearances, or structure. Anterior; in front, as that part of a il .vmt next to the bract, or farthest from the axis of inflorescence. Anther. Thr^ knob, or capsule, containing the pollen, usually supported on a filament. Antheriferous; bearing anthers. An'rorse. or a/.trorsely; pointing forwards or upwards. Apetalous. Destitute of petals; not having a corolla. Apex; the summit, upptr or outer end. Aphyllous; di-stitute of leaves. Apiciilate; tipt with a minute abrupt point. Appenuiculate; having some appendage annexed. oppressed; pressed to, or lying close against. App7'oximate; growing or situated near each other. Aquatic; growing naturally in water, or in wet places. AracUnd'.d; resembling a spider's web. Arborescent; appro::chin^ tne size or height of a tree. Arena e; curved or bent like a bow. Areola. A small cavity, as in the base of some akenes. Arid; dry, as if destitute of sap. Arillate; having an arillus. Arillus; An expansion of thefuniculnsor seed-stalk, form- ing a loose (and often fleshy) coating of the seed. Aristate; Awned; having awns, or bristle-like processes. Armed; having th< rns or prickles. Aromatic; having a spicy flavor or fragrance. Articulated. Jointed; counected by joints, or places of sepai-ation. Articulations. Joints; the places at which articulated members are separable. Ascending; rising from the ground obliquely. Assurgent; rising in a curve from a declined base. Attenuated; tapering gradually uniil it becomes slender, Auriculate; having rounded appendages at base, like ears. Awn. A slender bristle-like process, common on the chaff of grasses; sometimes on anthers, etc. Awned; furnished with awns, or bristle-like appendages. Awnlessj destitute of awns. Axil. The angle between a leaf and stem, or branch on the upper side. Axillary; growing in, or proceeding from, the axil. Axis; A central stem, or peduncle ; or, a real or imaginary central line extending Irom the base lo the Biimmit. Baccate. Berried; becoming fieshy or succulent, like a bi-rry. Bald akenes. Naked at summit; destitute of pappus or crown. Banner. The broad upper petal of a papilionaceous flower; called, also, the vexilUim. Barb. A straight process, armed with one or more teeth pointing backwards. Basal; originating at, or affixed to, the base of another ■ rgan. Beak. A terminal process, like a bird's bill. Beaked; having, or terminating in a beak. Bearded; crested or furnished with parallel hairs; the term is applied, also, to awned wheat, eic. Bemj. A pulpy valveless fruit, in which the seeds are imbedded. Bi\ in composition, meaning two or twice; as— Bibracteate; having twobracts. Bibracteolate; having two small bracts, bractlets, or bracteoles, Bicarinate; having two keels. Bicuspidate; ending in two sharp points or cusps. Bidentate; furnished with two tt-eth. Biennial; living two years (in the second of which the flowers and fruit are produced), and then dying. Bifarious; in two series, or opposite rows; pointing va. two directions. Bifid; two cleft, or split into two segments. Bifoliate; having or producing two leaves. B' furcate. Forked ■ ending in two equal branches. Bi-gibbous; having two haunches, or gibbous productions. Bi-qlandular ; having or producing two glands. Bi-lauiate; having two lips. Bilam^llate ; having two lamellae, or thin plates. Bilooular; having two cells. Bipartible; separable into two parts. Bipartite ; two-parted. Bipinnate leaf. Twice pinnate; the common petiole hav- ing opposite branches, and those branches bearing opposite articolated leaflets. Bipi-natifid leaf. The common petiole bearing opposite pinnatind segments. * Bi-rostrate; having two beaks. BOTANY 134 BOTANY Bi-setose; having two brietles. Bisalcate; having two grooves or furrows. Biternate leaf. Twice ternate; the common petiole three- parted, and each divisiou or branch bearing three leaflets. Bivalved: having two valves. Mventricosej having two-bellied, or distended portions. Bloom. A fine powdery coating on certain fruits, etc., as the plum. Border; the summit or upper spreading part of a calyx or corolla. Bowl-shaped; hemispherical and concave, or hollow, like a bowl. Brachiate; having the branches spreading, opposite and decussate. Bract. A floral leaf; a modified leaf, from the axil of which arises the flower-branch, or peduncle. Bracteate; furnished with bracts, or modified leaves among or near the flowers. Bracteoles, or bractlets. Small bracts. Bractless; destitute of bracts. Branchlets. Small branches, orsubdivisions of branches. Bristles. Stiffieh elastic hairs, straight or hooked. Bud. A growing point, or undeveloped axis, covbred with the rudiments oi' leaves. Bulb. A kind of bud. formed of fleshy scales, or coats, and usually under ground— sometimes in the axis of the leaves. Bulbiferous; bearing or producing bulbs. Bulbous; formed uf, or like a bulb. Bullate leaf; having bubble like convexities on the upper surface, with corresponding cavities beneath. •Caducus; falling off immediately, or earlier than usual for such organs. •Calcarate. Spun-ed; having a process like a horn, or spur; usually hollow. ■Callous; fi m and gristle-like. Callus. A compact, gristle-like tubercle, or substance. ■Calyciform; shaped nke a calyx. ■Galyculate; having an additional (usually small) outer calyx. Valyptra. The cap or hood (resembling the extinguisher of a candle), on the fructification of the mosses. Calyx. The flower-cup, or outer (and sometimes the only) covering of a flower, usually green. ■Ca/rtpanijtate ; in the form of a bell. Campylotropous ovule, or seed. Where the ovule curves upon itself, and thus brings the orifice, or apex, near to the funiculus. Canaliculate ; channelled or furrowed. Ca-iduant; whitish. Canescent. Hoary; clothed with a whitish or grey pubes- cence. Capillaceous, or capillary; long and fine, or slender, like a hair. Capitate. Head-form; growing in a head, or globular mass. ■Capsular ; resembling, or being, a capsule. Capsule. A dry, hollow seed-vessel, usually opening by regular valves and definite seams. ■Carina; keel. Garinate; keeled: having a ridge on the back, like the keel of a boat. Car nose. Fleshy; more firm than pulp. Carpel. A little fruit; usually a partial pistil, or constitu- ent portion of a compound fruit. Carpophore. A slender central axis, bearing the carpels, as in UmbellifercB. Cartilaginous; hard, yet somewhat fiexible. like gristle. Caruncle. A fleshy excrescence, sometimes found at the hilum of seeds. -Caryopsis. A fruit where the pericarp is very thin, inde- hiscent, and closely adherent to the surface of the seed, as in the grasses, (fyperacece, etc. Catkin; (SeeAraent.) Cauda; a tail. Caudate; having a tail, or tail-like ap- pendage. ■Caulescent ; having an evident or true stem. Cat/line; belonging tu, or growing on, the main stem. ■Cellular; made up of little cells, or cavities, formed of membranaceous sacs. Cellular plants. The lower order of plants (including the mosses, and those below them), composed exclusively of cellular tissue. Centrifugal inflorescence; where the central flower of a cyme precedes the others; i. e. the flowering commences at the centre and extends successively to the circumfer- ence. Centripetal inflorescence; where the outer flowers of a corymb, or umbel precede the inner ones ; i. e. the flow- ers expand in succession, from the circumference to the centre. Cephaloid; head-shaped. Cereal. Pertaining to Ceres; belonging to those farinace- ous grains, or seeds, of which bread is made, and over which the goddess Ceres was 'supposed, by the ancients, to preside. Cemuous. Nodding; the apex or summit drooping, or turned downwards. Cespitose; having many stems growing from the same root, forming a tuft or tussock; Chaff. A dry membrane, usually the small husks, or seed-covers of the grasses ; also the bracts on the recep- tacle of many compound and other aggregate flowers. Chaffy. Bearing chaff; also resembling chafi". Channels. Longitudinal grooves; the interstices between the ribs on the fruit of umbelliferous plants. Chanelled; grooved or furrowed. Character. In natural history, the features of objects, or classes of objects, by which they are known, and dis- tinguished from each other. Chartaceous: a texture resembling that of paper. Cicatrice. A scar, such as that left at the place of artic- ulation, after the fall of a leaf, etc. Cilia. Hairs arranged like eye-lashes along the margin of the suriace. Ciliate; fringed, or edged with parallel hairs, like eye- lashes. Ciliate-serrate; having serratures resembling cilia, orshort eye-lashef. Cilifoloi. Diminutive of cilia; hairs like miniature eye- lashes. Cinereous; of the color of wood ashes. Circinatej with the apex rolled back on itself, like the joung tronds of a fern. Circumscissed; cut round transversely, or opening hori- zontally, like a snuff box. Cirahose; bearing tendrils, or terminating in a tendril. Cirrhus. A tendril : which see. Class. One of the higher or primary divisions of plants, or other natural objects; in a systematic arrangement. Clavate. Club-shaped; thicker towards tiie summit, or outer end. Clavellate. In the form of a little club; i. e. larger at the summit. Claw ot a petal. The slender tapering portion at the base or below the middle. Cleft; split or divided, less than half way to the base; sometimes the division itself is called a cleft. Clypeate; in the form of an ancient shield or buckler. CoWaneows flowers; appearing at the same time with the leaves. Coarctate; contracted, or crowded into a narrow compass. Coccus (plural, cocCymule8. The reduced cymes, or cymos • clusters, of the LaUatce; sometimes calU-d Verticillasters. Decandrous; having ten distinct stamens. Deciduous; falling off at the usual time, or at the end of thfi season; more durable than Caducous; which see. DecUnate. or declined; bent off horizontally; or curved downwards. Decompound; several times compound. Decumbent; leaning upon the ground, with the base only. Decurrence. A running or extending down, or back- Decurrent leaf. When the two edges are continued down the stem, like wings. DecvBSa^e; growing in opposite pairs and alternately cross- ing each other. Definite; clearly defined, or limited; also of a constant or determinate (and not large) number. Deflected; bent off, or downwards. Dehiscent; gaping or opening naturally by seams, at ma- turity. Deltoid; triangular in the outline, like the Greek letter Delta. Demersed; growing or being under water. Dense; closely arrauged; compact. Dentate; toothed; edged with tooth-like projections. Denticulate; having very small teeth. Depauperate; with a starved or stunted inflorescence; iew-flowered. Depressed; flatted vertically, or pressed down at summit. Depressed-globose; globular, with the base and apex flatted. Di ; in composition, two. Diadelphous; having the filaments united in two parcels, usually nine and one, with a papilionaceous corolla. Diandrous; having two stamens. Diavhanovs /transparent; permitting light to pass through. Dichotomal ilower. Situated in the f oA of a dichotomous stem or branch. Dichotomous; forked; regularly divided and subdivided, in two equal branches. Diclinous ; having the stamens and pistils in distinct flowers, whether on the same or different plants. Dicotyledonous plants. Where the embryo has two lobes, or cotyledons. Didymous; twin; growing in pairs, and more or less united. Didynamous ; having two long and two shorter stamens, mostly in a bilabiate, ringent, or personate corolla. Diffuse; spreading widely in a loose irregular manner. Digitate leal. Where a simple petiole connects several distinct leaflets, finger-like, at its summit, as in the Horse Chestnut. Digynous ; having two pistils, or two distinct stigmas. Dilated; made wider; streiched or expanded. Dimerous; composed of two parts, as a dimerous calyx or corolla, when there are two sepals or petals. Dinddiate; halved, as if one side, or half, had been cut off. Dingy; of a dull, soiled, smoky, or leaden-brown color. Dioecious^ or dioicous; having staminate and pistillate flowers on distinct plants. Dioectously^ or dioicottsly polygamous; having perfect and imperfect flowers on different plants. Dipetalous ; having two petals. Discoid flower, or head. A disk of compound flowers, without ray-florets. Disepalous; having two sepals. Disk. The surface of the leaf; also the face, or central part of a head of compound flowers. Dissected; cut into segments, or lobes. Dissepiment. Tho partition between the cells of seed- vessels. Distant ; having a larger intervening space than usual. Distichous; two-rowed; bearing leaves, flowers, etc., in two opposite rows. Distinct; separate; not connected with each other, nor with any contiguous organ. Divaricate branches. Spreading so as to form more than a right angle with the stem above. Divergent; spreading widely; making a right-angle, or nearly so, with the stem. Divided; separated, or cleft to the base, or to the midrib, if a leaf. Dorsal; belonging to, or growing on, the back. Dorsalsuture. 'I he line or seam on the back of a carpel, or folded leaf, being at the place of the midrib; the opposite of ventral suture; which see. Dorsally compressed; flatted on the back. Dots. • Minute tubercles, or specks. Dotted; covered with dots, specks, or minute and slightly elevated pointR. Downy ; clothed with soft fine hairs. X'roopi/Jfir,* inclining downwards; more than nodding. Drupaceous; drupe-like; of a structure resembling a drupe, or what is usually called stone-fruit. Drupe. A fleshy, succulent, or spongy pericarp, without valves, containing a one or two needed nut, or stone. Drupel. A little drupe; a constituent portion of a com- pound berry, such as that of rubus. E, or Ex; In composition, destitute of, not furnished with. Ebracteate; destitute of bracts. Em,brarteolate ; destitute of bractlets. Ecaudate ; destitute of a cwuda, or tail. Echinate; hedghog-like ; covered with prickles. Elaters. Minute, club-shaped filaments, which are coiled round the spores of certain cryptogamous plants, and by unrolling assist in dispersing those spores. Elliptic, or elliptical; oval; longer than wide, with the two ends narrowing equally. Elongated; exceeding the usual or average length. BOTANY 136 BOTANY Elongating; becoming gradually and finally elongated. Emargifiate; having a notch or sinus at tiie end. Embryo, The youug plant in the rudimentary state, as it exists ill the seed. Emersed; raised out of water. Bndo arp. That membranous or bony portion of the per carp which lines the cavity or forms the cells for the seeds (,e.u. gr. the stone, or hard stiell, in a drupe). Endgeaos plants. Those which have a single cotyl- edju, and grow by central deposits of new matter, I distending or pushing the older deposits outwards. Endoge s. inside growers; plants which increase by central or internal dep. isits of new matter. Enneandroas ; having nine stamens. Ensiform; s'vord-shaped; two-edged and tapering from base to apex. Entire; having a continuous even margin; without in- cision, notch or tooth. Enre 'li)e. An integument, or covering. Ephemeral; diurnal; enduring one day only. Mpicarp; the outer coating of the uer.carp, or fruit. Epidermis; the outer skin or cuticle. Epigcean; ^-ituated, orriising, ubove ground. Epigynous; adnaie to the ovary so that the upper portion is appjreutly inserted on its summit, as sepals, petals, and more especinlly stamens; exemplified in Umbellif- erce and Araliacece. Epip talous: inserted on the petals. Equal; similar parts equal among themselves, as calyx- segments, sepals, petals, stamen^, etc. Bpip yt s; air plants having no immediate connection with the earth, but growing on the stem of other plants. Eguiiant leaves. When alternate distichous leaves nre infolded lengthwi!*e and towards each oiher, the outer ones inclosing or embracing the inner. Erect ovules, or seeds. When they arise from the bottom of the ovarv, or base of the cell, and point upwards. Eroded^ or erase; irregularly notcued^ as if gnawed by insects. Esculent; eatable; fit or safe to be eaten. Etiolation: the blauching of plants, or rendering them white by the exclusion of light: as practiced with cel- ery, endive, etc. Evanescent; disappearing; speedily vanishing. . Even-pinnate leaf. With the leaflets all iu pairs or with- out a terminal odd one; often termed abruptly-pinnate. Evergreen; cont:nuiug green, and persisting all the year. Exalbumlnous' destitute of albumen. Excentr'-c; deviating from the axis, or centre. Exfoliate; to throw off layers or plates, as bark, etc. Exogenous plants. Those which have two (or sometimes mord) cotyledons, and grow by anuual layers of wood (or new matter) on the outside, between tne old wood and bark. Exogens' o itside growers; plants which increase by an- nual additions to thu outside. Exsert, or txserfed: projecting or protruding" out, as sta- .mens from the tube of thf corolla. Exstepulate; destitute ol stipules. Ectrorse anthers. Having the cells turned outwards, or from the pistils, and the filament, or connective, ex- tended up the inner side. Falcate; sickle shaped; curved like a sickle, or scythe. Family of plants. A definite group of kindred plants, called also an Order; sometimes of numerous genera and species; sometimes comprising but a single genu*-. Fan shaped; cuneate below, and spreading above, like a lady's fiin. Farinaceous; mealy; reduciitle to a meal-like powder Fascicle; a little bundle, or bunch, of flowers, leaves, etc., orieinnting from nearly the same point. Fascicl-'d^ or fasciculate; growing in bundles, or bunches from the same point. Fastigi'te; level-topped; the summits of the branches all rising to the same height. Favose; deeplv pitted; somewhat like a honey-comb. Feather-veined eaf. Where the lateral veins (or nerves) diverge regularly from each side of the midrib, like the plumnge of a quill. Ferruginous; of the color of rust of iron; reddish-brown. Fertile; having perfect pistils, and producing fruit. Fibrous; composed of fibres, or thread-like processes. Fide; on the faith, or authority, of. FUa neiit; that part of t-ie stamen (usually thread-like) which supports the anther. Fil'tfo m; very slender and terete, like a thread. FljnbricB; fiinge<, or fringe-like proce8<.e8. Fimbriate; fiavi]y divided at (he edge, like a fringe. Fimbrillate; clothed with ^m&?'iW(E (i.e„ memb-anaceous, linear or subulate filaments)— as the receptacle of this- tles, etc. Fissure; a slit, crack, or narrow opening. Fisfular, or fietuloas ; hollow and terete, like a, pipe, tubular. Flabelliform; fan-shaped, which see. Flaccid; so limber as to bend by its own weight. FlagJllform; long, slender and pliable, like the thong or a whip, FlexU'Ose; serpentine, or with a succession of short alter- nating curves. FloccOoC^ ovjiocculent; covered with flocks, flakes, or little; maited bunches of paitly detached omentum. Floral; belonging to, or situated near, a flower. Floral env. lopi-s; the verticils, or coverings of flowers, usually known as calyx and corolla; sometimes as chaff. Fiord; a little flower; usually one of the number in con- pound or aggregated flowers. Floriferous; bearing flowers. Foliaceous; of a leaf -like form and texture; resembling a- leaf. Foliolp; a leaflet in a compound leaf. Follicle; a capsular fruit, opening longitudinally by a suture on one side. Follicular; resembling, constructed like, or being, a folli- cle. horamen (plural, foramina) ; a roundish hole, or open- ing. Foreolate; pitted. Free; not adhering to each other, nor to any adjacent oigan. Frondose; leafy, or with leaf-like appendages. Fructification; the flower and fruit, with their parts. Fr.iit; the mature ovary or seed-vessel, and its contents.. Frutcdcent; btcoming shrubby, or hard aud woody. Fruticoie; shrub-like, or shrubby. Fruticulose; like a little shrub. Fug icious; t\tietmg\ of short duration. Fulvous; tawny, fox or tan-colored. F -ngous; of rapid growth and soft texture, like the fungi. Funiculus; the little cord by which seeds are attached to* the placenta. Funnel form; tubular below, and expanding above like- a funnel. Furcate; forked. Furfuraceous ; scaly, or scurfy, like bran or dandruff. Fuscous; greyish brown, or deep brown, with a tinge of green. Fusiform ; spindle-shaped ; terete and taperi ng to a points Galea ; a helmet ; the arched upper lip of a ringent corolla. Galeate; helmeted; resembling a casque, or helmet. Ga-mopetalous ; having the peials all more or less united,, forming what is called (rather incorrectly) a monopet- alous corolla. Gamosepalous ; having the sepals all more or less united,, forming a monosepaTous calyx. Geminate ; iu pairs. Generic ; pertaining or relating to a genus. Geniculate ; forming an angle at the joints, like a bent lt;nee, Genus (plural, genera) ; a group of species wliich agree witn each other in the structure or essential characters- of the flower or fruit; sometimes a genus comprises bui a single species. Germ ; the growing part of a bud. Germen ; th& old'name for the ovary. Germination ; the sprouting, or incipient growth, of a. seed. Gibbous; hunched, or swelled out, on one or bi»th sides. Glabrous; very smooth, without any roughness or pubes- cence. Gland; a small roundish organ, or appendage, which often. secretes a fluid. Glandular^ furnished with gland-. Glandular-his/dd, or glandular-pubescent; hairy or pubes- cent, and the hairs tipped with glands. Glaucescent; inclining to, or becoming, glaucous. Glaucous ; Bilvt^ry ; pale-bluish, orgreenish-white; covered with a greenish-white mealiness. Globose, or globular; spherical; round on all sides. Glomerate; densely clusterid in small heaps, or irregular heads. Glomerules; small, dense, roundish clusters. Glumaceous; chaff like; resembling chaff or glumes. Glumes ; the bracts, or outer chaff, embracing the spikelets- 01 the grassL'S (calyx of Linn). (See Palea.) Glutinous; viscid; covered with an adhesive fluid. Grain; fruit of the true grasses, sometimes called a cary- apsis. Gramineous ; grass-like; resembliug grasses. ffrarai/erows/Tjearing a ^rain, or grains. Granular; formed of grains or small particles. Gymnospermousl havine the seeds naked; i. e, not in- closed in a pericarp. Gynandrous; having the stamens growing on, or adhering: to, the pistil. Gynoicium; a term designating the pistillate pottion of the^ flower, or the seed-bearing organs, collectively. Gynostegium; the pistil-cover or tube formed by the con- nate-filaments, in I he Asclepias family. Habit of plants. Their j^eneral externai appearance and mode of growth, by which they are recognized at sight- BOTANY 137 BOTANT Habiiat^ or hahitatio; the natural or native place of growth. Halved; one sided, as if one half had been cut oflf. Hastate; shaped like a h«lbert: lanceolate, with a divari- cate ioite on each side of the baye. Head; a dense oundish cluster of sessile flowers. HeptandTOiis; haviug seven stamens. Herbaceous; not woody; of a tender consistence, and usu- ally dt^stractible by frost. Herbarium; a collection of di'ied specimens of plants. Herbs; plants which ai-e nut woody— of more tender struc- ture ttian trees and shrubs, aud usuallj; killed by frost. Heterogamous heads; heads of Syngensious flowers, con- taiaing florets of diff'erent structure and sexual charac- ter. Heterophyllous; having leaves of different forms. Htxamerous ; coubibting of six parts. Hexa/idroui; having six stamens of equal length, Hilum; tlie scar lelt on a seed, at the point of attachment to the funiculus. Hirsute; rough-haired; clothed with stiflBsh hairs. Hispid; bristly; beset with rigid, spreading, bristle-like hairs. Hoary; covered wilh a white or whitish pubescence. Homogamous heads; heads of Syngensious flowers, in which all the florets are of similar structure and the same sexual character. Hooded. (See Gacallate.) Horizontal ovules; when they project from Ihe side of the cell, pointing neither to base nor apex. Horn; a i^rocess or elongation resembling a horn. (Si^e Spur.) Horny; of a texture or consistence like horn. (See Cor- neous.) Humus. The mould, or soil formed by the decomposition of vegetable matter. Hyaline; transparent, like glass. Hybrid; a mule; a cross-breed between two varieties, or nearly allied species, partaking of each but different from boih. Hypogcean; situated, growing, or remaining underground. Sypogynous; inserted beneath the ovary; i. e. on the recept icle, and free from the surrounding urgans. Icosandrous; having about twenty stamens, which are perigyno.is, i. e., growing to, or apparently inserted on the nm of the calyx. Imbricate, or imbricated; the edges lying closely and reg- ularly over the next series, like shingles on a roof, or scales on afisti. Imperfect flower; when either stamens or pistils are deficient. Incised/ cut or gashed; separated by incisions. Jnclinate, oi inclined; bent over towards the ground, or some other object. Included; wholly -contained within a tube, or cavity; the oppi.siie of ex^erted. Incomplete flower; when either calyx or corollais wanting. Incrassate; thickened upvi'ards or towards the summit. Incumbent; lying upon, against, or across. Incumbent anthrr; attached at or near its middle, and lying horizontally across the summit of the filament. Incurment coryledons; having the radicle bent over and applied ti> the back of one of the cotyledons (represented by this sign o=). Incurved; o<-nt or curved inwards. Indefinite; not distinctly limited, or defined; numerous, and of no constant or determinate number. Indehiecent; not opening at maturity. Indigenous; native, growing naturally, or originally in a country. Induplicate; folded inwards. Indurated; hardened; become hard. Inferior calyx. Having the ovary above, and free from the calyx. Inferior ovary. Situated apparently helnw the calyx, or rather its segments; i. e., adnate to the tube of the cal/x, and consequently bearing the segments (if any) at its Hummit. Inflated; distended or swelled Ijke a blown bladder. Inflected, or Inflexed; bent suddenly inwards. Inflorescence; the disposition or arrangements of flowers and their footstalks on a plant; such as umbel, panicle, raceme, etc. Innate anther; erect, having its base resting directly on the apex of the filament. Inserted; fixed upon, or growing out of. Internode. That portion of a culm, or stem, between the nodes or joints. . . , ^ ^ Interpetiolar stipules; situated or originating between the petioles of opposite leaves. Interrupted; having Intervals, or the continuity broken, Interruptedly mmmte; having smaller pinnae, or leafiets, between each pair of larger ones. _ Intra-petiolar stipules; situated within and above the petioles; usually sheathing the branch above the axil of the leaf, as in platanus. Introrse anthers; having the cells turned inwards, or towards the pistils, and the filament, or connective, extending up the outer side. Inversely; in a contrary position; end for end, or upside down. Involucel. The verticil of leaflets at the base of an um- bellet. Involuce late; having involucels. Involucraie; having an involucre. Involucre. An aseembluge of modified leaves accompnny- iug certain forms of inflorescence, usually verticiUate at the ba.-e of an umbel, or in imbricated series be- neath or around the heads of aggregated flowers. Involute; rolled inwards. Irregular; the component parts differing in size and sh jpe. Keel. A longitudinal central ridge on the back of a leaf,, sepal, etc., resembling the keel f a leus; orl)icular end com- pressed, but convex on both faces. Ligneous; woody; of a firm woody texture. Lignescent; becoming somewhat woody. Ligulate; strap-shaped or riband-shaped; flat and linear. Ligule; the usnallj^ membranous appendage at the base of" the leaf or summit of the sheath in the grasses. Limb ; the summit of a monosepalous calyx ; or the upper spreading part of a monopetalous corolla. Line; the twelfth part of an inch. Linear; of a uniform width ; long and narrow with par- allel sides. Linear lanceolate, etc. ; partaking of both forms, hut more of the latter. Lip; the upper or under division of a labiate flower; or the lower perianthsegmeut of many orchidaceous flowers. Lobe; the division or segment of a petal or leaf; the free portion of a gamopetalous corolla. Lobate. or lobed; cut or divided into lobes. Loc'ilicidal dehiscence ; when i he pericarp opens naturally on the back of a cell (i. e. at the dorsal suture) directly^ into the cavity. Loment; an indehiscent two or several-seeded legume, contracted between each seed, and flnally separating at the joint-like contractions. Lomintaceous legume, or pod; apod of two or more seeds,, with a joint-like contraction, or transverse partition, between the seeds. Longitudinal; lengthwise, parallel with the axif, or in a direction from the base towards the summit or apex. Lunate, or lunulate; having the figure of a new moon. Lutescent; yellowish. Lyrate; lyre-shaped, pinnatifid. with the terminal seg- ment largest and mostly rounded. Mamillate; conical, with a rounded apex. Marcescent; withering and shriveling on the stem, in- stead of falling off. Margin. The edge or circumference of a leaf or other expansion; also, the thin wing-like border of certain seeds, etc. Marginal; belonging to, or situated at the margin. BOTANY 138 BOTANY JUarglnate, or margined; having a border or edging of a texture or color diflferent from that of the disk; sur- roiiuded by a wing-like expansion, or narrow mem- brane. Medullary rays. Bands or thin plates of cellular tissue, which pass from the pith to the bark in woody stems. Melliferous ; producing or containing honey. Menibranaceous, or membranous; thin, flexible, and often slightly translucent. Jfericarp : a name given to the indehiscent carpel of the fjmbe I'fera. Micropyle; the small foramen or opening in the proper coats of a seed, to which the radicle always points. Midiib. The main central nerve of a leaf, apparently a continuation of the petiole. Monadelphous; having the filaments all united in one set, usually forming a tube. Monandrous ; bavins a single stamen. Mono; in composition; one or single. Moniliform; arranged like, or resembling the beads of a nerklace. Monoclinotts; having the stamens and pistils in the same flower. Monocotyledonous plants. Where the embryo has but a singhs li'be or cotyledon. Monograph. A description (usually ample and elaborate) of a single, thing, or class of things, as of a genus, tribe, or family, etc. Monogynous; having but one pistil. Monoecious, or monozcous; having staminate and pistillate flowert* distinct, but on the same plant. Monoeciously^ or monoicously polygamous; h-aving perfect and imperfect flowers on ihe same plant. Monopetalous ; having but one petal ; or more correctly, the petals united into one. (See Gamopet;ilous.) Monophyllous; consisting of a single leaf. MonosepalO'is ; consisting of one sepal, or rather, several sepals united more or Jess completely. (See Gamosep- alous.) .Mucronate; terminated by a mucro, or small projecting point, usually the prolongation of the midrib, in leaves. Mucronulate; having a small mucro, or terminal project- ins: point. Multijid; many-cleft: cut into numerous segments. Multiple. A number containiu'^ another number several times without a fraction, or remainder; as nine is a multiple of three. Multiple Uuits. When there is a combination of several flowers into one aggregate masa, as in the pine-apple, mulberry, etc. Mvricaie; armed or covered with short spreading points or acute excrescences, like a murex. Muiic, or mutico us ; awnless or pointless; the opposite of mncronate. Naked; destitute of the usual covering or appendage, as a stem without leaves or scales, leaves withoutpubes- cence, corolla without a calyx or crown, seeds without a pericarp, a receptacle without chafi" or haire, an umbel without an involucre, etc. Napiform; tnmip-shaped. Natural Order, family, or trib-*. An assoc'atinn or eronp of kindred generii, or of plants which are iK-arly related in their structure, and most importautcharacters. Nectariferous ; producing honey. Nectary. That organ, or portion of a flower which secretes honey; a term formerlv applied to all disguised ormod- ifiefi forms of petals and etamens. Nerved; having nerves or coarse rib-like fibres. Nerves. Rib-liku fihres (in leaves, etc.) which usually ex- tend from the base to, or towards, the apex. Neuter^ or neutral flower. Having neither stamen nor pistil. Nodding; turning downwards; somewhat drooping. Node. The Itnot, or solid and often tumid joint of a stem or branch. Nodose; having numerous nodes or tumid joints. Normal; according to rule ; agreeing with the pattern or type. Nuciform; nut-like; resembling a nut. Nvcte'ts. A central body; the seed or kernel of a nut. Nucules. Little nuts or nut-like fruit. N7jt. A hard one-celled indehisceut fruit, usually con- taining a single seed. Ob; a preposition which inverts the usual meaning of the word to which it is prefixed. 0')cornpressed alcenes (in the compositce). Flattish. with the greatest diameter from right to left, or with the flatted side to the front, or periphery of the head. Obconic; inversely conical: i. e. with the point or apex downwards. Obcordate; heart-form, with the siuus at summit, and the narrowed point at the place of insertion, Oblanceolate ; inversely lanceolate, or with the widest part above the middle, and tapering gradually to the base. 4)blique; a position between horizontal and erect; also descriptive of the base of a leaf, etc., when it is unequal or produced on one side. Oblong ; longer than wide, with the sides parallel, or nearly so. Obovate; inversely ovate, or with the broadest end above. Obovf'id; inversely ovoid. Obsolete ; indistinct, as if worn ont. Obtuse; blunt, or rounded. Obversely ; tamed contrary to the usual position. Ochrea. A membranous stipnlar sheath, emuracing the stem like a boot-legj as in polygonum, etc. Ochroleucous ; yellowish-white or cream colored. Octandrous ; having ei^ht stamens. Odd-pinnate leaf. Having the leaflets in opposite pairs, with a terminal odd one; often termed impari-pinnate. Officinal; used In, or belonging to, a shop, or medical office. , Oleraceous ; of the nature or quality of pot-herbs. Opaque; not transparent. Opercular; opening like a lid that is fixed by a hinge at one side. Opposite; sitnated directly against each other, or at the same height, on contrary sides of the stem. Orbicular; circular and flat, like a coin: the length and breadth equal and the circumference an even circular line : a term applied to leaves, or flatted bodies. (See Terete.) Order. A family or group of allied natnral objects; a subdivision of a class, embracing kindred genera. Ordinal; belonging to the orders, or to an order. Ordinal names. The names of the natural orders, or faoiilies of plants. Orthotropous ovule or seed. Straight; not curved, or turned from its original or natural directiun. Oval; longer than broad, with the two ends of equal breadth and curvature, and the sides curving from end to end. O^ary. The young seed-veBS''l, or fruit; the hollow por- tion at the base of the pistil, containing the ovules, or bodies destined to become seeds. Ovate; fiat, with the outline of a longitudinal section of an egg; a somewhat oval figure butbroadernearthebase. Ovate-lanceolate; lanceoliite, inclining to ovate at base. Ovate-oblong; oblong, with, an ovate dilatation near the base. Ovoid: egg-shaped; terete, and swelling near the base; i.e. having the outline of an entire egg. Ovoid-oblong ; the ovoid form lengthc-ed out. Ovules. The rudiments of future seeds, contained in the ovary, or young fruit. Palate. The prominence in the lower lip of a personate corolla. Palea (plural j^aZe^JB). C*>aff; a term applied to the inner, or immediate floral covering of the grasses. (.Corolla of ■ Linn.) (Sec Glumes.) Paleaceous; chaffy; of a chaffy texture, or furnished with chaff-like scales. Palmate; hand-shaped; deeply divided, with the seg- ments nearly equal and spreading like fingers on the open hand. Palmately veined, or cleft; having the veins or segments divergent, like the spreading fingers of an open hand. Panduriform; fiddle-shaped; oblong, with the sides con- tracted, like a violin. Panide. A loose, irregular, compound raceme, in which the peduncles are unequally elongated, and variously and irregularly subdivided, as in oats, etc. PanicPd, or panicula'e; disposed in the form of a panicle. Panilionaceous corolla. Butterfly-shaped; when coni- filete, consistinffof five petals, the upper one (mos.ly argest) called the vexlllum or banner, the two latera"! ones termed the alsB or wings, the two lower ones more or less cohering by their lower margins, and, from their form, denominated the keel. papillate^ or papillose; having the surface covered with fleshy dots, or points, lilie minute teats. Pappus, The crown of the fruit, being the segments, or free portion of an adherent calyx, in the compositce^ and some other plants, usually hairy-like or plumose, some- times in the form of minute chaff or scales. Parasite. A plant growing on, or deriving sustenance from, another plant: as dodder, mistletoe, etc. Parasitic; being, or relating to. a parasite. Parenchyma, The soft, spongy, cellular tissue (often green) which forms the pith or stems, the pulp of leaves and young fruit, and fills the interstices of woody or vascular fibres. Paries (plural, parieifis). The outside wall, or inclosing shell, which circumsrribes the cavity of a pericarp. Parietal; affixed to, or belonging: to, the paries or outer wall of the seed-cell of a pericarp. Parietal placenta. When the placentae are borne upon the walls, instead of the axis, of the ovary or pericarp. Parted; divided deeply, almost to the base. Partial; a term applied to constituent portioos of a com- pound whole. BOTANY 139 BOTANY Partition. (See Dissepiment.) Patelceformf in the form of little plates or clishes. Pectinate; tinely, regularly and deeply cleft, so as to re- semble the teeth of a comb. Peda'e leaf. Like a bird's foot; divided nearly to the petiole in narrow segments, with the lateral ones diverg- ing. Pedicel. A partial peduncle; the ultimate branch or division (next to the flower, or Iruit) in a compound inflorescence. Pedicellate; having, or being supported on a pedicel. Pednnde; a simple flower stem; also the common foot stalk, of a compound inflorescence. Pedunculate; having a peduncle; not sessile. Pellw d; transparent; pervious to light. Pelludd punctate; having punctures which permit light to pass through. Peltate; like a shield; having the foot stalk aflixed to the under surface, and not to the niargin. Pendl-form; resembling a painter's pencil or little brush. Pendulous; hanging down; attached at one end, and swingini^ looj*ely. Pendulous ovules or seeds; when their direction is down- wards. Penitillate: tipped or tufted with hairs, like a painter's pencil. jPenui-nerved leaf. Having the lateral nerves pinnately arranged, or feather-like. {See Feather-veined.) Pentagonal; having five angles or comers. Pentagynous; having five pistils. .Pentarherous; composed of five parts. Pentandrous; having five stamens. Pentanefalou^; having five petals. Penultimate: next to the last; the one next to the ter- minal one. Pepo; an indehiscent, fleshy or internally pulpy fruit, usually compO!=e.d of three carpels invested by the calyx tube, and with a firm rind, as the melon, etc. Percurrent; extending orrunningthe whole way through. Perennial; living more than two years, and for an indefi- nite period. Perfect flower; having both stamen and pistil (one or more of each), and producing fruit. perfoliate; having the stem apparently pierced through the leaf. Perianth; a term for the envelopes of a flower, where the calyx and corolla are not clearly distinguishable. Pericarp; the sted-vessel, or fruit; the ovary in a mature state. Perigonium; a name for the envelope of the flower; said to be double when there is both calyx and corolla, but often used synonymously with Perianth, which pee. Perigynium; the sac (formed by the union of two hract- let(*) which incloses the ovary of the C'ances. Perigynous petals and stamens. Inserted on the calyx. or rather, adhering to th« inner surface of the caiyx tube, and thus surrounding the pistils. Peripheric al, ' ^xed or coiled round the circumference, or periphery. Perisperm; a deposit In many seeds, affixed to, or sur- rounding, the embryo; synonymous with albumen, which see. Peristome; the circle of teeth or bristle-like pi'OcesRes which surround the orifice of the theca or capsule of the mosses. .Persistent; not falling off: remaining beyond the time when similar organs usually fall off .Personate corolla. Masked; having the throat closed by a prominent palate, a^^ in Linaria. petal. The (usually) delicat" colored flower leaf. In a flower of one petal (or united petals), the corolla anrl petal are the same : in a flower of more than one petal the corolla is the whole and the petals are the parts. Petaloid; petal-like; delicate and colored, or expanded, like a petal. Petiolar; seated on, or belonging to. the pet ol -'. Petiolate; having, or being supported on, a petiole; not sessile Petiole The stem or foot-stalk of a leaf, Petiolulate, having a partial or subdivided petiol ■, PetUlule. A little or partial petiole; the foot-stalk of n leaflet Phomogamous, or phanerogamous; having visible genu- ine stamens or pistil-; bearing true flowers. Phyllodium. The imitation, analogue, or substitute of a leaf, usually the dilated foliaceous petiole of an abortive compound leaf. , , , ..,_ ■,- x- *. Pilose; hairy: composed of, or clothed with, distinct, straightish hairs. . , ^ ^ - ■ . ^ p PitiThCB The paired or opposite leaflets of a pinnate leaf. Pin-nate leaf; having distinct articulated leaflety in pairs, on opposite sides of a simple petiole. Pinnakm leaf, or frond. Cleft in a pinnate manner, but the segments united or confluent at base. pinnatijidly ; in a pinnatifid manner. Pinnatisect; pinnately dissected or divided, but the seg- ments not articulated with the petiole. Pinnules, The leaflets or subdivisions of a hi- tri- or mul- ti-pinnate leaf, or frond. Pistil. The central organ of a fertile flower, consisting usually of ovary, style, and stigma; sometimes the style is wanting, or, in other words, the stigma is sessile. Pistillate flowers. Those which have pistils, but not stamens. Pistilliferous ; bearing pistils. Pitted; having small shallow depressions. Placenta (plural, placentoi). That part of a pericarp to which the seeds are attached; the line or ridge project- ing in the cavity of the ovary, which bears the ovules. Placental; pertaining to the placenta. Placentiferous ; bearing the placenta. Plane; flat, and with an even surf ce. plano-convex; flat on one side and convex on the other. Plicate; plaited; folded or crimped, like a fan or ruffle. Plumose; feather-like. A pappus is plumose, when each hair has other hairs arranged on opposite sides of it; as in ciraium. Pod. A dry seed-vessel, narrow and more or less elon- gated, and usually of two valves. The term is often applied indiscriminately to both legumes and siliques. Pollen; the fertilizine powder contained in the anthers. Pollen-masses or Pollinia. The waxy masses of pollen in the Asclepias and Orchis families. Poly; in composition, many. Polyadelphous ; having the filaments united in three or more parcels. Polyanarous; having more than ten hypogynone stamens. Poly CO tyledo nous; having many seed-leaves. Polygamo-dioecious, or dioicous : bavins: perfect and im- perfect (or fertile and sterile) fiowers on distinct plants. Polygamous; having some fiowers perfect, and others either staminate, pistillate, or neuter. Polygynous; when the pistils are numerous or indefinite. Polymorphous ; variable, assuming, or apt to assume, many different forms. Polypetalous; having many distinct petals, or at least more than one, Po ysepalous; having many distinct sepals, or more than one. Pom^. An apple; a fleshy fruit formed of several cartil- aginous or bony carpels, imbedded in pulp and invested by the tube of the adherent calyx. Pores; small holes, or tubular openings. Porous ; full of holes, cells, or tubular openings. Prcemorse; end-hitten; ending blunt, aw if bitten off. precocious flowers ; appearing before the leaves. Prickle. A sharp process arising from the bark only, and not originating in the wood. Primary; first in a series in order of time, or in impor- tance, opposed to secondary. Primordial; flrst in order; usually applied to the first genuine leaves, or those which are next above the cotyle- dons or seminal leaves. Prismatic; like a prism; having several angles and inter- mediate fiat faces. Process. A protuberance, eminence, or projecting part. Procumbent ; lying on the ground without putting forth roots. Produced; extended, or lengthened out. Proliferous; producing its like in an unusual way, aa lateral bulbs; or putting forth a young and unusual accessory growth, from the centre of an umbel, flower, etc. Prostrate; lying flat, or close on the ground. Pruinose; covered with a glaucous mealiness, like a plum. Pseudo pinnate ; falsely or imperfectly pinnate ; the leaflets (or rathtT se^mt^nts) not articulated at base. (See Pin- natisect. ) Puberulent; covered with a minute, short and fine pu- bescence. Pubescence. A general term for the hairy covering of plants. Pubescent; clothed ^ith hairs, especially with short weak hairs. Pulp. A soft, fleshy or juicy mass. Pulverulent; dusty; composed of, or covered with a fine powdnr. Punctate ; appearing as if pricked full of small holes, or covered with indented points. Puncficulate ; having very minute punctures, or indented points. Pungent' sharp-pointed, prickly at apex; also acrid. Pyramidal; tapering upwards; usually applied to four- sided solids which diminish to the apex. Pyriform. nhapedlike a pear; largest at the upper end. Quadrangular; four-angled. (^adi^farious; in four rows or directions; facing or pointing four ways. Quadrifld; four-cleft. BOTANY 140 BOTANY Quafemate; four together; arranged in fours. Quina e; five togetht-r; arranged in fives. Race oi" plauts. A fixed or peculiar form or modification, produced by ihe crossing or blending of distinct varie- ties ; or eometiuies, perhaps, accidental forms rendered permanent by culture or other Influence.^. Raceme. A mode of flowering, in which the common peduncle is elongated, with the flowere on short lateral simple pudicels. Racemose; having the flowers iu racemes. Rachisx or rfiachis. The common peduncles or elongated receptacle, on which florets are collected in a spike; also the midrib of a pinnatisect frond. Radiate; having rays {i. e. spreading ligulate florets) at the circumference; a-i the heads of many Compo.->it£e. Radiate-veined; whtre the veins of a leaf diverge from a common ciiutre, or point, at the summit of the petiole. Radiatiform; a term applied to heads of compound flowei-s in which all the florets are ligulate, and directed towards the circumfereuce. Radical; belonging to, or growing immediately from, the ro 't Radicating; sending out roots, or striking root at the nodes. Radicle. Alittleroot; thesleuderfibrous branch of aroot. Rameal; oertaming or belonging to the branches. Ramijication. The branching or division of an organ into several parts. Ramose; branching. Rank. A row, or arranr -nent in a line. Raphe. The line, or liule ridge, on one side of anat- ropons ii. e. iuverted) ovules and seeds, formed by the adhesion of a portion of the funiculus. Ratoon (Span, retono). A sprout from the root of a plant wiiich has been cut ofi (chiefly used in reference to th ■ sugar-cane. Rays, The spreading ligulate florets round the disk of a compound flower; al-o the footstalks, and enlarged ma ginal flowers of an umbel. Receptacle. The apex of the peduncle (much dilated in the Compositce,) on which the parts of a flower (or entire florets) are inserted; the seat of the fruit, or of seeds and their equivalents. Recurved; curved backwards. Rejle'-ed; bent or doubled backwards. Regular; having the parts uniform and equal among tnems^lves; as the lobes or petals of a corolla. Remote; seated or growing at an unusual distance. Re -i form; kidney-shaped. Repand; ha\iQg the margin slightly indented with shal- low smuf=es. Replicate; folded back on itself. Replum. A name given to parietal placentse when sep- arated from the valves; also, the persistent border of a fallon legume. Resujnnate; turned upside down. Reticulate; netted; having xeins or nerves crossing each other, or branching and reuniting like network. Retrorse, or retrorsely; pointing backwards or down- wards. Retuae; having a shallow einus at the end. Revoluie; rolled backwards or outwards. Rhizoma. A root-stuck, or root-like subterraneous stem. Rhombic., or rhomboid, rhomb-shaped; having four sides, with unequal angles. Ribbed; having ribs, or longitud'nal parallel ridges. Ribs. Parallel ridires, or nerves, extending from the base to. or toward-, the apex. Rigid; atifE, inflexible, or not pliable. Ringent; gaping, with an open throat. Root-stock. (See Rhizoma.) Rostra'e; beaked; having a process resembling the beak of a bird. Rosulate; in a rosette; arranged in circular series, like the petals "f a d<'uble rose. Rotate on-Ua. Wheel-.«haped; monopetalous (or gam- opetalons) and spreading almost flat, with a very short tune. Rough; covered with dots, points, or short hairs, which are harsh to the touch. Round; circular, oi- globular; not angular. (See Globose, Orbicular, and Terete.) Rudiment. An imperfectly developed organ. Ruff-sce t; becoming reddish-brown, or rust-colored. Rufous; reddish-brown, or rust colored. Rugose; wrinkled. Rug 'dose; finely wrink'ed. Rumina'ed ; a term applied to a variegated albumen ; i. e., when its substance is wrinkled or plicate, and the in- vesti'g membrane prolonged within the folds. Runci"ate: repembling the teeth of amill-saw; somewhat pinnatifld, with the segments acute and pointing back- wards. Runn''r. A slender shoot, producing roots and leaves at the end, only, and at that point giving rise to another plant; exemplified in the strawberry plants. Sac. A membranous bag, or boundary of a cavity. Saccatf; having, or being in the iorm of, a sac, or pouch. Sagittate; arrow-shaped; notched at base, with the lobes- (and frequently the sinus; acute. 8alver-form, or s Iver-shaped; tubular; with the limb- abruptly and flatly or horizontally expanded. Samara. . A kind of akene, or dry indehiscent pericarp,, having a winged apex, or margin, as the maple, ash,. elm. etc. Samaroid; winged or margined like a samara. Sarcocarp. The fleshy portion of a pericarp (ex. gr. of a drupe) between the epicarp and the endocarp. Sarmentobc; having, or sending forth, or being in the form of runners. Scabrous; rough, with little points, or hairs. Sca'es. Small thin plates, or leai-like processes; also the- leaflet-^ of the involucre, in the CompOiiitoi. Sea-dent: climbing, usually by means of tendrils. Scape. A peduncle proceeding directly from the root, and mostly naked. Scarions; dry and skinny, generally transparent. Scaterel; disposed or distributed thinly, without any regular order. Scorpioid inflorescence: rolled back from the apex (circi- nate) before development. Scrohiculate ; having the surface excavated into little pits,. or hollows. Scvtellati ; shaped like, or resembling, a target or shield. Seam. (See Suture.) Secu d; one ranked; all seated on, or turned to, the same side. Seed; the matured ovule, with the embryo, or young plant, formed within it. Segment. The division, or separated portion, of a cleft calyx, leaf, etc. Semi; half ; as semi-bivalved, half-two-valved, semi- terete, half round, etc. Sempervirent; always green; living through the winter, and retaining its verdure. Sepal. The leaflet, or distinct portion of a calyx. Sepaloid; resembling sepals: green and not petal like. Septicidal dehiscence. When a compound pericarp opens by splitting the dissepiments; i. e. the carpels separate - from each other, and open to the seeds by the ventral suture. Septiferous; bearing a septum. Septifragal dehiscence. When the dissepiments remain attached to the axis, while the valves break away from them. Septum. The partition which divides the cells of fruit. Sericeous; silky; covered with soft, smooth, glossy ap- pressed hairs. Series. A division or comprehensive group of objects in natural h' story; also, a continued succession of things- of the same order. , Serrate; sawed; having sharp teeth on the margin, point- ing towards the apex. Strraturee. The teeth, or sharp segment^ of a serrate mar-^in. . Serrulate,' finely serrate; having small teeth or serratures.. Sessile; sitting closely; without any foot btalk o- pedicel. Seta (plural, set(£). A bristle; a stiffish elaetichair. Any slender or Dristle-like body. Setaceous; bristle-like; resembling a bristle in size and figure. Setose; bristly; having the surface covered with bristles. Sheath. A membranous expansion which is tubular, or convolute, and inclosing or embracing a stem. Shea hed; inclosed or embraced by a sheath. Sheathing; embracing the stem with a sheath. Shining; glossy, smooth and bright. Shrub. A small wood^ plant, branching near the ground, often without any principal stem. Shrubby; hard and woody; of the textiire and size of a. shrub. Silicle. A little or short silique, nearly as wide af> long. Siligne. A long slender pod, or membranous 8eed-ve^'sel! of two valves, having the seeds fixed alternately along: both sutures. Silinuose; having siliqnes, or resembling a silique. Simple; undivided: not branched; not compound. Sirrvple umbel. When each ray terminates in a single : flower, instead of a secondary or pai tial umbel. Sinuate; having sinuses, scaliops, or gashes which are- open and nmnded at bottom. Sinuate-dentate^ Sinuate-serrate; having teeth, or ser- ratures. with the clefts or openings rounded at bottom. Sinus. An opdn notch; arounded inci6i< n, or scallop. Solitary; standing alone; one only in aplace^ Spadix. A sort of dense flowered, fleshy or club-like- spike, usually enveloped by, or proceeding from, a sheathing involucre called a spathe. Snan; a measure of nine inches. Spathaceous; having a spHthe, nr resembling a spathe. Spathe. A sheathing kind of bract, common calyx, _or- iuvolucre, open on one side, often containing the spadix- BOTANY 14:1 BOTANY Spathulate^ or spatulaie; like a spatula; obovate-oblong, or larger and rounder at the end, and tapering to the buse. Species. The lowest permanent division of natural ob- jects, in II aysteniatic arrangement; a group comprising all similar ludividuuls. Specific; belonging to, or distinguishing the species. Sphaielate; dark colored, as if gangrenous, or dead. Sph gaous; full of boij-moss, or t-phagnum. Spicate; iu the form, ur after the niaunerof a spike. Spi 1 a '$ Eh i 1 9 .9 il 220 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 3 1 1 2 1 2 2 5 6 3 3 6 it 14 18 32 35 39 47 54 66 74 60 52 42 45 23 16 10 8 7 6 2 1 1 1 3 1 1 i" i 1 "2 " i ' 1 ' i" i" 1 1 ■ 226 233 1 1 234 235 239 242 1 245 246 2 248 250 252 2 1 253 . 254 255 2 1 2 1 1 2 257 258 259 262 263 266 268 « 2 '"2" 6 1 a ■"2" 7 10 11 16 15 20 28 30 33 29 22 25 13 20 10 6 1 1 3 2 1 "i" 1 3 1 1 269 i 1 1 1 1 B 2 6 2 4 11 20 18 20 24 33 43 88 27 28 25 13 H 9 7 4 4 1 1 1 270 271 273 "1" 1 273 274.... .. . 275 276 217 278 279 280 "i" 1 3 1 1 "i' 1 2 2 281 . 1 282 283 284 285 2 286 287 288 289 290 292 293 294 295 296 297 299 .. . 304 305 306 313 Thus it will be seen that no person can hope to succeed in the breeding of fine stock of any kind except he carefully study form, action, characteristics, the anatomy and physiology of the animals to be bred, together with the pe- culiarities desired to be perpetuated or to be avoided. Even in the breeding of cold-blooded BREWING animals, misnomer, but -whicli has been used by breeders, to designate especially among horses, those whose pedigrees can not be traced, and which have come of sires and dams of the mixed breed of a country. The careful breeder, may do much to improve the quality of his stock by selecting superior and well formed animals to breed from. Yet in this day, it will be to him a losing game, since breeds of all farm animals are now so superior, that the special characteristics required may be more easily and more cheaply secured, by the purchase of improved sires and dams than to spend generations of time in secur- ing improvement by breeding up from inferior animals. BBE WINGr. This is tlie process of obtaining the saccharine solution from malt, or other mat- ters, and converting this solution into spirituous liquors, ale, porter, or beer. There is little doubt of the antiquity of this art. The Egyp- tians are said to have been the inventors of beer. The early (Germans and the Saxon forefathers were as fond of beer as the modern citizens. The English process is as follows : In the grind- ing of the malt, as in many other parts of brew- ing, some prefer it ground between stones, others crushed by rollers; some prefer a fine grist, others a coarse one. The mashing may be performed in a vessel of wood, with a false bot- tom pierced full of holeS; on this bottom the malt is laid ; the water is then admitted, which, for pale ale, or pale spirits, should be of the temperature of from 170° to 185°, according to the quantity mashed; the heat being increased as the mass diminishes. For porter, not higher than 165°, or lower than 156^ For the second mash an increased temperature of 15° or 20° will be advisable. For the first mash, for every quarter, twenty-eight pounds of malt, a barrel and a half of water may be used, and the grist well mixed with tlie water. The mash is per- mitted to rest for some time, and then allowed to run off into an under-tank, whence it is pumped into the boiler, where it is raised to the boiling temperature. When the woi't is suf- ficiently drained from the mash-tub, another portion of hot water is added for a second mash. The hops are next added, and tlie boiling is completed, which in general requires an hour and a half, or until the wort breaks bright from the hops, when a sample is taken from the cop- per. The wort is let off into coolers — either of wood or iron — where, when sufficiently cooled, or else in proper fermenting tuns, the yeast or barm is added. The fermentation speedily be- gins, and when it is thought that a sufficient quantity of alcohol is fonned, the fermentation is stopped, and the yeast is separated by running it into smaller vessels, and skimming off the barm; or else by allowing it to run off from the bung-holes of the casks, which are, for this pur- pose, kept completely filled. A small portion of salt is commonly added, and occasionally, es- pecially by the professional brewer, a portion of isinglass or other finings. In all these opera- tions cleanliness is a most essential part, for without this it is impossible to have good beer. The quantity of hops to be added varies with the quality of the beer. Four pounds to the quarter of malt is sufficient for beer for present use, and from this to twenty-eight pounds have been used for beer for long keeping. The tem- perature of the fermentation should range be- 153 BRITTLE-HOOP tween 56° and 63°. Not more than 60° for ale wort, nor more than 62° for porter. Great care should be taken to have good, sound, healthy, and new yeast, and of this about two pounds per barrel are commonly needed. Good malt and hops, of course, are requisite; but the qual- ity of the water is not of so much consequence as is very often considered to be the case. Some of the best ales in England are brewed either with soft or with hard water, and from rivers, or springs, or ponds. The quantity of alcohol, upon an average, in brown stout is about 6.80, in ale 8.88, and in small beer from two to three per cent. The specific gravity of the wort, when it is placed in the fermenting vessels, varies from 1.060, when it contains 1425 percent, of solid matter, to 1 127, when it contains 28.2 per cent. That of small beer varies from 1.015 to 1.040, the first containing about 3 5 per cent, of solid matter, the latter about 9.5 per cent. The chief use of the hops is to communicate the peculiar . bitter fiavor from the oil which is contained in them ; partly to hide the sweetness of the sac- charine matter, and partly to coupteract the tendency which wort has to run into acidity. Hops are by no means the only bitter which may be made use of for preparing and flnvoring ales. Mixtures, in various proportions, of worm- wood, powdered bitter oranges, gentian root, and the rind of Seville oranges, will afford an excellent bitter, and are often used in home brewing, as were grounding by the Saxons -be- fore the introduction of hops. Strasburg beer, which is much prized on the continent, owes much of its excellence to the use of avens (Oeum urbanum). A good beer can be produced from potatoes grated to a pulp, mixed with barley malt. In Ireland beer is made from parsnips. Cane sugar or glucose (fourteen pounds of cane sugar dissolved in ten gallons of boiling water, with one and one-half pounds of hops) is said to make excellent beer. The beer made in thisway. is pale colored, but color may be given readily by scorched sugar (caramel). Beer has also been made from mangel-wurzel 150 pounds, and one pound of hops in sixteen gallons of water. It may also be made from the various cereal grains, and even from Indian corn. BRICK. (See Brick Earth.) BRICK EARTH. Any stiff clay containing^ fifty to seventy per cent, of real clay, and the rest sand . Bricks are made from various colored clays, the presence pf iron making the brick red. Exceeding fine cream-colored bricks are- made from a silicious clay found near Milwaukee, Wisconsin. BRIMSTONE. Roll sulphur, made by melt- ing and casting common sulphur. BRININtr GRAIN, Is the practice of steep- ing it in pickle, in order to prevent smut and other diseases. The steep is made with common salt and water, of sufficient strength to float an egg; or of sea-water, with salt added to it till it is of the requisite strength. The seed should b& well stin-ed in -the brine; thus the light grains rise to the surface, and are skimmed off; the- rest is put to drain, and air-slaked lime sifted upon it ; after being carefully mixed, and when a little dried, it is sown. Urine, kept until stale, is used in the same manner; but the seed should be sown at once Brining seed- wheat is a pre- vention of smut — a isarasitic fungus. BRITTLE HOOF. An affection of the horse's BROOM-CORN 153 BROOM-CORlSr hoof, the result of bad stable management. A mixture of one part of oil of tar and two of neatsfoot oil, well rubbed into the crust and the hoof, will restore the natural pliancy and tough- ness of the horn, and contribute to the quickness of its growth BRIZA. The generic name of the Quaking- grass {B. media). It is of no agricultural value . BROMINE. A brown fluid extracted from salt-water and sea-weeds. It is vcrj' similar to chlorine in its properties BROMUS. The genus of Brome-grasses (B. secalinvs) is the well-known Cheat, or Chess. (See Chess; also Grasses.) BRONCHIA. The ramification of the wind- pipe in the lungs. BRONCHII'IS. A disease in horses. A catarrh extending beyond the entrance of the lungs. The symptoms are quick and hard breathing, peculiar wheezing, and coughing up mucus The chronic form is difficult to cure. Acute bronchitis is relieved by soothing applica- tions to the throat, and such drinks as would be good for a common cold. BRONCHOTOMY. The operation of open- ing the trachea low down, BROOM CORN. A plant of the genus sor- ghum, a native of India, and cultivated for its branching panicles; almost universally used now in the manufacture of brooms for sweeping and whisks for brushing clothes. The plants of this genus are all more or less rich in saccharine matter. Sugar sorghum, of which broom corn has been said to be a representative type, is now extensively cultivated in many of the States north and south, for its syrup and sugar. The cultivation of broom corn for its heads has of late years become an extensive industry in a number of Western States, principally in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa and Kansas. The intro- duction of broom corn, as a cultivated plant in the United States is attributed to Dr. Franklin. Having seen an imported whisk broom in the hands of a lady of Philadelphia, he found a seed adhering to one of the straws and planted it. From this originated the industry in the United States. The cultivation is principally like that of Indian corn. The hills vary from three feet apart each way, to three and a half feet one way, by two feet the other way. It is also sown in drills ; but in the West this is not much practised, since it adds to the cost of culti- vation and handling. In the West less hand hoe- ing is required than in the Eastern States, but in the West the cultivation is not considered re- munerative except when raised in large fields, with ample shed-room for drying, and presses for baling, .since so much depends >ipon the manner in which it is placed in the market. The brush must always be cut before the seed is fully formed, usually when in the soft dough state. The Country Oentleman describes the manner of cultivation East as follows ; Good crops of broom corn may be raised, with proper care and atten- tion, on any clean fertile land where Indian corn will succeed well. River flats are particularly well adapted to it, provided the nature of tlie soil or the situation gives them a good natural drainage. Uplands should be well underdrained if the subsoil is retentive of water. Drained muck beds are more liable to frost, are not com- pact enough, and are not well adapted to the culture of this crop. As the plants appear small and feeble at first, and are easily choked by an over-growth of weeds, it is more important that the soil should be clean than for the culture of common corn ; and, as compleie success depends on fertility, more pains should be taken to have everything just right. A crop of broom corn, it is true, may be raised with a moderate degree of care and attention ; but the yield will be moderate, and perhaps it may prove a losing afEair In order to obtain the highest net profit, let everything be done in the most perfect manner. If the land is not perfectly clean, the best way will, doubtless, be to plant on a freshly inverted sod — a clover sod being decidedly the best, especially if the land is inclining to be heavy. The roots of the clover will loosen it in a better manner than plowing or harrowing alone can accomplish. An excellent mode is to spread old manure, the seeds of which have been killed by fermentation, or any other manure that is clear of foul weeds, on the clover the previous summer or early in autumn. Late in autumn or early in winter will be better than spreading in spring. The manure will soak into the soil during the several months before plowing, and become better diffused than could be accomplished by any plowing or har- rowing. The time for planting is about the same as for common corn — as early as will do to escape spring frosts. Before planting, let the soil be made perfectly mellow, and if to be in hills, mark out so that they may be as near together as will admit of convenient cultivation. The nearer they are together, or in other words, the more evenly and uniformly the plants are distributed over the surface, the greater will be the yield of brush. A common distance of hills is two and a half to three feet one way, and twenty inches to two feet the other. If planted in drills, a larger crop may be obtained, as a greater number of stalks will grow, but they are attended with more labor. The number of plants may be about three times as great as for Indian corn. If a larger quantity of seed is planted, so as to require some thinning out, the crop will be more even and larger, but will need a greater expenditure of work. It is common to plant a dozen or more seeds in each hill, about an inch deep, and thin out to seven or eight — leaving a larger number if the hills stand two by three feet than if twenty by thirty inches. Drills are often placed only twenty-eight inches, apart. Many regard the finer and softer brush of thick growth as best. The cultivation of the ground should be commenced as soon as the plants make their appearance. It is very im- portant that they be not allowed to become en- cumbered or crowded with weeds. Keep the whole surface perfectly clean from the very start. Continue the horse cultivation once a week, as long as the size of the plants will admit. This is not generally attended to, but the constant stirring of the surface and breaking of the crust will make an important difference in the amount of the crop. When the stalks have sufficiently grown, or when the seeds are in the milk state, the breaking back is performed. It is done at a convenient height for the operator, generally so as to leave a foot or two of stalk from the base of the brush. Two rows are brok™ towards each other, so as to admit a ready passage be- tween the other two. The seed being rather diffi- cult to cure by drying, some cultivators give no attention to saving it, especially as it often fails to ripen at the North except in favorable seasons. BRUCHUS 154 BUCKWHEAT If the stalks are broken back a little earlier, they form a better brush. In a few days they are cut, just above the break, and laid in bunches to dry. These must not be opened, to become wet by rain, as this would injure their value. The seed arc removed by hand, with a sort of coarse comb, wliere the plantations are not large ; but . when the crop is cultivated on an extensive scale, it is done with a maehine driven byhorse-power. Tlie brush or tops are dried by laying them on horizontal poles, and successive tiers placed one above the other, leaving spaces for the air be- tween each. Sheds or lofts may be used for this purpose. Temporary structures for drying are made of rails, the brush being laid on pairs of rails placed horizontally, so as to form a structure twelve feet square, or equal to the length of the rails, and each successive tier formed by resting the horizontal rails on an additional rail placed under each of their ends. By selecting the larger rails for one side, this side gradually becomes higher than the other, and admits a board roof for the top when the height has reached eight or ten feet. The quantity of brush yielded from an acre is usually about five or six hundred pounds, but, in rare instances, it has reached as high as a thousand pounds. The price varies from five to ten cents. There is more uncer- tainty with this crop than with many others — not on account of the difficulty of raising, for with proper care it is reasonably certain, but from the uncertain or fluctuating character of the market. With the seed, especially, this un- <;ertainty is great. Sometimes it is sold as high as three or four dollars per bushel; at other times for not more than fifty cents. The seed may, however, be profitably used as food for horses when mixed with oats or other grain. When the seed is not allowed to mature, several successive crops have been grown on the same ground with- out detriment, and with moderate manuring. BROOM-GrRASS. Andropogon purpurescens, A. furcatum, or forked spike-grass, and^l. nutans, •or beard-grass, are well known species. (See Grflsscs ) BROWN DYES. The commonest are the de- •coctions of oak bark, common bastard marjoram, walnut peels, hor.se-chestnut peels and catechu. O.ik bark and walnut give dyes without mordants, but are brightened by alum. Catechu (one pound) combined with blue vitriol (four ounces) gives bronze when used in a boiling solution. The tints of brown are, however, so numerous that it is more common to use madder as a basis for the red tints, fustic for the yellows, and use solution of iron and copper as mordants, and even a gallnut bath afterward, to reach the proper shade. Dye- ing is now but little practised as a household art. BROWSE. The young branches of trees, .shrubs, etc. , upon which stock sometimes feed. BRUCHUS. A Linnaean genus of coleopter- ous insects, which deposit their eggs in the young grains or seeds of leguminous plants; a small family of under-sized beetles, always less than a quarter, and sometimes of one-eighth of an inch in length. Dr. Le Baron, says the only tetram- erous beetles with which they could be confound- ed are the Curculionidse and the Chrysomelidse ; but they differ from the former by having the labrum and palpi of the ordinary fonn and the head is but little prolonged anteriorly; and they differ ffom the great majority of the latter in their short, serrate atennae, and in having the tip PEA-WEEVI!,. of the abdomen uncovered by the elytra. The family contains but a few genera, and all our in- jurious species belong to the genus Bruchus. The most notorious species are Pea-weevil (Bra- cAwspm,) the Bean-weevil {B. obsoletus,) the Grain- bruclius (B. grana/i-ius). The latter is a Eu- ropean species which has been imported in small numbers into this country. The time of the hatching of the eggs is when the seeds have approach- ed to maturity, and then the larvse begin to feed upon them. The pea i ll ^lli^^ K and bean wee- vil are well known forms of this genus; also some grain weevils They may be destroyed by fumigating the seed with sulphurous fumes. The cut shows the pea weevil, a beetle, enlarged; the natural size at the left. Also a pea showing the charac- teristic mark of the insect. BRUCIA. A vegetable alkaloid, similar to strychnine, and poisonous. BRUSH DRAINS. Placing bushes or brush in the water-way of drains; the tops should be with the current. It answers well enough for ten or twelve years, but is not so permanent as other means. In laying the brush, the buts should lap over the previous layer, so when pressed down, they will be higher than the ends of the branches. BRYONY. Bi-yonia dioica. A climbing herb, poisonous, used in medicine. BUCK. The male of deer, rabbits, etc. The male of sheep is sometimes, but incorrectly, so denominated. BUCK-BEAN. Menyanthestrifoliata'. A swamp plant, with handsome flowers and bitter .leaves. The latter are used as a substitute for hops, and are a mild tonic. BUCK-EYE. Two western trees bear this name, the Pavia lutea and Ohioenm; they belong to the same family as the Horse-chestnut, which see. They are wholly ornamental, the wood be- ins of no value as timber. BUCK-THORN. Rhamnus catharticus. A thorned shrub. The berries are cathartic and griping. The R. infectanim, a similar shrub, pro- duces the famous French or Persiiin yellow ber- ries used in dyeing. The latter is not hardy north of Washington. BUCKWHEAT. Fagopyrum esculentum. A plant delighting in sandy soils, but growing tolerably on quite poor sands, and valued for its flour, of which the well-known buckwheat cakes are made. Its flowers are a favorite resort of tne honey-bee from the abundance of saccharine they contain. The seeds are small, dark, and angular, yielding from ten to forty bushels per acre, ac- cording to soil and season, since it does not set its seeds until cool nights occur. It is a native of Persia and the first frost kills it. In the North it is sown from the middle of June to July first, according to the latitude, and cut when in full bearing, or immediately at the occurrence of frosts. It is then set up in windrows, without tying in bundles, and threshed immediately when dry. The seed is borne at the end of delicate BUDDING 155 BUDDING filaments, and hence it must be handled care- fully, when dry, to prevent shelling. The -quantity sown per acre varies from two to four pecks, three pecks being the usual quantity. As a fallow crop, buckwheat may be used with economy, since it grows quickly and produces a thick mass of herbage, which should be plowed under as soon as it is in blossom. A crop once ^own, and allowed to ripen, often re-seeds the w BUCKWHEAT STALK, FLOWERS AND LEAVES. soil, and hence many farmers object to it as a crop. Like peas, it is valuable as a crop to ■entirely shade the ground, and to be plowed under when in blossom. Buckwheat is rich in starch and albumen, and its ash is rich in potash and lime. In Germany, malt is made of the grain, and it is extensively used, wherever cul- tivated, as food for fowls. The Silver Hulled, or Silver Skin, all things considered, is the best variety, being prolific and making excellent flour. The composition of the green stalks, by analysis, is as follows : Water 82.5 Stiirch 4.7 Woody fibre 10.0 Albumen * 0.2 Gums, etc 2.6 100.0 The composition of the ripe grain in constit- uents, and also economically, is as follows : Water 14.0 Gluten 9.0 Starch 48.0 Gum 2.5 Sugar 2.5 Fat 1.6 Woody fibre 20.8 Mineral matter 1.6 100.0 Or, economically: Water ■ 14.0 Flesh-formei's 9.0 Fat-formers 52 1 Accessories 23.3 Mineral matter 1.6 100.0 BUD. A term made use of in some districts of England, for a weaned calf of the first year, from the horns then beginning to bud or shoot. In plants, the germ and envelopes for the suc- ceeding years' growth. BUDDINGr. Budding is not now practised .to so great an extent as formerly, since with ordinaiy fruits, especially the pip fruits, grafting is fully as good, and very much faster, especially since the introduction of improved gi'afting im- plements. Budding, sometimes called inoculat- ing, is the insertion of a single eye or bud under the bark, and is practised with the peach and other stone fruits, and in the multiplication of varieties, when the economy of buds is an object. It is also practised by florists, more especially with roses and all that class of stock. Among the advantages of this method is, under expert hands, certainty of growth and rapid perform- ance. It may be practised during a long season, according to the variety of trees and plants to be operated upon. Upon this subject Dr. Warder says: It has been claimed on behalf of the process of budding, that trees, which have been worked in this method, are more hardy and better able to resist the severity of winter than others of the same varieties, which have been grafted in the root or collar, and also that budded trees come sooner into bearing. Their general hardiness will probably not be at all affected by their manner of propagation ; except, perhaps, where tlieie may happen to be a marked difference in the habit of the stock, such, for instance, as maturity early in the season, which would have a tendency to check the late growth of the scion placed upon it — the supplies of sap being diminished, instead of continuing to flow into the graft, as it would do from the roots of the cutting or root-graft of a variety which was inclined to make a late autumnal growth. Prac- tically, however, this does not have much weight, nor can we know, in a lot of seedling stocks, which will be the late feeders, and which will go into an early summer rest. Mr. A. R. Whitney, of Franklin Grove, 111., a thor- oughly observing man and successful orchardist, holds that certain varieties of our cultivated fruits are found to have a remarkable tendency to make an extended and very thrifty growth, which, continuing late in the autumn, would appear to expose the young trees to a very severe trial upon the access of the first cold weather, and we often find them very seriously injured under such circumstances; the bark is frequently split and niptured for several inches near the ground. The twigs, still covered with abundant foliage, are so afEected by the frost that their whole outer surface is shriveled, and the inner bark and wood are browned ; the latter often becomes permanently blackened, and re- mains as dead matter in the centre of the tree, for death does not necessarily ensue. Intelligent nurserymen have endeavored to avoid losses from these causes by budding such varieties upon strong, well-established stocks, though they are aware that these are not more hardy than some of the cultivated varieties; a given num- ber of seedling stocks has been found to suffer as much from the severity of winter as do a similar amount of the grafted varieties taken at random. In relation to the philosophy of bud- ding, and its similarity to grafting. Dr. Warder s;iys, the latter process is performed when the plant life is almost dormant, and the co-apted parts are ready to take the initiative steps of vegetation, and to effect their union by means of new adventitious cells, before the free flow of sap in the growing season. Budding, on the contrary, is done in the height of that season, and toward its close, when the plants are full of BUDDING 156 BUDDING well matured and highly organized sap, when the cell circulation is most active, and the union between ihe parts is much more immediate than in the graft ; were it not so, indeed, the little shield, with its actively evaporating surface, of young bark, must certainly perish from exposure to a hot, dry atmosphere. The cambium, or gelatinous matter, which is discovered between the bark and the wood when they are separated, is a mass of organizable cells. Budding is most successfully performed when this matter is abundant, for then the vitality of the tree is in greatest degree of exaltation. Mr. A. T. Thom- son, in his lectures on the Elements of Botany, says: The individuality of buds must have been suspected -as early as the discovery of the art of budding, and it is fully proved by the dissection of plants Budding is founded on the fact that the bud, which is a branch in embryo, is a distinct individual. It is essential that both the bud and the tree into which it is inserted, shoxild not only be analogous in their character, as in grafting with the scion, but both must be in a state of growth at the time the operation is performed. The union, how- ever, depends much more upon the bud than upon the stock — the bud may be considered a centre of vitality — vegetative action commences in the bud and extends to the stock, connecting them together. The vital energy, however, which commences the process of organization in the bud, is not necessarily confined to the germ, nor distinct from that which maintains the growth of the entire plant; but it is so connected with organization, that, when this has pro- ceeded a certain length, the bud may be re- moved from the parent and attached to another, where it will become a branch the same as if it had not been removed. The season for budding is usually in midsummer and the early part of autumn, reference being had to the condition of the plants to be worked ; these should be in a thrifty, growing state, the woody fibre should be pretty well advanced, but growth by exten- sion must still be active, or the needful con- ditions will not be found. The cambium must be present between the bark and the wood of the stock, so that the former can be easily separated from the latter; in the language of the art, the bark must "run;" this state of things will soon cease in most stocks, after the forma- tion of terminal buds on the shoots. The suc- cess of spring budding, however, would appear to indicate that the cambium layer is formed earlier in the season than is usually supposed ; for whenever the young leaves begin to be developed on the stock, "the bark will run," and the buds may be inserted with a good pros- pect of success. In this case we are obliged to use dormant buds that were formed the previous year, and we should exercise judgment and care in the jireservation of the scions, to keep them back by the application of cold, until the time of their insertion. The condition of the bud, says Dr. Warder, in American Pomology, is also important to the success of the operation. The tree from which we cut the scions should be in a growing state, though this is not so essential as in the case of the stock, as has been seen in spring budding — still a degree of activity is de- sirable. The young shoot should have perfected its growth to such an extent as to have deposited its woody fibre; it should not be too succulent; but the essential condition is, that it should have- its buds well developed. These, as every one knows, are formed in the axils of the leaves, and, to insure success, they should be plump and well grown. In those fruits which blossom on wood shoots of the previous year's growth, as the peach and apricot, the blossom buds should be avoided; they are easily recognized by their greater size and plumpness. In cutting scions, or bud-sticks, the most vigorous shoots should be avoided, they are too soft and pithy; the close-jointed, firm shoots, of medium size, are much to be preferred, as they have well developed buds, which appear to have more vitality. Such scions are found at the ends of the lateral branches. These need immediate attention, or they will be lost. The evaporation of their juices through the leaves would soon cause them to wither and wilt, and become useless. These appendages are, therefore, immediately removed by cutting the petiole from a quarter to half an inch from the scion ; a por- tion of the. stem is thus left as a convenient han- dle when inserting the shield, and this also serves afterwards as an index to the condition of the bud. So soon as trimmed of their leaves, the scions are tied up, and enveloped loosely in a damp cloth, or in moss, or fresh grass, to exclude them from the air. If they should become wilted, they must not be put into water, as this injures them; it is better to sprinkle the cloth and tie them up tightly, or they may be restored by burying them in moderately mojst earth.. The early gardeners were very particular as to the- kind of weather upon which to do their budding. They recommended a cloudy or a showery day, or the evening, in order to avoid the effects of the- hot sunshine. This might do in a small garden, where the operator could select his opportunity to bud a few dozen stocks; but even there, wet weather should be avoided rather than courted. But, in the large commercial nurseries, where tens of thousands of buds are to be inserted, there- can be no choice of weather; indeed, many nur- serymen prefer bright sunshine and the hottest weather, as they find no inconvenience arising to- the trees from this source. Some even aver that their success is better under such circumstances, and argue that the pulp is richer. Most trees, in their mature state, make all their growth by ex- tension or elongation very early in the season,, by one push, as it were; with the first unfolding of the leaves, comes also the elongation of the- twig that bears them. In most adult trees in a state of nature, there is no further growth in this- way, but the internal changes of the sap continue to be effected among the cells during the whole- period of their remaining in leaf, during which, there is a continual flow of crude sap absorbed by the roots, and taken up into the organism of the tree, to aid in the perfection of the various parts, and in the preparation of the proper juice and the several products peculiar to the tree, as well as its wood and fruits. When all this is transpiring; within its economy, the tree is said to be in its . full flow of sap; at this stage the young tree is in tlie best condition for budding, but it continues also, if well cultivated, to grow by extension for- a greater or shorter portion of the season, and, this is essential to the success of the operation as already stated. After the perfecting of the crop of fruit, the main work of the tree seems to have- been done for the year, and we often observe,, particularly with the summer fruits, that the trees. BUDDING 157 BUDDING appear to go to rest after this period, and begin to cast tlieir foliage. Xow. to a certain extent, this is true of tlie young trees. The varieties that ripen their fruit early, make their growth in the nursery in tlie early portion of the summer, they stop growing, and their terminal bud is formed and is conspicuous at the top of the shoots. Very soon the supply of sap appears to be diminished, there is no longer so much activity in the circulation, the bark cleaves to the wood, it will no longer run, and the season of budding for those stocks has reached its terminus ; hence, the nurseryman must be upon the look-out for the condition of his trees. Fortunately, those species wliich have the shortest season, are also the first to be ready, the first to mature their buds, and they must be budded first. We may com- mence with the cherry, though the Mahaleb stock, when it is used, continues in condition longer than other varieties, and may be worked late. The plum and pear stock also complete their growth at an early period in the season; the apple continues longer in good condition, and may be worked quite late. Grapes, if worked in this way, should be attended to about mid- season, while they are still growing; but quinces and peaches may be kept in a growing state much later than most other stocks, and can be budded last of all. The stocks being in a suitable con- dition, as above described, they should be trim- med of their lateral shoots for a few inches from the ground. This may be done immediately in advance of the budder, or it may have been done -a few days before the budding. The stock may be one year old, or two years; after this period they do not work so well. The usual method is to make a T incision through the bark of the stock, as low down as possible, but in a smooth piece of the stem; some prefer to insert the shield just below the natural site of a bud. The knife should be thin and sharp, and if the stock te in good condition, it will pass through the bark with very little resistance; but if the stock is too dry, the experienced budder will detect it by the different feeling communicated through his knife, by the increased resistance to be over- come in making the cut. The custom has been to raise the bark by inserting the haft of the bud- ding-knife gently, so astostari the corners of the incision, preparatory to inserting the bud; but our best budders depend upon the shield separat- ing the bark as it is introduced. The two illus- trations will show the difference between budding and grafting, and also the manner of cutting the bud — the slit or nidus — for insertion, and also the manner of tying, with bast or other soft sub- stance, as the inner husk of corn, or woolen yarn, waxed. Some use strips of manilla tissue-paper covered with soft grafting-wax. (See also, article Grafting.) Make a cut from the scion with the the knife used for budding, which is entered half an inch above the bud, and drawn downward about one-third the diameter of the scion, and brought out an equal distance below the bud; this makes the shield, or bud. Some authorities direct that the wood should be removed from the shield before it is inserted; this is a nice operation, requiring some dexterity to avoid injuring the base of the bud, which constitutes its connection with the medulla, or pith, within the stick. Various appliances have been in- vented to aid in this separation ; some use a piece of quill, others a kind of gouge; but if the bark run freely on the scion, there will be little difti- culty in separating the wood from the shield with the fingers alone. All this may be avoided by adopting what is called the American method of budding, which consists in leaving the wood in the shield, as shown in the cut, that should be cut thinner, and is then inserted be- neath the bark without any difficulty, and may be made to fit closely enough for all practical purposes. In budding, it is found that the upper end of the shield is the last to adhere to the stock; it needs to be closely applied and pressed by the bandage, and if too long, so as to project above the transverse incision, it should be cut off. Tying should be done as soon as conven- ient after the buds have been inserted; though under very favorable circumstances the bud may adhere and do well without any bandaging; no one thinks of leaving the work without carefully tying in the buds, and most budders lay a great deal of stress upon the necessity for covering the whole shield and cut with a continuous bandag- ing, that shall exclude the light, and air, and moisture. All ties should be loosened in the course of a couple of weeks, if, the stocks be growing freely; otherwise they will injure the tree by strangulation. Sometimes it will be necessary to replace the bandage to prevent the effects of desiccation upon the bud ; this is par- ticularly the case with the cherry, and other fruits that are budded early; but the tie is often left on the stock all winter, as a sort of protec- tion to the bud. When loosening the ties, the buds are inspected and their condition ascer- tained; if they have failed, they may be replaced, the stocks continue in a suitable condition. It ia BUDDING 158 BUG very easy to tell the success of the budding; the portion of the petiole left upon the shield is a very good index; if the bud has withered, this will also be brown and will adhere fli-mly to the shield; but,, on the contrary, the bud and its shield having formed a union with the stoclc, the leaf -stock remains plump, but changes color. Like a leaf -stem in the autumn, it assumes the tint of ripeness, and it will separate with a touch, and soon falls off. The common method of re- moving the ties is to cut them with a single stroke of a sharp knife, when the bandage is left to fall off. Mr. Knight recommended two dis- tinct ligatures, and left the one above the bud for a longer time uncut. When the buds have not been very fully developed, and when the stocks are very thrifty, it sometimes happens that the excessive growth about the incisions, made for the insertion of the bud, completely cover up this little germ of a future tree, which is then said to be drowned. Judicious pinching and shortening of the stock will prevent this effect, but care is needed not to pursue such treatment too far. The stocks are generally headed back to within an inch or more of the bud, just as vegetation starts the next spring; but early -set buds may be headed back so soon as they have taken, and will often make a nice growth the same season. This, however, is not generally preferred, and a late start in the growing weather of our autumns is particularly avoided, as the young shoot will not become matured before winter, and may be entirely lost. Spring budding is sometimes desirable, either to fiU up gaps in the nursery rows, or to secure varieties, the scions of which, may have been received too late for grafting, or when it is desirable to multiply them as much as possible, by making every bud grow. When the operation is to be performed in the spring, the scions must be kept back, by placing them in the ice-house , until the stocks are in full leaf, when the bark will peel readily, and the buds maybe Inserted with a pretty fair prospect of success; of coui-se, the American method >must be used in this case, as the wood and bark of the dormant scion will not separate. The stoclts should be cut down as early in the spring as the buds begin to swell, with a sharp knife, applied just above the bud, and on the same side ; the whole upper portion of the stock must be removed by a clean cut ; this is better than to leave a stump of three or four inches, as is often recommended, as a sup- port to which to tie up the buds in their tender growth. All shoots from the stock should be rubbed out while young; this may need repeat- ing a second time. If the stocks were strong the buds will make handsome, sturdy trees the first season , the branched form may be assisted by pinching the points when a few inches high, as recommended with the grafts. Two year old stocks should make pretty trees, at one year old from the bud. In propagation, the proper plan will be found to be as follows : Apple and pear, budding and grafting. Cherry, mostly by bud- ding, but succeeds well by grafting, if done very early. Peach and nectarine, by budding only, at the North ; often succeeds by grafting at the South. Plum, by grafting, and also by budding, if the stocks are thrifty. Apricot, mostly by budding, sometimes by grafting. Almond, by budding, and sometimes by grafting. Chestnut, by early grafting. Walnut, by early grafting, and by annual budding. Quince, by cuttings and grafting. Filbert, by suckers and layers. The finer sorts may be grafted on the more common, which reduces the size Of the bush and makes them more prolific. Grape, by layers and cuttings; and, in rare instances, grafting is advantageously employed for new or rare sorts on old or wild stocks, producing rapid growth and early bearing. Raspberry and blackberry, by suckers, cuttings of roots, and layers. Goose- berry and currant, by cuttings, and sometimes by layers. In relation to stocks : For standard or orchard-trees, the pear and apple are grafted or budded upon seedlings raised from pips of any thrifty sort of each of these fruits. The Mazzard and Black Heart furnish good stoclis for grafting with the cherry. At the West, where the cherry is easily injured, stocks raised from seeds of the Dukes and Morellos are the hardiest for all kinds of cherries. The horse-plum makes a good stock when it will grow freely for this purpose; but, in localities where it will not, the wild or Canada plum, of the largest growing varieties, is a good substitute. The peach and nectarine are usually worked on common peach- stocks; but they make very hardy trees on the hard-shelled almond; and, on the plum, the trees are hardy and of slower or more dwarfed growth. The apricot does well on the peach or plum, or on its own roots. Cultivators differ as to which is the best on all accounts. For dwarfs, the Angers or Fre"ch quince, is used wholly for the pear. The Doucin and Paradise are employed for dwarfing apples; the former being for the larger or medium-sized dwarfs, and the latter for small ones, the apple-trees worked upon it not growing much larger than currant bushes. The Mahaleb is used for dwarf cherries, reducing their size and vigor of growth but slightly, how- ever. It enables the cherry to grow better on heavy soils. The smaller varieties of the wild plum form, perhaps, the best stocks for the growth of dwarf plums. BUFFALO. The animal, called buffalo by the people of the United States, is really the bison. Bos Americanus. Of the true buffalo- there are two species, the Boi buhaMs, of India, and the Bos Caffer, of South Africa. Zoologi- cally, they are separated as the Indian and Cape buffalo. The Indian buffalo is said to be fully a match for the tiger in his native jungles, but the Cape buffalo, which inhabits the whole of South Africa, is not a match for the lion. Both species, in the wild state, inhabit low and swampy dis- tricts, and delight in wallowing in the mud. Both species have been domesticated, but have never been so far modified as to have lost, their native ferocity. The true buffalo is short- haired, is destitute of the hump, and in other respects is quite dissimilar to the bison. An East Indian wild bull (Bos gaurus), is said to be in- termediate between the bison and buffalo . (See article Bison.) BUFFALO CLOTER. (See Clover.) BUG. The word is ignorantly used by many for any insect; others again use the word for offensive insects, as blind beetles, and other beetles which sometimes annoy by flying against a person. The true bugs, however, are a small class, and are the true Hemiplera {H. heierop- tera), in which the wing covers are thick and opaque at the base, more or less transparent at the tips, laid horizontally on the top of the back. BUPRESTIS 159 BUPRESTIS PLANT-Etla. and cross each other obliquely at the end. Some of these live on animal and others on vegetable juices. Among plant-bugs the well known squash-bug (Coreus tmtes) is often very destruct- ive to the whole cucumber family, even eating into squashes in the fall to such a degree as to cause their rotting. The cut we give is an- other form of plant-bug {Largus succintus), rare at the North, but not uncommon at the South. The red bug, or cotton-stainer, of the South, is another vexatious pest in that region. There are numerous plant-bugs, many of them minute, which do little damage, except in particular seasons proliflc in Insect life. The remedy for all this class, and including also plant lice, is either picking or destroying them with crysalic soap-suds, or, in certain cases, where practicable, dusting with sulphur or a mixture of Paris green, or of London purple. Neither of the two last named must be used on plants where there is danger of the poison be- coming lodged in the fruit. BUHR-STONE. The mill-stone for flouring ; it possesses great hardness with little brittleness, is cellular, of a bluish gray, and feebly trans- lucent. The best kind has a texture nearly half cellular, and is entirely silicious; the pieces or panes are bound together by hoops of iron when set up for use. The great and valuable supply of buhr-stone is from near Paris, in the lacustrine deposit, above the gypsum. It is the latest i-ock formation known. Buhr-stone of good quality is found now in several sections of the United States, especially in Georgia, above the shell limestone. BUILDINGS. (See Farm Buildings.) BULB. A rounded body, having the proper- ties of a bud, usually growing in the ground^ but sometimes produced by the flower stalk. Bulbs are tunicated, as the onion, and squamous or scaly, like the lily. The adjectives, bulbous, bulbosus, are formed from bulb. The fleshy, solid root stocks of some plants are not bulbs but corms. BULBODIUM. An underground stem re- sembling the root-stock. BUPRESTIS. Saw-horned wood beetles. A genera of beetles with hard and metallic color- ing, and hard and inflexible bodies. They are principally a tropical family. In the torrid zone they attain great size and dazzling coloring. Dr. LeBaron says of the family that the larva present two very distinct forms. The usual form is at once distinguished from all other Coleopter- ous larvse by the enormous development of the first segment of the body, into which the head is partly retractile. The other segments are narrow and slightly flattened. This form of the larvsB has caused them to be compared with tadpoles, and the French authors describe them as re- sembling a pestle. They are wholly destitute of legs. These larvse usually live under the bark of trees in a state of incipient decay, but some of them penetrate into the solid wood. Some of the smaller species inhabit the stems of small trees or shrubs, causing them to enlarge so as to resemble galls. An example of the former is the flat-headed , borer of the apple and soft maple trees (see Flat-Headed Borer); and an example of the latter is the raspberry cane-borer, or larvae of the Agriltts ruficollis. The other form of Bupres- tide larvse is that of the Brachyides or short- bodied Buprestidaj. In these the fii'st segment is not enlarged, the body is slender and tapering, and each of the three first segments is furnished with a pair of very small feet, placed wide apart. These specie.s are all very small, and such of them as are known are leaf-miners. In an economical point of view, the Buprestidse occupy a peculiar position, intermediate between the genuine wood-borers (CerambycidEe and Scoly- tidse), which bore into the solid wood of trees, and those kinds of wood-beetles which (like the Elateridse and many of the Heteromerous beetles} inhabit wood and bark in an advanced state of decay. In accordance with this position, they are usually the first insects to attack trees which have been injured by sun-scald, or which have otherwise had their vitality weakened. The largest North American species is the Gliako- pliora Virginiensis of Drury, nearly or quite an inch in length, of a dark coppery or blackish color, and a very uneven surface, caused by elevated lines and "depressed square-shaped spots. The larvse inhabit the trunks of different kinds of pine trees, and the perfect insects are to be found, therefore, only in pine growing regions. The jbicerca dwaricata, Sa}', is three-quarters of an inch or more in length, copper colored, with a granulated surface. It is distinguished at once by its tapering elytra, separated at the tips. Its larvae bore into the trunks of cherry and peach trees. We have another smaller and more ob- scure species, the D. lurida, Fab., the larvse of which inhabit the hickory. The Clirysobothris femorata, an obscure bronze-black species, rather less than half an inch in length, is the parent of the well known fiat-headed borer, so injurious to apple ti'ees, and also to the soft maple. The genus AcmcBodera, Esch. , contains a number of small species of a bronzed-brown color, some- times with purple and green reflections, and the elytra prettily spotted with yellow. The colors are somewhat obscured by the surface being clothed with stiff, erect hairs. The A, iubulus. Fab. , and the A. pulcIieUa, Herbst, are the most common species. They are often found in abundance on the flowers of the Coreopsis. The genus Agrilvs, Solier, is easily recognized by the elongate, slender, and cylindrical form of the species The raspberry borer, Agrilus ruficollis, Fab. , may be taken as the American type of this genus. It is three-tenths of an inch long, black, with a coppery-red thorax. Buprestis, including Anehylochira, Esch., is composed of species mostly between a half and three-quarters of an inch in length, of a brassy-green or a brassy- black color, and often ornamented with yellow spots on the elytra ; some also have yellow spots on the sides of the venter. The species of Mel- aTwpliila, Esch'. , are from three to five-tenths of an inch in length, black, sometimes with obscure bronze or purple tints. Some species have four yellow dots on each elytron. The species of Anthama, Esch., are less than three-tenths of an inch long, brassy-black, and without spots. The head and thorax are sculptured with shallow punctures, with the intervening lines forming a fine net-work. "We have two common species of Brachys, Sol., the Oiiaia, Weber, and the ^rosa, Melsh. (temdnans? Fab.), and several rarer species, some of which may be only varieties or races of the first. The B. ovata is two-tenths of an inch or more in length, of a bronze color, BURSA MUCOSA 160 BUTTER variegated with spots and imperfect transverse waving bands of wliitisli and copper colored pubescence. Tlie B. terminans is smaller and less distinctly variegated, but most readily dis- tinguished by the pale tips of the elytra. Metonius, Say, (Pachyscel'tis, Solier), has two species about an eighth of an inch in length; the Imvigatus, Say, wholly black; and ihe purpurea, Say.black, with dark-blue elytra. The following are the genera of Bup^'estidm : Acmmodera, twenty-three species; Agrilns, forty species; Anthaxia, four- teen species ; Brachys, eighteen species ; Buprestis, twenty-three species; Ghaleophora, seven species; ■Chrysobothris, forty-three species ;-DJc«rea. twenty- four species; Metanophila ten species; and Meton- ius, two species. BURDOCK. A coarse and homely biennial Tveed, growing in fields and fence corners under slovenly cultivation, bearing hooked burs which, when ripe, or nearly so, cling obstinately to ani- mals and the clothing of man. The greater THORNY CLOT-EUR. burdock {Lappa majw) is held to possess medic- inal properties in its leaves, and is used as an external remedy in fevers, headaches, etc., and its root is sometimes used as a medicinal ingredi- ent in home-made beer. The plant is consider- ably bitter, but has no excellence that should cause it to be allowed to live. The lesser bur- dock (Clot-bur) is a species of Xanthium (X strnmarium), a noxious weed, whose burs, like burdock, are carried in the fleece of sheep, in the manes and tails of horses, and in the tails of cattle. The variety Echinatum, has the burs more prickly than Strumarium, with the beak incurved. The cut we give shows the flower head and leaves of X. strnmarium, with heads of staminate flowers above and pistillate ones below^ There is another vile weed belonging to this family. Thorny Clot-bur (X spinosum), being three-spined along its branches; an execrable weed, said to be a native of tropical America, but naturalized in many localities West, and par- ticularly South. Like the other species, it is not difficult of extermination and should be eradi- cated when found, BURSA MUCOSA. Small bags containing a fatty mucus, situated between the joints in all animals. Its enlargement causes wind-galls. BURST. (See Hernia) BUSH. Any shrub which naturally throws out branches near, or under ground. BUSHEL. A measure containing four pecks, eight gallons, or thirty-two quarts. It should contain eighty pounds of water, or 2218.193 cubic inches of capacity, to constitute an imperial bushel. The old Winchester bushel contained only 2150 42 cubic inches. BUSTAHD. Otis tarda. A large gallina- ceous fowl indigenous to Europe and Asia, often weighing twenty-five pounds. It is now nearly extinct in Europe. BUTTER. Butter is the solidified oil or fatty matter of the milk of animals. In the United States the milk of the cow only is used for butter, except by that unscrupulous class who counter- feit l)utter with animal fats. The comparative value of the milk of different individuals and breeds is estimated by the quantity of cream and its yield of butter; the pasture and food given exercising a most important part in the produc- tion of butter. In milk, the union of the prin- cipal constituent parts — curd and butter — with the water, is mechanical, and so as to be easily sepa- rable. Indeed these will settle by mere subsidence, the butter rising to the top and tlie curd settling to the bottom. After the separation of the whey, which, to be brought about in the best manner requires chemical change, the residue is curd. In the manufacture of butter the strictest nicety is required in all the manipulations, from the time it is drawn from the cow until it is packed. Mod- ern improvement, and the establishment of but- ter factories, haabrought the manufacture of but- ter almost to scientific accuracy ; in the avoidance of odors, and the necessity of strict cleanliness in all the processes, from milking to packing ; in the setting of milk, the care of the cream and the churning ; economy of space has also been so im- proved, that the milk of ten to twenty cows may now be cared' for in a space not larger than a good sized ice-chest. The component parts of bytter, according to chemical analysis of Jersey butter and of factory butter (two samples, the cows of various breeds) and of whey butter, is as follows -. Water. Jersey butter . . Factory butter . 11.29 12.36 Asli. 3.20 2.98 Fat. 84.76 83.41 Caseine, etc. 0.75 1.25 Another sample of factory butter gave water, 8.82; ash, 3.43, and fat and caseine 87 75. A sampleof whey butter gave water, 9.77; ash, 1.67, and fat and caseine, 88.56. In relation to the theory that the butter of milk is contained as globules surrounded by a membrane, is denied by some eminent chemists. The conclusions of Soxhlet and Tisserand, in relation to the manufac- ture of butter, are as follows : The former, in a discussion upon the condition of fat in milk, op- poses the generally accepted theory that it exists in globules surrounded by a membrane which it is necessary to break up in the process of churn- ing, or by chemical means, for the production of butter, and believes that it exists in much the same condition as oil in an emulsion with albumen, citing authorities in support of his belief. He con- siders that in new milk the butter is present in oily drops, as it appears under the microscope : BUTTER 161 BUTTER "but his experiments show that if the mil Ic is frozen at a temperature of 38° to 29°, they become solid, and remain in this condition after the milk is thawed. It can then be separated by churning, it is said, in two minutes, a result usually requir- ing eleven minutes, which is a point of gi-eat prac- tical importance. Tlie conclusions of Tisseraiid, who has made an extended series of experiments upon the influence of low temperatures, varying from 32° to 97° (thermometrioal quantities are Fahrenheit, raised from the Centigrade scale as given by Tisserand) upon milk and the production of butter, are similar to those of Soxhlet ; for he finds that it renders the separation of the cream more rapid, increases its volume and the yield of butter, and improves the quality of the skimmed milk, butter and cheese. These effects increase with a decline of temperature. Dr. E. Lewis Stur- tevant,in a paper on the physiological considera- tions concerning the feeding for butter and cheese, states that milk derives its whiteness and opacity from the presence of innumerable globules of very minute size, floating in a water-like fluid or serum. These globules are composed of tlie butter-fats inclosed in a capsule or membranous covering, and vary in .^^ize from the 1,500th of an inch to gran- ules of less than the 27,000th of an inch in diame- ter. The variation in size varies with the breed ; it varies with the time from calving, and it varies with the food. After describing the process of the formation of these globules, and indicating their source, he says they are found to be larger in the Jersey cow than in the Ayrshire cow, and the Ayrshire globules are larger than those from the American Holstein. These globules are cov- ered with a membrane of extreme tenuity, which protects their contents, and has to be ruptured through the process of churning before the con tents of the different globules can aggregate into but- ter. This covering is more easily broken in some breeds than in others. The Jersey cream can be churned into butter more quickly than can the Ayrshire cream. These coverings are also differ- ■ently affected by the acidity developed in the milk. Twenty-four hours' standing will hasten the churning of Jersey milk more than will forty- eight hours affect the churning of Ayrshire milk. The contents of these cells are in varying propor- tion, and the mixture seems in part physical. Thus, the butter made from the milk of one breed may be more waxy than butter made in a like man- Der from milk from a cow of a different breed. The butter made from the large globules of a milk appears to be of a superior grain to the butter made from the small globules of the same milk. Globules of a large size are more easily ruptured through the process of churning than those of a small size, and those of extreme minuteness can not be ruptured at all. Thus, the quantity of but- ter obtained in practice is not dependent entirely on the amount of fat in the milk, by analysis, but rests upon the form in which it occurs By means of a microscopic study of milk, the ex- perienced worker can judge of the butter- value of a milk, and can quickly separate from a herd those cows which produce an unprofitable milk for the butter-manufacturer. He can also separate those milks which are the least valuable for the cheese- maker from those that arc tjie most valuable. He can also tell, to a certain extent , what food will make his milk best for his purpose. Of the effect •of food upon the yield of butter, from milk of dif- ferent breeds, the writer says: The question of the 11 effect of food upon the butter is, therefore, prin- cipally a question concerning nutrition, of the di- gestibility of food, and of the ability to cause cer- tain constituents of the food to be taken up in a quantity sufficient Tor the wants of the animal as determined by structure. When a cow is produc- ing less butter than her structure fits her for se- creting, then must an increase of proper food in- crease her butter product When her food is unfitted, through its character or condition, to supply the blood with the requisile elements, then must a change of food for the better be beneficial- ly perceived on the butter-yield. We have an in- dividual influence, however, which complicates the action of nutrition, for the superior cow is more a creature of art, the inferior cow more the production of nature, and accordingly the best and poorest cow of a herd being fed with an increased supply of food, in every case the better cow will respond to a gi'eater extent than the poorer. The infiuence of the fats of the food in accelerating di- gestion and other chemical re-actions of the food is of importance in a practical view of tlie effect of the feeding. It is even probable that, the nearer the food given approaches the state in which its elements are found in the product (if the food be digestible in this state), the better the result. It is even probable that the presence of certain oils or fats in the food may influence to some extent the proportionate quantity of the separate oils in the butter and the fat. It is but as we regard an animal as a whole, and attempt to know her by the study of the history of how she came to be what she is, as well as what she is, that we can form an imderstanding of the action or product of any par- ticular part. We recognize the formation of but- ter as allied to the formation of fat, with this es- sential difference — the fats are formed and stored subject to the order of the animal economy ; the butter is formed and thrown off, and thus discon- nected with the animal structiu'e, is nominally subject but to the order of an external being, the calf or the milker. The summary of what would be indicated by the theory of the cow and her food is that each cow has a limit to production, gov- ' erned by structure, and the greater gain of butter is when her food keeps her to this limit and is not in excess. Second, that the character of the food must influence to a certain extent the character of the butter, but that in the presence of abundant and similar food, heredity exerts a prepotent in- fluence. The third indication is that the propor- tion of the butter stands m no definite relation with the caseine, but that either may be increased within certain limits without a proportionate in- crease of the other. I call this an indication only, for we have not as yet presented the formation of caseine, but will here assume that it arises in the milk through an entirely different process from the butter, and although influenced by structure, yet in a different manner from that in which the butter element is influenced, and there is accord- ingly no necessarily direct co-relation between the quantity of these two products. A summary of facts indicating the same propositions as our theory is, first, that common experience has shown that one cow is always better than some other cow in a herd, and that no matter what may be the food the poorer cow can never, on the same kind of food, and both abundantly supplied, equal in pro- duct the better cow. Our second proposition is shown by the experiments of Thomas Horsfall, as given in full in the Journal of the Royal Agri- BUTTER 163 BUTTER cultural Society of England, xvii. 260; xviii. 150. Oui- third, is the fact that the difference between the butter percentage of various breeds is far greater than is the difference ietween the case in percentage; that a series of analyses of saraemilks at different periods from calving indicate no ratio between the two. In relation to the proposition maintaining that superior cows will always respond to increase of f ood_ to a larger extent than inferior ones. Dr. Sturtevant states that in just so far as animals have been removed from the natural state through breeding will they be influenced in their product by a more nutritious and concentrated kind of food ; for natural food may not be the best attainable under an artificial environment which not only exists, but has been of long continuance, although the same food may be the best in a state of nature. The art of man consists in intensifying natural conditions in the direction toward his own desires. The natural food of animals, although best for the wild condition, cannot be considered as natural food when the whole condition of life of the animal, and her habits and functions, have been modified to a very large extent from those habits and functions of the undomesticated. state; for artificial methods of long continuance, and ar- tificial conditions brought about through ar- tificial environment, tend to so completel,y change the conditions of being of the wild animal, that what in the wild animal might be an artificial food, may be the natural food for the domesticated animal, and mce versa. In fact, the establishing of harmony between form and function, food and desired product, is the using of the laws of nature through man's power for man's own good. The practical fact, which is worthy the attention of all those who keep cat- tle, is that an increase of food, gained by the feeding of meals and other concentrated and ar- tificial foods, may perhaps bring profit to the owiier of superior animals, while the same course pursued b}' the owner of indifferent ani- mals would be surely done at a loss. One farmer can feed grain to his better cows and re- ceive a profit on the extra cost, while his neigh- bor, perhaps, with inferior stock, can increase his product but very little by the same means, and then this increase will not be sufficient to compensate for the extra expense. Im- provement in breed, therefore, should go hand in hand with improvement in feed. The dairy- farmer who believes in artificial feeding, which experience shows to be the true course, must also, for the most profitable results, believe in an artificial breed. As the milk-functions are entirely the creation, in their usefulness, of man, and are hence artificial, the superior cow will pay a larger profit on concentrated food than will another animal, her inferior, while the inferior animals, imder the feeding requisite to obtain the best results from a herd as a whole, -are kept at a loss. The following is a summary of conclusions from the propositions advanced: First. That the production of butter is largely dependent on breed. Second. That there is a stnictural limit to the production of butter to each cow. Third. That when the cow is fed to this limit increased food cannot increase the product. Fourth. That the superior cow has this structural limit at a greater distance from ordinary feed, and more ready to respond to stimuli than the inferior cow. Fifth. That con- sequently the superior cow is seldom fed to her limit, wiiile the inferior cow may be easily fed beyond her limit; and, as a practical conclusion, increased feed with a superior lot of cows will increase the butter product, but if fed to an inferior lot of cows waste can be but the result. Sixth. That the character of the food has some infiuence on the character of the but- ter, but even here breed influences more than food. Seventh. That there is no constant rela- tion between the butter product and the cheese- product. Eighth. That the caseine retains a con- stant percentage, and that this percentage does not appear to respond to increase of food.. Ninth. That the caseine appears to remain constant, without regard to the season. Tenth. That increase in the quantity of milk is fol- lowed by an increase in the total amount of caseine. Eleventh. That insufficient food acts directly to check the proportion of butter, and has a tendency to decrease the caseine of the milk and substitute albumen. Twelfth. That the best practice of feeding is to regulate the charac- ter of the food by the character of the animals fed; feeding superior cows nearer to the limit of their production than inferior cows ; feeding, if for butter, more concentrated and nutritious foods than for cheese; feeding for cheese pro- duct succulent material, which will increase the quantity of the milk-yield. Mr. Curtiss, of Wisconsin, upon the subjeet of making butter,. says: It is said that the small dairy farm cannot make good butter. That the odors of thfr kitchen from cooking, smoke, etc., uneven temperature, and various contingencies, bej'ond the control of those manipulating the milk into butter, make it absolutely beyond th^ir power to make a good article. From the usual stand- point I concede this to be a fact, but from an advanced stand puint I do not. I much doubt if a better article of butler can be made by any other plan than the common tin pan, pro- vided a pure atmosphere and a temperature of 60° can be controled. While I claim this, I concede the failure, because the small farm dairies cannot control these unalterable require- ments. Whatever method is adopted to extract the cream from the milk, a uniform tempera- ture is required; that degree of temperature must be in proportion to the quantity of milt set in one body; therefore, if the common, open tin pan, four inches deep, requires a tempera- ture of 60°, a larger bodj' of milk, set at blood heat, would require a colder temperature, or fermentation would take place before the cream rises. A colder temperature can be secured with ice. We also find a colder temperature in the earth, and that a uniform one of about 49°, at a point not exceeding ten feet from the surface, provided we shut out the uneven atmosphere from above. It has been claimed that the raising of cream required air, but it has been proved that it does not — that it is all the better to ex- clude all air; hence it appears feasible to put in use this regular temperature of 49° in the earth, provided we set the milk in proper quantities. In doing this we find ourselves required to close the vessels containing the milk air-tight; this confines the animal heat, which must be consid- ered in concluding upon the size of the can to hold the milk. I have tried a great many experiments and finally used, for some three months, cans about eight and one-half inches in diameter by" BUTTER 163 BUTTER twenty deep. The cover was made like a com- mon tin pail, only the flange going inside was two inches wide, and the top of the cover had a tube hole about one-fourth of an inch in diam- eter, soldered fast. The cans were filled and the covers pressed down, while the tube hole was open to allow the air to escape as the flange of the cover entered the milk. The tube hole was then closed with a cork, and then cans were lowered into the well about twenty feet, where they re- mained until the next milking, when the}' were withdrawn and set in some convenient place until the cream thickened from acidity; it was then easily removed by dipping off with a saucer. I used these cans from the middle of last Juno to the middle of September, and it will be remem- bered as a very unfavorable time for making good butter. We found the butter made from the cream raised in this manner to be good; that which was not used or sold (some 300 pounds), was packed for fall and winter use. The un- favorable state of the atmosphere, so loudly com- plained of by others, did not seem to affect the quantity or quality of the butter. In relation to salting butter, and butter packages, Mr. C. C. Buell, of Illinois, very correctly, holds that it is a question whether salt preserves butter at all by acting directly upon it. It probably does not. Its chief use is to season it. Butter put up for long keeping requires much more salt than that to be used new, for the reason that in new-made butter the fresh flavor is dominant and gives to the butter its chief attraction and value. In the long-kept butter salt plays a more important part, and without plenty of it the butter is likely to taste flat and insipid. Employed in the form of brine, distributed through and around the mass of butter, salt may, and undoubtedly does under favorable circumstances, prevent the in- cipient development of germ life ; but it is only the incipient ' development that it can control. Butter already tainted it has no power over. The smallest number of these developed spores lurk- ing in churn, or worker, or ladle, or package, may be sufficient to spoil the whole mass, just as a piece of tainted meat, no larger than a walnut, is sure to spoil the whole barrel — and "salt can't save it." So, then, it is only the package for good butter, the well-made butter, the fresh but- ter, in which is not yet planted the seeds of decay, that we need particularly to discuss here. Perfectly-made butter, if exposed to the air even but a short time, is as sure to go to destniction as if it were bad at the beginning. The air is full of these elements of destructive life, these spores or germs, and they fall upon the surface of what- ever is exposed to it, or whatever air is, under non-preventive conditions, admitted to it. There can be only two kinds, the good and the bad — the air-tight and brine-tight package and the open and the leaky package. We hardly need say more under this head. A package made of what- ever material, not injurious to the flavor of but- ter, and of whatever shape, if it preserves the brine — which should be within, around and over the butter — is a good butter-package for preserv- ing good butter. The commercial package, however, is usually quite a different thing. Its top is open, and its sides and bottom are not closed. The thin layer of salt spread over the top of the butter, the cross-grained, porous wood of stave and bottom, are the open ways of air and water. The oak firkin, which is the least used and least acceptable to the trade, is un- doubtedly the best of the ordinary packages. The Welsh tub, in which most of the Western butter is sent to market, is a little better than the bail-box, which is only next better than the shoe- box and salt-barrel. Qualitative analy.ses of but- ter, have been tabulated as follows ; m'TTEE-FAT. Composition. Palmatin. Olein Stearine I Arachin I . IBulin.. j" . Myristin Butyrin i Ciii'rin / I Rutin. )" Caproin ... Capryliu. .. Discovered hy- Heintz (Gmelir's Handljook) xvi. 343. Clievreiil (Reserches sur les corps eras) p. 205. • Chevreul (Loc. cit.) Gossmasm and Scheven (Ann.) Ch. Pharm. xcvii. HeintE (Fogg. Ann.) Ixxxvii. 267; xc. 137: xcii. 42n. Clievreul (Loc. cit.) Chevreul (Gni. xiv. 485). Clievreui (Gm. xi. 414). Lerch (Gm. xvii. 190). All of these fats are composed of three parts of acid united to one part of glycerine as a base ; in such union three atoms of water are liberated. The reaction may be represented as follows: CHOI ( CHO ( 3HO-) CHO , 20 40 2 f i 3 8 3—-^ 2 I 63122 6 Arachinic acid. ( Glycerine. ( Water. ) Arachin. ] The fats, then, should be, more strictly speaking, called respectively, Tri-Olein, Tri-Palmatin, Tri- Stearin,etc. Thefollowing maybe taken asamong the important factsiuthe'settingof cream. 1. The milk globule has a less specific gravity than the water or any other constituent of milk. 2. If the milk is allowed to stand at a high tempera- ture, conditions are immediately produced suit- able to the growth of the little fungus plant, penicillium crustaceum, and the milk commences to sour before the cream has a chance to form. 3. Water and caseine, etc., grow cool much faster than the milk globules. 4. bince the diameter of the milk globule varies in different breeds, a system which would be practical for the milk containing the largest globules, might totally fail if applied to any other milk. What is needed is a system applicable to mixed milk. 5. While the milk globules expand more by heat, and contract more by cold, than the water of the milk, still they are poorer conductors of heat than the water and caseine of milk, and consequently ex- pand more slowly on the application of heat, and contract more slowly on the application of cold. It would not be dilBcult from these facts to reason that the proper system to be adopted is to place the milk in a room, the temperature of which is a few degrees below the lowest point which it is desirable for the milk to reach. By adopting this means, the milk from a warm state is cooled gradually down, which sends the milk globules rapidly up, not only for the reason that the fluid in which they are suspended becomes cooled faster than the globules, but because at the same time it becomes heavier. The working of butter, packing and transportation, are of great importance in its manufacture. We once heard the late and lamented Charles Bragdon, a good judge of butter, say, ' ' God bless the woman who works butter too much." This was in the days when butter working and improved machinery were little known. The washing of butter, and BUTTER 164 BUTYRIC ACID taking it from the cliurn when yet in a granular state, and butter workers, have left no excuse for over-working butter to get out the butter milk. Shown, are two of the best forms of hutter workers ; they should be used in every establish- ment where butter is made in consider- able quantity for market The ac- companying cuts will show improved forms. In packing IMPROVED EUTTEB WORKERS. butter it should be pressed entirely solid, in such forms of packages as will best enable this to be accomplished. Orange county tubs and barrels makers, who have responsible agents for hand- ling their goods. It is carried in refrigerator cars, and removed to other refrigerators immedi- ately from the cars, served fresh every morning in tinle for breakfast — some makers getting as high as seventy -five cents per pound, however low the ordinary price may be. BUTTER, ADULTERATION OF. (See Butter.) BUTTER FACTORY. (See Creamery.) BUTTERFLY. Insects of the genus Payilio (Linn.) in the imago state. Many of them are ORANGE COUNTT TUBS AND BARREL. leave but little to be desired in this direction. They are easily cleaned, compact and quite water- tight; another form is also much used, and is much liked by grocers. since the butter may be easily turned out for cut- ting up. If butter is to be transported in summer it must never be allowed to become even partially soft. Hi-nce, many de- vices have been invented for accomplishing this purpose, one of which is shown with a dead air space at the side, the butter so arranged that it is carried in pound pats, perfectly cold. In large cities, so packed, it brings high prices, when branded with the name of well-known respectable BUTTEBFLT AND CATERPILI.AB. produced from caterpillars most injurious to cul- tivated plants and trees, as the gooseberry and cabbage butterflies; which see. They have four wings, imbricated with downy scales. The body is hairy, and the tongue convoluted in a spiral form. There are numerous species, now formed into a group, subdivided into tribes, families and genera. The butterfly deposits its eggs, which hatch into caterpillars. These change to chrys- alides, which again, after undergoing hy- bernation, come forth as the perfect butterfly, The food of the perfect insect is honey only, but the group, in the caterpillar state, con- tains some most destructive insects to vegetation. The butterflies are among the most beautiful of the insect tribes. This, liowever, does not pre- vent their larvae from also being, many of them, most destructive to vegetation, probably quite as much so as the larvae of moths — another beauti- ful family, in their perfect state. Hence, they should be destroyed wherever found. The cut shows ((, caterpillar; h, butterfly; c, d, sections of caterpillar enlarged. BUTTERNUT. (See Walnut.) BUTTON -WOOD. False Sycamore. The Western Plane-tree {Platanus occidtnlalis) is one of the largest and handsomest trees of America, and reaches its full dimensions only in the rich alluvion of the Middle-Western States, and on the banks of the Ohio. The wood is soft, and decays rapidly when exposed, but is serviceable for carpentry if kept dry. The tree in the Northern States has been much injured by early frosts and insects. BUTTS. The short ridges which are made by the plow in the corners of irregular fields. HUTYRIC ACID. An oily volatile acid found in rancid butter, and having a rancid smell; it is soluble in water, alcohol and ether; boils at CABBAGE 165 CABBAGE 213°. It is formed by the oxidation of the com- ponent of butter called butyrine, and yields, by distillation from lime, butyrone a neutral volatile liquid. BUXUS, The generic name of the box plants. BUZZAKD. Among the birds injurious to the farmer, as generally understood, may be mentioned some of the buzzards: The Rod-tailed Buzzard, or Hen Hawk (Falco Borealis); Har- lan's Buzzard {F. Harlani), and the Broad-winged Buzzard, or Broad-winged Hawk, {F. Pennsyhan- icus); the Large-footed Hawk {F. Peregrinun); the Sharp-shinned Hawk {F. Fusous) of Audu- bon, also belonging to this family. The Red- tailed Buzzard is found in every part of the United States and Canada, and thence to the Gulf of Mexico. .In very severe seasons it mi- grates, from the Middle States, South. In Louisi- ana, it builds its nest in February, but in the North not until about corn-planting time. Its flight is long-continued and firm, often very high. It sails to great distances without apparent mo- tion of the wings, and it has the habit, when it discovers its prey, of descending to a convenient distance, from whence, with closed wings, it darts upon it with great accuracy. Squirrels, rabbits, wood-rats and meadow-mice, are its favorite food; but when driven by hunger, it will make bold assaults upon the poultry of the barn-yard, and hence has come to be looked at as a dreaded enemy of the yard. It, however, takes but very few poultry, and the vermin it destroys constitute it a help rather than an enemy to agriculture. The range of the Broad- winged Buzzard is west of the AUeghanies, but is by no means rare east, even in Maryland and Virginia, about its south- ern limit, except in severe winters at the North, when it sometimes migrates even as far south as the Gulf States. The flight of this bird is easy, graceful and usually in circles. Sometimes when high in the air, it will close its wings for a mo- ment, and glide easily along. Its food is any bird it may overcome, especially young chickens and ducks, also wood frogs, snakes, and such small quadrupeds as it can easily seize In winter its food is insects, and various small animals. Harlan's Buzzard is a Southern species, and com- paratively rare. The flight is powerful, protracted and so rapid that it seizes its prey with apparent ease They are destructive to farm-yard poultry, partridges, and 'the smaller species of ducks. The Large-footed Hawk is rather a rare bird, generally found in the Southern States and, if not identical, is nearly allied to the Wandering, or Passenger Falcon of Europe. Its astonishing- rapidity and quick evolutions, when in the pur- suit of prey are admirable, and it is strong enough to even cope with the Mallard Duck. Wild and tame pigeons, black birds, otlier small birds, small ducks and water-hens are its usual prey. When ready to seize its prey, it descends like an arrow, and is recorded to have carried off wound- ed game within thirty yards of the sportsman. The Sharp-shinned Hawk is found in every State and Territory in the Union, but is more abundant in the Middle and Southern States, than farther North. It has no regular migration, but in severe winters follows the small birds" South. In its flight it moves by sudden impetuous dashes ; the flight, like the Gos-hawk, is irregular, swift, vigorous, and often protracted. It seizes its prey with great impetuosity, often dashing head- long into a clump of bushes or briers and emerg- ing successfully. For these reasons, Mr. Audu- bon has called it the miniature of the Gos-hawk. Sometiikes two or three will unite in attacking a victim too large for one. Birds from the spar- rows to wild pigeons, small reptiles, insects and young chickens are its prey. When it learns to take chickens, it will destroy large quantities of them, even in the presence of man. BVSSDS. A general name for the thread- like mould of cellars and caverns of vegetable origin. They belong to many genera, and to the family of fungi. c CABBAGE. Brassiea oleracea capitata. Of the various classes of culinary vegetables the cabbage family (Brasdca) is most ancient, as well as most extensive, being cultivated in all quarters of the globe from the Torrid Zone to the Arctic Circle. Of the 1,000 species enumer- ated by Dr Lindley, all are harmless, and many of them are highly useful. It was a favorite vegetable among the ancient Romans, and was Introduced wherever their armies penetrated. Cabbage delights in a deep, rich, loamy soil, though it will flourish in any soil, not too dry, if well manured. The cabbage is a gross feeder, and gardeners generally give the land at least forty loads of rich manure per acre. For extra early heads sow the seed in February or early in March, in a hot-bed, and transplant when large enough, four inches apart, in a cold frame. Just before corn-planting time the plants may be set in the open air in rows, nearer or further apart, according to the variety. Un- der ordinary circumstances, the seed may be sown in a mild hot-bed about the middle of March, or in a cold frame April 1st, and trans- planted to the open air when from four to six inches high. The cultivation consists in keeping the spaces between the rows mellow with the culti- vate^, and the earth about the plants frequently stirrfd with a hoe or narrow rake. The following is a list of varieties; Early varieties — Early Wakefield. Plant twenty inches apart between rows, and eighteen inches in the row. Early York, one of the earliest and inost reliable sorts. Plant twenty inches apart between rows, and fifteen inches apart in the row. Winning- stadt. Plant two feet by eighteen inches. In- termediate varieties — Small Ox-heart; an excel- lent, firm, hardy variety. Plant two feet by six- teen inches. Large Ox-heart; about a week later than the preceding; excellent and firm head. Plant two feet apart each way. Pett- ier; a very firm variety, a constant header, and in good repute in the Western United States. Plant two feet apart each way. Early Flat Dutch ; an excellent cropper, and sure to head. Plant thirty inches by two feet. Pomeranian ; a medium sized cabbage, the heads like_ an elongated cone; the leaves are peculiarly twisted at the top; good for autumn or win- ter; solid and bearing carriage well. Plant CABBAGE BUTTERFLY 106 CABBAGE BUTTERFLY two feet apart each way. Late cabbage — Pre- mium Flat Dutch; the best cabbage for general cultivation, doing well South or North ; one of the best late fall or wiatei' cabbages, keeping through the winter, and even to May, perfectly sound. Plant three feet by thirty inches apart. Stone-mason; a good, solid cabbage, tender and sweet. Plant three by three feet. Large, Late Drumhead; a hardy variety, rather loose in the head, but generally heading well. Plant three by three feet apart. Champion of America; this cabbage is of an immense size, sometimes attaining a weight of forty pounds; is a good, tender, well-flavored sort, but objectionable on account of its size. Plant three and a half by three and a half feet apart. There are many ways of saving cabbage through the winter. For use during the season of hard frosts the cabbage may be taken up and set in the ground on their roots, in the cellar. For late winter or spring use, dig a trench on some dry spot, four and a half feet wide, and to a depth of the head of the cabbage, not coimting the root. Just before the ground freezes up, or when hard freezing nights occur, place the cabbage heads down, as thickly together as possible, throwing the earth over the whole as you extend the trench, so as to cover the cabbage up to the roots. So proceed until you have the whole buried. When the ground freezes pretty solid — fully down to the heads — cover all over with straw (flax straw is best) to keep the frost in as long as possible. In this way the heads may be preserved intact, and in any quantity. Until the first of May. The insects attacking cabbage are numerous. Cut-worms, Flea-beetles, and other insects, attack the young plants in the seed- hud ; later, the most destructive are the larvaj of the European and American CJabbage Butter- fly. These may be found under their appropriate names. CABBAGE BUTTERFLY. There are va rious butterflies infesting the cabbage. Until the European form (Pier is rapm) was introduced, however, but little difficulty was experienced in keeping them in check We give an illustration of the southern species of larva and caterpillar (P. protodice). Dr. Rilc}' say.s. P. fernalis is but the spring form of P. pivindicr. The illustra- tion will serve as a key to the various species which infest the cabbage. Of these pest% Dr. Thomas says: The Southern Cabbage- worm (see illustration, a, larva, and b, pupa on leaf.) SOUTHERN CABBAGE EUTTEEFLT. is very widely distributed, being found even in the high altitudes of the mountains; but for all that the name is appropriate, being more abundant in the warmer portions of the United States, and there often proving very destructive to the cab- bage crop, taking the place in that sense, of the Rape Butterfly, whose latitude is further «orth. It is quite common in Illinois, but it has been injurious here only to a limited extent, and that chiefly in the vicinity of the large cities. One of the reasons why it is not so abundant further north seems to be that the chrysalides are more susceptible to the influences of our long, cold winters, than some other kinds. This does not destroy the species, but only serves to lessen the number of chrysalides that pass the winter with- out injury, thereby lessening the number of in- dividuals of the spring brood of butterflies. The larva, or caterpillar, is of a greenish-blue color, with four longitudinal yellow stripes, and covered with black dots. When newly hatched it is of a uniform orange color, with a black SOUTHERN CABBAGE-TVORM. ^ head, but it becomes a dull brown before the first moult. The longitudinal stripes and black spots are only visible after the skin has been cast the first time. The chrysalis varies some- what in color, but is generally a light bluish- gray, more or less speckled with black, the ridges and prominences edged with bufE or red- dish. The two sexes of the perfect insect difEer some in color. In the male the wings are white, with a large trapezoidal spot at the end of the discal cell of the fore wings, and an oblique in- temipted black band near the outer border, with a little black on the veins at th-e outer end. The hind wings are without spots. The female is darker, the black of the fore wings more in- tense, with the hind wings tinted with grayish. There are at least two broods of the worms in a season. They are to be found on cabbages, in all stages of growth, through the months of July, August and September. The last brood pass the winter in the chrysalis state, and be- come the first brood of butterflies in the spring of the next year. The European Cabbage But- terfly, since its introduction, has proved fear- fully destructive to the cabbage crop both East and West, and is now found even west of the Mississippi river. As yet, no sure means has been found for counteracting its ravages. Its history in America is as follows: It was intro- duced from Europe to Quebec, Canada, about the year 1857, and from thence it went south- wards along the railway lines to New York, Philadelphia arid "Washington, and tlience east and westward over the whole country from the Atlantic Ocean to west of the Mississippi, and north and south from Canada to Virginia. This species is described as a pale green worm, an inch and a half long, flnely dotted with black; a yellow stripe down the back, and a row of yellow spots along each side, in a line with the stigmata or breathing pores. The eggs from CABBAGE BUTTERFLY 107 CABBAGE BUTTERFLY which these are produced are laid on the under side of the leaves. There are at least two broods of the worms in a season, the first changing to chrysalides in June and hatching to butterflies in seven or eight days afterwards, while the second brood pass the winter in the pupae state. The chrysalis is variable in color, being sometimes yellowish-brown or yellow, and passing thence into green, speckled with minute black dots. The perfect insect is about the size of the Turnip Butterfly. In color the body is black in the male, the wings white, with the tip and a dot near the middle of the front wings black, and a black dash in the front edge of the hind wings. On the under side, there are two black dots on the fore wings, while the tip and the whole surface of the hind wings are lemon-yellow. In the female the upper side of the wings are a whitish- ochre, while the lemon-yellow of the under side is more intense than in the male, and there are two dots on the upper side of the fore wings in- stead of one. These caterpillars differ from the foregoing kinds, and also from the Turnip But- terfly noticed hereafter, in their manner of eating . While the larvae of the Southern Cabbage and the Turnip Butterflies feed mostly on the out- side leaves, going but little, if any, into the head; these are much more destructive, as they have the habit of boring into the interior of the head. When about to change to chrysalides they, like the last, leave the cabbage and attach their ■ehrysalides to the under side of sticks, pieces of board and stones that are above the ground, etc. — anything that can offer a shelter and support. In relation to remedies. Dr. Thomas says. Ad- vantage may be taken of the fact that the full- grown caterpillars leave the cabbages for some sheltered place in which to undergo their trans- formations, by placing boards, that are raised a little from the ground, among the infested plants. By examining these boards every five or six days and destroying the chrysalides, the future work of the worms may be very materially less- ened. Where there are but few infested plants, the caterpillar.-f may be destroyed by hand. As the worms work inside the heads more than either of the other species, chicken picking would be of but little service, as they would not find those that were doing the most damage. Heads that are so badly infested that they are past re- covery, should be Inirned, as by that means all the insects that miglit be in them in the different stages of develoijment, as well as the eggs, would be destroyed. In addition to the above methods of attacking the insects in the worm and chrysa- lide state, the butterdies that are seen flying over the cabbages may be caught, thereb}' preventing the eggs being laid on the plants. For this pur- pose a net maj' be used, made of musquito bar or other light material, fastened to a hoop of light wire attached to a stick about three feet long, for a handle. To be convenient to handle, the hoop sliould be about ten inches in diameter, and the wire not any heavier than is necessary to give it that degree of stiffness to keep its shape. The depth of the net should be twice the diameter of the hoop. As with oilier insects, man is not obliged to do all the fighting in this case; some species of birds, it is said, devour the larvae, and also the perfect insect; but the most effective foe to this species is a small Chalcis Fly {Ptcromalus puparum) that seems to follow close in the wake of its host. It had been supposed that this valuable little parasite was only a native of Eu- rope, and had been introduced into this country at about the same time as the Rape Butterfly, but Packard is of the opinion that it is a native of this country, and preys also upon the other species of Pien's. The chrysalides of the butterfly that were infested by this parasite, could easily be told by the livid and otherwise discolored and diseased appearance. In destroying chrysalides, such should not be destroyed, as by allowing them to remain, the parasites, instead of butter- flies, will hatch from them and then serve as so much additional help toward the destruction of the Cabbage-worms. The specific character is given as follows t Male — expanse of wings about 1.75 inches. Ground color of both wings above, white. The tip of the fore wings and a round spot near the middle, black. The hind wings have a dash of the same color on the costa a little beyond the middle. Both wings dusky at base. Underside fore wings white, with black spots, the second near the hind angle, and the tip lemon-yellow, the same color reaching a little on the costa toward the bod}^ Hind wings uniform lemon-yellow. Both wings sprinkled somewhat near the base with gray scales. There is a variety of the male that has the same markings but the f round color above is lemon-yellow. Female — iffers from the male as follows' The color above is a light ochre-yellow instead of white. The marks are the same, except a second black dot near the hind angle of the fore wings; under- side, the lemon-yellow on both wings is more intense, and expands along the costa and outer margin of the fore wings. The body is black above in both sexes, but light beneath. The Turnip butterfly (Pierin oleracea) is so nearly related to the foregoing, that we give place to it here. Dr. Harris describes it as follows: About the last of May and the beginning of June it is seen fluttering over cabbage, radish, and turnip beds and patches of mustard for the purpose of depositing its eggs. These are fastened to the undersides of the leaves, and but seldom more than three or four are left upon one leaf. The eggs are yellowish, nearly pear-shaped, longi- tudinally ribbed, and are one-fifteenth of an inch in length. They are hatched in a week or ten days after they are laid, and the caterpillars pro- duced from them attain their full size when about three weeks old, and then measure about one inch and a half in length. Being of a pale green color, they are not easily distinguished from the ribs of the leaves beneath which they live. They do not devour the leaves at its edge, but begin indiscriminately upon any part of its underside through which they eat irregular holes. "When they have completed the feeding stage they quit the plants and retire beneath palings, or the edges of stones, or into the interstices of walls, where they spin a little tuft of silk, en- tangle the hooks of their hindermost feet in it, and then proceed to form a loop to sustain the fore part of their body in a horizontal or vertical position. On the next day it casts off its cater- pillar skin and becomes a chrysalis This is some- times of a pale green and sometimes of a white color, regularly and finely dotted with black , the sides of the body are angular, the head is sur- mounted by a conical tubercle, and over the fore part of the body, corresponding to the thorax of the included butterfly, is a thin projection having in profile some resemblance to a Roman nose. CACTUS 168 CALP The chrysalis state of the earlier broods lasts ten or twelve days, but the last brood does not come out till the following spring. Both- wings of the butterfly are white, without spots, but dusky next to the body. The underside of the wings are sometimes quite variable, the tips of the fore wings being greenish or lemon-yellow, with the veins of that portion bordered with gray scales, and the hind wings covered all over with these two colors; or, they maybe less intense though the gray scales along the. veins in the hind wings are usually very distinct. The body is a little lighter than the preceding species, and the an- tennse are tipped with light yellow instead of white. The expanse of the wings is about an inch and three-fourths. The ranges of this pest in the West for the last few years, has been so extensive in the market gardens of our large cities as to render the successful raising of mar- ketable cabbages almost impossible. Thus it is important that every means should be used to destroy the insects. Unfortunately, the fact that the head of the cabbage, the edible part, is di- rectly preyed on, renders it dangerous to employ poisonous compounds. In fact, scarcely any of the many remedies proposed have proved effectual. Chloride of lime in solution, has been reported to the editor of this work, by a success- ful German gardener, as the best known means in his country. Solutions of salt and various other compounds seem to have very little effect. Mr. P. T. Quin, of New Jersey, was successful in saving 75,000 cabbages with a loss of only five per cent, by using the following : Twenty parts of superphosphate, one part carbolic pow- der, and three parts air-slacked lime, all well mixed together and dusted freely over the plants and into the heads, at intervals of four days. The present season, 1880, we have noticed less than formerly of any of the species near Chicago, not enough to render anything but hand picking necessary. The probability is that persistent work heretofore, and the increase of pai-asitic insects, have caused the decline, a fact worthy the attention of all cabbage raisers. Assistance to the natural enemies always pays, where the destruction of any noxious insect is concerned, a fact not geneially known outside of those circles where science goes hand in hand with practice. CABBAGE TREE. Chammrops palmetto. (See Palmetto ) CACTUS. A tribe of fleshy plants, some of which are cultivated for their splendid flowers, and pleasant acid fruiis, the whole family be- ing curious in their habit of growth. There are several species of cactus, the principal in cultiva- tion being Cereus, Echinocactus, Mammillaria, and Opuniia. The well known Night-blooming Cereus, belongs to the first. The Hedge-hog cactuses to the second. The Prickly Pear he- longs to the Opuntias. EpipliyWum, known as Crab cactus, is also a species containing many fine varieties. These are usually grafted on peres- kia stocks, especially E. truncaium one of the finest of early winter bloomers and magnificent in every respect. The writer prefers Cereus Hexa- gonus, or Speciosisdmus, one grafted at a height of two feet, then allowing buds of the Cereus to start, and again grafting when it has grown six or eight inches, makes a very pretty combina- tion, different varieties being used. Take a shoot of epiphyllum two inches long, pare off the outer skin or bark half an inch or less, at the base, and then cut that which is to be inserted in a wedge- shape. Make an incision in the angles of the stock, or in the top, with a pointed stick of the shape of the graft, insert it, fasten it with a thin sliver of wood, cover with moss, place them in a rather warm, shady place, syringe over the top occasionally, and they should unite in two or three weeks. All the cactus tribe should be kept quite dry during the season of rest. They should only be kept moderately moist at any time. They all root freely from cuttings, or sections of the plants, taken when they are in a growing condition, and it is better that they be allowed to dry for some days, after being cut off, especially if pretty succulent. The illustration. Fig. 1, page 169, shows the fruit of the Giant cactus, {Cereus gigan- teus); Fig. 3, fruit of Prickly Pear, (Opiintia)/ Fig 3 shows one of the Hedge-hog cactus Echinocactus WisUzeni. There are many of the cactus tribe well adapted to window gardening, from their well known power of withstanding heat and drouth. At blooming-time, however, they require heat and moisture, not continual watering, but a soaking at intervals to keep the soil moist, and if an occasional watering be given with liquid manure, so much the better. CiESAltEAN OPERATION. The removal of a fcetus from its mother by cutting into the womb. OAF FEIN. A slightly bitter, white, silky principle obtained from coffee, tea, guarana, paullinia and some other plants. Liebig and others have shown that it may act as an assistant to other food in increasing the amount of bile formed, by furnishing nitrogen thereto. Aspara- gine and theobromine, analogous principles, act in like manner. CALAMINE. An absorbent for ulcerous sores and extensive burns. It is an impure car- bonate of zinc, prepared by roasting. An oint- ment made with calamine and lard is sometimes used to promote the healing of sores. CALANDRA. The genus of wheat weevils. (See Weevil.) CALCARATE. Flowers having a spur like the larkspur are so called. The spur is also called a nectarium. CALCAREOUS. Containing carbonate of lime, as calcareous marl, soils, sand, etc. (See Soils and Manures.) CALCINATION. The burning of substances to ashes. CALCIUM. The metallic base of lime, which is an oxide of calcium. A few electro-negative bodies, as sulphur, chlorine, fluorine, form salts directly with the metal, and are called sulphuret, chloride, fluoride of calcium, etc. CAI.*' SPAR. Crystallized carbonate of lime. CALCULI'S. Any solid, stony concretion formed in the bladder, gall-duct, etc. CALEFACIENT. Medicines that produce the sensation of warmth, as alcohol, are so called. CALF. The word signifies to throw out or vomit, thus the groove made in sawing, is called the saw-calf or carf . It also signifies a protuber- ance, as the calf of the leg — the swell of the mus- cles between the ankle and knee. It is among animals applied to the young of the bovine species, and among fishes to the young of the whale, and other warm-blooded species. In the rearing of calves, the farmer must have in view the purpose for which they are intended. If for beef, the young animals should be pushed forward, from. CALF 169 CALF flie time of birth, as fast as possible, and as they begin to eat solid food, should early be learned to eat grain. The bulls should be castrated at from four to six weelcs old, and the females spayed when tliey arrive at an age to bring them in heat. When tlie young are intended for working oxen, the dairy, or for breeding, it is not well that they be pushed so strongly, as when intended for beef. When they are intended for veal they should have the same care as when intended for beef, being fully fed with new milk, until six weeks or two mouths old, when they are ready for slaugh- ter. Some feeders for veal, especially dairy- men, remove tlie calf from the cow at two or three days, or a; week old, and feed by hadd, giving new milk for about ten days, and afterwards skimmed milk; and later butter- milk, supplemented with the mush of fine corn meal, and oil meal may be used. Thus, if placed in a clean, airy, but some- wliat dark, pen they become very fat. When intended for breeders, calves should have the same general treatment, but should be allowed to take full exercise. They should be kept in a well shaded pasture, with shelter where they may escape from the flies. This shel ter should be dark, which will ex- clude insects. Another shelter should be sup- plied, to which they can retire at will — sim- ply a structure covered with boughs but ad- mitting the air freely — the ob- ject sought be- ing shade, and a cool retreat. Thus they will soon learn to seek the dark quarter secure from flies, or tlie other light- er, cooler shade for rest. In rearing calves for breeders or milk, or when the steers are intended for working oxen, there is no objection to their running with their dams and taking the milk. In this case there will be no necessity to give grain the first summer. When weaned, which should be at the age of four to six montlis, they should be learned to eat grain — oats preferably — and during the first winter should have sufiicient grain to keep them growing, but not fat ; simply in good muscular SPECIES OP CACTUS. CALF 170 CALF •coudition. The same rule will apply to breeders and animals destined to become dairy cows. They should not be kept fat, but in good growing, mus- cular condition. See articles xm Cattle, Bairy, live ■Stock, WorMng Cattle, etc. Upon the sub- ject of thorough-breds Mr. .Charles Lowder, of Indiana, at a convention of Short-Horn Breeders, in relation to the management of calves, held the following: Upon the care bestowed upon them during the first year of their lives depends their size and value as neat cattle. Abuse and ill-treat- ment during the early life of the calf can never be overcome in subsequent years. The calf, when dropped, should be allowed to remain from twenty- four to forty-eight hours with the dam, unless some very extraordinary circumstances make it necessary to remove it. Calves will, in a majority •of cases, get upon their feet and take the teats in due time ; but if one should be too weak from any cause to be up within one or two hours after birth, some of the first milk or biestings should be drawn from the cow and given to it. If the cow should, from after pain or mere indifference, fail to give it proper attention, the herdsman should have it well rubbed with a woolen cloth until dry, and its hair nicely laid by means of a camel-hair brush. After one or two days the calf should be removed from the cow and taken to the stall, where it should be tied fast by means of a leather strap around the neck, or with a head -halter made to fit, which is preferable. It should be allowed to suck the teat three times a day until about two weeks old, and should be led to and from the cow by the ialter. If it has been well handled it will by this time be quite gentle and well broken. It may now be turned out so as to have fresh air, sunlight, and plenty of exercise. If a steer, and intended to be fed tor the shambles, this exercise is not necessary. In that case the more quiet and com- fortable he can be kept, and the more highly fed, the greater will be the net profits. If the calf, wliether male or female, is to be grown to matur- ity for breeding purposes, the treatment should be quite diflferent. In the first place the object is to develop the greatest possible amount of soft ■flesh and fat without any regard to the healthy development of the vital organs, as the heart, lungs, liver, etc. In the latter case due regard must be had for the uniform development and per- fect health of every organ and part of the system. Without exercise the muscular part of the system •of young and growing animals is not fully devel- oped, and in the mature animal becomes enfeebled. The heart, being no exception to the law, becomes to some extent diseased, while the liver and kid- neys share the same fate. "With- all the vital organs ■enfeebled, the animal is not prepared to with- stand the sudden change of temperature to which it is sometimes exposed. As like tends to produce like, animals with diseased and enfeebled vital organs should not be selected to breed from. Those engaged in rearing calves have several things to take into consideration If the cow is an inferior beef-breed, the milk from her may be worth more to make into butter or cheese than to be given to the calf. In that case the calf shouldbe sent to the butcher as soon as old enough to kill But if the calf is of good beef -stock, and is to be raised to maturity for that purpose, or to breed from, it should be allowed to suck twice a day until four, five, or six months old. If an early- spring calf, it will learn to eat grass during the suminer, and can be weaned in the fall without much, if any, loss of flesh. If a fall calf, it will soon learn to eat oats, hay, bran, or sheltered corn, and as the grass starts in the spring it can be weaned without any check to its growth, the grass answering the place of milk to some extent. When calves are allowed to suck twice a day, care should be taken that they do not get too much milk, as they may become sick, and fail to make as great gains as they would on a less quantity. In case of scours, a little chalk well powdered and placed in a trough, or in some place where it will attract their attention, will frequently be of good service to them. Calves intended for steers should be castrated when about two weeks old. The male calves that are to be reared and kept for breeding purposes, should be removed from the females at one or two months old, and placed in a lot inclosed by a permanent fence, and should not be allowed to run with other cattle afterwards. The heifers at one year old should be removed from all other cattle, and placed in a lot by them- selves. At this age, if they have been well fed, they will express their desire for male company, by a great deal of restlessness. If allowed to run with steers or older females they will be worried a great deal to no purpose. Heifers fifteen or eighteen months old are much more likely to get in calf than when they are kept from breeding until two or two and a half years old, especially if they are fed highly on grain, and are inclined to take on fat. The milking qualities of heifers depend much upon the kind and amount of food they receive while carrying their first calf. They should be in perfect health and in a thriving condition, and kept in full flesh until after calving. If they have been properly handled while calves, and up to the time when they are milked the first time, there will be no trouble in breaking them. In relation to the artificial feeding of calves, the following will be interesting: Prof. E. W. Stewart, New York, fed a miscellaneous lot of ten calves wholly upon skim-milk. The milk was all weighed daily and the calves each week. It required of milk for one pound gain — first week, 11.02 pounds; second week, 12.18 pounds; third week, 1317 pounds; fourth week, 13.40 pounds; fifth week, 14 60 pounds; sixth week, 15.05 pounds; seventh week, 16.71 pounds; eighth week, 16.80 pounds; ninth week, 17.01 pounds; fenth week, 16.08 pounds; eleventh week, 16 pounds; twelfth week, 15.90 pounds. The decrease of milk to make one pound live weight, beginning the tenth week, was caused by the calves learning to eat grass. These calves were each weighed separately, as was the milk fed to each, and the gain was very unequal in different calves, as they were not a uniform lot; but the result stated is the average of the ten. In further illustrating this subject, Mr. A. L. Bradburj', of New "iork State, in reply to the question. How soon can we begin to substitute other food than milk for our calves? answered: Not the first week, for the calf should have the milk of its dam for one week at least. Now, if we wish to commence to substitute something instead of milk, he must be taken from the cow and taught to drink and feed the same elements of nutrition the milk contains. One quart of milk contains about one and a half ounces of butter, one ounce of sugar, one and a half ounces of caseine, and seventy grains of bone matter. Experiments have shown that one pound •CALF 171 CAMEL of oil or fat is equal to two and a half pounds of starch or sugar; thus one quart of milk contains of flesh-forming material one and a half ounces, of fat or heat-givinCT material four and one-eighth ounces, or * Jj3tal of five and five-eighth ounces of nutritive elements. Now, -if vis lake out one ounce of butter to a quart of milk, we shall have removed one-half of its value for the calf, wliich we must make up in quantity by doubling up, or substituting starch in the form of buckwheat flour, at the rate of two and a half 'ounces for every ounce of butter taken away. The better plan is to gradually substitute skimmed milk for' the new by adding new milk with warm skimmed milk for its morning and evening meals, and giving it skimmed milk al noon, for it should be fed three times per day at least. When the calf is four weeks old it will do well enough on skimmed milk alone, provided it can have enough, with always keeping good sweet hay by it. Reared in this way, we have our milk for use in the dairy and get much better calves than in the ordinary way of letting them draw the milk themselves until they are ten or twelve weeks old, then taking them away at once. A calf should not be weaned until it is four or five months old. In a cheese-dairy whey and oatmeal can be substituted for skimmed milk, after the calf is two months old, with good success. Another method of raising calves is as follows: For the first week I let them have half of the milk; then I take them off and teach them to drink. X let the milk stand from twenty-four to thirty-six hours, skim it, warm it milk-warm, and give it to them, six quarts to a feed, twice a day for the first week or fortnight; then I in- crease the quantity so as to give them all that the cow will give. When they are about four weeks old, I put a little shorts, oatmeal, or oats, cooked potatoes or crusts of bread, in a trough "Where they can get at it. After they get so as to eat too much, I allowance them to about a pint and a half of oats a day, or something equivalent; and so ri*ht on until they are six or eight months •old, increasing the feed. I give them milk until they are four months old. If you want to carry the calves up to great growth early, keep them up for eight months; but' I usually turn them •out to grass when four months old. Tlie first winter I feed some roots with good dry grass, -not hay. ' I have by this system of feeding ma- tured my Jersey calves at seventeen months old. Mr. L. C. Fisher, of Vermont, raises calves as follows: At the age of two days old he takes the calf from the cow, and teaches it to drink its own dam's milk mixed with skimmed milk twelve hours old. At the age of ten days he feeds it exclusively with skimmed milk twelve ■hours old; at fifteen days, twenty-four hours; at two months, thirty-six ; at three months, thick milk, with what dry sliorts it will take. As often as once in six weeks he dissolves a piece of saltpeter, as large as a robin's egg, in the milk. He says: With plenty of milk, shorts, early-cut hay, water, and exercise, a calf can be grown from two to three pounds a day for a year. It will be seen from the extracts given, that the testimony of experts is in one direction to feed well, having consideration to the use intended. Yet not one farmer in one hundred does this, and hence the great bulk of calves are allowed to shift for themselves to a great extent, the owners ^depending upon extra feed at some time in the future, or else upon selling the immature animals to other feeders. The loss, however, always comes upon the individual who has failed in his duty while the animal was young; the loss of flesh during the winter having to be regained during the summer,, so that the animal must be \ept one ot two years -extra -to make -up this loss. A loss in fact never fully recovei-ed. CALKS, or CALKINS. The parts of a horse- shoe turned downward to prevent slipping on pavements and other smooth surfaces. Calking is the cutting, by the calk of the shoe, by step- ping on the coronet of the opposite foot, often making a bad wound difficult to heal. The cut should be covered with hot pitch, filling the cavity, and then bound up to prevent the ani- mal getting dirt in it. In any case it should be kept clean and free of dirt. CALLA. There are four species, chiefly green-house, herbaceous perennials. The genus belongs to the Arum family. C Palustris, is a native of Northern Europe, and is found in bays and marshes in the United States. The well- known Calla Lily( C.^thiopica) iscommonin many windows in winter, and much admired. It is strictly an aquatic plant, but will give a profusion of bloom if potted in a six or eight inch pot, according to the size of the tubers, in rather strong, rich loam, and freely watered with warm (tepid) water. It is all the better if the pot be placed in a saucer, constantly kept full of water. The cool purity of its great spathes of pure white flowers, and the length of time it remains in bloom, make it a general favorite. When bloomed in winter, the pots should be plunged into the open ground about the first of June, and allowed to gradually dry off. The tubers may then be repotted in September or October, break- ing off all small oflE-sets, and will thus furnish yearly bloom, the plants increasing in size from year to year. CALLUS. When the bone of an animal is broken by accident, nature restores the union by depositing bony matter around the loose extrem- ities, and thus fixing them. This deposit is sometimes called a callus ; it should be absorbed after the limb is reestablished. In a general sense, a callus is any induration, as the palms of a working man, a tumor becoming indurated; in fact any induration of the skin or its tissues. CALOMEL. The sub-chloride of mercury. A medicine formerly much used to produce an increased secretion of bile and purgation, and a component of many live-stock medicines. It is now far less used for man or beast than for- merly. CALORIC. Heat, or pertaining to the matter of heat. Really the source of the phenomena in nature producing force. (See Heat.) CALYX. Thf outer green case of flowers. It protects the internal parts. It is colored in many plants, as in tulips, hyacinths, etc. CAMBIUM. The viscid secretion separating the alburnum from the liber in the spring. It affords the materials out of which the new wood and bark are partly made, and disappears in a short time, or when the season's growth is finished. During the deposit of the cambium the bark easily peels. CAMEL. A genus of ruminant animals with- out horns, and probably among the first, if not the first of animals domesticated by man. So long has the camel (called the ship of the desert) CAMPHOR been domesticated that its original country can not be definitely fixed; though Diodorus and Strabo mention it as existing wild in the deserts of Arabia, and Desmoulins asserts that it so' existed there in the time of the Emperor Hadrian. The probability is, that even these animals escaped from domestication, as have those, probably, still said to exist in the wilds of Central Africa and Asia. In desert regions it is the most valuable of servants. Attempts have been made to domesti- cate the camel in the United States. (See Article on Acclimation ) CAMELLIA JAPONICA. A beautiful ever- green, green-house shrub, much sought afterf or its elegant flowers, in various tints of red to pure white. There are numberless varieties, but it is not adapted to house culture, since the plants are apt to drop their buds. CAMPANULA. Canterbury-bell. This is a hardy perennial, blooming profusely, in long spikes, the flowers being borne in succession along the stem. It is of the easiest cultivation, 173 CANCER. /////; .III. CANTERBUET-BKLL. only requiring a well-drained soil, but is better, as all flowers are, for a covering in winter. Sow the seeds in the spring, and transplant to the border. If sown in a hot-bed and transplanted once before being finally put into the border, they will blossom the first season, but require the second or third year to come into their full vigor of blossoming. It is also called Bell-flower, a name common to other flowers of the bell shape. The cut shows tlie flower, natural size, and also plant reduced at the left. Of late years many of our old-fashioned flowers have been discarded for newer and more fashionable ones of less beauty. The old-fashioned Canterbury-bell should not be one to be cast aside. CAMPANULATE. Bell-shaped; applied to flowers of that figure, as the Canterbury-bell. CAMPHOR. A solid essential oil consisting of carbon and hydrogen. It is a nervous seda- tive, soothing pain. It is obtained in the crude state by distilling tlie twigs, roots, etc., of sev- eral plants, chiefly the Laurus camphora and Di-yobnlanops eamplwra, trees of tropical Asia. Camphor is peculiarly disagreeable to in- sects which infest cloth and woolen goods. The solution in alcohol is the commonest form of the medicine. A solution in oil is an admir- able embrocation to painful sprains, rheuma- tism, etc. Camphor is found in numerous herbs, especially peppermint, rosemary, thyme, lavender, etc. The quantity is minute. CANADA THISTLE. (See Thistle.) CANADIAN PONT. The Canadian pony is. distinct in many characteristics and was, un doubt- edly, originally derived from the French horses brought over to Canada in its earliest settle- ment. Dwarfed by generations of exposure and semi-wildness, and subsequently crossed upon various stocks of horses introduced into Canada, these nervous animals are valuable in propor- tion to the characteristic points of the supposed original progenitors, the Norman, or Percheron Horses. Their characteristics are : Head rather large, but lean and well-formed; forehead broad; ears wide apart, but upright; the eye small, clear, bright, and indicating spirit and courage; the shoulders strong, rather straight, with somewhat low, heavy withers, but with a broad, full chest; the body compact, inclining to flatness, but with firm, muscular loins; the croup rQjand and fleshy, with muscular thighs; the legs heavy-looking, with large joints, but with sound, flat bones; the feet are hard, tough, and of the very best, so that the limbs and feet are the perfeciion of form for beauty and endur- ance; the average height is about fourteen hands; the mane and tail are very heavy, and with a peculiar wavy form, and the back sinews and fetlocks are also covered with long, and often shaggy hair. The principal colors are black and brown, but chestnuts are not infre- quent. Occasionally a dark iron-gray is found, with black legs, mane and tail. These are es- pecially prized. Sorrels and dun-colored ani- mals are not uncommon. These have lighter manes and tails than the darker colored ponies, and are probably the result of crosses wilL the English blooJl horse. The Canadian pony, though not speedy, is capable of pulling the trotting load of a horse at the rate of six to seven miles an hour, and this, day in and day out, up and down hill, and on a level. They are easily kept, docile, spirited, of undaunted courage and perseverance, and sure-footed on the worst possible ground. Crosses of thorough- bred, on Canadian mares of good form and action have produced some wonderful trotting and pacing, as witness the get of St. Lawrence. We have one in mind, now, owned by a promi- nent butcher of Chicago; a Utile black mare, now fourteen years old, that has pulled her owner to and from the city daily for six years, a distance- of seven miles, never requiring more than forty ' minutes, and capable at any time of showing a three-minute gait, whether trotting or pacing. As a rule they are somewhat headstrong ; but if properly trained, they make nice pony teams that an invalid lady may fearlessly drive. CANCELLATE. Full of cells, as the ends of long bones. Cellular, as the porous structure of bones. In botany, consisting of a network of veins without intermediate parenchyma, as in the. leaves of certain plants. CANCER. A malignant tumor, at first hard and painful, afterward ulcerous, attacking glands. CANKER WORM 173 CANKER WORM ■chiefly. The only remedy is extirpation, which should be done as soon as its nature is dis- •covered. Cancer of the eye is not uncommon in cattle and horses, produced probably by blows and ill-usage. CANE srGAE. (See Sugar ) CANIS. The generic name of the dog species. CANKKR IN THE HORSE. The separation •of the hoof from the fleshy parts of the leg, at- tended with a diseased growth. Pressure and caustics are necessary, with rest, for a cure. Cast the horse, and cut away all diseased growths, touch the diseased parts with nitrate ■of silver, pack with dry tow and put on a leather boot, and apply pressure, moderately tight to the fetlock Soak away the dressing in two . One of the rancid acids of butter. Capric acid is very similar. CAPSICUM. The generic name of the red pepper. CAPSULE. In botany, a dry, membranous seed-vessel, generally splitting spontaneously into several parts, or valves. In chemistry, a thin porcelain or other ware standing heat, or a met- allic basin for evaporating fluids. CARAWAY. The seed of Caiimi carui, used in confections and medicine, gratefjul to the stomach, and slightly stimulant. The seedsare sown in drills six inches apart, early in spring. The plants must be weeded and hoed, or the land otherwise kept clear. They flower in June, and the seeds ripen in autumn. The roots are perennial, and yield well for three years. As. much as a ton of seed is taken from an acre in good tilth, but it is an exhausting crop, and in the United S-tates is not much cultivated. CARBON. Carbon is one of the most common, as it is one of the most important subst^inces in nature, occurring in a great variety of forms, in tlie animal, vegetable and mineral kingdoms. In both the vegetable and animal kingdoms it is the most considerable element. Charcoal may be con- sidered the type of carbon, since, prepared from animal and vegetable substances, it is pure, or CARDAMOMS 176 CARROT nearly so. Lampblack is also nearly pure carbon. The carbon of anthracite coal is pui-e. The dia- mond is crystallized carbon, and when colorless, is pure and uncontaminated. Carbon resists tlie influence of many re- agents which powerfully affect other bodies, and to the farmer it is one of the most important of the elements. In vegeta- tion it is taken up by plants as carbonic acid. If one atom of carbon is combined with two atoms of oxygen, it forms carbonic acid, and these ele- ments compose the organic part of all plants. This is contained in the air alone in sufficient quantity for the growth of plants. Although the air contains only l-10,000th parts of carbonic acid, yet so enormous is the supply that the atmosphere of the earth contains 8,400,000,000, 000 tons of car- bonic acid or about twenty-eight tons for each acre of the earth's surface. The supply is main- tained by the oxydation of carbon in the decay of all organic matter, in the respiration of animals, and in the combustion of fuel. In the animal economy carbon is one of the most essential ele- ments. Starch, sugar and the gum of plants, fur- nish carbon. The fat of animals is largely com- posed of carbon, and large amounts are exhaled in the form of carbonic acid by animals in the act of breathing. Carbon constitutes about 42.47 per cent, in sugar, 41.906 per cent, in gum, 43.55 per cent, in wheat starch, 53.58 per cent, in the wood of the oak, and 51.45 in that of the beech; 46.83 in pure acetic acid or vinegar, 36.167 in tartaric acid, and 41.369 in citric. CARBONATES. Minerals or salts containing carbonic acid. These are all readily known by the effervescence they produce when thrown into strong acids. The principal native carbonates are marble, limestone, and chalk, which are car- bonates of lime. CARBONIC ACID. The gas formed by burn- ing charcoal in the open air. It is also given out from fermenting and putrefying bodies. It is colorless, heavy, incapable of sustaining combus- tion. suffocating, and soluble in water. It is formed of one atom of carbon (6) and two of oxygen (16) and unites with oxides in the proportion of 33. Fertile soils containing vegetable matter give it off during their dfecay. It is one of the principle articles of vegetable nutriment since from car- bonic acid is obtained the carbon of their wood, sugar, and other principles. Light decomposes it in plants, and a part of its oxygen is thrown out by the leaves. The dissolved carbonic acid in rain and spring water is invaluable in the soil, serving to disintegrate hard rocks and dissolve minerals necessary for plants. It is this gas that gives sprightliness to beer, soda water, champagne and other effervescing fluids. CARBONIC OXIDE. An inflammable gas consisting of one atom carbon and one oxygen. CARBONIFEROUS. Relating to coal. Coal bearing. The carboniferous age is that geological age in which limestone and other carboniferous rocks and minerals were formed. So also the coal fields of the earth were formed during the carboniferous age. CARBURETS. Compounds in which carbon is united with a metal or other body. Plumbago (black lead) is a carburet of iron and one of the purest forms of carbon. CARBURETTED HYDROGEN. Marshgas, and the gas used for lighting cities. CARCINOMA. A cancerous tumor. CARDAMOMS. The seeds of the Aipinia cardamomum of the East Indies. They are used as an aromatic. CAR in AC. Relating to the heart. CARDOON. The Cynnra curdvnculus. The stalks of the blanched inner leaves are used as salad, in soups, etc., the seed is sown in April, in rich earth; it requires nearly a month to start; the plants must be thinned tofi ve inches apart. Ti'ans- plant in June, and allow four feet each; dress each plant like celery. As they grow tie up the leaves and earth up several times; they may thus be obtained two feet high. They are to be taken up during winter, like celery. They are in perfec- tion from autumn through the winter. An ounce of seed produces 600 young plants. For seeds protect the plant without blanching, through the winter, and it will flower in the following July. The cardoon is scarcely cultivated in the United States. CARDUUS. The generic name of numerous thistles. (See Thistles.) C-\REX, The genus of sedges and rushes. CARIES. Mortification or ulceration of any bone. It gradually produces the destruction of the part, and can only be arrested by scraping out every diseased portion. Rotten bone. Necrosis, is a decay of the bone, from founder, poll-evil, or inflammations attacking the bone. The treatment consists in cutting down to the bone, scraping it, and removing all decayed parts ; then wash the wound with diluted carbolic acid. This should be performed by a veterinary surgeon, or one who understands the anatomy of the horse. Caries of the face is called Big Head. This form is scarcely ever worthy an attempt at cure, even in the case of a valuable breeding animal, since it is no doubt hereditary, in some cases at least. rABMINATITE. Anymedicine that dispels flatulency and relieves the uneasiness of the stomach. The best are caraways, ginger, anise- seed, cardamoms, especially as tinctures or dis- solved in alcohol. Caraways powdered in doses of half a teaspoonful given in warm water, re- peated if necessary, is one of the best remedies known for simple colic or flatulency. For tor- pidity of the digestive organs, a dose in the food may be given a horse once or twice a week with benefit . CARNIVORA. The race of animals that live on animal food. Carnivorous: eating animal food. CAROTID ARTERY. The large arteries that carry blood to the head. There is one on each side of the neck, known by their strong pulsation. CARPEL. Each division or cell of a fruit is a carpel. The number of carpels, or carpellary leaves, is as the number of divisions in the pistil, which is the uppermost part of the carpel. CARROT. This esculent root, (Dancus carota) is a half hardy biennial in the North, and is said to be indigenous to some parts of Great Britain. Wild, it is of no value; as a cultivated plant, it is used in various ways for the table, and is one of the most valuable roots cultivated for stock. The carrot should have a good light, rich loam. If manured, it should have been done the pre- vious year, since green manure causes all esculent roots to grow forked and otherwise ill-shaped. The soil should be carefully and deeply plowed, brought into a state of fine tilth, and leveled smooth. In the kitchen garden, the drills may be as near as twelve inches, the plants thinned to CASSAVA 177 CASTOR-OIL BEAN three Inches, and subsequently to six inches if large roots are desired In field culture the rows are made two feet apart, for ease in horse cultiva- tion, and the seed should be sown pretty thickly and at a depth of three quarters of an inch to one inch. All weeds mast be kept down, and the plants ultimately thinned to a distance of three or four inches apart Sow in the spring, as soon as the ground is in good working condition. On loams it is better that the ground be fall-plowed rough, and the soil brought into tilth before sow- ing. All farm stock are fond of the roots. They are especially valuable for horses and milch cows, fed at the rate of a peck a day for horses, and half a bushel per day for cows. For garden cul- ture, the Early Horn is the most desirable for summer, and Early Half Long Scarlet for win- ter. The latter is also a good field variety. For field crops, the Yellow Intermediate, Long Orange, and Altringham are generally sown, the Belgian and other European field carrots not being in repute in the United States. An ounce ■contains 24,000 seeds, and will sow from 150 to 200 feet of garden drill. Three or four pounds per acre are usually sown in field culture, and the plants thinned first with a narrow tool, and subsequently by hand in weeding. CA BT- HO USE. (See English Cart-horse .) CARTILAGE. The same as gristle. It is almost identical in composition with skin, and yields, when perfectly dry, eighteen per cent, of nitrogen. It is one of the proteine compounds CAETA. The generic name of the hickory, "which see. • ARYOPHILLOUS. Flowers like the pink and clove are so called. CASCARILLA BARE. The bark of a tree, Craton eleuthenn. A drug having powerful tonic and aromatic qualities. C VSEINE. A substance identical in its com- position and properties with legumin, hence called Vegetable Caseine, and found in certain leguminous plants. Caseine is the curd or coagu lable portion of milk from which cheese is made. It is one of the proteine bodies, or albuminoids, divided into three sub-groups, the type of the first being albumen, nearly pure in the white of eggs ; of the second fibrin, or animal muscle ; of the thiid, caseine, or the curd of milk. Caseine, therefore, may be either animal or vegetable. Caseine contains in addition to carbon, oxygen and hydrogen, from fifteen to eighteen per cent, of nitrogen, with a small quantity of sulphur, and sometimes phosphates. Its chemical com- position is as follows: Pakts. Carbon... Hydrogen Oxygen . Nitrogen 53.6 r.o 3.3.7 15.8 100.0 Vegetable. 53.5 7.1 23.4 16 100.0 Caseine constitutes the most nourishing portion of milk, and, as a rule, those foods are most nourishing which contain the greatest portion of caseine. <'AS'-'OUS and TASEUM. (See Caseine.) CASHMERE GOAT. (See Goat.) TASSiVA. The starch obtained from the roots of the Jatrophamanihot of the West Indies. CASTANEA, The generic name of the chest- nut-tree. CASTOR-OIL BEAN. Ricinus communis, sometimes called Palma Chriati, from the shape of its leaves. In the tropics this plant attains an immense size and lives for years. In Texas it strongly shows this perennial tendency. It is cultivated for its seeds, from which is expressed the well-known Castor Oil of commerce, once used solely as a medicine, but now used as a lubricator and for other purposes in the indus- tries. It is cultivated as far north as 40 degrees, and constitutes an important agricultural indus- try. As showing its perennial tendency, and also yield at the South, we find that B, C. Franklin, of Galveston, had a plant in his garden the stem of which was seven inches in diameter, and that it had yielded seed for eight years. Captain Slaight, of Chapel Hill, relates a similar experi- ence. Mr. Mclntire, of Washington, reports having raised seventy bushels per acre, and E. Bell, of Gonzales, raised an hundred bushels on one acre. The plant is quite obnoxious to in- sects, and its freedom from their ravages is a strong point in favor of its culture in sections ravaged by locusts. The principal losses attend- ing its cultivation in the extreme South arise from planting the small, light-colored bean of Missouri and Illinois, instead of the large seed appropriate to the climate of Texas and Florida; from planting too thickly; and from mismanage- ment at harvesting. In the North the yield is from ten to thirty bushels per acre, according to soil and cultivation. It is not much cultivated north of 40° of latitude. The soil best suited to the plant is a light, rich, sandy loam, although any dry, fertile soil will produce good crops. In the South the seed is planted in rows six feet apart. In the North it is planted at almost the same distance as Indian corn, leaving rows at suitable intervals wide enough so a horse and light sled may pass along in gathering the seeds . Three or four seeds are usually planted, since the cut worms sometimes ravage the young plants. When the plants are six inches high they are thinned to one plant, the cultivation being pre- cisely similar to that of Indian Corn. The seeds begin to ripen from the first to the 30th of August, according to latitude, and will continue to ripen until the plants are killed by frost. Before the ripening of the seeds, a yard for spreading the pods must be prepared. This is generally selected on some knoll, or other hard, dry spot. The ground is cleared and beaten perfectly hard and smooth, and if declining slightly to the sun so much the better. The first ripenings should stand until the pods on the spikes begin to crack. Later the spikes may be cut as soon as two or three beans begin to open. They are carried to the drying yard and spread thinly. The heat causes the beans to pop out of the pods. In warm weather two or three days will suffice. When all are out, the heads are raked off, and the seed cleaned through a fan- ning mill, with a suitable screen, and then spread on a floor, or other suitable place, safe from rain, being turned occasionally until quite dry. When the plantation is sufficiently extensive it is better that drying houses be prepared for the pods, and also moderate kilns for drying the beans; for thus much loss is obviated, in drying, fr( im wet weather, and also from mold in the packages in which the beans are packed. But in dry CATALPA 178 CATECHU countries, as California this is not necessary. The analysis of Castor Oil Beans, French and Ameri- can, is stated to be as follows: Parts. Moisture Oil Matter extrncted by alcohal and water Starcli Albuminoids Cellulose Inorganic matter 4.40 46.05 • 6.35 8.875 3.788 25,50 2.90 98.763 m. 4.35 47.78 4 10 45.55 4.20 9.81 3.10 27.22 2.90 4.40 12.50 2.40 27.70 2.94 99.36 99.59 No. I represents the composition of a sample of Bicinua aangtiinanus grown in Texas; No. II, the same variety grown in France ; while No. Ill represents that of a sample of Micinus minor grown in Prance. It thus appears that, so far as the oil-contents of the seeds are concerned, the American sample is about as valuable as the European. The following are the results of an analysis of the mineral matters contained in the beans of the Bicinus sanguinarius: Lime 11.31 Chlorine 0.89 Magnesia 7.33 Potassa 39.52 Peroxide of iron.... 0.89 Soda 8.75 Phosphoric acid 38.65 Sulphuric acid.. .. 2.21 99.56 In the West, Southern Illinois, Central Missouri and Kansas, large quantities of Castor Beans are grown for the oil, and this industry is on the increase in Central and Southern Kansas. CA I'ALPA. Of this most valuable timber and ornamental tree there are two varieties, Ca- talpa bignonioides and C ^eciosa, both Nortli American species of excellence, although the variety upeeiosa was discovered and named many years ago by Dr. Warder. The two species, until wilhin the last few years, have, even by able botanists, not been considered distinct. The var e.y lyjnonioides is decidedly tender north of 40 degrees. It is a more spreading tree in its habits than C apeoiosa, which variety is the tree native to the West and indigenous to the forests of Central Indiana and Illinois, and the South, and hardy up to the latitude of 43 degrees. It is a tree worthy of extensive planting everywhere south of 43°, being a fast growing tree, erect and reaching a height of eighty to ninety feet, with a diameter of two feet in its native forests. It is among the most valuable of western trees for posts, or any use where extreme durability is required. It is superior to white cedar in re- spect to lasting qualities, and the timber takes a fine polish. Its leaves and flowers are handsome. The leaves put forth late and are cast after the first frost. The seeds are contained in a long, slender cylindrical pod, often eighteen inches long. The seeds are arranged in a long, narrow, membranous wing, peculiarly feathered. The committee on Forestry of the Iowa Horticultu- ral society, 1877, says of it: A variety now grown quite extensively in central Iowa seems as hardy as any of our native trees. The writer (presumably Mr. J. L. Budd) has trees now five years set, largo enough for small posts for wire fences, which have had open exposure north of 42d parallel, during the past severe winters. Dr. Warder, Mr. C. C. Barney of Ohio, Mr. E.Y.Teas, of Indiana, Robert Douglas and Jonathan Periam, of Illinois, and others, have done much to bring- this valuable tree to notice, and this under the con- tinual antagonism of some eastern scientific men, who have persisted in stating that there is but one variety The discussion on the catalpa Is now substantially closed. It is demonstrated beyond doubt that the hardy variety, C. speciosa, is not, only distinct, but is a tree native to our western forests, superior in habit and hardiness to O. big- nonioides, and its equal in every other respect. Planters, however, should know the source from, whence they get their seed. It is not safe even that they be gotten from western trees, since oc- casionally the tender variety, widely distributed from eastern nurseries, may be found growing in the west, and bearing seed. The seed of speci- osa is somewhat larger than bigv^nioides, but the differences, either in the pod or seed, would not be noticed, except by a botanist It is easily- raised from seed, grows fast, and is in every way a valuable tree anywhere south of 42°, and even north, in protected situations. Among the- ornamental varieties not entirely hardy, C. Bun- gei is quite dwarf, and C. Kmmpferi, the Japan. catalpa, is one of the most handsome. CATARACT. An afl:ection of the eye caus- ing blindness. Albugo, eye spot or white spot, causes defect in the eyesight. Moon blindness is periodic ophthalmia, or recurring at specific intervals until at length the animal becomes blind. In buying a horse examine the eyes, particularly to see if they are exactly alike. If cataract is suspected, turn the horse's head fronr the strong light, dilate the eye by rubbing a little belladonna on the lid, shade the eye and examine carefully. Cataract is operated on by extract- ing or couching. Bj' the first operation, an incision is made into the eye, and the opaque lens taken out; by the second, it is depressed by the point of a couching needle thrust into the- eye, and, being carried to the lower part of the- chamber of the eye or vitreous humour, it is left- there to be absorbed. The first operation is the- more effective, but the more hazardous of the two, owing to the inflammation which succeeds. The second is tedious and sometimes fails, but it is free from the risk of inflammation. CATARRH. A cold. Ihe irritation of the- mucous membrane of the nostrils, a disease to which horses and especiall}' hogs are subject in some of its forms. It may degenerate into nasali gleet, bronchitis, or chronic cough, influenza, etc. For cold in the head use no purgatives, or- other harsh medicines. Do not bleed, or use irritants as drenches. This will apply also to- all diseases of the breathing organs. Keep the animal warm, steam the nostrils with the steam of hot water in which a red hot iron is placed. Dissolve two or three ounces of nitre in a bucket' of water for drink occasionally and, if necessary, one drachm each of belladonna and powdered camphor, made into a ball. If there is much fever, give two drachms each of ammonia and ether in half a pint of linseed oil or gruel. Good food and nursing, however, are all important CATCH-DRAINS. The lower ditches of irri- gated lands which receive the water, that has flowed over their surface, and return it to the stream. CATECHU. A drug of a very astringent or binding nature. It is also used in dyeing browns and in tanning. CATERPILLAR 179 CATERPILLAR CATERPILLAR. Caterpillars are the young or larvfE of butterflies and moths, and being all vegetable eaters and extremely voracious, inferior only to locusts and grasshoppers, may be classed as among the most destructive of insects to vegetation. They are found everywhere, in every climate where vegetation exists, and are exceedingly fecund. The females lay from 300 to 500 eggs each, so that of the nearly 4,000 species enumerated, as belonging to the United States, their numbers in prolific seasons are almost beyond calculation. Caterpillars exist in a great variety of forms, from almost microscopic ones up to the immense tobacco and tomato worm. We give cuts of two smooth and two hairy species, which will serve for illustration. Dr. Harris, in Insects Injurious to Vegetation, defines caterpillars as follows: Caterpillars vary greatly in form and appearance, but in general, their bodies are more or less cylindrical, and are SMOOTH CATEEPILLAR. composed of twelve rings or segments, with a shelly head, and from ten to sixteen legs. The first three pairs of legs are covered with a shelly skin, are jointed and tapering, and are armed at the end with a little claw; the other legs are thick 'and fleshy, without joints, but elastic or contractile, and are generally surrounded at the extremity by numerous minute hooks. There are six very small eyes on each side of the head, two short antennae, and strong jaws or nippers. placed at the sides of the mouth, so as to open and shut sidewise. In the middle of the lower Iip_ is a little conical tube, from which the insects spin the silken threads that are used by them in making their nests and their cocoons, and in various other purposes of their economy. Two long and slender bags, in the interior of their bodies, and ending in the spinning tube, contain the matter of the silk. This is a sticky fluid, and it flows from the spinner in a fine .stream, which hardens into a thread so soon as it comes to the air. Some caterpillars make but very little silk; others, such as the silk-worm and the apple-tree caterpillar, produce it in great abundance. Some caterpillars herd together in great numbers, and pass the entire period of their existence in society; and of these there are species which unite in their labors, and construct tents serving as a common habitation in which they live, or to which they retire occasionally for shelter. Others pass their lives in solitude, either exposed to the light and air, or sheltered in leaves folded over their bodies, or form for themselves silken sheaths, which are either fixed or portable. Some make their abodes in the stems of plants, or mine in the pulpy substance of leaves; and others conceal themselves in the ground, from which they issue only when in search of food. Caterpillars usually change their skins about four times before they come to their growth At length they leave off eating entirely, and prepare for their first transformation. Most of them, at this period, spin around their bodies a sort of shroud or cocoon, into which some interweave the hairs of their own bodies, and some employ, in the same way, leaves, bits of wood, or even grains of earth. Still other species of our caterpillars suspend themselves, in various ways, by silken threads, without enclosing Iheir bodies in cocoons; and, again, there are species which merely enter the earth to undergo f heir transform- ations. "When the caterpillar has thus prepared itself for the approaching change, by repeated exertions and struggles, it bursts open the skin on tlie top of its back, withdraws the fore part of its body, and works the skin backwards until the hinder extremity is extricated. It then no longer appears in the caterpillar form, but has become a pupa or chrytiilis, shorter Ihan the caterpillar, and at first sight apparently without a head or limbs. On i close examination, how- ever, there may be found traces of a head, tongue, antennae, wings and legs, closely press- ed to the body, to which these parts are cement- ed by a kind of varnish. Some chrysalides are angular, or furnished with little protuberances; but most of them are smooth, rounded at one end, and tapering at the other extremity. While in the pupa state these insects take no food, and remain perfectly at rest, or only move the hinder extremity of the body when touched. After a while, liowever, the chrysalis begins to swell and contract, till the skin is rent over the back, and from the fissure there issues the head, antennae, and body of a butterfly or moth. When it first emerges from its pupa-skin the insect is soft, moist land weak, and its wings are small and shriveled ; soon, however, the wings stretch out to their full dimensions, the superfluous moisture of the body . passes off, and the limbs acquire their proper firmness and elasticity. The con- version of a caterpillar to a moth or butterfly is N ^ \ HAIBT CATEBPILLAK. a transformation of the most complete kind. The form of the body is altered, some of the legs disappear, the others and the antennfe become much longer than before, and four wings are acquired. Moreover, the mouth and digestive organs undergo a total change ; for the insect, after its final transformation, is no longer fltted to subsist upon the same gross aliment as it did in the caterpillar state; its powerful jaws have disappeared, and instead thereof we find a slen- CATERPILLAR 180 CATTLE ■der tongue, by means of which liquid nourish- ment is conveyed to the mouth of the insect, and its stomach becomes capable of digesting only water and the honeyed juice of flowers. Ceas- ing to increase in size, and destined to live but a short time after their final transformation, but- terflies and moths spend this brief period of their existence in flitting from flower to flower and legaliug themselves with their sweets, or in slak- ing their thirst with dew, or with the water left standing in puddles after showers, in pairing "with their mates, and in laying their eggs; aftei- which they die a natural death, or fall a prey to their numerous enemies. These insects belong to an order called Lepidoptera. which means scaly wings ; for the mealy powder with which their wings are covered, when seen under a pow- erful microscope, ia found to consist of little .scales, lapping over each other like the scales of fishes, and implanted into the skin of the wings by short stems. The body of these insects is also more or less covered with the same kind of scales, together with hair or down in some species. The tongue consists of two tubular threads placed side by side, and thus forming an instrument for suction, which, when not in use, is rolled up spirally beneath the head, and is more or less covered and concealed on each side by a little scaly or hairy- jointed feeler. The shoulders, or wing-joints, of the fore wings are covered, on each side, by a small triangular piece, forming a kind of epaulette, or shoulder- cover; and between the head and the thorax is a narrow piece, clothed with scales or hairs, slop- ing backwards, which may be called the collar. The wings have a few branching veins, generally forming one or two large meshes on the middle. The legs are six in number, though only four are used in walking by some butterflies, in which the firjit pair are very short, and are folded like a tippet on the breast; and the feet are flve-jointed, and are terminated, each, by a pair .of claws. It would be difficult and, indeed, impossible to arrange the lepidopterous insects according to their forms, appearance and" habits, in the cater- pillar state, because the caterpillars of many of them are as yet unknown; and therefore it is found expedient to classify them mostly accord- ing to the chai-acters furnished by them in the winged state. We may first divide the Le,p:dop- fom into three great sections, called butterflies, hawk-raoths, and moths, corresponding to the general Pdpilio, Sphinx, and Phalcence of Lin- najus. The butterflies {Papiliones) have thread- like antenns, which are Isiiobbed at the end; the fore wings in some, and all the wings in the greater number, are elevated perpendicularly, and turned back to back, when at rest; they have generally two little spurs on the hind legs, and they fly by day only. The hawk-moths {Sphinges) generally have the antennae thickened ; in the middle and tapering at each end, and most often hooked at the tip; the wings are narrow in proportion to their length, and are confined together by a bristle or bunch of stiff hairs on the shoulder of each hind wing, which is retained by a corresponding hook on the under side of each fore wing; all the wings, when at rest, are more or less inclined like a roof, the upper ones covering the lower wings ; and there are two pairs of spurs on the hind legs. A few fly by day, but the greater number in the morning and evening twilight. In the moths (PhaUenm) the anten- nae are neither knobbed at the end nor thickened in the middle, but taper from the base to the extremity, and are either naked, like a bristle, or are feathered on each side ; the wings are con- fined together by bristles and hooks, the first pair covering the hind wings, and are more or less sloping when at rest ; and there are two pairs of spurs to the hind legs. These insects fly mostly by night. C.VTH.IiKTlCS. Medicines producing in- creased defecation. Aloes,, castor oil, senna, jalap, Glauber salts, Epsom salts and calomel are the principal cathartics. They should be used sparingly in man or beast, as they produce habitual costiveness after a time. In fact, strong cathartics are but little known in veterinary prac- tice, as they are also by the modern school of physicians. Hence if they are considered neces- sary, it is better to consult professional advice. CATKIN. A pendulous spike of flowers, which falls after a season, as in the willow. Amentum has the same meaning. CATTLK. In the United States the term cat- tle is usually applied to the ox species, though sometimes to all horned animals. In England they are termed neat cattle. In a primary sense however, the term cattle included not only horned animals, but horses and asses and, it has been supposed, swine. We should use it in its distinc- tive acceptation to mean the genus los, or the ox tribe. The distinctive features of domestic cat- tle are smooth, round, moi-e or less curved horns, forehead flat, longer than it is broad, the horns placed at the two extremities of a projecting line at the top of the forehead. In all domestic cattle, except in certain well fixed breeds, the colors vary ATRSHIKE BULL. exceedingly, no two animals being alike, varying from pure white to jet black, running through all the shades of brown, red, dun, gray, and blue, including brindled, mottled, piebald, spotted and flecked. The Devons are the purest and most uniform in color, being light and mahogany bay. The Short-Horns, originally mottled and flecked, or spotted are, of late years, being bred more to self colors. The Ayrshires run to roan and piebald; AYRSHIRE OOW, theHolstein to black and white definitely marked; CATTLE 181 CATTLE DEVON COW. the Kyloes, to black, black red, and brindle, and the Herefords to red with white faces and flanks, and the Alderueys to yellow red and black, or fawn col- or, with black points. In the Cam- pagna there is a, breed of large gray and mouse-colored cattle. In Calabria there is a breed of snow-white cattle. The so-called wild cattle of Chillingham are white or dingy white, with black noses, horns and hoof s, the ears tipped either black or red. In Hun- gary there is a curious breed of gray, or dark blue cattle, with immense, wide- spread ~ horns. The Hindoo or Brahmin cattle have short re- flected horns, large pendulous ears, an enormous hump, and a dewlap of solid, fatty matter. Their hair is exceedingly sleek and smooth, and they never seem to be affected by the most in- tense heat of that oven-like climate. As showing some- thing of the cattle of the last century in England, and by compari- son with im- proved stock of the present day, as illustrated in other portions of this work, we give cuts, repro- IIEREFORD COW. DURHAM COW. DURUA.M BULL. duced from a work of the last century, illustra- ting Ayrshire, Devons and Hereford cattle, three KEW LEICESTER. of the most celebrated of the old breeds of Eng- land, as they were known years ago. The Dur- hams, now called Short-Horn, were among the most noted of the beef breeds of England in the latter part of the last century. The New Leices- ter, during its short-lived celebrity, it having soon degenerated after the death of Bakewell, must have been a magnificent beef animal if we may credit the illustrations that have come down to us. The cuts illustrating the New Leicester and Dur- ham of the last century, will show what they were like. These and the ones preceding them in this article were reproduced by photo-engravings,f rom the originals of the last century. Where cattle first originated, or when first domesticated, is lost in obscurity nor can j-ou now find the animal in. a wild state, except when escaped from domes- ticity. It is indeed recorded that Jubal, the son of Lamech, was the father of such as have cattle, but the term might mean other domestic animals, as the sheep or goat. That horned cattle were early domesticated is evident from the fact that, the ancient Egyptians worshiped the bull, and the traditions of every Celtic nation, acknowledge the cow as among the earliest servants of man, and rejDresent her as having divine attributes. L. F. Allen, in American Caltle, gives their history and introduction into America in the following words : The genus Bos, as a domesticated animal, has been the useful and cherished companion of man from the earliest date of historj', either sacred or profane. That they were highly valued in days most ancient, we may know, from their being objects of labor, sacrifice, and worship, by differ- ent nations and people. They were esteemed articles of wealth and sources of prosperity, and were probably cared for and cultivated with equal solicitude as any other domestic animal attached to husbandry, or of use as food. What was their normal condition as to race or breed, as we understand races and breeds, little or nothing is known, nor is it necessary that we do know. That they were then, in their chief essen- tials, as now, we have no reason to doubt; and that they may have been improved, or that they deteriorated in condition as civilization progress- ed, or waned, with the people who held them in sui)jection, we have no reason to question. The hieroglyphics of Egypt, most ancient in date, rude as were their representations of man, things, and animals, give us no accurate likeness of what they might have been among that ingeni- ous and wonderful people, and they were proba- bly as highly cultivated among them as any- where else in contemporary times. The earliest representations or pictures we have, give them rugged forms, enoi'mous length of upright, or spreading horns, and a gaunt appearance. The climates of the East peimitted them to live throughout the year in the open air, and we may well suppose that nature supplied them with the rough, long hair necessary for their protection, so usually represented in their portraits by the artists of more civilized nations. In the modern world, among the more highly cultivated classes of society, in polite literature it has been consid- ered vulgar to speak of cattle, or illustrate them other than as appendages to scenery, landscape, and rural representations among a rude and un- cultivated people. So, too, with artists. The latter have composed cattle scenes, and intro- duced them as accessory to landscapes in their paintings, and so grossly have the)' misrepresented their forms for artistic effect, as to caricature and give the ugliest appearance to them. Claude CATTLE 182 CATTLE Lorraine, Salvator Rosa, Poussin, and others of the most celebrated schools of landscape painting of olden time, as well as Paul Potter, Van Ostade, and others of more modern date, made their cows, bulls, and oxen vulgar and uncouth in shape, and wretched in condition. Even land- scape painters of the present day, with a silly affectation of art, will put nothing resembling the noble contour of our improved cattle into a picture, but select some unhappy brute, depleted with poverty, and unkempt as a wild buffalo in appearance, to give piquancy and effect to their drawings. For such slanderers of these noble animals, we have no respect whatever, nor for the taste of artists in the way of cattle, while yielding an unqualitied admiration to their fidelity and skill in other subjects. Our modern animal painters have done better. Landseer and Hemng, among the English artists, have accorded somewhat of justice to their objects, while some of the Continental and American artists in that line, have drawn our improved domestic animals — cattle as well as others — with admirable truth and fairness. The ancients liad a high respect and admiration for their cattle. We cannot admire the Egyptian worship of their ox, apis — a magnificent tomb of which has been recently exhumed — nor do we look with com- placency on the present worship of the Brahma bull, which has been from time immemorial, c.i object of Pagan idolatry in India; but it is evident that these subjects of adoration originated in a most devout appreciation of the admirable and useful qualities of the genus to which they belonged. The author of the book of .Job, which the eminent sacred chronologist, Dr. Hales, dates l)ack to the year 3, 337 before the Christian Era — whether the author was Job himself, or one of his cotemporaries — had a most poetic apprecia- tion of the value of domestic animals. He makes Job, in the days of his revived prosperity, the owner of one thousand yoke of oxen, in the enumeration of his great wealth of goods and chattels. Jeremiah — B.C. 628 years — in one of his prophesies, speaks of a fair heifer. Among the Pagan writers, Homer, 1800 years before the Christian Era, celebrates the noble bullocks with golden knobs, or balls, on the tips of their horns, and describes the manner of the artisan in put- ting them on. Among the heathen deities, Juno is named as ox-eyed, in those clear and liquid features of her countenance. Virgil, who wrote his Georgiacs just before the birth of Christ, cele- brates the beautiful cattle of the Roman Cam- pagnas, and their value in the agricullure of the people. Oxen were used for labor in husbandry, and more or less in commerce, in all countries where neat cattle were kept, and could endure the climate well, as being the most convenient beast of burden. It is probable that they were "bred in their best estate by those who used them, and the cows were cultivated for dairy and household uses in the family. As they spread West and North into the higher latitudes and elevations of Europe, they somewhat changed their characters, and became, as now known there, acclimated and fitted to their new condi- tions, and inured to the habits of the people who kept them. We may suppose, too, that in the severer climates they were afforded somewhat of shelter, and more pains-taking in food and treat- ment, than in the milder latitudes where they had long ranged, and with such increased care. improved in quality and appearance. They took, possibly, somewhat different shapes, and con- formed, more or less, to the uses to which they were subjected. The Moors of Spain reared great herds of neat cattle, and from them descended the dominant races of Spanish herds. They were there the progenitors of the savage and headstrong bulls still_ sacrificed in the arena of bull-fights and picadores. The Gauls of France, bred the gentler and more ecouomical forms of cattle, adapted to a better husbandry. By what gradual, peculiar, or natural progresses these European cattle acquired their present dis- tinctive characteristics, we have no definite information. History is either altogether silent or obscure on these subjects, and we have no better guide than conjecture to inform us. Throughout Western Europe numerous different breeds exist, of diverse qualities, all more or less useful for the purposes to which they are ap- plied, and profitable to the people who breed and rear them Italy, France, Spain, Germany, Switzerland, Holland, and other northern coun- tries, each have their peculiar national breeds, while England, Scotland and Ireland have many varieties widely divergent in character and appearance. Indeed, it is not necessary, unless for speculation or curiosity, that we know the particulars of their history or progress, inasmuch as we, in America, are already in possession of the best breeds of Western Europe, f uUy answer- ing our own immediate purposes, and whioh have been successfully naturalized on our soil. It has been said, or conjectured, by some specu- lative antiquarians, that neat cattle were intro- duced to the Continent of America by the Northmen, who are supposed to have made a descent on to the coast from North-western Eu- rope some centuries before the discovery of the Continent by Columbus. This, however, is sim- ply a conjecture, as no cattle were known of here before they were brought out by the Spanish and Portuguese emigrants, a few years after the voy- ages of Columbus. In the year 1519, the Span- iard, Cortez, discovered Mexico. He first made a landing at Vera Cruz, and not long afterwards penetrated to the City of Mexico, then ruled by Montezuma. The object of Cortez and his party was conquest. They were accompanied by a troop of horses, on which his cavaliy was mounted for military purposes ; but we have no account of any cattle in his expedition. Mexico soon became a colony of Spain, and was rapidly settled by emigrants from that country. Their first object vras gold, and trade with the natives, and to their acquisitions followed agriculture, which brought in cattle from Spain. We may suppose that cattle were introduced there as early as the year 1525, and in the mild climate and abundant pasturage which the country afforded, they rapidly increased. As Mexico became peopled and spi'ead her population along the coast, and into the interior, in the course of time Texas was reached, and there were spread the foundations for the immense herd of Mexican, or, as we now call them, Texan cattle. Cali- fornia was afterwards settled by the Spanish Mexicans, who drove their cattle thither and, in, time, scattered over it numerous herds. In what is now the United States, the first English settlement was made in Virginia, on the James river, in the year 1607, by a colony of an hundred men, which, by suffering, disease, and want of ■C:ATTLE 183 CATTLE food, was reduced within a year, to tliirty-eight. In 1609, by new emigrants, the colony was increased to five hundred persons; but in a few months they were reduced by death to sixty. Many cows were carried from the West India Islands to Virginia in 1610, and 1611. In suc- ceeding years more adventurers came out, but in 1622, three hundred and forty -seven men, women and children were massacred by Indians, and the colony, in effect, broken up. Whether their cattle were also destroyed, we have no account; but the settlement was soon after renewed under better auspices and protection, and neat cattle were further introduced and propagated. New York was first settled in the year 1614, by the Dutch. That colony, after some vicissitudes, prospered. The first importation of neat cattle there, is said to have been in the year 1625, from the mother country, Holland, and they rapidly increased in numbers, both in breeding and fur- ports from which they sailed. In all probability, numerous importations of cattle were annually made into the several colonies, during successive years, as the emigrants came in rapidly, and the few early importations, with their increase, were insufficient to supply their wants. That cattle multiplied, both by natural increase and impor- tation, is evident. We see it recorded, that in the year 1636, a party of emigrants went out to settle the town of Northboro, Massachusetts, thirty miles west of Boston, and in a company of one hundred men, women and children, they drove with them one hundred and sixty cattle — and that was but twelve years after the first importation into the colony. From these diverse and miscellaneous beginnings, our native cattle originated. Of what distinctive breeds they were selected, if selected with reference to breed at all, we have no information, nor, at this dis tance of time, can we be at all certain. Distinct IMPROVED HEREPOKD BULL. ther importation. In 1620, the English Plymouth colony landed in Massachusetts. In 1623, further English colonies came out and settled at Boston, and in New Hampshire. In 1624, the first arrival of cattle entered Massachusetts Bay. These were soon followed by other arrivals. New Jersey was settled by the Dutch in 1624, and Delaware by the Swedes in 1627, who brought cattle with them. The early records of New Hampshire state that in the years 1631, '32 and '33, Captain John Mason made several imp6r- lations of cattle into that State from Denmark, to supply the Danish emigrants who had settled on the Piscataqua river These Danish cattle were coarse, large beasts, and yellowish in color Settlements were made in Maryland in 1633; in North and South Carolina in 1660 and 1670; and in Pennsylvania in 1682, all by the English, who citherwith the first settlers, or soon after, brought cattle over, chiefly from the countries nearest the breeds did then exist, well defined in their char- acteristics, both in England and Scotland, and we are to presume, that needy and necessitous as the emigrants mostly were— going out for con- science sake, as many of them did, and in a hope to better their fortunes withal— they paid little regard to breed or race in their cattle, so that they gave milk, performed labor, and propagated their kind. As the colonists grew in numbers, and prospered in gear, their cattle, now become a leading branch of husbandry, aided much in their subsistence. Families of considerable wealth from home, began to add their numbers to the earlier emigrants, and brought with them domestic stock of various kinds, provided them for- age, and gave them shelter, and in some instan- ces,' probably, selected choice specimens from favorite breeds in the localities from whence they came, with which to improve those previously imported, or their descendants, the then native CATTLE 184 CATTLE herds. But in a new country, harassed by hos- tile savages, difficult of locomotion and inter- course with each other in distant settlements, their cattle were localized and confined to their own immediate neighborhoods. Pushing out into new districts only with the adventurous parties forming settlements, where they could, of neces- sity, pay little attention to selection or improve- ment in their herds, they took such as they had, or such as they could get, at the least possi- ble cost, as browse for the first few years was their principal forage in winter, leeks in spring, and coarse gi-ass in summer and autumn for pasturage. The best they could do was to pro- vide food for their families, and let their cattle shift for themselves. We presume however, that the earlier colonists, having become well settled and thrifty in circumstances, cared well for their herds and measurably improved their quality. Thus, undoubtedly, stood the condition of the neat cattle of the colonies down into the years 1700, and after. We have accounts that, as the merchants of the sea-coast towns grew rich, some enterprising ones made importations of choice breeds from England, which were driven into the country neighborhoods, and very con- siderably benefited their common stock. In the year 1608, Quebec, in Lower Canada, was founded by the French, and soon afterwards, colonists came in considerable numbers from the western coast of France, and brought with them the little Normandy, or Brittany cattle, closely allied in blood, appearance and quality, to the Alderney cows of the Channel Islands. Their descendants are now propagated in all Lower Canada, and throughout the many French seig- nories in large numbers, forming their principal stock of neat cattle. They proved excellent milk- ers, hardy, easy of keep, and profitable for the dairy. They are also tolerable for the yoke, and for beef. In their remote distance, and limited intercourse with the people of the English colo- nies, it is not probable that their herds became Intermixed. We have no accounts of the peculiar characteristics of the cattle then there. After nearly two hundred years of acclimation and breeding they show no relations with the New Englandstockof our Northern States. As showing the gradual improvement in the weight of cattle from the year 1700, and the rapid advance therein within the last fifty years, the following will be interesting: In the year 1710 the average weight of beef cattle of Smithfield was 370 pounds each. In a report of a select committee of the House of Commons, in 1795 it is stated that since 1733 their cattle have increased in size or weight on an average one-quarter or twenty-flve per cent, mak- ing the weight at that time (1794) 462 pounds. Few animals then were fatted, even to this light weight, under five years old, while thirty years later they were considered ripe at four years. At this last period we find a very striking improve- ment in the weight of cattle at Smithfield, 656 pounds being the average — an increase of nearly forty per cent, in thirty -five years; showing that the efforts for the improvement of the breeds of cattle were attended with far greater success than at first. Steadily within the last fifty years has maturity been attained earlier and earlier, so that now we have yearlings that will dress heavier than the four year olds of fifty years ago. Indeed, now, some of the improved breeds may be fat- tened ripe at the age of two years. According to the census of 1870 the number of cattle in the United States and territories, not including Texas and New Mexico, was 24,000,000. Those of Texas and New Mexico, were computed at 4,000,- 000. Of the improved breeds introduced into the United States the Herefords and Short-Horns are deservedly the most popular for beef and early maturity. The Devons as working cattle and in the quality of their flesh are acknowledged to be superior to any other. Of dairy cattle the Ayr- shire originally brought from Scotland, the Jersey from the Channel Islands, and the Dutch and Holsteins from Holland, and Holstcin, have merits of exceeding excellence. The Ayrshire and the Dutch and Holsteins are noted for large messes of milk, rich in caseine, and the Jersey and Guernsey as cows giving milk exceedingly rich in cream and consequently in butter. A writer in the report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for 1877, gives a statement of the early importation of the beef breeds of cattle into the United States in which we find that the imported breeds more especially valued on account of beef -pro- ducing qualities are the Hereford, the Devon, and the Short-Horn. The first Herefords were brought to Kentucky by Henry Clay, who was a great admirer and patron of fine stock, in 1816. But, notwithstanding their well-defined excel- lences and great superiority over the cattle com- mon to this country, for some reason, not wholly explained, this breed has not been as widely dis- tributed nor attracted the public attention that its^ undoubted merits deserve The race is highly prized in England, where, in some grazing dis- tricts, it is held in equal esteem with the Short- Horn, which it nearly equals in size and weight. It is a distinct race, however, purely bred, it is claimed, from a time long anterior to the develop- ment of the Short-Horn. The Hereford, as gen- erally seen, is red in coloi', with white face, and frequently with white along the back and under- neath the body. In England there are other vari- eties, presenting a mottled face and a gray or roan body, which is deemed to be the original type. In that country, according to an English writer, the truest standard of form is still consid- ered by many to be that of the mottled-faced breed, although, in other respects, the white-faced is undoubtedly superior; and as regards the form of the shoulders the breed stands pre-eminent, and produces comparatively little coarse meat in those parts ; the hips, loin, and rump are equally good. The ribs do not spring out so wide as some breeds,, but the sides can scarcely he found fault with ;. the twist is unusually full and the chest well ex- panded. As a milker the Hereford cow is not highly valued. The first Importation of Devons- from England was made in 1817 into Maryland,, and another in the succeeding year by Hon. Kufus- King, of New York. Others have followed at intervals, finding a permanent place principally in the Eastern States. As in the case of the Here- fords, they have not occupied as great a place in the public mind as their merits would fully war- rant. But there are nevertheless a number of fine herds in the country, the purity of which has been maintained. It is claimed for this race that, as a. distinctive breed, it is the most ancient in the United Kingdom. Mr. George Turner, an agri- cultural authority in Great Britain, said of the Devon tribe some years ago: There is scarcely any breed of cattle so rich and mellow in its touch, so silky and fine in its hair, and altogether sa CATTLE 185 CATTLE. handsome in appearance as the North Devon; added to which they liave a greater proportion or weight in tlie most valuable joints, and less in the coarse, than any other breed, and also consume less food in its production, Tiiese animals seem wanting in nothing except the size and weight which distinguish some other breeds, and which are therefore more sought after on account of larger gross profits. But, the suggestion is made, large animals eat more than small ones, and it is still a vexed question, both with regard to sheep and cattle, whether sm ill first-quality animals are not more proitable to fatten than those with more bulky frames that produce coarser meat and a larger proportion on the worst joints. The Devon is red in color; in size, medium. For centuries bred, for the mD5t part, in the hill regions of Eng- land, with little care as to shelter or prepared fod- der, the race inherits staihina and hardy cons*iitu- the River Tees, and beyond it, the cattle assumed a less gross and unwieldy form, but were still a very tall race, of varied colors, with horns of medium length, but which might be termed short with relation to the same parts in the Long-Horn breed. The race now distinctively known as Sliort- Horns is derived through the cattle of the Tecs Valley, upon which the brothers Charles and Robert Colling instituted breeding experiments about the year 1777. Their bull Hubback was the progenitor of this now celebrated breed. The first importation to this country was made as early as 1785, and others have followed in more rapid succession that of Col. Saunders into Kentucky in 1817. They now very largely outnumber all other improved bi'eeds in the United States, the Herds-Book showing a record of more than 60,000 well-bred animals. In England it is asserted that nearly two-thirds of the animals sent to Lon- HEREFORD COW, SHOWING BEEP POINTS. tions, and possesses milking traits in good degree, and easy of improvement through cultivation for that object. Prof. Lowe, in his work on The Domesticated Animals of the British Isles, throws some light on the origin of the now admirable race of Short-Horns. He says: While Ireland and the western parts of England have been possessed for an unknown period of a race of cattle having long horns, and furnished with thick, skins and abun- dant hair, fitted to protect the animals from long and continued rains, the eastern and drier dis- tricts toward the German Ocean have been inhab- ited by varieties of cattle having thinner skins, shorter hair, and horns comparatively short. In the fens of Lincolnshire and the other tracts of alluvial country toward the Wash, the cattle were of great bulk and coarse figure, and had, usually, a dingy color of the skin, and short, blunt horns. More inland, and following the course northward of the vale of Trent, and thence across the Ouse, and through the central plains of Yorshire and don are Short-Horns or their crosses. Returning to the improvement in cattle, the illustrations given in this article, show some British breeds as they were delineated in the early part of the cen- tury. It will be seen that the Ayrshires, Devons and the Herefords, are the ouly breeds that would be at all recognized in the improved breeds of to-day, and the Herefords only in their general sym- metry and color. The cuts will be interesting as a means of comparison with the best animals a.n seen in our show rings at the agricultural fairs of to-day, and in the illustrations showing the vari- ous improved breeds, to be found in their appro- priate places in this work It is important that every firmer, and especially every breeder, know the points of animals, especially those pertaining to prime flesh points for. other things being equal, the animal that carries the most flesh on the prime parts, is the most valuable. On this page we gi ve an illustration of a modern Hereford cow. fat, figured to represent these. The inferior parts r CAULIFLOWER 186 CAUTERY contained before thegirth place lying just behind the fore-shoulder, but again all the superior parts lie above the middle line drawn from front to rear. All the best roasting pieces lie in a, b, c, 3; and in a S, c, 9; the best steak also lies in a, b, c, 9; next ina, b,e, 10 and in 11, and the inferior in 12; but 13 is good for drying; 14, 15, 16 and 17, are used for soups and stews; 4, 5 and 13 are the plate pieces best for corning. The brisket 7, comes next; the neck 1, is also used for soups, for corn- ing and also for inferior steak, a, b, 2, may be used cither for roasting or for corning. So 12 may be used thus if necessary. Note 10 and 11 also for drying. In fact, there is plenty of room for calculation in cutting up any animal for home use. The illustration shows the parts from a butcher's stand point. On page 183 there is a cut of a model Hereford bull of to-day, which will still further illustrate the difference in breeds as between the last and the present century. CATTLE PLAGUE. Various malignant dis- eases, as catarrhal fever, foot and mouth disease, violent inflammations, murrain, pleuro-pneumo- nia, etc., are sometimes called plague. In fact, any disease, when it becomes epidemic, and con- tagious diseases of a malignant nature are apt to be so termed. "When suspected aVeterinarian should be consulted and, if onebe not near.ahumane phy- sician should not disdain to give advice as to proper means to be used in the case. Isolation is one of the first things to be attended to, as a preventive of infection by others. (See dis- eases herein mentioned under their respective li63>ds clsGwliGrG ^ CAT YDI D. The Catydids belong to the locust family, usually, but incorrectly, called grasshop- pers. So there is a large wingless cricket, {Aiia- brus simplex) and the slender meadow-grass- hopper," (Orchelimum vulgare.) The Catydid and the slender gi-asshopper, Fig. c, will enable these insects to be readily recognized. In relation to the habits of the Catydid it is well known that they live in trees, and their peculiar shrilling noise caty did, caty did'nt, is familiar to every child. It is however, not so well known that the male only produces the note. As a rul(! they are not found in such numbers as to be particularly injuri- ous, and bearing so strik- ing a resemblance, as ^ many of them do, to the limbs, twigs and leaves of trees, in color and neuration of wings, it is quite difficult to dis- tinguish their form. The eggs are deposited along the limbs and twigs in double rows, like partly flattened hemp seed, and by others it is laid singly in leaves, etc. The slender meadow- grasshoppers. Fig. c, are often numerous, and may be destroyed by catching in nets or by driving as recommended in the article locust. (See Katydid.) CAUDATE, (from cattda, a tail.) Furnished with a tail-like appendage. CAUDEX. The body of a root. CAULIFLOWER. (Brassica Olemcea mr.) Unlike the cabbage, cauliflower and broccoli are strictly annual plants, flowering and perfecting their seeds the first season. In fact broccoli in some of its varieties, is so like cauliflower that, as to the cultivation, no separate article will be required. So, the general care and cultivation necessary to the cabbage will apply to the cauli- flower, except when the curds, the edible portion, are beginning to be fairly formed, the leaves must be drawn up and tied together, or broken over the end, to protect it from the sun. Both cauli- flower and broccoli, in the climate of the West, must be brought into head either before the heat of summer commences, or else late in the autumn. In late plantings, those that are not well headed at the time the ground begins to freeze, may be taken up and transplanted in a light cellar, where they will go on and form fair curds, and often so continue until late in December or January. For early use sow the seed in a hot-bed early in March, in the North, or in any latitude as soon as winter is broken. Transplant when large enough, four inches apart, and about the time apples blossom, transplant into a soil made very rich with rotten manure, the rows 30 inches apart, the plants from 15 to 20 inches in the row, according to the variety. If the weather is dry liberal applications of water must be given, since the plant is impatient of heat and drouth. For the late crop, sow the seed in a sheltered prepared border as early as the soil can be worked, and transplant when large enough. Among the special applications to all the brassica tribe, salt has been found most valuable. It should be sown at the rate of about five bushels per acre, or two pounds per square rod. This may be applied at the time of setting, or, at the first hoeing. So soon as the curds are well formed, and while yet compact and hard, cut for use. The varie- ties of cauliflower are comparatively few. The Extra Early Paris is the sort usually grown by market gardeners. The Erfurt is decidedly fine. The Large Late Asiatic stands drouth well, and the Walcheren, really a broccoli, is also well adapted to drouths. Mitchell's Early cauliflower is compact, remains long without running to seed, and is valuable, if true to name, for the kitchen garden. Broccoli is so nearly like cauli- flower that the same description will answer for both. (For cultivation see Cabbage.) CAULIS. A stem. From this word comes cauliferous. CAUSTIC. In farriery, a substance which, by its powerful operation, destroys the texture of the part to which it is applied. Corrosive sublimate is the best caustic; but that requires skilful hands, for it is a dangerous remedy except in . the hands of the veterinarian. IVtix one drachm of powdered verdigris with one ounce of basilicou ointment and apply this upon a piece of tow ; or a drachm of blue stone (sulphate of cop- per) dissolved in one ounce of water may be used, or lunar cauatic in a quill may be rubbed on to the diseased part. CAUSTIC LUNAR. Nitrate of silver, sold in sticks, ready for use as a caustic ; when used in solution, ten grains are mixed with an ounce of water. CAUTERY. 1. The application of the hot iron to diseased growths, as fungus, etc. It Is cruel and barbarous, unless used with discretion, and with a full knowledge of the necessity that should call for its application. This is called , the actual cautery. 2. Potential cautery is the application of any caustic, as nitrate of silver. CELERY 187 CELLARS To cauterize a wound or affected part, is to kill the integuments, after which they slough off. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 5 c c o * * * * * * ** * * * * #* * ** ** * ** * * * * * * * * 2 '■5 p * * * * * * V * * * * * * * * 2 "a > to ;4 6 i 4) 1 22 1 l-( s o g -1.4 0.6 0.8 Or, economically: Green State. Eed clover. White clover. Luc- erne. 76.0 2.0 3.6 17.4 1.0 80.0 1.5 2.7 14.!l 0.9 75.0 Flesh formers Fat formers 1.9 3.6 18 7 Mineral matter 0.8 As with the hay of the true grasses, the dried elover is more valuable than the green, as shown by the following table : Dry State. Eed clover. White clover. Luc- erne. 32.65 44.00 24 00 9.45 18.76 40.00 30.00 11.25 88.00 36.00 13.24 Accessories Mineral matter The value of clover is increased instead of dimin- ished (as with the grasses) by a slow process of curing. It requires a longer time to cure it pro- perly, and if exposed to the scorching sun it is soon injured even more than the natural grasses, since its succulent leaves and tender blossoms are quickly browned, and lose their sweetness in a measure, and are themselves liable to be wasted in handling over. Clover should be cut, there- fore, while dry and free from dew; it should be exposed to the sun only enough to thoroughly wilt it, when it should be formed into small cocks, and permitted to dry until fit to place in the barn. Thus the tender and succulent leaves are secured in a form nearly resembling the green plant, which is a matter of vital importance in the economy of all tender leaved forage plants. From the oily nature of clover seed, its small size and heavy character, it soon deteriorates when kept in bulk. For this reason many far- mers prefer to keep it in the dry chaff, until ready for sowing Thus in buying seed one should always be assured that it is sound, and of the previous season's growth. Many of our best farmers test the seed, before sowing, b}' strewing it between folds of damp cloth and placing it in a warm situation, or by sowing the seed in a box, in the window, and keeping it moist until sprouted. If good, it should germinate inside of two weeks. In raising clover, for seed, the first crop should be mown as soon as it is in blossom and the seed taken from the second, or after-crop, since the first blossoms are usually infertile. The heads for seed should be left until quite brown, mowed, allowed to dry thoroughly, and then be placed on a scaffold in the barn, or carried up in narrow, ventilated stacks properly thatched, or covered with marsh hay, to secure all from wet. When properly cured it may be threshed by means of flails or, better, by a clover huller and separater. Much has been said and written in the Southern States concerning Japan clover, a recent emigrant from Japan. It is a low, perennial plant, not rising much above the ground but spreading widely on the surface, ft belongs to the legu- minous family of plants, whicli includes the common clover, bean, pea, etc. The leaves are very small, trifoliate, and very numerous. The flowers are exceedingh' small and produced in the axils between the leaf and stem, and the fruit is a small flattish pod. Prof. Killebrew says concerning it: About the year 1849 it was noticed in the vicinity of Charleston, S.C, the seeds having been brought from China or Japan in tea boxes. A short time afterwards it was discovered at a distance of forty miles from Charleston, and still later near JIacon, 6a. It seems especiallj- adapted to the Southern States, not flourishing above 36°, but growing with PLANT OF JAPAN CLOVER. (232) BRANCH OF MEXICAN CLOVER (233) CLOVES 334 COCHIN CHINA FOWLS great luxuriance on the poorest soils, and retain- ing vitality in its roots in the severest droughts. It is said to be a fine plant for grazing and, being a perennial, needs no re-sowing and but little attention. On soils unfit for anything else it furnishes good pasturage and supplies a heavy green crop for turning under and improving the land. Mr. Samuel McRamsey, of Tennessee, says: This clover made its appearance in that locality in 1870. It is fast covering the vrhole country ; it supplies much grazing from the first of August until frost. It is short, but very hard. Sheep are very fond of it, and cattle will eat it. Mr. Chas. Mohr, Mobile, Ala., says: It was intro- duced from Eastern Asia and has, during the last decade, overspread the Southern States from the Atlantic slope to the banks of the Mississippi. Cattle and horses eat it. Of its value as a nutri- tive food the writer does not state definitely. Mexican Clover (Richardaonia scabra) is an annual plant of the Natural Order RvMacem, which contains the coffee, cinchona, and ipe- cacuanha plants. It is a native of Mexico and South America. It has, within a few years, be- come extensively naturalized in some parts of the South. Under favorable circumstances it grows rapidly, with succulent, spreading, leafy stems, which bear the small flowers in heads or clusters at the ends of the branches, and in the axils of the leaves. The flowers are funnel- formed, .white, about half an inch long, with four to six narrow lobes and an equal number of stamens inserted on the inside of the corolla tube. The stem is somewhat hairy, the leaves opposite and, like other plants of this order, connected at the base by stipules or sheaths. The leaves are oblong or elliptical and one or two inches long. Mr. John M. McGehee, of Florida, writes as follows : "We here call the plant Florida Clover, others call it "Water Parsley, and others Bell Fountain. This plant is now attracting more interest in this section than any other article of farming interest. It is very troublesome to farmers in the cultivation of their crops; its growth is very rapid. It contains a great deal of water, and is hard to cure as a hay. Some call it very good hay, others say it is worthless. For the last fifty years it has been regarded as a great pest to farmers. It is now coming into notice as an element in green-soiling, which has never been practiced in this section heretofore. Mr. Matt. Coleman, of Florida, writes: The tradi- tion is that when the Spanish evacuated Pen- sacola this plant was discovered there by the cavalry horses feeding upon it eagerly. Hearing of this I procured some of the seed and have been planting or cultivating it in nly orange grove from that time to the present as a forage plant and vegetable fertilizer. I find it ample and sufficient. It grows on thin, pine land from four to six feet, branches and spreads, in every direction, forming a thick matting and shade to the earth, and affords all the mulching my trees require. One hand can mow as much in one day as a horse will eat in a year; two days' sun will cure it ready for housing or stacking, and it makes a sweet, pleasant-flavored hay; horses and cattle both relish it. The bloom is white, always open in the morning and closed in the evening. Bees and all kinds of butterflies seek the bloom. CLOVES. The unexpanded blossoms of an Eastern tree, the Euyenia caryophyUata. They contain an oil highly aromatic, and grateful to- the stomach in minute quantities . It is a tropical production. CLUPEA. The generic name of the herring and shad fishes, anchovies, sprats, etc. ; most of the species are migratory. CLUSTER. A bunch; in botany a raceme. COAGULATION. The formation of a solid body of a jelly-like character. Milk coagulates in souring. The juices of fruit coagulate in the preparation of jellies. COAL. Numerous varieties exist: that of Pennsylvania and "Wales (Eng.) is anthracite, difiicult of combustion, producing no flame, but intense heat; it is nearly pure carbon. Bitumin- ous coal, such as that of Virginia and Ohio and the "Western States, contains hydrogen as well as- carbon, and gives off gas and flame in burning. "Wood coal resembles charred wood, and shows the marks of wood : it produces much light. All coal is of vegetable origin, being, indeed, the remains of plants and trees. The chief beds of it are arranged in a curved form; hence the term coal basins. This variety lies above the old red sandstone, and is covered with sandstones and conglomerates. It is, therefore, a secondary formation in the "West generally overlaid by shales and limestone. (See Geological Maps.) COAL TAR. A tarry fluid of a complicated nature, produced during the distillation of bitu- minous coal for gas. It is a cheap and excellent paint for iron- ware, railings, etc. , and has some- times been used on rough work. It preserves the timber, and is not used except as a preserva- tion against wet, in damp situations. COCCINELLA. The generic name of the lady-bird beetles. (See Lady-bird.) COCCULUS INBICUS. A poisonous East- ern berry used in medicines; it is sometimes employed, to cause intoxication, in beer, or thrown into fish ponds to stupefy fish, which can be caught with the hand while suffering from its- effects. The poisonous principal is picrotoxia. COCCUM. A dry, elastic seed-covering. COCCUS. . The bark lice or scale insect family. COCCYX. The termination of the spinal column. COCHIN CHINA FOWLS. The introduc- tion of these fowls into England dates back to ' 1843, and soon after that date, they were intro- FABTBIDGE COCHINS. duced into the United States. As an indication . of the admirable qualities of these fowls, it will only be necessary to give the principal varieties COCHIN CHINA FOWLS 335 COCKROACH into which they have been broken up, to show the estimation in which they are held. These are, AVhite, Buff, Cinnamon, Grouse or Partridge Cochin, Lemou, Silver Buff, Silver Cinnamon, Black Cochin, Cuckoo, and Silliy-feathered Cochin. We illustrate two of the best known of the breeds, the Partridge Cochin, and the Buff Cochin. Although among the largest of barn- yard fowls, they endure confined quarters fairly well. It must be admitted, however, that they are better adapted to the farm, where they can have range, than to the confined quarters of the city. On the farm, the While Cochins are sturdy birds and will forage, if allowed, long distances in search of insects. If kept in con- finement they must have animal food, and also green food, daily, and if possible they should be BUFF COCHINS. allowed a short ramble late in the afternoon, when the}' will not trespass much. As winter layers of eggs the hens are among the best of all the breeds of Gallinaceous fowls. The}- also cross kindly with other barn-yard fowls, and live contentedly with other breeds. The objec- tion to them is that they are rather coarse boned, inclined to undue accumulation of fat. The general characteristics of the Cochin cock are; comb single, fine, rather small, upright and straight with well defined serrations, stout at the base and tapering to a point. Head small and carried rather forward; eye bright and clear; deaf ears pendant and large; wattles large and well rounded on the lower edge. The hackles of the neck full and abundant, reaching well to the back. Back broad, with a gentle rise from the middle to the tail, and with abun- dant saddle feathers; wings small, tlie primaries well doubled under the secondaries, so as to be out of sight when the wings are closed. Tail, small, curved feathers numerous, the whole tail carried rather horizontally than upright. Breast deep,- broad and full; thighs large and strong, well covered with soft feathers. Vulture hocks, those with long stiff feathers, are objectionable; the fluff should be soft and abundant, well covering the thighs and standing well out behind. Legs rather short, thick and bony, wide apart, and well feathered on the outside to the toes; toes stout and strong, the anterior and middle toes well feathered. The carriage not so upright as in other breeds. The hen should cor- respond with these points, but be more feminine in appearance, for instance, the comb should be single, very small, fine, low in front, perfectly straight with well defined serrations, and the tail, of course, lacking the sickle feathers. If birds are intended for exhibition they must not only be perfect in markings and make-up gen- erally, but they must also be in the highest possible condition. The best age is just when the pullets are ready to lay. If strictly kept from intercourse with the male birds, they will then be in their full development and beauty of form and color. The cockerels should be two or three months older than the pullets. This, of course, applies to young fowls and not to fully matured birds. COCHINEAL. The Coccus cacti, a Mexican insect which feeds on a Cactus opuntia, a prickly pear. The best should be of a grayish exterior, and the lines of the body clearly defined. The brilliant scarlet of Cochineal is fixed in dyeing by a mordant of alumina and solution of tin. and brightened by cream of tartar. COCHLEATE. Twisted like some shells. COCKLE. Agrostem'i^a, which grows amid wheat, and whose black seed impair the color of flour if not well separated by screening. It is an annual, to be destroyed only by a succession of fodder crops, cut for soiling before flowering, or by a clean fallow. COCKROACH. Of the cockroaches, the most common and the most destructive species, in this country, is the Oriental Cockroach. This insect is said to have been introduced from Asia into Europe, and from Europe into America, and it is presumed that there is not now a maritime nation in the world where it does not exist. This species is generally found in and near human habitations, prowling about at night in search of food, and is both destructive and offensive; but we liave also a number of native species, found in fields and woods, under stones, timbers and bark of trees. The female cockroach may be sometimes seen running around with a seed-like egg or capsule protruding from the caudal seg- ment of the abdomen, nearly half its size. This is not a single egg, but contains two sets of cells, arranged sopiething like a double row of cart- ridges in a cartridge box, in each of which there is an egg. When the young are hatched from the eggs within the capsule, they secrete a liquid which dissolves the mucilage with which the vent is united, and thus they make their escape, leaving their receptacle as entire as it was before they quitted it. After moultmg, or cast- ing olf their skins several times — foi- a few hours after which the insect is entirely white, but grad- ually changes to black or dark or light brown, according to the species — these insects are finally developed into the full-gi'own individuals we see, all the males acquiring wings capable of bearing them in flight, whilst the females are either wing- less or have these appendages only short or rudi' mental. The remedies for the destruction of cockroaches are many, among which the follow- ing have been regarded as effectual- 3Iix a table- spoonful of red lead and Indian meal, with as much molasses as will make a thick batter, and place the mixture in and about such places as are infested with these insects at night. Another remedy is to mix a teaspoonful of powdered arsenic with a tablespoonful of mashed potatoes. COCKROACH a36 COFFEE ^nd crumble it at night in such places as are infested with the insects, where the}- may dis- cover and devour it, continuing these remedies «very night successively until all are destroyed. Various rat and roach remedies, kept for sale at the drug stores and elsewhere, have also been ■considered as effectual for the destruction of these offensive insects. Great care should be taken, however, in the use of these remedies, as they are very poisonous. Various kinds of traps have been also recommended from time to time, which are nightly baited, and the contents thrown into the fire or scalding water in the morning. As these insects love heat and are usually found iu and about ovens and fireplaces, this peculiar- ity in their economy may suggest the most proper places where traps or poisons should be deposited, in order to secure them, or effect their destruc- tion. A deep bowl, glazed or smoothed inside, with rough and easy approaches from the out- side, and baited with some substance that will attract these insects by its odor — old cheese, for instance — is considered a good form for a cock- roach trap. Boxes partly filled with water, and having a nicely adjusted tilting lid, form good traps. Roaches are nocturnal in habits and hide in corners and creMces during the day, but at night they emerge from their retreats to feed. They devour both animal and vegetable sub- stances and, not only eat books, clothing, paper, leather, etc., but they also render the substances, over which they run, filtliy and ■disgusting by discharging from the mouth a dark- colored, nauseous-smelling liquid. There are some few parasitic insects which destroy them both in the egg .and insect state, but they are too few to be of any practi- cal benefit in lessening their numbers. One of our most plentiful and destructive species is the croton- bug, or German Cockroach, (Ectobia Oermanica) ■a, male; b, female. This is a medium-sized, or rather small, cockroach, generally of a light yellow or deep fawn color; both sexes are pro- vided with wings and are, sometimes, in summer, found under the bark of trees in the South. These insects are especially destructive and abundant in houses heated by hot- water pipes, as CROTON-BUG. ORIENTAL COCKROACH. they seem to thrive best and multiply most where there is a combination of heat and moisture. They are almost omnivorous and devour cakes of paint, vermilion, cobalt and umber alike. Another very troublesome species is the Oriental Coskroach, I^Stylopyga oi-ientalii) «, male; b, female. ) This is a very large and common species, • and is generally found most abundant in or near seaport towns. This insect is generally supposed to have been imported from India. It varies in color from chestnut to almost black, according to age and exposure. The wings of the males are much shorter than the body, while the wings of the females are wanting, or are very rudiment- ary. They are very fond of heat, and hide in cracks near furnaces and fire-places. Their gen- eral habits and the manner in which the eggs are deposited are much the same as with the croton- bugs. The injury these insects do when numer- ous is very gi-eat, as they are almost omnivorous. There are several other genera and species of cockroaches in this country, but they all have very similar habits to the above, and are neither so plentiful nor do so much injury; some of them live in old rotten wood, under bark of trees, and live altogether out of doors, and therefore the injury they do to farmers or housewives is Very trifling or of no consequence whatsoever. COCK'S-FOOT GRASS. (See Grasses.) COCOON. The web which covers the chrys- alis of an insect. CODLING MOTH. (See Apple Worm.) CflELIAC. Relating to the belly or abdomen. COFFEE. This is an important plant in the agriculture of many intertropical countries. The coffee plant has been lately introduced into the United States under the erroneous supposition that it might be acclimated, which is, of course, destined to result in failure. It is probable that the plant may survive in some portions of Southern California, and barely possible that it may not be winter killed in Southern Florida. That it can ever be profitably cultivated is out of the question. It was at one time stated that the coffee plant grew wild all over California. The ignorant persons, who started the story, sup- posed a plant allied to the Buck Thorn, (Fran- gula Californica) to be real coffee. The almost universal use of coffee among civilized nations has stimulated its cultivation wherever the plant could thrive. Brazil is now the largest coffee producing country in the world. Of late years much interest has been excited over Liberian coffee on account of the superior size of the beny. There are several varieties of Coffea Arabica, in Abyssinia and Central Africa. Liberian coffee was supposed to be one of these, but late investi- gations have determined it to be a distinct species, and it has been named Coffea Liberica. The cut shows branch, leaves, and fruit of coffee. An interesting work on coffee, published by Appleton & Co., gives, among other interesting matter, the composition of raw coffee. It is as follows : Woody matter 34 Water 12 Fattymatter 13 Gum, sugar, and cafEeic acid IS Caffeiue 2 Azotized matter, analogous to legumine 13 Saliue matter, essential oils, etc 8 Total 100 Also it is stated, as among the curiosities of chemistry, that a magnificent purple dye can be prepared from the alkaloid of coffee. It is analagous to the dye which produced the famous Tyrian purple, unsurpassed for its perfection and permanence of tint. Mention is made of the facts that coffee, although a native of ' the Old COFFEE 237 COHESION World, has long been one of the most important staples of the New. Mej'en, in his inquiries concerning the principal plants on which the prosperitj' of nations is based, says that he even found some coffee trees growing wild in Brazil, not far from Rio Janeiro, in the woods of Cor- corado. It is the great commercial staple of the empire of Brazil which, as before stated, is the greatest coffee producing country of the globe, Java being the next in order. The latter does not contribute one-half the quantity of the former, yet it furnishes nearly three times as much as other markets. As showing the estimation in which coffee is held in the United States, the fact is referred to that the annual consumption is greater than anywhere else in the world ; to the extent of six-fold larger than in some of the states of Europe. Germany and France stand next to the United States in the rank of great coffee drinkers. It has often been expressed as a matter of surprise where the supply of Java and Mocha coffee came BRANCH OF COFFEE TREE. from, it being generally understood to be impos- sible that these comparatively small regions could supply a tithe of the Mocha and Java used. Of course these countries could not, even under the most intelligent system of cultivation, a system not general there. These grades really come from Brazil and other South American countries, a state of things not difficult to believe by those who inspected the many varieties shown at the Centennial Exhibition by the Brazilian govern- ment. It was extremely difficult to detect the dif- ference in form and color of the berry, a matter, however, apparent enough when the coffee was steeped. Coffee, like tobacco, owes much of its superior quality to the climate and soil upon which it is grown. Since the introduction of Brazil coffee many of the drinkers of the old- time Java and Mocha seem to have forgotten the taste and fragrance of the real berry and, being accustomed to the taste of the counterfeit Java, seem well satisfied. COFFER DAM. In architecture and bridge- building, a case of piling or other material, water-tight, fixed in the bed of a river or water space for the purpose of laying the bottom dry for a space large enough to build the pier on. Under ordinary circumstances coffer dams are formed by a single enclosure or a double one, with clay rammed in between the two to pre- vent the water from coming through the sides. They are also made either with piles only, driven close together, and sometimes notched or dove- tailed into one another; or, if the water is not very deep, by piles driven at a distance of five or six feet from each other, and grooved in the sides with boards let down between them in the grooves. In order to build, in coffer dams, a very good natural bottom of solid earth or clay is required ; for though the sides be made water- tight, if the bed of the water be of a loose con- sistence, the water will ooze up through it in too great a quantity to permit the operations to be carried on. The sides must be very strong and well braced in the inside to resist the pressure of the water. Modern science adopts various ways of reaching the same end. In bridge-building, for instance, when it is necessary that thefounda- tions rest upon the solid rock, immense caissons, iron tubes, are forced down, and the sand and earth pumped therefrom, subsequently to be filled with masonry. Thus the great Jlissis- sippi bridge foundations were laid, the bed rock being in places forty feet below the bed of the river. COHESION. The force which binds together similar particles. The strain which any wood or metal bears is a measure of its cohesion. The following is a tabular view of the absolute cohe- sion of timber, employed in building and carpen- try, showing the load which would rend a pi-ism of an inch square, and the length of prism which, if suspended, would be torn asunder by its own weight : Name. Pounds. ■ Feet. 12.9t5 11,880 9,630 12,2SS 14,130 9,720 9,540 12,346 12,240 36,049 Oak 3. '.900 Sycamore . . . Beech 35,800 38,940 Ash 42.080 Elm 39,060 . 40,500 Norway fir 55,500 42,160 The metals differ more widely from each other in their cohesive strength, than the several species of wood or vegetable fibres. According to the experiments of George Rennie, the cohe- sive power of a rod an inch square, of different metals, in pounds avoirdupois, with the corres- ponding length in feet, is as follows; Cast steel Swedish malleable iron English '■ Cast iron Cast copper Yellow Drass Cast tin Cast lead Feet. 134,256 39.455 72,064 19,740 65,872 19,740 19,096 6,110 19,072 6,098 17,958 6,180 4,736 1,496 1,824 348 COLIC 338 COMPRESSIBILITY COKE. The cinder of bituminous coal after l)eing heated for gas. This variety of coke lacks strength, since all that pertains to gas is taken from it, but it is easily kindled. In making coke, for manufacturing purposes, only the sulphur and other injurious elements of the coal are taken out. Such coke gives oH a steady, intense heat and is heavy, gray in appearance and, if struck together, gives oft a metallic sound. COLCHICUM. Colchicttm officinale. Meadow .saffron, a bulbous plant, growing freely in moist, sandy loams. The bulb and seeds are of the high- est value as a medicine in gout and rheumatism. In large doses it is poisonous. COLEOPTERA, Insects, the outer wings of ■which are hard or horny, the inner wings being large and very delicate. Borers, lady-birds, cur- culios, etc., belong to this race. (See Beetles.) COLEWORT. (See Cabbage,) COLIC. An irritation of the stomach or intes- tines produced by various causes, inducing pain and griping ; mild cases are readily alleviated by laudanum in the human subject. There are two forms of colic, spasmodic and flatulent. In horses, spasmodic colic sometimes runs into inflamma- tion. Sometimes one is mistaken for the other. In colic the horse is attacked suddenly; there are intervals of rest; the pulse not much altered in the •early stage of the disease ; rubbing the belly gives i-elief ; the ears and legs are of natural tempera- ture; motion gives relief and the strength is scarcely affected. In inflammation of the bowels, symptoms come on gradually; there is constant pain; the pulse small and much quickened and scarcely to be felt many times; the belly is quite tender and sore to the touch; the ears and legs are ■cold ; motion- increases the pain and the strength rapidly fails. The treatment of colic is to relieve jjain by giving one ounce of sulphuric ether, two ounces of laudanum and a pint of raw linseed oil .and, if not relieved in an hour, repeat the dose. Occasionaily walk the horse about to excite the bowels to action. The following is a good colic draft to have on hand : Take aromatic spirits of ammonia, one pint, sulphuric ether, one pint, sweet spirits of nitre, one and a half pints, gum opium (made fine), four ounces, camphor gum, four ounces, assafcetida, four ounces. Mix all together and shake frequently for twelve or fifteen days, then filter or strain through flannel and it will be ready for use. Dose: one tablespoonful, in a little water, repeated in thirty minutes. A larger dose may be given sometimes in very severe cases. In flatulent colic, windy colic, etc., the horse is uneasy, hangs the head, and exhibits a few of the general symptoms of spasmodic colic, before there is any enlargement of the belly, but more particularly after, for as soon as the belly .swells the pawing commences, although itis not so violent as in spasmodic colic. There is but little rolling or kicking at the belly as in spasmodic colic and the horse is not inclined to move about mueli. After from one to four days the belly becomes much increased in size (if the disease is not checked) and the animal becomes restless. Try injections first, and if gas or wind come away with it the patient will most likely recover soon ; but if no benefit is derived from the injection give the remedies as recommended for spasmodic colic. Let the horse be led around quietly until the medicine has time to take effect, so as to prevent his falling or rolling as it might cause rupture of the diaphragm. COLLAPSE. A loss of strength. Sudden failure of the vital powers, as at the commence- ment and ending of disease; a falling together, used in medicine to denote fatal prostration. COLLAR. In plants, that portion at the sur- face of the soil. COLLEGE. (See Agricultural College and Industrial Education.) COLLEY. The Scotch shepherd dog. COLLIQUATIVE. An excessive evacuation, diminishing the strength. COLLUM. The point where the roots diverge from the stem of plants. COLLYRIUM. An eye-wash. COLOCYNTH. The pulp of the Cucumis colo- cynth, a plant similar to the cucumber, bearing round fruit of gi-eat bitterness and purgative power. The cultivation is similar to that of melons. COLON. In anatomy, the large intestine. COLOPHONY. The dark resin remaining after the distillation of the spirit from resin. COLT DISTEMPER. (See Distemper.) COLTS-FOOT. (See Dock.) COMMON GOAT. (See Goat.) COMMON THISTLE. (See Thistle. ) COLUMBARIUM. A pigeon-house. Golum- iidiB. The pigeon family. COLZA. A species of the {Brassica) cabbage family, considerably still cultivated in Europe for the oil contained in the seed, and formerly used for illuminating purposes. It is unworthy of cul- tivation in the United States or Canada. COMA. A propensity to sleep, amounting to a disease (stupor). Comatose is a derivative. COMBINATION. In chemistry, the chemical union of atoms, whereby the sensible properties of the combining parts are altered. It takes place in well defined proportions. COMBUSTION. Burning. The chemical change of a body, attended with heat or light. For combustion, the body must be surrounded with a medium which enters, in part, into the change for instance. COMFREY. Symphytum, officinale. A rough perennial plant, with coarse, rough leaves and large roots. The Prickly Comfrey was intro- duced into the United States, under the supposi- tion that it would be available as a forage plant. It did not answer the expectations accorded it and has pretty much gone out of cultivation, since it has to be cut and carried to stock. COMMISSURE. In anatomy, a junction or union. COMOSE. Ending in a tuft or brush, like the top of a tree. COMPASS. An instrument used by mariners and surveyors to obtain the bearing of anyplace. The essential part is a magnetic needle, which plays over a card marked into the points of the compass. The needle if allowed free play, points constantly to the north. COMPOSITiE. Plants like the sunflower, dandelion, lettuce, etc., the flowers of which are grouped together on a flattish surface. They are very numerous, and form the Byngenma of •Linnaeus. Pew are cultivated. Chamomile, wormwood, and a few others yield bitter med- icines. Their ashes abound in potash. COMPOST. Any compound of manures, usually of vegetable matter for the most part. (See Peat, Lime, Vegetable Matter, etc.) COMPRESSIBILITY. This quality depends CONESTOGA HORSE 239 CONSERVATORY on the natural pores of bodies, which enable the solid parts to approach nearer under great forpe. CONCAVE. Having a hollowed surface. ■Concave surfaces in mirrors produce a magnify- ing effect, and condense heat and light. Convex is the reverse of concave, having a rounded surface. _ CONCEPTACLES. The seed cases of ferns, licli6ns 6tc CONCHOID. Like a shell. The name of a curve. CONCRETE. In architecture and engineer- ing, a mass composed of stone chippings or ballast cemented together through the medium of lime and sand, usually employed in making foundations where the soil is of itself too light, boggy, or otherwise insufficient for the walls. The essential quality of concrete seems to be, that the materials used should be of small dimen- sions, so that the cementing medium may act in every direction around them, and that the latter should on no account be more in quantity than is necessary for that purpose. CONDENSATION. Rendering a body more ■dense. Commonly applied to the conversion of vapor into the fluid form. CONDITION. In horsemanship, the health and good appearance of a horse or other animal. CONDITION POWDERS. For a horse sus pected of indigestion, the following will be useful- One ounce powdered assafoetida, two •ounces powdered ginger, five drachms powdered sulphate of iron, one ounce powdered goldenseal, two ounces powdered poplar bark, one drachm powdered capsicum, one pound oatmeal. Divide the mass into sixteen doses: one to be given, in the food, .every night. For hidebound, when there seems to be no particular disease, give ^ood nutritious food, and the following: Three ounces each of powdered sassafras bark, of powdered sulphur and of salt ; two ounces each of powdered bloodroot and of balmony, and one pound of oatmeal. Mix and divide into twelve parts, and give one daily in the morning's feed. Unless there is a plethoric habit, too much blood, from standing still and want of exercise, reduce the food, give proper exercise and, if the dung be hard, give two to four ounces of aloes twice a week, and also an ounce of saltpetre in the water as often. If this does not bring the animal around, give twice a week of the following: one-half ounce each of Fowler's solution of arsenic, and iodide of potash, mixed in a pint of water, and ^ive with water or gruel. Avoid arsenic, how- ever, on general principles, to get up a sleek coat. It is valuable when properly used, but you must know what you are using it for. CONDUCTOR. In physics, any substance which allows the passage of heat, light, or elec- tricity, is said to conduct it. CONDYLE. The rounded ends of the long liones. CONESTOGA HORSE. This once noble draft horse of the East, like the Vermont draft horse, may now be said to be practically extinct, as a variety and, unfortunately, as little is known of the history of one as of the other. Strong and able in every respect, they were a noble, honest, and quick stepping team horse, and from thirty to fifty years ago were employed in long teams of six and eight horses, in transporting goods over the AUeghanies to the markets of Philadel- phia and New York. The valley of Conestoga in Pennsylvania, originally settled by Germans, is the original home of the Conestoga horse. Their height was from sixteen to seventeen hands, and their weight from 1,250 to 1,500 pounds. They had acquired a distinctive repu- tation before the war of 1812, and rendered efficient service to the United States Army. If such magnificent draft horses are ever to be seen again, the best way now to attain the end would seem to be to cross the Cleveland Bay upon Clydesdale or upon the largest and roomiest mares that can be found. CONFERVA. An extensive family of small water weeds, forming the green slime on stag- nant waters. They nourish innumerable insects and animalcules, CONGELATION. The act of passing into the state of ice or other solid forms from the fluid. CONGESTION. In veterinary and medicine, an increased accumulation of blood or other fluid in any part. It is to be relieved by bleed- ing, cupping, leeches or counter irritation. Congestion of the lungs is the first stage of pneu- monia. Active stimulants should be given, as whisky, ammonia, spirits of nitre, ginger, etc., and the animal allowed full power to breath. Veterinary advice should always be called when practicable. CONGLOMERATE. In geology, a compound stony mass, containing pebbles, etc., cemented together by iron, calcareous or other matter. CONIC. Relating to a cone, smaller at one end than the other. CONIFERS. The name of evergreen trees, the seed of which is borne in cones, as the pines, cedars, larch, etc. The word evergreen applies to all trees which continue to grow, or which hold their leaves green winter and summer, as many tropical trees and plants do, continuing their growth winter and summer. Tlie well- known wax plant {Hoya), is an evergreen twiner, but not a conifer. The pine sub-family are con- ifers, and also evergreens, and include not only the pines, proper, but various varieties of cone- bearing trees. CONIROSTERS. A tribe of birds with strong conical bills, as crows and finches. CONIUM. The genus containing the poison hemlock. CON J UNCTIVITIS. See inflammation of the eyes. CONNIVENS. In botany, any covering or arrangement by which the parts of a plant or flower are hidden — as the flowers of the fig by the connivent receptacle. CONSERVATORY. In horticulture, a glazed structure, in which exotic trees and shrubs are grown in a bed or floor of soil. Technically, it is distinguished from a greenhouse by the plants being planted in the free soil, and thus growing up from the floor, while in the greenhouse the , plants are grown in pots placed on shelves, or on a stage or series of shelves rising one above another. They are exclusively employed for the preservation of plants which are in a growing state during tlie winter. There are many forms of conservatories and greenhouses, including what are called propagating houses, or pits, cheap structures used by professional florists for growing plants and flowers for sale. These are made to face the south, when built as a lean-to to another building, or they may be made as CONVERTIBLE HUSBANDRY 240 CORK shown in the cut below, separate, and about fourteen feet wide, when the roof slants both ways, the north slope being usually not more than half the length of the south slope. The propagating-bed is of brick, single width, and nine courses high; size, three feet by ten. Com- mon slate is laid on the top, supported by brick, laid up for the purpose from the top of the flue. A space of half an inch may be left between the slates. On the side, a few openings should be left for ventilation, so arranged as to be closed at pleasure. Make a frame the size of the top of the bed, of plank, ten inches wide by one and a quarter thick; set this on the top of the bed, and run an iron through the center to prevent the sides from spreading. In this frame, and on top of the slates, place three inches of pebbles about the size of hickory nuts; then one inch of fine gravel ; then, filling the bed with fine sand, it is ready for use. Charcoal may be substituted for pebbles. The house should front south or southeast. The front glazing should be lower than the back; and may be within eighteen inches of the ground. An evaporator, or large pan of zinc or boiler-iron, should be placed upon the flue to render the air moist. Hanging shelves may be introduced if needed ; they are very con- venient for bringing plants near the glass. If it be heated by flues direct from the fire, they should be of brick, and run around the house, returning to the same end from which they started, or may be carried directly under the propagating bed. By such means a small house may serve a family and furnish all the plants and flowers during winter, and the females of the household will derive much pleasure in attend- ing to it. When the house is only to be a small one, we should advise that It be a lean-to, com- municating directly with the house, CONSTIPATION. Costiveness,wantof regu- lar evacuations from the bowels. CONSTITUTION. The general strength and liability to disease of any person or animal. ■ CON STEICTOR. Any muscle which has the power of closing the openings of the body. CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. Contagious and epizootic diseases in farm animals are Apthous Fever, Malignant Anthrax, Canine Madness, Contagious Pleuro-pneumonia, Cow-pox, Dis- temper or Strangles, Cholera (Hog and Asiatic), Glanders, Rinderpest, Typhoid and Bilious Fever, Scab, Mange, Itch, etc. In Malignant Anthrax, Malignant Hog Cholera (Intestinal Fever), G-landers, Canine Madness, and Contagi- ous Pleuro-pneumonia, the diseases being well defined, it is cheaper to kill and bury deeply than to attempt a cure. Rinderpest we have never had on this continent. Contagious diseases incident to this country will be treated of under their appropriate names. CONTRACTION OF THE HOOF. In far riery, a distorted state of the horny substance of the hoof in horses and also of cattle, producing all the mischiefs of unnatural and irregular pres- sure on the soft parts contained in it and, con- sequently, a degree of lameness which can only be cured by removing the cause. Contraction of the hoof rarely happens, however, except to those animals whose hoofs, for the convenience of labor, are shod. The best remedy is paring, thinning the contracted parts, and a summer on a soft, rather moist pasture. CONVERTIBLE HUSBANDRY. A term implying frequent change in the same field from tillage crops to grass, and from grass back to tillage crops; an alternation of wheat, rye, etc., with fallow and grass crops. In all new coun- tries mixed husbandry only comes to be carefully- practiced as settlement increases, and markets are provided for various products. Mixed hus- bandry and manure are the best means of bring- ing exhausted land back to a state of fertility. CONVOLVULACEJ;. A family of plants, including the bind weed, sweet potato and jalap. The stems are commonly twining, and the large roots purgative ; the flowers are often beautiful, and the cultivated varieties, as the morning glory, are varied in color. CONVULSIONS. An unnatural action of the muscular system produced by a derangement of nervous power. Staggering is a convulsion originating in an excess of blood being diverted to the head, and is relieved by bleeding; the use of hot baths to the lower extremities is also use- ful. Worms frequently produce convulsions. (See Apoplexy.) COPAL. A resinous body which forms an excellent varnish when dissolved in linseed oil and mixed with turpentine. COPING. The top course of a wall, usually of stone, and wider than the wall to save it from rain. COPPERAS. Green vitrol, sulphate of iron. COPPICE. A young wood. Wood cut every few years. COPROLITE. The fossils resembling cones, which are formed in the ancient calcareous formations, and are the petrified dung of carniv- orous reptiles. CORALS. The calcareous basis of some marine animals. Corals sometimes contain two per cent, of bone earth. CORD. A measure for wood, stone, etc., equal to four feet high and wide, and eight feet long. CORDATE. In botany, heart-shaped. The heart on playing cards. CORD GRASSES. Coarse, salt-marsh grasses- of the genus Spartina. CORDIAL. A stimulating, stomachic med- icine. COREOPSIS. A yellow, composite, garden flower, the fresh flowers of which yield a 3-ellow dye. Named from eoris, a bug, from their peculiar smell. CORIANDER. Coriandrum sativum. An umbelliferous plant cultivated for its aromatic seeds, which are used in confectionery and medicine. The plant requires a dry soil, the seeds are sown in the middle of spring, in drills eight inches apart, and half an inch deep ; the plants to remain where sown. The only culti- vation required is to thin them to eight inches' distance, and to have them kept clear of weeds throughout their growth. They perfect seeds in early autumn, coming in flower in the early part of summer. CORK. The bark of the Spanish oak. Quercus- suber. It would flourish wherever the live oak grows, and indeed up to the latitude of Tennes- see, but requires a dry granitic soil. The tree is evergreen, yields sweet acorns, and begins to supply good cork at forty years old. The cork is stripped every eight or ten years afterward. It is taken in July, a perpendicular cut being made the length of the trunk, and a circular one above CORNS 241 COROLLA and below, down to the new bark, but not into the young wood. Plantations of the cork oak have never yet proved profitable in the United States, but there is no reason why they should not. COKMUS. The solid swelling between the stem of some plants. CORN. In Europe, wheat, or a mixture of peas, beans, and oats. In the United States the name is applied only to Indian corn, Zea Mays. (See article Maize.) CORNEA. The transparent membrane in front of the eye. Anj' opacity injures vision ; it should be carefully treated by bleeding and blisters. C»RN, MEASURING THE BULK. The following rule for this purpose is given by "William Murray. It is not to be regarded as strictly accurate, but an approximation : Having previously levelled the corn in the house, so that it will be of equal depth throughout, ascertain the length, breadth, and depth of the bulk; multiply these dimensions together, and their products by four; then cut off one figure from the right of this last product. This will give so many ^bushels, and a decimal of a bushel of shelled corn. If it be required to find the 1-33,783,7.36 14,103,629 ]VIr. J. M. Smith, of Wisconsin, at the session -of the Northwestern Dairymen's Association in 1878, held the following in relation to cooling milk, and the manufacture of butter and cheese : The practical cheese maker who succeeds in making a cheese that is at once firm, soft, mild, and entirely sweet, rich and meaty — one that has these properties in such excellence that it can be spread on another cheese under the hand like iinmelted butter — knows, if he has taken note of the facts, that that kind of a cheese was made when the coldness of the weather, or the careful- ness of hi.s patrons, gave him a vat of milk that was sound and cool, and free from any manifest approach to acidity. Whatever science or reck- lessness may assert can be achieved in making such a kind of cheese from milk not kept so cold, or from that perceptibly acid to the ordi- nary senses of smell and taste, I know that a cheese maker of even limited experience can make a good cheese every time from the former- named kind of milk ; while I have j-et to learn and be convinced that a philosopher, a chemist, a scholar and experienced cheese maker combined can make such a cheese from milk that has deteriorated to perceptible acidity. If like causes produce like effects in the cheese vat as well as elsewhere, (and they do) then I argue that if the maximum of excellence is attained by the proper manipulation of good cooled milk, and defeat, manifest and disgraceful, accompanies the manufacture of sour milk, then approximate success or failure will show the per cent, of each, to good judges, just in proportion as the milk has progressed in acidity before coagulation is effected. The per cent, of variation is not so plainly discernible, as the condition of the mer- cury is on the scale of the thermometer, and it has been made, not b}' the cheese maker alone, but by the atmosphere and the acts of the patron. The practical, educated butter maker knows tliat as soon as milk sours the raising of cream is at once checked and, we may safely say, sub- stantiall}- stopped. If left to acidify by not being cooled when first drawn from the cow, the acid will devour the cream, and a per cent, of loss of butter is the certain consequence. By experi- ment, made in warm weather, I learned that mixed night's and morning's milk jslunged in water at 60° made about one pound of butter per 100 pounds of milk less than that plunged in iced water at 40°, and that the milk of the former was sour next morning, and unfit for making skimmed-milk cheese — while the latter was to smell and taste yet sweet. By another experiment, made also in warm weather, it was shown that the night's milk delivered next morn- ing, taken care of in the night in the usual waj', though plunged in an ice-bath as soon as received, would sour by 3 p. m. of the day of delivery, while the morning's milk of the same day, put in the same ice-bath, would be sweet forty-eight hours after delivery. Prom this I saw that to keep milk sweet long enough to get the butter all out of it, it is necessary to rapidly cool it immediatel)' after being drawn. Now, if the causes that produce acidity have the effect to so change the weight of butter that can be made from a given weight of milk, then the same cause, (absence of cream) if the milk is used to make cheese, will modify the character of your cheese and make it approximately fancy, or decidedly of the white oak variety, according as the boss skimmer of the age — acid — has been permitted to ravage the milk, either by the act of the patron or the tardy manipulations of the cheese maker. These facts and experiences lead direct to conclusions essential to be observed in' the care of milk by the patron, and the manu- facture of it after delivery in the vat. The pat- ron is most vitally interested, and therefore he ought to have his ears wide open to a proclama- tion of the fact — which fact is, that cents per DAIRY BUILDINGS 360 DAIRY BUILDINGS hundred pounds for his milk is intimately depen- dent upon the rapid cooling of his night's milk during the warm weather. This is true, whether he does it himself or has it done for him by the maker at the factory. To cool on the farm is the prevailing custom, at least in the West, and so I address myself to urging that it be done there more thoroughly. To give some known reasons of failure, and what would more surely secure the end sought — One of the chief reasons of failure is the ignorance or carelessness of patrons, or a combination of both. Sometimes the ignorance is so dense that precept upon pre- cept will not penetrate the cranium. The loss of a can of milk, occasionally, will aid materially in the development of such. When that is the case, the cheese maker is fortunate. It is not that kind of milk that harms him, for he does not use it. It is the partially acid milk that gets into the vat that takes the gilt edge off his cheese. Whatever the magnitude of the dairy interests, as has been shown in this article, and the extracts given, there is still room for expansion. In fact there would seem to be little fear that for some time the production of really fine butter and cheese will hold high prices, at least for years to come. Nevertheless, what is known as grease butter, and skim cheese, can not expect even to hold its own. People will eat sweet lard in pref- erence to rancid butter, and will go without cheese rather than attempt the toughness of white dairy' BUILDINGS. The adaptation of •buildings to the special wants of the farm is one of the departures that has gradually gi-own up, and which, within the last fifteen or twenty years, has been so improved that, now, barns and dairy houses for the special manufacture of butter and cheese, or both ; improved sheds for the feeding of calves, and convenient buildings for feeding- swine are found in all dairy districts ; even dwell- ings adapted to the use of the family, with a dairy room attached, are often found in the East, where comparatively few cows are kept in single dairies, but which in the aggregate count most largely. This plan, however, is not to be com- mended even on the score of economy, and cer- tainly not, where the highest grade of manufac- ture is to be' accomplished; the diffioully, in so isolating the room from outside temperature and especially in holding the requisite coolness in summer, would render the cost, when from twenty to thirty cows are kept, more than that of a proper dairy building. (See Ice Houses.) • Ice is of the first importance, in the manufacture of prime butter, and in preserving it intact; and the cheese maker, who finds it economical to make butter at some seasons, will fully understand its importance. Where a stream of very cold water is supplied by a spring or where the water can be raised from a deep well, ice may be very well dispensed with, if a deep, dry, cool, well venti- lated cellar may be provided. (See Sub-earth Ven- tilation.) To return to the subject of ice for dairy purposes, as in a,ny case, the ice house should be a building by itself. It should also be on ground higher than the dairy and provided with a pipe to carry the cold water of the melting ice to the dairy room. The dairy house need not be an expensive building ; it must however be built with special reference to the required use. A room simply intended for raising cream and making butter, under the present improved processes. need occupy but little space for ten to fifteeit cows. For making butter sinjply for home use, a sweet, cool cellar answers well. When the butter and cheese is for market, the building should be of brick, with double walls, and if partly sunk in the ground, or built in a bank, so much the bet- ter. The foundation walls should, if possible, be- of stone, the floor of cement, with ample drains both for water and the waste liquids of the milk, etc. These drains should have ample fall, those- for skimmed milk, whey, etc., leading directly to the calf and pig pens, and emptying into vats that may be easily cleaned. These drains must be water tight, except the drains for surface water, which may be of tile. The drains for the wastage- of the factory — the pipes leading to and from the dairy house — should be laid before the floor is r The floor to be of flags or brick laid in cement, or a floor of cement, this to be laid on a surface of pounded glass or tin shavings, six inches thick, as a protection against rats. The top and side walls of the house should be finished with plaster. Thus cleanliness, economy, perfect ventilation, and an equal temperature are secured. We give- below an illustration of a small factory, whick is simple in construction and which, with the explanations, will be easily understood. If built as we have suggested, and with sub-earth ven- tilation, (see article on this subject) with the use of ice, it may be used for both butter and cheese. FARM DAIRY-HOUSE. The building, say thirty by twenty-four feet may be arranged as follows. The ground floor is- extended to a piazza, shown in the elevation, leading into a milk room twelve by fourteen feet, provided with a heater and vat, a cheese press, an elevator, and stairs to second story. To the- left a door leads to a store room ten by twelve feet lighted by two windows. Another door leads to- a ware room with windows, and also folding doors, as shown, wide enough to admit a team, also with stairs leading to the upper floor. The upper floor is all in one room with tables on three- sides, and passage ways,, openings on two sides, provided with ventilators as shown in the eleva- tion, with windows at each end. This is the curing room and should be provided with the most modern improvements. If an extra story be desired, for additional store room, stairs, and an elevator, must be provided with easy entrance. The barns, piggery, and calf stables need not vary from those used for other purposes, except, that the dairy barn should have storage room for roots in winter, if possible. (See article- Barns, and Hog House.) The American associ- ated system of dairying and the multiplicatioa Fig. 1. Pig. 6. Pig. 5. DAIRY FIXTURES (361) DAIRY BUILDINGS 2G2 DAM of butter and cheese factories here, has so cJjeapened and improved onr products, tliat in self defense, especially in England, the adoption has become imperative. The plan has worlied as -well tliere, as in the United States, although in England, buildings especially designed f^r dairving, have long been common. DAIRY COWS. (See articles Alderney, Ayr- shire, Holstein, and Shortdioru Cattle, also article Cattle.) DAIBY FIXTURES. Tlie principal appa- ratus for large dairies shoidd be, a steam engine, or other means for heating and power, clieese presses, clieese vats, curd cutters, dippers, pans, or other utensils for setting milk and raising- cream; also churns, butter table and worlier, pails, and cans for milk, and paclwges for ship- ping the merchantable commodities. (See But- ter, Cheese, etc.) These of course v\ill be of the latest and most improved foims. In the article of cloths, to be used in V)andaging cheese,, it is now manufactured especially for "the pur- pose; .so also, are the boxes for packing, and the dairyman can now order just sucli fixture for one, or of any required size for tlie other. Annottois now piepared with special relation to the wants of flie dairyman, and .■-o are all of the otlier materials needed. Hoops for holding the cheese while being pressed, are now made of various materials, the best probably, being tliose of galvanized iron, turned over stout wire at the top and liottom. Bent hoops of elm or liickoiy, and those made of wooden staves, banded with iron, are also in use, but are decidedly inferior, since they are niucli more difficult to keep clean.. (See article Cheese.) On page 261 we have shown some of the most approved forms of dairy fixtures: Fig. 1, lieater; Fig. 2, perpendicular gang curd liiiife; Fig. 3, liorizontal curd knife; Fig. 4, clieese liooj]; Fig. .5, a modern cream- raising apparatus; and Fig. 6, one of its cans. DAM. The use of dams and embankments, to form reservoirs f)f water, is important in dry localities and countries, as a means of securing a supply in times of drought, when the supply is not easily reached near the surface. A.^ a means of securing power for mechanical purjioses the use is limited in agriculture; nevertheless, there are man)- situations where fwo ]iur]ioses m»y be subserved in this way, that of foiming a never failing pond of water for stock, during the dry season, and of supplying power for running various farm machinery, during the spring, late autumn and much of the time in winter. !N'o specific directions can Tie given for the for- mation of dams or embankments. When the head is not more than four or fi\-e feet, a simple embankment of earth to be protected from the bui-4-owing of musk-rats and other water animals, by means of planks, set upright, edge to edge, close!}', and at least two feet below the bottom of the pond, with a w-aste way in the most con- venient place, to allow the surplus water to pass off freely; this will be all that will be neces- sai-y when the head is of a height sufllcieut to endanger the bank by the overflow of water. We give an illustration shoAving how an em- bankment may be built in a depression, show-ing pond of water and trees ten years planted. The earth excavated to deepen the pond may form the- embankment. This may be cheaplj' done by ail)' of the modern scrapers which dump without stopping the team, and at the same time the operator may spread the earth, ,so but little* levelling will lie needed. Dams may sometimes be made to serve the purpose of furnishing a DARTARS 363 DECORTICATION supply of water to the house and out-buildings, when the elevation of the locality containing water is sufficiently above the buildings to form a sufficient head when conducted in underground pipes. Thus the water of a higher level, by means of a suitable dam, may be made to operate a fountain and supply ornamental and other ponds and streams near the dwelling. So, again, water is sometimes conducted in underground pipes, where the level of the pond is not much below the level of the barn, and the water is pumped, by wind or other power, thence into a tank, placed at a sufficient height, for distribu- tion. The pipes for conducting the water must be quite tight, and of sufficient strength to resist the strain, according to the height ot the water head. Thus, the pipes may be conducted over inequalities in the land, care being taken that at no place they rise higher than the pond or pool from which the water is taken. DAMSON. A small, useful, black plum, brought originally from Damascus, whence the name. Also called Damasene plum. DANDELION. Tdvaxaeam dem-leonis. This common weed is a native of Europe, but has become thoroughly naturalized in nearly every portion of the United States. Although not sjjecially obnoxious, it is difficult to extirpate, since its seeds are borne long distances (on the wind) by means of the pappus or down. On lawns it is most obnoxious, but may be extirpated by thrusting a thin, chisel-shaped tool diagonally into the ground, so as to cut the root about two inches below the surface. The plant may then be easily pulled up. The leaves are used as greens, boiled, by those who like bitter herbs, and the plant has some reputation as a remedy in cases of diseases of the liver. The young leaves are sometimes tied up and blanched like endive, but it is a poor substitute for this plant. The plant blossoms early in spring and again during the latter part of summer. Fall Dandelion {Leontodoii autumnale) is a plant with many- flowered heads ; a low, stemless, perennial herb, with toothed or pinnatifid root leaves, the scapes bearing one or more yellow heads. The pappus is tawny and composed of a single row of equal bristles. It is not very cornmon in the "\Vest, but is so east of the Alleghanies, and especially in Xew England. It flowers late in the spring, or early in summer, and continues until frost. DANDRUFF. Scales of skin, epidermis which are brushed off readily. D.4.PPLE. Marked with various colors. DARNEL. Bromus secalinus. Smooth rye brome-grass. , Bromus moUin. Soft brome- grass. Both these grasses pass in England under the common name of darnel. Professor Martyn supposes the annual bearded rye-grass (Lolium temulenlnin) to be the darnel of the Romans. Mr. Holdich observes that he never found this grass among small grain crops. Sinclair says: I have found the Bromus mollis and Alopecurus agrostis, with the Bromus secalinus to be the most prevalent weeds (of the annual grass kind) in corn fields ; these, therefore, may be considered the darnel of the British farmer. AVhat we in the United States know as darnel is Lolium perenne, ray or rye-grass. L. teiiiulentum is bearded darnel. DAKTARS. In farriery, a sort of scab or ulceration taking place on the skin, to which lambs are subject. DATE. The fruit of a palm (Phaniv dactyl- ifera) remarkable for its nutritiousiiess, and as affording food to entire populations. DATURA. The generic name of the thorn apple or Jamestown weed, a poisonous plant. DAUCUS. The generic name of the carrot. DEAL. Originally the small sections into which a piece of timber of any sort were cut up ; but in England the term is now restricted in its signification to the wood of the fir, (Norway Spruce) and also what is known as cork pine in Canada, and cut up into thicknesses in the countries whence deals are imported. It is, in fact, now used in the sense,as we apply to boards, cut to a required thickness and width. DEBRIS. In geology, any worn materials, such as fragments of rocks, ruins, or rubbish. Sometimes applying, hut incorrectlj-, to rubbish or waste, as the remains of a fire. DECAGON. Any solid having ten side.i and angles. DECANDRIA. The class of plants I.;:-.:r.g decapods: Crabs with ten feet. Animals like the cuttle-fish, with ten tentacles, where- with they walk. DECAY. The destruction of organized bodies by natural causes. The products of decay depend on the presence or deficiency of air. In the first case, the process is called Ercuracausis ; in the second. Fermentation, which see. DECOCTION. , Any mixture which has been boiled. Coffee is a decoction when prepared bj' boiling. Tea is an infusion when made without boiling. DECOMPOSITION. In chemistry, the sep- aration of the parts of any compound, whether mineral or organic. Electricity and heat are the principal forces used by chemists for this purpose, and they are capable of disturbing most combinations. Chemical affinity, or the attrac- tion which one form of matter has for another, is also an agent of decomposition. Thus, oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid) has a powerful attraction for water; if it be dropped on the skin a blister is instantly produced, and the part blackens. This decomposition is owing to thegreater affinity of the acid for water than the flesh of the hand. In the same way some . minerals act on each other, producing change of composition, or decom- posing them. Decomposition may be expected if one of the ingredients is of a volatile or gaseous natux-e, or if the agent added forms with one of the original components, a product which is insoluble in water. Thus sulphuric and oxalic acid decompose every solution of lime, because they form insoluble salts with lime. Carbonic acid, in its salts, is decomposed by every fixed acid, because it is gaseous. Lime, potash and soda decompose most salts of ammonia, because the latter is volatile. Decomposition of light is the separation of a ray of light by means of a prism of glass, into the seven colors, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet, which were called the primary colors, light bein^ the result of their mixture. The true primitive colors, however, are red, yellow and blue, from the combination of which all other colors are obtained . DE'CORTICATION. Removing the bark. Scraping the bark, and even partially removing it during tlie active growth, has been found to invigorate trees. Sometimes resorted to in bark- bound trees which bear little fruit. Care must DEODORIZE 264 DEVON CATTLE be taken not to wound the sap wood, or expose the inner bark. Manure and high cultivation should always be resorted to in connection with the scraping of the bark of moss or bark-bound DECREPITATION. A chemical term signi- fying crackling, and used to describe the sound made by nitre, salt, sulphate of potash, and other salts, when thrown into the Are. Crepitate is the word used by physicians and veterinarians for the peculiar sound emitted from the lungs, and other viscera,in certain diseases and ailments. There is ci'epitation — crackling — of the bones in fractures. DECUMBENT. In botany, inclined down- ward. DECURRENT. In botany, a leaf, a part of the lamina of which is attached to the stalk of the plant. DECUSSATE. To cross and intermingle, in anatomy. DEFLAGRATION. A chemical term, mean- ing very rapid combustion, as when nitre is thrown on a surface highly heated. DEFLECTION. A term in optics. When a thin, opaque body is placed in the course of a ray of light, the ray is bent out of its straight direction. The phenomenon is also called dif- fraction. DEGLUTITION. The act of swallowing. DEHISCENT. A botanical term signifying the bursting open, when dry, of seed vessels. DELIQUESCENT. Saline substances which absorb so much moisture from the air as to become fluid, are called deliquescent. DELPHINIC ACID. An oily acid, obtained from whale oil, and having a rancid smell. DENTATE. Toothed, DENTIROSTERS. Birds having a tooth- like notch on each side of the upper mandible. Dentirostrate, having a toothed bill, as the sliTikfis stc DEOBSTRUENT. A medicine given to remove any obstacle in the bowels, etc. DEODORIZE. The substances used to des- troy noxious smells, are various, and each year, through the investigation of chemists, gives us new ones. The object sought in deo- dorizing is to fix the volatile particles which would otherwise escape, often in the form of noxious gases, and to render the substance with- out unpleasant smell. In the spreading of rank manure in a liquid state, heavy dilution with water, is all that is necessary, since the soil has a strong affinity for nitrogen. Sawdust, sand or dry earth, especially dry clay, will have the same effect, when incorporated in the heap, as in the case of the refuse of the house, and other offensive substances to be converted into com- post. Another means is used, especially near cities, particularly in the case of night soil. The soil is thrown into trenches, a part of the earth thrown out being mixed with the mass. The trench being nearly full, the whole is covered with a bank or thick layer of earth sufficient to take up the gases, when upon becoming homogeneous throughout, it is carted on the land as manure. The more usual course, however, is to treat the privy vaults with a solution of green copperas, (sulphate of iron). This from its cheapness, and its quick and strong power of fixing ammonia, should be kept in every farmhouse and village homestead, for deodorizing privies, sinks, drains, cesspools and other offensive places. Thus the ammonia, one of the most volatile of substances, and the sul- phuretted compounds, among the most horrible in their effluvia, but of the first value as manure, may be retained until it can be carried to the land. Lime is also a deodorizer, but it should never be used about manure containing nitrogen in any form, since it sets the ammonia free to be dissipated in the air. Gypsum will seize and hold nitrogen, but its action is too slow, except that it may be used in the horse and cattle stables, under foot, both as a deodorizer and as an absorbent. There are many deodorizers applied to particular uses, many of them most expensive. Those we have mentioned, will meet the general requirements of the farm. (See^ Disinfection.) DESPUMATION. The act of skimming the scum from any heated fluid. DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION. The heating of bones, wood, coal, etc., in iron vessels, at a high temperature to produce peculiar sub- stances. From green wood, vinegar (pyroligne- ous acid) and wood tar; from bones, superphos- phate (impure ammonia); from coal, gas, coal DETERGENTS. Medicines which remove impurities and cleanse sores. DETERIOR ATIO N . This term as applied in agriculture means degeneration of animals and plants through want of proper care and attention in breeding in the one case, and in plants, degen- eration (running out) from various causes, prin- ciple among which are the crowding of vegeta- tion on unmanured land, want of proper cultiva- tion, the disuse of rotation in crops, and the saving of inferior seed. To prevent deterioration in animals, they must be well sheltered and fed; none but mature animals should be bred from, and care should be exercised in selecting and put- t|ing together males and females, of the form best adapted to improvement; and especially should we have in view physical conformation, and qualities which will blend happily each with the other. (See articles Breeding and Selection of Seed.) DETONATION. In chemistry slight explo- sions. Any slight explosion, as of percussion caps. DETRITUS. The broken and pounded remains of rocks. DEVON CATTLE. The Devons are among the very oldest of the distinctive breeds of cattle in Great Britain, as they are still the best adapted to hilly countries and scant pasturage wherever beef, labor at the yoke, and milk are to be taken into consideration. As grazing cattle they are unequaled in the quality of their flesh, among cattle in America, and only excelled in Great Britain by the Highland (Scottish) breeds. The cows, while not great milkers, give good messes of rich milk and, in exceptional cases, as with all breeds, individuals give large yields of milk. The oxen are unequaled at the yoke, especially in the ability to work continuously at a quick pace. They are long lived, hardy, good feeders, tractable, high spirited and sagacious. The great objection to the breed is their small size. While this is true of the bulls and cows, the- oxen attain good weights, from 1,100 to 1,300 pounds, and upwards, live weight, when ripe, being not unusual. It lias been objected that the Devon bull, when fully mature, is apt to be be dangerous. DEVON CATTLE 265 DEVON CATTLE This, however, is only true in a sense ; they are high spirited, and courageous to a degree, and if abused will resent the abuse. Firm, gentle iiandling will correct all this, as we can testify from having bred them many j-ears, in early life. The same rule will apply to the cows and oxen. If treated kindly and, at the same time, with a firm will, there are no cattle more amenable to the hand of their master. In the article Cattle we have illustrated the breed as they were known ■one hundred years ago. The illustrations, on adjoining pages, of a bull and cow of to-day will serve to show the perfection to which Devons are now brought through careful breeding and feed- ing. Youatt, in reference to the history of this breed, written in the early part of the century, savs . The north of Devon has been long cele- brated for a breed of cattle beautiful in the highest degree, and in activity at work and apti- tude to fatten unrivaled. The native country of the Devons, and where they are found in a state of the greatest purity, extends from the river Taw westward, skirting along the Bristol Chan- nel; the breed becoming more mixed, and at length comparatively lost before we arrive at the Parrett. Inland it extends by Barnstaple, South Moltou, and Chumleigh, as far as Tiverton, and thence to Wellington, where again the breed becomes unfrequent, or it is mixed before we Teach Taunton. More eastward the Somersets and the Welsh mingle with it, or supersede it. To the south there prevails a larger variety, a •cross probably of the Devon with the Somerset ; and on the west the Cornish cattle are found, or contaminate the breed. The Devonshire man confines them within a narrow district, and will scarcely allow them to be found Avith purity beyond his native county. From Portlock to Biddeford, and a little to the north and the south,, is, in his mind, the peculiar and only residence •of the true Devon, From the earliest records the breed has here remained the same ; or if not quite as perfect as at the present moment, yet altered in no essential point until within the last thirty years. This is not a little surprising when it is remembered that a considerable part of this district is not a breeding country, and that even a proportion, and that not a small one, of Devon- shire cattle, are bred out of the county. On the I)orders of Somerset and Dorset, and partly in both, extending southward from Crewkern, the country assumes the form of an extensive valley, and principally supplies the Exeter market with calves. Those that are dropped in February and 3Iarch, are kept until May, and then sold to the •drovers, who convey them to Exeter. They are there purchased by the Devonshire farmers, who ieep them for two or three years, when they are sold to the Somersetshire graziers, who fatten them for the London market ; so that a portion of the Devons, and of the very finest of the breed, come from Somerset and Dorset. The Devonshire farmers were, until the last century, not conscious that they possessed anything superior to other breeds ; but, like agriculturists everywhere else, they bought and bred without care or selection. It" is only within the last one hundred and fifty or sixty years that any sys- tematic efforts have been made to improve the breeds of cattle of the kingdom; and we must acknowledge, that the Devonshire men, with all their advantages, and with such good ground to work upon, were not the first to stir, and for a time, were not the most zealous when they were" roused to exertion. They are indebted to the nature of their soil and climate for the beautiful specimens which they possess of the native breed of our island, and they have retained this breed almost in spite of themselves. A spirit of emu- lation was at length kindled, and even the Devons have been materiall}' improved, and brought to such a degree of perfection that, take them all in all, tliey would suffer from intermixture with any other breed. Whatever be the breed, there are certain conformations which are indispens- able to the thriving and valuable ox or cow. When we have a clear idea of these, we shall be able more easily to form an accurate judgment of the different breeds. If there is one part of the frame, the form of which, more than of any other, renders the animal- valuable, it is the chest. There must be room enough for the heart to beat, and the lungs to play, or sufficient blood for the purposes of nutriment and of strength will not be circulated; nor will it thoroughly undergo that vital change which is essential to the proper discharge of every function. We look, therefore, first of all to the wide and deep girth about the heart and lungs. We must have both: the proportion in which the one or the other may preponderate, wi!l depend on the service we require from the animal ; we can excuse a slight degree of flatness on the sides, for he will be lighter in the forehead, and more active ; but the grazier must have width as well as depth. Not only about the heart and lungs, but over the whole of the ribs, must we have both length and roundness; the hooped, as well as the deepbarrel is essential ; there must be room for the capacious paunch, room for the materials from which the blood is to be provided. There should be little space between the ribs and the hips. This seems to be indispensable in the ox, as it regards a good healthy constitution, and a propensity to fatten; but a largeness and drooping of the belly is excusable in the cow, or rather, though it dimin- ishes the beauty of the animal, it leaves room for the udder ; and if it is also accompanied by swell- ing milk veins, it indicates her value in the dairy. Speaking of the steers, Youatt says, they are usually taken into work at about two years old, and are worked until they are four, or five, or six; they are then grazed, or kept on hay, and in ten or twelve months, and without anj^ further trouble, are fit for the market. If the grass land is good, no corn, or cake, or turnips, are required for the first winter; but, of course, for a second winter these must be added. The grazier likes this breed best at five years old, and they will usually, when taken from the plow, fetch as much money as at six. After having been worked lightly on the hills for two years, they are bought at four years old by the tillage- farmer of the vales, and taken into hard work from four to six; and, what deserves considera- tion, an ox must be thus worked in order for him to attain his fullest size. If he is kept idle until he is five or six, he will invariably be stinted in his growth. At six he reaches his full stature, unless he is naturally disposed to be of more than ordinary size, and then he continues to grow for another half year. The Devon oxen are rarely shod, and very rarely lame. Their next quality is their disposition to fatten, and very few rival them here. Some very satisfactory experiments have been made on this point. They do not. O B s--:;^~ fe ( 2(i6 ) o ( 207 ) DEVON CATTLE 268 DEVON CATTLE indeed, attain the great weight of some breeds ; but, in a given time, they acquire more flesh, and with less consumption of food, and their flesh is beautiful in its kind. It is mottled, or marbled, so pleasing to the eye and to the taste. For the dairy, the Devons must be acknowledged to be inferior to several other breeds. The milk is good, and yields more than an average pro- portion of cream and butter; but generally it is deficient in quantity. There are those, how- ever, and no mean judges, who deny this, and select the Devons even for the dairy. Such is not, however, the common opinion. They are kept principally for their other good qualities, in order to preserve the breed; and because, as nurses, they are, indeed, excellent, and the calves thnve from their small quantity of milk more rapidly than could possibly be expected. This aboriginal breed of British cattle is a very valu- able one, and seems to have arrived at the highest point of perfection. It is heavier than it was thirty years ago, yet fully as active. Its aptitude to fatten is increased, and its property as a milker might be improved, without detriment to its grazing qualities. Those points in which the Devons were deficient thirty years ago, are now fully supplied, and all that is now wanting, is a judicious selection of the most perfect of the present breed, in order to preserve it in its state of greatest purity. Many of the breeders are as careless as ever they were ; but the spirit of •emulation is excited in others. Mr. Youatt adds ; The Devon cattle are more than usually free from disease. The greater part of the maladies of cattle, and all those of the respiratory system, are owing to injudicious exposure to cold and wet ; the height and thickness of the Devonshire fences, as affording a comfortable shelter to the •cattle, may have much to do with this exemption. Since Mr. Youatt's time great improvement has been made, while their eminent fineness and style has been preserved. They now mature ■earlier, and their size has been increased. The characteristic points of the Devon, as it existed fifty years ago, may be summed up as follows: The North Devon bull has a bold countenance, indented forehead, clear, full and prominent eyes, surrounded by an orange-colored ring; his head is square, with a light, cream-colored muzzle, or nose; his horns are moderately strong, a little turned up at their tips, and of a wavy color; his back is straight from the hip- bone to the insertion of the tail ; his hind quarter is full and round quite down to the hough, with the thigh full of muscles, and a deep, rich flank ; iis shoulder is also deep and strong from the withers to the chest, and thick through the breast behind the elbow; his fore-arm and knee are thick and strong, with the bone small and short under the knee; his flank is well down the body, which is rather straight underneath. The cow has a neat, sharp head, with graceful, upturned horns, a very full, clear eye, encircled with an ■orange-colored ring, and she is of the same color within the ears; the muzzle, or nose, is narrow, find of pale cream color; her frame is long and straight, symmetrical in shape, with good, prom- inent hips and full springing ribs; her hind- quarter is long and full; her shoulder round, slanting and full, and she is deep from the top of the plate-bone to the breast-point ; her fore-arm thick down to the knee-bone, and thin and short below the knee, her abdomen is straight along the under side ; her flank is low down near the hough; she is usually small when compared with the bull. The North Devon working ox has a large, long, straight and symmetrical frame, with a clean, sharp-looking head, clear, prominent eye, encircled by an orange-colored ring, a cream- colored nose, and long, waxy, upturned horns, which are fine at the points; his shoulder is slanting and well placed; Miis neck is lean and thin at the breast-point; his ribs are rounded, and spring out; his hip is high and long from the hip-bone to the insertion of the tail, and nearly as high as the line of the back; hind- quarter round and full, quite to the hough, with great substance and bone; fore-arm, thiclj and large above, but small below the knee, with a good, expansive solid hoof that seldom fails. While these characteristics remain, measurably, to-day, they have been modified and refined by breeding, so that while retaining their high mus- cular development, rounded form and intelli- gent sagacitj', they are at the same time more fully rounded out, and finer in every way; and in the show rings, both for fat and breeding ani- mals, in England and America, they do not com- pare unfavorably with other improved breeds — except in localities where flush pastures and abundant winter feed enables the larger breeds to supersede them. In high northern latitudes, and in hilly countries, they will always be favor- ite cattle. In relation to the uniform red color of the Devons — breeders of the improved Devons adhere scrupulously to the deep red color, and reject individuals who have a tendency to pro- duce white, and in this way the color of the Devons has been established and perpetuated. It is now found that the deep red color of the pure- bred Devon is implanted so strongly that there is no race in which a mixture of foreign blood is so easily traced; nor is there a race that has remained so free from foreign intermixture. Their color is generally stamped on the progeny, in a cross with any other breed — so much so that when the Devon bull is crossed on the native and grade cows, of whatever color, the progeny are almost invariably like the sire in color. The systematic improvement of the Devons, commenced in England, over 150 years ago. They were transferred to the New England States and into Maryland. They are said to have been imported into the Plymouth Colony in 1623, but the first importation of improved Devons into the United States was in 1817, when Mr. Coke, afterwards Earl of Leicester, presented to Mr. Robert Patterson, of Baltimore, Md., six heifers and one bull, Taurus. The dam of Taurus, in 1830, made thirteen pounds of butter per week. Three of these heifers Mr. Patterson gave to his father-in-law, Mr. Richard C'aton; the other three he gave to his father, Jlr. William Patterson; they were all bred to Taurus. In 1835, Mr. George Patterson came in possession of the herd of his father, Mr. William Patterson, and, in 1836, imported the bull Anchises (140), for a cross, from one of the best dairies in Devon- shire. He afterwards imported Eclipse (191) : in 1846, Herod (314); and in 1852, Norfolk (266). As sliowiug the estimation in which Devons were held in England and America, from the time of their introduction here, up to 1860, we find in one of the volumes of the Agriculture of Massa- chusetts, the following: Mr. Bloomfield, the manager of the late Earl of Leicester's estate, at DEW 269 DEW Holkllam Hall, Norfolk, England, has, by care- ful attention, greatlj' improved the size and quality of the Devons, and increased their milk- ing properties, so that he obtained a prize for having produced an average annual yield of 200 pounds of batter per cow, in a dairy of twenty cows, or equal to four pounds per week, the year round; and he offered to milk forty pure Devons from his own herd, against an equal number of cows in any one herd, of any breed found in England, without finding a competitor. At the Smithfield show of fat cattle, held at the London market-place, in 1858, the gold medal for the best ox or steer of any breed in the show-yard, was awarded to a Devon, bred and owned by the Earl of Leicester. They are highly esteemed in the Smithfield market, not only for the excellence of the meat, but because its size Is more agree- able, on most tables, than the huge joints of some other breeds. In weight, they are much exoeled, but the opinion of the Devon breeder is, that more meat can be made from them, with a given amount of food, than from any other breed. The quality of the Devon beef is unsurpassed, even rivaling the little black West Highland ox, in the estimation of the London west-end butcher, whose fastidious customers oblige him to kill none but beef of the finest quality and flavor In the New York market, the red oxen of Con- necticut most generally bring the highest price, they being Devon grades. The Devons have the preference of all other breeds for the yoke, being strong, active, and of great endurance ; and are remarkable for docility and good temper. It is evident they have not lost caste, as our cattle rings (breeding and fat cattle) will an: ply show. In 1853 the editor of this article commenced breeding Devons in Illinois. The largest herd in the West at that time was that of Col. Capron, of Illinois. Since that time they have been dis- seminated pretty generally, and now there are no finer nor better bred Devons in the world than may be found in Canada and the United States, Maryland, Connecticut and Massachusetts take the lead in the Atlantic States, and Michigan, Dlinois, Wisconsin and Iowa, in the West. In the hill region of the South this breed is highly estimated, and in Canada there are to be found many fine cattle of this breed. DEW. The phenomena connected with the formation of dew, and its influence upon vegeta- tion and the soil has always been an interesting one in meteorology and, practically, the subject is an important one in agriculture, in all its branches. The subject has been elaborately studied by many eminent scientists and we give, from various sources, the important facts determined by patient investigation. The phenomenon of dew depends upon the cooling of the air by radiation by which it immediately parts with a portion of the mois- ture mechanically held. The point of saturation of the air depends upon its temperature. Thus, given the per cent, of water which a stratum of air is capable of holding, at a given temperature, if the temperature be raised by 27°, it will hold double the previous quantity ; if lowered by 27° it parts with half the water held if, previously, it was saturated. Hence we have one of the prin- cipal reasons for the phenomena of dew, fog, mist and rain . The condensation of atmospheric mois- ture upon bodies, cooled by nightly radiation, causing the deposit of dew, is a phenomenon, says a report on agricultural meteorology for theUn ited States Government, as worthy of study from a. physical point of view as on account of its utility in vegetation. At all times dew has impressed the minds of the most casual observers, and all have regarded it as destined to furnish plants, by absorption, tlie means of repairing the losses caused during the day by transpiration. The celebrated Hales, and all succeeding physiologists and agriculturists, have thought that the dew, which wets the leaves, was absorbed by them, and that this water was added to the mass of nourish- ing liquids in the plant. By delicate experiments, Duchartre has, on the contrary, proved that dew does not penetrate into the tissues of leaves. There do not appear to have existed, before Duchartre's- researches, any continued experiments which could demonstrate that the leaves of living plants absorbed the dew formed upon their surface, save two incidental passages of Hales in his observa- tions on the transpiration of plants. But as these first experiments were defective, his assertions are valueless. Bonnet, having laid upon water detached leaves which retained their freshness for a time, thought that they had absorbed the water in contact with them. Many physiologists have refused to admit this explanation, and Moldtn- hawer and De Candolle, among others, have advanced the opinion that the position of the stomatum upon the water prevents the evapora- tion of the juices contained in the leaf and pre- serves its freshness. Meyen and Treviranus affirm in the most formal terms that the suppression of transpiration was the sole cause of the facts observed bj- Bonnet. Duchartre, on the contrary, has established with the aid of the balance that the explanation given by Bonnet was exact, and that detached leaves placed upon water absorb by either of their faces, more rarely by both, a very appreciable quantity of water simply by local imbibition. However, having plunged entirely into the water the foliate capitulum of a Veronica Lindleyana, living and planted in a pot enveloping an exactly tight apparatus, he saw the plant remain there for forty-eight hours in succession witliout augmenting in weight, while during the day it transpired sensibly. Thus it is now satisfac- torily proved that while detached leaves of plants can absorb by imbibition a certain quantity of water, the same leaves of living plants do not absorb the least particle of the liquid which bathes them. Are we, therefore, to be surprised at see- ing leaves in full bloom remain covered with dew during a whole night without absorbing a quan- tity appreciable by delicate balances? The fol- lowing physiological considerations will dispel what, at the first glance, seems extraordinary in this fact. In order to understand why dew is not absorbed by the leaves, and why, in the same way, it does not exactly wet them, we must con- sider the mode in which it is formed upon plants, the nature of the epidermis of leaves, the coating which it presents, and, in fine, the nature of its organs. This has been stated as follows: Air bathes in some way the bodies surrounded by it and it adheres rather strongly to their surface. When we observe the epidermis of leaves under the microscope we recognize this adhesion of the air. Now, dew being condensed on the sur- face of the leaves can not displace this stratum of adherent air. The dew as it is deposited forms a great number of small globular drops, distinct and separate, which do not exactly wet the leaves. These little drops augment in volume DEW 370 DEW -with the increase of vapor condensation, and com- ing soon in contact with each other, they at length form a continuous layer.- Under this liquid coat- ing we perceive a lamina of air more or less com- plete, which is interposed between the deposit of dew and the epidermis in such a way that con- tact is not direct. The epidermis is usually found in a state which renders it more or less difflcult to wet. This state is a consequence of the evap- oration taking place every day at its surface, or in other words its transpiration. The water alone, says Schleiden, is evaporated at its surface, and is deposited as a thicker or thinner layer of substances which were in solution in the cellular juice, covering tlie external surface of the epider- mic cells. At the same time these substances under tlie action of atmosplieric oxygen undergo a chemical modification, and are chaiiged in a manner which renders it still more difficult for the passage of liquid. It is thus that wax and resin appear finally on this surface. Transpira- tion, adds Duchartre, being in direct proportion to tlie intensity of solar light and heat, it follows that the production of the layer of wax, which coats the epidermic cuticle, takes place in the most energetic manner possible on a fine day, and it is then, too, that dew is ordinarily formed in greatest abundance. This circumstance can not certainly favor the absorption of water as it is deposited. If greasy matter, observes Garreau, is already an obstacle to tlie absorption of water among plants whose leaves are buried in part in the ground, it becomes henceforth almost certain that those whose leaves float constantly in the air, and exhale, under the influence of summer heat, a large -proportion of fatty substance, ought not to be more endoSmotic than the pi-eceding. The existence of this greasy coating on the surface of the epidermis enables us, moreover, to compre- hend why the leaves do not absorb the dew deposited upon both their faces. The air found in a more or less considerable quantity between the cells of their parenchyma is a new obstacle to the penetration of water from the exterior to the interior of the organs of leaves, according to their anatomical structure. On the whole, and for tlie three reasons indicated above, Dutrochet thinks that the non-absorption of dew by the organs "whicli it wets, is a fact of easy explanation. It is not without importance in this place to destroy a popular belief, which has even passed into some scientific works, on the subiect of faded plants recovering their turgescence by the direct action of tlie dew. Seeing that plants wilted by the lieat of day, says Duchartre, recover tlie tur- gescence of their tissues and their freshness in the night during which they are covered with dew, it is thouglit that this circumstance points to the absorption of the water whicli covered their surface. In this connection scientists, as well as others, have united. Senebier, in common witli all physiologists, speaking of dew-drops, said : Plants wilted by the heat of a- parching sun, recover their freshness during the night when they are covered by these drops. Now, in this conclusion, says Dutrochet, there has been attrib- uted altogether to local and direct absorption what was due to the simple moistening of the ground by the condensation of the aqueous vapor of the atmosphere Duchartre has been able to elucidate the subject by two modes of •observation, which seem to put this confusion into full relief, and according to which it follows that leaves, even in their greatest thirst for water, do not directly introduce into their tissues the dew deposited upon their surface during the night. It is by the moist earth that the absorp- tion of dew is effected. To sum up, after tlie very numerous and delicate observations made by Duchartre during five years, his conclusions relative to the action of dew on vegetation are the following: Plants do not absorb the dew condensed on tlieir surface, and hence ideas of tills kind wliich have prevailed up to our own day are deprived of foundation. Dew does not, therefore, exert any immediate and direct influ- ence upon vegetation. Its action upon vegetables is 110 less important in a great number of cases, but it takes place and is explained differently from wliat we had always thought. The first effect produced by dew upon vegetables is to suppress their transpiration almost entirely, wliieli is already much enfeebled by tlie obscurity and descent of the temperature at night, but which will continue in some measure without the deposit of dew. Dew, therefore, causes the plants to pass from a period of activity during the day to a period of repose during the night. Thanks to this suppression of aqueous waste, however little humidity the roots find in the ground, they obtain enough to repair the losses which the diurnal transpiration of the leaves caused. Occasionally, even in the absence of all absorption by the roots, the ajiparent state of the plant may be notably modified by reason of a single displacement of the nourishing liquids, which, from the stem and root, proceed into the wilted leaves, and restore to them the fullness of their tissues. But it is chiefly through the medium of the ground that dew acts upon vege- tation. Its action is exerted in two modes: The dew deposited upon the leaves remains there only in an inconsiderable quantity, for above a certain measure variable with difterent plants, it commences to fall upon the ground by its own weight, in a sort of local shower. The earth, as a porous and hygroscopic body, then receives the moisture, which is at once sucked up by the plant's roots, in the same way as the moisture in the air. The dew also trickles along the stems, branches, and trunks to the ground. Upon mountains the soil formed of permeable earth is continually humid. Otto Sendtner, who has made observations in Bavaria, asserts that upon these high mountains dew is more abundant than rain. In the forests of warm countries dew-drops continually fall from the trees in the form of a plentiful shower. For the rest the total quantity of dew deposited upon leaves has been much exaggerated. Duchartre lias made the following experiments, which prove how trifling this deposit is: A Hortensia bore fourteen large leaves, whose extent was on each face at least a square decimeter, and twenty- eight square decimeters for the whole surface of the limb. The dew which covered this Hortensia was in such abundance that it was gathered into jDools wherever it found a small cavity. Never- theless, all this liquid stratum weighed only 7.3 grams in two nights of observations, and seven grams on the third; it had, therefore, only seven cubic centimeters in volume. We see thence that each leaf had for its part one-half cubic centimeter of water spread out upon two square decimeters of surface. This small quantity of liquid, adds Duchartre, which is sufficient to DEW 271 DEW •cover entirely both sides of a leaf, so as even to form the deepest layer it can hold, explains very well the shower of dew which the ground receives every time that the condensation of atmospheric humidity is effected energetically. Mists must be dense enough and humid enough to deposit a film of water upon plants. The action of mists upon vegetation has been studied by Duohartre after the same method adopted in the case of dew, and in the conden- sation of vapor upon vegetation he reached the same conclusions. Mist condensing on the sarface of plants, even like a heavy dew, has never increased their weight bj' any appreciable quantity. The leaves and different parts of the plant act under mist just as under the deiDOsit of •dew. Where the mist has not wet the plants, the transpiration of the leaves has been only weakened, not suppressed, particularly during the day. But the suppression of transpiration was complete, or at least nearly so, when the deposit of mist had clothed these organs with an entire coat of moisture. These facts establish conclusively, as Ducliartre believes, that mists exert upon vegetation only a secondary influ- ence, since they supply plants with nothing, and only diminish, or at most ihomentarily suppress their waste. Their function becomes much more important in certain localities, par- ticularly in the zone of mean altitude upon inter-tropical mountains, where the epiphyte plants abound, and where prevails, chiefly through this cause, an excessive humidity. In everj' case it is from the trickling of water to the ground that the action of heavy mists is as advantageous to vegetation as that of dew. For the action of mists upon vegetation, as for that of dew, we are forced to confine ourselves to the experiments and conclusions of Ducliartre; because all that has been said on this subject has either no scientific value or presents no fact of importance. On the other side, after the hygroscopic action just pointed out, mists appear to have no other influence than that of certain electric mists still doubtful and unknown, or those called dry mists because of the atmospheric dryness which universally accompanies them. The late Prof. Henry, some years ago, in a report to the government on Meteorology in relation to dew and hoar frost, gave these instructions for meteorological observations, published by the Smithsonian Institution ■. When a mass of moist air is brought in contact with a ■cold body, its vapor is condensed into water, and deposited in minute globules on the cooled sur- face, which constitute dew. If the temperature -of the surface is below the freezing point, the globules of water will be frozen into minute crys- tals of ice, which constitute hoar frost. For a long time the nature of these phenomena was entirely misconceived; the effect was put for the cause, the dew being regarded as producing the chill which accompanies its formation, instead of the reverse. Dr. Wells, of London, born in South Carolina, was the first who gave the sub- ject a scientific investigation, and, by a series of ingenious, accurate and conclusive experiments, furnished a definite explanation of all the phe- nomena. They are simply due to the cold pro- duced in different bodies by radiation. The •earth is constantly radiating heat into celestial space, and is constantly receiving it from the sun ■during the continuance of that body above the horizon. As long as the heat from the sun exceeds that radiated into space, the temperature of the surface of the earth, and that of the air, in contact with it continues to increase; but when the two are equal, the temperature remains stationary for a short time, and then begins to decline as the heat of the sun, on account of the obliquity of the rays, becomes less than the radi- ation into space. The maximum of heat gener- ally takes place between two and three o'clock in the afternoon, and the cooling from this point goes on until near sunrise of the next morning. As soon as the sun descends below the horizon, the cooling of the surface of the earth takes place more rapidly if the sky be clear; the air in con- tact with grass and other substances which are cooled by this radiation, will deposit its moisture in a manner analogous to that of the deposition of water on a surface of a metallic vessel con- taining a cold liquid. Although the atmosphere may contain the same amount of vapor, yet the quantity of dew deposited during different nights, in different places, and on different sub- stances, is very different. It is evident that, all things being equal, it must depend upon the quantity of moisture, since if the air were dry no deposition could take place. It must also depend upon the clearness of the sky ; for if the heavens be covered with a cloud, the radiant heat from the earth will not pass off into space, but will be partly absorbed by the cloud and radiated back to the earth. This has been proved by direct experiment. The experiment is detailed, but will not be necessary here, but in relation to cloudi- ness and haziness of the atmosphere, obstruct- ing the deposition of dew. Prof. Henry says, it is probable that the lower surface of the cloud is really a little warmer than the air in which it is floating from the radiation of heat by the earth, while the upper surface is probably colder on account of the uncompensated radiation into space. But be this as it may, the counter radia- tion of the clouds prevents the cooling down of the bodies at the surface of the earth sufficient for tlie deposition of dew, or at least to allow of the formation of a copious quantity. A haziness of the atmosphere, and it is probable a large amount of invisible vapor, will retard the radiation, and hence a still, cloudless night, without a deposi- tion of dew, is considered a sign of rain. The amount of deposition of dew will also depend upon the stillness of the atmosphere; for if a brisk wind be blowing at the time, the different strata of air will be mingled together, and that which rests upon the surface of the ground will be so quickly displaced as not to have time to cool down sufficiently to produce the deposition. Again, the deposition will be more copious on bodies the surfaces of which are most cooled by the radiation. It is well known that different substances have different radiating powers. The following table from Becquerel exhibits the pro- portional tendency of different substances to promote the deposition of dew. The figures do not represent the relative emissive power, but the combined effects of emission and conduction : 1. Lampblack 100 2. Grasses 10.1 3. SiliciouB sand 108 4. Leaves of the elm and the poplar 101 5. Poplar sawdust 99 6. Varnish 97 7. Glass 93 8. Vegetable earth 92 DEW 27-J DEW Polished metals are, of all substances, the worst radiators; they reflect the rays of lieat as they do those of light, and it would appear that by internal reflection the escape of heat is prevented from the capacity of the metal. In order that the surface of a body should cool down to the lowest degree, it is necessary that it should be a good radiator and a bad conductor, particularly if it be in a large mass and uninsulated. Thus a surface of a mass of metal coated with lamp black, though it radiates heat freely, will not be as much cooled under a clear sky as a surface of glass, since the heat lost at the surface is almost immediately supplied by conduction from within. If, however, a very small quantity of metal, such as gold leaf, be suspended by tine threads, the dew will be deposited, because the heat which is radiated is not supplied by conduction from any other source, and hence the temperature will sink to a low degree. M'. Melloni, repeating the experiment of Wells, established the correctness of his conclusions, and added some particulars of interest. He found that the apparent tempera- ture of the grass, which in some cases was 8° or 10' lower than that of the air at the height of three or four feet, was not entirely due to the actual cooling of the air to that degree, but to the radiation and cooling of the thermometer itself, the glass bulb of which is a powerful radiator. To obviate this source of error in estimating the temperature he placed the bulbs of his thermometer in a small conical envelope of polished metal of about the size of an ordinary sewing thimble. This prevented a radiation, and,, by contact with the air, indicated its true temperature. He found, with thermometers thus guarded, that the solid body was in no case cooled down more than 3° below the tempera- ture of the surrounding air, and that the amount of radiation was nearly the same at all tempera- tures. The explanation, therefore, of the great cold of the air between the blades of grass is as follows: By the radiation of the heat,' the grass is at first cooled two degrees lower than the air at the surface of the earth, and next the thin stratum of air which immediately surrounds the grass is cooled by contact to the same degree. It then sinks down and another portion of air comes in contact with the blade of grass and is, in its turn, cooled to the same extent, and so on until all the air between the blades Is 3° lower than that of the air farther up. The radiation, however, continues, and a stratum of air from the mass already cooled is cooled 3° more, which sinks down as before, and so on until the air between the blades is cooled to 4° below its normal condition; and in this way the process may be continued until the temperature descends to 8° or 10° below that of the stratum of air a few feet above. In this way we can readily explain the small amount of dew deposited on the tops of trees, since the air as soon as it is cooled sinks down toward the ground, and its place is continuously supplied by new portions of the atmosphere. To the same cause, we may attribute copious deposition of dew on wool and other fibrous materials which, though they do not radiate heat more freely into space, they enfangle and retain the air between their fibres, and thus allow the cooling process we have described to go on. It would appear that spider- webs radiate heat freely into space, since they are ■ geiieraliy covered with a large amount of-, dew; their insulated position prevents them from renewing tlieir heat, but, according to the above principle, a much larger amount of deposition ought to be produced by the same material, were it loosely gathered up into a fibrous mass. Tiie fact of the screening influence of the clouds teaches us that a thin cloth or even a slight gauze supported horizontally over tender plants is sufficient to neutralize the radiation, and to prevent injury from frost during the clear nights of spring or autumn. The same effect is produced by artificial clouds of smoke. Radia- tion from the surface of tlie earth is most intense on clear nights, wlien the moon is visible, so many effects which are due to this cause, have been referred to lunar influence; for example, a piece of fresh meat exposed to the moonlight, is said to become tainted in a few hours; this may arise- from the deposition of moisture on the surface of the meat due to tfie cooling from radiation. The moon itself, however, acts as a cloud, and radiates back to the earth a portion of the heat which it received from the earth, as well as a portion of that which it received from the sun ; and hence Sir John Herschel has referred to this cause, with apparent probablity, the origin of an assertion of the sailors, that the moon eats up the clouds. He supposes that they may be dissi - pated by the radiant heat from that bod}', which, being of low intensity and but feeblj' penetrating- the lo-wer stratum of the atmosphere, may serve to dissipate the clouds. Though a wrong explanation is generally given by the popular observer of natural phenomena, and though effects and causes are frequen'tly made to change places in his explanations, yet it is true, as Blot has properly said, that the scientist -n'ho devotes- himself assiduously to investigate the subject of popular errors, will find in them a sufficient amount of truth to fully repay him for his labor. The difference between a fog and a cloud relates principally to the conditions under which they are severally formed. A fog has been aptly called a cloud resting on the earth, and a cloud, a fog suspended in the atmosphere. The circum- stances under which a fog is usually produced are the following : Either the surface of the earth or water is warmer than the air, or it is cooler. If the temperature of a river or of a damp portion of ground is higher than that of the atmosphere which rests upon it, the warmer surface will give off vapor of an elastic force due to its tempera- ture. Sliould the superincumbent air be ex- tremely dry, the vapor will diffuse itself up through it in an invisible form, without conden- sation, and no fog will be formed, until, by the continuation of the process, the air becomes com- pletely saturated; and then if an excess of heat remain in the evaporating surface, the fog will be produced, and will increase in density and height so long as a difference of temperature continues. If, however, a wind be blowing at the time, so that successive portions of unsatu- rated air are brought over the place, no fog will be produced. A still atmosphere, therefore, is a necessary condition to the accumulation of fog. The foregoing is the usual method in which fog is produced, for it is well known that in cold weather the surfaces of lakes and rivers are much warmer than the strata of air which rest upon them. It is, however, frequently observed that fogs are formed during still nights, in low places, when the surface of the ground is colder thaa BEW 273 DEW POINT the stratum of the atmosphere which rests upon it, and, indeed, we have shown tliat the tempera- ture of the surface of the earth on a still and clear night, is always lower than that of the air which is immediately in contact with it ; and it is not easy, without further explanation, to see the reason why fogs should not always be produced in this case as well as dew. When the atmos- phere is still, the condensation of the vapor by the coldness of the surface is so gradual that the air is not disturbed, and the strata immediately above the grass has relatively less moisture in it than that a few yards higher; hence, no fog ought to be produced in this case, since all the precipitation produced is that which has settled ■cftrectly upon the grass in the form of dew. In this case, we may define the dew to be a fog entirely condensed into drops of water. The question still arises, how, under these conditions, can a fog really bo produced. The answer is, that another condition is required, namely, that the surface, cooled by radiation, should slope to a lower level, as in the side of a hill or the concave surface of the sides of a hollow. In this case, the superincumbent stratum of air of which the temperature has been lowered by contact with the cold earth, flows down the declivity, by its greater weight, into the valley below, and there, mingling with the damp air which generally exists in such places, precipitates a part of its transparent vapor into visible fog. In the way we have described, large hollows are sometimes seen in the morning, fiUed with a mass of fog, exhibiting a definite and level surface, presenting the appearance of a lake of which the shores are bounded by the surrounding eminences; and if a depression of sufficient depth occurs in any part of the circumference of the basin, through this the fog is seen to flow lilie a river from tlie out- let of a lake. The explanation we have here given of the formation of fog in low places, is also applicable to tlie phenomenon, frequently observed, of early frost in the same localities. As rapidly as the air is cooled on the sides of sloping ground, it sinks into the valley below, and its place is supplied by the warmer air above, which has not been subjected to the cooling influence. Thus, hollows are sometimes found several degrees colder than the more elevated parts of the surrounding surface. Fogs are pro- duced on the ocean when a gentle wind, charged with moisture, mingles with another of a lower temperature. The wind from the Gulf Stream, mixing with the cold air which rests upon the water from the arctic regions, which flows along close to the eastern shores of our continent, gives rise to the prevalence of fog over the Banks of Newfoundland and along the Atlantic Coast. From the extracts given, the reader will form a good idea of some of the principal phenomena connected with the formation and action of dew, fog and mist. Rain is produced in a great degree from the same causes. In relation to some of these phenomena, they may be summed up as follows. As much as twenty grains of dew may be deposited on a surface of four square inches in one night. The electrical conditions of a body has no influence on its capability of receiving dew. Objects a few inches above ground collect more dew than those lying directly on the ground. The leaves of plants receive more dew than the earth, and for the reason that they cool more quickly. Fog differs from 18 dew in the fact that it moistens all bodies indif- ferently, while dew attaches itself more freely to some bodies than others. Dew is more abun- dant near water, as the shores of oceans and lakes, and the banks of streams, ponds, etc. ; and as a rule, the first clear night succeeding a con- tinued rain will cause a more copious deposit of dew, and generally it increases with the humid- ity of the air. (See also article Dew Point.) DEWBERRY. Runnmg brier. Sulms Can- adensis. This plant is found in various localities, in fence rows, along embankments, in ill-kept meadows and pastures, in rocky and sterile soils from Canada throughout the South. In the West, the Dewberry is comparatively rare. The fruit is sweeter than the upright variety, and earlier. The Dewberry of England is a different species, B. ccesius. (See Blackberry.) DEWLAP. The fold of skin below the neck of cattle. DEW POINT. In the article on Dew, we showed the manner in which dew is deposited, and some of the phenomena connected there- with. It will only be necessary here to say that the temperature at which dew begins to form is called the Dew Point. This is a temperature at which the air begins to part with its vapors, and this again is a varying one. For instance, knowing the temperature of the air, if the bulb of a thermometer be placed on grass which quickly loses heat, the difference between the first degree of heat shown bj- the thermometer, and that shown when dew begins to form, is the Dew Point. Now, if at the time of placing the thermometer in the grass another be suspended from two to four feet above, the difference shown will sometimes be as much as 10° to 1.5 \ if the bulb is protected from radiation by having some non radiating substance placed above it, as tin foil or paper. Again, in the deposition of dew, bright substances do not acquire moisture so quick as others; the reason is, they do not part with heat so readily as some others. Thus the heaviest dew will, of course, form mo.st quickly on those substances that part with their heat easily. The simple means for testing the Dew Point we have shown is by no means accu- rate. There are a, number of hygrometers in use, some of them costly and intricate. The degree of cold necessary to be acquired by objects, before the}' can have dew deposited on them, can always be known as follows : Take a thin tumbler of glass, having polished sides ; fill this about half full of ice- water. Plunge into it the bulb of a thermometer, and the moment a film of dew or mist is seen to form on the polished outside surface, read the degree at which the thermometer stands, and this will be the dew point. The temperature at which atmospheric vapor condenses to form dew is generally several degrees below the temperature of the atmos- phere. But this is only the case during clear weather, since, when there is a fog, or a rain, the dew point will be found to correspond with the temperature of the air; showing that any cause which contributes to bring down the atmospheric temperature to the dew point, will directly promote the condensation of its vapor or moisture into mist, cloud, rain, snow, or hail. The many relations which the dew point, or degree , at which vapor condenses, holds with atmos- pheric phenomena, may be understood from this ; and it must be borne in mind that the dew DIBBLE 374 DIGITATE, point is almost continually rising or falling; like the temperature of the atmosphere, being usually, in clear weather, some four, six, eight, or ten degrees lower than common air, as indicated by the thermometer. DEXTRINE. Soluble starch, resembling gum, but having the property of turning the plane of polarization to. the right; hence its name. The descending sap and cambium of plants contain much dextrine. DIADELPHIA, DIADELPHOUS. A Lin- nsean class, in which the stamens are bound together into two parcels. DIAGNOSIS. The determination, by symp- toms, of one disease from another. DIAMETER. The measure across a circle or other regular figure. DIAMOND. The hardest body in nature; a, rare gem, of organic origin, consisting of pure carbon, and crystallized in octohedrons, dodec- ahedrons, and other derivative forms. DIANDRIA, DIANDROUS. Plants with two stamens. DIAPHANOUS. Translucent; not quite clear like glass. DIAPHORESIS. Sweating, or perspiration; hence diaphoretics, medicines which produce sweating. DIAPHRAGM. Any substance which divides a cavity. Thus, the muscle which lies between the chest and abdomen is a diaphragm; the matter dividing the cells of shells; the disks which are inserted into microscopes. Septum is synonymous. DIARRH(EA. Simple Diarrhcsa is occa- sioned by a variety of causes, indigestible food, or that which is irritating, disorded liver, worms, etc. , or it may be constitutional. It is often an effort of nature to relieve the system of disease or injurious matter in the bowels. Early in the effort, a light dose of castor oil, say a half pint, will materially aid. Later it should be given, if at all, under the advice of a veterinary surgeon. For sour and fetid discharges, give one ounce each of powdered chalk and bisulphate of soda. If there is griping, add one drachm of opium. If this does not lesson the discharges give half ounce doses of laudanum, beaten up with three eggs, and mixed with nearly a pint of warm water. As a help to these, when necessary, give an injec- tion of two to four drachms of tannic acid in a pint of warm starch water. If the diarrhoea be the result of violent purges, give two ounces each of powdered chalk and laudanum, mixed in a quart of thin gruel of flour, repeated every three hours as .occasion may seem to require. These doses are for horses, but those containing laudanum are also good for cattle, but should be allowed to trickle slowly down their throats. DIASTASE. A condition in the decay of fibrin and other proteine compounds, which, acting like a ferment, converts solution of starch into sugar. One part of changed proteine con- verts 2,000 of starch. It occurs in malting and germination. Its property is destroyed by a boiling heat. DIATHERMAl. Bodies which allow radiant heat to pass through them, as rock salt. DIATHESIS. A predisposition to a particu- lar class of diseases. DIBBLE. An instrument to make holes in the soil, used in transplanting plants with little root. It is commonly no more than a short sec- tion of a spade handle, the lower part or poin* shod with iron, and sharp. Steel transplanting trowels are used for larger plants. DICHOTOMOUS. Bifurcate. It is used in natural history to indicate a division into two parts, especially when repeated several times, as in some stems. ' DICOTYLEDONOUS. One of the great divisions of the vegetable kingdom, including most plants and trees of temperate climates. They bear seed with two lobes, like the bean, have leaves freely veined, and the trees grow with a conical trunk. The term is synonymous with exogenous, DIDELPH¥S. A genus of animals reseiji- bling the opossum and kangaroo, which bring forth minute young, and afterwards nourish them in an external pouch. Marsupials. DIDYNAMOUS. Flowers with four stamens, two being longer than the rest. DIETETICS. The study of the varieties of food. DIFFUSION OF GASES. Penetration of gases. The expression of a phenomenon which occurs when one gas is set free into another. They mutually expand or diffuse into one another, so as to produce, in time, an equal mixture. The rapidity of diffusion differs with different gases. By reason of this law, noxious vapors rising from the earth are presently diluted into the atmosphere. The composition of the air is the result of the diffusion or admixture of the several gases it contains. This passage takes place through all porous vessels, tissues, etc. In virtue of this property, gases are said to act as a vacuum towards each other. DIFFUSUS. Spreading. Used in botany. DIGESTER. A strong iron or copper pot, the lid of which fits steam-tight, and either screws on, or is pressed by clamps, and is fur- nished with a safety valve. It is used for boil- ing or digesting substances at a heat greater than boiling water, and is especially useful for extracting jelly and glue from bones, skins, horns, etc. DIGKSTION. In physiology, the change through which food passes in the stomach for the production of chyme. Food received into the stomach is speedily attacked by the gastric fluid, which has the power of rendering soluble: the insoluble parts : this it effects by producing a change analagous to fermentation. The gastric juice is from a portion of the membrane of the stomach in a peculiar state of change, being in reality active only because in a state of change. The food acted on is converted into chyme; this passing into the bowels, is separated into a fluid part, chyle, which is absorbed by the absorbents of the intestines, and thus reaches the blood. The remaining thickened chyme, receiving sev- eral excretions, becomes feculent matter and is voided. The process of digestion requires from, one to four hours, or more, according to the food. Raw substances are digested more rapidly than boiled, fresh than salt, and is best con- ducted when the body and mind are in a statfr of rest. In chemistry, digestion is the exposure of any substance, to the action of water or other solvent at a low heat for a long time. DIGITALIS. The generic name of the fox- glove (2). purpurea), a poisonous sedative. DIGITATE. In botany, any leaf divided into, several segments originating in a common centre.. DISEASE 375 DISINFECTION DIGrYNIA. Flowers with two styles. 1)ILL, Anethum graveolens. An aromatic plant, the seeds of which are used as a medicine. The oil distilled, is used in solution in water for colic in infants. It is an annual, requiring a dry, rich soil. Sow in drills in March or April, keep clear of weeds, thin out to ten inches. The leaves are sometimes used like parsley. DILUENTS. Any fluid, as water, which dilutes. DILUVIUM, DILUTION. Accumulations of gravel found upon the ordinary rocks in many places. DKECIA, DIOICA. Flowers, the stamens and pistils of which are on distinct plants, as the hop, hemp, etc. DIOPTRICS. That part of optics which investigates the passage of light through glasses, etc. DIOSCOREA. The generic name of the yam. DIPLOE. The cellular layer between the outer and inner layers of the scull bones. DIPSACUS. The generic name of the teasel. DIPTERA, DIPTERANS. Flies or insects with two wings only. They are furnished with DISCUTIENT. Any application which has the property of resolving or hindering the for- mation of tumors or boils. DISK. Any flat, round body. In botany, any space existing between the insertion of the stamen and the ovary. DISSEPIMENTS. The dividing membranes formed in ovaria by the union of the sides of two carpels. DISTICHOUS. Two rows of seeds, leaves, etc., arranged side by side. DISTILLATION. A chemical process, in which the more volatile parts of a mixture are separated by heat. It is conducted in a still of metal, usually copper, except where a great heat is necessary, as in destructive distillation, when iron is used. Earthen-ware and glass are used for many chemical distillations. Vessels of this kind are called retorts or alembics. The heat employed is regulated to the purposes of the operator. If the object be to separate alcohol from water, the heat must not rise above the boiling of alcohol (176°). As the vapor rises, it is at first cooled along the tube, or beak of the retort, and flows down it into the receiver; but the tube becoming heated, steps must be taken to produce the condensation. This i^ managed in the laboratory by keeping pieces of wet rag on the tube, or by passing it through another larger tube of metal which is cooled by a stream of water. In larger operations, the still beak enters another long tube, which winds several times in a bucket of water, and is thus kept cool, the water being occasionally renewed. Distillation is employed to separate alcohol, ether, vinegar, and other products from mix- tures ; to obtain the essential oil of plants ; and when much heat is used, to separate gas from coal; tar and vinegar from green wood; harts- horn from bones, whalebone shavings, etc. When a distilled product is re-distilled, it is said to be rectified. DISEASE. Diseases of animals and plants are now so common, that every intelligent farmer wishes to understand the symptoms indicating the more common diseases, and the treatment thereof. Diseases in plants are chiefly fun- goid. In animals, especially in the horse, disease is occasioned by the various causes operating in the human family, that is an artificial condi- tion of life. Prevention may be exercised in a great measure, by strict attention to proper sanitary conditions, and serious consequences may generally be avoided by watching, and combating the growth of early symptoms. The principal diseases will be found treated of under their appropriate names, which see. DISEASES OF SHEEP. (See Sheep.) DISEASES OF SWINE. (See Swine.) DISINFECTION. Disinfection is very differ- ent in its action from deodorizing, pi-eviously treated of, since to properly disinfect we must absolutely destroy the poison germs, many of them of the most virulent nature. These sources of infection are generally so subtile as to be entirely unobserved by our special senses. Thus, the water of a well, limpid, sparkling, pleasant to the taste, and apparently pure, may have been contaminated with sewage, the steep- ings of privies, etc. , and contain deadly typhus, and other germs. Hence the care now used in guarding against this in cities, by supplying the water from the purest sources, and in disinfect- ing thoroughly where infectious or contagious diseases are prevalent. The Srainage of barns, stables, and the outbuildings of farm yards, find- ing its way into wells, have often been prolific sources of disease on farms; so, foul cellars have been especially prolific of disease. The want of disinfection in stables has caused germs of disease to linger and spread, costing large sums of money from mortality in stock. Thus the disinfection of all barns, stables, sheds, or other places where malignant disease is suspected, should receive the most careful attention. Every part should be stopped tight, and flowers of sul- phur and wood tar, in the proportion of one pound of the former to two quarts of the latter, mixed with tow, and allowed to smoke thoroughly until the whole building is thick with smoke. So the hospital should be fumigated with the same, two or three times a week, but not suffi- ciently to set the animals coughing. Every part of the building should also be thoroughly washed with dilute carbolic acid, and the clothing also wet with it. All discharges should be treated with chloride of zinc, dissolved in water, in the proportion of one ounce to one or two gallons of water. The attendants taking care of animals with malignant diseases should never approach or handle the well ones. A disinfectant that has no smell and is not poisonous, known as chloralum, is made by dissolving three pounds of chloride of aluminum in two gallons of water, or in like proportions. Another cheap and powerful disinfectant, but poisonous, if taken, is made of eight ounces of chloride of zinc, sixteen ounces of sulphate of iron and one gallon of water. Dissolve and, to each pint used, add one gallon of water. Among disinfecting sub- stances may be named, chlorine. This is set free by adding oil of vitriol and a little black manganese to common salt, as a disinfectant of the air, but must be used in vacated buildings, and is better if used in the full light of day. So flowers of sulphur, burned by a heat only suffi- cient to produce smoke, will accomplish the same purpose and, if used carefully, it will not injure stock. A disinfectant that may be used in occupied buildings is formed by adding a little COLT'S FOOT 276 DORSET SHEEP chlorate of potassa, at short intervals, to half a pint of strong muriatic acid, in a strong vessel, as a thick tumbler. If pure carbolic acid is used for sprinkling flovifers or washing walls, 100 parts of soft water may be added to one pint of acid. The impure carbolic acid of gas works may be used undiluted. DISTEMPER. (See Strangles.) DITCHING. (See Draining.) DIURESIS. Excessive urination; hence Di- uretics, medicines causing urination, as nitre, juniper berries, turpentine, cubebs, dtc. DIVARICATE. To spread out widely. DIVERGENT. Branches separated by an angle. DIVISIBILITY. The extent to which mat- ter may be divided. In gilding, the thickness of gold on a surface is often as little as the 110,000th "WHITE-FLOWERING DOGWOOD BLOSSOMS. part of an inch. Yet matter is not infinitely divisible as has been supposed by some. DOCK. This is a name applied to a variety of plants, especially to a class of tap rooted per- ennials of the genus Bmnex, {R. erispus) Sour Dock, Curled Dock, or Narrow Dock, as it is variously called. JR. ohtmifolius, Bitter or Broad- Leaved Dock; and R, aeetosella, Sheep or Field Sorrel, are the most noxious; all foreigners, and introduced from Europe. For the two first- named, clean cultivation, and the last, manure and lime, are corrections. COLT'S FOOT. Tuasilagofarfara. It is also sometimes called dock. It is not especially noxious. An infusion of the whole plant is considered valuable for coughs and pulmonary complaints, being mucilaginous, and tonic. The leaves dried and smoked in a pipe have also been recommended for asthma. DODDER. A weed consisting of thread-like stems, which bind together the plants among which it grows . It is occasionally destructive to small crops, such as flax. DODECAHEDRON. A solid of twelve sides. In crystallography tliere are two varieties: the rhombic and angular dodecahedron, according to the figure of the sides. DODECANDRIA. The class of plants con- taining twelve stamens. DOE. The female of the deer. DOft'S-TAIL GRASS. (Cynomrus criataUs.) DOG'S TOOTH GRASS. Doub grass. (See Bermuda Grass.) DOGWOOD. Corrms. There are a number of varieties, some of them ornamental, chiefly small trees. C fiorida is a tree fifteen to twenty and occasionally forty feet high, and in rare cases eight to nine inches in" diameter, remarkable for its flower-like in- volucrum and firm wood. It is rather common in wood lands North and South, but in the West somewhat rare. Of this tree Dr. Darlington says: It is valuable for many purposes in mechanics. Cab- inet-makers sometimes employ it in the mMnufacture of small arti- cles of furniture. The wood-chop- per selects it for wooden wedges. The young, straight stems make good hoops, and the slender branches once furnished distafls. The bark is an excellent tonic, said to be almost equal to the Peruvian in efficacy. In the last century, according to Kalm, there was so much faith in the virtues of the Dogwood that, when the cattle fell down in the spring, for want of strength ,thepeopletiedabranoh of this tree on their neck, thinking it would help them, a superstition that has now given place to com- mon sense. As an ornamental tree, i^is worthy of a place in lands and yards. Some farmers plant Indian corn when the involucres of the Dogwood are first devel- oped, as do others when the buds of the hickory are the size of a squirrel's foot. Some of the orna- mental varieties are very beauti- ful. The cut shows the flowers of the White Flowering Dogwood, natural size. There are several other species, with flowers in large, flat cymes, common in thickets. They all possess more or less beauty. DOLERITE. A trap rock, consisting of augite and feldspar. DOLOMITE. Magnesian marble, or granular limestone containing magnesia. DORSAL. Belonging to the back. DORSET SHEEP. Dorsetshire, England, has long had a race of sheep peculiar to itself, heavier in every respect than the Highland Sheep and, like them, with exceptionally heavy horns. They may possibly become of value when the mountainous region of the United States, between the Mississippi and the Pacific slope, becomes set- DRAINING 377 DRAINING tied. The fleece is light and, like that of the Highland Sheep, it does not mat together. The mutton is excellent, in quality, as is that of all sheep fed in mountainous countries. Fortunately in the United States, there is comparatively but little country so mountainous and inclement as to require stock of any kind, adapted only to extremely severe climates. The cut we give of a Dorset Ram will serve as an illustration of this breed of sheep, now but little raised even in its native English locality. DRAGON-FLY. A common name for neu- ropterous insects. The neuroptera, lace-wings, ant lion and white ants are all predacious and thus useful. DRAINING. The subject of drainage is one of the most important that can interest the farmer. Modern appliances aided by science has now ren- dered the task of thorough drainage so simple and easy that there seems no excuse for allowing the soil to lie water-soaked, for perhaps two or three weeks at a time in the spring, rendering the soil sour, or sodden to that degree as sometimes to reduce its value permanently, and always one-half during the growing season, when an ex- pense of from ten to fifty dollars, according to the amount of drain- age required per acre, will place it in the best possible condition for the cultivation of crops, add from two to three weeks to the length of the season, and add also from ten to twenty bushels of grain, and in far great- er proportion to the fer- tility per acre in some other crops. In fact in all crops in the garden, nursery and orchard, there are but few natural soils but will pay for draining. Whether this is to be accomplished by means of open ditches and superficial drains (water carriers) is a question each farmer must decide for himself. Where tile are to be had near at hand and at reasonable prices, these are in every case cheapest, except in the case of bound- ary fences, to be formed by a ditch and embank- ment. Even here, it is an open question, depend- ing entirely on the value of the land. The objection to open ditches and banks is, they are constantly filling up, are harbors for vile weeds and vermin- ous animals, and serious obstacles to clean cul- tivation generally. Thorough drainage is always to be considered in the light of a pennanent invest- ment. The work done and well done but little expense is thereafter required. Thus if a piece of land requires drainage, lines of tile at regular intervals, if may cost fifty dollars per acre, in particularly difficult cases, more. Hence, taking fifty dollars as the average, if the crop is increased five dollars per acre, the cost of the draining pays .ten pei: cent, per annum. The labor of cultivation is always largely reduced on drained land over that undrained. Hence, this must also be taken into consideration. There is another matter, and one not less important than the others mentioned. The value of the land is not only increased in dollars and cents, but the fertility of the soil is also increased, both from its greater friability, and also, its power of absorbing fertilizing matters from the air, and the conservation of the artificial fertilizers em- ployed. These are notable facts, which will be fully attested by every intelligent man wlio has undertaken thorough drainage in a systematic manner, and carefully noted results. The follow- ing are lands that may be considered to require thorough drainage, by covered ditches, contain- ing a water-way beneath : Any soil so retentive that water will stand in a hole, for forty-eight hours after a heavy rain. Any soil where clover or wheat is liable to be killed in winter. Any soil having a very retentive sub-soil within two feet of the surface. Any soil where tufts of wild grass, or semi-aquatic plants make their appear- auce from time to time. Flat lands near the dwelling house, or those to be used for gardens or orchards. Slopes of hills where water rises to the surface, along impervious strata cropping DORSET SHEEP. out, or which, at certain seasons contain seeps, as they are termed. And, in certain cases, where special crops are to be cultivated, any soil that can not be plowed within thirty-six hours after a heavy rain. In relation to the size of the water- way at the bottom of the ditch; this will depend on the quantity of water to be carried away, the declivity (gradient) of the tile, its uniform slope, smoothness, etc. In article Tile will be found tables showing capacity, etc. In preparing for thorough drainage, the first thing requisite is to find the slope and fall of the land. Where this is slight, an engineer must be engaged to get the contour lines, establish gi-adients, and pegs for determining the depth of the ditches. Under ordinary circumstances, however, especially where single lines only are required, the eye, with the help of the water running in the ditch, will be sufficient. One thing, however, must be remembered; the gradient must never be decreased from below the starting point, without increasing the size of the tile, and a catch basin should always be placed at this point. That is a barrel or structure of brick, to catch and pass off DRAINING 278 DRAINING the inflow of the small tile, and at a lower level than that of the inflow from the small tile. The material for water ways in the covered ditches should always he of tile if possible. In some timbered, and in some stony countries, however, where tile is not easily had, the ditches may be filled with brush, poles, slabs, stones or other refuse material. If stones, are plenty, they may be thrown in irregularly, filling the ditch to within twenty inches of the top, and if the clay be rammed iard over them they will last indefinitely, yet it is far better that a row of small stones be laid along each side and covered with flat stones, or round stones of a size sufHcient to leave a water way below. If the Fig. 1. - Fig. 2. rock Is shelly but solid, flat slabs are best, as shown in Fig. 1 and 2. The manner of using poles and slabs, or poles entirely, is shown in Fig. 3 and 4. If a very great quantity of water is sometimes to be carried, a combina- tion of tile and stone may be economical. The tile and stone drain is shown at Fig. 5. Fig. 6 and 7 show two manners of forming the bot- toms of ditches with earth sides to hold the covering, of plank or stone. In fact, in stiff adhe- Fig. 3. Pig. 4. sive clays, if a channel be carefully cut, with shoulders, as shown in Fig. 6 and 7, planks or even sods will make a covering to the water way that will last for many years. It should be remembered however, that when plank, slabs, or poles are used for covering, they should be Sawed of proper length to fit across the ditch, hence the necessity of accuracy in paring the sides of the ditch. Sometimes it is desirable to make a drain subserve a double purpose of draining the land and affording a supply of water for stock and other purposes. All that is necessary to accomplish this is to select depressions, where the tile may come near the surface ; make a tight box sunk so its top is just even with the top of the ground; allow the water to flow into this box at the surface of the earth, covering the tile with a mound suflBcient to keep out frost and prevent the poaching of cattle. In situations where this may not be feasible, an excavation ten or twelve feet wide on two sides may be made as shown at Fig. 8, so that stock may come and drink, the whole Fig. 6. to be so guarded that stock cannot enter the trough. In conclusion, something of the history of draining from the earliest times, will not be uninteresting. There is no record of under- draining — carrying away superfluous water from the soil — until the time of Augustus, Tiberius and Columella, who lived then, first speak of under- ground causeways, while preceding writers, as Cato, Varro, and Virgil, write only of open ditches. Columella speaks of both open and closed ditches three feet deep, the closed ditches filled to half their depth with pebbles, stones and facines (bundles of brush). Captain Walter Bligh, who wrote about 1652, advocates drains un- derground three to four feet deep, or the depth of an iron shovel, below the area of oozing water. He has been credited with being the father of underdraining, but it is evident he got what he knew from clas- sical sources. Prob- ably Oliver de Senses, a French writer, whose Theatre of Agricul- ture was printed in the year 1600, is the first modern writer who really taught thorough drain- age. He not only advocated the single ditches of Columella, but treats of successive lines, describ- ing also the main lines to be covered, and also the precautions necessary to secure effective Fig. 7. DRAINING 279 DRAINING drainage. He insists that for the best results the ditches should be at least four feet deep. This accords with the best experience in underdrain- ing to-day. The invention of tile for draining has also been ascribed to England. This, how- ever, is again a mistake Again it is the French who are ahead. A letter to the late John H. Klippart, written by a member of tlie French Agricultural Society, states that within the town of Maubeuge, France, stood a monasterj', the date of the erection of which is not clearly known, but it is in the pure Gothic style. The lands attached to this monastery were renowned for their fertility. After the French Revolution the estate was sold. In excavations, made in the process of alterations, two regular systems of pipe drains were found laid at a depth of four feet, one with the pipes radiating to a sinking well, the other of pipes all parallel, ending at a collecting pipe, which discharged into the cellar. These pipes are represented as having been ten inches long, four inches in diameter, one end expanding into a funnel shape, the other taper- ing into a cone, made of earthen ware, vitrified in burning, and evidently made in a lathe and by hand. Of the age of these drains, nothing is known, but a grave of 1620 was over one of the drains. The most interesting fact in reference to this piece of drainage is the masterly manner in which it was laid, to have remained draining the land perfectly for nearly three hundred years, and in dimensions, materials and system nearly like that of the present da}' ; a most eloquent substantiation of the imperish able nature of properly laid underdrains, as it is of the fact that underdraining must be considered a permanent investment; and also that whatever the cost of flrst- rate work, it is a good in- vestment upon all lands re- quiring underdraining, provided always that the value of the crops raised will pay the cost. In other words, lands upon which draining will pay the interest of fifty dollars per acre, may be drained as a good investment. Elking- ton, an English farmer, in 1793, is probably the first man who, in modern times, carried out a systematic plan of draining, the result of his dis- coveries from time to time while engaged in exper- iments in draining his lands. Yet Elkington's skill, hgwever, lay in the use of the auger to tap subteiTanean sources of water, that could not be reached by the ditches. Prom this came the idea, later, of boring through impervious strata, into a loose and dry one to get rid of surface water. The shape of the tile has long been a matter of discussion. The horse shoo tile, the worst possible shape, has long been abandoned. The sole, single and double prevents the rising of the bottom of the ditch into the tile, but so does the round tile. The objection to sole tile is their weight, and that they can not be fitted with collars when necessary. Hence, sole tile also have been pretty much abandoned. The perfection of shape for the inside of tile is the ' pe, but, since all tile distort more or less one particular side down, can be made to show perfect joints. Hence round tile, both as to the outside and inside, are now generally adopted. With these, joints sufliciently close may be had, rendering collars unnecessary, except in peculiar situations and soils In relation to the mains and their proper size, the lateral tiles running to them, may be quite small, two inch tile being the size generally used in the United States. If tlie drains are forty feet apart, the proper dis- tance, except in the most tenacious clays, 1,000 tile per acre will be required. An important consideration in buying tile is that they should be smooth, hard burned, and give a clear, metallic sound on being struck. TUe, however, should not be so hard burned as to vitrify, or glaze. So all crooked tile should be rejected. In making a drain, as is sometimes required along a loose piece of land, or perhaps with laterals running from them, for the first 2,000 feet of drain two inch tile will generally suffice; for 7,000 to 10,000 feet three and a half inch tile will suffice, and for 20,000 feet of drain four inch tile will usually carry all the water. Experiments have shown that a one and a half inch tile, laid with a fall of one foot in each hundred feet, will discharge over 12,000 gallons in twenty-four hours, or equal to in drying and burning, no tile that must be laid Fig. 8. a rainfall per acre of 350 inches in a year,, or nearly nine times the average rainfall per acre in the United States. Yet six and even twelve inches have been known to fall in twenty -four hours, or twelve to twenty-four times the capacity of the pipe named. Yet this is of so rare occur- rence that it is not worth considering. One inch in twenty-four hours is uncommon, hence, practically, a much smaller pipe than is u.sually considered necessary may be used. Another advantage of small pipes is, that the thorough flushing they sometimes get, serves to clear them entirely of sediment. Thus we have given the main points in draining, so any person should be able to lay underdrains where the fall is pal- pable. In fine gradients we must have recourse to a drainage engineer, and to works especially devoted to drainage, remembering always that the cost of careful engineering is probably the best investment, where critical work is needed, and is cheaper than any other part of the outlay. As to the capacity of tile in carrying away water, so much depends upon inclination (fall) that tables are of but little practical value. It has been found, however, by experience, that laid at a depth of four feet, that one and a quarter inch pipes will carry away all the water of "a DRENCHBS 280 DROUGHT' saturating rain in twenty-four hours, quicljly enough for the good of the soil. This size will drain two acres. That two and a half inch tile will carry away the water from eight acres, and three and a half inch tile will carry the water of twenty acres. In closing this article, it seems necessary that the beginner be advised against making the ditches too wide, especially on the bottom. The ditch should not be wider on the bottom for small tile than four inches, and for no large tile should they be wider than the size of the tile. Thus for a ditch four feet deep to be dug entirely by hand, from sixteen to eighteen laches in width at the top is fully wide enough, provided the proper draining tools, long bitted narrow spades are used. These should be of the lighest possible description, combined with superior ,temper, and may now be found at any respectable agricultural implement warehouses. DRASTIC. Medicines which act violently. DRENCHES. The giving of medicines in a liquid form, is called drenching. A common utensil from which to give, is a horn properly prepared. A strong, long necked bottle is better. In giving the dose, hold the animal's head up so the line of the nose is horizontal. Draw out the tongue, but do not pull violently on it and allow free movement of the lips and jaw, and also sufficient movement of the tongue to assist the act of swallowing. If the animal make an effort to cough, release, to prevent choking. Induce an effort to swallow by gently rubbing the throat, and pressing in the space between the lower jaw bones. In giving drenches to horses, the head may be held up, by means of a forked stick supporting a loop passed over the upper jaw. In giving drenches to cattle, unless ver}' unruly, by pressing the back to the shoulder, passing the left hand over the face, putting the thumb in the nostril and with the fingers open- ing the mouth between the nippers and grinders, the animal may be held still and the drench administered by allowing it to trickle gently down the throat. If poured down quickly it will enter the first stomach where it should never go. In case of locked jaw, or paralysis of the organs, both food and medicine may be pumped into the stomach through the nostrils by means of a flexible tube. This, however, should always be done, if it be possible, under the advice of a competent veterinary surgeon. The following formulas, for drenches, are by the late Dr. Dadd, and will be found useful : Physic Drench cathartic, — six drachms pulverized aloes, one ounce of syrup of buckthorn, one ounce of tincture of ginger. Alterative Drench, to change morbid action, -one ounce of sulphur, two drachms powdered mandrake, one pint of thin gruel. Antispasmodic Drench, for spasmodic action, either nervous or muscular, — one ounce tincture of assaf oetida, one ounce tincture of valerian, three ounces syrup of garlic, one pint of gruel. For spasmodic cough, -one-half ounce balsam copaiba, three drachms sweet spirits of nitre, one-half drachm sulpliuric ether, one-half ounce tincture of musk. Half of the above quantity to be given, night and morning, in gruel. Tonic Drench, for weakness and debility, — three ounces port wine, one-half ounce tincture of cinnamon, four drachms powdered goldenseal. To be given in thin gruel. Should the bowels be torpid, omit the port wine, and substitute one and a half ounces of pale brandy. Diuretic Drench, — one-half ounce fir balsam, two drachms sweet spirits of nitre, one ounce tincture of assafoetida. To be given in a. thin mucilage of slippery elm. Nauseant and Diaphoretic Drench, to increase the function of cutaneous exhalants in febrile diseases, — two drachms powdered lobelia, one drachm powdered bloodroot. To be given in warm water, repeated at given intervals. Stimulating Drench, — one-half ounce tincture^ of capsicum, one-half ounce tinc- ture of ginger, one-half ounce tincture of cinna- mon. To be given in gruel. Narcotic Drench, to relieve pain and induce sleep, — three drachms tincture Indian hemp, one-half drachm of chloro- form. To be given in warm water. An infu- sion of poppies, or hops, is a good anodyne. Sedative Drench, to le.ssen arterial action, — four drachms tincture of arnica, one pint of water. To be repeated, gradually lessening the dose. Cooling and Refrigerating Drench, for fevers or thirst, — one-half ounce cream of tartar. To be given in an infusion of lemon balm. Phthisical Drench, for phthisis pulmonalis, — ten grains pow- dered iodine, twenty grains powdered hydriodate of potassa. To be given daily in a decoction of comfrey {gymphyt^im offlcinaU). Vermifuge Drench, — four drachms aloes, twenty drops oil of wormseed, one ounce powdered male fern {aspidinmfelix mas). To be given in one pint of weak soap suds an hour before feeding. Partur- ient Drench, given to arouse the uterus in protracted labor, — three and one-half drachms spurred rye (secale cornutum). To be given in a decoction of birthroot (ti'illium purpiireiim). Ant- acid Drench, to correct flatulency, — two ounces lime water, one-half ounce tincture of gentian, one-half ounce tincture of ginger. To be given in an infusion of horse mint (munardd punctata). Lithontriptic Drench, for urinary calculi, — twO' ounces of lime water, four ounces honey, one pint infusion of sassafras. To be given daily, for a fort- night or more. Saline Aperients, — either of the following is a dose: twelve ounces epsom salts, twelve ounces glauber salts, eight ounces rochelle salts, one to two ounces sulphur. Demulcents, intended to lubricate and sheathe mucous sur- faces, — mucilage of slippery elm, mucilage of gum acacia (arable), mucilage of gvuii tragacanth, mucilage of Iceland moss, mucilage of benne leaves (sesamum indieum), mucilage of licorice root. The mucilage is made by pom-ing boiling water on a certain quantity of either of the above articles, named under demulcents, and stirring until the required consistence is obtained. The dose is as often as may seem to be required. The late Mr. Stewart, a well known English authority, during his life insisted, and we think properly, that draughts, particularly when pungent or dis- agreeable, are dangerous. That by. no care can the danger be altogether avoided. That no draught should be given unless the horse be in danger of dying without it. That a diaught is seldom or never absolutely necessary but in dis- eases that make the horse lie. (See Ball. Bolus.) DRESSINtr. The application of plasters, etc., to wounds. The application of manure. DRILL: A long, straight line, in which plants are grown. Drill husbandry is the cultivation of crops in drills instead of broad-cast. DROSOMETER. An instrument for measur- ing the quantity of dew that collects on the sur- face of a body exposed to the open air during the night. DROUGHT. The question of moisture suffl- DURAMEN 281 DUCK cient for the growth of plants, in particular sea- sons especially, is one of the most important prob- lems which the farmers beyond a line one hundred miles west of the Mississippi, have to solve. As we proceed west the integer becomes an increas- ing one. Where irrigation may be practiced, (see Irrigation) only in isolated localities, and the land is of sufficient value to warrant the outlay, the difficult}' is surely overcome and maximum crops may be raised. On all that vast area, east of the Rocky Mountains, which may not be susceptible of irrigation, on account of the absence of streams, the only feasible plans are those mechanical means for the resistance of drought, and such methods as will tend to induce moisture. The planting of timber belts, to induce rainfall, and the deepening of the soil so that it may drink up and conserve moisture, are among the manj' important. The history of the settlement of the trans-Mississippi region, has shown that as the country was opened up, and timber planted, the rainfall was increased. Water for stock is pretty surely obtained by the digging of wells, and thorough cultivation has been shown to have so conserved moisture that, except in extraordinary seasons, the crops have been good. This is important as showing the value of cultivation, and the thorough disinte- gration of the soil, as a means of alleviating the effects of drought in particular seasons, all over the West and Southwest. It is not the yearly amount of rainfall that is so important in the maturing of crops, but its periodicity. England, with a moist, wet, sloppy climate, has not much more than half the rainfall of some of the Western States; yet England seldom suffers from drought, while the West often does. Some portions of the South Pacific coast never have rain, and yet produce good crops from the large deppsition of dew, and the frequent mists through condensation of the moisture of the air at night. Although much light has been thrown upon the questions relating to meteorology, within the last ten years, the science is yet in a crude state ; yet that precipitation of moisture may be accom plished by human means, there is no doubt. How it may be done to give supply to uow partially arid regions, remains to be discovered. Something has been done through the planting of timber belts and groves, and much moisture may be conserved to the roots of plants by thorough and careful cultivation. These two means, if ■we except that of artificial irrigation, are the best known for alleviating the effects of drought. DBUPE. In botany, a one-celled, one or two seeded, fleshy fruit; as the cherry, plum, peach. DRY ROT. The name of a disease which attacks wood by destroying the cohesion of its parts. It frequently depends on fungous plants. The fungi most destructive are MituUixs lacry- rnans, Polyporus destructor, and several species of Sporotrichum. Defect of ventilation is a prolific cause in the timbers of buildings. DUCTILITY. The property of being drawn or beaten into a fine film. Gold, platinum and silver are the most ductile of metals. DUCTS. The tubes or tubular vessels found in the wood, roots, leaves, etc., of plants, DUODENUM. The intestine immediately next to the stomach. DURA. MATER. The fibrous covering of the brain DURAMEN. The heart wood. DYKE. An embankment. In geology, a mass of condensed mineral matter, as granite, porphyry, basalt, trap, etc., and intersecting strata, and evidently produced by injection, in a molten condition, through the strata. DYNAMICS. The science which examifies the laws and condition of motion, in contradis- tinction to mechanics, which investigates the conditions of rest and action of forces not pro- ducing motion. DUCK. Anas. The family comprises many varieties. The domestic varieties, as compared to the wild, are but few. The most import- ant of the domesticated ducks are, the Mal- lard, the Aylesbury, the Rouen, the Musk, or Brazilian duck, incorrectly called Muscovy, and also Guinea duck, the black East Indian, the Wood duck, the Mandarin and the black Cayuga duck. Of these varieties the Wood duck is principally valuable for the brilliant and varied plumage of the males. The common duck of our barnyards is a mongi-el made up of numerous varieties, and has nothing to commend it in this day of pure breeds. They are of almost every mixture of gray and white, many of them resembling the wild Mallard, showing in a striking manner, by reversion, one of the origins of this bird. The period of incubation of the duck is from twenty-eight to thii-ty-six days, depending on the season, the variety, and the temperature of the air. In suitable localities ducks are profitable, and any locality is suitable where they may be able to reach a pond, run- ning stream or marshy land. In all such loca- tions they will, in a great measure, provide for themselves during the summer. If kept in confinement they soon pine, and if fed exclu- sively on artificial food the cost of keeping will be more than the value of the ducks. The young of all ducks are great insect destroyers, and among the most agile of young fowls. Hence in the garden, or on the farm, a few broods, hatched under a hen, and the coops placed among rows of vegetables where insects abound, will be found to amply pay for them- selves. They are also prolific layers, laying about one hundred eggs in a year. The first food of young ducks should be curds, hard boiled eggs chopped fine, rubbed up with bread crumbs, and moistened with milk. At the end of a week they will greedily eat Indian meal- mush in which a few onion tops, chopped fine, have been mixed. The Aylesbury is the largest, except the White Musk, and by far- the best white duck. It is distinguished by its large size, its cream-white plumage, and its characteristic light yellow or cream-colored bill and orange legs. When well bred, adult Aylesbury ducks weigh fi'om eight to ten pounds per pair, while the best specimens will reach twelve. This duck takes its name from the town of that name, where , it has long been bred with great care. The Aylesbury is a prolific layer, it being not unusual for the duck to lay more than one hundred eggs, and in some instances one hundred and fifty, in a single season. The average weight of their eggs is about three ounces. Early-hatched birds sometimes lay in the fall. It is quiet and easily fattened, and fine for the table. The Black East Indian or Buenos Ayrean duck, a native of both sections that contribute to its name, is not as well known as it deserves to be, though it is more remarkable for its beauty and excellent DUCK 282 DUCK game flavor than for its size, being less in size than the Aylesbury. Metallic tints, varying v?ith the light from green to a gilded purple, decorate their form of uniform velvet-black, their bills and feet being of the same hue. The female has the same general color as her mate, and is nearly as beautiful, vphile lier disposition is far more amiable. These ducks require but common feeding to be fit for the table, their flesh being prized for its high game flavor. The Mallard duck is only Interesting as being generally regarded as the progenitor of our common ■domestic duck, and of the Aylesbury and Rouen. It is found all over the northern part of both ■continents in its wild state, congregating during winter in vast flocks. It is bred in England and Ireland, in marshy districts in a partially reclaimed state, under the name of the Marsh duck. It is small, hardy, prolific, dark gi'ay, and is esteemed as a game bird. The Musk duck is a native of Brazil, South America, where it is still found in large numbers in its wild state. It is occasionally called the Brazilian duck. In their wild state these ducks are very dark colored, while with us they are changed to various mixtures of brown, black, and white, and sometimes a blending of brown and drab. The adult drake weighs from nine to ten pounds, while the duck rarely exceeds half his weight. They have long bodies, short legs, and a very •clumsy appearance upon the ground, which they much prefer to large bodies of water. They like to perch upon the branches of a low tree, a fence, or a low building, especially during the night. They do not rank high for the table, even when young; and the males are tyrants in the poultry yard. Time of incubation from thirty-four to thirty-six days. The Rouen duck has for a long time been as distinguished in France as is the Aylesbury in England. It is the largest and, in some respects, the best duck of all our domestic varieties, though less beautiful in form than the Aylesbury. Its color is pleasing, closely resem- Tjling the wild Mallard. These ducks have broad, -clumsily-built bodies, and when highly fattened they are very ungainly in their movements. They are remarkably quiet, easily fattened, and are most excellent layers of very large eggs, and have no equal for the table in the domestic family of ducks. The adult Rouen not unfre- quently reaches from twelve to fifteen pounds per pair. The Wood duck, so called from its habit of building its nest in the hollows of trees, and also from its frequenting the edges of river groves in search of acorns — one of its principal foods in the autumn — is one of the most beauti- ful of the duck tribe and easily domesticated. It is, however, quite rare in collections, its small size making it unprofitable either for its eggs or flesh. Mr. Townsend Glover mentions as • among the rare ducks, at the Paris Exposition ■of 1865,the following. The Red-billed Tree duck, (Dendrocygna antumnalis) from Guinea and Brazil, appeared to be quite domesticated, and when I saw it it was feeding upon the short turfy grass in its enclosure in a very goose-like man- ner. It is a very ornamental bird, the bright red bill and legs forming a striking contrast to the shaded gray and black color of its plumage. The White-faced Tree duck from Brazil, in the same paddock, is also one of the perching ducks, but is of a smaller size, with bluish bill and legs, and instead of the usual quack given by our tame duck, this bird makes a kind of whistling sound. Our common wood or summer duck is also domesticated here. This species of duck ought to be more highly prized by our coimtry- men than it now is, and most probably it would be were it a foreigner and cost a very large sum of money to import. In these gardens it is as tame as our domestic Mallards, and reproduces with as little trouble. The Mandarin ducks, from the north of China, were all in very plain plumage, but, when in full summer dress, the male is said to be the most beautiful bird of the duck tribe. It somewhat resembles our summer duck in size, shape, and color, but is said to be infinitely more beautiful. These ducks were introduced into Holland about 1850, and repro- duce very readily -in a state of domestication. The Bahama duck, Anm (dajUa) Bahamenm, is very easily domesticated, and resembles a small Mallard with a pointed tail, but the bright red color on the base of its bill renders it a most beautiful object when swimming. Of these varieties we may remark that, the Mandarin duck is generally disseminated. They were originally imported to the United States in 1854. In its plumage it resembles the wood duck, but is more beautiful and elegant. It is chiefly valuable as an ornamental species. Of the Cayuga Black duck, one of the most superior, as it is among the largest of either American or foreign ducks, Mr. C. N. Bement writes as follows; Of the origin of the Cayuga duck I can not give anything reliable. This duck has been bred in the country so long, that all trace of the origin is lost. Tradition says they are descended from a sort of wild duck that stop in Cayuga lake and Seneca river, on their passage north and south, fall and spring; yet from hunters I have never been able to obtain or hear of any closely resembling them, either in weight?, or feathers. Yet they are called the Big Black duck, Cayuga, or Lake duck. The Black Cayuga duck in perfection, is black with a white collar on the neck, or white flecks on the neck and breast — rarely black without white, and as the white seems inclined to increase, we usually select them nearly or quite black for breeding. The duck has a faint green tint on the head, neck, and wings. The drakes usually show more white markings than ducks, and the green tint on head and neck is more strongly marked. They differ from the East Indian and Buenos Ayrean ducks very materially ; they are much larger, longer in bodj', and shorter in leg, better feeders, but are not so intense in color; indeed, beside the East Indian, the Cayuga looks brown. When well fed, the duck begms to lay about April, and usually gives an egg every day until eighty or ninety- are laid, when she will make her nest and sit, if allowed ; if not, she will generally lay a litter in September. The Cayuga ducks are hard}', of good size, and for the table are superior to other ducks; the flesh quite dark and highly flavored. If well fed, they become very fat; can be readily made so fat that they can not raise themselves from the gi-ound by their wings; twelve pounds to fourteen pounds to the pair would be a good average weight. I once had a small flock that averaged, at six months, sixteen pounds the pair, but they had been forced to their utmost, and never gained weight after six months. The Cayuga duck is very quiet in its habits; they DUCK 283 DUCK are rarelj' able to rise from the ground, a fence one foot high will turn them; they are not disposed to wander from home; they commence laying about the last of March and lay fifty to ninety eggs, when they wisli to sit, which they do well, but they are careless mothers; they cross readily with other ducks, and produce is certain. Of the other varieties of ducks, val- uable for ornament or peculiar qualifications, Tegetmeier says: The title Call-ducks is given to two small varieties of the domestic duck, that bear the same relation to the full-sized birds that Bantams do to ordinary fowls. They are known as the grey and the white Call ; they both differ from ordinary breeds in their very small size; for show birds, the smaller the better. The shape of the head is also distinct; they are most •esteemed when possessing a full round forehead, with a broad, short bill. In color, the grey Call should be an e.xact counterpart of the Rouen and wild breeds, not only in plumage, but also in legs, feet, and bill. The white Call should be clothed in feathers of pure and unsullied white; the bill, however, is not flesh- colored, as that of the Ayles- bury, but a bright clear un- spotted yellow, any other color being regarded as dis- qualifying the birds from success in a severe compe- tition. Call-ducks, as their name implies, ai-e remark- able for their loud and con- tinuous quacking, in a shrill, high note, which can be heard at a great distance, and which ren- ders them admirable as decoy ducks to allure the wild species to their destruction. As fancy water-fowl on ornamental pieces of water, both varieties are very attractive. The Penguin duck is characterized by greater length of the femora, •or upper bones of the legs ; and of the bones of the tfeet, whilst the tibiae remain unchanged. In specialty to call for particular observation, or to distinguish it from the ordinary species, of which it is evidently only an accidental variation, per- petuated by the care of man. The colors of the Penguin duck are varied, and the bird breeds freely with any of the common varieties. The Hook-billed duck is another accidental variation which has been propagated by man. It is charac- UOUEN DUCK. -consequence of this peculiarity of structure, the •duck, in walking, is obliged to assume an erect attitude, like that of the Penguin. Beyond this iquaint peculiarity, the Penguin duck has no terized by the bill being turned downwards, in- stead of being straight, as in the other varieties. It is a very old breed, having been described by Wil- loughbyin his Ornithology, 1676, and also figured by Albin in his Natural History of Birds, 1734. In Holland, this variety was formerly not unfre- quent, and was frequently delineated by the old Dutch masters. In color and size, the Hooked- billed ducks vary considerably. The Tufted, or Crested duck is another variation which has been perpetuated and increased by the care and selection exercised by man. It is characterized by a large tuft of feathers on the top of the skull, very like that of a Polish hen. In some cases this globular crest attains a size of three inches in diameter, and renders the birds very remark- able objects. In the skulls of some specimens, that we have examined after death, we have noticed a deficiency of the bones of the forehead, their place being supplied by a cartilaginous' thickening of the membranes under the base of the crest. The Pekin duck is comparatively a rare bird in the United States, having been first impcted about 1871, and at present not largely disseminated. They are larger looking than the Aylesbury, but seldom weigh heavier. The cut we give will show the form and general appear- ance. The following, from the American Stan- dard of Excellence as revised at the last meeting of the American Poultry Association, will show the points to be regarded in exhibition birds, including drakes and ducks: Head — long and EARTH 284 EARTH finely formed; color of plumage, white; eyes deep leaden-blue. BiU — of medium size, deep yellow, and perfectly free from marks of any other color. Neck — rather long and large in the drake ; in the duck, of mediuni length ; color of plumage, white or creamy-white ' Breast Mid Body — breast, round and full; body, very long and deep and, in adult birds, approaching the outlines of a parallelogram; color of plumage, white or creamy-white throughout. Wings — short, and carried compactly and smoothly against the sides; color of plumage, white Tad — rather erect, the curled feathers in the drake being hard and stiff; plumage, white. Legs — thighs short and large; colorof plumage, white; shanks, short and strong, and of a reddish-orange color; plum- age, downy, and of a faint creamy-white. There are standards, both English and American, for each particular breed of ducks, for which the reader is referred to volumes issued especially for this purpose, but which will interest but few except those who breed ducks of absolute purity and for exhibition purposes. DYNAMOMETER. An instrument now gen- erally in use for measuring the force exerted in any draft, or dead pull. One of the principal obiections to the earlier dynamometer was, when it was used to test draft of farm implements, the inequalities of the soil produced so much vibra- tion in the index, that the measurements were most unsatisfactory. Improvements of late years have obviated this difficulty, so that the measure- ment of force is now practically correct. These mstruments are used chiefly by manufacturers to test the draft of their machines and implements, and by committees in testing machines and implements at public competitive trials, espe- cially in plowing matches. E EARTH. In an agricultural sense, earth is clay, sand, loam, peat, bog earth, etc., in a mixture seldom pure, comprising various soils adapted to the growth of plants. Mold, on the contrary, is humus earth, or that arising from the decomposition of barnyard manure, leaves, or other vegetable substances. Except pure sand, earth has tenacity to a greater or lesser degree, clinging together more or less when damp, according as sand predominates m its composition ; mold, except when saturated with water, easily falls apart. Thus earth is divided into three classes : The more tenacious, as strong loams and clays; sandy soils, and humus; or mold. The loams contain the most humus, the sands the least. We have here- tofore spoken of dry earth, especially dry clay, as a deodorizer. (See Deodorization.) The effect of the sun's rays on the temperature of the earth below the surface, the power of the soil in holding heat, its absorbent qualities, and power of taking up and holding moisture, and its disinte- grability are among the most important uses of earths in the growth of plants, for upon these char- acteristics the economy of vegetable life is chiefly due. (See article Soil. ) Meteorology also exerts an important influence upon the productive capa- bility of the earth. In inquiring into the qualities of soils, the natural system would be to judge from the color, cohesion, consistence, their capa- bility of holding moisture, the growth of vegeta- tion, including the varieties, as adapted to various soils, etc. This was, in fact, the only means the ancients had of determining the value of soils. Nevertheless, this is by no means a critical test. The color of soils, in fact, is but a slight indica- tion of their true value, some very dark soils being infertile, and some light-colored soils being quite fertile. In fact, it is but little more than 100 years ago since the physical properties of soils first commanded the attention of scien- tific investigators. And really, the first investi- gations were limited to the weight of soils, and their facility of absorbing water. Thaer, while he paid great attention to the physical properties of soils in his Analysis of Earths, did not sub- mit them to a series of comparative experiments. It was not until 1816 that Schiibler, when appointed at Hoflwyl, professor of physics and chemistry applied to agriculture, that a real stride was taken. He asked himself the ques- tion : Whei'e is the science I am expected to teach? He found it did not exist. He then, entered upon the study of agriculture as a physic- ist, and sought the best means for determining and comparing the diverse physical properties of soils. He found that the specific weight of earth was always in relation to its power of retaining heat, and of drying quickly; that the facility for retaining water embraces that of absorbing the moisture and the oxygen of the air with rapidity, etc. The physical properties of arable soils, and the physical influences of the atmosphere, have a greater direct action upon vegetation than those properties and influences, purely chemical, because tlie first are anterior to- and serve as a basis for the last. Boussingault, proves how far this question was in its infancy in his day. He says : At an epoch which is not yet very far distant, it was believed that a close connection existed between the composition and the quality of arable soil. Numerous analyses soon modified this opinion by demonstrating that the mineral elements have not always the import- ance which is attributed to them. Schiibler tried even to prove that the fertility of a soil depends a great deal more upon its physical pro- perties, its aggregate condition, its aptitude for imbibition, etc , than on its cliemical constitution. That which characterizes cultivable soil, whose base consists of disaggregated mineral sub- stances, is the presence of organic remains more or less modified, such as humus and compost. Vegetable earth, properly called, results from: this association. In regard to its intimate nature, we fear not to affirm that, in spite of its appar- ent simplicity, we have still a very imperfect knowledge of it. This absorbing faculty, as mysterious as unexpected, which the soil exer- cises on ammonia, lime, potash, and the salts of different bases, discovered by Thompson and Way, is a palpable proof of it. The chemical, composition and the physical properties do not admit of pronouncing upon the degree of fertil- ity of earth. Direct observation is necessaiy. It is imperative to cultivate a plant In the soil, and ascertain its vigor and development. The analysis will be useful in determining the quantity and quality of assimilating elements. The memoir of Schiibler comprises one hundred pages. An. EARTH 385 EARTH abstract of the principal parts wliicli ma}- interest farmers, excluding all the tables of the physical properties of different soils we give from a work on agricultural meteorology, by. M. Andre Poey, as follows : In determining the weight of the soil, a particular distinction is to be made between the peculiar specific gravity of the sev- eral portions of earth, and the absolute weight of a determinate volume, as of a cubic inch or foot of the several soils. Sand, either in its wet or dry state, is the heaviest part of arable soil, ■certain fine slaty marls approaching the nearest to sand in this respect. Calcareous and silicious sands differ but little in this point, calcareous sand being, however, the heaviest of the com- mon constituents of arable soil. The clays are lighter the more clay and the less sand they con- tain. Lime exhibits great difference in weight, according to its fineness and mode of prepara- tion. In slaked lime the weight is remarkably less, even after it has been resaturated with car- bonic acid. The explanation of this seems to be the great expansion of quicklime on its combi- nation with water. Dolomite sand, or a combi- nation of lime and carbonate of magnesia, is much heavier than either of its component parts in a separate state. Its specific gravity rises to 2.83 and 3.83. and even magnesian stony marls often possess this greater weight. The carbon- ates of magnesia, obtained by precipitation from solutions, are the lightest of the usual ingre- dients of the soil. In arable soils magnesia is usually found in combination with lime or silica, where its form is coarser, and its physical proj^erties resemble more closely those of sand. Compound arable soils are generally lighter as thej' are proportionally richer in humus. This fact alone does not positively indicate the fertility of a soil, since the humus itself differs in weight, and the other pure earths exhibit diversity of weight according to their fineness ; consequently, mixed earths may acquire very different average weights. On this point specific gravity furnishes more certain evidence than absolute weight. The designations of light and heavy soils, as usually employed, refer to the different consistence of the earths, and not to their specific gravity or absolute weight; clay soils, wet and dry, are heavier than sandy soils. When different earths are artificially combined, a cubic inch of the com- pound gives a greater weight than the common average of the component earths, whether mixed in equal portions, according to weight and vol- ume, or in other quantities. By the term, power of the soil to contain water, we understand the property of earths to receive and retain water within their interstices, without allowing any to escape. It is of the greatest importance to vege- tation, for on it depends the quantity of aqueous nourishment the soil can receive and supply to the roots of plants — an essential source of veget- able nutriment. The sands are most deficient in this power; its degree varies, according to fine- ness in the grain, from twenty to forty per cent. ; silicious sand has the least power of all. Grypsum powder approaches the sands in this respect, and has even less power of containing water than cal- careous sand. Slaty marl, despite its proportion of clay, exhibits very little of this power, and renders soil both warm and dry. This marl is fre- quently applied to the improvement of vineyards in Germany. In carbonate of lime this water- holding power varies according to the fineness of the particles ; a distinction is important, therefore, between the fine lime separated by decantatiou and the earthy lime as found in the form of sand in arable lands. Carbonate of magnesia exists in a coarse-grained state, combined with lime or silicious earth, in arable soils, and retains water only in a slight degree. Humus, with its large natural proportion of half-decomposed organic remains, as wood, leaves, roots, etc., has the great- est degree of this power. One hundred parts of the fine earth formed by decaying wood in old trees are capable of absorbing nearly two hundred parts of water ; and some light turf earths can con- tain from three hundred to three hundred and sixty parts, when not dried artificially. Where we meet with the power of retaining more than ninety parts of water, we may depend upon an abundant commixture of organic matter. The two qualities of firmness and consistency of soil are of great importance in regard to the fertility and the manipulation of land ; the terms, universal in husbandry, of light and heavy soil, rest mainly on these properties, and they therefore deserve investigation in regard to both dry and moist con- ditions of the earth. If we compare the consist- ency of earths with their weight, we shall see that the customary terms of heavy and light soil are founded upon the cohesion of soil within itself and its adhesion to agricultural implements, and they therefore indicate its working properties rather than its weight. The comparative ease with which roots perietrate the soil will probably accord with these conditions. The consistency and firmness of soils in the dry and wet state increase in the same ratio. Clay lands, either wet or dry, are the most difficult to work ; sandy soils and those containing much humus, are the most eas}'. The firmness and consistency of a soil are not in the direct degree of its power of containing water; thus, fine lime and magnesia and humus possess but little consistency, although they can contain much water. We can not, there- fore, infer the existence of the one property from that of the other. Consistency generally exceeds in clayey soils, but not invariably. Fine, slaty marl, notwithstanding its great proportion of clay has but slight consistence. The finest kind of pipe-clay in its dry state is only forty-two, and therefore less by half than that of the heavy, gray clay of arable soils. Light, sandy soils gain cohe- sive power by moisture; therefore, a damp cli- mate, with a large average quantity of rain, will be found most advantageous to sandy districts. Even the purest sand, which in its dry state loses all its consistence and falls into a shapeless pow- der, regains a certain degree of cohesiveness on again being wetted. With all the earths, adhe- sion to wood exceeds that to iron ; and the appar- ent contradiction of the fact that, in wet weather land is more easily worked with wooden than with iron implements, is explained not by the less degree of adhesion to wood, but by the weight of the iron implements causing them to sink deeper into the soil. The diminution of the con- sistency of soil by the penetration of frost is another important integer. After the thorough freezing of soil in a wet state, its degree of con- sistence is greatly decreased. This is epecially the case with clays and soils of great firmness, where the diminution amounts to nearly one-half; with loamy clay the reduction reaches from sixty- nine to forty-five, and with ordinary arable soil from thirty-three to twenty. Completely dry EARTH 286 EARTH earths suffer no change from the action of frost. This is because the crystallization of the water in the interstices of the soil by freezing forces the several particles of earth from their position, and thus renders the points of contact fewer. Tlie beneficial influence of breaking up the soil before winter sets in, to allow the frost to penetrate more readily, depends upon this diminution of consis- tency. If the soil is worked in too wet a state in early spring the beneficial results are lost by again bringing the earthy particles into closer contact. The throwing out of plants in changeable winters is caused by the alternate freezing and thawing of the ground, and the accompanying displace- ment of earthy particles forcing the roots of smaller plants out of the earth, but not displac- ing the larger ones. The capability of soils to become speedily dry, is a question of considerable importance in vegetation whether a soil gives up its acquired moisture again to the air quickly, or retains possession of it for a long time in its force. The terms a hot or cold, a dry or wet, soil rest chiefly on this capacity. Sand, gypsum, and slaty marl dry most quickly, and are consequent- ly called hot soils. Carbonate of lime varies in this respect according to the different forms in which it occurs. Calcareous sand dries quickly, and fine carbonate of lime slowly. The latter has, besides its chemical action on humus, the advantage of loosening the soil after it is dried. This property of the earths, to require a longer or shorter time to become dry, might seem to stand in the same relation as their power of con- taining water and, with thin layers, this is nearly always the case; but with layers some inches in depth the proportion deviates consider- ably ; the deeper layers, in this case, drying more slowly, according to their degree of consistency, and to their greater or less contraction on dry- ing. Dry soils, with a large proportion of clay, exhibit this variation in an especially striking manner. Upon the diminution of bulk on dry- ing, it is well known that most soils contract on drying, and cracks and flssures ensue, which have an injurious effect on vegetation, as the finer roots, which frequently supply the bulk of nourishment, are either bared or torn asunder. Gypsum diminishes its volume in an inconsider- able degree. Fine carbonate of lime loses but little bulk, while clay exceeds it, and humus exhibits a remarkable degree of contraction. The addition of sand, or carbonate of lime, to clay, diminishes this property of contraction. Many kinds of marl fall into small pieces on dry- ing, because of the great difference which clay and lime, the elements of marl, experience in their diminution of bulk on drying, after having been moistened, these, individual parts changing their volume in different degrees, and thus caus- ing a more easy disintegration. Humus experi- ences, on drying, the greatest diminution of bulk, contracting at least one-fifth, and expanding again under the action of moisture. This is why the upper surface of the earth, in damp, turf bottoms, containing much humus, frequently rises or sinks several inches, according as the soil is penetrated with more or less water. The elevation of these soils is more remarkable during a sharp frost, after wet weather, the freezing, by its expansion, still further increasing the volume of the particles of water within the turf. Hence, too, the reason why these turf bottoms have, in their wet state, a remarkable elasticity if heavily trodden upon. The property of the earths to absorb moisture from the atmosphere is important. Most of the earths which are com- monly found in soils have the property, in their dry state, of absorbing moisture from the atmos- phere, and this influences, considerably, their different degrees of fertility. All soils, except silicious sand, thus absorb moisture. Slaty marl, similar to the sands in some conditions, surpasses them in this respect; clay soils, espe^ cially those containing humus, absorb most freely. Humus, although possessing the greatest power of absorption, exhibits degrees of differ- ence according to its kinds; purely vegetable humic acid absorbs moisture more freely than that obtained from animal manure. The degree- of absorption lessens as soils become saturated with moisture, which generally occurs in a few days. A portion of the absorbed moisture becomes vaporized by the action of sunlight,, and thus is performed a natural operation which. exerts a very beneficial effect upon vegetation. The earths absorb, at night, moisture which they partially give off during the day While fertile, arable soils absorb moisture freely, this is not an infallible test of their properties, and the test requires much modification in its application. The property of earths to absorb oxygen gas- from the atmosphere is also important: Alex- ander von Humboldt, many years ago, pointed out this property of the earths, and experiment confirms it, always providing that the earths are in a moist condition. All the earths lose this property upon drying, and regain it as soon as they are moistened. Humus exhibits it iij the greatest degree; the clays approach nearest to it, and the sands absorb least. Fertile earths absorb more than those poorer in humus and clay. The included air, standing over them, at last becomes- so void of oxygen, that lights are extinguished, and animals die in it. The methods of absorption differ; humus combines partly with the oxygen, chemically, the inorganic earths absorb the gas without intimate combination. When earths are frozen or covered with an icy surface, absorption of oxygen ceases; and the action increases with the warmth of temperature, varying from 59' to 654° Fahrenheit. Many ■phenomena prove that oxygen is an important agent in vegetable, as well as in animal economy. It is particularly necessary to the germination of seeds and the growth of plants. By turning up the soil in any manner fresh layers are brought into contact with and fertilized by the oxygen, and as a moist condition of soil favors this absorption, it should be preserved. In relation to heat, the earths have the power of retaining the warmth which they accumulate from the atmosphere and the heat of the sun, and of giving it out to surrounding bodies. It is differ- ent from specific heat, and its degi-ee depends upon the capacity of the body for conducting heat. The sands possess this power to the greatest extent ; hence the heat and dryness of sandy districts in summer. Their slight water- containing power, in consequence of which little warmth is lost by evaporation, increases this condition. Slaty marl stands next to sand in this capacity; and this, joined to its greater power of retaining water, contributes largely to its fertility. Humus has the least power of retaining heat, and turf soils abounding in humus warm but slowly, because they contain water. EARTH 287 EARTK only a small portion of which they lose rapidly 1)}' evaporation. Magnesia, combined with sands and slaty marls, largely possesses this heat- retaining power. The greater the mass of an earth the more extensive will be its power of retaining heat. We may, therefore, from the absolute weight of an earth, conclude tolerably well in regard to the extent of its power. The various earths acquire heat from the sun in difEerent proportions, and this property may exert a sensible influence on vegetation. Land consistingof light-colored clay warms less quickly and powerfully in the sunlight than a dark, dry soil; black garden-mold, rich in humus, becomes much warmer than meager limestone or clay soils. Very difEerent external circumstances may affect the warming of the soils, and may be classed as follows : first, the different colors of the surface earths; second, the difEerent degrees of dampness present during the exposure of the eartlis to the sun's influence ; third, the component materials of the earths; fourth, the different angles at which the sun's rays fall upon the soil. The influence of the color of soils on the quantity of heat received by them may be tested as follows: Place thermometers in the several soils, covering their bulbs an eighth of an inch high with earth; sprinkle the surfaces, by means of a fine lawn sieve, with lampblack for a black color, and magnesia for a white, leaving one soil of its natural color. In August, with a temperature in the shade of 77° Fahrenheit, the increase with the black color was found by Prof. Schilbler to be from 77° to 12S}4° Fahrenheit; the white, from 77° to 110° Fahrenheit; and the natural color from 77° to 1X2%° Fahrenheit. Thus, the increase of temperature with the black-colored earth was 46 J^° ; with the white, 33° ; and with the natural, d5%°. Other colored earths exhibit corresponding differences of degree in the temperature of their masses. When exposed for hours to the sun they never attain the the same degree of heat — the black earths acquir- ing the greatest heat and the lighter ones remain- ing cooler. If we expose earths of the same kind in a dry and a wet state to the sun, the wet earth never attains an equal degree of heat with the dry. The depression of temperature arising from evaporation amounts to 11^° to 13^° Fahr. As long as the earths remain saturated with water they show little difference in their heat- acquiring powers, as they give off to the air, in this condition, nearly equal quantities of vapor in the same length of time; as they gradually dry, the difference in temperature increases. Light-colored earths, with great water-containing powers, acquire heat slowly, while dark-colored sand and slates, containing less moisture, become heated more quickly and powerfully. The different ingredients which enter into the com- position of soils have, in themselves, far less influence on the capacity of soils to become warmed by the sun than their color and dryness. If we impart, artificially, to earths of the same color and expose them in a similarly dry con- dition to the sun, the differences in temperature will be inconsiderable: so that the various capacities of earths, in their natural state, for receiving heat from the sun, depend particularly upon their color and dryness. The inclination of the ground toward the sun has a very consider- able influence on the degree of heat which the soil receives from Its I'ays, and the gi'eater warmth is produced as the incidence of the ray approaches more nearly to a right angle, or 90°, with the surface. If the actual increase of the tempera- ture in the sun over that in the shade be between 45° and 63°, as is often the case on clear summer days, this increase would be only half as great if the same light spread itself, in a more slanting direction, over a surface twice as extended. This is the reason why heat so frequently increases on the slopes of mountains and rocks which have an inclination toward the south. When the sun is at an elevation of 60° above the horizon, as is more or less the case toward noon in the middle of summer, the sun's rays fall on the slopes of mountains which are raised to an inclination of 30° to the horizon, at a right angle; but even in the later months of summer the sun's rays frequently fall on them under a right angle in cases where the slopes are yet steeper. Such declivities, particularly in the geographical lati- tude of Germany, are therefore peculiarly suited to the cultivation of plants which require a high temperature, such as the vine. By an accurate comparison of the power of the sun's ray's to warm the soil, with reference to the different seasons, we shall perceive more distinctly the influence of the different inclinations of the ground toward the sun. The capacity of soils to develop heat within themselves on being- moistened is that powdery substances in general, and consequently the earths, possess the property of developing warmth when moistened while in a dry state ; but in nature they are scarcely ever found in this perfectly dry condition. The rain falling in warm seasons is many degrees colder than the lower stratum of the atmosphere and the upper surface of the earth, which it immedi- ately moistens ; so that the earth in hot weather becomes rather cooler than otherwise by the rain. When the earth has previously been very dry, the cooling of it by the rain can only be reduced about 1 ° Fahr, , and this would have little effect on vegetation, and in the colder seasons, when the earth is already damp, so slight a development must be inappreciable. The galvanic and elec- trical relations of the earth show that the pure earths, as sand, lime, magnesia, and gypsum, in their dry state, are non-conductors; the claj'S are imperfect conductors, and the clayey earths are weak, imperfect conductors. The presence of the moisture and of oxide of iron, found in all the clays, appears to be the base of this phenom- enon. Upon the influence of the simple earths on the germination of seeds the development of the germ depends upon the looseness, moisture, and temperature of the soil, as well as upon its warmth and consistence. In moist silicious and calcareous sand the grains germinate in summer in a few days, and develop well, but suffer as hot weather approaches. In gypsum powder they develop indifferently. In sandy clay no proper development takes place. This is also the case in loamy and stiff clay. In pure clay no change whatever occurs, but the grains develop well when transferred to proper soil. In pure carbonate of lime, carbonate of magnesia, and slaty marl, as well as in pure humus, gar- den mold, and arable soil, the seed germinate well — the young plants in warm weather devel- oping themselves most beautifully in the humus, and in the carbonate of magnesia, in conse- quence, probably, of the greater power of contain- ing water which these earths possess. Upon soil. EARTH 288 EDULCORATIOK as adapted to climate, we shall find that in such warm countries as have also a small mean quantity of rain, those liinds of soil which have a great power of containing water will, if other circumstances are the same, be the best; while those soils which have, on the contrary, a small power of containing water will be found better suited for countries with a greater amnunt of rain. Those very soils, therefore, may be fertile for one country which become no longer so for another, under a change of external circum- stances; the usual alternation of dry and wet years being on the same principle, more favorable to the one or to the other country, according as their predominating soils respectively possess a greater or less degree of this power of containing water. To summarize the whole, in the exam- ination of soils, the determination of their power of containing water, and of their weight, con- sistency, and color, in connection with their chemical analysis will, in the majority of cases. be sufficient to enable us to conclude, with great probability, as to their remaining physical properties. The more an earth weighs, the greater also in general is its power of retaining heat ; the darker its color, and at the same time the smaller its power of retaining water, the more quickly and strongly will it be heated by the sun's rays ; the greater its power of contain- ing water, the more has it in general the power also of absorbing moisture from the atmosphere when it is in a dry state, and oxygen when it is in a damp state, and the slower it usually is to become dry, especially when it is endued at the same time with a high degree of consistency. Lastly, the greater the power of containing water, and also the greater the consistency of a soil, the colder and wetter of course that soil will be, as well as the stiffer to work, either in a wet or dry state, and the more judicious there- fore will it be to break it up before the setting in of the frost, in order that .its consistency may be improved by the due penetration of the frost during the winter; and for the cultivation of many plants, the more requisite will it be found for the permanent improvement of such a soil, to counteract its too great consistency and power of containing water by mixing it with looser earths, lime, marl, coal or wood ashes and sand. If soils of different kinds be wetted until the fluid drops, it will be found, as determined by Schlibler, that 100 pounds of dry sand retain 25 •pounds of water; 100 of calcareous sand, 29 of water; 100 of loamy soil, 40 of water; 100 of clay loam, 50 of water; 100 of strong clay, 79 of water; 100 of peat, 100 and more. Good soils hold from forty to fifty per cent, of water. Soils not only hold water, but absorb it from the air unequally. Thus, a quantity spread out to the same extent of sand, absorbed pounds of water; of calcareous sand, Sofwater; sandy loam, 21 of water; strong clay, 30 of water ; garden mold, 35 of water. In the same way, they retiiin moisture very unequally, sand losing it four times more rapidly than mold. A well-tilled soil is continually absorbing from the air, gaseous matter, and its fertility is, in a considerable degree, connected with this property. Molds absorb eleven times, and clay nine times as fast as sand. Black, well- tilled, and drained soils become more rapidly heated, and to a greater degree than such as are wet, of a light color, or baked. In the same way, those that heat rapidly, cool rapidly, and are more subject to frosts. By experiments, mold, cools in one third the time, and clay in two thirds the time of sand; so that, if they be equally heated, the sand will be warm for hours after the mold is cold. Hence the latter absorbs dew and contracts frost much more quickly than sandy soils. , The adhesiveness of earth is an important integer. Pusey, in measuring the force neces- sary to turn furrows in various soils, found the required draft to be, for loamy sand, 280 pounds; for sandy loam, 250 pounds; for peat soil, 280 pounds; for clay loam, 400 pounds; for strong clay, 661 pounds. Thus it appears that the toughest soil required nearly three times the force to plow it, that the most friable soil did. Im- provements in plows of late years have reduced the force necessary in plowing fully twenty per cent. Coal ashes, the spent ashes of soap makers, sand, vegetable matter, strawy manure, pow- dered charcoal, baked and pulverized clay, and lime, lighten a stiff soil, and clay marl, air-slacked lime and wood ashes, stiffen those too porous. So again, as to the physical qualities of earths, light soils are usually fertile where they rest on pretty stiff clay, and a stiff clay resting on a porous sub-soil, retains sufficient water to ensure fertility. Thus we see, the character of any soil is modified in a great measure, and as to fer- tility depends very much upon the nature of the sub-soil. All these being important for farmers to understand, EARTH, CHEMICAL. In chemistry, earths are those metallic oxides which are colorless, nearly or quite insoluble in water, the metallic basis of which is obtained only with difficulty, and which rapidly oxidize. Lime, magnesia, baryta, strontia, alumina, gluoina, thorina, zir- conia, yttria, and silica are these earths, but lime, alumina, and silica form the bulk of the soils and rocks of the globe. Magnesia is also rather abun- dant, but most of the remainder are rare bodies. With the exception of silica, which is an acid, they are bases. EARTH-WORM. Lumbricvsierrestris. Earth- worihs are, on the whole, serviceable to soils, by loosening and perforating them, and injure plants and roots but little. They indicate rich soil. Salt applied at the rate of ten bushels to the acre, or a heavy liming destroys them effectually for a season. Their injury to plants consists chiefly in drawing the leaves into their holes and suck- ing the juices. EARTHY MANURES. JNIarl, lime, clay, and sand are so called. They serve to give the soil new mechanical qualities, and also supply phos- phates and other mineral constituents, calcu- lated to render it more productive. EARWICr. Foi-ficitla aun'cularis. A trouble- some insect in Europe, but rare in the United States. EBULLITION. Boiling. To know the boil- ing point of different fluids is often of great importance. Watei- boils at 213°, alcohol at 176°, sulphuric acid at 600", mercury at 662°, linseed oil at 640°, oil of turpentine at 316°, nitric acid at 248°, and ether at 100°. ECZEMA. (See Grease Heel.) EDUCATION, INDUSTRIAL. (See Agri- cultural Colleges, and Industrial Education.) EDULCORATION. In chemistry, the re- peated washing, by pure water, of precipitates or powders until they are freed from soluble impurities.. EGG 289 EGG EFFERVESCENCE. The disturbance made in a fluid by the escape of gas. ■ Soda water effervesces. EFFLORESCENCE. Some salts, lilce car- bonate of soda or soda ash, by exposure to air lose their transparency, and become white, crum- bling into powder. Thisis termed efflorescence. In geology the appearance of crystals upon earthy, rocky, or other mineral surfaces, is termed efflorescence. EGiG. Birds and most insects and fishes and some other animals, are generated from globular-formed bodies called eggs, produced within the mother. These, after being deposited by the parent in favorable situations, and ex- posed to the proper influences of temperature, etc. , undergo a succession of changes, which at last result in a fully developed living creature. (See Embryology.) This, brealiing through the outer crust that has confined it, enters upon its new existence. The eggs of the lower orders of animals are collected and held together in great numbers by a viscous membrane, and are called spawn. Those of the birds are deposited singly. They consist of a calcareous shell, white or colored, formed almost wholly of carbonate of lime ; the other constituents are minute quan- tities of animal matter, phosphate of lime, car- bonate of magnesia, oxide of iron, and sulphur. Lining this hollow shell is a thin and tough membrane, composed principally of albumen. At the larger end of the egg is a space between the outer shell and this membrane, which, verv small when the egg is first laid, gradually in- creases with its age. It is called the vesicula aeris, and is filled with air, in which the pro- portion of oxygen is larger than in the atmos- phere. This, it is said, is for the respiration of the unhatched chick. Within the membrane is the white of the egg, or the albumen, a viscid liquid, in membranous cells, which encloses the yolk and the real germ of the animal. As this germ left the place of its production in the body of the female, and passed into the egg-discharg- ing canal, the albumen gathered around it in successive layers, a portion in very delicate mem- branes, called the chalasce, which are attached to the poles of the yolk, and serve to suspend it in such a manner that the smaller and lighter half must always be uppermost. The outer layer of the albumen is less thick and viscid than that next the yolk. Around it the lining membrane and calcareous shell are successively added before the egg is laid. Tlie composition of the albumen is: water, 8.5 parts; pure albumen, 12; mucus, 2,7; and saline matter, 0.3, including soda with traces of sulphur. The yolk, called vitellus mi, is also a glairy fluid, commonly of a yellow color, enclosed in its own membrane, and consists of a great variety of constituents, viz. : water, 41.486; a form of albumen called vitel- line, 15.76; margarine and oleine, 21.304; cho- lesterine, 0.488; oleic and margaric acids, 7.226; phosphoglyceric acid, 1.3; muriate of ammonia, 0.034; chlorides of sodium and potassium and sulphate of potassium, 0.377; phosphates of lime and magnesia, 1.032; animal extracts, 0.4; and 0.553 of coloring matter, traces of iron, lactic acid, etc. Upon one side of the yolk is a round spot, yellowish white, called the cicatrievla, the germ of the ovum, which by the arrangement of the chalazse, already referred to, is always kept uppermost, and next to the source of heat 19 supplied by the animal in sitting. As that is developed into the foetus, the albumen first furnishes nourishment to it, and when this is consumed more is supplied by the yolk. Eggs of the hen are hatched by being kept at a tem- perature of 104° for three weeks. Their vitality has been retained after they have been exposed to a temperature of 10° Fahr. ; and it is a remark- able fact that the freezing point of new-laid eggs is much lower than that of the water and albu- men of which they principally consist, and both of which congeal at about the same temperature. Eggs, too, that have been once frozen, or have been long kept, freeze at the point their con- stituents would seem to require. The specific gravity of new-laid eggs is from 1.08 to 1.09. By keeping they diminish in weight from evap- oration of water, and the substitution of air through the pores of the shell. This diminution has been observed to continue for two years; an egg weighing originally 907i grains being re- duced, as remarked by Dr. Thomson, to 363.2 grains. When they have lost so much weight as to float upon water, they are generally un- sound. The preventing of this evaporation by covering their surface with a coating of varnish, wax, gum arable, or lard, checks their putre- faction. It is said that if every new-laid egg was at once rubbed over with sweet butter it would be a rare thing to see one unsound. The Scotch sometimes drop them in boiling water for two minutes, by which the membrane within the shell is partially coagulated and rendered impervious to air. Hen's eggs vary so much in gi-avity, that it is a wonder they continue to be sold by numbers instead of weight. A dozen of- the largest have been found to weigh twenty- four ounces, while the same number of smaller ones of the same stock weighed only fourteen and a half ounces. The fair average weight is said to be about twenty-two and a half ounces to the dozen. The relative weights of the poi'- tions of the egg as given by Dr. Thomson are: shell and membrane, 106.9; albumen, 604.3; yolk, 288.9. About one-third of the entire weight may be regarded as nitrogenous and nutritious matter, a greater proportion than that of meat, which is rated at only from twenty- five to twenty-eight per cent., while the nutritive portion of the oyster is only about twelve per cent. The white of the egg, from its tendency to coagulate into a hard and indigestible sub- stance, is likely to disagree with the stomach of invalids, when the yolk may prove perfectly harmless. Raw eggs are more wholesome than boiled, or even than those lightly poached, which are very digestible. Eggs become more difficult of digestion by being kept. In medicine the shell is used as an antacid, its animal composi- tion seeming to adapt it better for the stomach than chalk, the mineral form of carbonate of lime. The white is employed for clarifying liquors and syrups, which it accomplishes by entangling the small particles floating in them as it coagulates, and either rising with them to the surface, or sinking to the bottom. An astringent poultice is formed by causing it to coagulate with a piece of alum briskly stirred with it. This, under the name of alum curd, is used as an application to the eye in some forms of ophthalmia. The white is also used as an antidote to corrosive sublimate and salts of copper. The yolk is sometimes given in jaun- ELAIN 390 ELATEH dice, and forms an excellent diet in dyspepsia. It is preferable to the -white in making emul- sions. The largest sized eggs of which we have any account are some found in 1850 in alluvium in Madagascar. They belong to a bird which it is supposed has recently become extinct, to which M. Saint Hilaire has given the name of ^piornis maximns. Two of the eggs are pre-> served in the French academy. One of them measures thirteen and a half inches on its longest diameter, and eight and a half inches on the shortest. The thickness of the shell is about one-eighth of an inch. The capacity of the egg is about eight and a half quarts, six times that of the ostrich's egg— equal to 148 hen's eggs, or 50,000 eggs of the humming bird. Prom some of the bones of the bird which have been pre- served, its height is calculated to be about twelve feet. — New American Cyclopedia. EttG PLANT. Solanum melongena. The Solanum family furnishes two of the most valu- able plants for the use of man, the potato and egg plant. The tomato was originally classed as a Solanum, but now is classed as a Lj'copersicum, The cultivatioii of the egg plant is of very ancient date. It was a plant of southern Asia, and the Indian Archipelago, although said not now to be found there wild. Its cultivation was known to the Romans, and from them spread over the entire southern portion of Europe. It has been known in America since the eighteenth century. Being an inter-tropical plant, the least frost completely kills it, and even cold winds so reduce its vitality, that it should not be trans- planted to the open air until tlie days and nights are permanently warm. The seeds must be sown, in the North, in a hot bed, about the first of March, and have a strong heat and continuous moisture, uQtil they germinate . Thenceforward they must have plenty of air, but be kept from chilling winds. "When two or three inches high, they are transplanted into another hot bed, at a distance of four inches apart, and kept steadily growing, until they fairly cover the spaces. Then they are transplanted into six inch pots, or better, into troughs, made by nailing a back of siding on a bottom of inch boards, six inches wide. These are made three feet long for ease of handling. When placed in the beds, the back of one trough makes the front of the next. Thus, at a distance of six inches apart, they make strong plants, often coming into blossom before going into the open air. In transplanting, the balls of earth are carefully preserved, and placed in the ground entire, a little water is given them, and dry earth is then drawn over the ball, covering it about one half inch deeper than it stood in the trough. By this plan they are scarcely checked, and will grow and perfect their fruit of a size for cooking, by the first of August, in the North. The egg plant is cooked in a variety of ways; sometimes by baking, but gen- erally by paring, slicing one half inch thick, and frying soft and brown in butter. Persons accus- tomed to their peculiar flavor, become very fond of them. ELAIN. The fluid oil existing in fats, etc., which may be separated by pressure, by cold, or by digesting in seven or eight times its weight of boiling alcohol, which acts upon the fat or tallow in such a way that the elain floats above the alcoholic solution, and the sohd, or stearin, sinks below when cold. ELASTICITY. The power certain bodies possess of returning back to their original bulk or position when bent or compressed. Gases are the most elastic bodies known, fluids the least, and metals differ exceedingly in this respect. Some phenomena of elastic bodies are the follow- ing- An elastic body (the elasticity being supposed perfect) exerts the same force in endeavoring to restore itself, as that with which it was com- pressed or Ijpnt. The force of elastic bodies is exerted equally in all directions, but the effect chiefly takes place oh the side on which the resistance is the least. When an elastic solid body is made to vibrate by a sudden stroke, the vibrations are performed in equal times, to what- ever part of the body the stroke may be com- municated. Thus, sonorous bodies always emit sounds of the same pitch; and the difference of the pitch depends on the greater or less frequency of the vibrations of the sonorous body. A body perfectly incompressible can not be elastic, there- fore bodies perfectly solid can have no elasticity, and hence, also, the small degree of elasticity belonging to the liquids, which are eminently incomijressible. ELATEE. Click-beetle, Spring-beetle. Elor terides. This beetle, from its habit of suddenly springing in the air, and landing on its feet when placed on its back, is well known, especially among children. The larvae are all destructive froni their habit of feeding on the roots of vege- tation, and should be destroyed. It is supposed by some, that the Wire worm is the larva of this beetle. Such is not the fact. They are the larvffi of a species of lulus belonging to the Myriwpoda, so named from their great num- ber of feet. The Wire worm of England, has only six feet, nevertheless we have severai grubs allied to them, but which are not com- mon. The following is from a report of the late Dr. Le Baron, Entomologist of Illinois Our largest and most striking species is the well known Elater{Alaus) occulatus, of Linnaeus. It is usually nearly an inch and a-half in length, though individuals are not unfrequently seen which scarceljr exceed an inch. Its gray color is produced by a dense sprinkling of small whit- isli spots and lines upon a black ground. These spots are composed of minute whitish scale-like hairs. But its most conspicuous character is the two large eye-like spots on the top of the thorax, which are expressed by the specific name. The larvsB inhabit partially decayed wood, and are often found in the trunks of old apple trees. The Elater rubricollia, Say, is a little more than half an inch long, black, with a light-red thorax, bor- dered and pointed behind with black. The Ela- ter sangvinipennis. Say, is black, with light-red elytra; three-tenths of an inch in length. The E. apieatua, Say, is similar, but larger, being nearly half an inch in length, and the elytra are tipt with black. The E. nigrieollis, Say, varies from less than half to three-quarters of an inch in length; black, with whitish elytra. The E. linteus, Say, resembles the last, but is distin- guished by having the suture and tip of the ely- tra black. E. scapularis. Say, is a little less than four-tenths of an inch long, greenish-black, with the base of the elytra and the hind points of the thorax, clay-yellow. The tarsal joints are lobed beneath. It is now included in the genus Athous. The Limonius armus, Say, is also light-red on the shoulders of the elytra, but the thorax is wholly ELECTRICITY 391 ELECTRICITY "black, the tarsi are simple, and the length is only -a quarter of an inch. Several species of Cori/in- betes have the elytra brownish-j'ellow with trans- verse zigzag black bands. C. hieroglyphicits, Say. half an inch long, has two bands; and C. hii mains, rather smaller, has but one band near the tip. The Mela notusfiasilia. iiay, (cinet-eu-i, Weber?) and the J/, commnnia, Sch., plain brown species, usuallj' about half an inch in length, but subject to considerable variation in size, are amongst our most common beetles. The two species closely re- semble each other, but tlie latter is a little smaller, and the thora.\: is proportionally longer and less convex. The Mehinactes jiiceus, DeG., is a large ^losfey black species, an inch or more in length. It is not uncommon in the latitude of Southern Illi- nois, where it is sometimes jaiTed from peach trees upon the cureulio-catcher. Rilej' has found and figured its supposed larva, which is one of the most beautiful objects, and often attracts the at- tention of the curious in the regions where it is found, south of latitude 39°, by its luminosity; the animal glowing in the dark with a beautiful green light. ELATERIUM. Momordica eleterium. An indig- enous annual vine, bearing a small fruit like the cucumber, the juice of which is a drastic purge. ELBOW. The shoulder joint of cattle. A bend in carpentry. ELDER, ^(tinbucus Canadensis. An indig- enous shrub, very tenacious of life, common in the Northern and Middle States, also in the "West, getting a permanent foothold along fences, hedge-rows and waste places, on the premises of slovenly farmers. It should be eradicated wher- ever found. Birds are fond of the berries, and it is thus generally disseminated. A kind of wine is sometimes made of the berries, and the juice is also used in coloring fictitious poi't and other dark wines. A decoction of the fi-esh leaves is said to be obnoxious to some insects and also to moles. Sheep are said to eat the leaves, as a nat- ural remedy for rot. It has also been recom- mended for hedging. There are, however, better remedies for sheep rot, and as a hedge-plant it is simply worthless. It maj^ be killed by keeping it cut down during the season of growfli and by the grubbing of the roots in the fall. ELECTIVE APEIXITY. A chemical term, meaning the preference exerted by a body to combine with another in place of one alreadj' in union. Tlius, potash ■will unite with sulphuric acid, although it be already combined with iron ; the iron is separated, and gives place to the pot- ash, which is preferred or elected. It is governed by electrical forces, like all other cases of chem- ical union. ELECTRICITY. This is one of the most important and potent forces in nature, and especiall)'^ interesting to the agriculturist, now that it is known to be a valuable factor in the growth of plants, and also in its various action in the phenomena of nature as affecting rainfall, the formation of hail, its influence in tornadoes and various other meteorological phenomena hitherto unsuspected and even yet not well understood. The influence of electricity on vegetation and the internal electricity of vege- tables are two of the most interesting of the subjects connected with electricity, and the following data in relation to the influence of (electricity, compiled from various sources, show that tlie causes which liberate electricity in organized bodies under the reign of life, or a little after it, are of three orders, physical, chemical, and organic, the latter belonging to certain vital functions not clearly defined. There exists in vegetables an ascending sap and a cortical sap, the latter not having the same composition as the former and, according to some physiologists, having a descending motion. Both are separated by tissues, and produce electric effects like those of a pair of galvanic plates. These effects are so much the more remarkable, as they relate to the formation of the bark and that of the wood. The parenchyma, which Is analogous to the pith, occupies the circumference of the bark, while the pith itself is found at the center of the ligneous system. This inversion responds to reverse electric effects. Each stem or branch being composed of an interrupted series of heterogene- ous concentric layers, their successive contact gives rise to electric effects rising from the heterogeneous liquids moistening these layers. The ascent of the sap is not only due to endos- mosis and to capillary attraction, but also to the presence of buds, which draw from the stem and branches the substance for their de\'elopment. The buds afterward are not slow in forming leaves, which become the seat of a continual evaporation, which concurs with the ascending motion of the sap, and influences the manifesta- tion of electric effects. After the discovery of voltaic electricity. Dr. Baccomio undertook to construct piles with organic matter of vegetable origin, as Metteucci has since done witli portions of the muscles of different animals. T he first experiments, however, had no value. Becquerel, AVartmann, and Donn(?, Ijy means of metallic plates or wires in connection with a multiijlier, obtained currents in vegetables and fruits. The existence of electric currents constantly circulat- ing in vegetables, and between them and the earth, is manifested not only in the direct experi- ments which have been made, but according to the following physical considerations ■ In the vertical section of a stem, the ascending sap, before its entrance into the vegetable b}' the roots, is composed of water, holding in solution air, carbonic acid gas, and verj^ small quantities of saline and organic matter removed from the soil. As to the parenchymous sap elaborated in the leaves, it loses insensibly a portion of its constituent parts for nutrition. Both saps are found in the conditions requisite to form contact.s by insensible transitions, and consequently to produce electric currents without the interven- tion of metallic plates. On the other side, the earth being in direct and jjermanent communica- tion with vegetables, through the medium of the roots, participates in their electric state, result- ing from the diverse elaborations which take place in their tissues, just as we have seen atmospheric temperature mfluence the heat of vegetables. Erom very delicate experiments, confirmed by Riess, Pouillet concludes that the action of vegetaloles upon the ox3-gen of the air is one of the most permanent and powerful causes of atmospheric electricity. A gi-am of pure carbon, in changing to the condition of carbonic acid, liberates electricitj' enough to charge a Ley^en jar. Now the carbon entering into the constitution of vegetables cannot give less electricity than freeh' burning carbon; hence we may conclude, that upon a surface of vege- ELECTRICITY 392 ELECTRICITY tation of one hundred square meters, (0.099 rood) more negative electricity is produced in a day than would suffice to charge the strongest electric battery. Buff took up the experiments of his predecessors, without putting platinum plates in direct contact with the organs of vege- tables, and operating much as Dubois Reymond has done in his researches on animal electricity. In order to. change as little as possible the natural conditions in which a plant is found, BufE employed water as the medium of communica- tion between different parts of the plant and the galvanometer. He first compared the electric state of the leaves with that of the roots. He then examined branches separated from the vegetable ; afterward the young and fresh bark, the buds, flowers, etc. He regards it as estab- lished by his experiments, that the roots, and all the external parts of plants which are filled with the juices of vegetation, are negative relatively to the surface, more or less moist, of the leaves, the flowers, the fruits, and the young branches. Buff thus explains this fact; The interior of the plant contains various juices, which can not pass through the epidermis, while the exterior moist- ure always soaks a little into this membrane. We have then in contact a membrane soaked with water, and vegetable organs charged with liquids of various natures. If, now, we establish between this membrane and these organs a closed circuit, a current must evidently be produced. But it appears evident, adds Buff, that this current has a relation, very indirect and remote, to the phe- nomena of vegetation. Becquerel reaches these conclusions. Derived currents are produced in the stems of vegetables by platinum needles, one introduced into the bark, the other into the wood, directed from the parenchyma to the pith. Similar currents are produced in the bark, proceeding from the cambium to the paren- chyma, directed inversely to the preceding. The, sap, or the liquid of the cortical parenchyma, if retained in contact with the air for a few seconds, suffers such a modification that on putting it anew in contact with sap found in the green part of the parenchyma of 'he bark it becomes nega- tive to it. Derived terrestrial currents are pro- duced through the medium of the roots, of the pith, and of other parts of the stem. The direction of the terrestrial currents shows that in the act of vegetation the earth constantly takes an excess of positive electricity, and the paren- chyma of the bark and of the leaves an excess of negative electricity, which is transmitted to the air by the exhaled water. The distribution of the ascending juices and of those of the cortical par- enchyma warrants us in believing that currents circulate constantly in vegetables, directed from the bark to the pith, passing through the roots and the earth, or perhaps without passing through them. Chemical actions are the primary causes (it cannot be doubted) of the electric effects observed in vegetables. These effects are varied, and up to the present time we have been able onl3' to observe a small number of cases. The opposite electric states of vegetables and the earth give rise to the thought that by reason of the power of vegetation upon continents and islands they may exert a certain influence upon the electric phenomena of the atmosphere. So Becquerel and Wartman believe that closed cur- rents constantly circulate in the interior of each plant, which are directed from the bark to the pith, and thence to the extreme branches ; they" attribute the production of these currents to the- presence of two different liquids reacting chemi- cally upon each other by the intervention of tissues that are scarcely permeable. De la Rive remarks that it seems demonstrated that hitherto, we have no proof of an electric state in living vegetables analogous to that which we have: found in the muscles and nerves of animals; and that all the traces of electricity that have been, collected may be attributed to ordinary cheBnicaL reactions, and m some cases to atmospheric elec- tricity. The phenomena of the osmotic force lately studied by Graham, are not contrary to this conclusion, since it is to a chemical action that he attributes the production of the electricity- that accompanies endosmosis. A curious experi- ment made by Donnfi is as follows : He found ia apples and pears an electric current passing from, the stem to the eye, making the stem end electro- negative and alkaline, while the end of the eye is electro-positive and acid. The peachj apricot, and plum present a reverse current. In the plane- perpendicular to that which passes through the- stem and the eye, the electric current ceases at equal distances from the centre of the fruit. The juice of these fruits has the the same electric properties. Donne thinks that these effects are not due to the acid and the alkaline quality of the- fruit, but that all the juice of fruits is not of the same composition at the stem and the eye, and this is sufBciently heterogeneous to produce these- electric currents. When an apple or pear is cut in two, the stem end will be found the sweeter, while in the peach or apricot the eye is the best. On the action of electricity on the germination and growth of plants, we find that the earliest, experiments seem to have been made by Dr. Maimbray, of Edinburgh, in the autumn of 1746. He electrified two myrtles, and found that they put forth small branches some inches, in length, and even came into blossom during the: month of October. This did not happen tO' myrtles not electrified, and he attributed the: phenomenon to the influence of electricity. This, experiment was repeated in Switzerland, France,, Germany, and Italy. In the preceding year, 1745, Boze had observed that water issuing from a vessel in minute dropswould pour out in a con- tinuous stream when the vessel was elecirifled. The cause of this phenomenon was investigated by L' Abbe Nollet,who thought that this electrical effect in capillary glass tubes might have some connection with the sap in plants, and hence pro- duce the unusual growth observed by Maimbray. His first experiments were made on fruits, ^reen plants, and moist sponges, and he invariably found that evaporation had been hastened by the action of electricity. In October, 1747, he- took two small wooden bowls, filled with the same kind of earth, sowed them with similar mustard seed, and found that after two days several of the seeds in the electrified bowl had come up, while no alteration had taken place in the other. The following day nine of the elec- trified seeds had come up — none of the non-elec- trified ones ; and this superiority was kept up till the plants in the first bowl were ten inches high, and those in the second not more than a quarter of an inch. In repeating this experiment, in different ways and with other seeds, the same- results were always obtained. The electrified plants, however, appeared rather weaker than. lELECTRICITY 293 ELECTRICITY those which had not been so treated. In the same year (1747) John Browning read a paper 1 efore the Royal Society- of Loudon, on tlie effects of electricit}' on vegetables. In this paper he describes his own experiments as well as those of Baker, who electrified a myrtle at the Duke of Montague's, in Ditton. In the mouths of April and May, 1747, Jallabert elec- trified various plants two hours evcrj- day regu- larly, exposing them to the open air after the •operation, and found that all of tiiem, and in jparticular a carnation, grew rapidly and flour- ished remarkably. In the autumn of 1747 he electrified bulbs of hyacinth, jonquil, and nar- cissus, which were beginning to grow in glasses of water. Those which were electrified grew more rapidly, the leaves were larger and the ilowers opened sooner than those not electrified. He found that the electrified bulbs gave off more moisture in a given time than other plants. He ••also repeated the experiments of NoUet on mus- 1:ard and cress, witli similar results, and attrib- uted these effects to an acceleration of the move- ment of the sap caused by electricity, analogous to that observed by Boze in capillary tubes. Boze, of Wittemberg, electrified, in 1747, dif- ferent kinds of plants and shrubs, the growth of which invariably seemed to be accelerated. Sim- ilar results were obtained in 1748 by L'Abbe Menon, of Angers, who, in a letter to Reaumur, :states that, by the aid of electricity, he had greatly facilitated the growth of offsets of ran- unculus, even in the depth of winter. In 1753, ■J. Freke, in his curious treatise on the nature and properties of fire, quotes experiments with electricity on the leaves of the sensitive plant, the irritabilitj- of which was then considered by many of electrical origin. In 1771, Nuueberg, -of Stuttgard, took two boxes, each containing five bulbs in all respects alike, and electrified one of them; the plants grew far more rapidlj' than those in the other box, the relative size after eight days being as eight to five. In the same year, Sigaud de la Fond, of Montpellier, found the bulbs of hyacinths when electrified ^rew faster and formed more healthy plants -than those not electrified. In 1776, L'Abbe Bertholoa made some experiments on the con- ducting power of plants for electricity, in which he showed the great difference which exists between different plants, those, generally speak- ing, being the best conductors which were the most succulent or contained the largest quantit}' •of moisture. The announcement was made, in 1775, bj' C. H. Koestlin, that negative electricity was detrimental to vegetation, both animal and vegetable life being retarded by it. This appears to be the first distinct observation as to the different influences of positive and negative ■electricity, for the preceding experiments seem to have been ma.de with positive electricity -alone. According to Gasc, Linnieus proved the influence of electricity on plants. In 1779, a jiaturalist in London determined to repeat the ■original experiment of Dr. Maimbray, and accordingly electrified a myrtle for many hours ■a day for some time in the middle of December. The result was that the tree formed buds and threw out small branches in a remarkaljle man- ner. In 1781, Count de Lac(^p6de describes some ■experiments which he had made on vegetables, observing that invariabl}' in electrifying a plant Jie found it grow or increase with more vigor than usual, and that the germination of seeds and sprouting of bulbs placed in water was always hastened in a very decided manner by electricity. Dr. JIarat described in 1782 some experiments he had made on the germination of electrified seeds, from which he draws the con- clusion that it exerts powerful influence on the fertility of the soil. On the seventh day the plants began to make their appearance in the electrifled vessels, and at the end of a fortnight they were as forward as similar plants sown on the same da}', but kept in a room nine degrees above the freezing point. In the three vessels which were not electrified the seeds had not begun to gemiinate. In 1783, L'Abbe Bertholon published the first book on electricity applied to vegetables, after making numerous experiments. The results of Xollet and Jallabert were con- firmed by Bertholon. He observed that inter- rupted electrification appeared to have more influence than when continued, in accelerating vegetatiou. He gives some curious facts on the colors, odors, and taste of fruit and flowers, on the development of which he thinks that elec- tricity exerts a very remarkable influence. Fruits nearly ripe, on being electrified, were found to acquire the odor and taste of ripeness sooner than others not electrified. Flowers or plants just coming into blossom arrived sooner at per- fection, and the colors were more brilliant than is ordinarily the case. When plants in flower were electrified, the blossoms were observed to become more brilliant in color, and of a richer and more delicate tint, than other flowers of the same kind. All these experiments were made with positive electricity, but with negative electricit}- the effects for the most part were reversed; germination was retarded, the growth and formation of the leaves were checked, the development of fruit and flowers, and the secre- tion of coloring and odorous matters was impe- ded. He states that these effects may bo observed by experiments on a small scale as well as by carefullj' watching the electric condition of the atmosphere on a large scale. Bertholon attrib- utes the increase and development of certain insects which feed on plants to the agency of electricity, which he says exerts the same influ- ence upon them as on the seeds of plants. He accordingly proposes to kill them by an excess of electricity, passing the shocks of Leyden jars through the trunks of trees on which the larva; are deposited, and provided the shock is not too powerful the tree will not be injured. All the ordinary diseases to which plants are subject may, he thinks, be diminished, counteracted, or entirely cured by a, judicious use of electricity. In 1784, Achard published his observations, in several essays, on the electricity of rain, snow, and hail, on electrifying fluids, on germination, and the influence of electricity on the growth of vegetables, in wliicli he confirms the results of preceding philosophers; also, on the influence of electricity in promoting the fermentation and putrefaction of vegetable and animal matters. He found both negative and positive electricity accelerated the putrefaction of animal matter, causing barley and other fermentable substances to pass into spirit with increased rapidity. From 1786 to 1790 Perzieret made numerous experi- ments on chervil, wheat, beans, rye, peas, mus- tard, radish, lettuce, trefoil, etcaiid in nearly all cases the electrified plants came up first, grew ELECTRICITY 294 ELivL larger, and had longer roots than the others ; the leaves were more numerous, larger, and of a decidedly more beautiful green. In 1788, Car- raoy described a. variety of experiments on the fermination of vv^heat taken from the same ear. Lfter twenty-three days the young plants were measured, when it was found that tlie unelectri- fied had grown eleven inches ten lines, the posi- tive eighteen inches five lines, and tlie negative nineteen inches nine lines. A number of other experiments of the same kind are given, the gen- eral result of which is that electricity appears to accelerate germination, negative electricity being more powerful than positive. In 1789, L'Abbfi d'Ormoy electrified mustard seed and lettuce for several days in moist earth, and found their ger- mination always accelerated. He found also that electrified seeds had always the start of the non- electrified, and so beneficial did he find it to ger- mination that even old and dry seeds, which seemed spoiled and would not germinate, did so rapidly when previously electrified for some hours. Almost the same results were published byBertlioIon at nea:rlythe same time. Heinclosed parcels of seeds in tin-foil, and kept them con- stantly electrified for some days before sowing, when lie found that they germinated remarkably soon. These experiments were made with seeds of spinach, endive, and turnip. He describes experiments in which he found seeds to germin- ate sooner when placed on the plate of a charged electropliorus. At the end of the last century, the discovery of voltaic electricity, and the brill- iant results to which it led, completely eclipsed the hitherto favorite study of f rictional electi-icity. Bozifres, one of the first, entered this new field of investigation by two papers containing numerous experiments made from 1786 to 1790, in chervil, wheat, beans, rye, peas, mustard, radisli, lettuce, trefoil, etc. , the result of which was that, in nearly all cases, the electrified plants came up first grew larger and had longer roots than the others. The leaves were more ntimerous, larger, and more beautifully green. These researches confirm the original experiments of NoUet and Jallabert, and prove that the views of Ingenhousz were incor- rect, and the effects in question were not results of imperfect experiments, due to the unequal influence of light, but were really caused by elec- tricity. In this view Bozifires was borne out by the experiments of Bilsborrow in 1797, who found germination decidedly accelerated by positive electricity, and still more by negative. In 1807, Sir Humphry Davy published some interesting experiments on seeds and growing vegetables. Seeds placed in pure water at the positive pole of a voltaic circuit germinated much more rapidly than under ordinary circumstances, but at the negative pole they did not sprout at all. He remarks that without supposing any peculiar effects from the different electricities, this may be accounted for by the saturation of the water near the positive metallic surface with oxygen, and that near the negative pole with hydrogen, though he does not think it impossible that the same effect may be due to electricity. When growing plants were made the medium between the two poles of the battery, in one case a mint plant was killed, but another, after ten minutes, remained uninjured. Lime and fixed alkali were found at the negative pole, while chlorine and sulphuric acid were at the positive pole of the battery. These experiments were held by Du Petit Thenars as evidence of the great influence-, of electricity on vegetation. He held that plants; contained two different galvanic arrangements — one acting vertically through the woody fibres, the other horizontally, through the medullary^ rays. To these opposite independent currents he? attributed the principal phenomena of vegetation. Many experiments on the influence of electricity of low tension on germination have been made by" Becquerel since 1833. Seeds in contact with the upper element of a feeble galvanic current gi-evr faster, while those in contact with the zinc ele- ment grew less rapidly than similar seeds planted in glass; the negative extremity increasing, the- positive retarding germination. Similar results, were obtained with bulbs connected in water. The favorable influence of negative electricity of low tension on germination is atti'ibuted to the decomposition of saline substances, and conse- quent evolution of alkaline matter, which assist* germination by combining with and neutraliz- ing the acetic acid always evolved during ger- mination and the growth of bulbs and buds. While the experiments quoted are interesting, it is the fact that so far, electricity has never been profitably applied artificially in the cultivation of plants. It is hardly a supposable case that it ever will be. It is, however, not uninteresting for the farmer to know the effects of direct elec- trical influence. Smut, rust, and other fungus growths have been more than suspected to be the- effect of electrical action. If some easy and cheap means could be perfected, by which to- apply electrical action to large areas, either nega- tive or positive, cheaply and at will, it might be- found of advantage to the agriculturist. ELECTUARY. Any medicine of a thick or solid consistence, made up with sugar. ELEMENTS. In chemistry, bodies which have never been decomposed or resolved into- their components by artificial (chemical) means. ELM. Uhims. The Elm is one of the most beautiful of American trees, when planted singly. In fact, it is the most beautiful, size and grace of form and beauty being especially considered. Hence it is, without doubt, the most popular of shade trees. Michaux regarded the elm as the- most magnificent vegetable of the temperate zone. The elm is not only a fast growing tree, once its- i"oots get hold of the soil, but it is long-lived, and few trees stand the smoke and dust of cities, better. Hence, it is extensively planted in avenues and parks of cities, and in the streets of villages. The American White elm {Ulmus- Americana) is, without doubt, the most hand- some of the species, reaching in its native forest, a lieight of eighty to 100 feet. It is, however,, when planted out singly, that its real beauty comes out, assuming, as it does, many graceful forms, of pendulous beauty, and sometimes; becoming almost weeping in form. Among the- strictly ornamental varieties produced by the art of man, the Camperdown elm is one of these, a, cut of which we give to show its peculiarities. Among the varieties of the American elm, the- Corky, White elm ( U. racemosa), closely resembles- the true White elm. It grows along the banks, of rivers, is more rigid in appearance, the wood is tougher and finer grained, and the corky" ridges on the branches easily distinguish if from the white variety. The Slippery, or Red. elm ( U. fnlva), is a valuable tree. Its inner bark furnishes the slippery elm of commerce. It EMASCULATE 295 EMBRYOLOGY reaches a Icugtli of fift)' to sixty feet, and a diametei- of two feet of trunk. In the "West it is a common tree. The wood is toiigli and valua- ble, and is especially sought after for hubs of wheels, for the reason that it holds the spokes firmly. The Winged elm, or "Wahoo ( U. alata), is common South, and occasionally found up to latitude 40'. It is a handsome medium sized tree, and distinguished by the corky ridges on each side of its branches, Avheuce its name. The English elm ( U. campestrU), is one of the finest trees of Europe, an immense tree of ninety to one hundred feet in height and sometimes im- mense circumference. The wood is valuable when grown on dry soils, but from its habit of persistentl}- producing suckers, it is not a good tree to plant for ornament. The Scotch, or Witch , elm {U. montana), is darker in its foliage EMBROCATION'. A spirituous, sapona- ceous, oily, or any fluid application rubbed on the skin to relieve pain or numbness. EMBRYO. The growing point, eye, or chit of a seed. The young of animals in the act of development, a foetus. EMBRYOLOGY. This is the study of the mode of formation and development of the ani- mal foetus. The progress of our knowledge on this subject has been marked by several well defined epochs, corresponding witli the successive discoveries of as many different investigators. Though man}"- important facts bearing upon em- bryology were known to the earlier anatomists and physiologists, they were often misinterpreted, and their true relations consequentlj' mistaken. Aristotle and his followers recognized three dif- ferent modes of generation as occumng among CAMPERDOWN WEEPING ELM. than the English elm, a large, handsome, vigor- ous tree, and better as an ornamental tree since it produces no suckers. ELYMUS. The genus of lyme grasses. They are perennial, large and coarse, mostly water or seashore plants. E. arenariiisis of ^service in bind- ing together loose seashore sands, and resisting the encroachments of tlie sea. Salt-marsh grasses are frequently of this genus. ELYTRUM. The outer hard wings of beetles. EMACIATION. The act of becoming lean. It is produced by hard labor, insufficient food, and a diseased condition of the stomach and in- testines EMARGINATE. In botany, notched, having a sharp indentation on the leaif, etc. EMASCULATE. To castrate. animals, viz. : oviparous, viviparous, and spon- taneous generation. Oviparous generation was that form in which the female parent produced eggs, from which the young were hatched, as in most fish, reptiles, and birds. Viviparous gen- eration was that in which the young were dis- charged alive and fully formed from the body of the parent, as in quadrupeds and the human spe- cies; while spontaneous or equivocal generation was that in which certain animals of a low order, such as worms, insects, parasites, maggots, etc., were supposed to be produced spontaneously, without parents, from the soil, the water, or decay- ing animal and vegetable substances. B3' the progress of investigation, however, the last mode of generation was shown to be much less fre- quent in its occurrence than Aristotle had sup- EMBRYOLOGY 296 EMBRYOLOGY posed. The first advance in this direction was made about the end of the 17th century, wlien Redi, an Italian naturalist, studied with care the generation and metamorphoses of insects, show- ing that many worms and maggots, instead of being produced without parents, were in reality hatched from eggs laid by perfect insects, and that they afterward became transformed, by the process of growth, into similar forms. He also in 1684 showed that most parasitic animals were provided with sexual organs, and produced their young in the same manner with other and larger species. Valisnieri soon afterward (1700) extended the observations of Redi, and applied the same conclusions to other species of insects, and to the parasites inhabiting vegetables. In this, way the number of species in which spon- taneous generation was regarded as possible or probable gradually diminished, as zoological science became more extended and more accu- rate; until, in 1837, Schultze demonstrated, by his experiments upon the infusoria, that even these microscopic animalcules are never pro- duced in situations where their germs neither existed before nor could gain access from with- out. Since then it has been generally acknowl- edged by physiologists that spontaneous genera- tion is a thing unknown in nature, and that the supposed instances of its occurrence are only cases in which the real process of generation has not been sufficiently investigated. The dis- tinction between oviparous and viviparous ani- mals was also supposed by the ancients to indi- cate a fundamental difference in their mode of generation. In oviparous animals the eggs were known to be produced by the female, and fecundated by the male, after whiclr the young were hatched from them by incubatidn. In the viviparous species the embryo was thought to be produced by a mixture of the male sperm with the fluids of the female generative organs; some thinking that the material for the body of the embryo was supplied by the menstrual blood, others that it came from a kind of female sperm, or seminal fluid secreted by the female organs. In 1651 Dr. William Harvey, in his book on Generation, first announced the fact that there is no essential difference in the mode of generation between oviparous and viviparous animals, but that all animals whatsoever, even the viviparous, and man himself not excepted, are produced from ova. But though the truth of this opinion has since been amply confirmed, and its expression (omne animal ex ovo) has now passed into a physiological aphorism, yet it was not intended by Harvey precisely in the sense which is now given to it. Harvey never saw the unimpregnated eggs of the quadrupeds, nor did he have any idea of the real structure and function of the ovaries in these animals ; and in stating the opinion that the young of the vivipara and of man were produced from eggs, he only meant to say that, after sexual inter- course and conception, the first thing produced in the uterus was not the embryo, but raither resembled an egg; and that the embi-yo was afterward formed from this, by the process of growth. In 1673 Regnier de Graaf showed that the ovaries, in women and in female quad- rupeds, were filled with globular vesicles, visi- ble to the eye, similar in appearance to the eggs of birds and fishes. These vesicles he pro- nounced to be eggs ; and the organs in which they were found then took the name of ovaries. A century and a half later (1837) Ch. Ern.st von Baer discovered, by the microscope, the real egg of the lumian female and of the viviparous animals, which is contained in the interior of the vesicles of De Graaf. These eggs were shown to exist in the ovaries of virgin females, as well as of those in whom sexual intercourse had taken place and it was accordingly demonstrated that, in all animals and in man, the eggs are formed originally in the ovaries of the female, indepen- dently of the male; and that these eggs are after- ward fecundated, and developed into embryos. Another important discovery remained to com- . plete our knowledge on this part of the subject, viz., that of the spontaneous ripening and dis- charge of the eggs, in quadrupeds and in man. Nfgrier, Pouchet, and Bischoff demonstrated (1840-'3-'3) that the eggs of the female, origin- ally produced in the ovaries, ripen and are dis- charged, independently of sexual intercourse, at certain regular periods; and that the impregna- tion of these eggs by the male sperm is a subse- quent process, taking place after the eggs have left the ovary and entered the Fallopian tubes. The origin of the embryo accordingly takes place in the same manner in all classes of animals, viz., from an egg, which is produced in the ovary of the female, discharged thence at certain defi-. nite periods, and afterward fecundated bj' con- tact with the spermatic fluid of the male ; and the only real difference between oviparous and viviparous animals is that in the former species (ovipara) the fecundated egg is discharged from the body of the female and deposited ]n a nest, or other suitable receptacle, in which it is after- ward hatched ; while in the latter (vivipara) it is retained in the body of the female, and there nourished during the development of the embryo. The egg, at the time of its discharge from the ovary, consists of a globular vitellus or yolk, surrounded by a membrane termed the vitelline membrane. In ver}' many instances this becomes surrounded, while passing downward through the Fallopian tubes or ducts, with a layer of transparent albuminous matter; as for example, in the eggs of frogs, tritons, etc. In other case^, in addition to the albuminous matter, certain membranous coverings are deposited around the egg, of a fibrous and calcareous texture, as in birds and the 'scaly reptiles. In all instances, however, it is the vitellus which is the essential part of tlie egg, and that from which the embryo is directly produced. The first change which occurs after the impregnation of the egg, is a spontaneous division oi segmentation of the vitellus. The vitellus divides successively into smaller and smaller portions, in such a wa}' as to produce at last a multitude of minute flattened bodies or cells, which are attached edge to edge, and which form, accordingly, a continuous mem- brane, which is called the blastodermic membrane. In eggs which have a large-sized yolk, as those of the birds, lizards, and turtles, the formation of the blastodermic membrane begins at a par- ticular spot on the surface of the vitellus, termed the cicatrieula, and thence spreads in every direction, so as to enclose gradually all the rest of the yolk. But in those which are of minute size, as in quadrupeds and tlie human species, the whole vitellus is converted into the blasto- dermic membrane, which after its formation encloses only a small cavity filled with transpar- EMBRYOLOGY 397 EMBRYOLOGY •ent, watery fluid. The blastodermic membrane then becomes variously altered and developed in different parts, so as to form tlie various organs and tissues of the embryo. A line or furrow first shows itself, in the thickest and most con- densed portion, known as tlie primitive trace. This indicates the future situation of the spinal <;ohunn ; and the different parts of the vertebra; gradually grow around it, forming a chain of cartilaginous rings, with transverse and oblique processes, which envelope the primitive trace or furrow, and convert it into a closed canal, large and rounded at the anterior extremity, or head, but narrow and pointed at the posterior extremity, ■or tail. In this canal the brain and spinal cord are formed and complete the development of their parts. At the same time, the remainder of the blastodermic membrane becomes more condensed and organized, forming the integument and muscles of the chest and abdomen; and these portions finally unite with each other in front, forming at the point of junction a longitudinal ■or rounded cicatrix, known as the umbilicus. The alimentary canal, formed in the interior of tlie abdominal cavity, is at first entirely closed ; but two openings are afterward formed, one at the anterior extremity of the body, the other at the posterior. These openings become the mouth .and anus. In fro.gs, tritons, and some kinds of fish, all these changes take place after the eggs are discharged from the body of the female. In birds and turtles, tlie segmentation of the vitellus and the formation of the blastodermic membrane are already far advanced at the time the eggs are laid. In the lizards, most serpents, and some kinds of cartilaginous fish; the development of the embryo takes place partly while the egg is still in the generative passages of the female, and partly after its expulsion. In a few species of serpents, and in some fish; the embryo is com- pletely developed within the egg in the body of the female, so that tlie young are finally brought forth alive; wliile in all the warm-blooded quad- rupeds, as well as in the liuman species, the fecundated egg is also retained in the uterus until the embryo is sufSciently developed to be born alive. In the frog, tlie eggs are deposited in tlie early spring, in some shallow pool, freely ■exposed to the light and air. Immediately after their expulsion the albuminous matter witli which they are surrounded absorbs water and swells up into a tremulous gelatinous mass, which floats near the surface, with the eggs imbedded in its substance. The formation of the embryo then ^oes on as above described, and the young animal, at first curled up in the interior of the vitelline membrane, soon ruptures it and effects its escape. The body is at this time of an elongated form, terminating behind in a narrow, compressed tail. Tlie integument is covered with vibrating cilia, which produce a constant current of fresli water over the surface of the body. Respiration is performed by gills, situated at the sides of tiie neck, which are at first exposed, but afterward become covered by a fold of integument. The muscular system is veiy feeble, and the young animal remains nearly motionless, attached by the mouth to the gelatinous matter around the eggs, upon which it feeds for several dajs. As it increases in size and becomes stronger, it abandons the spawn, and swims about freely in the water, feeding upon the juices and tissues of acquatic vegetables'. The cilia with which the body was covered disappear. The alimentary canal is at this time very long in proportion to the size of the whole body, being coiled up in the abdomen in a spiral form. During the summer lungs are developed in the interior, and the young tadpole frequentlj- comes to the Sur- face, to take in air. But the gills also continue, and are still the most active organs of respiration. Toward the end of the season anterior and pos- terior extremities or limbs begin to grow; the posterior sprouting externally from each side, in the neighborhood of the anus ; the anterior remain- ing concealed under the integument, just below the situation of the gills. The tadpole passes the winter in this transition state. The next spring the lungs increase in size, and the gills become less active as organs of respiration. The anterior extremities are liberated from their confinement by a rupture of the integument which covered them, and both anterior and posterior grow rapidly in size and strength. The tadpole at this time, therefore, has both fore and hind legs and a tail The tail, early in the summer, becomes atrophied, and finally withers and disappears altogether; while the limbs, and especially the hind legs, grow to a disproportionate size. At the same time, the lungs attaining their full development, and the gills finally disappearing, the tadpole is thus converted into a perfect frog, capable of living aiid moving upon the land as well as in the water. The tadpole swims by the tail and breathes by gills, while the frog swims b3' the legs and breathes by lungs. Simulta- neoush' with these changes, the alimentaiy canal becomes very much shorter in proportion to the rest of the body, and the frog becomes carnivor- ous in its habits, living principally upon insects, which he is enabled to capture by the great development of his muscular system, and the rapidity and suddenness of his movements The process of development of the embryo consists, accordingly, in the successive formation and disappearance of different 'organs which are adapted to different modes of life. When these changes take place after the young embryo has left the egg, as in the case of the frog, and pro- duce marked alterations in the external form of the body, they are termed transformations or metamorphoses. Thus the egg of the butterfly, when first hatched, produces a caterpillar, or larva — an animal with a worm-like body, slug- gish crawling movements, and no sexual appa- ratus, but furnished with largelj' developed digestive organs and a voracious appetite. Tliis condition is succeeded bj' the pupa state, in which the animal changes its skin, losing the legs and bristles which were its locomotory organs, and becomes motionless, nearly insensible to external impressions, and stops feeding alto- gether. During this period another integument grows underneath the old, with new legs and wings; and when the skin is again changed, the animal appears as a perfect insect, or imago, capable of rapid and sustained flight, ornamented with brilliant colors, provided with different sensory and digestive organs and a well devel- oped sexual apparatus. lu those iiistances where the hatching of the egg is a longer process, sim- ilar changes to the above take place while tlie embryo is still retained in its interior. At the same time certain other organs are formed in addition, which cither disappear before the time of hatching, or are thrown off when the young EMBRYOLOGY 298 EMBRYOLOGY animal leaves the egg. With turtles, for example, the eggs, consisting of the vitellus, albumen, and shell, are deposited in an excavation in tlie earth or sand, and allowred to hatch in these situations. In birds, they are placed usually in nests, formed of twigs, leaves, and fibres, and tliere kept constantly warmed and protected by contact with the body^ of the female parent. This process is termed incubation, and may be imitated artifici- ally by keeping the eggs at a temperature of 104° Palir. , and providing for a regular supply of fresh air and a proper regulation of the atmospheric moisture. During incubation the eggs of the common fowl lose twelve per cent, of their weight, of which eleven per cent, is due to the exhalation of moisture. They also absorb oxy- gen and exhale carbonic . acid. The segmenta- tion of the vitellus and formation of the blasto- dermic membrane, and of the organs of the embryo, take place for the most part according to the plan already described, but variations present themselves which make the process more complicated. The vitellus, for example, instead of being entirely surrounded by the abdominal walls, is divided into two portions by a constric- tion situated about its middle. One of these portions remains outside the abdomen of the embryo, though still connected with it by a narrow neck, and by blood vessels which ramify upon its surface. This sac, containing a portion of the vitellus, is called the umbilical vesicle. It supplies the embryo with nourishment during the whole period of incubation; for immediately after the egg is laid the albumen, which is at first gelatinous in consistency, begins to liquefy near the upper surface, and the liquefied portions are immediately absorbed into the yolk. The yolk, therefore, gi-ows larger and more fluid . than before, while the albumen diminishes in quantity and loses its watery portions. The blood vessels of the embryo, ramifying over the surface of the vitellus and the umbilical vesicle, in their turn absorb the nutritious fluids from it, and convey them into the interior of the body, to be used in the formation of the tissues. At the end of incubation the albumen has disap- peared and the umbilical vesicle has much diminished in size, while the body of the chick has increased, at the expense of both; but the umbilical vesicle, containing the remains of the yolk, still exists, and is enclosed within the abdominal walls when the chick leaves the egg. In quadrupeds and the human species the umbil- ical vesicle is much smaller in proportion to the body, and less important in function, than in birds and the scaly reptiles. In the human embryo, the umbilical vesicle, always very small, disappears soon after the end of the third month of gestation. In the egg of the fowl, certain accessory membranes or envelopes begin to grow around the embryo at an early period. The first of these is the amnion, which is formed by a double fold of the blastodermic membrane, rising up about the edges of the body of the embryo, so as to surround it by a kind of circumvallation. By continued growth these folds at last approach each other and meet over the back of the em- bryo, forming by their union and adhesion an enclosing membrane, or sac, which is the am- nion. The amnion, therefore, is a membi'anous envelope, which is closed over the back of the embryo, but which remains open in front of the abdomen. About the same time a vascular, mem- branous diverticulum grows out from the ali- mentary canal, near its posterior extremity, and emerging from the open part of the abdomen turns upward over the back of the embryo, outside the amnion, and just inside the shell membranes. This vascular outgrowth is the allantois. It increases rapidly in size, growing upward and downward in every direction, until ' it finally envelopes completely the body of the embryo and the umbilical vesicle, taking the place of the albumen as it is gradually absorbed, and lining the whole interior of the egg shell with a continuous vascular membrane. The func- tion of the allantois is principally to aerate the blood of the embryo, by bringing it into close con- tact with the porous egg shell, and thus allowing the absorption of oxygen and the exhalation of carbonic acid and wateiy vapor. Toward the latter period of incubation, the allantois becomes- very closely adherent to the egg shell, and the shell itself grows thinner, more porous, and more fragile, whence it is believed that the allantois also serves to absorb' calcareous matter from the shell which it conveys into the interior of the body, to be used in the formation of the bones, tlie ossification of which takes place about this period. When the chick is suffi- ciently developed to leave the egg, usually at the end of the twenty-first day, by a sudden move- ment it strikes its bill through the end of the attenuated and brittle egg shell, and by inhaling the air and continuing its struggles, finally extricates itself from the cavity of the shell, leaving the allantois adherent to Its internal surface. The blood vessels of the allantois are torn off at the umbilicus, which afterward closes up, and unites by a permanent cicatrix. Another important change which takes place in the development of birds and quadrupeds, in addition to those presented by frogs and fishes, is in the formation of the urinary appa- ratus. In fishes and batrachians the urinary organs are two, long, glandular bodies situated on each side the spinal column, which are known as the Wolffian bodies, and which remain per- manent throughout the life of the animal, no true kidneys ever being*produced. But in birds and quadrupeds, the Wolffian bodies, which are at first very large and Important organs, disap- pear during the progress of embryonic develop- ment, while the kidneys are formed at the same time, and gradually take their place as urinary organs. The kidneys are accordingly substituted for the Wolffian bodies in these instances very much as lungs are substituted for gills in the development of the frog. In many spe- cies of quadmpeds the allantois attains a large size, and performs a very Important function, during extra-uterine life. In the ruminating animals, cows, sheep, goat, deer, etc., it forms- an elongated sac, taking the form of the uterine cavity, and lying in close contact with the lin- ing membrane of the uterus. The cavity of this sac communicates with the cavity of the posterior part of the intestine, from which it was originally developed, and receives the secre- tion of the Wolffian bodies, and afterward of the kidneys. Its exterior is covered with a large number (sixty to eighty) of tufted vascular prominences, which are entangled with similar elevations of the uterine mucous membrane, called cotyledons; and theblood of the embryo, while circulating through these bodies, absorbs. EMBRYOLOGY 299 EMBRYOLOGY from the maternal vessels the materials requisite for its nutrition. In the pig, the allantois is nearly sn\ooth on its external surface, merely presenting transverse folds and ridges, w hich lie in contact with similar inequalities of the uterine mucous membrane. In the carnivorous animals its middle portion is shaggy and vascular and entangled with the hlood vessels of the uterus, while its two extremities are .smooth and unat- tached In the human embryo, the amnion is formed in the same manner as already described ; but the allantois, instead of constituting a hol- low sac, with a cavity containing fluid and com- municating with the intestine, spreads out into a continuous flattened membrane, the two layers of which are in contact with each other and adherent leaving consequently no cavity between them. It extends, however, quite around the ■fojtus, enveloping it in a continuous vascular membrane, which hei-e takes the name of the chorion. The chorion is, accoi'dingly, the same thing in the human species as the allantois in the lower animals, except that its cavity is oblit- erated by the adhesion of its walls. It is cov- ered uniformly, at an early date, with tufted villosities; which become entangled with the mucous membrane of the uterus. But during the third month it begins to grow smooth over the greater portion of its surface, while at a certain part the villous tufts grow more rapidly than before, until they are finally converted into a thick, vascular, spongy and velvety mass of villosities, which penetrate into tlijj uterine mucous membrane and become adherent to its blood vessels. This organ is then termed the placenta; and from that time forward it .serves the foetus as an organ of absorption and nourish- ment, its blood vessels imbibing from the circu- lation of the mother the albuminous fluids which it requires for growth and nutrition. The am- nion in the human species is at an early period so arranged that it closely invests the body of the embryo, while between it and the chorion there is interposed a thick layer of gelatinous material. During the second and third months the cavity of the amnion enlarges, by the accu- mulation of a watery and albuminous fluid (the amniotic fluid) in its interior, while the gelatinous matter between it and the chorion is gradually absorbed and disappears, in order to make way for its expansion. By this enlargement the amnion approaches nearer tlie internal surface of the chorion, and by the beginning of the fifth month the two membranes come in contact with each other. By this means the foetus becomes enclosed in a large cavity (the amniotic cavity), filled with fluid, so that a free space is allowed for the movements of the foBtal limbs. These movements begin to be perceived about the fifth month, at which time quickening is said to take place. They afterward become more strongly pronounced, and before birth are frequently very active. These movements are also favored by the formation and growth of the umbilical cord. The blood vessels of the foetus, termed the umbilical vessels, which pass out from the abdomen to the placenta and the chorion, become much elongated and at the same time covered with a deposit of hard gelatinous matter, the whole being covered by a prolongation of the mem- brane of the amnion. This bundle of vessels covered with the above investments, is termed the umbilical cord. It grows very long and also becomes spirally twisted upon its own axis, usually in a direction from right to left. There are, in the latter periods of gestation, two umbilical arteries, carrying the blood of the foetus outward to the placenta, and one umbilical vein, in which it is returned to the body and the internal venous system. The formation of the blood and blood vessels in the embryo takes place at a very early period. Soon after the production of the blastodermic membrane, some of the cells of which it is composed break down, and liquefy in such a manner as to leave irregu- lar spaces, or canals, which inosculate with each other by frequent communications. These canals- are destined afterward to become the blood vessels, the structure of which is gradually perfected by the growth of fibrous tissue in their walls, and their complete separation from the neighboring parts. In the interior of these canals, or imperfectly formed blood vessels, there is to be seen at first only a transparent, colorless fluid, holding in suspension a few large, roundish, nucleated cells, which move sluggishly to and fro, as the current of the cir- culating flijid begins to be established. These- cells do not diller much at this period from those which constitute the general mass of the neighboring tissues; but soon afterward they begin to be modified in their appearance, and converted into true blood globules. Their sur- face becomes smooth and a reddish coloring matter is produced in their interior, which gives them a tinge similar to that of the red globules, of the blood in the adult condition. The red blood globules of the foetus, however, still differ in several important particulars from those of the adult. They are considerably larger and more globular in shape, and have also a very distinct nucleus, which is wanting in the blood globules of the adult, at least in the quadrupeds. They increase in numbers also, at this time, by spontaneous division, one globule becoming- divided into two, which separate from each other- and afterward Isecome themselves divided in a similar manner. In this way the quantity of the blood globules is very rapidly increased, and they soon become also still further altered in form and structure. They diminish in size, become in the human subject and the quadruped flattened and biconcave in form, and finally the nucleus disappears. These changes are all effected during fcetal life, and for the most part during the early mouths, so that at the time of birth, the blood globules have already the char- acteristics which distinguish them in adult life. The multiplication of- the blood globules by sub- division is a process which takes place only in the embryo. The perfectly formed blood globules increase in number in some other way, probably by the isolated production and growth of new cells. At the time of birth the foetal membranes- (amnion and chorion) are ruptured, and the foetus escapes. The umbilical cord being at the- same time divided and tied, the portion still con- nected with the foetus soon shrivels and separates by spontaneous ulceration, while the spot at which it was attached heals in a few days, leaving a cicatrix on the middle of the abdomen, which is permanent throughout life, and which is- called the umbilicus. The limbs grow, by a kind of budding or sprouting process, from the sides of the body. They are at first mere rounded eminences, without distinction of parts or articu- EilBRYOLOGY 300 EMBRYOLOGY lations, but they subsequently become succes- -sively divided into fingers and toes, and tlie differ- ent joints of the arm and leg. The upper extremities, during the greater part of foetal life, are larger than the lower, but afterward the lower extremities and the pelvis grow faster than the arms and shoulders, and finally become after birth, much the larger of the two. The lungs are small and solid in texture before birth, but immediately afterward they expand by the inhalation of air, and receive a much larger supply of blood than before. On the other hand, the liver is much larger in proportion to the rest of the body at an early period than subsequently. In some animals it amounts, during the first part of fcetal life, to twelve per cent, of the entire weight of the body, and is reduced to three or four per cent, at the time of birth. In the human subject it is equal at birth to three and a half per cent, of the entire weight, but is reduced in the adult to less than three per cent. Great changes take place also during foetal life in the anatomy of the heart and circulatory system, as well as in the relative size and development of nearly all the organs in the body. These changes continue to take place after birth, though less rapidly than before, and the entire process of develop- ment is not regarded as complete until the indi- vidual has reached the adult condition. A very •singular modifi-catiou of the above process of embryonic development among the mammalia occurs in the marsupial animals, of which the American opossum (JDidel/phys Virginiana) is a representative. In these animals the eggs are impregnated and the formation of the embryo commenced in the usual way; but after remain- ing for a comparatively short time in the uterus, and while their development is still very incom- plete, the eml)ryos are discharged from the gen- erative passages, and are immediately afterward found attached by the mouth to the teals of the parent. They are then less than half an inch in length, and quite gelatinous and embryonic in appearance. They are protected by a double fold of the integument of the abdomen, which forms a kind of pouch, surrounding the teats, and serving to enclose the young and helpless embryos. They remain in this situation during the completion of their development, continuing attached for the most part to the teats, from which they derive nourishment; and even after they have become capable of running about by themselves, they still, upon an alarm, take refuge for a time in the pouch as before. It is not known how the young embryos, when expelled from the uterus, find their way into the external pouch, so as to reach the teats, for, notwithstand- ing many attempts have been made to ascertain this point, the animal is so secret in her habits at the time of delivery, that they have been thus far entirely unsuccessful. Among invertebrate animals the egg is constituted, as a general thing in nearly the same way as in vertebrata, and its impregnation takes place also in a similar man- ner. The segmentation of the yolk goes on by repeated sub-divisions, until the whole vitellus is converted into a mulberry-shaped mass, out of which the embryo is formed. While, however, in the vertebrate animals, the embryo always lies with its belly upon the surface of the yolk, in some of the invertebrates, as the articulata (insects, apiders, crustaceans), the back of the embryo is in contact with the yolk, and the closing up or union of the two sides of the body takes place along the dorsal line, instead of the abdominal. In many mollusks, as for example in snails, the embryo, soon after the commencement of its for- mation, begins to rotate slowly in the interior of the vitelline sac ; and this rotation continues more or less rapid until the hatching of the egg. In the invertebrate classes the metamorphoses or transformations of the young animal are more frequent and more striking than in vertebrata. In many of them the young animal, when first hatched fi'om the egg, is entirely unlike its par- ent in structure, external appearance, and habits of life. In the class of insects many of these transformations are well known, and have always attracted the attention of the curious. Frequently the young animal, in passing through several successive transformations in which he is adapted to different modes of life, necessarily changes his habitation : and being found accordingly in totally different localities, and presenting at succes- sive intervals corresponding differences of organ- ization, the same embryo at different ages is often mistaken by the ignorant for an entirely distinct species of animal. These changes of habitation, occurring in the course of embryonic develop- ment, are termed migrations. They are often very marked in parasitic animals. Thus the taenia, or tapeworm, inhabiting the small intes- tines of certain animals, such as the dog, cat, etc., produces an egg containing a small globu- lar embryo, armed with certain hard spikes, or curved ptomiuences, capable of being moved by muscular fibres inserted into their base. The por- tion of the tapeworm in which these eggs are con- tained, known as the proglottis, is discharged from the intestine of the first animal, and the eggs, becoming mixed with vegetable matter, are devoured by animals belonging to other species, as for example the .pig. Either in the process of mastication, or by the action of the digestive fluids of the stomach, the external envelope of the egg is destroyed, and the embryo set free. By means of its movable projecting spines, the embryo then makes its way through the walls of the stomach or intestine into the neighboring organs, and passing into the cavity of the blood vessels, is often transported by the current of the blood to distant regions of the body. Here, becoming arrested, it is temijorarily fixed in place by the consolidation of the tissues around it, and becomes enlarged by the imbibition of fluid, assuming a vesicular form. A portion of this vesicle becomes inverted, and at the bottom of the inverted part a head is produced, upon which there are formed four muscular disks, or suckers, and a circle of calcareous spines or hooks, differ- ent from those present at an earlier period, which are thrown off and lost. In this state the animal receives the name of scolex, or cysticercus. It remains in that condition till the death of the animal whose tissues it inhabits, when being- devoured with the flesh by an animal belonging to the first species, it passes into the intestine of the latter, and there becomes developed into the com- plete tapeworm, or atrobila, similar to that from which its embryo was first produced. The same animal is accordingly a parasite in different organs, and even in different species, at different periods of its development. Some of the inver- tebrata are parasitic at one stage of their exist- ence, and lead an independent life at another. Such are the small crustaoea which infest the ENDIVE 301 ENGLISH DRAFT HORSE, bodies and gills of certain flsh. In the family of (Bstridea, or bot flies, the eggs are deposited by the female insect, and attached to the hairs of horses, cattle, etc. ; from which situation, after the embryo has become partly developed, they are detached in some instances (as in KStrus equi) by licking, and swallowed into the stomach. Here the larva is set free, and attaches itself to the mucous mem- brane of the stomach, nourishing itself upon the fluids obtained from this source, and gradually increasing in size. After a certain period the larva lets go its hold, passes through the intestine, is discharged with the faeces, and assuming the pupa state, is finally transformed into the perfect insect, The process of embryonic development is accordingly a succession of changes, in which the structure and organization of the young animal are adapted to different modes of existence, and in which different organs and appearances, suc- cessively appearing and disappearing, replace each other in the progress of growth, and give rise to the appearance of transformation, which affect the body as a. whole. — Appleton's New Encyclopedia. EMBRYOTOMY. The cuttingof the embryo or foetus out of the womb in cases when the death of the parent is feared. EMERY. A sand of corundum of extrerne hardness, capable of wearing down all minerals and metals except the diamond. EMESIS. The act of vomiting. EMETIC. Drugs which produce vomiting. The horse is not made to vomit by emetics. EMOLLIENTS. Medicines which soothe and soften any part of the body, as warm water, etc. EMPHYEMA. A collection of purulent mat- ter in the chest, produced chiefly by inflamma- tion. EMPHYSEMA.. A collection of air in the cellular tissue ; hence emphysematous. EMPYREUMA. An odor of burned matter; hence empyreumatic. EMULSIN. A modification of albumen found in almonds and other seeds, and capable of act- ing in a peculiar manner on amygdaline to pro- duce volatile oil of bitter almonds. EMULSION. A milky liquid in which an oil is suspended, as in milk. EMUNCTORIES. The vessels of the skin which exhale perspiration are so called. ENAMKL. The hard portion of teeth. Glass and oxide of tin fused together. ENCYSTED. Fluid or other tumors enclosed in a sac of membrane. It is necessary, in removing them, to cut or destroy the sac also. The Trichina spiralis is encysted in the flesh of swine. Many of the parasites like this are micro- scopic in their nature. ENDEMIC. A disease or peculiarity belong- ing to a peculiar people or race. ENDIVE. Chicorium endima. This plant, in great repute in Europe, is used for salads, the blanched leaves being the edible part. It is a hardy annual, said to have come originally from China. The seeds are sown early in spring in a mellow, prepared bed and, wlien they have attained eight or ten leaves, are transplanted in rows about sixteen inches apart, by eight inches in the row. Keep the rows clean of weeds and, when the plants have reached their full develop- ment of leaves, they are drawn together and the tops tied with bast, or other soft material. Thus the heart will become blanched. If the weather is dry, the bottoms may be earthed up considerably, but if moist, it is apt to rot the plants. The time required to properly blanch them is about ten days, in warm weather, and from this to three weeks, according to the season and temperature. Some careful cultivators cover the plants with large pots after tying, which blanches the plant thoroughly. When properly grown and blanched, endive is an excellent autumn, winter, and spring salad for those who like the slightly bitter taste which blanching can not wholly eradicate. The varieties are many and are divided into two classes, the Batavian and the Curled sorts. The large and the small Batavian are the hardiest varieties. Of the Curled sorts, the Green Curled, White Curled, and the Triple Curled, or Moss Endive, are good. Seed may be sown for succession up to the first of July. The late plants should be tied up for blanching just before freezing weather, and then taken up with eartlj around the roots and placed in a cool cellar just so they will not touch each other, and a little water poured about the roots. In this manner, with care, the plants may be kept until spring. Our experience with this plant js that it does not pay. The same atten- tion given to celery will furnish a salad much, better relished by most American palates. ENDOCARP. The middle part of a fruit, the flesh of the apple, peach, cherry, etc. ' ENDOGENS. Pl-,nts and trees that do not enlarge their trunks by any addition of wood exterior to that existing the year before. One of the great divisions of the vegetable kingdom, including palms, grasses, and numerous bulbous plants. The leaves are furnished with straight veins, the flowers usually divided into three parts, or some multiple of that number. ENDOPLEURA. In botany, the internal integument of a seed. ENDORHIZjE. The embryo of monocotyl- edons, in which the radicle has to rupture the integument at the base of a seed prior to entering into the earth, appearing as if it came from within the mother root. ENDOSMOSE. The passage of fluids through membranes. Penetration is an analogous term. Whenever two fluids Eire separated by a mem- brane or tissue without sensible pores, both of which moisten it, there is a passage of each fluid, one into the other ; but this is often with different rapidities, the fluid affecting the tissue most passing with the greatest rapidit;'. The movement continues until the mixture on each, side is similar. This also occurs wi(h gases. ENDOSPERMIUM. The albumen of seeds. ENDOSTOME. The passage through the inner integument of a seed immediately belr .v the part called the foramen, ENDOTHECIUM. The fibrous cellular tissue lining an anther. ENEMA. An injection. ENGLISH DRAFT HORSE. The old Black Cart Horse of England, was one of the distinc- tive breeds of English horses, from an early period. They are hardly knqwn in the United States as a distinctive breed, although they have undoubtedly exercised more or less influence on the ordinary work horses of our country. In England they are divided into three sub-families ; flrst, the heavy massive horse, reared in the rich marshes and plains of the midland counties expressly for the London brewers; second, the ENGLISH DRAFT HORSE 302 ENGLISH DRAFT HORSE smaller-sized but still tolerably beavy horse, generally employed for agricultural purposes, a strong, compact animal, but slow in action; and third, a lighter and more active animal, possessing either some admixture of blood of a smaller breed, or being the descendant of the Flanders discarded coach horse. The prevailing color among these animals is black, but the large dray horse is by no means confined to those of a black color. There are many of a bay, and still more of a brown color, as well as numerous greys and roans. There are also very many excellent compact cart horses of these various colors, better adapted for agricultural puiposes; and, indeed, there are those which are generally preferred to the black horse as possessing greater activity and cleaner limbs, combined with equal compactness and strength. The dray horse was originally reared in the greatest perfection in the richest pastures of the fens of Lincolnshire, the largest being seldom lesSthan seventeen hands high, when two and a half years old, at which age they are usuallj' sold. The purchasers work them moderately until they are four 3'ears old, feeding, them well during this period, at which age they are sold to those heavy teaming "firms who aspire to elephantine horses. The modern English draft horse, however, is as much dif- ferent from those of one hundred years ago as the modern thoroughbred is superior to his ancestors of two hundred years ago. The last fifty years has marked an "era, in the breeding of draft animals, as has the last one hundred 3-ears in the breeding of thoroughbreds. So that in the draft horse, good feet and legs are of the utmost importance; the shoulders should be oblique, in order that the animal may have free and safe action. The stallion, should have a well-arched chest, long, lean head, and clear, prominent eye; added to this, there must be ^eat bone, supported by strong sinews with plenty of muscle, and the ajiimal should be so good a feeder that itwill carry plenty of weightto assist all this. One of the improved English draft horses, is shown on page 303. In speaking of the English cart horse of sixty years ago, of which the modern English draft horse is an improvement, the English Cart-horse Stud Book, says : With very few exceptions (and those excep- tions chestnut), black, dark brown, and grej'' are the only colors met with in descriptions of draft stallions living in the first quarter of the present century. To account for this limitation two reasons may be advanced ; First, fashion in color may have been considered a very important element in the selection of a sire. Second, the light browns, bays, chestnuts, and roans, of the present day are probably due to extensive infusions of light horse blood. Whichever of the two reasons is accepted as the correct one, inquiry arnong old horsemen leaves no room for doubt that black, brown and grey were by far the most common colors of draft horses. Grey horses appear to have been more comn'on in counties south of Derbyshire and Staffordshire, but it is probable that the coats of many of the so-called black horses had interspersed therein a consider- able sprinkling of white hairs, and that they were occasionally described as greys; there is one instance, about forty years ago, of an Oxford- shire horse being sometimes described as a black, and at another period as a grey. The head was large in all its dimensions, well placed on the neck by strong, brffad, and deep attachment; the forehead and face wide, expressive, and intelli- gent; a side view of the jaws and muzzle repre- sented those parts to be remarkable for depth; the ears were small and carried slightly outwards, the eyes somewhat small, not prominent, but generally mild and moderately intelligent in expression ; the nostrils and mouth large, firm, and A\'en closed; the neck was long, arched, and remarkable for its depth, and for the strength of its insertion between the shoulder blades, not as it is now frequently seen, badly placed, by hav- ing the appearance of being fused, as it were, upon the front edge of the blade bones, a con- formation affording insufficient room for the collar, and therefoi-e one most defective for the purposes of heavy draft. The shoulders were massive, muscular, upright, low, and thick at the withers, thrown well outwards beyond the inser- tion of the neck by the front ribs being properly arched. The fore-arm was long, strong, and muscular, the knee broad and flat on all its aspects; the fore and hind cannons short and thick, frequently measuring upward of twelve inches in circumference, covered with coarse skin, and having a beefy appearance and touch, more marked in advanced age than in youth. The pastern bones of the fore leg were very short, strong, and upright, those of the hind leg being much more obliquely placed. The feet, as a rule, especially the fore ones, were large, flat, weak at the heels, and invested with horn of somewhat soft and spongy texture. Thighs nar- row, being insufficiently clothed with muscle on their inner aspects to prevent the appearance of what is vulgarly but characteristically termed split up. Tlie hocks were of rather defective formation, but showing little ijredisposition to disease, generally too short, too round, and not sharply defined ; for these reasons it may be inferred that the hind action was limited and comparatively wanting in elasticity. The gen- eral contour of the hind legs was considerably bent, the hocks being thrown backward, and the feet forward. The breast wide and full of mus- cle, indicative of great strength rather than quick movement ; the back longer, narrower, and dip- ping ratlier too much behind the withers. The heart-ribs were well arched, but not very deep; the hinder ones were also rounded, but short, the last one placed too far forward, giving the body an appearance of undue length and light- ness. The croup bent at a consiaerable angle, denoting what would now be considered want of quality. The dock strong and thick, with pow- erful broad attachment to the trunk. The tout ensemble of the stallion exhibited grand develop- ment of the forehand, which rendei'ed the appearance of the hind parts very mean by com- parison; a conformation, however, that a mo- ment's reflection will show to be in perfect accord with natural ordination; from mankind downwards, in the scale of mammalian creation, the entire male is deficient in that development of the posterior parts so notable in the perfect female of each species, and for apparent reasons. The growth of hair upon these old stallions was remarkably luxuriant, that of the mane and tail being abundant, strong in texture, glossy, and very often several feet in length. The cannons, fetlocks, and coronets, both fore and hind, were garnished with a profusion of coarse, long hair, distinctive of the Cart-horse breed. The silky f'iiiiiliy "ii I! 'i I 'I <: I {I I 1' ' ' . (303) ENTOMOLOGY 304 ENTOMOLOGY growth in corresponding situations of tlie present clay has probably become thus modified from the admixture of extrinsic blood, from local influ- ences, from altered methods in the system of rearing and managing young stock, or from a combination of two or all of those causes. ENNEANDRIA, ENNEANDROUS. Having nine stamens. ENSIFORM. Sword-shaped. A term used in descriptive botany, etc. ENTERITIS. Inflammation of the bowels. In the article Colic, is presented the difference in symptoms between colic and inflammation of the bowels, and for the reason that the latter is often mistaken for the former. In fact, ignorant stablemen seem fond of calling any difficulty of the internal system belly-ache, if attended with pain and, to cure it, commence drenching with the most alarming mixtures, not good for colic, and, in some cases, absolutely fatal in connection with the real disease. In. nine cases out of ten most diseases of animals, not malignant in their nature, will be treated more properly by means of simple medicines, attended with good nursing, than by the more heroic of the old system of purging and bleeding. In the case of inflamma- tion of the bowels, this treatment is about sure to kill. To relieve the pain, give two drachm doses of opium every hour or two until the pain is relieved. Use allot fomentation to the belly. This is applied by folding a blanket inside a a rubber sheet, held in its place by the ends being brought up to the sides and fastened over the back; thus the blanket may easily be kept saturated with warm water. Do not take trouble about the bowels not moving. The pain being relieved, if the bowels do not move in two or three days, injections of warm water may be given. The diet should be attended to. Boiled food should be given, if the animal will eat it; and, whatever the food, whether of bran or meal mashes, it should always be mixed either with flax seed, or slippery elm tea. Skim milk is excellent food, in addition, if the animal will take it, especially in chronic cases. In chronic cases, where there is pain, tenderness, and a hard, drum-like feeling (tympany) of the bowels, and low fever, a ball, composed of five grains of nitrate of silver, and half a drachm of opium, made up with linseed meal or crumbs of bread, given twice a day, will be good. Increase the dose gradually to double the quantity, if the disease proves obstinate. ENTOMOLOGY, This is the science which treats of the habits, transformations, and physical structure of insects; or the science or natural history, and description of insects. An insect is an articulate animal form, having the body com- posed of three distinct parts, the head, corslet or thorax, and abdomen; the legs are six in num- ber with, usually, two or four wings attached to the thorax; and, along the sides of the abdomen minute punctures, called spiracles, by means of which respiration takes place. Formerly spiders, and Crustacea, and even worms and other small animals, were included under the term insect. The term is now restricted to the hexapods, or the six-footed species, known as beetles, bugs, bees, grasshoppers, locusts, fleas, etc., primarily produced from eggs, whatever secondary modes of propagation may take place. The egg state constitutes one of the most important epochs in insect life, since on this depends all the subse- quent states and developments affecting devel- opment and decay. From the egg the larva is- produced. The late and lamented Dr. Le Baron, has carefully and tersely described the outlines of Entomology, and insects in general, in one of his valuable reports : From it we extract : Insects as a class, and in the wide.-t meaning of the word, comprise three divisions, or sub-classes, com- monly known as spiders, insects and millipedes. They may be distinguished by the following- characters : 1 . Sub-class : Arachnidn, including spiders, scorpions and Acari, or mites. Body divided into two parts, the head and thorax being united in one; legs eight in number; without wings. 3. SulD-class; Insecta, or insects proper. Body divided into three parts, the head, the thorax, and the abdomen; legs six; furnished with wings, in the perfect or imago state. 3. Sub-class: Myriapoda, commonly called milli- pedes or centipedes. Body divided into many parts or segments, varying from ten to two hun- dred; legs numerous; usually either one or two pairs of legs to each segment of the body ; never have wings. The exceptions to these characters are very few. In the Arachnida, some of the most minute (Aaari) have but six legs. Insects- proper are always six-legged in their last or perfect state ; and they also generally have six true legs in their larva state; but some larvae have no legs, and the larvae of the Lepidoptera, com monly called caterpillars, have, in addition to their six true legs, several pairs of false legs, or pro-legs, which assist in locomotion. There are a few exceptional cases in which insects are des- titute of wings. The fleas (PuUces), the lic& (Pediculi), and the little family of insects known. as spring-tails (TJiysanouni), never have wings In some rare instances the females are wingless, whilst the males have wings. This is the case with some species of the lightning-beetles (Lam- pyridm), and with the canker-worm moth, and the tussock-moth, and a few other species- amongst the Lepidoptera. Similarly exceptional cases are also found in other orders of insects. The present work treats only of insects proper. The nervous system of insects consists of a double cord extending the length of the body, and lying upon the inferior or ventral side of the- internal cavity. The two threads which com pose this cord do not lie side by side ; but one above the other. The lower thread swells at intervals into little knots of nervous matter, called ganglia. In insects of an elongated form, such as some of the Neuroptera, and the larvae of the Lepidoptera, there is a ganglion at each segment of the body, making thirteen in all ; but m most mature insects the ganglia become more or less consolidated. In the butterfly {Papilio), there are ten ganglia, counting the brain as one: in the bee (ApU), there are eight; in the may- beetle {Melohntlia), there are five, and in the Cicada there are but two. The upper of the two nervous threads runs nearly in contact with the lower, but is destitute of ganglia. These two threads seem to represent the double and more compact cord which constitutes the spinal mar- row of the higher or vertebrated animals. The upper simple thread is supposed to furnish the nerves of motion, and the lower and ganglionic thread, the nerves of sensation. The fibres which compose these cords separate at the anterior extremity of the body, so as to embrace the oesophagus or gullet, above which they again ENTOMOLOGY 305 ENTOMOLOGY unite to form the cerebral ganglion or brain, ■which is somewhat larger than the other gang- lia. From the nervous cords, and chiefly from the ganglia, fine lateral threads are emitted, which are distributed to the adjacent parts. Tlie nerves thus far described represent what, in the higher animals, is called the cerebro-spinal system of nerves, and are sometimes called the nerves of relation, because they control the sensations and motions which associate the animal with the world around it. But in addition to these, there have been discovered a number of very fine nervous filaments proceeding from the Tirain, and extending down into the body, and furnished with minute ganglia of their own, which are supposed to represent the sympathetic system of nerves which preside over the internal functions, such as those of digestion and secre- tion. The blood of insects is a colorless fluid, "which does not circulate in closed vessels or tubes, like that of the higher animals, but permeates the tissues of the body. The only vessel that can be discovered is an oblong, membranous, pulsating sac, situated in the upper or dorsal part of the body, and evidently represents the heart. This is divided into several compartments by cross- valves, which are so arranged as to permjt the blood to pass only in a forward direction. The ieart is prolonged anteriorly into a narrower tube analogous to the aorta. Through this the blood flows first towards the head and thence through the body, returning to the heart, which it enters through openings at its sides. As compared with that of the warm-blooded animals, the blood of insects is not only colorless, but small in quantity, and must circulate very slowly, as is proved by the fact that when their bodies are wounded no blood escapes, ilost of the organs of insects, and their functions, have an obvious analogy to those ■of the higher animals, but their breathing appara- tus is constructed upon an entirely different plan. In all the vertebrated animals the blood is canied in vessels to a particular part or organ of the body, for the purpose of being exposed to the life-giving . influence of the air. This part in terrestrial ani- mals, is the lungs, and in aquatic animals the ^ills. But in insects tlie process is reversed, and the air is carried to the blood by being distributed to every part of the body in very delicate pearl- white tubes or vessels, which present a beautiful appearance under the microscope. They are called tracheae, or air tubes. They admit the air through little openings along the sides of the insect's body, called spiracles. The spiracles or breathing pores can be easily seen along the sides of all caterpillars which are not too densely cov- ered with hairs. In the perfect or winged state •of insects the branches of the air tubes are dilated into a great number of little vesicles or air blad- ders, which render their bodies lighter, and thus facilitate their flight. In some aquatic larvae the tracheae project from the body in the form of lit- tle tufts, analogous to the gills of fishes. The aquatic beetles are under the necessity of rising to the surface, at intervals, for air, in a manner ■similar to that of the aquatic mammalia, the whales and the dolphins. The digestive appara- tus of insects, like that of other animals, consists of an elongated tube called the alimentary canal, extending through the body, and having a num- ber of enlargements in its course, and in many insects presents a particular resemblance to the digestive apparatus of birds. First, there is a short, straight oesophagus or gullet; this expands into a much larger cavity, resembling the crop; then follows a smaller muscular part, analogous to the gizzard ; and next, a much larger and longer cavity, which is the true digestive stomach ; this becomes contracted into the intestinal canal, which sometimes runs nearly straight through the body, and in other cases is more or less con- voluted; the intestine enlarges again before it reaches the end of the body into what is known as the large intestine or colon, As in other ani- mals, the alimentary canal is much longer and more capacious in the herbivorous than in the carnivorous kinds. As a rule the canal is more capacious in the larva than in the imago state. The secretory apparatus of insects, though analogous in function, is very difEerent in appearance from that of the higher animals. Instead of solid glands, like the liver or kidney, it has the form of masses of convoluted tubes. The salivary glands, the liver, the kidneys, and the testicles are found represented in insects. The gastric and pancreatic fluids are secreted by little cells or follicles in the coats of the stomach. The muscles of insects, like those of other ani- mals, consist of contractile fibres, but in their situation and attachments, as compared with those of the vertebrate animals, they are reversed; that is to say, in the latter, the muscles are situated outside of, and upon the bones, which constitute the supporting part of the body whereas in insects the supporting part is the external crust, and the muscles are attached to its internal surface. The muscles are of a pale yellowish color, and are usually presented in the form of thin layers, and sometimes of isolated fibres, and are never united into the rounded compact forin which they have in the higher animals. By counting the separate fibres, a very great number of muscles have been enumerated. Lyonet counted nearly four thousand in the larva of Cosivs ligniperda, and Newport found an equal number in the larva of Sphinx ligustn. The muscles of insects possess a wonderful contractile power in proportion to their size. A flea can leap two hundred times its own length, and some beetles can raise more than three hundred times their own weight. This remarkable strength may probably be attributed to the abundant supply of oxygen by means of the myriad rami- fications of the air tubes. Insects are evidently endowed with the ordinary senses which other animals possess, but no special organs of sense, except those of sight, have been discovered with certainty. The eyes of insects are of two kinds, simple and compound. The simple or single- eyes are called octlli, and may be compared in appearance to minute glass beads. They are usually black, but sometimes red, and are gen- erally three in number, and situated in a triangle on the top of the head. In insects with a com- plete metamorphosis, these are the only kind of eyes possessed by them in their larva state, and in these they are usually arranged in a curved line, five or six in number, on each side of the head. We have noticed that in some insects which undergo only a partial metamorphosis, as for example the common Squash-bug (Corpus trislis), the ocelli are wanting in the larva and pupa states, but become developed in the last or perfect stage. The compound eyes of insects present one of the most complex and beautiful mechanisms in the organic world. They are EKTOMOLOGY 306 ENTOMOLOGY two in number, but proportionately very large, occupying in many insects nearly the whole of the sides of the head and, in the dipterous order especially, often present across their disks.bands of the richest tints of green, brown and purple. These eyes are found to be composed of a great number of lesser eyes or eyelets, in the form of elongated cones so closely compacted as to form apparently a single organ. The larger ends of these cones point outwards, and by their union form the visible eye. Their smaller extremities point inwards, toward the brain, to which they are connected by means of a large optic nerve. When one of these eyes is examined through a strong magnifying glass, it is seen to be composed of a very great number of little facets, sometimes square, but usually six sided, each one of which represents the outer and larger extremity of one of the component parts. These facets vary greatly in number in the eyes of different kinds of insects. In the ants there are about fifty in each eye, in the Sphinx moths, about 1 300; in the house fly, 4,000; in the butterfly, upwards of 17,000; and in some of the small beetles of the genus Mordella, it is said that more than 25,000 facets have been enumerated in one compound eye; so that if we suppose that each of these component parts possesses the power of separate vision, one of these insects must have more than 50,000 eyes. How vision is effected, or how a unity of impression can be produced by so com- plex an organ, we are unable to conceive. Insects are evidently afliected bj' loud noises, and moreover, as many insects have the power of producing voluntary sounds, it is reasonable to suppose that they possess the sense of hearing. No organ, however, which has been generally admitted to be an organ of hearing, has been discovered. It is the most common opinion of entomologists that the antennae are instrumental in receiving the impressions of sound, and that the sense of hearing is located at or near their place of attachment to the head, and this view is much strengthened by the fact that iu some of the larger crustaceans, such as the lobster and crab, a distinct organ of hearing is found located at the base of the antennas. That insects are endowed with the sense of smell, is proved by the fact that the carrion-fly, and other insects which feed upon, or deposit their eggs upon, putrescent matter, detect such substances at a distance, however completely they maybe hidden from the sight. The bee also discovers honey under similar circumstances, and it is therefore fair to presume that insects discover flowers, more by their perfume than by their visible characters. But no organ of smelling has been discovered, and this sense is supposed, from analogy, to be located in the lining membranes of the spiracles. It is impossible to determine, but there is no reason to doubt, that insects, like other animals, taste and enjoy food of which they partake ; and the manner in which they frequently touch their food, and the surfaces over which they walk, with the tips of their palpi, which, indeed, have received the common name of feelers, renders it probable that these organs are endowed with a special sense of touch. The songs of birds, and the noises made by other animals, are produced by the forcible passage of air through the glottis, which is the naiTow opening at the top of the wind pipe, aided by the vibration of certain muscular folds near the outlet, called the vocal chords. But we have seen that insects never breathe through their mouths, and, therefore, they never make any oral sounds. But the humming of bees and flies; is produced in an analogous manner, by the expul- sion of air through the thoracic spiracles, and the vibration of a delicate valve-like fold, just within the opening. But besides this, insects make a variety of noises, which are pi-oduced in different ways. The singing of the Cicada, which is the loudest noise made by any insect, is pro- duced by the expulsion of air from the first abdominal spiracle, striking upon a large trans- parent drum-like apparatus, situated at the base- of the abdomen. The chirping of crickets is. produced by rubbing together their parchment- like wing covers. The well-known noise of the katydid is produced in the same way, but here^ the sound is intensified by a thin talc-like plate set into the base of each wing-cover. Thfr stridulation of grasshoppers is caused by the friction of their spined shanks across the edge of their wing covers. The fainter, squeaking- sounds, made by many insects when captured, are produced simply by the rapid friction of one- part of their bodies upon another; in certain Hemiptera, by the friction of the head upon th& pro- thorax; in the Capricorn beetles, by th& friction of the pro-thorax upon the meso-thorax; and in some of the Lamellicom beetles, by the friction of the abdomen against the wing covers.. The more complex and special apparatuses of insects for the production of sounds, are pos- sessed exclusively by the males, and are supposed, to be exercised by them as calls to the opposite- sex; but the simpler squeaking sounds are emitted by both sexes, and appear to be mere notes of alarm. Nothing in the history of insects is more remarkable than the striking, changes of form which many or them undergo, in the course of their development. Whilst, other animals progress from infancy to maturity,, simply by a process of growth, and by such gradual and imperceptible changes only as their growth necessitates, many insects assume totally- different forms in the course of their develop- ment, so that they could never be recognized as the same individuals, if this development had not been actually traced from one stage to- another. These changes are called the meta- morphoses or transformations of insects. All insects, in their growth, pass through four stages, designated as the egg state; the larva, or caterpillar state; the pupa, or chrysalis state; and the imago, or perfect and winged state. The metamorphoses of insects are of two prin- cipal kinds, complete and incomplete. In the complete metamorphosis the larva bears no resemblance to the imago, and the insect, in the intermediate or pupa state, is motionless, and, takes no food. Tliis kind of metamorphosis presents two principal varieties. In some (Lepi- doptera and many Diptera,) the legs and wings- are completely inclosed in the pupa case. In others, (Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, and some others,) the legs of the pupa, though useless, are free, and the rudimental wings lie loosely upon the sides. Moreover, in some (the nocturnal Lepidoptera, and many Hymenoptera,) the pupa, is inclosed in a separate covering or cocoon, whereas the majority of insects have no such covering. Pupae thus inclosed are cailed folUculate. The terra chrysalis, from a Greek word meaning. ENTOMOLOGY 307 ENTOMOLOGY golden, is sometimes applied to the pupae of the diurnal Lepidoptera, because the pupae of some butterflies are ornamented with golden spots. Most insects, in changing from the larva to the pupa state, cast off the larval skin, but in many of the two-winged flies, (JIuscidffi, Syriphidse, etc.,) the larval skin becomes contracted and hardened, assumes an oval form, and a brown color, and thus forms !i compact and closely- fitting case, in which the pupa proper isinclosed, but distinct. Pupse thus inclosed are called coarctate, and their cases are analogous to the cocoons of the Lepidoptera. In the incomplete metamorphosis, the insect presents essentially the same form, and is active in all its stages, after leaving the egg. The pupa is distinguished from the larva by the presence of short, rudimen- tal wings at the base of the abdomen, and the imago or adult state is distinguished by the fully grown wings and wing covers. It is only in this last stage that insects are capable of prop- agation. All the Hemiptera, or bugs proper, and all the Orthoptera, or crickets, grasshoppers and cockcoaches, exhibit imperfect metamorpho- sis. In treating of the development of insects, it is necessary to refer to the periodical casting of the larval skin. All the growth of insects takes place in the larva state. Consequently no insect Increases in size after it has acquired wings. The larval skin seems to be an imperfectly organ- ized membrane which does not correspond in its growth to that of the body, but yields to this growth, to a certain extent, by virtue of its elas- ticity. A time comes, therefore, when it can yield no farther. The insect then evidently becomes oppressed, ceases to eat, usually retires to some secluded spot and, if gregarious, hud- dles together with its companions, and there remains a day or two, almost motionless and without food, and in an apparently torpid and sickly condition. After a time the distended skin bursts open, and the insect throws it off, and appears in a new, bright, and elastic skin, which, in its turn, is capable of a certain degree of distension. This process, which is called moulting, takes place three or four times in tlie course of the larval growth, and in a few larvae which continue more than one year in this state, the moulting is said to occur from five to eight times. In insects of very rapid development, on the other hand, such as the maggots, or larvae of Muscidae, no moulting takes place, and it is the larvae of this kind which form coarctate pupae. As a general rule insects of different sexes resem- ble each other so closely as to leave no doubt of their specific identity, and in many the sexes can scarcely be distinguished. But this rule is sub- ject to many exceptions, and the naming of insects has been greatly confused by the sexes of the same insect having been described and named as distinct species. The sexual organs, especially those of the males, are usually concealed so as to be nearly or quite invisible; but the female, especially in the order of Hymenoptera, often have an exserted ovipositor of greater or less length, which readily distinguishes them from the opposite sex. An analogous structure exists in many wood-boring beetles, which deposit their eggs in deep crevices in the bark of trees; and more rarely in insects of the other orders. In the Coleoptera the males are sometimes dis- tinguished by one or two horns, either upon the head or thorax, and many of the predaceous beetles, both terrestrial and aquatic, have the anterior feet much widened, and furnished be- neath with a cushion of hairs or bristles. The antennae usually differ in length but little, if at all, in the two sexes; but in the long-horned beetles (Cerambycidae) the antennae of the males are generally considerably longer than those of females. In these moths which have bi-pectinate antennae, these parts are almost always wider in the males. Many insects in the order of Diptera are remarkable for the great size and beauty of their eyes, and these organs are almost always larger in the males than in the females. In describing insects it is customary, for the sake of brevity, to distinguish the sexes by signs, as S male, S female. The first representing the sign Mars and the second Venus. The classification of insects depends chiefly upon the structure of the external and visible parts. It is necessary therefore that the student should have a thorough knowledge of these parts and of the names by which they are designated. But as these parts are Very greatly modified in the different orders of insects, we shall reserve a minute description of tliem till we come to treat of them in connec- tion with the several orders respectively, and shall here give only a general enumeration of them. It often becomes necessary to refer to different parts of an insect's head, and they are therefore designated by particular names indica- tive of their situation. These are — the Hind- head, (Occipvt). The Crown, (Vertex). The Fore-head, (Frons). The Face, (Fades). The Cheeks, (Oeiice). The appendages of the head are the Horns, (Antennce); the Eyes, (Oculi); and the parts of the Mouth, ( 2'ropM, or mal organs). All insects have two more or less elongated and usually many-jointed antennae situated one on each side of the head, and varying greatly, in different kinds of insects, in length and in the form of their component joints. Insects have very short antennae in their larva state, and in some perfect insects, such as the water-beetles, (Oyrini and Hydrophili), the antennae are not longer than tlje head, whilst in others, such as some of the longicorn beetles, they are more than twice as long as the whole body, and in some of the small moths of the genus Acleln, they are five or six times as long. The uses of the antennae are not known, but, as we have stated above, when treating of the senses of insects, they are supposed to be instrumental in the sense of hear- ing. The most common variations in the forms, of the antennae are expressed by the following terms; ViUform, or thread-like ; long and slender, and of the same, or nearly the same widtli throughout. Setifarm or setaceous; bristly or bristle-like; long and slender, hut tapering toward the tip. Moniliform, or bead-like; vvlien the joints are about the same size, and Semite, or saw-toothed; when each joint issome- what triangular, and a little prominent and pointed on the inner side. Pectinate, or comb toothed; when the inner angles of the joints are considerably prolonged. Bi-pectmate, or double comb-toothed; pectinate on both sides. Clarale, or club-shaped; gradually enlarging towards the tip. Capitate, or knobbed; when a few of the terminal joints are abruptly enlarged. Lamel- late; when the joints which compose the knob are prolonged on their inner side, in the form of plates. The eyes are uniformly of a round or oval shape, and sometimes notched on their ENTOMOLOGY 308 ENTOMOLOGY inner side, to give place for tlie insertion of tlie -antennee. In a few instances they are placed at the end of foot-stalks made by a lateral prolong- ation of the head. The Trophi, or parts of the mouth of insects, present two very strongly marked variations, one of which is fitted for gnawing solid substances, and is therefore called the mandibulate, or gnawing mouth; and the other is fitted for sucking fluid nutriment, and is called the haustiUnte, or suctorial mouth. The mandibulate mouth is composed of six pieces, more or less distinct, and their appen- dages. First, the iabrum, or upper lip; a horny, usually somewhat semi-circular plate, attached to the anterior and inferior edge of the head, and serving to close and protect the mouth in front. Then, the Mandibles, or upper jaws; a pair of very hard, horny pieces, more or less hooked at the point, and often toothed on their inner sides, which work together laterally, somewhat like the blades of a pair of scissors. These are the true biting, gnawing, or mastica- ting organs. Next are the MaxUlm, or lower jaws; a pair of organs working laterally like the mandibles, but softer and more pliable in their texture, generally divided into two lobes at their extremity, which are furnished more or less with hairs. The maxillae undoubtedly assist in the operation of eating, but the precise part which they perform is not well understood. Behind the maxillse is a single piece which partially closes the mouth behind, and which may therefore be considered as the counterpart of the Iabrum or upper lip, and is accordingly called the libium, or lower lip. In the Coleoptera this piece is usually attached at its base to the anterior face of an elevated ridge upon the under side of the head, which forms u, kind of wall behind the mouth, usually deeply notched in the middle, and which is called the mentum, or chin. When the labium forms a narrow elon- gated piece, distinct from the mentum, as in most of the Coleoptera, it is now generally called the tongue, lingua or ligula. The Palpi, or appendages of the mouth, are nejir the base of each maxilla; and on its outer side is attached a movable appendage, usually composed of four or five joints, and never more than six, called the maxiUary palpus; and near the base of the labium is attached a similar pair of organs, but with a less number of joints, distinguished as Vixe labial palpi. These appendages are subject to considerable variation especially in the shape of their terminal joints and are made much use of in determining the families and genera of insects. The ImusUUate, or suctorial mouth consists of a more or less elongated proboscis or sucker, which is sometimes short and fleshy, as in the flies, (M-iscidai); sometimes more elongate, liorny and pointed, as in the bugs, (Hemiptera); and sometimes very long and slender, and rolled up, when not in use, in a spiral coil, as in the butterflies and moths, {Lepidopt' rn). It is evi- dent that all insects with a suctorial mouth must live excusively upon liquid food, or the juices of animals and plants. The/iaustellumoT^ sucker is not a single organ, as it appears, but has upon its upper side a deep groove, in which are con- tained usually either two or four, but in some of the carnivorous species (mosquitoes and horse- flies) six needle-shaped pieces, which in these last make a complicated weapon with which they pierce the skins of animals upon whose blood they subsist. From a comparison of the haustellate with the mandibulate mouth, in different kinds of insects, it has been concluded that the apparent sucker, which, as we have just seen, forms a sheath for the smaller needle- shaped pieces, corresponds to the labium, and that the contained pieces must represent the mandibles and maxillse and, where six pieces are present, also the Iabrum and lingua. In accordance with the proportionately great devel opment of the labium, we find that its appen- dages, that is, the labial palpi, are also very prominent, whilst the maxiUary palpi are very small or rudimental. This is the case in two of the suctorial orders, the Lepidoptera and Dip- tera; but the other order (Hemiptera) is excep- tional in this respect, having neither maxillary nor labial palpi developed. The thorax is the second, or middle division of the bodies of insects. Though apparently single, it is really composed of three pieces which seem as though soldered together. These pieces are more distinct in some insects than in others, but they can always be distinguished by impressed lines upon the surface called sutures. The three pieces of the thorax are distinguished as the fore-thorax, the middle thorax, and the hind thorax; or, in sci- entific language, the pro-thomx the meso-tlwrax and the meta-ihorax. In the Coleoptera the pro thorax is very large, and forms the large upper part or shield, to which we usually give the gen- eral name of thorax. In this order of insects, the meta-thorax is invisible above, and the only part of the meso-thorax seen from above is the triangular piece between the bases of the elytra, called the scutellum. In many insects {Hymen- opUra and Lepidoptera) the pro-thorax is much reduced in size, and forms only a narrow rim, which is usually called the collar. The under side of the thorax is called the sternum or breast plate. Each of the three divisions of the thorax has its sternum, designated respectively as the pro-, meso- and meta-sterimm. In many insects, and especially the Coleoptera, each section of the sternum is divided by sutures into a middle piece sternum proper, and a side piece, episternum. The appendages of the thorax are the organs of motion, namely, the wings and the legs. The great majority of insects have four wings. The anterior pair are attached to the upper part of the meso-thorax, and the posterior pair to the meta-thorax. The wings are thin, membran- ous, transparent organs, in some cases folded when at rest, and supported by ribs or veins run- ning across them. These veins are found to cor- respond in their number and complexity to the rank of the insect in the scale, and from the eii.se with which they can be seen, they furnish admirable characters for the purpose of classifi- cation. In some insects, such as the grasshop- pers, the fore-wings are thicker and less trans- parent than the hinder pair, and have nearly the consistency of parchment; and in one large order of insects, the Coleoptera or beetles, the fore-wings become converted into the hard opaque pieces known as the elytra or wing-cases. The elytra take no part in the flight, but serve only to cover and protect the hinder or true wings, which are folded under them when at rest. In one large order, the insects have but two wings, and aie named from this character Diptera, or two-winged insects. In these insects the place of the hind-wings is supplied by a pair ENTOMOLOGY 309 ENTOMOLOGY of little knobbed appendages called haUeres or poisers. There are a few exceptional cases of two- winged insects in some of the other orders — for example, some of the smaller Day-flies (Epliem- erm) in the order of Neuroptera, and the males of the Bark-lice {CocdcUE) in the order of Hom- optera. Insects have six legs, attached in pairs to the under side of each of the three segments of the thorax. The leg consists of four princi- pal parts ; the hip (coxa), a short piece by which the leg is attached to the body; then an elonga- ted piece called the thigh (femur, plural /e»w)v() ; then another elongated piece called the shank (tibia) ; and lastly the foot (or tarsus) ; which is composed of a number of smaller pieces or joints; of which five is the largest and most common number. The feet of insects terminate almost invariably, in a pair of sharp, horny claws (ungues) ; and between these, at their base, is often one or two little pads (plantulce) by means of which flies and many other insects adhere to glass, or any other surface which is too smooth and hard for the claws to catch upon. The Lepidoptera have but one plantula, and the Diptera have two. Besides the parts of the leg here enumerated, there is a small piece attached to the hind part of the hip, called the trochanter. This is usually small and inconspicuous, but in the hind legs of the ground-beetles (GaraMdm) it forms a large egg-shapped appendage, which is one of the most characteristic features of this family of insects. The abdomen is the hinder- most of the three divisions of an insect's body. It is sometimes attached to the thorax by the whole width of its base, in which case it is called sessile. But it is often attached by a slender petiole or foot-stalk, when it is said to be petiula- ted. The abdomen is composed of a number of rings, one behind another, each ring usually lap- ping a little upon the one following it. The normal number of rings or segments of the abdomen is considered to be nine, and this num- ber is actually present in the earwig (Forjkula) and a few other insects; but in the great major- ity of insects, several of the terminal segments are abortive, and only from five to seven can usually be counted. ' In the females of many kinds of insects the abdomen terminates in a tubular, tail-like process, through which the eggs are conducted to their place of deposit, and which is therefore called the ovipositor. In some insects the ovipositor is simple, short, straight and .stiff, as in some of the Capricorn beetles; but in others, as the Ichneumon flies, it is long, slender and flexible, and composed of three thread-like pieces, which when not in use, are separated from each other, giving these insects the appearance of being three-tailed. Insects which do not readily fly, such as the bee- tles and the bugs proper (Hemiptera), can be captured with the fingers, and are most easilj' killed and also preserved, for the time being, by dropping them into alcohol. For this purpose every collector should have in his pocket one or more small, strong, wide-mouthed bottles, securely corked, and filled about two-thirds full with alcohol. The common morphine bottles answer this purpose very well. The quinine bottle can be used when a larger bottle is required. The insects can be left in the alcohol till the col- lector has leisure to pin them. They can be taken from the bottle with a pair of forceps, or the alcohol can be turned off into another bottle, and the insects shaken out on to a newspaper, or blot- ting paper, which quickly absorbs the moisture. Insects which readily take flight, must be cap- tured in a net, which is made like a small dip- net for fishes, by making a hoop of stout wire about ten inches in diameter, with the ends of I the wire turned out so as to form a short handle three or four inches long, and this can be length- ened by inserting the ends of the wire into a wooden handle about two feet long. The net is made of lace or tarlatan muslin, twenty inches or more in depth. Many species otherwise seldom seen, can be obtained by beating the branches of trees, especially forest trees, and catching the insects asthey fall. A common umbrella, inverted under the tree, answers this purpose very well. This is in many ways a very useful imple- ment to the collector. It will serve to protect him from the direct rays of the sun, or from a casual shower; and the hook at the end of the handle will enable him to draw down branches so that they can be satisfactorily examined. The umbrella would be improved by being covered with white cloth, upon which small insects would be more easily detected. Most insects except those above mentioned are injured by being im- mersed in alcohol, and butterflies and moths would be ruined by it. These insects can be killed by wetting them with benzine or chloro- form. The benzine is the cheaper, and the only objection to it is its disagreeable odor. Large insects require to be saturated with chloroform several times to destroy life. A very neat way to kill the smaller moths is to put them under a wineglass and put in with them a tuft of wool sat- urated with chloroform. The moths are killed by the fumes, without being wet or handled. Some use for this pui-pose a poisonous preparation called cyanide of potassium. In mounting bee- tles the pin should be passed through the right wing-cover; other insects are pinned through the thorax. The pin should be inserted so far that half of it will project below the body of the insect. The value of a collection of insects is greatly enhanced by having the legs and wings of the specimens displayed in a life-like attitude. For this purpose they must be set out with pins, and held so a day or two till they have become fixed. For spreading the wings of butterflies and motlis it is indispensable to have a simple apparatus called the stretcher. It consists of two strips of nicely dressed soft pine wood, eighteen or twenty inches long, two inches wide, and about three-eighths of an inch thick, placed side by side half an inch apart at one end and a quarter of an inch at the other, so as to accommodate insects of different sizes, and held so by a elect across each end. The space between the strips must be closed on the underside by pieces of sheet cork tacked to the board. The space between the strips is to receive the body of the insect, the pin being passed through the cork so as to bring the wings on a, level with the upper side of the stretcher. The wings are spread by catching them just be- hind the stout front rib with a pin, or, what is better, a needle set into a little handle, and car- rying them forward, till the hind margins of the fore- wings are on a straight line with each other. They can be held in this position either by strips of card laid across them and fastened with pins, or by inserting a single small pin through the wing, behind the rib, and into the side pieces of ENTOMOLOGY 310 ENTOMOLOGY the stretcher, which on this account should be be made of the softest kind of wood. For very small moths the stretcher must be constructed upon a smaller scale. Insects must be allowed to dry thoroughly before inclosing them in the cabinet. Beetles which have been permitted to dry with their limbs contracted, can be relaxed by putting them into hot water. Boxes for the permanent preservation of insects may be seven- teen or eighteen inches square, two and a half inches deep, outside measure, and one inch and a half or a trifle more in the clear, made of perfectly seasoned wood, halved together in the middle, so as to have an upper and lower part, the former serving as the cover. The lower part must be lined on the bottom with sheet cork or thin strips of corn-stalk, and the whole covered with soft white paper. The paste with which the paper is attached should have a portion of arsenic stirred in with it, to guard against destruc- tive vermin. The upper part, or cover, should be cut in around the top, like a window sash, so as to receive a piece of glass, which is to be secured in the usual way with putty. Every in- sect drawer should have a lump of gum camphor rolled in a piece of muslin and pinned into one corner, to keep out destructive vermin. The presence of vermin is detected by little heaps of the dust-like gnawings under the infested speci- mens. Such specimens should be at once re- moved, and if the drawer is much infested, a teaspoonf ul or two of benzine should be poured upon the bottom, and the drawer or box imme- diately closed, so as to retain the fumes. A magnifying glass consisting of one, or, what is better, two lenses, so arranged that they can be used either singly or combined, is absolutely indispensable in studying insects. A common mis- take is to suppose that insects can not be studied and classified without the use of a complex and costly microscope. Such instruments are useful only to examine excessively minute or transpar- ent objects, and though sometimes indispensable to the professional entomologist, they are rarely used in the ordinary study of insects. Instinct is that faculty by which animals are enabled to discover their food, construct their nests, and provide for their young, and to perform these operations without having had any previous education or experience. Many of the manifes- tations of this faculty are truly wonderful and unaccountable. Such are the mathematically accurate construction of the cells of the honey- comb; the curious economy of the ants and bees; and the provisions which many kinds of insects make for the future subsistence of their young, even in advance of their existence. Instinct is often spoken of as an imperfect or partially •developed reason, but its relation to that faculty can be, at most, only that of a very remote analogy. It differs from reason in its invariable- ness and its almost absolute infallibility, but most essentially in its independency of previous knowledge and experience. Reason acts only by virtue of what is already known, and man, who vastly excels all other animals in his reasoning powers, approaches perfection in any complex work only by long study and practice ; the honey- bee, on the contrary, constructs its first cell with such mathematical accuracy that it cannot be improved by any subsequent experience. Some of the higher animals, such as the horse and the dog, give proof of the possession of a reasoning faculty similar to our own, and inferior only in degree. But whilst the manifestations of reason are fainter as we descend in the animal scale, instinct becomes more remarkable, and in insects especially, in which reason is almost if not abso- lutely wanting, instinct is exhibited in its highest perfection, far surpassing, in many instances, in accuracy and prescience, the reason of man him- self. Of the nature of the instinct of animals, as of that of the human mind, we know absolutely nothing; and we can only confess our ignorance by referring its wonderful manifestations to the direct agency of the Creator. In regarding insects from a practical or economic point of view, we have to consider them in both their beneficial and their injurious relations. The directly beneficial insects are almost limited to the three well-known species: the lioney-bee, the silk- worm and the cochineal-insect; whereas, those species which are injurious to mankind, chiefly by depredating upon valuable cultivated crops, are much more numerous, although con- stituting but a very small proportion of the whole insect world. It is important to bear in mind that in these destructive operations insects occupy an exceptipnal or abnormal position, and that we ourselves have been the means of bringing about this state of things, by the excessive culti- vation of certain plants, whereby a correspond- ing increase of certain species of the insects which feed upon them has been induced. It is very rarely that any such loss of balance between the insect and the vegetable worlds takes place in the state of nature ; and yet, such occuiTences are not wholly unknown. This has happened most remarkably in the case of wood-eating insects, there being instances on record in which extensive tracts of forest trees have been destroyed by the larvae of some of the more minute wood- boring beetles. But, as just stated, it is in their depredations upon some one or other of the more valuable cultivated crops that insects have come into the most direct and serious conflict with human interest. These depredations, as is well known, have often been of a most extensive and ruinous character, causing the annual loss of crops to the value of many millions of dollars, and in some seasons and localities, necessitating the total abandonment of some of the most valu- able and staple productions, such as wheat, barley and potatoes, and also some of our choicest fruits, such as the plum and the peach; and sometimes threatening the destruction even of the most valuable fruit of all — the hardy and widely distributed apple. These destructive operations of insects have necessarily attracted to them the most earnest attention of both prac- tical and scientific men, and many valuable treatises and reports have been written which have been devoted chiefly to the practical treat- ment of the subject. It is our present intention to treat of insects from a more general and comprehensive point of view. From what has just been said, it is evident that it is in the nature of their food and their food-taking habits, that insects hold the closest relationship to human interests; and this is true not only in the direct manner above described, but also indirectly, by means of the important parts which they fulfil in the economy of nature. Indeed, the opera- tions of insects in this last respect are of such vast importance, that it would be safe to say that if these should cease, the earth would soon ENTOMOLOGY 311 ENTOMOLOGY l)ecome uninhabitable by mankind. Tliese operations consist chiefly, first, in the destruction of other insects by predaceous and parasitic kinds, holding in check excessive increase; second, in the instrumentality of a large proportion of insects in their character of scavengers, whei'sby the decomposition of decayed and offensive mat- ters, both animal and vegetable, is efEected and accelerated ; and third, in the agency of insects in causing the fertilization of plants, especially those with very deep corrollas, and those which have the barren and productive flowers upon dif- ferent plants, by carrying upon their legs, in their search for honey, the fertilizing pollen from one flower to another. A long chapter might be writ- ten upon each of these topics, but we have space here barely to enumerate them. In the division of insects according to the nature of their food, all may be divided into two classes — the carniv- orous insects, or those which eat animal food {Sarcophaga); and the herbivorous insects, or those which subsist upon vegetable substances {Phytopltaga). Each of these classes is again divisible accordingly as the insects which com- pose it take their food in a fresh and living state, or in a state of decay. The former are called pre- daceous insects (Adephaga) when they live upon animal prey; and the latter are designated by the name of scavengers (Bypophaga). Those insects which eat living animal food, are still further divisible into predaceous insects proper, which seize and devour their prey, and parasitic insects, which live within the bodies of their victims and feed upon their substance. Those insects which feed upon decaying animal matter present three •divisions: first, general scavengers, which devour particles of putrescent matter wherever they may be found ; second, those which live exclusively in or upon the bodies of dead animals {Necropliaga) ; and thirdly, those which are found exclusively in animal excrement (Ooprophaga). The herbiv- orous insects maybe divided la a similar man- ner into those which eat fresh vegetable food {Thoderophaga) and those which subsist upon vegetable matters in a state of decay {8a/propliaga). They can also be usefully classified according to the particular parts of the plant which they devour, into lignivorous or wood-eating insects {Xylopluga) : the f olivorous, or leaf -eating insects iPhyUophnga), and the fructivorous or fruit-eating insect {Ca rpophaga). The above Greek terms in parenthesis have been used chiefly in connection with insects of the Coleopterous order, in which these diversities of food-habits exist to a much greater extent than in any of the other orders, but the terms themselves are of general significa- tion, and being very concise and comprehensive, they might, not improperly, be used in speaking of insects in all the orders, so far as they are applicable. In attempting to classify insects according to the nature of their food we meet with )i peculiar difficulty, owing to the remarkable cliange which some species undergo in this respect in passing from the larva to the perfect state. 3Iost caterpillars, for example, feed upon leaves, whilst the butterflies and moths which they pro- duce subsist upon the honey of flowers, or other liquid substances. Some two-winged flies {A«iVidiB) feed upon the roots of plants in their larva state, but become eminently predaceous in their winged state. Another remarkable example is furnished by certam coleopterous insects (Mdoidce), which are'parasitic in I heir larva state, but subsist upon foliage after they have assumed the beetle form. The question therefore arises, to which stage of the insect's existence shall the precedence be given in this respect? At first view it would seem that the perfect state ought to govern, but when we take into account that Insects are com- paratively short-lived in this state ; that having arrived at maturity they require but little food; and that some insects take no food at all at this stage of their lives; whereas all the growth of an Insect takes place whilst it is in the larva state, and consequently it is in this state that they feed so voraciously ; when we consider this, it seems more reasonable that in classifying insects upon this basis, the food habits of the larva should take the precedence. The terms noxious and injurious are often used indiscriminately, but strictly speak- ing, noxious insects are those which are endowed with some poisonous or otherwise hurtful quality; and these are divisible into two classes accord- ingly as they are hurtful to mankind directly, such as the mosquito, flea, and bed-bug; or are hurt- ful to the domesticated animals, as the horse-fly, the bot-fly, and the various kinds of animal lice. The insects which attack man directlj' are annoy- ing rather than seriously hurtful, and this is usually the case also with those which molest the domesticated animals; but these sometimes mid- tiply so as to seriously impoverish the animals which they infest. The term injurious, as. dis- tinguished from noxious, is properly applied to all those insects which damage mankind indi- rectly, but often to a most serious extent, by depredating upon those crops, cultivated, upon which we depend for subsistence and profit. It is worthy of remark that by far the greater proportion of the damage caused by injurious insects is efEected by species of very small size, whilst the large species are generally harmless. The two most serious fruit insects, the Codling- moth and the Plum-curculio, are both below the medium size, and the Apple bark-louse, the Apple-aphis, the Hessian-fly, and the Wheat- midge, are so minute that they would not be noticeable were it not for the wide destruction which they cause to some of our most valuable crops, in consequence of their excessive multi- plication. It is also an important consideration that in learning the elements of any science or art, an indispensable part of such education is to acquire a knowledge of the more common tech- nical terms which properlj' belong to it, and which constitute its peculiar phraseology, and which the student will continually meet with in all writings upon the subject. The forms with which it has to deal are so numerous and diversified, and often, at the same time, so closely allied, that their classification constantly demands a minute and careful examination, and a discriminative analysis, which, regarded purel}' as an exercise of the mind, are scarcely inferior to those required by the abstract mathematics, whilst they possess the additional interest which natu- rally attaches to the study of living beings. Classification in natural history has two objects in view— first, to show the relationship which exists between organized beings, by putting them in groups, in accordance with the similarity of their characters ; and secondlj% to facilitate the study of them by enabling the student to com- prehend a great number of different but allied forms under a comparatively small number of general heads, and thus to afford an important ENTOMOLOGY 312 ENTOMOLOGY aid to the memory. By nomenclature is meant the giving to these groups and the species which compose them distinctive names. It is the natural tendency of the specialist to attach undue value to the minor subdivisions of his par- ticular department, whilst he whose studies take a wider range sees more forcibly the necessity of condensation and simplification. Much can be said upon both sides of this question, but perhaps the argument may be condensed into a single Fig. 1. sentence by saying that, on the one hand, the minute subdivision of a natural group tends to give defiuiteness and precision to our in- vestigations, whilst, on the' other hand, the multiplication of genera or sub-genera, upon trivial characters, unnecessarily encumbers our nomenclature, and diminishes the interest and importance which ought to attach to the generic distinction. In writing the names of insects — and the same rule applies to all other depart- ments of natural history — it is the established custom to write first the name of the genus, usually without the author's name attached, and immediately following it the specific name, with the name of the original describer, or an abbre- viation of it appended. As no one can carry all the modern genera of insects in his memory, it is an excellent practice, when space permits, to prefix the name of the older and more compre- hensive genus to which such species was formerly referred, and with which most entomologists may be presumed to be familiar. In this case the modern genus is included in a parenthesis, and usually the author's name attached. To illustrate by examples: The common rose-slug is the larva of a little wasp-like insect, known scientifically as the SelandriarosCE of Harris. This species was first described by Dr. Harris, who gave to it the specific name rosK, meaning of the rose. It belongs to the modern genus Selandria, which was founded by Dr. Leach, an English entomolo- gist. This genus is a subdivision of the old genus Tenthredo, of Linnaeus. The name written in full, therefore, will stand: Tenthredo {Selan- dria. Leach) rosce, Harris. Our fine large Polyphemus moth was originally de- scribed by LinnEBUS under the name of Attacus Polyphemits. It belongs to the modern genus Telea, made by the Ger- man lepidopterist, Hiibuer. Its name, therefore, expressed in the simplest man- ner, is 'J'elea Polyphemus, Linn. ; or writ- ten in full — Attacus {Telea, Hiibner) Polyphemus, Linnaeus. This is ordi- narily all that is essential to be known, and any additional synonyms or refer- ences should be placed in a subordinate position. It will be observed that all the family names of insects end in idae. This is a Greek termination, meaning like or similar, and implies that all the species in any such group have a family resemblance to those of the leading genus to which it is affixed — thus: Oicindelidce means Gicindela-like in- sects. In pronouncing these words the accent is placed upon the syllable preceding this termina- tion, thus: Cicindel-idm, Carab-ida, etc. It is often the case that families, especially those which contain many species, admit of division Fig. 3-a. Fig. 3-6. into a number of natural groups of a higher rank than genera, which are designated as sub-families, and distinguished by the termination ides. Thus the family Carabidae is divided into a number of sub-families, such ns the BracUinides, the Sca/rit- ides, etc. The class of insects is divided into a number of primary groups called orders. Be- tween these larger divisions are certain smaller ones, which serve as connecting links between them, and which some authors have merged in one or the other of the adjoining larger groups, whilst others have considered them of sufficient importance to be raised to the same rank with the larger ones. From this it has resulted that the number of orders into which the class of insects has been divided has varied, even in the works of standard authors, from seven to twelve, and ENTOMOLOGY 313 ENTOMOLOGY the number will be still increased if we regard as distinct orders certain apterous form, such as the lice (Pedieuli), and the spring-tails (Thysanoura). But as in such an article as the present one the classlflcation of insects should be simplified as much as possible, we have adopted the smaller Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 3-c. number of orders, with the single exception of recognizing the division of the Hemiptera into Homoptera and Heteroptera as of ordinal value. The orders of insects are founded primarily upon the number and structure of the wings. This mode of division was first suggested by Aristotle, who gave the names which they now bear to two Kg. 6. of the orders, namely, the Coleoptera and the Diptera. It was afterward almost perfected by Linnaeus, but has been somewhat modified by the investigations of more recent authors. As illustrating some of the principal forms of insect life, we show a variety of forms, all injurious except one, the Spotted Ladybird. Fig. 1 shows, a, larva; and b, the moth of Datana ministra, the Yellow-necked Apple Tree Caterpillar; c, is a mass of eggs; and d, an egg magnified. There are various forms of this moth, some so nearly alike as not to be dis- Fig. 8. tinguished by the ordinary observer, and which, sometimes, live within and sometimes without their webs. At Fig. 2, is a, larva ; b, pupa and c, perfect beetle ; d, tip of abdomen ; e, antennte, and/, a section of one of the legs of the Spotted Fig. 9. ENTOMOLOGY 314 EQUISETUM Pelidnota, the grub of which lives m rotten wood, and the beetle feeding on the leaf of the grape, and sometimes, it is said, severing the young branches. Fig. 3-a, 3-S, and 3-c, show the Broad-necked Priornus, an injurious class, a, beelle, b, pupa and c, larva. These larvae mine the trunks of balm of gilead, poplar and some other trees. Pjg. 4 is the Grape-vine Col- aspis, 1, magnified, 2, natural size. It often does great damage by riddling the leaves. Fig. 5 is the Tussock moth, the larva of the various species of which feed on the leaves of a number of trees. Fig. 6 shows a Gall-making pemphigus, species of minute insects which lay their eggs on the leaves of trees, the galls or vege- table covering being formed over them. Fig. 7 shows a Chalcis parasite; a, pupa, b, perfect insect; the hair line showing natural size. These flies are most bene- ficial, they lay their eggs in other in- sects. Fig. 8 is the winged form, highly mag- nified, of the Maple-tree louse. (See article on Maple Tree Louse.) Fig. 9 shows a leaf at- tacked by the larva of the Grape-vine Flea bee- tle ; b, larva magnified, c, earthen cell in which in all their transformations, eat insects, and especially the, eggs of the Colorado beetle. (See article Ladybird.) Fig. 13 shows the Plat- headed Apple-tree Borer, a, larva, b, pupa, e, head and first two sections magnified; d, beetle. Fig. 13 is the well known Squash Bug. — Pig. 14 the New York Weevil, which eats the buds of the tree; a shows slit in the bark under which the egg is laid; b, larva; c, beetle. Fig. Pig. 11. Fig. 12. the beetle transforms; d, beetle. The hair line next the beetle and larva shows the natural size. Fig. 10, shows the Bordered Soldier Bug, they and the other soldier bugs live on other insects. Fig. 13. Fig. 14. and are among the few which attack the Col- orado Potato beetle. Pig. 11 is the Spotted Ladybird, the beetles of all the species of which Fig. 15. 15 is the caterpillar of the Archippus butter- fly. The winged insect measures sometimes four and a half inches across the wings. The wings on the upper side are tawny orange, on the under side deep nankin-yellow; the veins are black, and there are yeljow and white spots on the black tips of the fore wings. ENTOZOA. A tribe of worms, many of which are parasitic to the intestines and other parts of animals. EOCENE. The lowest portion of the tertiary epoch of geologists, In which a few recent remains only are found. EPIDEMIC. A disease which spreads through a community, a stable, etc. EPIDERMIS. A light covering over the skin of animals. The outer membrane of plants. The outer film of the skin. EPIGASTRIC. Over the stomach. EPIGLOTTIS. A small cartilage at the root of the tongue, which protects the windpipe. EPIGYNOUS. Any part of a flower growing upon the top of the ovarium or fruit. EPILEPSY. This is a disease unusual in horses, but not uncommon in cattle, especially in cows, after calving. (See Apoplexy.) In all cases of this kind the first thing to be attended to is to be sure there is no pressure on the vital organs and the blood vessels. All this class of diseases are beyond cure, as a rule. The most that can be done is to relieve for the time being. These symptoms often occur from the presence of worms. In this case, after present relief is given, use vermifuges, which see. To give relief, and as a means of pennanent cure, one- half ounce of bromide of potassium, and a drachm of powdered gentian, given two or three times a day, and continued for weeks, would be proper. Another remedy would be, one-half drachm of sulphate of zinc and one ounce of linseed meal, given twice a day, in the form of a ball, for two or three weeks longer. Giddmess, falling sickness, fits, stringhalt, St. Vitus dance, megrims, and vertigo, are all names for this class of diseases. They all do, or should, constitute unsoundness. EPIPHYLLUS. Growing on a leaf. EPISPERM. The testa, or outer coating of EPIZOOTIC. (See Influenza.) EQUISETUM. The scouring rush; hence ESPALIERS 315 EUCALYPTUS EREMACAUSIS. Smouldering, or dry rot, oi organic matter freely exposed to the oxygen ■of the air, aiid merely moistened with water. It is altogether different from fermentation, which requires little air. By Eremacausis, acids, as acetic, nitric, etc., are produced. When much nitrogen exists in the decaying matter, it is called nitrification, especially if lime or potash be present. It is the natural decay occurring in the soil. ERGOT. A disease of rye, and sometimes other grains, in which it turns black, and acquires an acrid, fungous taste. A fungus growth of rye. The diseased grain is poisonous, producing dry gangrene, attended with sloughing of the hoofs, horns, ears, etc. , of cattle. It is of service in medicine as a uterine stimulus. ERICA, The genus of heaths. Ericacece, a family of shrubby plants, as the heaths, rhodo- dendrons, azalias, etc. ERINACEUS. A genus of insectivorous animals, including the hedgehog. ERIOPHORUM. The genus of cotton grasses. ERODED. Gnawed, a, descriptive term in botany and zoology, meaning any jagged edge. To erode, is to eat into or among, as by a cancer. ERRHINES. Bodies which excite sneezing. ERUCA. A larva or worm. ERYSIPEL.4.S. This is an inflammation of the skin and tissues beneath which, in a malig- nant form, spreads largely and forms abscesses. A wound for instance, will be found hot, swollen, tender and shining. This extends about the sur- face, and often deep into the muscular tissue. The surface will be hard, but if the fingers be rather strongly pressed upon the part, an inden- tation will be left. In light forms of the disease there is fever, loss of appetite, and the attack being in a limb, there will be lameness. In .severe cases, these symptoms will be intensified. The breathing will be hurried, the pulse weak but rapid. There may be chills, with constipa- tion of the bowels, and scanty and high colored urine. The thirst will be great, but with no appetite for food. The first remedial means is to give a purgative, assisted with injections to relieve the bowels. If there is much fever, add twenty drops of tincture of aconite to the water, given once an hour. The bowels having been freely emptied, give every four hours, in a bottle of water, two to four drachms of chloride of iron and thirty grains of quinine. For the swelling in ordinary cases, there is nothing better than a poultice of ripe cranberries faithfully applied. If this does not give relief, paint the .swollen parts and surroundings freely, with one ounce of powdered sulphate of iron, in four ounces of lai-d, or if preferred, extract of belladonna and lard, equal parts, may be rubbed up together and freely rubbed in. When death ensues from erysipelas, it is from exhaustion. The animal's strength should be kept up with easily digested food. The doses given are for a horse. ESCHAR. A scab, cicatrix. ESC H ARCTIC. A caustic. ESCULENT. Edible plants, roots, etc. ESPALIERS. In horticulture, trees trained by lattice work or other supports on the borders •of beds, or as hedges to enclose plots of ground. The principal objects aimed at in Espaliers, are to expose the foliage and fruit of the plants or trees more perfectly to the light and sun, to pre- vent the branches from being blown about by the winds, and to economize space by confining them within definite limits. Espalier training is little practiced in the United States, even with grapes. ESPARCET. A local name for Sainfoin, which see. ESSENTIAL OILS. Oils which impart fla- vor and odor to plants, and are readily volatil- ized by heat. Many, as peppermint, rose, lemon, etc., are easily distilled, and the perfume is also j'ielded to oil. ESSEX SWINE. This is one of the English light weight breeds, and to our mind one of the very best of that class ever introduced into North America, combining, as they do, stamina and vigor of constitution. The sows are prolific breeders, and good nurses, the barrows fatten- ing easily and at any age. The size is medium, mature animals going up to three hundred pounds. In shape anil color they are not unlike the Berkshire, but are longer in proportion to their size. They are pure deep black in color; face short and dishing ; ears small, soft and erect while young, but falling down somewhat with age; carcass long, broad, straight and deep; hams heavy and well-fleshed to the back; bones fine, and hair thin. Like the Suffolk, the mature, fully fattened Essex yields a large amount of lard. So far as our experience goes, the Essex crosses successfully on large, coarse swine, refining the bone, rendering the crosses quiet, good tempered and kindly fattening swine. ETERIO. A compound fruit, the ovaries of which are distinct and indehiscent upon a dry or fleshy receptacle, as the sti-awberry, raspberry, etc. ETHER. A name applied to a highly vola- tile, inflammable, and aromatic fluid, obtained by distilling equal parts of alcohol and sulphuric acid. But it also represents a class of organic compounds having properties similar to ether and alcohol, and containing a common base or radical ETIOLATION. Blanching of vegetables. This is done by excluding light either by earth- ing, as in the case of celery, or tying up the leaves, as with lettuce, endive etc. EUCALYPTUS. None of the species of Eucalyptus are capable of standing the climate of the United States, except the warmer parts of Florida and some portions of California. Ten degrees of frost will kill them. E. globulus, or the blue gum tree of New South Wales is a fcst growing, magnificent, and useful tree where it will stand the climate. Unfortunately, it is not hardy, except where we have stated, and possi- bly in favorable situations oh the Gulf coast, and, probably, in southern Texas, near the coast line. As showing the rapidity of growth of the Euca- lyptus, where it is hardy, in California, at two years old, the trees have reached a height of from fifteen to twenty-five feet, and after three years' growth a height of from thirty-five to forty feet, and from five to nine inches in diameter of stem. They are well adapted to dry situations. The principal varieties experimented with, in Cali- fornia, were E. globulus; paruculata; tereticornis; mminalis; hemiphhia; and oUiqua. The follow- ing are some of the more valuable qualities of the genus Eucalypti! : The remarkable solidity, hardness, and durability of the timber of some EUCALYPTUS 316 EUCALYPTUS. of the species is well known. The large propor- tion of potash, amounting to twenty per cent., in the ashes of these trees has been pointed out by Baron Von Miieller. The barks of E. ros- trata, E. dbliqua, E. goniocalyx, and^. curymbosa are used for making paper. The barks of many has similar action to the ordinary manna, and exudes in large quantities through punctures or wounds made in the young bark. Another product of great importance is the essential oils. These oils generally have a camphoraceous smell, the odor differing in the various species; NOEBMANN'S SILVEB FTR. species are used extensively for tanning. A substance called Australian manna is yielded by E. mannifera, E. mmiiialis, and other species. This manna occurs in small, rounded, opaque, whitish masses, with an agreeable sweetish taste ; it contains somewhat similar constituents, and that from E. citriodorn has a pleasant citron- like flavor. The oil from E. oleosa is used as a solvent for resins in the preparation of varnishes^ The oils of E. amygdaXina, E. globulus and E. citriodora are used ifor diluting the more delicate- essential oils used in perfumery. These oils. EVAPORATION 31 r EVAPORATION ■contain a substance called Eucalyptol, a liquid body, having chemical characters resembling camphor. The febrifugal properties of the bark and leaves of E. globulus have been noted by many medical practitioners. Although careful ■examination of the bark and leaves has proved that neither quinine nor the other alkaloids of cinchona bark exist in the pknt, yet it is admitted to possess antiperiodic properties, which are supposed to be due to the presence of Eucalyptol. Finally, cigarettes made of Euca- lyptus leaves are reputed to be useful in bronchial and asthmatic affections. Considering the rapidity of growth, the value of the timber, the healthy emanations from the foliage, the com- mercial importance of the essential oils, and the beauty of the different species of the genus, it must be conceded that the Eucalyptus is one of the most imp^jrtant fam- ily of forest trees known At the present time, and that they should be ex- tensively planted wher- ■ever climatic conditions » are favorable to their growth, with the further reminder that the E. globulus need not be taken as a criterion of the hardiness of the ge- nus in low temperatures, since the more alpine species are known to flourish where the E. globulus has failed. The supposed sanitary value is not confined to one species, but the whole family are possessed of oil-bearing leaves, and that, therefore, further experiment with the hardier species may be profitable. In this con- nection it should be re- iterated that none of the Eucalyptuses are hardy, and, in fact, all of them are sub-tropical, and many of them really inter-tropical. Hence in experimenting with them in the United States care should be taken to use only those most hardy. Of their value as arresters of miasma there is little doubt, and it would seem proper that agricultural colleges. South, and the gen- eral government, should experiment still further with these valuable species. EUPHORBIA. A genus of plants commonly yielding a milky, acrid juice. Many of them are spined, and some resemble cactuses Euplior- biace(E, the natural family, including the euphor- bia, crotons, castor-oil, india-rubber tree, etc. EUROPEAN CABBAGE BUTTERFLY. ■(See Cabbage Butterfly.) EUSTACHIAN TUBE. A tube passing from the interior of the ear to the cavity of the mouth, the stoppage of which, by disease, is one cause EVAPORATION. Vapor is passed off from water, or moisture contained in any matter, in just proportion to the heat applied, and the dryness of the air. Air saturated with mois- ture, can take up no more, and then the vapor of evaporation in being passed off, becomes condensed on the surface. The vapor passed oflf from a liquid, at any temperature, contains more heat than the fluid from which it is formed, and exhalation goes on faster or slower, accord- ing to the pressure of the atmosphere. Yet the pressure of the atmosphere does not prevent evaporation, it simply retards it. If the atmos- pheric pressure was entirely taken off, water would boil (theoretically) at about the freezing point, while at the sea level, water boils at 312° Fahr. In the vacuum pan, water boils at from 120° to 140° according to the perfect condition of exhaustion. It may seem strange, but never- theless it is a fact, that evaporation is a cooling process, that is to say it has the effect of cooling the body from which it passes off. Hence the act of perspiring cools the body, by passing off A-^-^X «^y^ IbiS?^.?^ ■'"-* DWAKF AMERICA'S ARBOR VTT.E— TOM TH0MB. the heat of the body with, and by the vapor. Ether, evaporating from a body in a draft of ■warm air, will cause the body even to freeze, and we all know that the earth is sensibly cooled by evaporation from its surface. Hence one of the advantages of drainage, b}' which the heat of the soil is conserved. If the excess of water must be carried upward by evapolation, in just proportion to the water evaporated will the soil be cooled. Hence cold, and water soaked soUs produce semi-aquatic plants not found on warm, aerated soils. Moisture exhaled at a low temperature, is called vapor, and at a high tem- perature, steam. In another sense invisible moisture is vapor, and visible moisture is steam. If the air is suddenly cooled over a heated soil, strongly evaporating moisture, it becomes visible as steam. Hence the expression, the steaming earth. Under the common pressure of the atmos- phere, and below the temperature at which water boils, evaporation goes on quietly and slowly. In deep mines, which descend below the level of the sea, water requires a greater heat than 212° to make it boil. But on high moun- EXCRETION 318 EXPERIMENT tains', or districts riaing far above the level of the sea, the pressure of the air is lessened, and boiling takes place, as under the influence of the air- pump, at lower degrees, according to pressure. The vapors exhaled from a liquid at any tem- perature contain more heat than the fluid from which they sprung; and they cease to form whenever the supply of heat into the liquid is stopped. Yet, a thermometer held in the steam proceeding from hot water rises no higher than when placed in the water itself. The additional heat, therefore, contained by the vapor, is latent, and does not become sensible to the thermometer until the vapor condenses. Any quantity of water requires, for its conversion into vapor or steam, five and a half times as much heat as is sufficient to heat it from the freezing point of 32° to the boiling point of 212°. The quantity of heat absorbed by one volume of water in its conversion into steam, is about 1000° Fahr. ; it ■would be adequate to heat 1,000 volumes of water one degree of the same scale ; or to raise one vol- ume of boiling water, confined in a non-conduct- ing vessel, to 1180°. Were the vessel, charged with water so heated, opened, it would be instan- taneously emptied by vaporization, since the whole caloric equivalent to its constitution as steam is present. When, upon the other hand, steam is condensed by contact- with cold sub- stances, so much heat is set free as is capable of heating five and a half times its weight of vrater, from 33° to 213° Fahr. If the supply of heat to a vessel be uniform, five hours and a half will be required to drive off its water in steam, provided one hour was taken in heating the water from the freezing to the boiling point, under the atmospherical pressure. (See Exhalation.) EVERGREENS. A term applied generally in the United States, and especially in the North, to the conifera, or cone-bearing trees, as pine, spruce, hemlock, cedar, juniper, arbor vltsB, etc. In its broad sense, the term should include all those tropical forms, as the orange, palms, and other trees which retain their foliage, shedding their leaves as they successively ripen, the younger ones coming forward to supply the place of those cast off. (See different species as treated of under their proper names.) Pages 316 and 817 contain two forms of coniferous ever- greens, as illustrating ornamental species : Nord- mann's Silver Fir and the Dwarf American Arbor Vitse — Tom Thumb. Nordmann's Silver Fir is said to be abundant on the Crimean mountains, and those of the Black Sea, and Mr. Josiah Hoopes, author of the Book of Evergreens, says it is hardy at his home in Pennsylvania, never being affected by the most severe winters and retaining the beautiful color of its foliage in all seasons and in all vicissitades. Tom Thumb originated with EUwanger & Barry, Rochester, N. Y. Its form is rounded, with slender shoots, but occasionally betrays its origin by forming a shoot with fully developed leaves. EXACERBATION. An increase of violence in the symptoms of fevers. EXCORIATION. A bruise or abrasion of the skin. EXCRESCENCE. Any unnatural growth or tumor. EXCRETION. In physiology, the separation of useless or injurious portions of matter from the system, as urine, expired air, feces and perspira- tion. EXFOLIATION. The separation of diseased bone from that which is sound in the progress of a disease. EXHALATION. Evaporation at ordinary temperature, more especially from a living or solid surface. EXHAUSTION. In physics, the removal of air or gases from the interior of bodies. EXOtrENOUS. A term applied to those plants a transverse slice of whose stem exhibits a central cellular substance or pith, an external cellular and fibrous ring of bark, and an intermediate woody mass, and certain fine lines radiating from the pith to the bark through the wood, and called medullary rays. They are called exogens, because they add to their wood by successive external additions, and are the same as what are otherwise called dicotyledons. They constitute one of the primary classes into which the vegetable world is divided, characterized by their leaves being reti- culated; their stems having a distinct deposition of bark, wood, and pith ; their embryo with two- cotyledons; and by their fiowers usually formed on a quinary type. Our forest trees and most garden vegetables are of this kind. EXORRHIZ.E. Exogenous or dicotyledon- ous plants, the roots of which extend directly from the embryo. EXOSMOSE. The passage outward of fluids, etc., the reverse of Endosmose, which see. EXOSTOSIS. A tumor on a bone. In botany, any knot or tumor on a trunk or large root; the wood is often finely curled. EXOTICS. Foreign plants. Any plant not native to a region of country. Introduced plants ; the potato is exotic to Europe. EXPANSION. The increase in dimensions produced by heat. Gases expand most rapidly and extensively, fluids next, and metals least. EXPECTORANTS. Medicines which assist in throwing off phlegm. EXPERIMENT. Experiments in agricul- ture are, and must necessarily always be, of supreme value, since the art must ever be pro- gressive, and varieties and conditions ever changing. The testing of new varieties should be carried forward every year, more or less, and by every farmer; for, only by this means can certain knowledge be obtained of varieties of trees and plants adapted to a particular soil and situation. Agricultural Colleges, through their experimen- tal plots, may render much useful information as to varieties probably useful in various locali- ties, and thud simplify experiments, and bring down varieties to be tested by the individual farmer to a very few. Nevertheless, the farmer must, after all, test each for himself to arrive at certain results as to adaptation and value to his particular soil. So in the feeding of stock, in plowing at different depths, and with variously laid furrows; as to mechanical means for amel- iorating the soil ; upon various manures, and the best mode of application; in relation to per manent pasture grasses, and the new varieties adapted to our meadows. In all these there is a wide field, and much to be learned by the Ameri- can farmer. In Europe this subject has long received particular attention. In the Eastern States something has been done in this direction. In the West comparatively little has yet been attempted in carrying forward a systematic series of experiment, even by the better class of our Agricultural Colleges. They ai'e, however. FAIRS 319 FAIRS making progress in this direction, and the next decade will, probably, see even that class of Industrial Colleges that have been carried farthest into scholasticism, and away from the industries, wheeling into the true line of their work in this direction. EXPERIMENT STATION. (See Agricul- tural College.) EXPORT AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. The article Agriculture gave the agricultural exports up to and including 1879. It will there- fore here he only necessary to give the chief agri- cultural exports for 1880 and 1881. These are given up to March first of these years as follows: Exports of live stock, 1880, $12,065,195; 1881, 20,681,738. Exports of other food, 1880, $374,- 568,342; 1881, $456,244,111. The productions during these years are, respectively, corn, 1,547,- 910,970, and 1,587,535,900 bushels; cotton, 5,- 078,581, and 5,761,353 bales; wheat, 448,756,630, and 480,849,723 bushels; wool, 232,500,000, and 264,000,000 pounds. These being the amounts for 1880 and 1881, respectively. (See article Agriculture.) EXPRESSED OILS. Such as are obtained by pressure, as olive, linseed, rape, castor and almond, as distinguished from volatile or EXTRACT. The solid remaining after boil- ing down an infusion or decoction to dryness. The term extractive is applied to that portion which is of a brown color, soluble in water, and forms a coloring matter with alum solution. EXTRAVASATION. In surgery, whenever blood or other fluids are thrown out from the veins into the skin, brain, or other parts, it is termed an extravasation. It frequently arises from a blow. EXTRORSAL. Bent or turned from the direct position ; a descriptive term in botany. ' EXUVIiE. The skins cast by snakes, lobsters, insects, etc. , in the changes they pass through. EYES, INFLAMMATION OF, Conjunc tivitis, as inflammation of the eye-ball and the lining membrane of the eye-lid is called, may be caused by a blow, chafl', or other substance irritating it. First find the cause, turn up the lids and look closely for irritating substances, remove by means of a feather or the forceps. If the inflammation is decided, a little blood may be drawn from the angular vein, which passes over the face below the eye, and reduce the inflammation by covering the eye with soft cloths kept constantly wet with cold water. If the inner structure of the eye is involved, use ani ointment composed of one ounce extract of belladonna, and half an ounce of honey. For chronic cases of sore eyes, three grains of sulphate of zinc to one ounce of water, makes a good lotion. Periodic ophthalmia or moon blindness, can not be cured. It is constitutional; the cause not well known, but perhaps malarial or rheumatic. It finally results in total blind- ness. In an early stage of the recurring attacks, one half ounce of powdered Peruvian bark, and one drachm sulphate of iron, given twice a day, the dose to be doubled when a return of the- attack is expected, has been found beneficial. In these attacks, the eye gradually becomes more and more clouded, extending over the eye in the same way the moon waxes, and then gradually disappearing. The state of the moon, however,, has nothing to do with the growth, no more than wolf teeth do. There are no wolf teeth in a horse's mouth, but irritation of the teeth often does intensify inflammation of the eyes. EYE, IN PLANTS. The bud, embryo, or growing plant. EYE SPOT. Albugo, or White Spot. This is a blemish of a bluish or pearly white on the pupil of the eye, the result of inflammation,, interfering more or less with the sight. Light touches with a stick of nitrate of silver, will- sometimes apparently lessen the disability, but it should not be used, nor in fact should the eye be tampered with at all except in cases of simple inflammation produced by local causes. Others should be treated by a veterinary surgeon. F FAGOT. A bundle of small wood. FAGUS. The generic name of the beech. FAIRS. The systematic holding of agricul- tural fairs is comparatively a modern idea. Fairs as they have existed for a long time in Europe, have been until lately, devoted almost solely to barter and sale. During the last century these have steadily dwindled in importance, as com- merce and better systems of trade began to bring every article of use more immediately to the purchaser, until now but very few fairs of this class are held. In the disposition of highly bred stock, annual auction sales are among the means used to get rid of surplus animals, and now, under the direction of agricultural and horticul- tural societies, National, State, county, district, and even township fairs are held for the display of all agricultural, mechanical, manufactured and art products. The rise and progress of these fairs is interesting and instructive, and the con- templation of the improvements made from year to year, in all that constitutes the result of human energy, is a most valuable study. It is but little more than 150 years since the establishment of the first agricultural society in Great Britain, but in 1728, there was established, in Scotland, a society to which its founders gave the name of Improvers in the Knowledge of Agriculture. It became extinct in 1755, but was succeeded by another, which was merged into the Highland Agricultural Society. This association, in 1787 received a royal charter, and in 1834, it was re- chartered. Annual fairs were thenceforward held, at each of which premiums were given to the amount of £10,000. In Ireland, an agricul- tural society was established in 1747. From the influence exerted lay the members of this organi- zation many others sprang up in various parts of the island, which were productive of great ben- efit, not only among the aristocratic landed gen- try, for whom all these earlier organizations were instituted, but also among the small pro- prietors and tenant farmers, and, indirectly, among the laborers themselves. In 1777, The Bath Agricultural Society, of England, was organized, having for its aim the encouragement of agriculture, arts, manufactures, and com- merce, in the counties of Somerset, Wilts, Glou- FAIRS 330 FAIRS cester, and Dorset. Through its volumes, pub- lished yearly, it disseminated a vast amount of practical information relative to -the culture of tlje various crops then grown, and especially of those recently introduced. The breeding of cat- tle, horses, sheep, swine, and other stock, was fully treated of in their reports, which also con- tained much valuable data concerning manufac- tures, both general and as relating to agricul ture, arts, and commerce. Among the contribu- tions to its literature we find such names as Dr. Falconer, Dr. Campbell, Sir Christopher Haw- kins, Hobhouse, Arthur Young, M. DeSaussaure, Dr. J. Anderson, Dr. Fothergill, Rev. Alexander Campbell, Count DeBerchtold, Gen. Abercrom- bie, and other eminent men of the day. This shows the interest taken in agriculture, in Eng- land, almost a century ago, by the best minds. This interest has borne abundant fruit, in making England, to-day, for the number of acres culti- vated, the most productive country in the world, both as to the variety of staples grown and the quantities obtained yearly from the soil We find, by tlie transactions of the Bath Agricultural Society, for the year 1810, that there were then in Great Britain (besides the board of agricul- ture, of which Sir John Sinclair was president and no less a person than. Arthur Young, Esq. , secretary,) eighty-one agricultural societies in regular working order; and to show that they believed, klso, in women's rights, we might point to the fact that one of them, the Badenach and Strathspey Society, had a woman for presi- dent, in the person of the celebrated Ducliess of Gordon. The Royal Agricultural Society, of Eng- land, whicli has exerted so wide-spread and ben- eficial an infiuence upon agriculture throughout the civilized world, was founded in 1838, and adopted for its motto. Practice with Science. Within seven years it had established, or had been the means of establishing, four hundred other societies; one hundred and fifty of these being practical farmers' clubs. Ten years later, in 1855, the societies and clubs amounted to over seven hundred. The most important of these clubs, the London Central Farmers' Club, became so firmly rooted, was so thoroughly supported, and its influence was so widely felt, that it received the appellation of the Bridge Street Parliament, and gave rise to the aphorism by a celebrated English statesman, that neither our fleets, how- ever well manned, nor our armies, however val- orous, nor our diplomacy, however successful, can do so much as the plow. This society like many agricultural societies in the United States holds annual exhibitions, which are peripatetic in their nature, and the distinction of being sel- ected as the place for the yearly show is a much coveted one. In most of the counties of Eng- land, there are county agricultural societies, which, also, hold annual exhibitions. These societies, as a rule, are in a healthy condition, and of great value to the farmers; but, now, the recognized representatives of the farming inter- ests are the chambers of agriculture, composed of landlords, farmers, grain merchants, and others concerned in interests connected with the soil. There is a Central Chamber, subordinate to which are County Chambers; and these, in turn, .are the superiors of the local or district Chambers. These organizations are of comparatively recent growth, and the interest taken in them is im- mense. While eminent citizens of England, in the last century, were seeking, by every legiti- mate means, to foster the interests of agriculture, a corresponding class in the then infant States of America were not idle. Manufactures at that day were comparatively unknown, or only in their infancy. Then the foremost men of the nation were farmers, and derived their revenue directly from the soil Of those engaged in the various professions of life, many still clung to the pursuit of their youth, and gave their farms their personal supervision. A large proportion of the heroes of the Revolution left the plow for the battle-field, and when the war was over returned again to their peaceful art The first agricultural society ever incorporated in Amer- ica was that established in South Carolina, in 1785, called the Society for the Promotion of Agriculture. Its objects included the institution of a farm for experiments in agriculture, and the importation and distribution of foreign produc- tions suited to the climate of that State. Another prominent object was to direct the attention of farmers and planters to the economies connected with the agriculture of the State, and to enlist them generally in the improvement of their con- dition. The society accomplished an excellent work, among other things, tliat of introducing the cultivation of the olive and the vine into the State. Societies for the promotion of agriculture were always regarded by the planters and states- men of the South as being of the first importance; and naturally so, for the reason that agriculture always was the dominant — in fact, almost the exclusive — interest there; more than this, how- ever, from the settlement of the country imtil about 1860, it was confined to special products, as, at first, tobacco, then cotton, and, later, sugar; these, with blooded horses and cattle, comprising the chief sources of wealth of the soutliern planter. In the earlier history of the South, her clubs and societies were composed of men of wealtli and position, and, like the earlier kindred societies of Great Britain, were exclusive in their nature. More recently, agricultural societies in the South have taken on a more popular character, and the last ten years has witnessed a wonderful increase in the number of clubs and similar organizations, which have had the effect to re-awaken interest in this rich and diversified portion of our common country. It is to be hoped that this will be the, means of developing the immense resources of this fertile region. A Society tor the Advancement of Agri- culture was incorporated in New York in 1791, but it became defunct after a brief existence of ten years. In 1792, the Legislature of the same State incorporated another organization, under the title of the Society for the Promotion of Agriciilture, Manufactures, and Arts, and agam, in 1804, a Society for the Pmmotion of Useful Arts, in the recital of which arts, agriculture is first named. This society published seven vol- umes of Transactions previous to 1815. A National Agricultural Society early occupied the attention of leading minds in theUnited States.and as early as 1794, Washington, then President of the United States, began to interest himself in the matter. In relation to this society we find that a letter was addressed by him to Sir John Sinclair, on the 30th of July, 1794, and contains the following reference to this subject : It will be some time, I fear, before an agricultural society ,.with congressional aid, will be established in this FAIRS 321 FAIRS country. We must walk, as other countries have, before we can run ; smaller societies must prepare the way for greater, but, with the lights before us, I hope we shall not be so slow in maturation as older nations have been. An attempt, as you will perceive by the inclosed outlines of a plan, is making to establish a State Society in Pennsylvania for agricultural improve- ments. If it succeeds, it will be a step in the ladder; at present, it is too much in embryo to decide upon the result. The first proposition for the establishment of such an institution was made by "Washington, in his annual speech, delivered on the 7th of December, 1796, when he met the two Houses of Congress for the last time. Then a committee of the House of Representatives made a report, on the 11th of January.following, recommending the institution of a society for that purpose, under the patronage of the govern- ment, which might act as a common center to all other societies of a similar kind throughout the United States. The report is accompanied by a plan, the principal articles of which are that a society shall be established at the seat of government ; that it shall comprehend the Legis- lature of the United States, the Judges, the Secretary of State, the Secretary of the Treasury, the Secretary of War, the Attorney General, and such other persons as may choose to become members, according to the rules prescribed ; that an annual meeting shall be held at the seat of government, at which are to be elected the president, secretary, etc., and a board, to consist of not more than thirty persons, which shall be called the Board of Agriculture ; that the society shall be a body corporate ; and that a report shall be made annually. The first national associa- tion of this description was the Columbian Agricultural Society for the promotion of rural and domestic economy, which was organized by a convention held in Georgetown, District of Columbia, on the 28th of November, 1809. The first agricultural exhibition in America was the National Fair held by this society at the Union Hotel, in Georgetown, District of Columbia, on the 10th of May, 1810. Among other premiums awarded were three, of $100, $80, and $60, respectively, for two-toothed ram lambs, show- ing the grpat importance attached at that early day to improving the breed of sheep. At this exhibition it is recorded that President Madison woi-e his inauguration coat, made from the Merino wool of Colonel Humphrey's flock, and waistcoat and small clothes made from the wool of the Livingston flock, at Clermont. The first field trial of implements in America was the plowing match at the fifth semi-annual exhibition of the Columbian Society, on the 20th of May, 1813. The war with England, which occurred at that time, overshadowed eveiything else; and, after holding a sixth successful exhibition, on the 18th of November, 1812, the time for which the society had been organized (three years) hav- ing expired, it was dissolved at the close of that year. Its successful exertions in awakening a more general interest in the various departments of husbandry, not only in the immediate vicinity of its exhibitions, but in the adjacent States, merit a grateful remembrance by the agricultur- ists of America. On the 14th of June, 1852, a National Agricultural Convention was held at the Smithsonian Institution, in the city of Washington, under a call issued by the followmg agricultural societies, at the instance of the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture; The Massa- chusetts State Board of Agriculture; Pennsyl- vania State Agricultural Society ; Maryland State Agricultural Society; New York State Agricul- tural Society; Southern Central Agricultural Society; Ohio State Board of Agriculture; American Institute, New York; Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture; Indiana State Board of Agriculture; New Hampshire Agricultural Society ; Vermont Agri- cultural Society ; and the Rhode Island Society for the Encouragement of American Industry. The convention was composed of one hundred and fifty-three delegates, representing twenty- three States and Territories. Among those who were present during its sessions were Fillmore, President, and Daniel Webster, Secretary of State. The objects of the society, as declared by the preamble to its constitution, were, to improve the agriculture of the country, by attracting attention, eliciting the views, and confirming the efforts of that great class composing the agricul- tural community, and to secure the advantages of a better organization, and more extended use- fulness among all State, county, and other agricultural societies. The first fair of the Society was held at Springfield, Mass., in 1854, and thereafter yearly until the outbreak of the late war, when the practical efforts of the Society ceased, it having been found that the State fairs had grown into such magnitude as to eclipse its efforts. In 1870 an organization was perfected, in New York, to establish a National Board of Agriculture, but up to this time the organization has held no fairs, and has not gone beyond the preliminary stages of organization. From the fact that now every notable district, and counties hold annual fairs, and from the fact that from this cause our State fairs, many of them, are losing in their attractions, the proba- bility is that an Annual National Fair could not be successfully sustained without outside aid. The New York State Agricultural Society held its first regular fair in 1840, the sum of twelve and a half cents being charged as admission. Since that time the society has grown in magnitude year by year, and the legislature being finally roused to action, through the able pen of the lamented Judge Buel, and the efforts of his contemporaries it soon became the first of the agricultural fairs of the nation. The American Institute Farmers' Club, founded in 1843, had a more than usually active career for thirty years, or until the summer of 1873, when, from various causes, many of them of chronic standing,it ceased to hold its regular meet- ings. During the first twenty years of its existence, it effected a vast amount of good and, through its published transactions and the newspaper press, exercised an immense influence, reaching over the whole country. It has numbered many emi- nent men among its members, and its fairs, held annually in New York city, have always excited much interest. But far back, beyond any of these societies, Massachusetts may claim the honor of success, in offering pnzes for the advancement of agriculture. In 1803 the trustees of the Massachu- setts Society for Promoting Agriculture, offered among others, the following premiums : To the person who shall discover a cheap and effectual method of destroying the canker-worm, a pre- mium of $100, or the society's gold medal. For aheap of best compost manure from the common FAIRS ^22 FALL WEB WORM materials of the farm — of not less than 300 tons — with a description of the method, $50. For the most thrifty trees from seed, not less than 600, and not less than at the rate of 3,400 per acre, of oak, ash, elm, sugai'-maple, beech, black and yel- low birch, chestnut, walnut, or hickory, $35;' or, if all of oak, $50; to be claimed on or before October 1, 1806. For accurate analyses of the constituent parts of several fertile soils, respec- tively so of poor soils, and how, by actual experi- ment, to remedy the evils, so that it can be prac- ticed'by common farmers, $50. And if it shall appear to the satisfaction of the trustees, that the improvement is more than- equal to the expense, then an additional $100. From the beginnings thus sketched, agricultural societies and farmers' elubs have multiplied and spread, until now there are none of the States, and but few of the terri- tories, which are destitute of more or less organi- zations of this character. These hold annual fairs, and distribute large amounts in premiums yearly, embracing the entire scope of agricultural and horticultural art, and domestic manufactures. Agricultural societies are in active operation in nearly every county of the Northern States. In the South, the popular interest in these matters is spreading and deepening steadily. It should be but a few years, at most, before this section of the Union will be enabled to organize societies as generally as have the East and West. In horti- culture, its votaries have not been derelict, but have fully kept pace with agricultural societies which, even to-day, are largely stock and imple- ment shows. In 1840 the American Pomological Society was formed. Their sessions are biennial, their meetings are attended by the most eminent horticulturists of the Union, and their exhibitions are contributed to by the various State horticul- tural societies. This organization, in connec- tion with the State horticultural societies, has aided most materially in fostering correct hor- ticultural knowledge, and in keeping alive a spirit of progress. Now, nearly every State in the Union has an active working society. In 1876 there were reported, as in active operation, agricultural societies in the States named below. Of these, as stated before, the oldest are the Society for the Promotion of Agi-iculture, estab- lished in Philadelphia, Pa. , in 1785 ; the Massa- chusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture, Boston, Mass., in 1793, and the Agricultural Society of South Carolina, Charleston, S. C, in 1795. Dividing the American century into four parts, the number of societies now in existence were organized as follows; From 1776 to 1801, inclusive, 3; from 1803 to 1836, 16; from 1887 to 1851, 375; and from 1853 to 1876, over 1,500. The number of societies in the various States are reported for 1880 as follows: Ala- bama, 13; Arkansas, 15; California, 16; Colo- rado, 5; Connecticut, 47; Dakota Territory, 3; Delaware, 10 ; District of Columbia, 5 ; Georgia, 77; Illinois, 133; Indiana, 99; Indian Territory, 1; Iowa, 144; Kansas, 106; Kentucky, 33; Lou- isiana, 9; Maine, 49; Maryland, 37; Massachu- setts, 74; Michigan, 70; Minnesota, 43; Missis- sippi, 11; Missouri, 86; Montana, 1; Nebraska, 85; New Hampshire, 31; New Jersey, 33; Nevada, none reported; New York, 153; North Carolina, 37; Ohio, 138; Oregon, 7; Pennsyl- vania, 94; Rhode Island, 6; South Carolina, 10; Tennessee, 55; Texas, 41; Utah, 33; Vermont, 25; Virginia, 36; Washington Territory, 10; West Virginia, 11; Wisconsin, 81. Of these the principal State and district societies appro- priate large .sums, as premiums yearly, running even to $60,000 in the case of the St. Louis Fair Association. Illinois gives about $30,000 yearly, and some other States as much. The interest, however, is annually centering in dis- trict and local fairs, each managed by a business corporation, as in the case of the St. Louis Fair Association, and it is beginning now to be seri- ously argued before our various State Depart- ments of Agriculture, whether their efforts for the advancement of agriculture may not be more legitimately employed than in the running of fairs as a source of revenue. FALCATE. Shaped like a scythe : a descrip- tive term used in botany and zoology. FAICO. The genus of hawks. FALCON. (See Buzzard.) FALL DANDELION, (See Dandelion. ) FALLING SICKNESS. (See Epilepsy.) FALLOPIAN TUBE. A tube communi- cating between the womb and ovarium of the mammalia. FALLOW. Originally, this term meant the exposure of the naked soil to rest, after plough- ing several times, to destroy weeds and repair its fertilit}'. This practice is now considered almost useless, as requiring much time and expenditure otherwise better employed. A crop of oats, clover, rye, buckwheat, lucerne, lupins, turnips, or other cheap vegetable in flower is now ploughed in and called a green fallow. In this way land is rapidly improved, especially if a liming is given. To turn in heavy herbage the ox-chain is fastened to the clevis and land-side handle of the plough, and this pressing down the plants, allows them to be buried. Green fallowing is the most rapid and cheap method of bringing up poor lands ; it incor- porates into the soil the nitrogen bodies wanted for high cultivation, enables the improver to proceed without the expense of cattle for raising manure, and saves the time necessary to wait for the manure. The herbage so turned m yields more vegetable mold than it would other- wise form if applied in any other way. Fal- lows can be made at any time, in summer for a fall crop, or in autumn for spring. FALL WEB WORM. Hyphantria textm: This is a common caterpillar, and particularly annoying from its habit of forming its large webs, not only on forest trees but also on fruit FALL WEB WOBM. trees, August being the season wnen they are formed in the North. The caterpillar is green- ish-yellow, dotted with black, very hairy and slender; moth white and unspotted. The cut TARM ACCOUNTS 323 FARM ACCOUNTS •shows, at a, caterpillar ; b, chrysalis, and c, moth. This insect is named from the tent-like char- acter of the web in which the larva congregate. They usually destroy all the leaves on a branch, before passing to another, and should be exter- minated wherever found. They are especially destructive to the apple, pear, cherry and plum. FARCY. The horse with Farcy should be killed immediately it is apparent that it is acute. The pustules are malignant, and arise from blood ' poisoning as, in Glanders. It should be needless to say, that if the human system becomes inocu- lated, with the virus, death is certain sooner or later. Fortunately the disease is rare, as is Glan- ders. Charlatans indeed have cures both for Farcy and Glanders. So they will profess to cure spavin after the bones are quite anchylosed, or grown together. There is a form of Farcy called Chronic Farcy, not especially dangerous, and mild forms may be cured. The buds or buttons as in acute Farcy are arranged in groups about the inner and outer thighs, forearm, flanks, neck, and head. They are tender and painful, but do not ulcerate. They may also be felt, as hard, irreg- ular knots along the course of the jugular vein. Rub the buds and knots with biniodide of mer- cury, or touch them with lunar caustic. If they break wash with a ten per cent, solution of car- bolic acid. Keep up the strength of the animal with nourishing food. Give twice a day, in a pint of water, five grains of arsenic and one drachm nux vomica. The proper proceeding however, if Farcy or Glanders is .suspected, is to consult, or describe symptoms to, a competent veterinary surgeon, or in case the symptoms are pronounced to kill and bury deeply at once, and disinfect the stable promptly. FARINA. The flour or meal of grain. Fari- naceous is a derivative. FARM ACCOUNTS. One of the most curious facts, in agricultural economy, is, that probably not one farmer in ten ever keeps a correct book -account of debit and credit on the farm. Conse- quently his only means of knowing which crops pay best, or in fact which pay at all, is to guess at it and take the chances. One reason is the pre- valent idea that there is some mystery in keeping books or something requiring a special order of talent. One of the excuses made is, that it takes a large amount of time. Book-keeping may be mad? as simple as any other labor of the farm, and the little time occupied in keeping the books in order every evening, may very economically be taken from some other less important work. There is another class, who shirk this duty from an unwillingness to undertake anything that savors of intellectual labor. The larger class, how- ever, do not keep a correct account of what per- tains to the farm, because they consider it unim- portant. A merchant or manufacturer who goes upon such a presumption most assuredly bank- rupts himself. The farmer who goes upon this presumption loses enough yearly to pay for doing the work ten times over. The only way to get into the habit of keeping farm accounts is to begin. It is not necessary to keep an account of the cost of every animal from the time it is born ; an approximation can be had, for instance, on the feeding of a lot of calves, a bunch of steers, or the time and money spent on a field of grain, etc. , can be had with but little trouble. Some time since Mr. John H. Borne, of Massachusetts, presented a simple and concise plan for doing this, from which we extract, for one reason especially, that some portions of it apply to farms where manure is a considerable item. Where this is not the case, of course it will become one of the minor items. In relation to this matter, Mr. Borne says: Sometimes we see accounts, oven in agricultural reports, in which everything a farmer raises is set down at the market value. For instance, credit is given for the number of tons of hay, the number of bushels of corn and potatoes, and everything that is raised, without a corresponding debit of what is used in keeping the stock through the year — making it appear as if the net income was very large, when, in reality, nearly all is used upon the place. A farmer may, perhaps, plow large fields that have been previously manured, and, without applying any fertilizer, obtain a good crop, which, when sold, brings in a large sum of money. He may decide that his profits ( are large; but a system of book-keeping that estimates the value of the land of each field, each year, would oblige him to appraise the fields from which his large crops were taken as of Jess value than before. This would show him that the profits were not really as large as he at first supposed. Another might spend a good deal of time and money in making improve- ments, which, for the present, bring in no profit, and it might seem that nothing was made by farming; yet an account of what his improve- ments cost, and of all that the land (on which the improvements were made) produced for several years would change his opinion. Thus, by carrying out a system of book-keeping which, not only applies to the farm as a whole, but also to each operation in detail, a very large fund of practical knowledge would be obtained in a few years. If each farmer in our nation would thus estimate the expenses of his business our practi- cal knowledge of the value of agricultural pro- ducts would be much increased, and the amount of productions in the nation be vastly enlarged. Some charge no interest upon their cattle, tools, land, and buildings; others sell a large quantity of wood each year, which is all considered as profit, without regard to the diminished value of the lot; these all deceive themselves, thinking they have made a large profit by fanning, when the profit, in reality, comes from some other source. The plan which I propose to present is so simple that a person whose education is very limited can adopt it. The productions raised, and the prices of both productions and labor, vary much in different localities; but the prin- ciples will apply, and a little practice will make the application comparatively easy. It will be better to use only one book; it may be of any size and shape, but containing about two hun- dred pages, made of ruled paper, and having two ruled lines on the right hand, up and down the page, for dollars and cents, and one on the left hand for the date of the transaction. Let the book be paged, writing the numbers plainly, and place an index at the commencement. Following, should be an inventory of the value of the farm, the stock and farming implements, leaving a few blank leaves for inventories in future years. Next, may foUow what may be called a memorandum or journal, in which should be noted all transactions important enough to be remembered. This will require no debit or credit, but is simply a history, FARM ACCOUNTS 324 FARM ACCOUNTS. important for reference, and will serve to prove the time and nature of any transaction. At one-third the distance from the beginning should commence the cash book or farm account, in which every sale is credited to the farm, and every expense is debited. Commencing with the last quarter of the book may be kept the account with different fields, hired men, and every person with whom an account is kept. As the season begins in April, I would com- mence the year with that month — as less pro- duce is on hand, and it is easier to take an inventory, (or account of stock, as merchants call it,) which should always be done. It will require some judgment to rightly estimate how much more, or less, each animal is worth than one year before; wlrether your buildings and fences are in as good repair ; whether your land has improved or lessened in value; whether the new tools purchased are equal in value to the loss by use of the old ; whether you have more hay, grain, or vegetables on hand than at the com- mencement of the previous year, all of which should be correctly ascertained, being appraised at the market value. If an inventory is not taken, however accurate the account of the receipts and expenditures may have been, the real income or loss of the farm will not be known; and the more accurately the estimate is made, the nearer correct will be the figures that show the gain or loss for the year. The farm to which the following figures apply is one upon which a mixed system of husbandry is employed, and its poverty of soil and distance from a market may, in part, account for the small net income of the year. The following will assist in understanding the plan to be pursued. It would, perhaps, be better to name and appraise each animal and each wagon sep- arately, as, in case of losses or sales, the loss or cash could be set against it more readily. INVENTORY OF FARM STOCK, TOOLS, ETC., APR. 1. Farm of about one hundred acres, upland and meadow, in a poor state of cultivation, with a tiouse, two small barns, and other out-build- ings, which would probably bring at auction. Ooe horse Six oxen Three cows One heifer Three turkeys Ninety hens, at 75 cents each .Two swine One express and one riding wagon Ox wagon and ox cart Harnesses Truck harness Yokes Plows and cultivator Ox sled and chains Spades, shovels, and forks Corn sheller and harrow Hoes, rakes, and other tools Horse rake Hand threshing machine Grindstone ., Baskets Corn Eye Potatoes Wheat Three tons English hay Two tons salt hay Family stores Amount of inventory on which interest is to be reckoned for one year {3,550 OD 100 00 620 00 185 00 35 00 6 50 07 50 80 00 100 00 50 00 25 00 5 00 5 00 20 00 900 10 00 10 00 30 00 8 00 15 00 6 00 4 00 15 00 5 00 30 00 6 00 75 00 20 00 l.iS 00 4,244 00 JOURNAL. To go through the year would occupy too> much space. Thus we give a memorandum of only one week every two months. It is not necessary to note every sale in the journal, only- the more important, and such transactions as one wishes to remember; nevertheless we advise- that the journal be sufficiently full so that it may become in a measure a reference from which the- memory may be refreshed in relation to thfc principal business data of the farm and house- hold. April 1, 1865.— Have this day taken inventory of farn* and what is on it, all oi which are worth at the market- value about $4,244. Engaged two men to work for the season; Gharlos- Gross, at $25 per month, and William Aiken at $23. April 3. — Plowed for grain and grass seed. April 4. - Plowed for onions, and purchased onion, grass^ and garden seeds, oil meal for leeding, and tools for summer use. April 5.— Gave the onion ground thorough preparatiott for the seed, harrowing in fiue manure, and working out all lumps and stones, making it mellow and level. April 6. — Sowed onion seed, and finished sowing grass- seed. [Omittins; till first week in June.] June 1.— Planted cabbages, putting hen manure, mixed' with loam, in the hills. June 2.— Sold one yoke of oxen for $197, which cost $105 last fall. They have done considerable work, and have had good keeping of hay and meal. The only way 1 know in wbich anything can be made in keepjng cattle is- to feed liberally. June .$.— Hoed potatoes and corn, and planted squashes^ and melons. June 5.— Bought one yoke of oxen for $135, which are; in thin ilesh, but will probably gain during the coming, summer. June 6. — Hired another man, Patrick Murphy, for the- remainder of the season, to be paid $24 a month. I believe in hiring an abundant supply of help, and that more is; lost by not having help enough than by haviag too much- [Omitting till August.] August 1. — Men employed in hoeing cabbages and tur- nips. August 2. — Went to market, carrying, potatoes, cabbages, eggs, etc. Purchased one fine Cotswold buck lamb for $ — .. August 3. - Employed the men in filling low, swamp land lor mowing. Last year the best grass on the farm, was upon land so reclaimed. August 4.— Mowed salt grass. August 5 — At work filling swamp land. [Omitting till first week in October.] October 2.— Men at work digging muck. Went to- market, October 3.— Gathered onions; a small crop, owing to a very dry summer. Purchased oxen and steers for $ — . October 4 and 5.— Digging potatoes; very good crop;, better than was expected. October 7.— Drawing sea manure. [Omitting till first week in December.] December 1 —The time of the men being out, only one- is to be employed during the winter; the others are paid. December 2. — Spending time in making everything snug: for winter. The barn and hog yards are now filled with, muck, bedding is secured, and part of it is housed, and the remainder stacked, so that it can be kept dry; and everything is done to keep the stock warm and comfort- able. December 4.— Sold two fat hogs and eight pigs for $— . [Omitting till first week in February.] February 1, 1866.— Employed in laying plans for the coming year. In looking back over the failures of the past year, find that they nave generally arisen from two causes: first, poverty of soil orlack of manure; and, sec- ond, not having men enough to perform all the work at the right time. In addition may be added one beyond the control of man, which was, long and severe drought. February 5.— Man employed in gutting wood for the. year. CASH BOOK. In this book everything spent for the benefit- of the farm is charged to as debtor, and every- thing sold, being the produce of the farm, is credited to it instead of using the owner's name. Reference to the journal must show how and why the expenditure was made. J'ARM ACCOUNTS 325 FARM ACCOUNTS Jlach debtor page to be headed as the following Dr. Each creditor page to be headed as the following: Cb. Date. Farm. 1865. April -June 5 Aug. -Aug. Aug. Oct. -Oct. Dec. -Teb. 1 To 4 lbs. ouion-seed, at $-J.25 •■ 30 lbs. clover-seed, at 15 cents ... " 1 bag red-top " % bnsh. Herd's grass *' i4 bush, orchard grass " garden seeds " 500 lbs. oil meal, at 214 cents. . . '• 'I shovels, at $1.25 '• 2 hoes, at 85 cents [Omitting until 1st week in June.] To 1 yoke of oxen fOmittipg until 1st week in August. To 1 buck lamb " Wm. Aiken " Taxes rOmittmg until first week in Oct'r.] To 1 yoke oxen *• 5 steers " Patrick Murphy Omitting until Ist week in Dec'r.] . To Patrick Murphy, (in full) '■ Charles Gross, (in full) [Omitting until 1st week in Febr'y To linseed meal Blacksmlthing $ 9 00 4 50 4 00 2 00 2 25 3 50 12 50 2 50 1 70 135 00 10 00 8 00 86 55 160 00 225 00 24 00 43 25 175 00 24 00 7 50 Date. 1865. April 7 June 2 June 7 Aug. 8 Aug. Oct. Oct. 6 Dec. Dec. 4 Dec. 5 1866. Feb. 1 Feb. Feb. Farm. By 2 pigs [Omitting until Ist week in June.] . By 1 yoke of oxen "■ 1 calf •' 15 bushels of potatoes, at 60 cents [Omitting until 1st week in August.] By 8 bush, potatoes, at $1.50 " cabbages " 12 doz. eggs, at 30 cents " 80 bunches onions, at 6 cents " 15 bunches turnips, at 5 cents. .... " 20 dozen green corn, at 15 cents. . " 12 lbs. butter, at 40 cents [Omitting until 1st week in October.] By 5 bbls. onions,' at $2.25 " cabbages " 15 doz. eggs, at 30 cents " melons " 15 bbls. onions, at $2.25 " 4 bbls. apples, at $4 " chickens [Omitting until 1st weelc in Dec'r.] . . Bv 50 lbs Dutter, at 45 cents " 940 lbs. pork, at 16 cents " 8 pigs, at $4 " J^beef, 156 lbs., at 13 cents " 92 lbs. hide, at %)4 cents [Omitting until 1st week in Febr'y.] By 25 bush, potatoes, at 60 cents. . " 8 bush turnips at 60 cents " 15 doz. eggs, at 35 cents " 4 steers $ 15 00 197 00 11 OO 9 00 12 00 8 40 3 60 1 50 75 3 00 4 80 11 25 5 25 4 50 4 30 33 75 16 00 15 40 32.50 150 40 32 00 20 28 7 82 15 00 4 eo 5 25 250 00 The above (being only detached parts, com- 3)rising merely six weeks of the year) will serve .as a specimen to assist in understanding the manner in which each sale and expense is recorded. The debit side, or expenses, should be on the left hand page, and the credit, or sales, ■on the opposite (right) hand page, and when either page is filled, both should be added up, and the amounts placed at the bottom, when new charges and credits should be commenced on the next two pages. In like manner go through the year, and then the amounts can be drawn off and used in the final settlement. The inventory at the end of the year will be omitted to save room, but the amount must be used in the settlement. To find the gain or loss for the year, take — The inventory April 1, 1865 Interest on that amount for one year Grocer's account for the year Butcher's account for the year Bxpenses of farm for the year,being the amount of all the debt pages of cash book $4,244 00 244 64 175 85 85 40 1,681 29 6,441 18 The inventory April 1, 1866 Amount of sales for the year Take expenses, value of farm, etc., April 1865 : >j et income $4,123 50 2,545 84 6,669 34 6,441 18 2-28 16 This amount is received for services of owner .and family, besides that portion of their board and clothing furnished by" the farm. It allows for the additional or decreased value of the farm buildings and fences. The last quarter of the book being devoted to separate fields, poultry, ■cattle, grocer's account, butcher's account, etc. , -a few items will be given to show the method in which they are kept. These individual accounts ■are of prime importance. They may be made to show not only what every field costs and returns, but what each crop in a field costs, and, in fact, what each and every individual portion -of a crop costs, as manure, seed, plowing, sowing ■or drilling, cultivating, weeding, harvesting, ■threshing and marketing. Thus, at a glance, the -farmer may readily discover wliich crops pay Tiest, the quantity of manure needed for special ■^crops to produce the most remunerative returns, liesides much other valuable information, by referring back from year to year. As a case in point: In the east where manure is an impor- tant and costly necessity in farming, where both commercial and domestic manures are used, the farmer can tell at a glance the relative economy of each, from their cost, including hauling and spreading, upon each and every crop to which they have been applied. So upon crops, the profits on which depend on the manure applied to previous crops, and the preceding crops themselves, as in the case of sugar beets, or other saccharine producing crops. An examina- tion of the books will easily show the character of the soil as to constituents and condition for the crops in question. A correct and minute system of book-keeping becomes absolutely necessary on all large estates, and in all agri- cultural transactions, where the farm and factory go hand in hand, as in dairying, sugar- making, etc. It is quite as necessary, however FARM ACCOUNTS 326 FARM ACCOUNTS small the farm or simple the operation, since any business requires correct data. CORN FIELD, (TWO ACRES SWAHD LAND.) Dr. May 1, " 1, -A ." 3, -4 H, *' 9, it 1(1, " in, June », " 20, July 1, Aug. Si5, Oct. 3,- 4, To 12 cords of manure, at p5 '* getting out and spreading " plowing " narrowing " furrowing one way, 3J4 feet apart '* seed com ". " planting " cultivating and hoeing " cutting and caring top stalks " harvesting " interest on land and tases $ 60 00 12 00 13 00 3 BO 2 00 1 00 8 00 6 BO 6 50 6B0 8 00 IB 00 6 BO 143 50 Cr. By 128 bushels corn, at $1 10 " 3 tons top stalks, at $10 " 4 tone butt stalks, at $8 Value received Cost of crop Net income on two acres $140 80 30 00 32 00 202 80 143 50 59 30 OARBOTS, (ONB-rOTJRTH OF AN ACHE.) Dr. May 12, " 13, " 20, Jnneao, Nov. 10, To 2 cords manure, at $B " drawing manure '^ plowing and preparing land . " seed and sowing. " hoeing and weeding " harvesting " interest on land and taxes.. . By 8,4B0 pounds carrots, at i4 cent per pound, or $10 per ton " value of tops Value received Cost of crop Net income $ 42 25 225 44 50 33 50 11 00 ONIONS, (one-half ACRE.) Dr. April 4, " 5, .> 6, June 6, Oct. 3, Nov. 6, To 4 cords of manure, at $5 " drawing and spreading " plowing " cultivating, harrowing and raking. " seed and sowing " hoeing " harvesting and topping. " drawing to packet and freight " barrels " interest on land and taxes $ 20 00 300 2 00 400 12 00 28 00 12 00 25 00 21 00 B 00 132 00 Cr. By 95 barrels onions, at $2, Cost of crop Net inconie BEEF ACCOtTNT. Dr. To 4 steers, at 84B " 3 tons salt hay, at $10 " H ton English hay " 30 bushels meal, at $1 10, (2 qts. each per day) $180 OO 30 00 10 00 Si 00 263 OO Cr. Cost of 4 steers By 4 steers Loss besides the care of feeding $253 00- 250 00 8 OO Mem.— Yet it is better to feed the hay upon the place, if as much can be obtained for it as it would bring if sold,, even if little is received for the labor of feeding out. The manure thus made should be estimated as part of the credit. COST OP RAISING "DAISY," A HEIFER TWO YEARS- OLD, AND NEAR CALVING. Dr. value when 4 weeks old as veal ■ 6 quarts of milk per day for 3 weeks ' 4 quarts of milk per day for next 3 weeks ■ 2 quarts of milk per day for next 3 weeks meal and grass to November 1 1 pint of meal per day to May 1 ' hay to May 1 ' care the first year Easture' till November 1 ay and grain to April 1 ' care the second year ; 12 00 3 78. 2 52 1 26. 1 25- 4 OO 4 00- 8 00- 3 00 15 00- 5 00. 59 81. Mem.— Not having calved, she is yet to be proved, al- though indications are that she will be worth all she cost. When she has been proved, her value may be entered, beneath her cost stated above. grocer's account. April 1, Sugar $2 15- 1 40- 2 00' 3, 2 lbs. tea 2 BO 3, 6, Crackers Flour 25 12 50 BUTCHER S account. April 1, 6, 7, 6 lbs. steak, at 20c 8 lbs. beef, a'. 14c . . IB lbs. fish, at 3c . . $1 20 1 12 4B [So keep accoiint to the end of the year.] A similar account of dry goods and of general household furnishing should he kept ; also, of all marketing sold. It is said that farmers are more- slack in their payments than most other business- men. It is true they generally pay in time; but they are often short of money and get trusted, for what they buy, thus keeping always in debt. This ought not so to be, and a little system in; keeping an account of the income and expenses, will have a favorable influence in assisting them to keep out of debt. In order that every record may be accurate, it is necessary that it be at- tended to each night, while fresh in the mind. A small book in the pocket, or a slate and pencil hanging in some convenient place, may assist in retaining the principal facts and figures until they FARMING 3^7 FARMING can be transferred to their appropriate places. Tlie foregoing is not given as an indication of expenses or prices. Tliese will vary with the locality; for instance, in the West, the manure account will be light, and so will be the labor account, in comparison with the New England States, on the other hand the price at which pro- ducts are sold will be less than in the East, not so much less than years ago, when there were few railways to give cheap transportation, yet the principle will hold good now as then. With this showing we must leave the subject only adding that the most successful farmers are those who keep a strict debit and credit account, and who are not afraid to look expenses in the face. FAKM BUILDINGS. The importance and necessity of convenient farm buildings is early seen in the settlement of new countries. For the tirst few years the buildings must necessarily be of the crudest character, but, as wealth increases, among the first efforts of the farmer is to improve his dwelling house and other farm buildings. These will be found treated of under the titles architecture, barns, dairy, and other buildings, which see. FARMERS' CLUBS. (See Fairs.) FARMING. To those who can look back to the days when the labors of the farm were the merest drudgery; when, a one-horse and a two- horse plow, a harrow, the crudest hoes, rakes, scythes, and reaping cradles constituted the working implements of the farm, and compare those of to-day, when plows of every conceiv- able pattern, with and without wheels, harrows, and scarifiers, for a great variety of purposes, rollers, grain drills, gang hoes, reapers and mowers,, horse-rakes, threshers, hay-tedders, hay- sweeps, horse forks and carriers, horse corn and cotton planters, cultivators, corn harvesters, huskers, stalk cutters, seed planters of every kind, nearly all of which may be operated with- out the driver being obliged to walk. To those, we say, who have witnessed all this, and, more- over, steam harnessed to the plow and threshers, and made to do the work of twenty horses at once, the change is surprising indeed. The power machinery of every half section farm now often represents more money than the entire value of a good farm forty years ago. In other words, the application of science to agriculture has increased our productions ten fold, and enabled the farmer to feel that his calling is not all mere drudgery. Not only has great progress been made in the application of machinery to the farm, but the investigations and labor of countless experi- menters has given us improved varieties of grain, vegetables, fruits and flowers, and farm animals so improved, that the farmer who died half a century ago, if he could come back,Avould not recognize his country nor even the earth upon which he once had lived. In these days, especi- ally in the West, it is the capital invested in implements, machinery, and stock, that gives the measure of success in farming. It enables the farmer to accomplish high farming at the lowest possible cost. It enables him to make a com- plete crop of corn, ready for husking, at less than one-and-one-quarter days' labor of a man and team per acre, and in favorable seasons he may accomplish sixty-five acres to the man and team employed. Modern improvement has enabled the farmer to raise crops of wheat at an outlay of $5 per acre, including cost of seed and harvesting. So, with all other crops, the intelligent use and care of machinery has not only increased the acreage, per man, six-fold, but has increased the average yield as well. This is all there is to high farming — the raising of maxi- mum crops at a minimum cost. Mr. T. S. Gold, one of the best farmers in Connecticut, and Secretary of the State Board of Agriculture, and a close observer, has this to say about farming in New England :' It is true that little judgment was used in first settling the country, and that many farms, or even larger districts, were cleared from the forests that should have been allowed to remain, to furnish timber for manufacturing and building, and shelter for fruits and crops. The introduction of agricultural machinery is render- ing the culture of these rough portions and the gathering of the hay relatively more expensive than upon smoother land, and there is no doubt that some entire farms thus circumstanced fail to return to their owners a fair equivalent for the labor and capital employed, and that many other farms have some portions which are a drag upon their better parts, a sinking-fund to swallow up the profits derived from successful culture else- where. I do not refer to those expensive labors in clearing rocky land, or draining wet land, or reclaiming sandy land by ashes and lime or green crops, but to the continued culture of rough and impoverished lands, the gathering of hay from rough meadows, still mowed because they were once productive, and other like practices followed because under other circumstances they were profitable. Lands so situated that they cannot profitably be manured or even cultivated, because they are so difficult of access, must be classed here as not paying for the labor required. Wherever we find farmers laying aside these old-time ways, concentrating their energies upon their better lands, adapting their farming to the changing conditions of the times in stock, crops, and improved implements and machinery, we find them thrifty, enjoying the comforts and luxuries of life, with means to support society, to educate their children, laying up a comfort- able competency for old age, and to give their children a better start in life than they themselves enjoyed. Again, if farming does not pay, how is it that all the cultivators of the soil live? They always get their living by their occupation, not by dependence upon other callings. The agri- cultural laborer always has his sustenance and always secures his wages. The failure of a farmer to meet his obligations, unless he becomes involved by some outside venture, is a rarity so great that it may be said never to occur, while every community can show examples of ruined fortunes, involving many other parties, in the more enticing walks of trade and manufactures. Agriculture absorbs and employs all men who fail in other avocations either from physical disability or other causes. The disjointed parts of lives spent in other callings, which absorb their mental powers and their physical training in periods of rest, are mostly spent in the culture of the earth. Agriculture has to feed all these and their families. Adventurers of every kind take rest and find renewed strength on the farm for new enterprises, and come back again often with blasted hopes and shattered health and for- tunes. As showing the advantage of capital in farming, in England, and the rule will hold good everywhere, the capital being expended judi- FARMS AND CROPS 328 FARMS AND CROPS ciously, Mr. Mechi, the well known and successful English farmer, who went into farming because he thought it would pay better than any other sure business, stated that for his farm of one hundred and seventy acres he paid £23 pjer acre, and invested nearly as much more in buildmgs, drainage, roads, clearances, and machinery. These outlays he regarded as constituting his invested capital as landlord, claiming in return, as yearly rent, £3 per acre, or about four and one-half per cent. Further outlay considered as capital invested by him in his capacity of tenant farmer, averaged per acre as follows : December 31, 1868, live stock, £6 10s. ; farm houses, £1 Is. ; tillages, manure, etc., £3 15s. 6d.; implements and machinery, £2 10s. ; hay, corn, etc., unsold, £3 5s. ;— total per acre, £16 Is. 6d. With this tenant's capital of £16 per acre, he has for several years obtained from the farm an annual surplus of more than £600 available for rent and profit, after paying all expenses. The statement carried out for the one hundred and seventy acres shows a landlord's capital of about £7,800, giving a rent income of nearly four and one-half per cent. ; and a tenant's capital of £3,730, giving a profit of over £860, or nearly ten per cent., after payment of rent and expenses. Mr. Mechi states, however, that his average annual profit as tenant for a course of years has been twelve and one-half per cent. His large outlay for live stock, which he feeds mostly on purchased food, is the key to his frequent and extraordinary crops and large profits; foi* through this means he is enabled to apply great quantities of rich manure to his deeply cultivated land. Such a system accounts for his production of forty tons of mangels per acre in 1869, and for his frequent production of forty-eight to sixty-four bushels of wheat per acre. Yet the soil of his farm was naturally poor, needing more outlay to keep it in condition than would be required on better land ; and experience had convinced him that he could have done better with a tenant's capital of £30 to £35 per acre. Many farmers in Norfolk and Lincolnshire employ a capital of £30 to £30 per acre to advantage. It is beyond question that a diflSculty with many farmers, is, they farm in a haphazard way. 'They fail to understand that to the plants to be grown, the soil, climate, rain- fall and other conditions must be adapted. Thus they lose much vahiable time and money in try- ing crops iieither adapted to the soil or climate. A case in point, undertaken by the French gov- ernment, and later, still another by the United States, in tea and coffee culture, will Illustrate the point: M. Naudin illustrates the losses of time and money which arise from inattention to the meteorology of acclimation by the attempt made many years ago to introduce tea culture into France. The experiment, made at a large expense, failed for the reason that the temperature and the degree of atmospheric moisture necessary for the profitable culture of the plant did not exist in that country. The costly trial was undertaken with- out a proper preliminary investigation. The suc- cess which has attended the recenj; enterprise of the English government in the cultivation of the cinchona in India, was the consequence of a care- ful study of the conditions, climate, etc. , of the South American habitat of the tree, and a selec- tion of localities in which those conditions could be sufficiently approximated. FARMS AND CROPS. The animus of the present age is toward the concentration of capital in gigantic enterprises. Thus within the last fifty years immense establishments have grown up for the extensive manufacture of almost every article required, either for ornament or use. Agricultural enterprises, as a matter of course, can not be carried out in the same direction except in a limited sense, as in the manufacture of but- ter, cheese, the artificial feeding of stock in large numbers, and the carrying forward of the system- 'atic raising of crops on a large scaler under the direction of the master and by means of a large outlay of capital . This however can scarcely suc- ceed, except occasionally in the production of special crops, and while the land is new; for, it may be set down as a fact incontrovertible, that the larger the estate, worked by direct hiring, the smaller the average profits. So far, the history of these gigantic farms is that in the end the result has been failure; the only exceptions being when bodies of wild land have been secured at a very low price, sown to wheat, and the land disposed of at a profit at the end of a few years, or when the surrounding country had become densely enough settled so as to add many times in value to the original cost of the land. Hence in the set- tlement of new districts of a country, it always holds good, that, as the inhabitants increase, farms are divided up, and become smaller and smaller in acreage, and that in proportion to the diminished size of the farms, the system of cul- tivation improves. A case in point showing the effects of thorough cultivation in the South will suffice to illustrate ; In 1874, at the semi-annual convention of the Georgia State Agricultural Society, a Mr. R. A. Hardaway gave a detailed statement and comparison of his farming on fifteen acres, as against the average as indicated by the tax returns of the State. 'The total cash receipts from his fifteen acres, for the years named below, were as follows : iS'je 1867 186B 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 6 acres of corn and 9 acres of cotton 5 acres of corn and 10 acres of cotton — 15 acres of cotton 15 acres of cottpn 15 acres of cotton 3 acres oats, 6 acres cotton, 4 acres corn, 1 acre potatoes, 2 acres rice 4 acres corn, 4 acres cotton, 7 acres oats. 3 acres corn, 5 acres oats, 1 acre potatoes, 6 acres rested Total value of crops for eight years |1,127 18 1,185 80 1,721 44 1,614 02 1,316 41 926 75 951 60 634 00 9,477 20 Mr. Hardaway gives the cost of labor for the cultivation of these fifteen acres at $100 per annum, and adds to cash received from products of the farm, premiums amounting to $575; making his total cash receipts $10,053.30 for the eight years, with but $800 deducted for labor. The returns of the tax-receivers of the State, made under oath, gives the following average yield of the three crops named, for the year 1873: Corn, five and one-half bushels per acre; oats, four and one-half bushels; and one bale of cotton to three and one-half acres of land. Comparing these results with the crops made on the farm mentioned, the comparison is as follows : 1806.— The two hundred and fourteen bushels of corn produced by me on six acres would require forty-one acres, and the seven bales of cotton made Dy me on ninje acres would require twenty-four acres. Here, then, would be sixty-xive acres against fifteen acres, and an additional expense of $392.45 for cultivating the extra fifty acres. PARMS AND CROPS 329 FARMS AND CROPS 1867.— The one hundred and sixty-nine bushels of corn produced by me on iive acres would requh-e thirty-three .acres, and the nine bales of cotton which I made ou ten acres would require thirty-one acres. The case stands thus, for this year: Sixty-four acres against fifteen acres— forty-nine acres leas, and $392.45 of extra expense saved in ■cultivation. 1868. —Fourteen bales of cotton produced on fifteen nacres, the amount of my crop for this year, would require forty-nine acres, with the extra amount for cultivation. 1869.— B''iiteen bales of cotton on fifteen acres, against the same amount on fifty-three acres; a difference of thirty-eight acres and S392.45 of extra expense in cul- tivation. 1870.— I this year made eighteen bales of cotton on fifteen acres. Tailing the State average, it would have Tequired sixty-three acres to have produced this crop— a saving of forty-eight acres and the difference in the expense of cultivation. 1871.— This year I made 168bushels of oats on two acres against thirty -seven; five bales of cotton on six acres against seventeen; 168 bushels of corn on four acres against thirty-two, a saving of seventy-four acres with the Additional expense of cultivation. 1872.— My crop on fifteen acres was as follows this year; Two hundred and eighty bushels of corn on four acres, -against forty acres required for the same amount by the State average; four bales of cotton on four acres, asainst fourteen acres; three hundred and fifty-nine bushels of ■oats on seven acres, against eighty acres ; making, in all, one hundred and thirty-ibur acres, against fifteen — a •saving of one hundred and nineteen acres with its extra ■expense of cultivation. 1873. — On three acres I made three hundred and four bushels of corn, against fifty-eight acres required by the State average; on five acres, three hundred and thirty bushels of oats, against seventy-three acres ; making, in all, one hundred and thirty-one acies against eight'. In the eight years I have saved in cultivation an average of .sixty-seven acres annually, with its additional expense of S392.45 for cultivation, aggregating a total of $2,339.60. It must not be inferred from this that it would be advisable to reduce all farms to small areas. Until a country becomes densely settled; it is not practicable to work a few acres. On cheap lands the profit is in working large areas, by means of machinery and horse power; nevertheless it is the fact, as a country is settled up, large bodies of land continue to be cultivated to special crops, without division, until they become exhausted. No better exemplification of this fact can be fiven than in the large areas of waste land in the outh, that years ago were utterly run down under the exhaustive system then practiced. We see the same thing to-day in some sections of the "West, in a limited sense. Yet in the West there is a constant tide of emigration pouring in, and the lands are subdivided and eagerly bought up by the new comers, in small areas of forty acres and upward, and, before they have seriously de- teriorated. Hon. J. R. Dodge, in an address before the National Agricultural Congress in 1874, stated some curious facts in relation to .areas of particular crops, from which we extract as follows: When we consider that less than a third of the area of the States, and less than a ■fifth of the entire domain of the United States, is mapped into farms, and remember that of this farm-area only one-fourth is tilled or mowed; .and when we further reflect that the average jield per acre could be doubled if the many could be brought up to the plane of the few in the prac- tice of intensive culture, then we begin to realize what numbers our country is capable of feeding, and what waste of toil and effort comes from neglect of the economical lessons taught by the .statistics of scientific agriculture. We now know that our wheat occupies an area less than the .surface of South Carolina and, if the yield should equal that of England, half of that acre- .age would suffice. We know of our natural crop, maize, that it covers a territoiy not larger than the Old Dominion, and might pro- duce its amplest stores within narrower limits than the present boundaries of Virginia. The potato crop could grow in the area of Delaware, though yielding less than a hundred bushels per acre; the barley for our brewing requires less than the area of a half-dozen counties; and to- bacco enough to glut our.ow.n.and European mar- kets, is grown on an area twenty miles square. The following tables are important, not only as being brought down to the latest corrected statis- tics, but also as serving as a continued basis upon which to found values of farm products. The synopsis of total numbers of live stock, and total values which follow are also important. The first table shows the average cash value per acre of the principal crops of the farm, taken together, for the year 1879. Maine New Hampshire Vermont Massachusetts Rhode Island Connecticut New York New Jersey Pennsylvania Delaware Maryland Virginia North Carolina. . '. South Carolina Georgia Florida Alabama Mississippi Louisiana Texas Arkansas Tennessee West Virginia Kentucky Ohio Michigan Indiana Illinois Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa Missouri Kansas Nebraska California Oregon Nevada, Colorado, and the Territories, Average value per acre. $13 SI 13 56 U 69 26 71 39 32 16 82 14 15 18 05 17 68 15 80 17 82 10 91 10 79 10 09 10 35 8 52 13 49 14 76 22 40 14 69 20 40 12 39 12 74 13 58 15 58 18 96 14 66 12 47 13 80 10 29 888 10 78 9 11 8 60 17 18 17 11 16 13 Table showing the average yield and cash value per acre, and price per bushel, pound, or ton, of farm products for the year 1879. Products. Indian corn bushels. Wheat " Kye " Oats " Barley " Buckwheat " Potatoes " Tobacco pounds . Hay tons . Cotton pounds. -a 6 '^^ OJ S" < ■< 29.3 - $0 37.5-t- 13.8 - 1 10.8-!- 14.5 -1- 65.6- 28.7- 33.1-1- 24.0 — 68.9- 20.5 -f 59.8- 98.9 - 43.6- 795.1 + . 1.294- 5.8-- 9 32 0- - 188.0 - 10.24- $10 93 15 27 54 50 14 11 12 28 4:1 on 46 18 12 04 19 22 FARMS AND CROPS 330 FARMS AND CROPS Table showing the average cash value per acre of farm products In the United States for the year 1879. States, i ■4^ 01 1 i o f 1 .a 1 o i I 1 s Maine .■ .. $23 80 35 35 26 28 28 08 24 00 31 46 20 13 19 72 18 90 14 85 15 91 9 31 8 70 5 62 6 61 688 8 68 9 93 n 40 13 39 13 92 9 25 14 26 11 84 13 65 16 65 11 22 10 85 15 21 9 45 9 12 935 8 91 8 61 32 13 29 76 27 00 S23 04 17 B5 21 13 27 00 ■27'66' 21 00 16 97 20 20 17 94 30 45 11 68 8 96 13 19 11 34 $17 28 11 52 9 48 11 18 11 05 14 08 9 75 7 50 8 16 11 05 9 60 5 67 6 40 6 10 S12 90 16 80 18 2D 15 50 10 56 9 89 12 40 12 80 11 16 7 70 920 4 56 7 20 10 20 8 55 18 38 11 05 7 08 9.58 15 50 10 67 6 30 7 14 6 05 8 97 11 37 7 93 8 64 11 70 8 05 838 6 40 6 50 7 36 32 11 15 84 16 50 $20 00 16 38 31 06 16 80 17 10 14 96 18 00 "18 26' $17 70 14 53 13 84 7 9^ "ioei' 10 80 19 32 13 20 $56 70 65 68 58 00 58 24 62 00 51 94 37 44 52 51 38 48 49 80 36 40 38 64 67 96 84 28 71 04 $16566' '168 '66' 157 80 isi'ai' "si 65' 38 15 38 92 $10 51 9 71 9 06 24 96 27 65 13 65 11 36 16 06 17 26 15 68 17 40 14 76 15 60 7 81 23 76 Vermont Rhode Island Connecticut New York Pennsylvania Maryland 14 20 11 16 Virginia $17 16- 15 73 South Carolina Georgia 15 60 Florida 10 so- 11 09 9 79 98 00 68 73 21 29 25 81 ls vy Mississippi 18 60 20 20- Texas 8 74 8 66 8 72 14 04 15 12 23 40 22 46 23 75 30 01 13 10 11 B6 9 38 14 14 9 79 9 49 17 23 15 68 13 78 12 00 10 01 7 10 6 32 9 78 12 70 8 3a 12 42 10 98 9 46 10 78 8 42 10 37 10 20 6 72 20 71 22 03 60 68 79 98 65 00 34 04 83 66 37 41 46 33 27 88 44 00 33 66 34 50 37 53 43 68 63 30 29 16 69 55 51 66 110 40 "40 '66' 39 48 39 65 40 26 "42'66 39 00 123 96 "33'i5' 60 62 12 57 19 OS 14 99 10 92 14 58 12 46 15 32 11 91 11 36 12 36 744 6 99 10 00 6 70 5 91 16 19 22 68 16 00 17 50- Arkansas 27 60' "sm V& 68 25 08 18 46 21 06 13 57 16 47 12 47 9 90 "'6'45 7 40 12 88 19 20 12 24 13 81 "i435' 10 08 14 00 13 92 11 90 12:40 12 42 12 60 IB 47 17 00 36 8(V W'eit Virginia Kentucky .... Ohio Indiana nUnois Wisconsin Minnesota Missouri Kansas California. Oregon Nevada, Colorado, and the Terri- 23 75. A general summary showing the estimated quan- tities, for the United States, number of acres, and aggregate value of the principal crops of the farm in 1879. Products. , 1 Quantities. Number of acres. Value. Indian Corn, bush. Wheat " Eye " Oats " Barley " Buckwheat.. " Potatoee " 1,547,901,790 448,756,630 23,639,460 363,761,320 40,288,100 13,140,000 181,626,400 53,085,450 33,545,950 1,635,450 , 12,683,500 1,680,700 639,900 1,836,800 $580,486,217 497,030,142 15,507,4«1 120,533,294 28,714,444 7,866,191 79,153,673 Total 2,619,108,700 104,097,750 493,100 27,484,991 12,595,500 1,324,281,392 Tobacco., pounds. Hay tons. Cotton bales. 391,278,350 35,498,000 6,261,902 22,727,534 380,804,494 342,140,987 Grand total 144,670,341 1,919,954,397 The live stock of the United States for 1880, as to number and total value, and average prices, foots up as follows: Of horses, there were in the United States and territories in 1880, 11,201,800 head, valued at $613,296,611, the average price being 154.75; mules, number, 1,729,500, value, $105,948,319, average price, $61.26; milch cows, number, 12,027,000, value, $279,899,420, average price, $33 37; oxen and other cattle, number, 31,331,000, value, $341,761,154, aver- age price, $16.10; sheep, number, 40,765,900, average price, $2.31 ; swine, number, 34,034,100, value, $145,781,515, average price $4.38. In Europe the governments are fully alive to the importance of statistical information. In the- United States, until within a few years, the sta- tistics, especially agricultural statistics, have been meagre and unreliable; later tliey havfr become mora full. Many Ptate Boards of Agri- culture have moved in the matter, and our statistics are now respectable at least. The average yield per acre in Great Britain for 1878, was wheat, 30 bushels; oats, 50 bush- els; barley, 36 bushels; potatoes, 166 bushels; hay, 2 tons. The agricultural statistics of France, as published in 1876, are as follows; Total area, 130,910,000 acres; cultivated area, 101,300,000 acres; area in cereals, 37,050,000 acres. The table below shows the principal crops, acres, bushels, and bushels per acre, in France : Crop. Wheat Spelt Kye Barley Buckwheat . Corn Oats Potatoes ... Acres. Bushels. 16,942,861 1,168,315 4,539.596 2,665,9?7 1,630,318 1,632,916 8,647,512 3,035,6-ao 271,049,123 20,239,058 75,221,67' 52.713 848 16,76S,.396 20,151,166 209,461,607 382,054.473 Bushels per acre. 16 17.33 16.57 19.77 10.28 12.34 24.22 107.61 In Great Britain the agricultural statistics are very- thorough. The following summary and com- parisons for 1878^the latest received — will be: FAT 331 FECUNDATION^ interesting, especially as snowing (their popula- tion being to the United States as thirty-six to fifty) the true basis upon which the United States rests, in the elements of real national wealth, as the following tables will show, this foundation being universally accorded to be the diversified wealth which a country may have for use and export : Great Britain, 187S. United States, 1878. ' Total acreage in crops, fallow, and hay 47,327,000 3,382,000 4,184,000 2,723,000 Total acreage in crops, fallow, and hay Wheat (acres) Oats (acres) 179,000,000 Wheat facresi . 32,000,000 13,I76,000. 1,793,000 Barley (acres) Total of cereals. Including corn Total In all cereals. Including peas and. beans 11,030,000 97,960.000 Potatoes 1,365,000 3,400,000 1.776,000 13,000,000' Turnips and other green crops LIVE STOCK. Horses Cattle Sheep Hogs Total live stock 1,927,000 9,761,000 33,571,0OJ 3,768,000 48,027,000 PTorses Cattle Sheep Hogs Total live stock 10.611,000 31,850.000 36,575.0n0' 33,134,000 118,170,000- It will be seen from the foregoing that the United States rests for her prosperity essentially upon an agricultural basis, and that our averages compare favorably with that of two of the greatest agricul- tural countries of Europe. This is -undoubtedly due to our improved processes of cultivation and improved implements. Within the last few years a system of tile draining has been adopted in many sections, especially in the "West, which has added materially in lengthening the growing season, and in materially increasing the average of crops per acre. FARRIER. One who shoes horses, or treats their diseases; the latter department is now com- ing into the ' hands of educated , men, called veterinary surgeons. FARROW. A litter of pigs. FASCICULUS, OR FASCICLE. In bot any, an inflorescence in which the flower-stalks of various lengths form a summit somewhat level, and the uppermost buds expand first, as in the Sweet William. FASCID. In anatomy, a tendinous expansion lying between muscles. FAT. An unctuous, solid substance, or, more properly, a concrete oil, deposited in little mem- branous cells in various parts of animal bodies. It is generally white or yellowish, with little taste or smell, and varies in consistency accord- ing to the relative quantities of stearine and ole- ine, which it contains. Goats' fat, besides these principles, contains also hircine; to which it owes its peculiar smell. Different kinds of fat liquefy at different temperatures. Lard is softer than tallow, melts at 97° ; but the fat extracted from meat by boiling requires a heat of 127°. The ultimate elements of animal fat are the same as those of vegetable oils. According to the analysis of Clievreul, 100 parts of human fat are composed of 79.0 carbon, 11.4 hydrogen, and 9. 6 oxygen. Hog's lard and mutton suet are very similarly constituted. Pat is insoluble in water, alcohol, and ether. The strong acids dissolve, and gradually decompose it. With the alkalies it combines and forms soap; hard with soda, and soft with potassa. Fat serves to defend the muscles and bones against cold, to temper the acids of aliments, and to invigorate and support the whole frame. FATHOM. A measure of six feet. FATTENING STOCK. (See Feeding.) FAUCES. The part of the throat at the root of the tongue. FAULT. In geology, an interi-uption in the continuation of a stratum, the bed having been broken up by an earthquake and separated. The crevice between the parts is often filled with clay, which forms an impervious barrier to- drainage. FAUNA. The animals of a country. FAUX. The opening or throat of monopeta- lous flowers, like the snap-dragon, sage, etc. FAVOSUS. Marked like a honey-comb. FEATHER - BOARDING. Weather-board- ing, the edges of the boards overlapping. FEATHER-GRASS. 8tipa pennata. A very- inferior grass. FEATHERS. The covering of birds, answer- ing the purpose and beipg of the same composi tion as the hair and fur of animals. Goose- feathers for beds are, in Europe, plucked in the spring, midsummer, and September, each parcel being dried in an oven. If they become foul, it may be remedied by boiling them, enclosed in bags, in an abundance ofwater for a few minutes. The quill is prepared by dipping in a quantity of sand heated to 150° Fahrenheit, and afterward rubbing it strongly with flannel until it becomes- FEBRIFUGE. Any medicine which allays, the heat and violence of fevers, as lemonade^ Seidlitz powders, tartar emetic, etc. FECES. Excrements, dregs. FECULA. Starchy matter. FECUNDATION. In horticulture, the art of sprinkling the yellow powder (pollen) of the stamens of one flower upon the stigma or female organ of another, to produce new varieties of seed, is called artificial fecundation or impreg- nation. Exjjerimenters and propagators have obtained in this way many choice fruits. Varieties of plants, especially melons, are frequently in j ured J'EEDING 332 FEEDING and lost by planting them near each other, from fecundation arising from the pollen of one kind •heing carried to another b}- insects or the wind. Hence annuals of the same species set out for seed should be placed far apart. FEEDING. The proper and econornical feed- ing of live stock has always attracted the close study of intelligent stock-growers. The time has long since passed when it is considered true economy to allow young stock to shift for tliem- .selves without the intelligent care of the master, and proper feeding. It is no longer thought economical to raise animals on only sufficient food in winter to keep life in them, or until the succeeding spring shall again start them on the new grass. Tlie most successful feeders of to-day feed all stock liberally, and such as are ■destined for human food, are fed fully from birth, and until ready for the butcher's block. But the system of forcing is carefully avoided with all stock intended for either labor, or breed- ing. The object here is to develop strong con- iStitutions and ample bone and muscle, that a long and useful life may result. Hence a differ- ent class of foods are used from those intended for mere fattening. In this, again, the question of the proper foods to be used becomes impor- tant. To reach the best results, feeding must be carried out systematically. The mere feeding of an animal constantly full, with rich food, will not necessarily cause it to fatten kindly. The food must be perfect food ; that is adapted to the special requirements of the animal. Young ani- mals; those required for labor; those to be used for fast driving, and those ready for feeding ripe (fully fat) each require different food, and, indeed, different care. Here again comes in the question of temperature. In some countries, and this is especially true in the West, stock require perfect artificial means of keepmg warm in win- ter. In some countries where fuel is cheap and food dear, it lias been found economical to use fire-heat in the stables, and also the use of cooked food. In the United States, adding to the food ration, with good shelter is as a rule most eco nomical. In the fattening of animals, the sooner they can be brought up to a fully fat weight, the greater will be the profit; a weight of say 1,500 pohnds for cattle, 300 pounds for the large breeds of swine, 200 pounds for the small breeds, and from 100 to 150 pounds for sheep, according to the breed. To do this they must be pressed for- ward from birth, by means of the food best adap- ted to the animal, and marketed before they be- come fully grown. In summer a pasture con- taining a variety of good grasses will furnish this perfect food. If anything is needed more, it may measurably be found, for fattening, in Indian corn, or meal as a supplementary food, to be given at night. For young animals, work- ing, and, fast driving stock, oats are proper. The two first, however, may have any kind of mill stuff, with profit, if cheaper than oats. In the winter all stock in addition to good, sweet hay, should receive daily such grain as will best answer the end, except that corn meal, or corn may constitute a part of the daily ration for all classes of stock, since more fat is required for the animal waste than in summer. For dairy stock the young animals should be fed identically as for working stock, but not forced, since suffi- cient frame-work for continued usefulness must l)e provided. Milking stock may receive largely of corn meal, in winter, and ground rye, oats, barley, or mill feed, according to relative prices. Dr. Ihompson, of the University of Glasgow, Scotland, gives the following data in experimen- tal researches of the food of animals, and the fattening of cattle, from which we extract to show the correctness of the opinions here stated : The importance of attention to the proper equilibrium of the constituents of the food is clearly pointed out in the following table, from which it is evident, food containing the greatest amount of starch or sugar does not produce the largest quantity of butter, although these substances are .supposed to supply the butter ; but the best product of milk and butter is yielded by those species of food which seem to restore the equilibrium of the ani- mals most eflSciently. The first column in the table represents the food used by two cows; the second column gives the mean milk of the two animals for five days; the third, the butter dur ing periods of five days; while the fourth con- tains the amount of nitrogen in the food taken by both animals during the same periods: — Food Eations. Milk in fivu Days. Butter in ave Days. Nitrogen in Food in five Days. Grass Barley and hay Malt and hay lbs. 114 107 Wi 106 108 108 lbs. .3-50 3-43 3-20 3-44 3-48 3-72 lbs. 2-32 3-89 3-34 Barley, molassee, hay. . Barley, linseed, andhay Beanti and hay 382 4-14 5-27 Our author says, we may infer, from these results, that grass affords the best products, be- cause the nutritive and calorifient constituents are combined in this form of food, in the most advantageous relations. The other kinds of food have been subjected to certain artificial condi- tions, by which their equilibrium may have been disturbed. In the process of hay-making, for example, the coloring matter of the grass is either removed or altered; a portion of the sugar is washed out or destroyed by fermentation, while certain of the soluble salts are removed by every shower of rain which falls during the curing of the hay. Perhaps similar observations are more or less applicable to the other species of food enumerated In relation to this experiment, the grains mentioned may have substituted for them, oats and Indian corn, equal parts. This will, with good hay, constitute approximately a per- fect food. Many 'analyses collated, compared and brought together have given the following average of equivalents in the principal foods, used in feeding stock ; The following are consid- ered equivalent to 100 pounds of best meadow hay: 383 parts of oat straw, 460 parts of barley straw, 479 parts of rye straw, 460 parts of wheat straw, 390 parts of potatoes, 382 parts of carrots, 676 parts of turnips, 70 parts of Indian corn, 65 parts of barley, 60 parts of oats, 27 parts of peas, 23 parts of beans, 22 parts of cotton seed or linseed meal. It will be seen that it is neither practic- able to feed on straw alone, or on turnips alone. They could not eat enough straw to support life in winter, that is to say, 120 pounds per day; so the turnips would be too watery, but by combin- ing the different substances named, as Indian corn, with straw, hay and carrots, or straw, hay FEEDING 333 FEEDINa and corn, we may make a perfect food represent- ing 100, and that will keep tlie animal in thrift, and at the same time consume straw, otherwise of little value. There is one other important point in the feeding of stock that deserves special notice. They are more creatures of habit than is gener- ally supposed. Hence the imperative necessity of feeding at strictly regular hours. Another important matter is the necessity of changing their diet. Animals will live on one particular food. They will even thrive for a time; but the best results, economically considered, have always been gained by varying the food, accord- ing to the appetite of the animal. The power of animals to accommodate themselvesto newforms of food, is extraordinary. Grass-eating animals may be transformed into grain-eating animals, but, here again, gi-ain is one of the natural foods of the genus boa (ox) and equus (horse). The dog however, in a wild state, is strictly a carnivorous animal, Ijut in a state of domesticity, they may be kept in good health without a particle of meat; but, here again, the food must be highly nitrogenous, and the carbon must be in the form of oil rather than of starch. Icelandic cows are said to be fed partially on dried fish. Horses in Central Asia are recorded to be fed on raw meats, and both horses and cattle have been fed on beef tea and soups to restore them from a debilitated to a stronger condition. Yet this change in sus- tenance was not brought about suddenly. It was accomplished gradually, year by year, generation by generation. The change from green to dry, and dry to green food should be measurably so. It is as necessary as that they be not confined exclusively to one diet. Dr. Wolff, u, competent • German authority, found that thirty pounds of best young clover hay per day, would keep a cow in good milk. This contains of dry substance, twenty-three pounds, of this, the albuminoids, 3.21; the carbohydrates, 11.38, and the fat, 0.63, or 15.13 of the twenty-three parts was digested. The richest and best meadow hay, he found to contain, in thirty pounds, 23.3 pounds of organic substance, of this the following are digestible: Albuminoids, 2.49 pounds; carbohydrates, 13.75 pounds, and fat, 0.43 pounds ; or in the 23. 2 parts, 15. 66 parts are digestible. Hay in the West is one of the most expensive of the stock foods raised in all that great region known as the corn belt. In the more central portions of the corn zone, a ton of corn and fodder can be produced for less money than a ton of the best meadow hay . Hence, feeders use as largely of corn as possible, and when finishing off cattle fat, it is given almost exclusively, or with only enough rough fodder to properly divide it. Regularity in the amount of the ration fed is of particular importance. All animals should be fed at exactly regular hours, and just what they will eat clean. If any is left, it should be removed and given to other hungrier animals. As to the time of feeding three times a day is sufficient for all except the horse. The horse should have three or four feeds of grain per day, according to the nature of his work, and also hay in his manger at all times. In the horse, unlike the ox and sheep, the stomach is small, and requires filling often. The same is measur- ably true of swine. The best results with fattening swine will be found to be to give them what they will eat clean, four times a day. Whatever the food used in fattening animals, the object of the feeder should be to get the greatest quantity of food eaten daily that the animal may be capable of digesting. There will always be some animals. that will be delicate and indifferent feeders. These should always be separated from the hearty ones and given special care and food. Get rid of them at the fii-st jjossible opportunity; certainly as soon at they are in passaloly salable condition. There is no money either in trying to raise or fat- ten such. When cattle are kept in a stable there should bearoom, frost proof, where the morning's food may. be prepared over night, if mixed food or wet food is given. If meal or other grain food is given without mixing with hay or straw — and in our opinion this is better for cattle — it should be given only moist enough so it will not be dry. A little experience will soon enable the feeder to so prepare the meal for the whole stock over night, that it will be in proper condition in the morning. If it be mixed with cut food, use clear bright oat straw if possible, and not cut shorter than two inches. Experience has proved the inutility of feeding hard, cut fodder, to cattle, and especially that cut short. Feed just what they will eat clean night and morning. Supplement this through the day with what good hay they will eat. What is left from day to day may be taken from the mangers and given to the stock cattle in the yards. Whatever the bedding used, it should be soft and plentiful. Many good feeders, however, prefer a hard smooth floor. Our own experience is not averse to this. If the passage ways to the urine conduits are pi-operly made, animals may thus be kept both clean and comfort- able. In the West and South, comparatively few cattle are fed in stables. Where food is plenty and cheap and labor scarce and high, the feeder will figure very closely as between enhanced weights in fattening, and the cost of putting on the flesh. Hay is often a scarce commodity. Corn to be fed must be husked, shelled and ground. When, it is fed in the ear, we pre- fer it snapped with the husk on. Under any system of feeding whole grain, much is lost for the want of proper digestion, when swine are not used as gleaners of the droppings. Care- ful experiments made some years since at the Illinois Industrial University, as between feeding in stables with ground and unground corn, showed a decided profit in the latter way of feeding. This we have also found to be the case. Under this system of feeding, whether the stock are fed snapped corn, — that is, corn pulled from the standing stalks with so much of the husk as will adhere, or fed with husked corn, very little is lost. The cattle are fed plentifully. What they leave and that which passes undigested is picked up by swine, two of each being usually allowed to each steer to be fattened, and at the end of the day the hogs are given some corn additional, if they need it. Thus, except in very inclement weather, steers may be made fat on about fifty bushels of corn in about three to four months feeding, and the shoats require but little additional food to bring them up to heavy weights. The illustration, page 384, shows a Short Horn steer from fiush pasture, and fattened in the field. The best plan we have ever tried for out-door fattening is to feed corn cut at the roots and shocked. This is hauled daily on truck wagons, when the ground is hard, or on sleds when there is snow, and fed, corn and fodder together. The cattle are not expected to eat the fodder clean, but usually FEEDING 334 FELDSPAR they may be expected to consume the blades, which with the ears are the vaUiable part. The feeding is twice a day, in feeding lots — a lot for the morning feed and one for the evening feed. The cattle being about done with the ears, hogs are turned in to glean the scattered corn and droppings. Thus, whatever the system of feed- ing, if cattle have shelter from stormy and inclement weather, they may be made very fat, and healthfully so, and, where labor is scarce and corn cheap, at a minimum expense. We could give tables of foods without number. It is hardly necessary ; certainly not in the West, the South, and Southwest, where corn is found in plenty, and the feeding can not be carried on scientifically, with profit, on account of the cheapness of food. The feeder must be guided almost solely by the relative prices of commodi- ties. Corn, either in its natural state or ground, . ous food for growing animals; that, tlius fed, they will lack bone and muscle, and caijnot be expected to grow up healthy. If an animal were to be raised exclusively on corn this might be true, but the same would be true of other grain. Neither horses, cattle, or sheep can be properly raised exclusively on grain. Oats aie undoubtedly the best grain that can be fed to growing stock in connection with hay. Oats, however, cannot be afforded. Good hay is a perfect food, so far as the distension of the stomach is concerned. The animal cannot eat enough to fatten upon. Our pastures make a perfect food, so far as muscular development is concerned. For cattle, whole corn, that is, the ears, husks, and leaves, forms a perfect food either for growing or fattening stock in winter, so soon as they get strength of jaw sufficient to crush the corn. Therefore, no breeder need be SHOET HORN OX, FIELD FATTENED. will be the chief reliance for fattening. When this is the case, and it is deemed necessary, the following will be found to be a good condiment for special feeding, to be given one pound with each feed of meal : Twenty -five pounds ground linseed oil-cake, ten pounds ground flaxseed, forty pounds cornmeal, twenty-four ounces ground turmeric root, two ounces ginger, two ounces carraway seed, eight ounces gentian, two ounces cream of tartar, one pound sulphur, one pound common salt and ten ounces coriander seed. Mix the whole together, and when fed use a quarter of a pound of molasses to each feed, the molasses to be used in the water for wetting the food in which the condiment is given. Where sorghum molasses is made this will not be found to be expensive. So much has been said by theorists about perfect foods, and the danger from feeding corn, that many persons have been "brought to believe that corn is almost a danger- afraid that cattle from calfhood up will fail to develop, with plenty of good hay and corn, or corn meal in winter, and plenty of good, flush pasture in summer, with pure water at all times. In conclusion, it is only necessary to add that he who feeds best has the best stock and makes the most money. FEELERS. The antennae of insects, or, according to entomologists, organs used for pre- hension. FELDSPAR. A mineral abounding in granite and transition rocks; it is crystalline, of a pearly lustre, and of various colors, usually yellowish or reddish. Silicate of potash and alumina, con- tains from eleven to fourteen per cent, of potash, and furnishes, by slow decay in the soil, that important alkali to plants. Albite is a variety containing soda. An abundance of decaying vegetable matter in the soil, or the addition of heavy dressings of lime, assists the disengage- TENCE LAWS 335 FENCE LAWS ment of the potash. No soil which contains much f elclspathic sand can be deficient in potash. FELINE ANIMALS. Carnivorous animals, furnished with sharp incisor teeth and retractile •claws, as the domestic cat, panther, lion, tiger, «tc. FELLOES. The curved pieces of wood which form the circumference of wheels. The best felloes are now bent in one piece. FELON OR FETLOW. In farriery, a term for a sort of inflammation in animals similar to that of whitlow in the human subject. It is cured by poulticing to a head and lancing. FEMUR. The thigh bone; hence femoral. FENCE. Any barrier of whatever kind to Testrain trespass, either of animals or man. They are of rails, posts and rails, posts and boards, planks, embankments, wire, logs or brush. (See Fences and Fencing.) FENCE LAWS. In nearly or quite every iitate in the Union there are laws defining what legal fences shall be. In some of the States, as in Illinois, the law leaves it for towns, villa- ges, counties, and communities to define what the fence shall be, or whether there may be no fences. A synopsis of the laws relating to Jences and farm stock is thus defined in one of the Reports of the Department of Agriculture, Washington: In the older States the laws regu- lating fences are substantially alike. As to height, a legal fence is generally four and a half feet, if constructed of rails or timber. Ditches, brooks, ponds, creeks, rivers, etc., sufficient to turn stock, are deemed equivalents for a fence. In case a stream or other body of water is con- .sidered inadequate to the turning of stock, the facts are investigated by officers known as fence- viewers, who will designate the side of the water upon which a fence shall be erected, if the fence be deemed necessary, the cost to be eqally borne by the parties whose lands are divided. Occu- pants of adjoining lands which are being im- proved are required to maintain partition fences in equal shares. Neglect to build or to keep in repair such fences subjects the negligent party to damages, as well as double, and in some States treble, the cost of building or repairing, to the aggrieved party, A person ceasing to improve laud can not remove his fence unless others interested refuse to purchase within a reasonable time. A provision in the laws of several of these States, which is well calculated to serve the interests of neighbors, saving the expense of fence building, is one permitting persons owning adjoining lots or lands to fence them in one common field, and for the greater advantage of all, allowing them to form an association, and to adopt binding rules and regulations for the man- agement of their common concerns, and such ■equitable modes of improvements as are required by their common interest; but in all other respects each proprietor may, at his own expense, inclose, manage, and improve his own land as he thinks best, maintaining his own proportion of the general inclosure. The laws regulating fences in the New England States differ only in a few particulars. The required height of a fence in Maine, Massachusetts, and New Hamp- shire, is four feet; in Vermont, four and a half feet; in Rhode Island a hedge with a ditch is required to be three feet high upon the bank of the ditch, well staked, at the distance of two -and a half feet, bound together at the top, and sufficiently filled to prevent small stock from creeping through, and the bank of the ditch not to be less than one foot above the surface of the ground. A hedge without ditch to be four feet high, staked, bound, and filled; post-and-rail fence on the bank of a ditch to be four rails high, each well set in post, and not less than four and a half feet high. A stone-wall fence is required to be four feet high, with a flat stone over the top, or surmounted by a good rail or pole ; a stone wall without such flat stone, rail or post on top to be four and a half feet high. In each of the New England States there are plain provisions in regard to keeping up division fences on equal shares, and penalties for refusal to build them, and when built for neglect to keep tBem in repair. Fence-viewers in the respective towns settle all disputes as to division fences. Owners of adjoining fields are allowed to make their own rules and regulations con- cerning their management as commons. No one not choosing to inclose uncultivated land can be compelled to bear any of the expense of a division fence, but afterward electing to cultivate, he must pay for one-half the fence erected on his line. Similar provisions for the maintenance of division fences exist in New York ; whenever a division fence has been injured by flood or other casualty, each party interested is required to replace or repair his proportion within ten days after notification. When elect- ors in any town have made rules or regulations prescribing what shall be deemed a sufficient fence, persons neglecting to comply are pre- cluded from recovering compensation for dam- ages done by stock lawfully going at large on the highways, that may enter on their lands. The sufficiency of a fence is presumed until the contrary is established; assessors and commis- sioners of highways perform the duties of fence- viewers. In Pennsylvania towns ahd counties secure special legislation as to the running of stock or other cattle at large. Fences in New Jersey are required to be four feet two inches in height, if of posts and rails, timber, boards, brick or stone; other fences must be four and a half feet, and close and strong enough to prevent horses and neat cattle from going through or under. Partition fences must be proof against sheep. Ditches and drains made in or through salt marshes and meadows for fencing and drain- ing the same, being five feet wide and three feet deep, and all ditches or drains made in or through other meadows being nine feet wide at the sur- face and four and a half feet wide at the bottom, three feet deep, and lying on. mud or miry bot- tom, are considered lawful fences. Division fences must be equally maintained. If one party ceases improving he can not take away his fence without first having given twelve months' notice. Hedge-growing is encourged by law. In Delaware, a good structure of wood or stone, or well-set thorn, four and a half feet high, or four feet with a ditch within two feet, is a lawful fence; in Sussex county four feet is the height required. Fence-viewers are appointed by the Court of General Sessions in each "hun- dred." Partition fences are provided for as in other States. There Is no general law in Mary- land regulating fences, the law being local and applicable to particular counties. lu Virginia a lawful fence is five feet in height, including the mound to the bottom of the ditch, if the fence FENCE L.VWS 336 FENCE LAWS is built on a mound. Certain water courses are specified as equivalent to fences. Four feet is the height of a legal fence in West Virginia, and five feet in North Carolina. In the latter State persons neglecting to keep their fences in order during the season of crops are deemed guilty of misdemeanor, and are also liable to damages. Certain rivers are declared sufficient fences. In South Carolina fences are required to be six feet high around provisions. All fences strongly and closely made of rails, boards, or post and rails, or of an embankment of earth capped Tvith rails, or timber of any sort, or live hedges five feet in height, measured from the level or surfaces of the earth, are deemed lawful; and every planter is bound to keep such lawf ijl fence around his cultivated grounds, except where a navigable stream or deep water-course may be a boundary. No stakes or canes that might injure horses or cattle are allowed in an inclo- sure. The laws of Georgia provide that- all fences, or inclosures commonly called worm fences, shall be five feet high, and from the ground to the height of three feet the rails must not be more than four inches apart. All paling fences are required to be five feet from the ground, and the poles not more than two inches apart. Any inclosure made by means of a ditch or trench must be three feet wide and two feet deep, and if made of both fence and ditch, the latter must be four feet wide and the fence five feet high from the bottom of the ditch. All water-courses that are or have been navigable are deemed legal fences as far up the stream as navigation has ever extended, whenever, by reason of freshets or otherwise, fences can not be kept, and are subject to the rules applicable to other fences. The fences in Florida are required to be five feet in height, but where there is a ditch four feet wide the five feet may be measured from the bottom of the ditch.' If the fence is not strictly according to law, no action for trespass or damages by stock, will lie. In Alabama all inclosures and fences must be at least five feet high, and, if made of rails, be well staked and ridered, or otherwise sufficiently locked; and from the ground to the height of three feet the rails must be not more than four inches apart : if made of palings, the poles must be not more than three inches apart; or if made with a ditch, four feet wide at the top ; the fence, of whatever material composed, must be five feet high from the bottom of the ditch and three feet from the top of the bank, and close enough to prevent stock of any kind from getting through. No suit for damages can be main- tained if the fence is not a legal one. For placing in an enclosure any stakes, poles, poison, or anything which may kill or injure stock, a penalty of $50 is provided. Partition fences must be equally maintained. Fences in Missis- sippi are required to be five feet liigh, substan- tially and closely built with plank, pickets, hedges, or other substantial materials, or by rais- ing the ground into a ridge two and a half feet high, and erecting thereon a fence of common rails or other material two and a half feet in height. Owners of adjoining lands, or lessees thereof for more than two years, are required to contribute equally to the erection of fences, if the lands are in cultivation or used for pasturing. No owner is bound to contribute to the erection of a dividing fence when preparing to erect a fence of his own, and to leave a lane on his own land between himself and the adjoining owner; but the failure to erect such fence for sixty days- is deemed an abandonment of intention to do so, and determination to adopt the fence already built. In Texas every gardener, farmer, or planter is required to maintain a fence around his cultivated lands at least five feet high and sufficiently close to prevent hogs from passing' through it, not leaving a space of more than six inches in any one place within three feet of the ground. Fences in Arkansas must be five feet high. In all disputed cases the sufficiency of a fence is to be determined by three disinterested householders, appointed by a justice of the peace. Division fences are provided for as in the majority of the other States. In Tennessee- every planter is required to make a fence around Ills cultivated land at least five feet high. When any trespass occurs a justice of the peace will appoint two freeholders to view the fence as to- its sufficiency, and to ascertain damages. If a person, whose fence is insufficient, should injure any animal which may come upon his- lands, he is responsible in damages. In case of dispute between parties as to a division fence, a justice of the' peace will appoint three disinter- ested freeholders to determine the portion to be maintained by each. No owner, whose fence is- exclusively on his own land, can be compelled, to allow his neighbor to join it. In Kentucky all sound and strong fences of rails, plank, or iron, five feet high, and so close that cattle or other stock can not creep through, or made of stone or brick four and a half feet high, are deemed legal fences. Division fences can not be removed without consent of the party on adjoining land, except between November 1 and March -1 in any year, six months' notice having been given. In Missouri all fields must be inclosed by hedge or fence. Hedges must be five feet high ; fences of posts and rails, posts- and palings, posts and plank, or palisades, four and a half feet; turf, four feet, with trenches, on either side three feet wide at top and three feet deep ; worm fence at least five feet high to- top of rider, or, if not ridered, five feet to top- rail, and corner locked with strong rails, poles, or stakes. Double damage may be recovered from any person maiming or killing animals within his inclosure if adjudged insufficient. In Illinois fences must be five feet. [But coun- ties may legislate to have no fences if they choose. — Ed.] The laws regulating division fences are similar to those of the New England States. In cases of dispute three disinterested householders decide as to the sufficiency of any fence. Proprietors of commons may make their own regulations. Line fences are pro- tected on public highways. In Indiana any structure or hedge, or ditch, in the nature of a fence, used for purposes of inclosure, which shall, on the testimony of skillful men, appear to be sufficient, is a lawful fence. The laws of Ohio provide that whenever a fence is erected by any person on the line of his land, and the person owning the land adjoining shall make an inclosui'c on the opposite side, the latter shall pay one-half the value of the fence as far as it answers the purpose of a division fence, to be adjudged by the township trustees. A legal fence in Wisconsin is four and a half feet high if of rails, timber, boards, or stone walls or their FENCE LAWS 337 PENCE LAWS combinations, or other things which shall be deemed equivalent thereto in the judgment of the fence-viewers. While adjoining parties cul- tivate lands they must keep up fences in equal shares; double value of building or repairing may be recovered from delinquents. The law regulating division fences is similar in most par- ticulars to those of the New England States and Illinois. Overseers of highways perform the •duties of fence-viewers. Fences in Michigan must be four and a half feet high, and in good repair; consisting of rails, timber, boards, or stone walls, or any combination of these mate- rials. Rivers, brooks, ponds, ditches, hedges, «tc. , deemed by the fence-viewers equivalent to a fence, are held to be legal inclosures. No •damages for trespass are recoverable if the fence is not of the required height. Partition iences must be equally maintained as long as parties improve their lands. When lands owned in severalty have been occupied in common, any occupants may have lands divided. Fences extending into the water must be made in equal shares, unless otherwise agreed by parties inter- ested. If any person determines not to improve any portion of his lands adjoining a partition fence, he must give six months' notice to all the adjoining occupants, after which he will not be required to keep up any part of the fence. Over- seers of highways act as fence-viewers. In Min- nesota four and a half feet is the legal height. Partition fences are to be kept in good repair in ■equal shares. In case of neglect, complaint may be made by the aggrieved party to the town supervisors, who will proceed to examine the matter, and if they determine that the fence is insufficient, notice will be given to the delin- quent occupant of land ; and if he fails to build or repair within a reasonable time, the complain- ant may build or repair, and may recover double the expense, with interest at the rate of one per cent, per month, in a civil action. No part of a division fence can be removed if the owner or occupant of adjoining land will, within two months, pay the appraised value. When any, uninclosed grounds are afterward inclosed, the owner or occupant is required to pay for one-half of each partition fence; the value thereof to be determined by a majority of tlie town supervisors. If a party to a division fence discontinues the improvement of his land, and gives six months' notice thereof to the occu- pants of adjoining lands, he is not required to keep up any part of such fence during the time his lands are unimproved, and he may remove his portion if the adjoining owner or occupant will not pay therefor. County commissioners are the fence-viewers in counties not divided into towns. A legal fence in Iowa is four and a half feet high, constructed of strong materials, put up in a good, substantial manner. In all counties where, by a vote of the legal voters, or by an act of the general assembly, it is deter- mined that hogs and sheep shall not run at large, a fence made of three rails of good, sub- stantial material, or three boards not less than six inches wide and three-fourths of an inch thick, such rails or boards to be fastened in or to good, substantial posts, not irore than ten feet apart where rails are used; or any other fence which, in the opinion of the fence-viewers, shall be equivalent thereto, is deemed a lawful fence, provided that the lowest or bottom rail shall not be more than twenty nor less than six- teen inches from tlie ground, and that the fence shall be fifty-four inches in height. The respec- tive owners of inclosed lands must keep up fences equally as long as they improve. In case of neglect to repair or rebuild, the adjoining owner may do so, and the work being adjudged sufficient by the fence-viewers, and the value determined, the complainant may recover the amount, with interest at the rate of one per cent, per month. If an owner desires to throw his field open, he shall give the adjoining parties six months' notice, or such shorter notice as may be directed by the fence-viewers. In Kan- sas fences may be of posts and rails, posts and palings,, or posts and planks, at least four and a half feet high; of turf, four feet, and staked and ridered, with a ditch on either side at least three feet wide at top and three feet deep; a worm fence must be at least four feet and a half high to top of rider, or if not ridered, four and a half feet high to top rail, the corners to be locked with strong rails, posts, or stakes. The bottom rail, board or plank in any fence must not be more than two feet from the ground in any township, and in those townships where hogs are not prohibited from running at large it must not be more than six inches from the ground. All such fences must be substantially built and sufficiently close to prevent stock from going through. Stone fences are required to be four feet high, eighteen inches wide at the bot- tom, and twelve at the top. All hedges must be of sufficient height and thickness to protect the field or inclosure. A wire fence must con- sist of posts of ordinary size for fencing pur- poses, set in the ground at least two feet deep and not more than twelve feet apart, with holes through posts, or staples on the side, not more than fifteen inches apart, and four separate lines of fence 'wire, not smaller than No. 9, to be provided with rollers and levers at suitable dis- tances, to strain and hold the wires straight and firm. Owners of adjoining lands must maintain fences equally. In case of neglect of one party to build or repair, another party may do so and recover the amount expended, with interest at the rate of one per cent, per month. A person not improving his land is not required to keep up any portion of a division fence. The trustee, clerk, and treasurer in each township act as fence-viewers, _to adjust all disputes concerning fenpes. A legal fence in Nebraska is described as any structure, or hedge, or ditch in the nature of a fence, used for the purpose of enclosure, which is such as good husbandmen generally keep. Division fences must be equally main- tained. A party may remove his portion of division fence by giving sixty days' notice. If removed without such notice the party so doing is liable for full damages. Where a fence is injured or destroyed by fire or flood it must be repaired within ten days after notice by interested persons. Justices of the peace are ex officio fence-viewers. Legal fences in California are described with great particularity. Wire fences must consist of posts not less than twelve inches in circumference, set in the ground not less than eighteen inches, and not less than eight feet apart, with not less than three horizontal wires, each one-fourth of an inch in diameter, the first to be eighteen inches from the ground, the other two above at intervals of one foot, all well FENCES AND FENCING 338 FENCES AND FENCING stretched and securely fastened from post to post, with one rail, slat, pole, or plank, of suitable size and strength, securely fastened to the post, not less than four and a half feet from the ground. Post and rail fence must be made with posts of the same size and at the same distances apart and the same depth in the ground as above required, with three rails, slats, or planks of suitable size and strength, the top one to be four and a half feet from the ground, the other two at equal distances between the first and the ground, all securely fastened to the post. Picket fences must be of the same height as above, made of pickets not less than six inches in cir- cumference, placed not more than six inches apart, driven in the ground not less than ten inches, all well secured at the top by slats or caps. Ditch and pole fence — the ditch must not be less than four feet wide on the top and three feet deep, with embankment thrown up inside .of ditch, with substantial posts set in the embank- ment not more than eight feet apart, and a plank, pole, rail, or slat securely fastened to posts at least five feet high from the bottom of the ditch. Pole fence must be four and a half feet high, with stakes not less than three inches in diameter, set in the ground not less than eighteen inches, and when the stakes are placed seven feet apart there must not be less than six horizontal poles well secured to the stakes; if the stakes are six feet apart, five poles; if three or four feet, four poles; if two feet apart three poles, and the stakes need not be less than two inches in diameter; if one foot apart, one pole, and the stakes need not be more than two inches in diameter. The above is a lawful fence so long as the stakes and poles are securely fastened and in a fair state of preservation. Hedge fence is considered lawful when by reliable evidence it shall be proved equal in strength and as well suited to the protection of inclosed lands as the other fences described. Brush fence must be four and a half feet high and at least twelve inches wide, with stakes not less than two inches in diameter, set in the ground not less than eighteen inches, and on each side, every eight feet, tied together at the top, with horizontal pole tied to the outside stake five feet from the ground. In the case of partition fences, if one party refuse or neglect to build or maintain his share the other may do so and recover the value. Three days' notice to repair is sufficient. The sufiiciency of a fence is to be determined by three disinterested householders. FENCES AND FENCING. The fences of the country are estimated to be worth more, as to cost of making and repairing, than are all the buildings erected. So onerous is the cost of fences that in all districts, where timber is scarce embankments protected by barriers of various kinds have been used. Hedging has been exten- sively employed, and would be almost univer- sally so were it not for the cost of pruning them, and otherwise keepmg them in condition. In- deed, in widely extended districts no fences what- ever are used, it having been found cheaper to herd stock than to fence them in. When we come to consider the large portion of the year when stock may run on the farm without injury to crops, it is an open question whether this system, or a modification of it, might not be more generally adopted than it is. As to the cost of fences the Secretary of the Wisconsin Board of Agriculture, gives interesting data in relation to fencing in that State, and urges the importance, as an economical measure, of the immediate planting of live fences. He gives the first cost of the perishable fences of the State at $40,000,000, reckoning the cost at 85 cents pei- rod. Basing the assertion upon long experience; and observation, he says that these fences must be renewed every twelve years, costing in the- course of half a century to the people of the; State an expense of $160,000,000. He is of the opinion that.one-half or three-fourths of this sum, can be saved by the immediate planting and rear- ing of hedge fences. The yellow-willow, white or soft maple, box-elder or ash-leafed maple, Lombardy poplar, cottonwood, and acacia or honey-locust, are all recommended as suitable for live fences. These, he says, are all hardy, and will thrive vigorously in any part of the State. So far as hedges and the planting is con- cerned, we would impress upon our readers that they should always be placed upon a raised sur- face not less than eight feet wide. This may be cheaply thrown up with a two, or better, three horse plow, by repeated plowings, after which the center may be levelled by a revolving har- row, or by running a horse hoe once or twice along the crown, and then going over the ground with a plank and team. If the hedge is to be set on sod land, two thin furrows are thrown out, the sod removed, and this space is mellowed as deeply as possible. Then commence turning down a thin strip of sod, following with a trench plow as deeply as possible. Thus you may get a tolerably mellow surface of earth by repeated harrowings. A simple and good way to set hedge plants is, to stretch a line marked with red, at such intervals as the plants are intended to be placed. Have the plants in a bucket con- taining a little water, carried by a boy. A sharp, clean spade thrust in the soil as deeply as possi- ble, and then the handle thrown foi-ward, makes the place for the plant, which is thrust therein by the boy; withdraw the spade, and press the earth firmly about the plant with the foot. If the spade is thrust in such direction as comes natural to the workman, the plants will lean a little — no objection, if they all lean one way and in the direction of the hedge row. A man and. boy will thus set 100 rods per day. Tlie culti- vation the first year is with the ordinary com cultivator. Thereafter it is done with the plow by throwing light furrows, always to the hedge. We have advised eight feet as the least possible distance for the width of the plowed surface for hedges. Eighteen to twenty feet will be ulti- mately required, and in practice it will be found that crops will not succeed nearer than within, ten feet of Osage Orange, or within twenty feet of willow or other live fence. The following are the reasons for our advice as given for Osage Orange, but which will apply to any hedge. In relation to ridging, the necessity arises from the generally observed fact, that the natural drain- age of the larger portion of the vast prairies is poor and ineffective, the soil in many localities, being so overcharged with moisture, particularly in rainy seasons, as to materially check the ■ growth of farm crops; and, as is well under- stood, the yield of corn and small grain is much reduced from this cause. The same is true of considerable districts of several of the better tim- bered States, where other fencing material is grow- FENCES AND FENCING 339 FENCES AND FENCIN© ing scarce. The height of the ridges should be as great as can be made by twice plowing, or gath- ering up the soil. In spongy or low, wet places, three gatherings with the plow will not raise the ridge too high. Among the advantages of ridg- ing may be named the following: 1. The hedge will be more likely to escape winter killing, the exemption being due to the fact that the roots are above the level of saturation. 2. Operations can be commenced and completed from ten da3's to two weeks earlier, in all localities where the natural drainage is inefficient, and the plants can be set before the buds open. 3. The roots of young plants will strike down obliquely in ridged groundj instead of extending out horizontally just beneath the surface soil, and attain a growth corresponding with the increase of available soil. 4. The young plants make a more uniform growth when ridged, in consequence of the more uniform condition of the soil as to moisture, and will generally be exempt from the gaps and thin places, resulting from partial winter killing. 5. When a ridge is properly prepared for the hedge, the roots of the hedge row will form a more fibrous growth, which will be made chiefly in central parts of the ridge soil, instead of the roots growing long and straggling. If, in the course of yeare, however, straggling roots should be found to require pruning at a distance of eight or ten feet from the hedge row, they will present less obstruction on a ridge than when grown upon level ground. 6. When a hedge becomes strong enough to turn stock, it is desirable to check its growth, which can be done by cutting off the ends of the roots on the sides of the ridge with a pruning plow, or with a revolving colter, and this without endangering the life of the hedge, the large amount of root growth in the deeper, central parts of the ridge being sufficient for the plant. 7. A ridge eighteen to twenty- four inches above the level will add thirty to forty per cent, to the effective height of the hedge ; and, in combination with the latter, will form a barrier that will turn stock, thus consti- tuting an efEective fence from one to two years sooner than when planted on low, level ground; and, at the same time, equally contributing toward the effectiveness of the hedge in its inci- dental capacity as a wind-break. A plow colter, such as is used for cutting off the extremities of apple tree roots to induce early bearing, may serve a similar purpose in pruning hedge roots when extending beyond tlieir prescribed limits. As in the case of shortening back to induce the growth of fruit spurs in the apple tree, the effect of trimming osage thorn hedges is to cause some thickening at the bottom, but the growth is chiefly in the upper part of the branches, or in the emission of numerous small side shoots, or lateral branches. Inexperi- enced writers recommend this mode of training to produce thick-bottomed, per- manent growth. 'Thick side growth may, for a limited time, result from such man- agement, as repeated cutting back leaves title plants, in their struggle for existence, the only alternative of the slow, feeble, lateral growth, to be seen in hedges that are not allowed to extend their growth vertically. Low-trained hedges may be necessary where land is limited in area, and high in price, as in the case of gardens, small lawns, and other ornamental grounds; but in such situations plants of less vigorous growth than the osage thorn would seem to be more suitable, for this reason — low evergreens or shrubs may be formed, trimmed, and low-trained a long time without plashing. With the vigorously growing thorn, however, the case is different, and laying down and plashing is now generally adopted. It has been established by experience in Great Britain, and to a limited extent in this country, that hedges sooner or later become so thinned at the bottom that renewed or young bottom growths are essential to maintain their efficiency as fences; and this necessity can not be evaded in the case of the osage thorn. The sap tends so much towards the top that the lower part will become thin by self -pruning, which will be succeeded by holes and gaps. This result may be expected in both trimmed and untrimmed hedges. These gaps and holes may be tempora- rily mended, however, by inserting detached branches cut from thicker parts of the fence. Layering has bee-n suggested, but in the shade and in dry soil, in which the layer must grow, if at all, tlieir growth will be so slow as not to become available against animals in any reason- able length of time, and it is probable that but few layers would survive. Osage Orange hedges may grow to a height of twelve to twenty feet be- fore they require layering. Layering reduces the height of the fence two-thirds or three-fourths. Pig. 1. or more, causing the new growth to be made near the ground, and here, accordingly, multi- tudes of vigorous shoots are sent up,, growing up in like manner, at successive layering. Single-row hedges can not well be renewed by layering, without stakes. But double rows may not only be laid or plashed without stakes, but, when laid down in a proper manner, the hedges will constitute a very strong fence. Two-row hedges are believed to be much the best adapted to resist the stress of gales of wind, the attempts of rampant animals to break over them, and for any contingencies requiring great strength in a fence. In the accompanying illustrations Fig. 1, represents a section of the horizontal form of lay- ing the brush of each of the rows backward and obliquely over to the opposite side. The stems are plashed, one from each side or row, alter- nately, each branch being brought down from the opposite side, and laid in such a manner that each stem crosses the last one laid, about midway of its length; and in the center between the hedge FENCES AND FENCING 340 FENCES AND FENCING TOWS, the angle formed between the sapling and the ground being about thirty degrees. In Fig. 3 is shown the embankment heretofore mentioned, and also a double line hedge five feet high. In ordinary cases the hedge composed of a single line of plants, if well grown, is amply sufficient to turn ordinary stock, even breachy horses and swine ; but, whether the hedge be single or double the embankment will be found labor well spent, even on dry soils. The tools most used in hedg- ing, as shown below, are, the press pole, Fig. 3, used for pressing the branches to the ground in plashing. Weights are sometimes placed on the plashed hedge to hold it down. Fig. 4, is a bill hook, or plashing knife, which may be used in a object in the landscape, by adopting the sunken fence. This may be described as a ditch-like excavation four or five feet in depth, finished by a perpendicular wall on the lawn side, and the ground flatly sloped on the opposite. The propriety of persistently concealing the fence in such positions may be questioned. Utility is a strong element of the beautiful, and if no visible barrier intervenes between the pleasure ground and a grazing field, we at once condemn the incongruity. We can not distinguish where the flower garden ends or the grazing meadow begins, and must suppose that the cattle can perambulate the flower garden if they choose; we can imagine the result, and we feel that a Fig. 3. variety of ways for rough trimming about the farm. Fig. 5, shows a straight trimming blade, a heavy sharp knife ; such as is used for cutting up Indian corn, is in general use. Fig. 6, is a trimming hook. Here again a strong, sharp grass sickle will answer every purpose for the trimming of green or succulent annual branches. The more common plants used for hedging, in the United States are, in the North and West, Osage Orange; the Honey Locust, {Qleditachia triaeanthos) , and the Buck-thorn, {Rhamntis eatharticus), are also planted, the latter to a limited extent. In Great Britain the Hawthorn, {Oratmgux txeyacantha), has been used for cen- turies. Of late years English hedges have been in process of extermination, it being found that Fig. 4, the land is too valuable to be cumbered with their growth. In the West, the growth of weeds in hedge rows, the cost of keeping them, and the land they occupy has become a, serious obiectioa to the planting and renewal, and the cheap, substantial, and amply protecting wire fence is now largely superseding its use. In the South the Cherokee rose is largely employed as an ornamental hedge, and where it will stand, it makes an admirable barrier. In relation to village, yard, lawn, and other places requiring ornamental hedges, there is nothing finer than a well kept Privet (lAgustrum vulgare) hedge. It is hardy East, as far north as New York, and Fig. 5. Massachusetts, and in the West to about the northern boundary of Illinois, or say latitude forty-three degrees. Whatever materials may be used for outside fences, they should be strong and substantial. Inside fences for such pur- poses as that of separating the lawn from the vegetable garden may be of lighter construction ; especially if a fence crosses a lawn, as seen from the house with an open view beyond, it should be as light and elegant as is consistent with strength and durability. In such cases it is often desired to conceal the fence, as an intrusive fence becomes a necessity to separate objects that can not well be united without injury to one or both. Wire fences are well adapted for this purpose, as they are so light as not materially to interrupt the view; and if properly constructed, are sufficiently strong and permanent. It has been claimed that the highest degree of rural beauty is a village without fences, or any other distinctive marks to properties. But it has been replied: As well might it be claimed that the best arrangement in a picture gallery will be produced by taking the paintings out of the frames and nailing the canvass to the walls. The love of exclusive possession is a, mainstay of society. Well-defined boundary lines to prop- erty greatly enhance its enjoyment, especially when applied to lawns and gardens. Hedges are useful as shelter to gardens, rendering them earlier, more productive, and greatly exempt from casualties of climate and locality. In the growth of all kinds of small fruits, as well as those of larger orchard growth, shelter is always of the greatest benefit. In grounds of very limited dimensions, where the boundary lines' are at no great distance from the house, an evergreen hedge set inside the fence wiU afford Fig. 6. great relief to the eye and form a background, as it were, to the shrubbery and flower borders. In relation to farm fences, whatever the material, whether posts and rails, posts and boards, worm or Virginia fence, sod fence, wire fence, etc., they should be made in the most substantial manner. It is poor economy to slight, in any respect, a barrier that is expected to last from ten to fifteen years, the life of good oak posts, or to scant the material, thus offering a premium to make animals unruly. In forest regions, timber fences are cheapest. Where timber is scarce, wire and posts are cheapest, and the modern barbed wire, of two twisted strands, will be found cheap, effectual, and not seriously to expand or contract in length by heat and cold. As showing something of the growth of barbed wire fencing within the last ten years, the production in the United States was fully six hundred tons in 1880. The objection that it injures stock, is hardly worth considering, and even this may be entirely obviated by FERMENTATION 341 FERROCYANATE OF POTASH placing a pole on top from post to post, which stock can easily see. FENESTRATE. In entomology, the appear- ance produced by the transparent spots on the ■wings of some insects. In botany, the absence of tissue between the veins of a leaf. FENNEL, SWEET. Famiculum duke. This species of fennel is an annual plant, a native of Italy and Portugal, where it is cultivated as a pot-herb, as well as for the seeds and the oil which these afford. It is a smaller plant than the common fennel. The stem is somewhat compressed at the base. Tlie fruit is much longer than that of the common fennel, being nearly five lines long, less compressed, somewhat curved, and paler, with a greenish tinge. FENUGREEK. TngoneUnfcenum-grcee'im. A species of trefoil, cultivated for its seed, having a strong, disagreeable smell, and an unctuous, farinaceous and somewhat bitter taste. The seeds are useful in cataplasms and fomentations. FERMENTATION. Fermentation is that decomposition or decay which apparently acts spontaneously on animal and vegetable sub- stances, Involving heat and a rapid evolution of gas. The primary cause of fermentation is from microscopic fungi, acting as a ferment. Thus any organic body, not living, in tlie presence of moisture and heat will ferment, since the germs are floating everywhere, and may even find lodgment in the pores of wood. The act of fermentation is taken advantage of by gardeners, in preparing hot beds, in composting, and in a variety of ways; in the first place to produce, with manure, bottom heat for tlie propagation of plants (see Hot-beds); also by brewers, wine makers, distillers, etc. . iu the preparation of their products; by the housewife in making bread, vinegar, etc., and the pi-ocess is constantly going on naturally, entirely unknown by tlie ordinary observer. This process once begun, oxygen is set free, which, again uniting with the elements of the body, accelerates and facilitates the pro- gress of the phenomenon Salt retards fermen- tation, if present in considerable quantity; consequently it is used in preserving meat. Applied in small quantities to the compost heap it retards fermentation and combustion, and prevents fire fanging. Fermentation is of three stages— the vinous, producing alcohol ; the acetous, producing vinegar ; and putrefactive, producing decay of all the parts. Vinous fermentation is produced by oidium. The second, as in the souring of milk, by penicillium, and the third is supposed to be from the action of infusoria. A fourth ferment is denominated panary, but it is not generally recognized by chemists. Panary fermentation is what was stated to take place in the fermentation of dough in making bread, but this is precisely the same, without doubt, and may be referred to the vinous and the acetous. Fermentation must not be confounded with effervescence. Fermentation is confined to ani- mal and vegetable substances, effervescence to minerals. Fermentation is spontaneous, effer- vescence the result of the intimate mixture of two bodies, as an alkali and an acid. Cider, beer, wine, etc. , ferment ; soda-water effervesces. One causes active decay, the other a neutraliza- tion of two bodies, acting one on the other. A single illustration will suffice: The simplest case is the fermentation of the must or expressed juice of grapes which, when exposed either in close or open vessels to a temperature of about 70°, soon begins to give off carbonic acid, and to become turbid and frothy; after a time a scum collects upon the surface, and a sediment is deposited; the liquid which had grown warm gradually cools and clears, loses its sweet taste, and is converted into wine. The chief compo- nent parts of must are water, sugar, mucilage, gluten, and tartar (bitartrafe of potassa). Dur- ing the fermentation carbonic acid escapes, the sugar disappears, and with it the greater part of the mucilage; the gluten chiefly forms the scum and a portion of the sediment; and the tartar originally in solution is thrown down in the form of a colored deposit. Sugar and water alone will not ferment ; the ingredient requisite to the commencement of the change is the gluten, which absorbs in the first instance a little oxygen from the air, becomes insoluble, and induces the subsequent changes. The reason, why grapes never ferment till the juice is expressed, seems to depend upon the exclusion of air by the husk or membranes. In beer the alcohol is derived from the sugar in the malt. When wine is exposed to air and a due tempera- ture, a second fermentation ensues, which is called the acetous fermentation, and which terminates in the production of vinegar. During this process oxygen is absorbed, and more or less carbonic acid is evolved ; but the apparent cause of the formation of vinegar is the abstraction of hydrogen from the alcohol, so as to leave the remaining elements in such proportions as to constitute acetic acid. Thus alcohol has been theoretically and quaintly stated as constituted of charcoal, water and hydrogen, and acetic acid of water and charcoal only ; the oxygen of the air, therefore, converts the hydrogen of the alcohol into water, and so effects the change into vinegar. FERNS. Mikes. Flowerless plants, with beautifully developed leaves, bearing their seed- vessels on the lower side. FERRET. PutunnxfceUdys. The FeiTct belongs to the weasel family, and has long been domes- ticated and applied to the destruction of rats, -rabbits, hares and other destructive burrowing animals. It is extremely sensitive to cold, and consequently care must be taken to keep it in a warm, dry place. As a curious fact in instinct, the manner of killing its prey by the ferret is interesting. It does not suck the blood, but kills by a single bite, by which the canine teeth pierce the spinal cord between the first ver- tebra of the neck and skull thus killing instantly. The length of the ferret is twelve to fourteen inches from the nose to the base of the tail, the latter being five inches in length. The natural color of the f eiTet is a mixture of black and yel- low. The fur long and fine, with an under- growth of woolly cinereous hair. They also breed white with pink eyes. Those most yellow being more addicted to albinism than the darker. It is also an error to suppose the ferret to be danger- ous to handle. They must however be handled gently and by one to whom they are accustomed, and when used for hunting vermin, must be muzzled, the object being that they drive rats, etc., from their burrows, rather than that tbey kill them. FERROCYANATE OF POTASH. A yellow, crystalline salt, also called Prussiate of potash, the solution of which is used as a test for per- FERTILIZERS 34a FERTILIZERfe oxide of iron in solution, with which it strikes a beautiful blue, being, indeed, Prussian blue. It is also used in the laboratory as a test for copper and other metals, and to form various compounds ■of cyanogen. FERRUGINOUS. Containing iron, or of the color of rust. Ferruginous waters are also called chalybeates, and much esteemed as tonics. Fer- ruginous soils, when friable, are frequently, very fertile and open to improvement. FERTILIZERS. , The necessity of fertilizers for worn land is generally acknowledged even by the most ignorant; but very many — otherwise ,good farmers — fail to appreciate the advantage of applying manure while yet the soil is in a state of vigorous fertility, in order to keep it so, and also to still further improve its producing quality. They fail to appreciate the fact that it costs no more to cultivate an acre of land in the highest state of fertility, than it dv^es a poor acre. Nay, it costs less, for the vigorous growth will soon tend to smother out the weeds and keep them •down. The question of ordinary manures will be treated under the head of Manures, the term fertilizers being now, by common consent, applied to special manures and, particularly, to those known as commercial fertilizers. These are of six principal classes ; 1, those manufactured directly from dead animal products, as offal, flesh, blood, fish. etc. ; 3, superphosphate, made from bones; 3, guano, or the deposit of marine birds; 4, poudrette, manufactured from night soil, the contents of privies; 5. the minei'al manures as lime, gypsum, salt, kainit, etc, ; and 6, ashes, the important constituent of which is potash. Among all these guano has been found to be the best source of nitrogen, (ammonia); and phosphoric acid, and bone preparation, the best source of superphosphate, or soluble phosphate of lime. The most glaring and shameful adulterations of these substances rendered it necessary for those States where fertilizers were principally sold, to pass the most stringent laws for the protection of purchasers. In relation to the supply of Peru- vian guano, a report made by the British consul at Callao says that the whole amount of export- able guano possessed by Peru would not, by fair estimate, reach 3,000,000 tons, a quantity which would supply the deriiand only for a very few years. Information obtained through careful inquiries at the Guanape and Macabee Islands, up to November, 1873, placed the available quantity at these localities at about 500,000 tons and 750,- 000 tons respectively. He is assured that the guano on the Lobos Islands does not exceed 750,000 tons in quantity. This has since been verified not only by a diminished supply, but by the fact that the guano question has led to seri- ous wars between Peru and neighboring States. In relation to the supposed values of commercial fertilizers, chiefly occasioned by the specious advertisements of those engaged in the manufac- ture and sale. Prof. S. W. Johnston, in a paper to the Connecticut Board of Agriculture, as long ago as 1869, from analyses made to determine the commercial value as compared to the selling price, the samples tested being taken directly from the sacks and other packages in the dealers' stores, of sixteen samples tested, says ■ Of these sixteen samples, one, a home-made superphos- phate, has no selling price affixed. Another fer- tilizer shows a currency value of $61.53 per ton, against a selling price of $56 per ton. In con- trast to this a poudrette exhibited a currency value of only $3.03 per ton, against a selling price of $38 per ton; and another of similar brand a value of only $3.16 per ton, against a selling price of $3. 50 per barrel. The point is, any person buying commercial fertilizers, of any kind, if in States having laws relating to adul- teration, should see that the value of the fertilizer has been regularly verified. Then the buyer has redress through the courts, if fraud be practiced, not easily obtained otherwise. Guanos, and other special fertilizers, may be made at home. Pigeon dung is fully equal to the best Peruvian guano, and the dry dung of fowls better than guano, as usually guaranteed and sold. Prof. Johnson recommends the following as an excel- lent combination for fertilizing purposes- Mix one bushel of salt with two bushels of dry lime, under cover, and allow the mixture to decom- pose gradually, thus forming an intimate chemi- cal union of the two materials. For this purpose the mixture should lie at least six weeks before use, or, still better, two or three months, the heap mentioned being turned over occasionally. This salt and lime mixture, when applied at the rate of twenty to thirty bushels per acre, forms an excellent top-dressing for many crops. It acts powerfully on the vegetable matter of soils. Fifty bushels applied to a turnip field have pro- duced as large a crop as twenty loads of barn- yard manure. It is also very destructive to insects and grubs in the soil. Like salt, it attracts moisture from the air, and has been found useful against drought. Its decomposing power-is remarkable; and, if three or four bushels of it are mixed with a cord of swamp muck, the latter will soon be reduced to powder. Coarse manure is in a similar manner decom- posed and made fine. Sour, wet muck, thus treated and composted with barn-yard manure, constitutes a fertilizer almost as valuable as the unmixed manure of the barnyard. An excellent substitute for commercial fertilizers, such as superphosphates, etc., 'may be made as follows: Take one barrel of pure, raw, finely-ground bones, and one barrel of the best wocM-ashes; mix Ihem on a floor, and add gradually three pailfuls of water, mixing thoroughly with the hoe. Use in small quantities in about the same manner as the superphosphates. If the ashes cannot be procured, dissolve twelve pounds of potash in ten gallons of hot water, and with this solution saturate the bone-flour thoroughly; a barrel of dried peat or good loam, without stones, may be added. The mixture should not be sticky, neither too moist nor too dry. In apply- ing it avoid direct contact with the seed; for instance, when applied in the hill, scatter a little earth over it before dropping the seed. A very early visible effect should not be anticipated, but the good results will manifest themselves as the season advances. The Dr. Valentine's guano contains the following constituents in a ton, and is made as follows, the manufacture to be car- ried on in a dry place: Take twenty bushels of dried peat, three bushels of wood-ashes, and five bushels of bone-dust, and mix them together; then take forty pounds nitrate of soda, twenty pounds of sal ammonia, eleven pounds of car- bonate of ammonia, tvrenty pounds sulphate of soda, ten pounds sulphate of magnesia, and ten pounds common salt, mix these ingredients in sufficient water to dissolve them — say four or Fertilizers 343 FERTILIZER five pailfuls. Add this solution to the three articles first named, and mix as in making mor- tar. When thoroughly intermixed, add three bushels of calcined plastei-, which will absorb the superabundant liquid, and bring the composition into a dry condition. Pack so as to exclude air. If occasion requires, garden mold or clean vir- gin soil may be substituted for the peat. The ■editor of the Boston JownaL of OhemMry recom- mends increasing the bone-dust to four or five bushels, and to substitute nitrate of potash for the nitrate of soda, and that the rate of applica- tion on ordinary northern soils be from a half ton to a ton per acre. The cost of the ingredi- ents will depend on circumstances of locality, etc., but may be approximately stated at $30 per ton, not including the peat. Kainit, an article lateh- brought into commercial notice, is .a rock containing from twenty-eight to thirty- two per cent, of sulphate of potassa, in com- bination with sulphate of magnesia, chloride of magnesium, sulphate of lime, and chloride of sodium. Its potash constituents give it its value. It is mined at Strassfurth, Germany, where the bed lays from 500 to 800 feet below the sur- face. In relation to this fertilizer, Dr. Voelcker thinks it more likely to be remunerative on sandy and gravelly than on clayey soils, and especially for roots, clover, and other leguminous crops, and potatoes. For the latter, designed for mar- ket, it may also be of use on heavier soils. la moderate applications it may be beneficial to grass land which does not receive sufficient dung, and which is annually cropped in hay, with the aid of such nitrogenous manures as ammonia salts or nitrate of soda. But he does not antici- pate much benefit from a general use of kainit in agriculture. In South Carolina a phosphate rock is largely mined, and its use is increasing every year. Among its valuable constituents are 26.28 per cent, of phosphoric acid; 39.78 lime ; and, insoluble silicious matter, and soluble silica 15.31 per cent. The following table will show, from Dr. Emil Wolff, Germany, the aver- age composition of the principal commercial fertilizers, these being the average results of numerous analyses, lately revised. They will be found approximately correct. Fertilizers. (In one hundred parts.) i 2 " % •s 2 O! s 5 1 A s .2* ,|l gg pr. ct. 14.8 12.6 24.0 5.7 27.8 14.0 8.5 6.0 5.0 7.0 B.O lll.O 6.0 10.0 11.8 0.6 8 5 2.6 2.6 2.5 8.5 20 4.3 4.0 2.6 10.0 6.6 23.0 20.0 7.0 34.6 20.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 16.0 15.0 15.0 16.0 15.0 12.0 16,0 13.0 15.6 pr. ct. 51.4 53.4 27.0 56.9 56.6 79,0 68.5 33.3 31.5 37.3 10.0 6.0 3.0 9.2 8.2 pr, ct, 33,8 34.0 49.0 37.4 15.6 7.0 26.0 60.7 63.5 56.7 84. 84.0 91.0 81.0 80.0 pr. ct. 13.0 9.0 2.0 6.5 9.7 11.7 10.2 3.8 3,5 4,0 1.0 0.5 "o'e' 0.4 ■ o'.i' 0.1 pr. ct. 2.3 0.3 0.9 0.3 pr. ct. 1.4 0,9 1,0 0,8 pr. ct. 11,0 15.4 18,6 18,2 7,0 0,7 6.6 31.3 33.0 29.0 43 37.0 46.0 41.6 39.1 48.1 43.6 37.5 45.1 40.1 21.8 37.2 45.4 0.6 0.2 1.4 20.5 3.0 1.2 31.0 645 20.7 24.6 10.0 4.0 30.0 35.0 9 \ \ . 9.5 28.2 26.4 17,0 26.5 24.2 25.0 22.4 24.0 pr. ct. 1.2 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.3 1.0 1.0 1,0 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.5 0.6 0.1 0.6 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.9 0.2 1.0 ■ '6-3' 2.4 0,2 0,2 U,l 1.5 0.3 2.6 1.5 1.5 5.0 6.0 1.5 3.2 3.0 1,0 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.7 0.7 pr. ct. 13.0 13.5 2.1 13.9 6.3 1.0 5.5 23.2 26.2 20.0 32 26.0 35,4 34.8 20.6 37.6 35.0 33.2 33. 24.1 19,7 29.2 26,4 "ils 3,0 2,3 "\A 6,0 0,4 "eis 4 5 0.6 o.a 0.1 10.6 22.1 20.8 15.4 19.4 16.6 16.2 16.6 20.5 pr, ct. 1,0 0.3 1.0 1.0 0.1 0.4 0.9 0.1 0.1 0.1 0,4 0,4 0,4 1,5 18.0 0.2 0.6 0.6 0.3 "\.^ 0.5 0.8 58.0 0,7 0,5 '\A 44,0 12.6 0.3 0-3 0.3 1,7 1,6 1.6 1.3 8.5 5.0 15.0 28.5 25.5 19.5 25,5 19,5 21.0 19.6 28,8 pr. cr. xk 5.4 1.7 I.l 2.1 11. 3.5 3.0 3,5 5,0 15.0 6.5 0.8 0.5 9.0 1.0 6.0 5.5 20.8 22.0 3.3 7.5 3,0 1,5 29.0 8,0 3,0 2.0 4.0 3.0 9.1 20 4.0 16.0 18.0 18.0 1. ? 9 1.5 5.3 0.6 2.3 3,2 13.6 9.8 2.5 3.0 pr. ct. 13 Pulverized Dead Animals. ... 2 Flesh-Meal 0.7 0.6 4 0.2 0,1 0,2 0,1 0,1 0,3 0,2 0.4 0.7 0.3 0.2 0,3 0,3 0.2 0.6 0.3 0.3 0.8 Bone-Meal, solid parts 2 Bone-Meal, soft parts 2 Bone-black, pure Baker Guano -Jarvis Guano 0.3 2 Estremadui'a Apatite 1 5 Sombrero Phosphate . . 3,5 91.5 92,0 97.4 97.5 91.8 94,5 95,7 6 H^avassa Phosphate 1 0.8 0.7 0.4 0.4 Nassau Phosphorite, medium Westphalian Phosphorite 1.5 1 6 'm.o' 15 5 5 2 3,1 5,7 1,0 0.5 0.1 1 4 Sulphate of Ammonia Nitrate of Soda '56',0 47,0 68,4 "i'.s' 24.5 6.0 71.8 70.2 6.0 5.0 ■5.6' 41.9 "2'.5' "8!6' 23.8 13,0 46,5 8,6 95,0 80,8 91.7 41,0 76,0 23,2 24.8 90.0 90.0 95.0 95.0 90.0 42.1 86,0 85,0 82.5 85.0 88,0 77,0 63.2 80.3 o's' 86.6 0.1 1 7 Wool-dust and offal 2 ■44^3' 48 2 ■Gypsum or Plaster — 0,4 1.2 2.5 10.0 0.2 0.2 2.5 2,4 0,1 10.0 6,0 1,5 0,6 0,1 2.0 0.4 ■ oie' 1,3 0,5 ■2!5' 2,0 8 0.4 0.1 1.2 11,2 0,5 » 0,2 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.4 Xeached wood ashes Wood-soot . Ashes from Evergreen trees 2 0.2 Bituminous coal-ashes Anthracite coal-ashes Superphosphate, from iPeruvi an Guano \ \ ■Sombrero Phosphate Navassa Phosphate 0.4 9 ■ ois' 2.0 3,3 0.5 0.3 "6!i' 0.3 1 8 Nassau Phosphorite, medium 1 3 Bone-black IBone-Meal 0.2 Phospho-guano (manufactured) -A " ■ ~ " ' ■ ■,,',,,,'■ 0.9 FEVERFEW 344 FIBER In relation to the application of most commer- cial fertilizers and concentrated manures, if ap- plied directly to the seed, or the plants they will kill. They should always be intimately mixed with the earth or applied dissolved in water, or mixed with other material. For information relating to ordinary fertilizers see article Ma- nures. FESCUE GRASSES. The genus Festuca, containing several valuable, permanent grasses, of which the F. pratensis, meadow fescue, and F. duriuscula, hard fescue, are well known. (See FETLOCK. The part of the leg where the tuft of hair grows behind the pastern joint of horses. The fetlock joint is a very complicated one, and from the stress which is laid on it, and its being the principal seat of motion below the knee, it is particularly subject to injury. Fomentations, which see, are specific remedies for inflammations of the joints or integuments, to be followed, if necessary, with mild blisters. (See Blistering.) FEVER. Fever is that state of the animal system, or symptoms formed by acceleration of the pulse , chills followed by heat, thirst, and a general exhibition of lassitude and uneasiness ; specific names being applied to the various types it assumes. Fevers generally begin with languor of body and mind; chilliness, amounting to shivering, though the skin often, at the same time, feels hot; the pulse is quicker than it should be ; respiration hurried or labored ; pains are complained of in various parts, especially about the head, back and loins ; the appetite falls off, or there is nausea and vomiting; the mouth is dry; the bowels generally constipated, and the urine small in quantity and deep in color. These, which constitute the first stage, or ordinary febrile symptoms, are succeeded by alternate flushings, a quicker and fuller pulse, rapid alter- nations of shivering and burning heat, and by mental anxiety and wandering, which, under a great variety of aspects and modifications, con- stitute the second stage; they are succeeded by the third stage, in which the leading ap- pearances are a cleaner tongue, a more nat- ural pulse, a moist skin, calm mind, and the urine becomes more copious in quantity, and deposits a sediment as it cools. The symptoms of fever generally undergo an increase every evening, wliich is called an exacerbation; and this fluctuation often takes place more than once in the twenty-four hours, the violence of the attacks increasing with their occurrence, and forming what is called a continued fever. FEVERFEW. Pyrethrum; from pyr, fire, the roots being hot to the taste. Of this interesting European genus of plants, the Matricaria of Linnaeus, three species only are indigneous to England. The common feverfew, (P. partlie- nium), a biennial which grows in waste grounds, hedges, and walls, flowering in June or July. Root tapering, small, and wliite; stem erect, branched, leafy, round, many flowered, about two feet high ; leaves stalked, of a hoary green, pinnatifld. Flowers numerous, like daisies, white or yellowish, in a corymbose panicle, some- times compound, on long naked stalks, erect, about half an inch broad. The whole plant has a strong disagreeable smell, a bitter taste, and yields a volatile oil by distillation. It was for- merly reckoned tonic, stimulating, and anti- hysterical, and this oil is still regarded as such. It contains much tannic acid; and in Germany it has been usefully employed in tanning and curiy- ing leather. Corn Feverfew, or scentless May- weed, (P. inodorwm), is very common in culti- vated fields, and by waysides, on gravelly soils. Root tapering, rather large, annual, flowering in August or September. Sea Feverfew (P. ma/i-iti- ma), a perennial, flowering in July or August^ is found on the sea coast in sandy or stony ground. The thick, woody, long-enduring root runs deep into the ground, producing a number of hollow stems, spreading circularly on the' ground, often tinged with purple. The common wild chamomile (MaCricaria c7iamomiUa),waa for- merly classed as a feverfew. The greenhouse varieties of feverfew are, some of them, handsome. They grow in any rich, light soil, and young cuttings root readily when planted under a glass. Any common soil suits the hardy kinds, which are increased by divisions or seeds. It possesses the properties of the real chamomile in a marked degree, and might be substituted for it as a medicinal agent. In the United States the only indigenous species are M. parthenivm and M. discoidea, the latter a native of Oregon. FEVER, IN THE FEET. (See Founder.) FIBER. This is a term used to designate the filaments or slender threads that constitute the substance of the bones, cartilages, ligaments, membranes, nerves, veins, arteries and muscles, and the slender threads composing the structure of plants, and found also in minerals, is termed fiber. Any fine, slender root, thread or filament is a fiber. Fibrin is a ' peculiar organic com- pound substance, solid, tough, elastic, and com- posed of threads, fibers, and found in animals- and vegetables. When pure it is whitish , inodor- ous, and insoluble in water Fibrin, both in ani- mals and vegetables, is nearly identical, as the- following analyses will show ; Fibrin. Animal. Vegetable. Carbon 52.8 7.0 23.7 16.5 100.0 53.2 T.O Oxygen Nitrogen 23.4 16.4 100.0 Fiber abstrusely considered is one of the most important productions in nature. Among the families of plants producing valuable fiber for manufacturing purposes are the mallow family, noted in all parts of the world for the excellent fiber of its bark. Cotton belongs to the fiber plants. In this plant, however, it is the woolly envelope of the seeds that is the valuable part. The nettle family, in all its subdivisions, is noted for the abundance and excellence of its fiber. The hemp sub-family contains not only the hemp plant but the hop. The bread fruit sub-family; includes not only the different species of mul- berry, but also the paper mulberry, the last probably the most useful of the whole, The nettle family proper, in all parts of the world, produces valuable fiber plants. The famous china grass, (Boehmeria nivia), is stronger than hemp, and belongs to what are denominated stingless nettles. The Dog- bane family, (Apocy- num,) is represented by plants remarkable for their fineness. A. caanaMnum, or Indian hemp,. FIG 345 FINE WOOLED SHEEP is one of these. The milkweed family, {Ascle- pias,) is another family remarkable for its valu- able fibers. Lately, it is asserted, that some members of this family produce a gum analo- gous to India rubber and that it may be pro- duced, by cultivation, in paying quantities. Among the fiber plants in most common cultiva- tion in various parts of the world, and repre- senting an enormous rural and manufacturing industry are flax, hemp, jute, manilla "grass," the latter obtained from a species of plantain, (Musa textilis). All the plantain and banana tribe abound in fiber. Cocoanut fiber is the product of the tree, {Cocos nucifera). The pineapple tribe furnishes fiber from which most exquisite fabrics are made. Esparte, or Esparto, (Stipa teiincissiniii), is a fiber grass of great value. Sandals, mats, ropes, baskets, nets, and paper are produced from it, and it has even been used in Spain for hurdles in which to pen sheep. Cotton is without doubt the most valuable fiber Southern Germany, and in the United States up^ to the latitude of Tennessee. It is even culti- vated successfully in some parts of Ohio, and in . the southern portions of the Michigan lake shore region with protection in winter. If, however, the wood is frozen it is killed. In its proper climate the fig is a moderately large tree, indig- enous to the countries bordering on the Medi- terranean sea. and in Syria, Persia, Asia Minor, and North Africa. It is said only to have been found wild near Urfa, and on the banks of the Northern Euphrates. Cortes first carried the fig to America in the year 1560. FILARIA. A genus of intestinal worms resembling a thread in appearance. FILIFORM. Thread-like. FILLY. The young female of the horse kind. FILTRATION. The separation of the clear portions of a solution or mixture from the pre- cipitate or dregs, by passing through a close tissue For chemical purposes, white blotting !^ / J' ^) t> 1* 4. j'^r^ GROUP OF P.^ULAR MERINO EWES. plant known, next comes flax, then hemp, and next manilla grass. FIBRIN. The principal constituents of muscles; it also exists in blood and some vege- tables. When pure, it is white, inodorous, and insoluble, and, if properly dry can be kept for any time, but when moist it putrefies rapidly. FIBROUS PLANTS. (See Fiber.) FIBULA. The outer thin bone of the fore- leg. FICOIDEJi!. Tropical plants resembling the cactuses, iuhabitinir sandv plains. FICUS. The generic name of the fig; hence flcaria, resembling the fig. (See Fig. ) FIERY HAN«-BIRB. (See Oriole.) FKt. (Mcuh carica.) The fig is one of the most ancient fruits recorded in history ; a dioe- cious plant, the sexes occurring in different trees. Wherever it will withstand the winter it is gen- erally cultivated; in Europe up to the latitude of paper, called filtering paper, is used, folded into a conical form, and placed on a funnel. Thfr fluid which runs through is called the filtrate. In quantitative analysis the filters are weighed before use.and when properly dried with the precipitate, and reweighed, give the amount of the latter with the best results. Sometimes the paper is burned with the precipitate, the known weight of its ashes being deducted from the whole weight. For common purposes, stout cotton cloth or porous earthenware ai'e used. FIMBRIATE. Any long, fringe-like mar- gin to animal or vegetable organs. FINE WOOLED SHEEP. The introduction of fine wooled sheep into the United States dates from early in the century, through im- portations of the best individuals to be obtained from Spanish flocks, and later, of French Merinos, Saxon, and Silesian. Judicious breed- ing for many years has resulted in what is now FINE WOOLED SHEEP 346 FINE "WOOLED SHEEP known as American Merinos, larger, better wooled, and better adapted to take on flesli than any of the original breeds. In fact, the crosses ■made from time to time with Saxony, French, and Silesian sheep, resulted in disappointment. The leading strains from careful breeding and selection, during many years, resulted in w^hat were known as the Atwood, the Rich, and the Hammond Merinos, from the names of the respective breeders. They are now almost uni- versally disseminated over the country, under the name of American Merinos and, all things ■considcrt'd, are without doubt the best breed of fine wooled sheep in the world, not excepting those of Australia, in which country the breed- ing of fine wooled sheep has been carried to great perfection, as an examination of their varied and superior fine wooled fleeces at the American Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia amply attested. The fine wooled sheep are represented by the improved Paulars, and the BAHEOUIXET KAM Or THE TEAS 1787. improved Infantados. The other American breed is a cross of French Merino ewes with American rams. A quarter of French blood with three-quarters of American blood, increases the size, but the French Merinos always were tender, and not good feeders. The French Merinos were a mongrel race, the worst of them gaunt, flat sided, hard feeders, and the best of them never carried the wool the American Merinos do. We doubt much if a flock of true French Merinos can now be found in t,he United States, and their extinction here, if not already accomplished, will surely follow. The Saxons are delicate, but with wool of exceeding fine- ness. Nevertheless they were found to be not adapted to the United States. The flocks of Australia, many of them, received a large infu- sion of Saxony blood. In the United States they have almost entirely disappeared, and for the reason that the American Merinos were found to be second to none for the production of fine -wool of most excellent quality. The Silesian sheep as known in the United States, are larger than any American Merino, with longer and thinner necks in proportion to their size, and with longer legs. Their wool is of very superior quality, and is carried compactly and evenly over the carcass, but so far they have not held their own with our well established American Merinos, of the two principal families of the orig- inal Spanish stock of the country. As illustrating French Merinos of the last century and also of the present day, the accompanying cuts will give the reader a good idea of their characteristics. Dr. Randall, than whom there is no better authority, in the United States, describes the improved Infantados, and Paulars as follows: The improved Infantados are a fourth if not a third larger than their Spanish ancestors, and are the largest family of American Merinos. Full- grown ewes, in their prime, weigh about 100 pounds, and some of them 120 and 130 pounds. They are much rounder in the rib, broader, fuller in the quarters, shorter proportionally in the limbs, and stronger in the bone than were the Spanish sheep. They are indeed models of compact- ness and of beauty when judged by fine-wool stand- ards. Their hardiness in respect to locomotion, or, in other words, their abil- ity to travel, is not prob- ably as great as it was sixty years ago; for, having no necessity to drive his sheep eight hundred miles a year, as did the Spaniards, the American breeder, in the place of that useless ability to travel, has developed those qualities which in- crease aptitude to take on flesh and produce wool. The improved American Infantados appear to be quite as hardy in other par- ticulars as their ancestors, are more prolific and better nurses, and when properly fed, resist other vicissitudes equally well, and endure cold even better; but probably demand better keeping. They will thrive, however, where none of the mutton breeds above described would find sufficient subsistence. Choice Infantado, flocks with the usual number of sheep of different ages, yield fjom nine to ten pounds of wool per head. The fleece is longer, thicker, and covers the different parts of the animal far better than It did on the Spanish sheep. The quality is probably as good. The improved American Paulars bear the same rela- tion, in several particulars, to the preceding, that the Devons do to the Short Horns among cattle. They are smaller, consume less food, and perhaps can better endure deprivation of it. Accordingly they are the sheep for cold, meagre soils ; for the scanty herbage of moun- tain districts, and for plains subject to periodical droughts. They have about the same general improved points of form as the Infantados, but are shorter bodied. As breeders and nurses they are equal. Their fleeces are of equal quality. FINE WOOLED SHEEP 347 FINE WOOLED SHEEP but are a pound or two lighter to tlie head. Far that reason, and on account of the greater size of the former, there is, at the present time, a prevailing inclination to cross the Paular flocks with Infantado rams. This produces an admir- able result for the wants of many farmers, but it would be very unfortunate if the present mania for great fleeces should lead to the loss, in its essential family purity, of a class of sheep so well adapted to extensive regions of our country. Mr. W. R. Sandford, of Vermont, went to Europe, in 1851, in the interest of himself and some other gentlemen, including Mr. Hammond, and with the view of importing valuable animals if those could be found better than at home. This gentleman visited the best flocks of France, Saxony and Silesia, and purchased representa- tives of some of the best French and Silesian sheep, not with a view of breeding them himself, for he was satisfied that they were inferior to these fleeces are very heavy they do not injure the vitality of the sheep^ and the keep that will fix a wether nicely for market will keep the Merino in fine condition. Of course fleeces of the above weight will shrink in cleansing far more than the long wools; yet no other breed of sheep has probably been produced that, in proportion to live weight, will produce as much cleansed wool per head as the Merino. Between eight and nine pounds have been realized in numerous instances from a single fleece. We may add, that, as good results have been reached with sheep by our best breeders West; and, for the reason that, while they have brought as high intelligence to the art of breeding as any- where else in the world, profiting by the experi- ence of others, they have spared no expense in obtaining the best sheep possible. The result may be seen yearly at our principal fairs. The illustration, page 345, of a group of American KA.\iBJU;.L3T RAli OF TO-DAY. those at home, but to reimburse the expenses of the journey. Nevertheless, they did make the experiment, but it resulted unsatisfactorily and it is well known that those who crossed the Saxony .sheep upon their Spanish flocks, in an early day when the Saxon fever raged, did incal- culable injury. A Vermont correspondent of the Department of Agriculture at Washington, writing of iMr-rinos in New England, in 1869, says, the heaviest fleeces shown by Mr. Atwood, of Connecticut, twenty -five years since, were five pounds from ewes, and from five to eight pounds from rams. Now eighteen pounds are taken from best ewes, and twenty-six to thirty from the best rams, the growth of twelve months. The Child Brothers, bred several years from a ram that sheared as follows: First fleece, sixteen pounds; live weight after shearing, sixty-four pounds; second fleece, twenty-four pounds; live weight ninety -nine pounds; third fleece, twenty- six pounds: live weight 107 pounds. Although Paular Merino ewe Tegs, (sheep in their second year), illustrates the perfection of breeding of the last twenty years and extending to the present time. As showing something of fine wooled sheep breeding in various parts of the country, the following statements to the Department of Agriculture, Washington, gathered some ten years ago, will furnish a good basis from which the young breeder can calculate. E. D. Battles, of Ohio, makes the following statement: That for eight years, including 1862 and 1869, he kept 300 to 400 of the long stapled Spanish Merino sheep. The average weight of fleece for eight years was four and three-quarters pounds. The wool was sold annually at an average price of sixty cents per pound. The increase of the flock over and above the loss was twenty -five per cent. After the flock was increased to 400 (commenced with 300) it was kept at that number by selling the three years' old wethers, dry ewes, and drafting from the remainder of the flock such as were FINE WOOLED SHEEP 348 PINE WOOLED SHEEP- thought to be of the least profit to keep. The sheep that were sold brought, on an average, $3 per head. The annual proceeds of each 100 sheep were : From wool . . . From increase. Total. , . . $285 00 75 00 360 00 The average annual expense of 100 sheep, for eight years was as follows : Hay consumed in 125 days, ten tons For 240 days pasturing, at three cents per head per week For grain Washing, shearing, and.marketing wool . .... Summer and winter care, including salt Total. . $100 00 283 00 Profits on 100 sheep, over and ahove all expenses, $77. The following statement shows the cost and profits in keeping seventy ewes, twenty lambs, and twenty rams, the Merino flock of C. A. Miller, a wool grower of Michigan : $120 00 20 00 67 00 10 80 8 00 liSbor in feeding Salt and summer care $225 80 Wool of ewes 652 pounds $253 28 .8 95 100 00 90 00 60 00 50 00 Thirty Jambs sold, at $3 Total 603 23 Profit 404 43 A wool -grower in Livingston county, Mo., makes report of a flock of 500 Merinos, purchased: at $780, which at the end of the year he sold for, the same amount, after selling their wool for $500 and keeping a handsome young flock from the increase. The mountain districts of the- South have the finest sheep ranges, almost entirely unoccupied, on which grass sufiicient for millions of sheep annually decays, of no- immediate advantage, and of no remote benefit except as a fertilizer of the soil. Merino sheep would thrive upon this herbage, and wherever the experiment has been fairly tried great profit has resulted. They also do well upon the lowlands of the South, if they escape the ravages- of dogs and vagrants. It is worthy of record that the South is moving in preventing the kill- ing of sheep by dogs, and in some sections sheep- are now fairly protected. As an example: In Pulaski county, Ga., a farmer bought 800 head of sheep, in 1868, of which the following state- ment is made of debit and credit : Dr. Cost $7S0 00 180 01) 20 00 Cost of one hand to care for them . . . Salting and incidental expenses $950 00 Cr. 2,000 pounds wool, at thirty cents — Increase, 225 lambs at $1 Fifteen acres of land well manured. . 600 00 225 00 150 00 1,050 00 700 sheep on hand, $1.50 per head 2,025 00 Profit 1,075 00 A Texas correspondent ■ sfends the following tabulation, compiled with the aid of records from actual experience in wool-growing, with a flock of selected grade Merinos improved by thorough-bred Merino rams. The annual in- crease, allowing for losses of lambs, is placed at eighty per cent., half males, which are sold annually, and the ewes added to the flock . a; •6 '0 , » k i £ ■% S S ■^ Tears. s £.0 a S 1" .ai Is 3S 03 Is 1 .a u K S §1 a > . 'S'c ■s g a £ 0; •c d a ■3 « ^^/p^'-i^ >■*' (351) FISH BREEDING 352 FISH BREEDING many of the States by officers or agents, paid by the legislature, under the name of fish commis- sioners. The legislatures of all the New Eng- land and Middle States, more than ten years ago, passed stringent laws for the protection of fish and fisheries; have voted liberal appropriations for buildings for hatching the fish, and have appointed commissioners to manage this new o w o o « industry. Since that time, many of the Western States have followed tlioir example. In the West, salmon, salmon trout, white fish and brook trout, are the species generally experi- mented with, and these, except white fish, and with the addition of shad and some other sea fish, are those usually hatched in the East. In the article Salmon (which see)vrillbe found an illustration of the California species {Salmo gtiinnat), said to be remarkable for hfirdi- ness and freedom from disease. The late Mr. Klippart believed the following species as com- monly found in Western waters, will be valuable. It must be remembered, however, that the perch family and the carp family, and the pike family, must not be in the same pond, unless they are expected to f urnLsh food for the pike and pick- erel. Perch family: Yellow perch, pickerel of the lakes, sunfish, rock bass, grass bass, black bass of the lake, and black bass of the Ohio river, (two distinct fish, though bearing tlie same name,) dwarf bass. Hog fish family: White perch of the Ohio river, sheep's head of the lake, bog fish, blenny-like hog fish, variegated hog fish. Carp family; Carp of the Ohio, mullet of the lake, Missouri sucker, white sucker, red-horse sucker, Buffalo sucker, brook sucker, spotted sucker, mud sucker, blacli sucker, rough-nosed dace, stone roller, silver shiner, large shiner, red-bellied shiner, red-bellied shiner of the lake, vrhite and yellow-winged shiner, horned chub, red-sided chub, gold shiner, flat shiner, chub-nosed shiner, flat-headed chub, mud minnow. Pike family: Muskallonge pike, black pike. Catfish family; Blue catfish, yellow catfish, channel catfish, mud catfish, bullhead, yellow backtail. Salmon fam- ily: Mackinaw trout, speckled or brook trout, shad of the lake, white fish. Shad family : Gold shad, hickory shad, larger herring, lesser herring, moon-eyed herring. In addition to these we have several species of eels, sturgeon, and other fishes, which have not yet fallen under the notice of the naturalist, so as to be properly classified. Out of this list of nearly seventy-five species, according to Prof. Kirlland's catalogue, made nearly forty years ago, there certainly must be at least half a dozen species which are as much Worthy our care and attention, and whose culture is certainly as profitable as some branches of farming in which millions of capital are in- vested. For the lake, the propagation of white fish, Mackinaw trout, and the lake perch, per- haps would pay the best. In the reservoirs and rivers the perch family would, in all probability, be the most advisable and profltable. It is possi- ble that some species now unknown in our waters, more desirable than, any of those enu- merated above, may successfully be introduced and cultivated with profit. Further on we give cuts of the black bass (MicropUrang achigan), and the brassy bass {Morone mterrupta), two well known game fish of Western waters. In stock- ing ordinary shallow, or warm water ponds in the West, the carp family will be found best adapted to such places, although all the smaller catfish are equally well adapted. In fact, any fish usually found in ponds and sluggish streams may be used, but care must be taken not to introduce shovel-nose pike, or other predaceous fish of that character. In relation to the preser- vation of fish and stocking of waters, the report of the United States Fish Commissioners, in 1873, through Prof. Baird, says, in conclusion, that the decrease of fishes on the coasts that have been long and heavily drained by human demands, is probably dependent on the habits of most if not all fishes to return to the same spawning places year after year. Of late years the decrease has been more rapid on the coast here reported, because of the increased population to be sup- FISH BREEDING 353 FISH BREEDING plied; the greater facilities by railways, and in the use of ice for packing, for extending sales into remote sections of the interior ; the waste and even reckless destruction of spawn and of fish in endeavors to get the largest supply in the short- est time ; the manufacture of oil and manure from fish ; and the diminished supply as food for other fishes, thus compelling the feeders to seek other places for feeding. As a thorough investigation of all these and other points was necessary to a correct result, the inquiries took a wide range. In addition to the above-named causes of decrease, the commission examined into the effects of changes in the temperature of the waters and of pollution of waters by the waste of manufactories and the sewage of cities ; the amount and condi- tion of fish food ; the habits of the fishes, and the diversion likely to be caused in those habits by the changes abovg noted, and the interference of inventions for fishing. And the products of some of these investigations were also used to add to the collections for the National Museum at Wash- ington, and for other important museums else- where. The conclusions arrived at, as to tlie almost enforce itself. Should these States neglect or refuse to enact such a law, it is then urged that Congress pa.ss a law absolutely prohibiting the erection of any fixed apparatus for taking fish, after a period of one or two years, on the south side of New England and on the shores of Long Island, which constitute the spawning-grounds of the sliore-fishes referred to. The one or two years would allow the present owners to wear out or use up their apparatus; and the absolute pro- hibition following, would restore the original abundance in much less time than the more grad- ual measure proposed for State action, while it would leave all fishing open to taking by hook and line, seines, and gUl-ncts exclusively. Thus the markets would be more regularly supplied, and the business and its profits be divided among a greater number of persons. Absolute prohibi- tion by the United States is required, that it may be able easily to enforce the law. An occasional patrol along the coast by vessels of the revenue department, to confiscate all apparatus used in violating the law, would be all that is requisite. We now come to artificial spawning and hatch SHOET STRIPED OE BEASST BASS. proper mode of preventing further decrease, and insuring an increased supply of food-fishes, the commissioner has embodied in an act (which has been submitted to, and amended and approved by, the best authorities among all parties most interested) which is to be made a law and enforced by the States of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut and New York. This act is to pro- vide for the prohibition of capturing fish in traps and pounds, from six p. m., on Friday until six a. m., on Monday — three nights and two days in each week — during the six weeks of the .spawn- ing season. This measure, all admit, will allow a gradual increase of the number, of all fishes, without material interference with the interests of any persons interested, except, perhaps, a few middle-men. Intelligent fishermen gave assur- ances that they would gladly welcome a law to that effect. To secure its easy and certain enforce- ment, all ponds and traps are to be licensed, and an infraction of the law is to work forfeiture to the State, and a transfer of the license to the mformer. This will render ofiicial surveillance by the State nearly unnecessary — the law will as ing. Upon this subject we find the following data, which, with the accompanying illustrations, will be made plain : In the cut showing indoor hatching boxes, 1, is a frame work of glass rods; 2, tank with eggs resting on gravel; 3, catpher; 4, hand net. In the cut showing hatching-box, 1, is the reservoir; 3, short trough through which water is discharged ; 3, trough in which the water falls before entering the box; 4, per- forated zinc; o, shoot to discharge water. (See explanation, Mr. Francis' plan ) The next cut of hatching-boxes will illustrate a more extensive series of hatching-boxes. As explanatory of the illustrations still farther, in relation to artificial fecundation, and propagation, in an article pre- pared by Theodore Gill, M D., for the Depart- ment of Agriculture, he says: The fish should be firmly seized by the hand, and that the other should be passed over the abdomen gently, but firmly, and the ova and milt, if mature, will readily pour out. Only those fishes which are mature should be treated thus. If the ova or milt comes out with difficulty, and only under hard pressure, it is a sufficient indication that FISH BREEDING 354 FISH breeding: they are not ripe, and it would not only injure the pregnant flsh, but be useless as to results to anticipate the period of maturity. This uncer- tainty as to the period when the fish may be most advantageously manipulated, is one of the diffi- culties incidental to artificial fecundatiou. The fishes may be caught when they have apparently nearljf reached their term, and be confined so as to be under the notice of the pisciculturist. When ripe they may be distinguished by their turgid sides, the pouting anus, and their uneasy move- ments. (See cut.) Having secured the eggs of certain fishes and fecundated them, these may be transferred to receptacles for hatching them; various patterns have been recommended, but the principles followed are essentially the same in all. A fountain of clear running water — a spring is preferable — from which a small stream flows, or may be led, is selected ; and if there is a gradual fall or descent, so much the better. A series of boxes, through which the water will flow, are placed in the position to be fed by the stream, and the floor of each box is covered with gravel or pebbles, which may furnish a bed for the deposit of the spawn. In the details of the form and construction of these boxes, and the inanner of regulating tlie flow of the stream, the variations chiefly consist, and may be illustrated an eddy very favorable, as quiet resting places, to the young fry when first hatched. If the stream be at all strong, artificial eddies should be created by sticking small pieces of perforated zinc upright in the gravel at intervals along the sides and across the stream; behind these the helpless fry can be in safety.) The top cut, which first received the water, being secured from foes with- out by being covered with perforated zinc through which the water flowed, and the further end one having a zinc shoot to deliver the water, and also a perforated zinc face, not only to keep foes out, but the flsh in. Fastened over the cut, in the lower end of the first box, was a short zinc shoot (5) to convey the water into the next box over the corresponding cut, so that no water should run to waste between the boxes. Thus, when No 1 was fairly placed on a brick founda- tion so as to receive the water in the zinc trough, all that was required was to insert the shoot at the other end of the box into the corresponding cut of No. 2 box, and slide No. 3 safely and closely up into its place, and so on with Nos. 3, 4, and 5, etc. These boxes were then partially filled with coarse gravel of the size of goose- berries, and some larger, even to the size of plums, for the more irregular their shape the better, as there will be more interstices between BLACK BASS. by reference to two methods. One of these plans has been adopted by the Thames Angling Preservation Society, and was elaborated and introduced by Mr. Francis Francis. The chief object in view was to increase the stock of trout, and to introduce the grayling in the river Thames. A spring, from which a rill flowed, was fii'st obtained ; to use Mr. Francis' own words, there was a considerable fall in the run of the water, which was very advantageous; nevertheless, the plan here adopted can be applied more or less t.o any stream. We first bricked up the little rill so as to form a reservoir (1) and raise the water to a higher level ; we covered the reservoir in with a large stone to keep out dirt and vermin, and placed at the lower end of it a zinc shoot, (2) over which the stream flowed. Immediately under this we placed our first box, a f ac-simile of which is given. It was made of elm, four feet long, and fifteen inches wide in the clear, and ten inches deep. At the upijer end of the box a projecting zinc trough (3) was fixed to catch the water, this trough being about three-quarters of the width of the box itself. At each end of every box a piece was cut out six or seven inches in width, and through these the water flowed into each box. (These openings were not carried all across the boxes, as the shoulders left made them in which the ova can be hidden, and the little fish when hatched can creep for safety. The gravel was at a level of about an inch below the cut which admitted the water, an inch depth of water being quite suflicient to cover them. Each box was furnished with a lid, comprising a -Wooden frame-work, and a perforated zinc center. This lid was made to fit closely by means of list being nailed on all around. It was padlocked down to keep out inquisitive eyes and fingers. Boxes in exposed places should always be covered in, if not with coarsely perforated zinc, yet with fine wire netting, or water mice will get in, and various birds, as moor-hens and dab chicks, will pick out the spawn, while a king- fisher, should he discover them; will carry off the fry by wholesale. The stream was then turned on, and flowed steadily from box to box through- out the boxes, and finally discharged itself by the end shoot into the bed of the rill. It need not be imagined that a full stream is necessary, for a small amount of water is suflicient. In- deed, a flow of water, say through a half-inch pipe, would be enough, perhaps, though it is advisable while the ova are unhatched, to have more, so that there shall be more stream and movement in the water, and consequently less time for deposit to settle ; so that we had on. riSH BREEDING 355 FISH BREEDING perhaps, as much as a stream of three-quarters of an inch in diameter. When the fish are hatched half that quantity would be preferable, as they are not well able to struggle against a stream, and would be carried down, perhaps, to the end box, and so against the perforated zinc face, where they would stop up the holes, and finally be smothered. The boxes were then properly steeped in water and seasoned, and being of elm," the joints drew closely together after a "while, and the boxes held the water without S. E.W MODE OF DISCHARGING OVA. "material leakage. In each of the boxes thus ■constructed and arranged, about four or five thousand ova, or even more, are deposited; the gravelly bed in which they are spread is about one and a half or two inches below the cuts referred to in the preceding description. The ova are, by means, of a spoon, regularly dis- .tributed, but from their numbers are quite close together ; care is taken to have them among inter- :Stices of the gravel, such as are too prominent being carefully swept into some crevice by means of a fine brush. When thus cared for, a layer of •gravel, composed of rather large flat stones ipn inch and a half or two inches square, is spread over the ova, heed being taken not to squeeze them. It may be remarked that the ova of the <;ommon yellow perch were hatched in these boxes. Another apparatus for the same purpose has been described by Mr. Frank Buckland as Ijeing employed by the Messrs. Ashworth, the proprietors of the Galway salmon fishei'ies, and by means of which many thousands of salmon have been hatched. The boxes in this case are six feet long, one foot wide, and seven inches deep. They have board covers with perforated zinc fitting their tops and attached by hinges; each box overlaps above the succeeding, so all are fed by the same stream of water, whicli falls from the outflow of the one into the inflow of the next. The inflow from the main stream must, of course, be regulated by a hatchway, (where the man is working with the flsh kettle «nd net,) and be guarded by perforated zinc, •etc. It may be also, if naturally not very clear, filtered through gravel, charcoal, etc. It is not necessary that the boxes should be placed on the side of a hill, as represented in the drawing, but sbill they should be placed one above the other in such a manner that there may be a fall from one to the other. Nor is it absolutely necessary that the end of the upper box should rest on that immediately below it. The water may be conducted from one to the other by means of a trough or plate (with the margins turned up) of common zinc. The pond at the end of the boxes will receive a flsh, but they should not be allowed to escape there until the umbilical bag is gone. The pond must not be above three or four feet deep, or if it be naturally deep, the margins must be made to slope, as the young fish like shallow water to bask, feed, and play upon. They must be fed for a time when in this pond. The in-door is considered better than the out- door apparatus, principally because it may be better protected. As illustrating out-door apparatus, see cut of out-door hatching boxes. It is not absolutely necessary that there should be a distinct perpendicular fall from one box to the other, yet where this is practicable it will be found the better plan. We cannot better close this important subject than by giving an extract from a practical article by the Hon. George H. Jerome, Superintendent of the Michigan Fish Commission, in relation to fish farming. After stating the claims made by various authorities in relation to the importance of the subject, and also what is claimed for it in theory, our authority says ; In scientific practice, it requires a study of waters to know at what point a reformation may begin, and to what just limit it may be carried; a study of the fishes to know their worth, spawning seasons, peculiar habtis and necessities ; an investigation of the cause of their decrease or increase, as the case may be ; a complete knowledge of one and all of those essentials that antei^ate birth, development, and FISH BREEDING 356 FISH BREEDINS the reproduction of valuable animal life. Then follows the manual work — the preparation of ponds, races, hatching-houses, supply troughs, hatching-boxes, egg trays, partition screens, egg nippers, pans, dippers, brushes, feathers, etc. The master workman, whatever his trade or occupation, will see to it that liis chest of tools is full and in order. Next comes the procurement of the breeding-fish, male and female; to be obtained if possible without injury — ^healthy, vigorous parents always preferred. The fish obtained, the fish culturist, guided by observa- tion and experience, will quite readily detect in the gravid fish those signs which precede and denote the mature spawner. Carefully noticing the premonitory indications, the porcelain or tin pan is brought to the place of operation, contain- ing but very little water, the viscid fluid that accompanies the flow of the ova affording suffi- cient moisture. Formerly water was used, but is now generally discarded, it being thought to have the effect of drowning the spermatozoa or life principle of the milt. The spawner is then caught, gently seized and held (if small, one person is suflicient; if large, two or more persons are required) in an oblique-perpendicular posi- tion, the vent being directly over the pan. If ripe, which means a mature condition of the ova. pan IS The &.2M OUT-DOOB HATCHING-HOUSB. the egg will often flow into the vessel by the mere force of gravity or muscular contraction, without any hand pressure or manipulation whatever; but if not so yielding up her spawn, a slight pressure with the thumb and fingers along the abdomen will cause the ova to be extruded. This process, once or twice repeated, in a majority of cases will secure the entire yield. The fish is now returned to the water in almost as good a condition as when taken from it, for the whole process has not occupied more than from twenty to forty seconds. The male fish or milter, as he is termed by pisciculturists, is now taken from the tub or trough near at hand, held in a similar position, and the manipulator, by a gentle pressure along the lower portion of the abdomen, will discover, provided the fish is ripe, an extension into the vessel containing the ova, a few drops of a creamy, whitish substance termed milt, spermatozoa, or fertilizing fluid. The fish is returned to the water, no pain or injury having resulted, a very little water is poured into the pan or porcelain vessel, and the contents stirred with a feather or tremulously shaken in a manner to give the ova a rotary motion, and very soon all or nearly all the eggs will have become impregnated, vitalized. The now allowed to stand a few minutes, meanwhile are undergoing great changes ; prior to the introduction of the milt oi- zo-osperms, they were in a manner agglutinated and in a flaccid condition ; now they have become enlarged, are now translucent; each leg, no- longer coherent, is an individuality, and by one of those mysterious processes by which Naturer works, are become hard to the touch, so that they will roll about like shot on a smooth surface. Here now we have the vivified germ, the embryo* fish. In this state they are taken, cleansed in one or two waters, and carefully placed upon a bed of gravel or upon wire cloth trays, and with a feather evenly distributed over the surface, the- object of such spreading being to allow the clear, living water to come continually in contact with all the eggs — well-oxygenized water being as essential to a nornial, healthy development of the embryo, as it is material to the life and growth of the fish in its subsequent stages. Now, with pure and perpetually running water, filtered if" necessary by one or more flannel screens, with, clean tools, clean surroundings and with clean_ hands, we enter upon the- work of incubation, a labor lasting five, ten, twenty, forty, eighty, one- hundred and twenty days, or even longer, depending upon species and upon quality and temperature of water. Dead eggs, easily distinguished, when- ever discovered are to be at once- removed, as they produce a bys- sus that sends out its clammy,, fibrous arms, like Hugo's devil- fish, to destroy every living egg- within their reach, and all sedi- ment and substances of every sort, foreign to the before-named conditions of their health and growth, are to be sedulously guarded against. The eyes first appear, then a faint embryonic- structure and soon after a dim^ outline of the coming fish may be seen, growing more andl more visible each day, until some morning you see the wreck of a habitation float- ing down the current, and a tiny creation, most unmistakably alive, settled down amid the interstices of the gravelly bed, or meshes of the- wire tray, a third, or a half, or perhaps three- fourths of an Inch in length. About the most perceivable thing of this new birth, is a bag or- sack attached to the belly of the fish. This sack,. with the salmo quinnat, is of a rich, pinkish color, resembling one or two drops of. blood incased in a semi transparent membranous bag. At birth it is larger than the fish itself, rendering all movements of the new comer exceedingly awkward and clumsy. This is the umbilical vesicle, or yolk sac — Nature's store-house for the- supply and sustenance of the fish during its tender infancy.' Until this sac is absorbed, the fish will eat nothing, seems to desire nothing but to be let alone, content with the pabulum stored in its little knapsack, from which it daily, hourly draws that nourishment, the . provision and pottage of birthright. Day by day the sac becomes smaller, till it can scarcely be perceived with the naked eye; then the fish begins to move about, as if in quest of something to satisfy its hunger. This yolk sac, with the salmon and trout and some other species, lasts from thirty to- VISTULA 357 FLAIL forty days; with other varieties, not so long. During the existence of the umbilical vesicle the fish are known as alevins; afterward, up to ■certain periods of growth, minnows or fry. The sac being absorbed, the fry should be fed two or three times a day, or ofteuer, in limited quanti- ties, will do no hurt. Various kinds of food are given — bonny-clabber, the yolk of an egg, boiled ■calf's or beef's heart, boiled hard and grated; Jiver of all kinds, (except hog's liver,) chopped or grated so fine as to become the consistence of thick blood, mixed with a little sweet cream, is ■used as food, while the fty is very young. ■Under proper care and feeding, the fish will -come on rapidly, so that in a few days or weeks thev will do to be removed from their hatching- troughs and planted in the lakes and rivers, there to grow and to bear testimony that fish culture is neither a myth nor a phantasm, but an ocular, tangible and gustible realitj^ FISSIPAROUS GENERATION. That kind ised for crushing or sowing. The light seed and chaS form most wholesome food for stock. Flax ought not to be allowed to stand in the field, if possible, even the second day, but should be rippled as soon as practicable after it is pulled, and carried to the water to be steeped, that it may not harden. Watering requires the greatest care and atten- tion. River water is the best. If spring water must be used, let the pond be filled some weeks before the flax is put in, that the sun and air may soften the water. That containing iron or other mineral substances should never be used. If rivei' water can be had, it need not be let into the pond sooner than the day before the flax is to be steeped. The best size of a steep-pool is twelve feet broad, eighteen feet long, and from three and one-quarter to four feet deeij. Place the flax loosely in the pool, in one layer, somewhat sloped, and in regular rows, with the root ends under- neath, the tie of each row of sheaves to reach the root of the previous one. Cover with moss sods, or old, tough sward, cut thin, and laid perfectly close, the sheer of each fitted to the other. Before putting on the sods, a layer of rushes or weeds is recommended to be placed on the flax, especially in new ponds. As sods are not always at hand, a light covering of straw may do, with stones laid on it, so as to keep the flax just under the water, and as the fermentation proceeds, additional weight should be laid on, to be removed as soon as the fennentation ceases, so as not to sink the flax too much in the pool. Thus covered, it never sinks to the bottom, nor is affected by air or light. A small stream of water, allowed to run through a pool, has been found to improve the color of flax. The average time for steeping sufficiently is from eight to fourteen days, according to the heat of the weather and the nature of the water. Every grower should learn to know when the flax has had enough of the water, as a few hours too much may injure it. It is, however, much more frequently under watered than over watered. The best test is the following; Try some stalks, of average thickness, by breaking the shove, or woody part, in two places, about six or eight inches apart, at the middle of the stalk; catch the broken bit of wood, and if it will pull freelj- out, downwards, for that length, without breaking or tearing the fiber, and with none of the fiber adhering to it, the flax is ready to take out. Make this trial every six hours after fermenta- tion subsides, for sometimes the change is sudden. Never lift the flax roughly from the pool with forks or gripes, but have it carefully handed out by men standing in the water. It is advanta- geous to let the flax drain from twelve to twenty- four hours after being taken from the pool, by placing thfi bundles on their root ends, close together, or on the flat, with the slope. But the heaps should not be too large, otherwise the flax will be injured by heating. Select, when prac- ticable, clean, short, thick pasture ground for spreading, mowing down or removing any weeds, if necessary, that rise above the sward. Lay the flax evenly on the grass, and spread very equally and thin. If the directions given underthe head of rippling have been attended to, the handfuls will readily come asunder without entangling. Some persons recommend turning the flax on the grass with a long rod. Six or eight days, if the weatlier is showery, or ten or twelve days, if it be drj', should be sufficient for the flax to remain on the grass. Ten days may be taken as a fair average in ordinary weather. A good test of its being ready to lift is to rub a few stalks from the top to the bottom; and when the wood breaks easily, and separates from the fiber, leaving it_ J'LAX 361 FLEAS sound, it has had enough of the grass. Also, when a large proportion of the stalks is perceived to form a bow and string, from the fiber contract- ing and separating from the woody stalk. But the most certain way is, to prove a small quantity with a handbreak or in a mill In lifting the flax, keep the lengths straight and the ends even; otherwise great loss will occur in the process of scutching. If heavy dews or damp weather pre- vail, do not lift too late in the day. Let tlie flax be set up to dry for a few hours, and afterward tie it up in small bundles; and if not taken soon to be scutched, it will be much improved by being put up in small stacks, loosely built, with stones ■or slaijs in the bottom to keep it drj' and allow a free circulation of air. Drying, if by fire, is always most pernicious. If properly steeped and grassed, no such drying is necessary; and to make it ready for breaking and scutching exposure to the sun is sufficient. The imports of flax and hemp, raw and manufactured, into the United States during the year 1879, amount to $.5,781, 710, and of this amount $3,798,465 was paid for the raw material in the ratio of one to two, flax being the lesser import. For the foreign flax supply we depend mainly upon six or seven coun- tries, and in the last ten years but fifteen countries are represented in all, only eight furnish a steadj' supply. Since 1877, inclusive, Russia has fur- nished the largest amount and England next, the last named country leading in the seven years previous. A considerable amount comes "from Canada, either in the form of tow or line. The tow being subject to a duty of $10 a ton when intended for bagging manufacture, though it comes in free for paper-stock. The Boston mar- ket is largely supplied from Archangel, either direct or via England, though a large quantity of this fiber also comes to the port of New York. Holland flax is used to some extent, though it is not in such demand as formerly. At one time it was considered the most perfectly prepared flax in the market, being even at the ends, well cleaned and strong. Rotterdam and Zealand flax is imported in small quantities, and Belgium sends us small amounts, varying in the ten years from flve to seventy-five tons. But ten tons were reportad for the year 1879. It is difiicult to get at the true figures as regards any one market, on account of this increased amount of indirect importation in small quantities. The quantity of flax — hackled and line — and also of tow received in Boston during the year 1879, was 3,730,000 pounds. By far the largest portion, or 3,583,400 pounds, was received from Russia, and of this quantity 1,405,300 pounds was imported in the form of tow. The small balance was received chiefly from Ireland and the Netherlands, there being 59, 500 pounds from the former country and 87,100 pounds from the latter. In 1879 the flax importation into Now York was 1,420 English tons, or 3,180,800 pounds; 970 tons of this was flax, costing from $300 to $550 per ton, leaving 450 tons of tow valued at $325 per ton, a total valua- tion of flax and tow to the amount of $600,000. Referring to the customs figures, we find that for the year ending June 30, 1879, there were 3,935 tons of raw flax fiber, including tow, imported from seven countries, at a cost of $969,451, a fall- ing off from the previous year of $207,778, and a smaller amount than in any year since 1870, when the raw flax imports were 100 tons less than in the year previously mentioned. FLAX, TOAD. Linaria vulgaris. It is called yellow toad flax. FLEA BANE. A name given to many weeds, as the inulas, etc. FLEA BEETLE. Under the name Flea Beetle, there are several species of the llot- tica family. The C^ucumber Flea Beetle (JI. ciiGumeiis) is said to be often largely injurious to potato vines. Dr. Fitch thinks this, I£ Cucumeris, and H. Pubescens is the same. This species certainly attack the potato. The Striped Flea Beetle (H. orchestris nittata) is one of the most troublesome species, often entirely destroying young cabbage, turniij, radish and other crucifer- ous plants. Some flowering plants, as stocks, are also attacked. Powdered lime or soot, applied when the dew lies, are among the popular remedies for all this class of insects; not alwaj'S successful, however. London Purple or Paris Green, properly diluted, is efficient, but should not be applied to cabbage, radish, etc. It may be very much more diluted than when used for the Colorado Potato Beetle. Cruciferous plants may be treated with powdered white hellebore. GRAPE-VINE FLEA BEETLE. The dreaded Grape-vine Flea Beetle, Haltica (graptodera) clmlybea, (see cut) is another member of this family of insects, a, grape leaf and larva feeding; b, larva magnified; c, earth-cell in which the insect transforms; d, beetle; the hair lines show natural size. This is soinetimes called the Steel Blue Beetle, and in the vineyards about St. Louis and South is often most destructive. Hellebore powder is also destructive to this insect. There are many so-called Flea Beetles from their power of leaping, as the cabbage, and turnip, and the cucumber Flea Beetle, and all jumping beetles, are similar to the ordinary e.ye; some of them are exceedingly minute, and some- times so abundant that the foliage of young plants will be black with them, but this is uncommon. On very young plants of the cabbage or cucum- ber families, there is no objection to the use of dilute Paris Green or London Purple. FLEAM. The knife or lancet used in bleed- ing cattle and horses. FLEAS. A species of the genus P»fei'. They FLORICULTURE 363 FLORICULTURE are wingless,, but undergo regular transforma- tions. Cleanliness, especially in the removal of old straw, litter, and similar trash, in which they harbor, washing the skins of animals, anointing with a mixture of oil and pennyroyal, or elder leaves, are effectual means to reduce their numbers. FLECKED. Pied, or of mixed colors. FLEECE. (See Wool.) FLESH. Generally understood as the mixed muscle and fat of animals, but more strictly the muscle or lean only. Lean meat consists of twenty per cent, fibrin, with three per cent, of albumen, coloring matter, and salts ; the rest, seventy -seven per cent., being water; it differs very little from blood. FLEXIBILITY. The capacity of bending without breakage. It is a relative property, •depending upon temj)erature, thickness, etc. FLEXORS. The name of those muscles which cause the flexion or bending of the arm or leg. ■ FLEXUOSE. Full of bendings to the one side and the other. FLIES. Insects furnished with two wings (Diptera), and living by suction. Several dis- tinct families exist, viz., Tacliinadm, deposit their eggs in caterpillars; the Sarcophagce, are viviparous, produce living maggots, and live on putrid meats. The Stromoxys genus, including the sharp stinging horseflies, which lay their eggs in dung ; the MuscadcB, or house and meat flies, which infest butchers' stalls and hoilses. (See Fly.) FLINT. A variety of silica, containing water and stained with iron, found interstratifled with FLINT GLASS. A glass composed of fine sand and red-lead, having a high refractive power, and used by opticians. FLITCH OF BACON. The side, or shoulder, and middle niece together. FLOAT. " A raft of timber to be floated. To cover meadows with water. FLOAT BOARDS. The boards attached to the circumference of an under shot wheel. FLOCCUS. The loose hair at the end of the tail of some animals. FLOODGATE. Any contrivance or gate to regulate the flow of water; a sluice. FLORETS. The flowers of a capitulum, like the sunflower. FLORICULTURE. The increasing taste for •the cultivation of flowers not only in our city and village gardens but at our rural homesteads, is evidence not only of progress in refinement and material wealth, but also of correct appre- ciation of the beautiful in nature, and the goodly influences they bring in education to a higher human nature. With the explosion of the dogmas of the old gardeners that each species of plant must have its special soil, and in some cases mixed with the minutest care from many different sources, and that each plant should have a particular degree of heat and moisture, has come the abandonment, in a measure, of the practice, from the fact that the plants usually cultivated at our homes do well in ordinary soil, if well enriched — heavy soils, with a compost of rotted sods and decayed horse manure; and light soils, with rotted sods and decayed cow manure. Thus we may bring both these soils, the first to a light, friable condition, and the last to a state suflSciently compact to stand ordinary drying. For pot plants, for instance, rotted sods from a loamy pasture, one half , rotted cow manure, one-quarter, and leaf mold, one-quai'- ter, will answer for the majority of plants- cultivated, and with proper watering they may be kept in vigorous health. With both pot plants and the garden flowers usually cultivated it should be remembered that fuchsias, begonias, and even geraniums, gladiolus, etc., do not like hot sun, and also that no flowers should be exposed to sweeping winds Another dognia, now exploded, that house-plants are injurious to health, should have been known long ago. The perfume of certain flowers is unpleasant to the senses of nervous individuals. Let them be avoided, but do not fear that the emanation of the plants ordinarily kept in rooms are detri- mental to health. This misstatement has been accepted, and harped upon, by those who grudged the time and care necessary to this god- like means of enjoyment. There are no more healthy nor long lived persons than florists, whO' spend their days, and sometimes nights, in the atmosphere of green houses crowded with plants. It is the lack of fresh air that is fatal to health, and plants can not thrive without plenty of air. There is another class of persons, and here, among the class who cultivate flowers, who make the mistake of grudging the cutting of flowers- for table and other indoor adornment. The true human mission of flowers is to be cut, and really PICOTEB PINK. nearly all that class, useful for indoor decoration, bloom better for moderate cutting at least. Do not, therefore, raise flowers merely to look at out of doors. If the housewife and children are the cultivators, leave them alone to follow their natural instincts and tastes in cutting flowers for iise. If the master of the house be the cultivator, give the family full liberty in the matter of cutting, only designating certain specimens that must be reserved for the judgment and discretion of the master. The family will soon learn to discriminate between those that may be freely cut and those not so free in their bloom, but FLORICULTURE 363 FLOWERS. nevertheless worthy a place at the home, or in the green-house, for some rare peculiarity or grace. One other mistake, often made in the cultivation of annuals, is in sowing them too early. The hardy kinds should not be sown until just before corn (maize) planting time, or about the time of sowing flax. Tlie tender varieties are better reserved until corn is above ground and growing. The most economical way with all varieties of plants, that ■will bear transplant- ing, is to sow them in a cold frame of nicely- prepared' soil, and transplant at the proper sea- son. Tims China and other garden pinks may be brought into bloom by July 1st; and balsams, candytuft, mignonette, nasturtiums, plilox, sweet alyssum, zinnias and, in fact, all annaals may be forwarded fully three weeks before bloom may be had where tliey are sown outside. The labor of sowing and transplanting is, in reality, far less than that of watching and waiting for, and weeding the tiny things when young, to say nothing of the vexation often arising from loss. Of the varieties mentioned above, nasturtium and mignonette should be sown in small pots, allowing three plants to each pot, and turned out with the balls entire, since they do not bear transplanting well. In transplanting plants are often killed by too mucli fussing with. Make a place sufficient to receive the roots, set the plant, press the earth firm about the roots, leaving a little depression; fill tliis with water, and when it has settled completely away, draw dry earth over all, and few plants will ever wilt to harm them. A little practice will soon ena- ble any one to perform this work quickly and well. Much taste may be displayed in the for- mation of the beds, and by the exercise of tact in planting, by the selection of suitable varie- ties. The tasteful arrangement of cut flowers in bouquets, baskets, vases, and designs for dec- orative purposes, is an art worthy of study. The arrangement of color, mapping of designs, the grouping, and the added spray of leaves and tendrils, and the blending of perfumes, is a, most fascinating studj' to all wlio have flowers. In the formation of floral designs, especially bouquets, as a rule, beginners crowd the flow- ers too much together, and do not use green enough. The filling up, as the adding of spray is called, and the arrangement of the ground work of green, and the preservation of individ- uality of color and character, may be called the fine art of decorative arrangement. For instance, we may easily see that heliotrope and alyssum, when combined, lose their individu- ality. Combined with other distinct flowers .their charm, is heightened. Flowers borne in long spikes, as lillies, gladiolus, etc., are best for vases, but individual blooms may be taken, wired to splints, and introduced with effect in flower pieces of considerable size. For articles on special flowers, see the several names as- treated. See also landscape gardening for form, of beds and planting. FLOSS SILK. The silk broken off from cocoons in the filature, which is cai-ded and worked like cotton, for coarse fabrics. FLOUR. Any grain ground fine, and from which all the bran, shorts and middlings are removed, in contradistinction to meal, in which only the hull or outside skin is removed.. Flour, of wheat, is now divided into many grades, fine, superfine, family flour, and extra, being the principal grades. Formerly, the word flour was only applied to the flour of wheat, that of rye and buckwheat being denominated meal, but now the word flour is used for all the better grades of ground bread grains, except Indian corn. FLOWERLESS PLANTS. The crypto- famous plants of Linnaeus; the acotyledons of ussieu FLOWERS. The most beautiful parts of" plants and trees, which contain the organs of fructification. (See Botany.) From their fre- quent utility as medicinal drugs, as well as their external beauty, the cultivation of flowers in our gardens becomes an object of some impor- tance. Flowers are many of them excellent indicators of the weather by expansion or clos- ing, and other motions. It is an established fact, that flowers as well as fruits grow larger in the shade, and ripen and decay soonest when exposed to the sun. Flowers which are to be used or preserved for medicinal purposes should with a few exceptions, be gathered in full bloom, and dried as speedily as possible. The rose is gathered before it is fully blown. In drying flowers, the calyces, claws, etc., should be previously taken off; when the flowers are very small, the calyx is left, or even the whole flowering spike, as in the greatest portion of the labiate flowers. In some instances as in the baulistines, or pomegranate flower, the active matter resides chiefly in the calyx. Compound flowers with pappous seeds, as colt's foot, ought to be dried by a high heat, and before they are entirely open, otherwise the slight moisture that remains would develop the pappus, and form a kind of cottony nap, which would be very hurtful in infusions, by leaving irritating par- ticles in the throat. Flowers of little or no TLY 364 FODDEE smell may be dried in a heat of 75° to 100° Pahr. The succulent petals of the liliaceous plants, whose odor is very fugacious, can not well be •dried, as their mucilaginous substance rots and grows black. Several sorts of flowering tops, as those of lesser centaury, worm-wood, mulilot, water germander, etc., are tied in small parcels and hung up, or else exposed to the sun, wrapped in paper covers, that they may not be discolored. After some time, blue flowers, as those of violets, bugloss, or borage, grow yellow, .and even become entirely discolored, especially if they are kept in glass vessels that admit the light ; if however, they are dipped for a moment in boiling water, and slightly pressed bef oi-e they are put into the drying stove, the blue color is rendered permanent. The origin of double flowers is believed to result from the luxuriant growth of the plant in consequence of excessive nourishment, moisture, and warmth; they arise from the increase of some parts of the flower, and the consequent exclusion of others; thus the stamens are often converted into petals. Botanists very properly term such multiplied flowers vegetable monsters, because they possess no stamens or pistils, and therefore can not pro- duce seeds. There subsists (says Dr. Darwin) a curious analogy between these vegetable mon- sters and those of the animal world; for a duplicature of limbs frequently attend the latter, as chickens and turkeys with four legs and four wings, and calves with two heads, etc. Scien- tific floriculture, or the culture, propagation, and general management of plants, divides itself into five sections: 1, stove plants; 3, green- house plants; 3, hardy trees and shrubs; 4, hardy herbaceous plants; 5, annuals and bien- nials. Practically it is divided into three •divisions: out-door floriculture; in-door floricul- ture, and commercial floriculture, the last, the raising of plants for the sale of the cut flowers. (See Floriculture.) FLUE. Any channel or way along which the smoke or heat of a fire passes ; used to desig- nate any air passage, but generally that by which smoke and flame passes up the chimney. FLUID. A body of particles which move freely among one another, and which transmit pressures equally in all directions. Fluids are divided into elastic and non-elastic, or gaseous and liquid; the former containing air and vapors, the latter water, etc. FLUKE. BiMoma liepatieum. A flat, ento- zoal worm, infesting the livers of sheep and some other animals; it is often seen in those which have died of the rot. (See Rot.) FLUOR SPAE. A beautiful crystalline min- •eral, fluoride of calcium. The mineral is of many colors, and cubical or octahedral in form. It is used as a flux, and to procure hydro-fluoric acid. FLUTINGS. The grooves of columns. FLUVIALES. A tribe of water plants, of endogenous structure, nearly resembling sea- weeds. FLUX. In chemistry, substances which are in themselves very fusible, or which promote the fusion of other bodies. In diseases, any unusually increased discharge, as diarrhoea . FLY. These in agriculture are small winged insects that are injurious to grain and other plants, but in fact any insects having smooth and transparent wings are often sodenominated. The true flies, however, have only two wings. All such are Included under the entomological distinction, Diptera, signifying two-winged. In this category come house flies, biting flies, biting gnats, the Hessian fly, wheat fly, radish flj% two-winged gall flies, fruit flies, and other dipterous insects. The perfect insect of the onion maggot is a fly, that is, a two-winged ONION MAGGOT AND FLT. insect. The cut shows at a, maggot or larva, natural size; h, pupa, magnified; c, fly magnified, the cross lines showing natural size. Gall flies, fruit flies, the Hessian fly, the wheat fly, and tachina flies, (this last beneficial as parasitic on other insects) all have two wings. To illustrate we give cut of Tachina parasite, (L/ydella dory- pliarm) of the Colorado Potato Beetle, the hair TACHINA PARASITE. lines showing the natural size of the fly. Of this insect Dr. Riley says they destroy fully ten per cent, of the second broods of beetles, and - fully fifty per cent, of the third broods; and adds that it bears a close resemblance to the common house fly, but is readily distinguished by its extremely brilliant silver white face, and that no Ichneumon parasite has been found preying on it. Therefore, if the fanner sees these brilliant fellows, let them alone. FOAL. The young of the horse and ass kind. The male is a colt, and the female a filly- FOCAL DISTANCE. In optics, the distance between the center of a lens, or mirror, and the point into which the rays are collected. FOCUS. A point where heat, light, sound, etc., are collected, either by the action of glass or reflecting surfaces. In geometrj', certain points in the curves, called conic sections, which are also foci for radiant emanations. FODDER. All substances used as food for animals. In the South it is sometimes confined to the leaves stripped from corn. Coarse fod- FODDER 365 FOOT, ANATOMY OP ders are those wblch, like straw, etc., occupy much bulk. The comparative value of fodders is an important question in the feeding of ani- mals, and which can hardly have been said to assume a trustworthy estimate until the time when careful experiments had been made by Thaer, Reaumer, Block, and Boussingault. In the annexed table, by the latter, are shown the results obtained by chemical examination and in connection with practical feeding. TABLE OF THE NtJTRITIVE EQUIVALBNTS OF DIFFERENT KINDS OP PODDEKS. Kinds of Food. Ordinary natural meadow tiay. , Do. of fine quality Do. select Do. freed from woody stems. . . Lucerne hay Red clover liay,2nd year's growth Red clover cut in flower,green,di New wheat straw Old wheat straw Do. do. lower parts of the stalk. Do. do. upper parts of do.and ear. New rye straw Old do Oat straw Barley do Pea do Millettdo Buckwheat do Drum cabbage Swedish turnip Turnip Field beet Do. white Silesian Carrots Jerusalem artichokes Do Potatoes Field beans White peas New Indian com Buckwheat Barley Barley-meal \nMiit Do. from highly manured soil. . . Recent Bran Wheat husk or chaff Linseed cake Colza do Madia do Hemp do Poppy do Nutdo Beech mast do Arachis (Pindare) do ^■s 11.0 14.0 18.8 14.0 IB. 6 10.1 76.0 !i6.0 8.5 5.3 9.4 18.7 12.6 21.0 11.0 8.5 19.0 11.6 92.3 91.0 9a. 5 87.8 85.6 87.6 79.2 75.5 65.9 7.9 8.6 18.0 12.5 13.2 13.0 10.5 16.6 37.1 7.6 13.4 10.5 6.5 5.0 6.8 6.0 6.2 6.6 M ■ 1.34 1.50 2.40 2.44 1.66 1.70 0.36 0.53 0.43 1.42 0.30 0.60 0.36 0.30 1.95 0.96 0.54 3.70 1.83 1.70 1.70 1.43 2.40 1 60 2.20 1.50 5.50 4.20 2.00 2.40 2.02 2.46 •J.. 33 3.18 2.18 0.94 6.00 5.50 5.93 4.78 5.70" 5.59 3.51 d — ( H t?d ■o CO H t> ipqllllll HBm^WBI J*» b« HHSIiflilllli rv* U3 13 Ipl -(^ n <^ ha J If »4 (369) FORESTRY 370 FORMATION" acres in farms, the acres not in farms, and the number of acres in the total areas of the regions mentioned : States and Territories. No. acres in farms. No. acres not in farms. No. acres in total area. Territories. 320,.346 148,861 8.33,549 649,139 303,376 139,637 77,1.39 21,807 4,341 fe,559,654 53,916,1182 76,735,091 44,147,021 96,293,752 91,877,103 55,151,0il 72,884,433 62,640,727 44.154,240 369,529,600 66,880,000 64,065,043 77,568,640 44,796,160 96,596,128 92,016,640 65,228,160 72,90H,240 62,645,068 44,154,240 Utah ... New Mexico Washington Dakota Idaho 369,529,600 Total of Territories 2,496,695 1,033,889,324 1,036,385,919 Grand total 407,723,364 1,903,821,595 2,311,644,969 Taking into consideration only the farm-lands, the proportion of wood-lands is smallest in Cali- fornia, being 4.1 per cent. In order, respec- tively, follow Nevada, 6.4 percent.; Nebraska 10.3; Kansas 11.2; Iowa, 16.3; -Illinois, 19.6. The proportion increases, State by State, from the Pacific coast eastward to Indiana (39.6 per cent.,) and then comes the devastation of the axe, which reduces the percentage of Ohio, a region originally forest, with the exception of small patches of prairie, mainly about the head- waters of the Miami, to 31.7 per cent. Pennsyl- vania has about the same proportion, or 31.9, and New Jersey 24 per cent. There are only two other Western States that have percentages between 30 and 30, viz., Minnesota, 20.6; Wis- consin, 39,3. The Eastern States (besides New Jersey, ) which come within the same limits, are Connecticut, 34.4; New York, 35.5; Massachu- setts, 35.8; Delaware, 38; New Hampshire, 29; Vermont, 30. 6. Those having between 30 and 40 per cent, of this farm area in forest are: Penn- sylvania, Indiana, named above; Oregon, 31.8; Maryland, 31.8, Rhode Island, 83.7; Maine, 38.1, The States having between four and five tenths of their farm lands in forest are three: Michigan, 40.7; Texas (the eastern portion gene- rally wooded,) 41.6; Virginia, 45.7. The south- ern belt is the most heavily wooded portion of the country, all the States, with the exception of Virginia and Texas, having more than half of their farm areas in woodland, and a larger por- tion still if the wooded wild lands should be counted in with the farm-lands. The proportion in the occupied or farm areas is as follows: West Virginia, 51.1; Arkansas, 51.4; South Carolina, 53.3; Georgia, 54.6; Tennessee, 55; Alabama, 56; Florida, 60; North Carolina and Mississippi, each 60.6 per cent. The Territories have only a very small portion of their respective areas in farms. Here and there only a small survey has been made, near some town, along some stream, or in the neighborhood of mining operations . The areas in wood are mainly among the mountains, the most heavily wooded on northern slopes and in the gorges protected from the winds; the proportion given for farm lands is, therefore, in all probability! less than the real portion for the entire area of a Territory, not- Withstanding the fact that available woodlands in surveyed tracts are rapidly taken up by farm- ers. Utah, one-tenth of one per cent. ; Montana, and Wyoming, eight-tenths of one per cent.; Colorad;o, 3.5; Dakota, 7.4; Idaho, 9.6; New Mexico, 12.7; Washington, 44.8. Most of the States, in their several counties, exhibit great diversity in the abundance of their wood and timber supplies. In the new States it is due to the existence of prairies, or treeless plains,, traversed by streams shaded by a line of forest, which characterize the surface of all or a portion of a State; in the older States it is simply the result of settlement and cultivation, in the destruction of forests, by clearing lands for farms, for supplies of wood for fuel, m obtaining timber for building, and for the various uses of mechanism. East of the Alleghanies almost the entire surface of the land was originally in forest. On the very summit of the Alleghanies are com- paratively large tracts of level meadows, or mountain prairies, known as glades, which are found in undrained soils not suited to thegi'owth of treSs, though this mountain-chain is generally wooded, on slope and summit, with as fine and various an aborescent growth as can be seen in any part of the North American continent. West of the mountains, through West Virginia, Ohio, and Kentucky, there was little less than forest in the times of the aborigines; and in northeastern, southern, and southwestern Indiana, a wooded surface was the prevailing- characteristic, and even now it is a favorite^ resort for obtaining black walnuts and poplars of enormous size, and great trunks of oaks, fit for use in many a man-of-war. The South was, and is, a wooded region, with very few and small prairies in the valley of the Mississippi, and none really worth mentioning until central Texas. is reached. In northern Missouri are extensive prairies, but almost half the area of the State is now covered with forest, notwithstanding the extensive clearing of farm-lands during more tlian fifty years since its settlement ; and more- than half the surface of Arkansas and Louisiana, both west of the Mississippi, is now covered with wood. Meteorological records show that the lines of equal moisture, in this section, run northeast and southwest, through western Kan- sas, eastern Nebraska, Iowa, and Wisconsin ; the records of the rain-fall of any given period cor- respond on that line, rather than with a line through Kansas and Missouri; so the rains of central Nebraska and Minnesota, in point of time and quantity, correspond more nearly than those of Nebraska and Iowa. As might natur- ally be expected, we find the forest boundary, from Texas to Illinois, beyond which the prairies stretch westward, running in a general direction corresponding with the lines of equal rain-fall. As a result, (though the lack of trees further west can not be attributed to insufl3oient rain-fall alone,) we find plains predominating in western Texas, in nearly all of the Indian Territory, in a. strip of western and nearly all of northern Missouri, in a large portion of Illinois, and in western and northern Indiana, nearly to Lake Erie. Southern Illinois has an average propor- tion of forest. The belt south of the Ohio and Mississippi Railroad has a percentage of 43.5, which is greater than that of Missouri, and almost equal to that of Virginia. FORMATION. Deposits or strata referable; to a common geological period. FOUL BROOD 371 FOUNDER FORMICA. The genus of ants, now the type of a tribe the Firinicidm. FORMIC ACID. The fluid ejected by ants when irritated contains this acid. The acid is formed by distilling tartnric acid with sulphuric acid and peroxide of manganese. It is a highly corrosive acid, and of a peculiar odor ; combines with bases to form formiates, which are very- soluble. Formic acid contains a compound radi- cal farmi/l. FORMULA. In chemistry, the expression, by symbols, of the composition of any sub- stance. FOSSA. In zoology, a depression of a bone. FOSSIL. A part or the whole of any animal or plant imbedded in the earth, and more or less converted into stony matter. FOSSORES. A group of hymenopterous insects, which dig or excavate cells in wood or earth to deposit their eggs. FOSSORIAL. Animals which dig their holes, as moles. FOUL BROOD. Foul Brood in the hives of bees has become a source of serious annoyance to many bee-keepers. The following digest of the subject, from a number of sources, will show the result of some of the later investigations upon this subject: Putrid Foul Brood is a dis- ease which attacks the young brood of the hive, showing itself fully after the larvae have been sealed up. It may be known by the viscous, gelat- inous, and yeast-like appeai-ance of the decom- posing brood, the unpleasant odor arising from the hive, and by the sunken covers of the cells. The cause of foul brood has been, until recently, involved in doubt, but late discoveries in Ger- many have thrown much light upon its origin. Mr. Lamprecht alleges that he has discovered the cause of the disease. His theory is this; The chyme which the workers prepare from honey and pollen by partial digestion, and with which the larvae are fed, contains a nitrogenous, plastic, formative substance, from which all the organs and tissues of the larvse are derived and com- posed; and precisely because of this its com- plicated composition it is peculiarly suscepti- ble of rapid decomposition when exposed to air and moisture ; that is, to undergo fermenta- tion and putrefaction. It is hence obvious that pollen, even though having undergone only a partial decomposition, must affect the bodies of bees and larvae differently from what it did or would do in its natural condition ; and there is no longer a doubt that it is from pollen, thus partially decomposed, that the foul brood orig- inates. That it can readily undergo decomposi- tion is manifest. Moisture, emanating in part from unsealed honey, and in part from the per- spiration of the bees, becomes condensed in the hive from external cold, and in the fall and toward spring it is frequently found hanging in drops on the combs, just as we find it condensed on the windows of our dwelling houses. If one of these drops falls into a cell containing pollen, decomposition of the latter speedily commences, and is then communicated by the bees to the pollen in the other cells ; and the cause of foul brood is hence abundantly present in a hive thus circumstanced. The discovery of Dr. Preuss, an eminent physician and mycologist, is that a microscopic fungus, Crypiococeus alvearw, devel- oped from fermenting matter, feeds upon the young larvse, and thus causes foul brood; and that by means of the numerous sporules of the fungus, the disease is spread through the hive, and finally through the apiary. To show the character of this microscopic pest we quote the following from the article of Dr. Preuss, in the Bienenzeitang : The foul brood fungus, which I have named Cryptococcits alrearin, belongs to the smallest of the fungoid forms. It is round and dust-shaped, and has a diameter of 1.500 milli- meter, or 1.1095 line; consequently 1,095 can lie side b}' side within a Rhenish line, but within a square line, 1.095-|-l,09o, that is, 1,199,825, or, in round numbers, 1,200,000. The cubic line, according to this, would contain 1,440,000,000,- 000 fungi, and a cubic inch of foul brood, which coMists of 1728 lines, would contain 2,488,320,- 000,000,000. If we reckon, further, that a cubic inch of comb contains fifty cells, the contents of each would be 49,766,400,600,000; in round numbers, fifty billions; or, deducting one-fifth for waXjforty billions of fungi. There is no cure for this disease when it has once obtained headway. Destruction of the bees and honey, and thorough puritication of the hive is the only remedy to prevent the spread of the disease. As a means of preventing the disease. Dr. Preuss gives the following directions: Feed no fermenting honey; feed no meal, especially when the hive is threatened with disease ; destroy care- fully every particle of dead and moldering mat- ter; and avoid weakening the bees during the brooding seasons, so that they will not be able properlj' to maintain the heat necessary for the development of the brood. With the light now thrown upon the nature of this disease by recent discoveries, bee-keepers should be able to con- quer the contagious malady whenever it makes its appearance. FOULS. This is sometimes called foul claw, and incident to cattle and sheep, caused by over- growth of the hoofs, irritation of pebbles, thorns, dirt, etc., and is sometimes produced by a scrofulous condition of the animal. If occa- sioned by injury, cleanse the hoofs thoroughly with warm waler, cutoff all supernumerary hoof, and apply, with a feather, a solution of from ten to twenty grains of chloride of zinc in an ounce of water. The foot must be protected from dirt until healed. FOUNDATION. In architecture, the lower part of a wall, on which the wall is raised, and always of much greater thickness than such wall. Heavy buildings sometimes have their foundations on a bed of concrete, which is a mixture of rough, small stones or large gravel with sand and stone, lime and. water, with just enough of the lime to act as a cement or medium with the best effect. In soil not solid the pre- caution is often taken to rest the building on piles driven close together; and deep enough to penetrate a firm compact clay. FOUL TEETH. (See Lampas.) FOUNDER. This disease is an inflammation of the sensitive parts of the foot, sometimes including the laminae, the sole and also the foot- iJbne. Hence the name laminitis, and also in- flammation of the feet, and fever in the feet. In slight cases only one fore foot may be affected, but often both, and sometimes all, of the feet. The following will be found to embody all necessary to be said upon this common disease, one almost always the result of carelessness or direct abuse; it is written by one competent in FOUNDER 373 FOUNDER every respect: Of the affections of the soft tis- sues, perhaps the most common is laminitis. This term applies to inflammation not only of the laminae, but of the entire fleshy portion of the foot. It is not always tlie most readily detected, and in some of its more common and milder forms it entirely escapes notice. The lameness is assigned to the shoulder or some other locality ; but when we refer to tlie position of this tissue, between a dense bone and a dense, unyielding horny envelope, and to its use to sus- pend the bone and consequent entire weight of the animal from the wall, and consider that it suffers some degree of pressure at every step, we can understand how the slightest morbid condi- tion of the part, the congestion of its vessels, or irritation of its nerves, may — nay, must — give rise to pain and consequent lameness. Fortun- ately, in practice this is much less frequent than, theoretically, we might expect it to be. Any horse that has been driven for several hours upon a hard, or stony, or hot and sandy road, would seem to be fairly fitted for some degree of con- gestion of the soft tissues of the feet. At the close of such exertion he is stabled, perhaps upon a damp floor, or where a draft of air may blow upon him. No thought is given to the condition of his feet. He is fed, and perhaps he may have been moderately groomed ; but of the entire animal no part has undergone so much exposure or hardship as the feet, and no part really needs so much attention. Laminitis, or, as it has been called by writers, fever of the feet, or founder, may exist in all degrees, from the simple congestion of the part to the most sevei-e and disorganizing inflammation. It is mainly exhibited in the fore feet, being an uncommon disease in the hind feet. This is mainly due to the diif erent kinds and degrees of force used in the action of the fore and hind legs and feet. In movement a much greater amount of weight comes upon the fore legs and feet, the direction of the blow upon the ground is different, and the consequent strain and pressure upon the soft tis- sues much greater. If acute laminitis is present in one or both fore feet, it is manifested by the very -obvious efforts of the animal to relieve itself from pressure. If one foot only is suffer- ing, this is put forward and is rested upon the heel that not only is pressure taken off, but the parts are relaxed to a still greater extent by the ■weight of the limb, the foot is kept in continual motion. Indicating extreme pain. Thei-e is heat in the hoof, and especially in the coronary band around its summit. There may also be tender- ness in this tissue on pressure. If both forefeet are affected, the animal eadeavors as far as possible, by settling back over the hind feet, to take off the pressure from them. This attempt may also be shown by the continuous change from one font to the other. In severe forms of tlie acute disease the entire system will sympathize with the local disease. The. arteries supplying the part or parts will be found throb- bing; the general arterial circulation will be quickened; the pulse will become considerably accelerated, and the constitutional condition will be one of symptomatic fever. The disease if unchecked may go on to the destruction of the soft tissues of the foot. Cases are on record in which the entire hoof has been shed by the separation of the soft from the horny foot. This is a rare termination, but the formation of an abscess and partial separation is not so uncom- mon. Before this result occurs, however, the disease has usually passed into the chronic form. Prompt resort to appropriate treatment may result in restoration to health. By no means advocating indiscriminate blood-letting, we would in this case recommend the free local abstraction of blood, either from the toe of the afflicted foot, or from the plantar vein. If the case is a very severe one, a branch of the plantar artery of one side may be divided. The foot should be placed in a large bucket of warm water, and allowed to bleed in it. Care should be taken to keep up the temperature by frequent additions of hot water. When the foot is removed, it may be placed in a large poultice, having previously been drenched about the coronary border with a liniment composed of two ounces each of the tincture of aconite root, bella- donna, and opium, with six ounces of soap liniment. For the constitutional disturbance, the tincture of aconite root, fifteen to twenty drops in water, may be administered every hour or half hour until a decided impression is made upon the frequency and hardness of the pulse. Half a drachm of belladonna with fifteen grains of digitalis may be given every half hour, or in emergency the following draught may be given every hour until the proper impression is made on the system : Tincture aconite root and tincture belladonna fifteen drops each, and sulphuric ether and laudanum half an ounce each. Later, saline medicines, such as the nitrate of potash, will aid in preventing secondary affections. Laminitis may have a variety of terminations. First it may terminate in a complete disappear- ance of all the symptoms, that is, by resolution, and there be a complete recovery. Second, it may pass into a chronic condition in which all the symptoms are of a mitigated character. When quiet, the pain is slight, and the heat is little, if any, in excess of the natural state. If the animal is allowed rest upon a soft floor, or is turned to run in a paddock, the lameness may be scarcely obvious; but attempt to drive him and, either while on the road or afterward, he becomes very lame again. This condition may continue almost indefinitely. Third, the inflammation may terminate in suppuration, which may be confined to a small region of the foot, and even- tuate in a partial recovery, or it may be general and so extensive as to destroy the connection of the hoof with the soft tissues. Under the latter circumstances the hoof may be lost. When the destructive suppuration falls short of producing complete separation, it may be suflBcient to per- mit of a change of relation of the cofiinbone to the hoof. A portion of the anterior attachments may be destroyed so that the bone may fall away from the horn. In a flat and weak foot this may cause a bulging of the sole, producing what is called pumice foot. If the hoof is preserved, the space produced by the falling of the Coffin- bone is filled by fleshy granulations. The foot, however, suffers permanently, and lameness is constantly present. _ Such is the structure of the foot that, even when the damage is less than that just described, the suppuration continues and Ijurro wa in various directions, seeking an outlet. Except when the inflammation and suppuration are confined to a limited space in the sole of the foot, the discharge must escape from the crown. At some part of the coronal border of the hoof, FOX 373 FRANKLINIA swelling is perceived, which either opens of itself or is opened by the knife, which is prefer- able. When suppuration has commenced, the animal should receive better and more nutritious food, while stimulating injections to the opening may be useful. Should the sinuses become chronic, it has been recommended to trace their number and direction with a delicate probe, and then freely laj^ them open. To do this, the hoof must be softened by soaking in warm alkaline water, when it may be cut easily. Limited sup- puration of the soft tissues of the foot may occur from a variety of other causes, such as a wound made by the shoe of one foot in the coronet of the other, or by the prick of a nail driven into the quick or so near it as to cause inflammation by pressure, or by a bruise made by the heel of the coffin-bone, to which the term corn is applied. In all these cases suppuration may follow inflammation, and the severity and extent of the trouble will depend upon the locality of the injury, and the distance the product of suppura- tion has to travel to reach a point of exit. A fourth terminatioH may be designated — that by metastasis. The inflammation being situated in the fibrous tissues of the foot is liable to leave that locality and to seize upon similar tissues elsewhere, and under unfavorable circumstances we may have resulting inflammation of the brain or pleura, or indeed of any of the fibrous tissues. A fifth termination may be in mortification, the result of which would be almost certainly fatal at any early period. Laminitis may be, and some- times is, subacute from its commencement. It is apt to take this form in old horses that have beeu subjected for a long time to hard work. Its approach is gradual, pain at first small, and lameness slight and not constant. The foot should be given the same treatment as in the more acute form. The warm bath should be used freely. Bleeding would probably be injuri- ous, and any debilitating medicines must be withheld. The bowels may be loosened by fresh vegetable food, such as potatoes or carrots, and if pain is present one or two draughts in the day containing an ounce of sulphuric ether and a drachm of laudanum may be given. Plenty of good, nutritious food should be given. The horse should not be used on the road until all the symptoms have been absent for several days. He may be gently exercised on a soft sward as soon as the inflammation is subdued. A per- manent, incurable lameness often results from the continued use of a horse suffering from some degree of inflammation of the soft tissues of the foot. Whenever this condition is detected, the animal should be given rest, and subjected to treatment with a view to the cure of the disease. FOUNTAIN. A jet of water or fluid. The simplest way of forming a fountain is to conduct water by a small pipe from a higher elevation, where a tank or other reservoir exists; the open end of the tube below being made fine, the fluid is driven out with a pressui'e proportionate to the height of the reservoir, and of any desired form of spray. FOVEATUS, FOVEATE. Having a depres- sion or pit; applied to the nectary of flowers FO VILLA. One of the gi-anules contained in pollen. FOX. Gfinis vulpes. In countries where foxes abound, notably in hilly, rocky, and tim- bered regions, foxes are one of the greatest pests of the farmer, since they do not hesitate to attack any animal they can easily overcome, even small pigs sometimes falling a prey to them. Barnyard fowls, however, are their favorite prey. Their exceeding cunning makes it difli- cult to trap them. The best means for their extermination is to bait them continually with something tliey like until they come and eat fearlessly, and then to hide what strychnine will lie on the point of a pe.n-knife in each bait, as is usual in killing prairie wolves. The hunting of foxes, with horses and hounds, is a great rural sport in England, and somewhat practiced in the hill districts of the South. FOXGLOVE. Digitalis purxmrea. A very handsome biennial plant, bearing purplish-crim- son, or occasionally white fiowers, from June to September. In gardens it is easilj' propagated by seed. The lesser yellow foxglove, (D.pardflora) is a native of Italy, and perennial ; grows three feet high, bearing yellow flowers in June and July; propagated from seed. The large yellow foxglove, (.5. ambigua,) with larger flowers, is also a i^erennial, growing three feet high. The medicinal qualities of the foxglove are diuretic, powerfully emetic, and narcotic; and, under proper management, it is a most useful medicine. The leaves are inert in the first year of the growth of the plant. As everj' part of the foxglove is poisonous, children ought to be warned against it. FOX-TAIL GRASS. Setaria glauca. A common American grass, with a bristly head, found in cultivated grounds, old stubble-fields, orchards, etc., flowering in Jul}'. Its root is annual, and the stem grows two or three feet high. When mature it has a tawny, or orange color. Another species of fox-tail is popularly called green fox-tail, or butter-gi-ass, (Seiaria riricUs). Its general resemblance to the species first-named, render it liable to be passed by as a green variety of that plant. Another species of tietaria {8. verticillata) commonly found about gardens and cultivated lots in the Middle States, has teeth on the bristles, which cause the spikes to adhere to objects with which they come in contact. Another species called German Setaria, millet or Bengal grass, is occasion- ally found in fallow fields. Dr. JIuhlenburg supposed this annual plant might be a \'ariety of the green fox-tail, to which Dr. Darlington thinks it certainly allied. Several other species of this genus are found in the United States, of which one called Italian Setaria is distinguished by its very large spikes. The others are South- ern plants. None of them, except the German setaria, possess any value to the agriculturist. FRACTURE. In farriery, the breakage of a bone in the body. Fractures are called simple when a bone is broken without tearing the mus- cles and passing through the skin, and compound in the latter case. In mineralogy, the appear- ance of a broken mineral which is not crystal- line. It is termed resinous, conchoidal, vitreous, earthy, etc , according as it resembles that of resin, a shell, glass, or earth. FRjENUM. a membranous fold, which binds down one part of the body to another, especially the tongue to the mouth. FIJAGARIA. The generic name of the straw- berry. FRASKLINIA. Gordonia pubescens. An ornamental tree of Georgia, somewhat resem- bling the dogwood when in flower. FRENCH HORSES 374 FROG HOPPERS FEAXINUS. The genus of the ash. (See Ash.) FREEMAETIN. A twin cow calf born with a male calf. If it resembles the bull it is barren, and is often barren when having the general appearance of a heifer. FREEZING. Congelation. The conversion of water into ice. It takes place at 33° Fahren- heit, or below, and is promoted by a sharp wind, which hastens evaporation. Water, in freezing, expands one-ninth, and, if confined, will break the stoutest vessels. Rocks and the soil are dis- integrated by the freezing of water in them, which, expanding, tears the particles asunder. By freezing some mixtures or solutions, the watery parts may be, in some measure, separated, and the spiritous left untouched. (See Frost.) FRENCH HORSES. The ordinary mixed breeds of French horses require no notice. The Arden horse has many good points as a work horse. The distinctive breeds that have acquired celebrity, are the Norman and the Percheron, sometimes called Norman-Percheron. Of these the principal difference seems to be in the fact that the horse of Normandy is larger, heavier, and slower than the horse of Perche, the latter showing more of the original Andalusian stock, from which both varieties are said to have sprung. However these admirable draft horses may have originated, whether they have been known in France since the Crusades, a very doubtful question, or whether they were pro- duced by breeding from the fine Arabian stal- lions, which fell into the hands of the French, at the victory of Charles Martel over the Sara- cen Chief Abd-er- Rahman, and being brought into La Perche and Normandy, and bred upon the heavy Norman horse, from which they have FERCHEnON-NORMAN. been developed into the present strains; which- ever may have been the case, there is no doubt but they are entitled to stand in the first rank of horses, where all that constitutes activity, con- stitutional vigor, and ability to pull a heavy load at a good pace is desired. So strong is the character of the Percheron and Norman, in perpetuating their distinguishing features, that the stallion is sure to impress the foal, and in like manner the mare when bred to another breed, gives her impress sure in the foal. There has been much controversy first and last, over the proper name to be given to these two varieties of French horses. The fact is they are different strains of one breed, and do not differ more than thorough-bred horses, or shorthorn cattle, both composite breeds. Reference to the cut of Percheron-Norman, will give a correct idea of the form and appearance of one of the best of the race. The original race of LaPerche, as they existed fifty years ago, were from fifteen to sixteen hands high, and weighed from 1,300 to 1,400 pounds, and before the advent of rail- roads were used to move the heavy road vehicles, (Diligences) of France, at a swift pace. Later, heavier weights being required, by selec- tion and crossing, immense animals weighing up to 3,000 pounds have been produced, and it is said that now scarcely one of the active Percherons of fifty years ago are to be found. Yet the medium to smaller stallions of to day, are admirable getters of horses adapted to hauling heavy loads, and especially to city trucking and omnibus work. As we understand it, the Norman or large horses seem to have been mixed with the large Belgian and Flemish horses, while the horses of La Perche have retained to a greater degree, the distinguishing characteristics of the lighter and more agile ancestors. So diflicult did it seem to draw dividing lines, tliat the editor of the Percheron- Norman Stud-Book, seemed at fault as to iust what should constitute fitness for entry. The plan adopted was to give a full account of the course of bi'eeding and crossing practiced in France, and admit to registry all horses imported from France, as Percheron, Norman, Percheron- Norman, and Norman-Percheron. FRIABLE. Powdery, mealy, or readily bro- ken into a powder. FRIEZE. In architecture, the central por- tion of the entablature between the architrave and cornice. It is plain in the Tuscan, hut adorned in other styles. FRIGID ZONE. The space above 76^ de- grees of north or south latitude. It is scarcely occupied by any plants but a few lichens. FRINGE-TREE. Chionanthns Virginim. A beautiful ornamental tree, growing wild as far north as Delaware, and bearing white flowers in May. FRINGILLID.E. A tribe of birds of the Passerine family, with stout, conical bills {coni- rostres), including the linnets, canaries, finches, all of which eat grain. FROGS. Amphibious animals, of the genus Rana. The common species {R. Umpm-aria and esculenta) are, for the most part, insectivorous. They should not be destroyed by the farmer as they clear his garden of insects, snails, and other small pests. The green frog (esculenln) is a great delicacy with some ; the flesh of the hind leg is the part eaten. FROG OF THE HORSE. A triangular por- tion of horn projection from the sole almost on a level With the crust, and defending a soft and elastic substance called the sensible frog. The sensible frog occupies the whole of the back part of the foot, above the horny frog and between the cartilages. FROG HOPPERS. FROG SPITTLE. CUC- KOO SPITTLE. Small Insects (Cercopidm) which inhabit the twigs and branches of plants, from which they extract so much juice that the place on which they are collected appears covered with spittle. Some species are said to secrete a saccharine substance which is fed on by ants. I'ROST 375 FROST FROND. The leaf of a fern is the frond. FRONTAL. In anatomy, appertaining to the FRONTLET. In ornithology, the part of the lead next the bill, usually covered with bristles. FROST. In the article Dew we noticed frost incidentally. Frost is crystallized vapor, and can only fall on clear, still nights, when the atmos- phere is in repose, and the radiation strong. Thus, the atmosphere as it is robbed of its heat, settles by gravitation in strata, the heaviest be- coming tlie lowest. Dew is formed, and, if the temperature sinks below forty degrees, frost occurs. The new researches into the phenomena of heat, which have overturned the old hypothe- sis of caloric and substituted the theory of vibra- tions have brought to light the extraordinary fact that vapor of water is opaque to the rays of heat of low intensity, such as that which pro- ceeds from the soil and from plants by night ; in other words, that the heat of the earth can not be radiated or projected towards the sky if there ■exist in the air above the spot observed a large proportion of aqueous vapor. Through pure air, free from moisture, the heat may pass off as readily as if no air existed above the cooling re- gion. It is believed that air saturated with mois- ture at the ordinary temperature absorbs more than five hundredths of the heat radiated from a metallic vessel filled with boiling water, and Prof. Tyndall calculates that of the heat radiated from the earth's surface warmed by the sun's rays, one-tenth is intercepted by the aqueous vapor within ten feet of its surface. Hence the powerful influence of moist air upon the climate ■of the globe. Like a covering of glass, it allows the sun's rays to reach the earth, but prevents, to a great extent, the loss by radiation of the heat thus communicated. In accordance with this theory, it should be shown that the withdrawal of the sun from any region over which the atmos- phere is dry, would be followed by quick refrig- -eration. It is said that the winters of Thibet are rendered almost unendurable f ronj an uninter- rupted outward radiation, unimpeded by aqueous vapor, and that everywhere the absence of the sun favors powerful radiation when the air is dry. The removal for a single summer night of the aqueous vapor from the atmosphere that •covers England would, says Prof. Tyndall, be attended by the destruction of every plant which a freezing temperature would kill. Itt.the Sahara, where the soil is fire and the wind is "flame, the refrigeration at night is painful to bear, so that ice is sometimes formed there. In short, says the Professor, it may be safely pre- dicted that wherever the air is dry the daily ther- mometric range, or the difference between the ■extremes of heat and cold, will be very great. All great discoveries have been partially antici- pated by keen observers, who could not wholly explain certain anomalous appearances, but whose shrewdness led them beyond the borders of the unknown. These results of Prof. Tyndall were thus foretold by R. Russell, Esq., of Scot- land, who visited America in 1854 in order to study the effects of our climate upon agriculture. He asserts that the influences of moisture in tempering the sun's rays is a remark- able fact and well worthy of further investiga- tion. When the dew-point is high, or the air is filled with moisture, radiation from the earth is prevented and the temperature of the night remains almost as high as that of the day. When the dew-point is low, the sun's rays pass without absorption to the earth, and impart little of their heat du'ectly to the air. The medium dew-points are therefore most favorable to extreme heat in the atmosphere, and the greater heat beyond the tropics is probably owing to this cause. The fact that the amount of moisture in the air regu- lates the temperature of the nights has not received the attention it deserves. The great amount of moisture in the air within the tropics is the cause of the wann and brilliant nights. Radiation from the air and gi-ound, under these conditions, seems to lose its power. On the other hand, travelers in all parts of the world inform us, incidentally, as to the connection between dry air and cold nights. Mr. Inglis, in his travels through Spain, relates that he was oppressed by the hot rays of the sun in the valley of Grenada while the hoar frost was lying white in the shade. Eastern travelers in the desert often complain of the broiling heat of the air during the day, and of its chill temperature at night. The means of warding against the effects of frost by any covering, however slight, to prevent radiation, has long been known ; also, by means of smothered fires, allowing the smoke to settle like a cloud over orchards and other ex- posed situations. Frost, however, forms at night when there is sufficient air moving to carry away the snjoke, and hence the means noticed are only clearly beneficial in a still atmosphere. This still atmosphere, however, is usually present during the exhibition of untimely frosts.' Water begins to freeze when the temperature of the air is at 33° Fahr. At this temperature ice begins to appear, unless some circumstance, for example, the agitation of the water, prevents its formation. As the cold increases, the frost becomes more intense, and liquids which resist the degree of cold reqiiired to congeal water at length pass into the solid state. When water remains at complete rest, it may be cooled down to 28° Fahr. without freezing; but the moment it is agitated, the thermometer rises to 32° and the water freezes. In this case the insensible heat of the water is retained when the fluid is at rest. No experi- ments have hitherto ascertained to what depth frost will extend, either in earth or water, but its effects will, of course, vary according to the degree of coldness in the air, the longer or shorter duration of the frost, the texture of the earth, the nature of the fluids with which the ground is impregnated, etc. In England the frost rarely extends in the ground below eighteen inches from the surface. In some portions of the ■"United States it penetrates to the depth of several feet; yet in these localities many summer plants are raised in the open air, that in Epgland must be kept under glass. During severe frost almost all vegetables fall into a state of decay, and even a moderate degree of frost is sufficient to destroy many of the more tender kinds. The injury which vegetables sustain from frost is greatest when it is preceded by a thaw or copious rains; for the plants are then turgid with moisture, which, expanding in bulk as it passes into the solid state, produces the rupture of the vegetable fibers. Therefore it is that a sharp wind, or an}^ thing which dries the sap or juices of vegetables previous to frost, tends to their preservation. The great power of frost on vegetables is well known. Trees are sometimes destroyed by it as FUEL 376 rUNGUS if by fire, and split with a noise resembling the explosion of artillery, since the juices of the tree expand with great force, as they are converted into ice. Frost, however, is most beneficial to the agriculturist in disintegrating heavy clayey soUs, turned up lo its influence in winter, and the rougher the plowing is left for the winter, the more beneficial its effects. FRUCTIFICATION. The part of plants destined to produce fruit or sporules. FRUIT. In a general sense fruit is whatever is produced in vegetable life, for the sustenance of animals and man. In a more limited sense, it is the last production of a plant, its seeds, or that which contains the seeds. In botany, the fruit is the seed of a plant ; or the seed with the enveloping pericarp. (See Botany.) FRUIT TREES. Any tree which produces food for man. In horticulture it is applied to those cultivated sorts, as the apple, pear, cherry, peach, etc. The clinging plants, as the grape, are denominated vines, those bearing currants, gooseberries, raspberries, etc., are denominated bushes, and herbaceous plants, as the strawbeiTy, are denominated running plants; yet, correctly speaking, any distinct species of vegetation may be a plant, and all plants are vegetable; never- theless, the term vegetable is now generally applied to that class of plants grown in the gar- den and prepared in the kitchen. While a tree may be correctly denominated a plant, a, plant may not be a tree, but succulent or a shrub. The ultimate end of all plants is to produce fruit ; yet again all plants do not produce fruits fit for man or the domestic animals, hence fruit plants, as generally understood, are those which produce fruits fit for eating in their natural state, and fruit trees are those which produce fruits, as the apple, pear, cherry, etc., which produce fruits tiiat may be eaten in their natural state. FRUMENTACEOUS. Resembling wheat, or made of wheat. FRUSTUM. The part of a solid cone left after cutting off the top. FRUTESCENT. Becoming shrubby, or having the appearance of a shrub. FRDTEX. A shrub, a small tree, the branches of which start from the soil without any regular trunk. FUCOID. Like a sea-weed. FUCUS. A genus of sea-weeds. FUEL. Any combustible substance which is used for the production of heat constitutes fuel ; but the term is more properly limited to coal, coke, charcoal, wood, and a few other substances. Coal, from its abundance and cheapness, is the commonly employed fuel in the northern portions of the United States, but where wood is abundant, or where it^ value is little more than that of fell- ing it, it is used either in its original state, or in the form of charcoal. It is essential to good and profitable fuel that it should be free from moist- ure; for unless it be dry, much of the heat which it generates is consumed in converting its moist- ure into vapor; hence the superior value of old, dense, and dry wood, to that which is porous and damp. The pound of dry wood which will heat thirty -five pounds of water from 33° to 312°, will not, when damp, heat more than twenty-five pounds from the same to the same temperature ; the value, of different woods for fuel is nearly itiversely as their moisture, and this may be roughly ascertained by finding how much a given weight of their shavings loses by drying them at 313°. In the case of anthracite coal, however, it does not absorb sufficient moisture to seriously impair its nature. The value of turf and peat, as fuel, is liable to much variation, and depends partly upon density, and partly upon freedom from earthly impurities. A pound of turf will heat about twenty-six pounds of water from 33° to 313°, and a pound of dense peat about thirty pounds ; by compressing and drying peat its value as a fuel is greatly increased. FULCRUM. The point about which a lever moves. A prop. FULIOINOUS. Sooty, of the color or appear- ance of soot. FULLER'S EARTH. A clay used for scour- ing or cleansing cloth of grease. Pipe clay. FUMIGATION. The exposure of substances, or the air of a room, to vapors; to counteract a disease or to purify, thorough ventilation is necessary. The chlorine given off from chloride of lime, or generated by adding muriatic acid to black oxide of manganese, is the best fumigating substance It has the power of neutralizing the most disagreeable odors, but is injurious to health, and must only be used in vacant apart- ments. (See Disinfection.) FUMITORY. Pumaria offieinalii. Cultivated chiefly as a flower; cattle will eat the herbage. FUNGI. The race of mushrooms, toad-stools, blight, rust, etc. They consist of cells only, and produce spores, or seeds, without flowers. Fungi grow, for the most part, on dead or living vege- table matters. Those fungi are poisonous that have a disagreeable narcotic sinell. (See Fungus.) FUNGtICOLA. A genus of coleopterous, insects dwelling in mushrooms. FUNGUS. To the botanist the fungi are a most interesting class of plants. Their seeds, (spores) and many of the resulting plants are so small that they must be examined with the microscope to bring out their character. What are understood as funguses by the ordinary observer, are toad- stools and puff-balls. Smut, mildew and rust are generally termed blight; yet they all belong to the larger class of fungi, the more minute forms below those of mildew, being largely in excess of those larger than mil- dew. Fungus attacks all plants, especially those in a more or less diseased or disorganized condition. Fungus sometimes does attack apparently healthy trees. It attacks all living trees, and also is one of the means of the decom- position and decay of dead plants. It is propa- gated by spores, minute grains which perform the function of seeds. These, says a writer on fungus life, begin to germinate by sending out numerous filamentous rootlets, composed of a succession of small cells, which perform the oifice of roots in supporting the plant in an erect position, and supplying it with nourishment. These rootlets are called the mycelium. They also send up stems (utipes) of various shapes, according to the class to which they belong. The Botrytis infestans, more recently called the Perono&pora infestans, is one of the most destruc- tive of the fungi that cause the potato-rot. It has the form of a spreading tree, bearing some three thousand ovoidal spore-cases (acrospores) on the ends of the branches, somewhat resembling, when taken collectively, clusters of grapes, and hence its generic name Boli-ytis. The seeds of the fungi, which are contained in the spore-cases. FUNGUS 377 FUNGUS usually have a brown color, like fine dust, and are almost infinite in number. A single plant is said sometimes to produce millions, so small and light as scarcely to be affected by gravity. They cover everything around them — earth, plants, and animals. The air is filled with them, and they wait only for a state of the atmosphere favorable to their growth to seize upon every object within their reach. They live principally upon decaying substances, but the living do not always escape them. The conditions best the potato. Long-continued, warm, damp weather, often causes them to appear in great numbers ; but a single day of dry weather will arrest their progress. They mature with won- derful rapidity. PuS-balls sometimes grow six inches in diameter in a single night. Certain species have been found growing on the surface of iron that had been heated in the forge only a few hours before. They have also been found growing on the surface of glass. Peronospora infestans matures in a few days, sometimes in fif- POTATO DISEASE. adapted to their growth are, first, a debilitated or morbid state of the plant; and, secondly, a proper degree of lieat, moisture, and electric influence to induce germination. They do not germinate readily, and the conditions must be very nicely balanced to insure germination at all. They frequently remain inert for a long time, and, when the conditions are complete, fall upon plants like an epidemic, and after a time disap- pear almost entirely. Such may, perhaps, some- times have been the case in their attacks upon teen to eighteen hours even, when conditions are most favorable to its growth, and scatters its seeds by thousands and tens of thousands, to prey, with each successive brood, from day to day, upon the expiring plant. The seeds are supposed to enter the pores (siomata) of the leaves and stems, and also to be taken up by the spongioles of the roots ; and carried along in the circulation of the sap through the plant. The.y take root in the cellular tissues of the stems and leaves, stop up the pores with their roots, pre-« FUNGUS 378 FUNGUS vent the proper elaboteion of the crude sap, and exhaust large portions for their own support, besides probably exerting a deleterious chemical influence on the plant. That the seeds of this fungus are capable of destroying the potato has been demonstrated by Dr. DeBary, who mixed some of them in a drop of water and applied them to the leaves and tubers, when brown and livid spots appeared, and afterward decay. All the members of this genus, peronospora, are parasitic on living plants, inducing in them speedy decay, of which they are themselves the cause. To those who wish to study cryptogamic Fig. 1. botany, the following from a lecture by Prof. McNab, delivered in the Royal Agricultural ■College, England, will be found interesting: The study of the lower order of plants is attended with many and great difficulties. This is owing ohiefly to the minute size of the objects them- selves", requiring as they do tlie microscope for their investigation. Then, again, most of our botanical text-books give only the most superfi- cial description of the lower groups, and fix the whole time and attention of the student on the higher or flowering plants. The consequence of this is that the study of the higher plants is car; ried to such a length in our lectures on botany that little or no time is given to the lower orders, a plan of procedure as philosophical as that of teaching zoology merely from the vertebrates and omitting all other divisions. To the more or less flattened or rounded cellular expansion of these plants, which may consist of only one or of thousands of cells, the term thallus has been applied; a,nd the three groups possessing this may be united, to form a large division of the vegetable kingdom, called the ThaUnphytes. Tlie thallus may consist of one cell or of many cells ; these may be either similar or dissimilar. In some of these Thallnphytes we have plants con- sisting of one cell, which performs the functions of nutrition during the day, and those of repro- duction during the night. In others we have one part of the plant set aside to perform the function of nutrition, while another part per- forms the function of multiplication only. In most of the sea-weeds the part of the thallus set apart for the purpose of nutrition is large, while the reproductive organs occupy only a small por- tion. In the funguses we have plants which obtain most ot the nutriment ready made, and, and as a consequence, an elaborate nutrient sys- tem is not required. Hence that portion of the thallus in funguses set aside for the purposes of nutrition, called the mycelium or spawn, is com- paratively small, while the organs for perform- ing the functions of reproduction predominate. The same law holds in the animal kingdom, as in many parasites we have a low type of the nutritive system and a largely developed repro- ductive system. In most of the Tlmli.ophytes-w& have two modes of reproduction, one a true sexual process, in which we have parts equiva- lent to the stamens and pistils of the higher plants, while the other is asexual, and therefore to be considered as a process of budding. These two modes of reproduction either alternate or else we may have budding taking place two or more times in succession before sexual reproduc- tion again occurs. This fact is of the greatest importance, and must not be lost sight of. In many of the sea-weeds we have this alternation of sexual generation with budding. At one period in the life-history of the plant true sexual organs may be produced, while at the other periods we have numerous small cells given ofE, each armed with two or more hair-like appendages. As these appendages are capable of moving, they propel the whole mass, to which, on account of its peculiar animal-like motions, the term zoospore has been applied. The zoospore may therefore be considered as a movable bud of the simplest possible construction. The same alternation of sexual generation with budding is to be met with in the funguses, and the, Peronospora affords a, Fig. 2. very good example of it. Many of our readers must have observed dead flies floating in water in the autumn, with their bodies all covered with fine hair-like threads. This appearance is pro- duced by a plant, which was formerly believed to be a sea-weed, but is now placed among the funguses. If we examine the thread with the FUNGUS 379 FUNGUS microscope, we observe a cellular mycelium or Tiutritive portion of the tliallus. At the end of some of the portions of the mycelium we may probably observe a single large cell, the contents of which become broken up into small portions. These small portions of the protoplasm become liberated, and are zoospores or rounded masses of protoplasm, with two hair-like appendages. When free, they are capable of moving about contents of the small male branches, one or more oospores being in this way produced. The oospores are in fact comparable with the fertil- ized seed of the higher plants. After a period of rest the oospore germinates and produces a new plant. The reproductive process in the fungus resembles that of many sea-weeds which form oogonia and oospores, the oospores being formed after fertilization from the contents of the for some time, and then growth takes place, and each one will form a new plant ; but in another we may observe that the ends of the branches of .mycelium form a club-shaped cell. This club- •shaped body is the female reproductive organ, and is called by botanists oogonium. At each -side of this club-shaped body two smaller bodies oogonium. Then, in the production of the moving buds, the zoospores, which multiply the plant asexually, these funguses closely approach the sea-weeds. The passage from Achyla (the fungus possesses the sea-weed like character just described) to the fungus producing the potato- disease is but a single step. In Peronospora can be seen, which spring from the same portion ■of mycelium as the oogonium, but below it; they are two small branches, which grow upward until they come in contact with the oogonium, being, in fact, the male reproductive organs, called by botanists antheridia. Inside the oogonium are the granular contents, or protoplasm, forming the oosphere. The oosphere is fertilized by the Pig. 6. infesf.ans we have a thallus w;ith the nutritive portion of it, the mycelium, ramifying through the potato-plant. It has also two modes of reproduction, sexual and asexual. In the asex- ual form we have a branching tree-like form of the mycelium, making its way through the sto- mata or breathing pores of the leaf. This branching portion bears rounded swellings. FUNGUS 380 FUNGUS arranged in a somewhat beaded manner, and called conidia. They do not produce zoospores, but develop a mycelium distinctly. Other observers, however, assert that the conidia never produce a mycelium directly, but always from several, in general ten, zoospores. The zoo- spores, after moving freely about, attach them- selves to the cuticle of the plant, and surround themselves by a delicate wall; they then bore through the outer wall of the epidermic cell, and form a mycelium ramifying through the intercellular spaces of the potato-plant. If the young mycelium is formed in the tuber or potato, it may remain dormant during the winter, and then spread through the j'oung plant as it grows. The sexual organs of Peronospora develop inside the tissue of the infested plant. The extrem- ities of certain of the threads of mycelium form rounded bodies — the oogonia. Inside the oogo- nia a portion of the protoplasmic contents form Fig. 7. the oosphere On another branch of mycelium the antheridium is produced, which adiieres to the wall of the oogonium, the contents passing into the oosphere, which is thus fertilized, and the oospore formed. The oospore is surrounded by a thickened skin, which is rough and dark brown in color. After a period of rest, the ferti- lized oospore germinates and produces mycelium. The fungus producing the potato-disease is thus interesting botanically from its peculiar relations to certain of the sea-weeds, in its mode of repro- duction, and in the production of moving zoo- spores. From the effect of rain or dew in liber- ating these zoospores it is not difficult to under- stand how the disease spreads in damp weather. Since it is easier for the unscientific reader to catch ideas by the eye more readily than from scientific descriptions, we give cuts showing some principal forms of fungi. On page 377 we have illustrated the potato disease or fungi. A disease spot appears in a potato. The micros- cope will show the disease commencing where the vascular bundles concentrate. There the air is in greater volumes than elsewhere, such spots exposed to the atmosphere causes the blue mold fungus to appear. This however, has no relation to the potato rot. Blue Mold, is Peni- cillium. glaueum. F, represents the mycelium or roots, at G, is shown that of potato rot, {Peroiiospora infeslans). The following defini- tion is from the report of the Microscopist of the Department of Agriculture at Washington: 2, and 3, 3, potato disease, represent the com- bination of the spiral and dotted ducts; A, the root stem; B, a new growth or tuber from 1. Viewing their connection in this way, it will be seen that any germinal disease entering through the root-stem A, will necessarily communicate through all the connecting links, viz. , A, 3, 8, 8, B. S, S represent the fruit of a slen- der light-colored mycelium, which was found traversing the exterior and interior of the withered potato stalks. In the more advanced stages^ the fruit has appendages in length about one and a half times their diam- eter. They have a thornlike appear- ance, slightly wavy, and of amber color. To the naked eye they appear like fly-spots, and are Very numerous. They appear black, but when treated by nitric acid the dark color is re- moved and a cellular sti-ucture of an amber color is exhibited. Thus far I have not been able to detect any sporangia in them. This may be ac- counted for from the fact that all the specimens I have examined had been dried up for a long period. 4 repre- sents the fruit of Peronoxpora infesums on the leaves very highly magnified. The arrows represent the movements of the fungus matter ; C, starch-cells, liberated by the fungoid solution and full of starch granules; D, the starch- cells of watery potatoes. They con- tain very little starch. E, the starch- cells as arranged in the potato . Some are void of starch, while some are well filled; others partially so. H represents the condition of starch in water when a potato is grated down, or when the cellulose cells ai-e rotted away by fermentation, as in the case stated. Prof. Burrill, in an addi'ess before the Illinois- Horticultural Society, upon parasitic plants, held that the parasites now classed in the family PerommpwcB, and in the two genera Perono^pm'a and Cystopus, are among the worst pests of the fields and gardens. Those of the former genus are especially destructive. They blight like contagion, and wither like death itself. Over forty species of the Peronosporas are known in Europe, while only six have so far been observed in this country, three of which came under the notice of Dr. Burrill. These are Peronospora infestans, on potatoes and tomatoes; P. gangli- formis, on lettuce; and P. viticola, on grapes. The species of the genus Cystopus do not seem to have the destructive effects of the former, yet. must cause much loss of vitality to the support- ing plants. They appear as small scabs or TUSTGUS 38] FUNGUS blotches on leaves and green stems. Cruciferous plants, especially with us horse-radish and cabbage, are commonly thickly spotted by the parasite. The weeds known as purslane (pusly) And pig-weed or red-root (Amarantus retroflexus) are similarly scabbed, and even the ubiquitous rag-weed (Ambrosia urtemigkefolia) does not escape. Returning to the characteristics of the family, we must notice the striking peculiarity, so far as fungi are concerned, of the production ■of Zoospores. The spores of all other fungi, upon germiuation, throw out one or more threads, which directly or indirectly reproduce the plant, but, though the same thing often -occurs here, the more common thing is the ■division of the spore into five or six portions, which become free by the rupture of the spore •coat. On each part two very fine hair- like appendages are produced, which be- come locomotive or- gans, propelling the little body for some minutes or hours through the drop of water in which they originate, with aston- ishing rapidity, as seen under the micro- scope. Having had their run, they settle down and germinate like the ordinary spore. The term zoospore has been given on account of these motions, which were supposed, at one time, to be pe- culiar to animals. Besides multiplying greatly the germin- ating bodies, the zo- ospores doubtless aid greatly in the dis- semination of the species. Another and more proper form of fruit is produced, not however, strictly con- fined to this group, the so-calledOospore. This arises from a process of fertiliza- tion, analogous to that brought about by pollen in flowering plants. The oospore is the winter spore, the others probably perishing during that season. In the spring it, too, splits up into zoospores, which appear in every way simlkr to those spoken of above, iluch interest has lately been taken in the finding of the oospores in the potato fungus, by G. Worthington Smith, of England. Its existence had not before been certainly known as such, though really it had been observed several times and named as belonging to another species. But the great loss caused by this fungus, and the hopes of finding some remedy, set many sharp eyes to investigating its develop- ment. We wonder now that Mr. Smith's dis- covery was not made long before. The fact is now, howevei', known that this parasite, causing the rot of potatoes, is preserved during winter in the old stems or vines and in diseased tubers. Mr. Smith has followed up his discovery by making some compound of sulphur, potash, etc., which is to be tried on a large scale in England, by application to the seed tubers, the vines of course being carefully burned. In the moist climate of England this disease is much worse than with us, which is bad enough. The remedy, if indeed it proves such, will be a blessing little short of that of the potato itself. As showing fungous gi-owths as seen under the microscope, we give a series of illustrations, showing some of the forms assumed, as shown under a high magnifying power, Fig. 1 and 3 show pear blight; Fig. 1 at 3 shows the cellular structure of the leaf ; 3 shows the leaf blackened Fig. 8. from internal disorganization ; 4 represents a sin- gle structure of njycelium, having a fine silken appearance. Fig. 2 represents the general appear- ance of the cellular matter, spores of the blighted bark, in their arrangement, form and depth of color. Fig. 3 represents a highly magnified interior view of the cells of the skin of an affected potato, traversed by a dark jointed amber. Fig. 4 exhibits the appearance of a section of a potato showing the starch-cells and vascular bundles, dotted ducts, and spiral ducts inter- mixed. The largest cells shown are very highly magnified, in order to exhibit their real structure. The pentagonal lines, which will be observed inclosing the starch granules, represent a section of three distinct cell-walls, one within the other. The interior, or third cell, contains the starch. FUNGUS 383 FUSIFORM Fig. 5 exhibits a section of a potato; g, the root- stem ; a a, sections of eyes -jttt exhibits the posi- tion of other eyes, but not in section. It will be seen that the inner markings exhibit a series of central circular and radiating lines leading from and returning to the root-branch g. These lines represent the arrangement of the vascular bun- dles of the potato. When a potato is cut in two, sectionally, lines will be exhibited as shown, and, if exposed lo the action of the air for a short time, the nitrogenous matter in the immediate vicinity of the vascular bundles blackens. The starch is inclosed in three cells. They consist of, first, an outer cellulose transparent cell; secondly, an opaque nitrogenous cell or lining; and thirdly, an inner cell, composed of very transparent cellulose, in which the starch-granules grow; & represents such a cell. These cells contain from thirty to sev- enty granules, c represents a broken cell, from which the starch is seen as if in the act of leaving ; « represents a portion of a broken cell ; p, precipi- tated starch. The starch-granules, individually considered, consist of starch and cellulose, the starch proper and a cellulose covering or cell. A reference to Fig. 6, F, will show the position of cellulose cells a, d, t. They are held in position in the potato by the nitrogenous cell t, which is held in turn by an outer and inner cellulose cell, a, d. When a sound potato is grated down. Fig. 9. all these cells are broken, because of their per- fect cohesion to one another. One cell can not be broken without breaking all. But in the case of rotting potatoes, the nitrogenous cell which binds the three together is partly removed by the fungoid action, but principally by infuso- rial life {bacteria) which live on it. The inner or center cell containing the starch is thereby lib- erated. This is owing partly to the soft and yielding character of the cells and the machinery nsed in reducing the potatoes to a pulp, and being so buoyant as to float the starch granules within them, are carried away in the process of washing. Fig. 7 shows the fungus {Botrytis mticola) of a mature grape leaf. This fungus at- tacks the summer or second growth leaves and produces either by absorption of the sap, or by cellular disorganization caused by its processes. It is of a whitish spotted appearance when at- tacked, and causes the withering of the leaves attacked. A dry atmosphere is the preventive to the attack, the first appearance of this fungus being observed on the under side of the leaf. Fig. 8 shows fungus of the germs uncinula, a fungus found on the upper surface of the native grape vines in autumn. No. 1, 3, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 show consecutive stages, 7 shows the bursting and throwing out of the uporangia {spore cases,) anal- ogous to the seed vessels, in fiowering plants. The species of Uncinula is somewhat similar to (Edium Tuckeri, which attacks the European vine. The fungus is seen in late summer or autumn show- ing on the upper surface of the leaves as white spots, the woolly-leaved varieties being most sub- ject to attack, although sometimes the smooth, leaved varieties, as Clinton for instance, are not exempt, if the conditions, heat and moisture, are favorable. Fig. 9 shows forms of the genus- Mucor, or microscopic toad stools, formed on a vine leaf bruised to a pulp and fermented. Thesfr assume various forms, living and dead organisms having their special forms of parasitic plants. Thus fungus forms attacking a living plant, may continue to exist, or they may attack fruit after it is severed from the parent stem, but decay setting in a different class of fungi appears, that is when vitality is lost and disorganization ensues.. FUNICULUS. In anatomy, the cord which attaches the foetus to the after birth, or placenta,, also called the umbilical cord. The thread by which the seed is fastened to the carpel. FUNNEL. A trumpet-shaped vessel open at both ends, used to transfer fluids, and especially in chemistry, to lay filters upon. FUNNEL-SHAPED. InfundibuU form. A term descriptive of the figure of some flowers. FUK. The skins of animals well covered with hair. The unprepared dry skins are called pel- PURFURACEOUS. 'From furfur. Resem- bling bran. FURLONG. The eighth of a mile ; forty poles. FURROW. The movement of the earth pro- duced by the action of a plow ; furrow slice is the slice of the earth turned over in plowing. The rationale of turning of furrows by the plow is not understood by one plowman out of ten, even by those who profess to be plowmen. Very few of the ordinary hands of the f aim understand how to turn fuiTOws, so they shall lap evenly, or fall beside each other, in lap furrowing in contra- distinction to lying flat, and at the same time close together. So in turning under stubble and other trsish, sufficient care is not taken in cutting the furrows, so the vegetation will be distributed evenly, and not in lumps, thus allowing the fur- row to lie smooth and evenly disintegrable throughout. The subject wUl be found treated of in the article plowing. FURROW, WATER. The furrow made in plowed lands to let oiTsurface water. FURZE. Shrubs of the genus Ulex, the most common of which, U. Miropeus, is also called gorse and whin. It is hardy, leguminous ever- green, growing abundantly on poor lands, and made use of for hedging and coarse fodder in Europe. It grows rapidly, so that it can be cut every four years for fuel, and is so far nutritious that horses are sometimes maintained on furze only. FUSIFORM. Spindle-shaped, tapering to each end; a descriptive term in botany. GALLIZING 383 GALLOWAY CATTLE G GABLE The triangular piece of wall at the ends of a Louse, immediately under the roof. GADFLY. This is the name of the bot-fly, (^strus equi) producing the bot-grub in horses, and also of the sheep bots, or fly, {^strus ovis) producing grubs in tlie heads of sheep, or head maggots.as they are sometimes called. (See article Bots, and also Sheep.) The large, iDlack gad, or horsefly, {'L'abanidm) are dreadfully trouble- some to horses in some seasons, especially in the West and South. The green head, a smaller fly, is so rapacious in the prairie regions in the West, that it is impossible to manage a team ■with any comfort in driving, except they are completely covered with netting. A still smaller species, the golden-eyed forest-fly, (fihrysops), called ear- fly in the West, will sometimes render animals frantic. As a means of securing exemption, the head, neck and ears of horses should be carefully covered. The skin bot-fly {^strns bonis), is often annoying to both horses and cattle in the South and West, from their habit of depositing the eggs, one in a place, in the backs of horses, and espec ially cattle, which, hatching, live on the integu- ments under the skin, emerging in the spring. They may be felt in the winter as hard lumps. The opening should be slightly enlarged with a lancet, and the grub squeezed out by pressure on each side. Then wash the wounds clean with a tincture of aloes and myrrh, and the abscesses will soon heal. GADFLY, BREEZE. Dipterous insects of the genus JEstrus. These insects nearly i-esem- ble bot-flies ; they deposit their eggs under the sliin of animals, which they pierce, giving con- siderable pain. They are nearly if not identical with the skin bot-fly. GAGE, GAUGE. In physics, an instrument to measure any result, as wind-gage, rain-gage. GALBANDM. Gathanum officinale. An um- belliferous herb of Africa. A fetid gum resin exudes spontaneously from it having antispas- modic properties. GALBULA. A genus of climbing birds like king-fishers; they live in wet forests and are insectivorous. GALBULUS. A fruit of a rounded form, but with an internal conical arrangement of the carpels; as that of the savin, juniper, and yew. GALEATE. Helmet-shaped. In botany, the term is applied to the upper arched lip of person- ate flowers. GALEBUCA, A genus of coleopterous in- sects, the type of the Gakmddce, including the Saltiea. They are vegetable feeders in the per- fect and larva state. Tlie yellow-striped squash beetle (O. vitata) is of this genus. GALLINACEOUS. Birds resembling the domestic cock, as turkeys, pheasants, pigeons. GALLIZING. Adding sugar and water to the must of grapes containing too large a propor- tion of acid and tannin, as the Concord and Clin- ton, and fermenting it therewith is called Galliz- ing, after its inventor. Dr. Gall. Another means, adding sugar and water to the husks, after the first pressing, (and then fermenting) is called Chaptalizing, after its inventor, Chaptal. In Gal- lizing the juice of grapes, or in Chaptalizing, the husks, after pressing, are taken ; the idea being to add water and sugar suflacient to bring the specific gravity up to eigijty degrees of CEchsle's saccha- roineter, and so it shall contain four per mill acid, by Geisle's acidimeter. Fifty gallons of water to 100 gallons of mashed grapes and two pounds of best crushed sugar to the gallon of water, is one formula. Test the mixture and if the weight is between eighty degrees and ninety degrees, press immediately without fermenting the husksr If the grapes are very ripe, they may require less, if unripe, and very acid, more. The husks may be afterward Chap talized, by adding water and sugar to the husks to make it weigh eighty degrees as strained juice. Then ferment on the husks from twenty-four to forty-eight hours according to the temperature, or more or less violent fermentation. It will require practice and experience to reach high success, and it is still an open question, warmly discussed, as to the propriety of either of these practices It is fairly well-established, how- ever, that good judges may be easily deceived, so it is pretty much guess work with them, as to. which samples of wine inspected may or may not be Gallized. The making of cider wine is pre- cisely after the same process. The apple juice is augmented with sugar and water, the resulting^ liquid to be of a standard of seventy to eighty degrees according to the strength required. Here again practice alone can make perfect. So any of our juicy fruits, especially currants, gooseberries, raspberries, blackberries, strawberries and toma- toes, and the crushed stalks of rhubarb, can be made into most palatable wine, by Gallizing, as directed for cider. Indeed the acid fruits caa not be made drinkable in any other way. So it must be confessed as applied to American grapes the result has been most excellent wine, and so far as tests have been made, the product is not more injurious to the human system than the- pure juice of the grape fermented and made into wine. GALLON. The imperial measure contains 277 374 inches, or ten pounds of distilled water at 63° Pahr. It is equal to four quarts, or eight pints. The old wine gallon contained 231 cubic inclies; the beer gallon, 383 cubic inches. Each of these standards is used in different States.. The half peck is a gallon in dry measure. GALLOWAY. A pony of thirteen to fourteen hands. Originally, a small breed of horses. A variety of Scotch cattle. GALLOWAY CATTLE. It is more than probable that representatives of this hornless race of cattle were early brought to America by the English and Scotch settlers since, as a boy, we often found this blood cropping out in what were then termed Muley cows, and, as a rule, they were better than average milkers, and generally brown or black. About the year 1850 Galloways were imported into Canada, where they were carefully bred, and from whence they have been disserninated through the West, herds of them being not now uncommon at our yearly State Fairs, being much liked in the colder districts of country for their docility, hardiness and feeding qualities. The Galloway constitutes one of the most important breeds in Scotland, and made its appearance in the Lowlands within the last hundred years. Up to that time the cattle of the country were chiefly horned, like GALLOWAY CATTLE 384 GALLOWAY CATTLE the rest of the Highland Scots. Since then the polled beasts, of which there were some even then, have gradually supplanted the horned breed, being much preferred by the English graziers as being more docile and kindly feeders. About the time of the general revival in agricul- ture. Lord Selkirk had his attention drawn toward the improvement of the stock of his own county, and he began his experiments upon the polled breed, and by selection and care raised it to the most prominent position among the Scotch cattla Since his day many good breeders have continued the work, and brought them to the high state of perfection in which we now find them. Youatt thus describes the Galloway of his day and date : They are straight and broad in the back, and nearly level from the head to the rump. They are round in the ribs, and also between the shoulders and the ribs, and the ribs and the loin. They are broad in the loin, without large pro- jecting (hip) bones. In roundness of barrel and fulness of rib they will compare with any breed, and also in the proportion which the loins bear to the hook bones or protuberances of the ribs. The Rev. Mr. Smith, the author of the Survey of Galloway, says that when viewed from above the whole body appears beautifully rounded, like the longitudinal section of a roller. They are long in the quarters and ribs, and deep in the chest, but not broad in the twist. The slightest Inspection will show that there is less space between the hip bones and the ribs than in most other breeds, a consideration of much importance, for the advantage of length of car- cass consists in the animal being well ribbed home, or as little span as possible lost in the flank. The Galloway Is short in the leg and moderately fine in the shank bones; the happy medium seems to be preserved in the leg, which secures hardihood and a disposition to fatten. With the same cleanness and shortness of shank there is no breed so muscular above the knee, while there is more room for the deep, broad, capacious chest. He is clean, not fine and slen- der, but well-proportioned in the neck and chops; a thin and delicate neck would not correspond with the broad shoulders, deep chest, and close, compact form of the breed. The neck of the Galloway bull is thick almost to a fault. The head is rather heavy, the eyes are not prominent, and the ears are large, rough, and full of long hairs on the inside. The Galloway is covered with a loose, mellow skin of medium thickness, and which is clothed with long, soft, silky hair. The skin is thinner than that of the Leicester- shire, but not so fine as the hide of the improved Durham breed; but it handles soft and kindly. Even on the moorland farms, where the cattle, during the greater part of the year, are fed on the scantiest fare, it is remarkable how little their hides indicate the privations they endure. The prevBjllng and fashionable color is black; a few are of a dark brindled brown, and still fewer speckled with white spots, and some of them are of a dun or drab color, perhaps acquired from a cross with the Suffolk cattle. Dark colors are uniformly preferred, from the belief that they Indicate hardiness of constitution. The Gallo- way is essentially the grazier's beast, being little fitted for the dairy, though the milk is rich. Great numbers of heifers are spayed, and then make superior fat animals. The calves are allowed to suck their dams for some time, until they begin to eat, when they are gradually weaned by allowing them to suck but two teats, while the other two are being milked. When the milk is finally discontinued they are turned onto fresh grass. They are well kept the first winter, the Galloway farmer believing that if once checked at that age in their growth they rarely attain the size or feed as well afterwards. But after the first season they are left to rough it, being rarely housed and only fed, during the winter, a little hay or straw in the fields, picking up the rest of their food from the remains left from the summer's grass. As may be inferred from this treatment, these animals are very hardy, and at the same time quiet and docile, entirely differing from the vicious, restless little Highlanders, their forefathers. They do not arrive very early at maturity, but at three and three and a half years old will weigh from six to eight hundred pounds, and when older they can be fed up to fourteen hundred without difficulty. The spayed heifers are rather smaller than the bullocks, but they are fit to turn off at an earUer age and their meat is considered more delicate. They are usually spayed when calves, and the operation is no more difficult or dangerous than that of castration. At the Smithfield fat-cattle show, in 1861, a black Galloway cow was shown by Mr. McCombie, of such remarkable merit that some of the critics went so far as to say she should have won the gold medal for the best fat cow of any breed. Instead of the short-horn cow to which It was awarded. We copy the remarks of the Mark Lane Express about this animal: Here we have unquestionably the best Scot that has put in an appearance for many a year, per- haps the best that was ever seen. Not only is her form so perfect — hack, rib, shoulder point, breast end, loin, hip, flank, and rump — but her thigh and twist are wonderful, the rounds of beef full and heavy to the veiy hocks; her head is beautiful, exactly characteristic of the breed; her coat just what it should be, and she handles like what she is, a magnificent feeder, of a quality worth something to the butcher, and calculated to make the appreciative epicure smack his lips. In proportion to her symmetrical figure eke- where, her girth forms her weak point ; but even this is eight feet nine inches at four years and ten months old. Such commendation as this, among so many superbly fatted animals as are annually collected at the Smithfield show,speaks volumes for the feeding qualities of the Gallo- way. It is a curious fact that so thoroughly Indigenous and acclimated is this breed to their native county, that all crosses of them with Improved breeds, have been inferior to the pure race; even the short-horns have failed here to communicate the improvement they have been proverbial for doing in almost all other instances, and the Galloway breeder now wisely confines his attention to the improvement by selection and care of his own native breed. We are inclined to think, from *he uncommon hardiness and vigorous constitution of this breed, together with their property of laying the fat on the most valuable parts, and the superior quality of their beef, that there are portions of our country where they would be irore profitably bred than some of the larger races of cattle. There are large tracts, of greater or less extent, along the whole range of the Alleghanles, as well as in the northern portions of New York and the New GAME FOWLS 385 GAME FOWLS England States, which might be occupied with advantage by some hardy breed of cattle, adapted to the climate and region, whose product of beef would be remunerative, and whose constitu- tional vigor would enable them to live and thrive in those localities. We think were the Galloways introduced into such situations they would be found admirably suited to them, and would soon acquire the reputation and value in our markets that their well recognized quality of meat gives them in England. GALLOWS OF A PLOW. A part of the plow head. GALLS. In farriery, wounds produced by the friction of harness. The little tumors formed under saddles are called warbles. Washing the galled places with a solution of sugar of lead, or keeping them clean with a plaster of common ointment, or dressing with simple cerate, and allowing no further pressure on the part until it is healed, are the proper remedies. Wind- galls are little tumors about the heels of horses over-driven, not, however, constituting unsound- ness. , GAMA GRASS. Tripsacum dactyloides A coarse, perennial, indigenous southern grass, growing to four or five feet. It is very produc- tive, and may be propagated by seeds or roots. The cultivation is scarcely thought advanta- geous. It is distinct from Grama grass, (Bouteloua) a valuable grass of the plains. GAMBOGE. The dry juice of the Stalagmites camiiogioides, and other East Indian trees ; a gum resin; poisonous, a drastic purge and emetic. GAME FOWLS. While it is a fact that the Game Fowl is the most elegant and intelligent of the gallinaceous tribe of barnyard fowls, it is as true that they are not generally liked by farmers, practiced in secret. Yet among those who do breed them pure, as much care and intelligence is bestowed as in England itself. The eggs and flesh of Game fowls are among the most delicate food of any of the gallinaceous tribe, and many fanciers keep them solely for the sake of the flesh and eggs. Their size is medium, the weight of mature birds varying from four to six pounds. The varieties are numerous, and there are many UL'CK-WING GAME. on account of their pugnacious dispositions. In fact they can not be kept with other breeds, since they at once master and drive every other male bird away. Hence they must be kept separ- ate, this rule will follow with all pure breeds. If to be bred pure, breeds must be kept separate. With game fowls however, males of other breeds will seldom mix with game hens, since the male bird of games never allows an approach of others to his flock. In the United States the same care in breeding games is not generally followed as in England. Since public opinion and law is so strongly against cock fighting that it must be BLACK-BBEASTED BED GAME. sub-varieties, often having but a local celebrity. So the English, Irish, Malay, Cuban, Mexican, Spanish, all claim special celebrity, while in the South, the Georgian are held to be the most supe- rior, in point of plumage, shape, carriage, hardi- ness and courage, as they are generally admitted to be superior in the quality of the eggs and flesh. Among fanciers for the pit, the Derby and Duck-wing games are regarded, as among the best of the games. The cut given above shows the Black-breasted Red Game cock and hen. The cocks of this breed, must have the feathers of the head dark red, inclining to orange; the hackle clear orange-red to the very point of the feathers; the back, shoulder and shoulder coverts rich violet-red, the saddle orange-red, and the breast and tail a rich black, perfectly free from white. Red eyes denote pure blood. Lewis describes them as follows: The cock's hackle is striped underneath, but never above; the comb and wattles bright red ; the wings are of the same color in the upper part, and rich red chestnut in the lower, with steel blue bar across; breast bluish black, with glossy reflections ; thighs the same; tail greenish black, without much down at the roots of the feathers; legs are usually yellow in color. The hen should be of a rich partridge-brown, with red fawn-colored breast ; reddish golden hackle with dark stripes. The Duck-wing Game, as illustrated, is another of the breeds of the first class. There are yellow or birchen Duck-wings, but the pure Duck-wings are considered to be the same as the Silver Grays, the blood being acknowledged purer, and it is claimed that they are finer, hardier, and better fighters than the others. Their character is given by Tegetmeier as follows : The cocks, to be coiTect in color, Should have the hackle nearly clear white, with a very slight tinge of straw color, without any decided yellow tinge or dark streak on the feather. The saddle should be as nearly as possible the color of the hackle; the breast a maroon straw; the shoulder coverts a GARDENING 386 GARDENING rich brass or copper maroon; the breast and tail pure black. The hens to match these cocks should have their necks of a clear silver, striped with black, the silver to go right up to the comb, but being a little darker above the eyes; the back and shoulder coverts a bluish-gray shaft of feather scarcely showing any difference from the rest of the feather, any approach to red or pencilling being decidedly objectionable; the breast salmon color, of a nice, rich shade. Salmon Pile Games and Dominique Games, comprise the principal addi- tional varieties of Game Fowls, except those pre- viously mentioned. GANGLION. A natural swelling or enlarge- ment on a nerve. A painful tumor formed on the sheath of a tendon. GANGRENE. Mortification. An ulcer which produces the death of the part; this result is usually the consequence of very feeble health. Nutritious stimulants are to be administered. GAPE. In ornithology, the opening between the mandibles. GARDEN. An enclosed place or plat, where plants of any kind are carefully cultivated. Thus we have vegetable garden, fruit garden — generally applied to the cultivation of dwarf trees, berries, and small fruits — herb garden, flower garden, landscape garden — used sometimes to designate places where landscape effects are used in com- bination with carpet bedding, and dwarf trees, and shrubs. The term now-a-days is used gene- rally as applying to the vegetable garden, and flower garden, although it may be properly applied to all the special uses we have mentioned. (See Gardening ) GARDENER. (See Gardening.) GARDENING. The term gardening is used to designate the cultivation of culinary plants. mtmim mmmi nmwim miiniinn .(■■■■■iiiiims I vimami unKiujoiuiiil ' Djur/Miut wwnmw jitMiiiiiiMii mimmtu WDiawiini nmmt nnnuntifflii'i mimm Biimnm Miiiiiiniiu" itiiriiNiiiiin mammis w ll» o W 9 01 W qy Of W mi f| »"'%»»«"»I|»*«H»1 VVfVVfH) GARDEN PLAT. flowers, and the adornment of the landscape. Thus we have in special branches of these elegant and fascinating branches of agriculture, kitchen gardeners, who raise vegetables solely for private use, or, as in the case of large hotels, where per- sons are especially employed to grow the vege- tables daily prepared for the guests. Market gardeners are those who cultivate tracts of land for the daily markets of cities and villages. A gardener proper, as the term is now-a-days gene- rally understood, is one who raises flowers and vegetables for his own account, or for wealthy citizens, and includes the use of hot-beds, cold frames, green-houses, conservatories, and hot- houses. The landscape gardener deals princi- pally with landscape effects in the building of ornamental walks, drives, roadways, rock work, bridges, lakes, ponds, water courses, and the planting and adornment of the same. ' The florist, to whom the term gardener may be cor- rectly applied, is one who devotes his time to certain classes of flowering plants, for sale, and also to cut flowers and the making of bouquets and floral designs. Their province is chiefly in the green-house and conservatory, strictly hot- house plants being rarely cultivated by them. The term is also generally applied to those indivi- duals and firms in cities, who make a specialty of selling flowering and other plants, and to the making of bouquets and floral designs. Garden- ing is as old as history. The Lord God is stated to have planted a garden in Eden. Wherever civilization extends gardening early receives attention, but high art is never attained until wealth and reflnement is fairly established. Eng- land, Prance, Germany, Austria, Holland, Bel- gium, and the United States, have more fine gardens, and higher art in gardening than all the rest of the nations and tribes of the earth together, and in the countries mentioned there is more wealth and refinement than in all the rest of the world. As an aid in laying out a garden and in its economical working, we give an illustration of a garden as laid out by the editor (see cut), and plain practical directions so that no one need err. But the next thing is how to grow them economi- cally, and this can be accomplished in a well- drained soil, deeply tilled, heavily manured, and watered when dry. The drainage we suppose to be good. If not, make it so by thorough drain- ing with tile, laid at least three feet deep. This may cost you sixty or seventy dollars, but it will be money well expended. It is one of the prerequisites in garden- ing. The deep tillage may be accomplished by the aid of three horses, or, which is better, three mules abreast. Each and every plat of this garden may be manured from the main and circular road- way, and the watering may be accomplished by means of a force pump in the center, and a hose. The hotbed — that sine qua non of every well- arranged garden — is placed near the entrance at the south of the roadwaj'. This will enable you to handle the sash and covers easily, and it will, besides, be near enough to the water so it may be easily accessible for watering. In cropping a garden, the deeper the tilth, the more manure may be applied; and this should always be thor- oughly decomposed if possible. If this is the case, one hundred loads may be safely applied, to start with, and thereafter, from thirty to fortj loads annually. But some of you may say: It is no easy matter to plow under one hundred loads of manure. Itiseasy enough, however. Spread, evenly, forty loads over the surface and harrow thoroughly, then, with your deep tiller plow turn JlSSSJSSa £Wl»1J*JI/i>»«>J!!IBIII SJr.l!" "I *»»»*»# w !* af * g mwy !»»"»» »g „. „..,,'„, .,,, u, ujrt u» f^S Ufl (II tut Wi W i^ Mm diili.ui''jilt(alUJi m.mm M'm mm. mm m iss^M iB 'Ml -mi m. mi m in/t uV ^ liiUb .lUitiiwiff ti""; 'i)i«. m Ql^ Bis illUt ^ .i&l, i^i elUk'A ^. llUf ^ ^ -jUUf ^ ^ iilii i^^'i^ 1,02 ffl^ '^ iUlfe ''<■"'' 'iM '^- ''^' <^' sssiiS^^ ^ Ml iiisi. m^.0. jUUi UlSi iUfc 'lUlfr,' •* ilii iBflf-'^oMt ■GARDENING 38? GARDENING this in, a foot deep if you can. Spread forty loads more and plow six or eight Inches deep. Then spread twenty loads of the finest manure on top, and in the spring before working the land, har- row it until the tilth is perfect. The other work -should have been done in the fall. Upon a soil prepared in this manner you will not suffer from too much, or from a lack of moisture, and your principal waterings will have to be expended upon your rhubarb, asparagus, strawberries, let- tuce, radish, celery, and other moisture-loving plants, if you want these extra nice. One rea- son why a garden should be heavily manured and have plenty of water is, that the excellence of most vegetables consists in their succulence, and this can only be produced by forcing their growth. This, plenty of food, water, and good cultivation will always accomplish. No idle spots must be allowed in the garden. They will become har- bors for weeds. No useless fallows — the spaces between the rows are the fallows — no yearly rota- tion. The land must labor with a rotation each year — thus, early radish, lettuce, turnips, beets, top-onions, carrots, spinach, and other quick- growing vegetables may be succeeded by sorts transplanted from the hot-bed, and also by the late corn, beans, and melons. The only rotation being to succeed fibrous rooted plants, when prac- ticable, with tap-rooted ones , and plants maturing their fruit above ground, with those bearing their fruit below; and plants loving a partial shade should be planted in such portions of the garden as will most easily ensure this. Pains should be taken also, to plant the taller gi'owing vegetables so as to obstruct the view from the walks as little as possible, which may be accomplished, measurably at least, by the exercise of a littlp skill and forethought. As before stated many practical amateur gardeners object to the use of the plow in the garden at all, and with very good reason especially in a small place, but the use of the plow in preparing the land need not be dis- pensed with, since the cross-roadways need only be temporary paths, which may be made j'earlj', while the central portion of the garden is entirely filled up with perennial plants. The principal objection to plowing, heretofore, has been that the spade would more thoroughly pulverize the soil than the plow. But with our present improved forms of plows, the pulverization is fully as com- plete as the ordinary spadesman will effect, and much better than an unpracticed one would accomplish. Within all the angular and circular surfaces, however, and wherever perennials are planted, nothing but the spade and other hand- implements may be allowed. Where space is an object, but little care need be required with the roadways, except the wagon way. This ought, if possible, to present a hard surface; but if this is not practicable, the surface should be kept rounded, smooth and clean, as should indeed all the paths. This may be accomplished, principally with a good rake, by raking to the middle of the roadway from both sides. The great objection among farmers, to the kitchen garden is the cost. They dislike to spend thirty, forty, or fifty dol larsa year upon an acre of land. But if they would reflect for a moment that this outlay will produce from two to five hundred dollars in pro- duce, the surplus of which, or that not needed for consumption in their own families, may be easily sold at good prices in the nearest village or city, if not, indeed, to their more negligent neighbors. the objection must cease; for there is no doubt that tlie product of an acre of garden, well attended, will supply all the vegetables a large family will need, besides selling enough there- from to defray all the expenses of its cultivation. Hot beds and forcing houses are warmed either by fermenting manure or by fire heat, but for hot beds manure is the best. Hot beds for winter forcing should be about two and a half feet under ground anc one to one and a half feet above ground This will enable you to use from two and a half to three feet of manure. The principal crop for winter forcing is lettuce, which may be sown about the middle of September, in a cold frame, covering with glass only during cold nights and severe storms. By the first of November it will be ready to prick out at a distance of two and a half inches each way in a hot bed, and from this time it may have a heat of from 50° to 70° Fahr. By the first of December it will be ready to transplant, the last time, at a distance of five inches each way. By taking out alternate rows, we leave one-half. If we now take alternate plants of the remaining rows, we have one quarter left which will be just five inches apart. Those taken out are transplanted in other beds at the same distance apart. By the first to the middle of January your lettuce will have completly filled the frames, when it should be cut, and, after renewing the heat with fresh manure, other lettuce should be planted thereiu, which has been brought forward for the purpose, as hereto- fore directed. By this means, after having matured the fir.st crop, you will raise succeeding ones at intervals of about one month, but since some parts of your beds are colder than others, it will not all come on alike, and with a little care, you can cut a regular supply, each day until it will grow in the open air. About January fifteenth to Febi-uary first, radish may be sown in drills four inches apart, thinning to one-half inch in the row. These will be fit to pull in from thirty to fiftjr days. About the twentieth of February provision must be made for forcing cabbage, cauliflower, pepper, egg plant, tomato and cucumbers. The first two named must be grown at a low heat like lettuce and radish; the others require a stronger heat say, 60° to 80°. The least frost will kill these latter plants, but if your lettuce, radish, cabbage, and cauliflower are slightly frozen, the bed should be covered up tight and kept dark until the frost is drawn out of them naturally. If light and air are admitted they are ruined, for it must be remem- bered that plants grown in this artificial man- ner are more succulent and tender than the same plants grown in the open air. Air must, ho^^■cver, be admitted to growing plants eveiy day when it is not freezing, and care must be taken that the wind does not blow directly on the plant, by tilting the sash against the direction of the wind. The beds are kept from freezing by covering with slough hay, straw, or mats. My practice is to use two thick- nesses of straw or reed mats, and about twelve to fifteen inches of prairie hay, varying it for extreme cold or mild weather. By these means I have grown lettuce when the thermometer has sunk as low as 37° below zero. It is sometimes necessary to keep the beds covered for days together, during cold storms. There can be no directions given which will enable a person to GA RDENING 388 GARGEI' force vegetables in winter with entire success. Practice must also come to our aid. What is essential is to Iteep them warm at the bottom, not to allow them to get chilled at the top, and to give plenty of air when not too cold. Cucum- bers, melon, squash, etc., should be sown in pots, or on inverted sods four to six inches square. As soon as cucumbers show signs of running, they should be transplanted, one hill to each sash, and tomatoes, egg plant, pepper, etc., grown in the vacant spaces, pinching the vines from time to time to make them stocky and fruitful, and removing the other plants as they are crowded. Do not, in any event, allow them to become so. Once spindled, they can never after be made stocky and handsome. Tomato and egg plants sown in Feljruavy, will require to be transplanted three times before the final setting in the open air, at two and a half, five and eight inches apart. Cabbage and cauliflower should be transplanted once at about thx-ee inches apart, and if they come on too fast, keep them cool ; in fact, hardening plants for the open air — that is, inuring them to the temperature in which they must finally grow — is one of the things that gardeners too much neglect. It is good practice to grow them slowly, and give plenty of air, and bad practice to grow them fast and harden sud- denly. Manure for hot beds should be turned .two or three times, until fermentation is equal and the color uniform. It should not be streaked with gray, nor fire-fanged. In placing it in the frames, lay it evenly, throwing out hard lumps, patting it from time to time with the fork, to five it some solidity, and find the soft places, ix inches is the proper depth of mold for the generality of plants, except radish, which requires eight inches. Tlie frames above ground require to be banked with horse manure, even with the sash, and if your bed gets too cold the lining should be renewed. The best manure for hot beds that I have ever used is from the city stables, where saw dust is used for bedding, and next, where oat straw is used. The most important plant for forcing, after lettuce, is parsley. It is treated precisely like lettuce, except that when once planted, the heat is kept up by relining, until the plant is exhausted. Another important article, near large cities especially, is mint (inen- tha m-idis). The roots are placed in the beds about the middle of February, by strewing, rather thickly, upon five inches of soil and covering two inches deep, adding another inch just as the plants are coming up. In relation to sashes, six feet long by three feet wide, is a suitable size, but the great proportion of my sash are about eighteen inches square, contain- ing six lights of six by eight glass. These are fastened together by means of thin strips, by placing four sash together, making a sash six feet long by eighteen inches wide. Two of these sections, or eight sash, are equal to one of the previous size. After you are all done forcing your plants in the spring, you take the sash apart, and place single ones over boxes to fit, for covering cucumbers, melons and other tender plants. These sash however, will not do for winter forcing, but are admirable for general use. Drainage is so important a matter in con- nection with gardening that it must not be passed lightly over. If the soil is at all stiff and retentive, it must be underdrained in order to successfully cultivate vegetables; and it is best and cheapest done, all things considered, with; tilo. We will suppose that your garden land descends regularly to the east, but that in spring, and after heavy rains, it is wet from the perco- lation of water from above ; in this case, if the- drains are three feet deep, they may be placed. thirty feet apart and should run directly up and down the slope, the grade being uniform to the- bottom, that is, not steeper in one place than another. Tile of a caliber of two inches should be laid so that their ends may meet as nicely as possible. Pipe tile are the best, and collars are advantageous though not indispensable. My practice, M'here collars were not used, has been to spread two or three corn husks over the- joints, which do not obstruct the packing of the earth and yet keep out silt which might enter- before tiie earth was firmly impacted about them, besides which they leave scarcely any deposit, from decay as does hay and other like material. The best soil for gardening is a deep, rich, warmi sand. A good soil is a friable loam and the worst is a stiff clay. Upon the latter, even if well drained, it is useless to attempt to raise early vegetables ; one' must content himself with the grosser and later crops. Three important considerations with the market gardener are, a warm, rich soil, nearness to market, and ample facilities for getting manure. Without the first, he can not raise early crops; without the second, he can not get them to market in good condition, and without the last, he can not cultivate suc- cessfully at all. In gardening it is not sufficient that the land was manured last year. It must be manured this year as well, and the best manure is a compost, composed of every waste thing liable to decay about a city, a village or farm. Forty tons per acre each year of such manure will not hurt any land, and we know soils that receive and consume one hundred loads with profit, per acre, to the owner. GARDEN LAVENDER, (See Lavender.) GARGET. This is an inflammation of the- udder, and may attack the suckling females, of any farm stock, but is principally conflned to- cows and ewes. It is not common that the en- tire udder is attacked, the inflammation being conflned generally to one or two sections. There will be swelling, heat, pain and redness of the parts; the system will be generally disordered, and there will be loss of appetite, chills followed by fever, and a disordered state of the bowels. There will be loss of milk, it will be thick, lumpy and bloody. The inflamed parts at length sup- purate, break down, and in extreme cases there is a total loss of milk, and in any case if the inflam- mation pass into suppuration, the value of the animal is permanently diminished. In the early stage the persistent application of cold water, or hot water fomentations, will often remove the difficulty. The milk must be drawn often. A syphon is good. When the fomentation is dis- continued, the udder should be dried, and thor- oughly rubbed with one half ounce of powdered camphor and two ounces, each, of extract of belladonna, and lard oil, the whole thoroughly incorporated together. If the pain is great the udder must be supported with a cloth, with holes- for the teats, and to be fastened over the back. If suppuration ensues and abscesses form they must be freely lanced, the abscesses syringed with weak carbolic acid water, and healed by applying an ointment composed of two drachms- •GASTRITIS 389 GELDING •of chloride of lime to three ounces of lard, thor- oughly mixed. If hard swellings remaiu, re- duce them with an ointment of one drachm of iodide of sulphur, and six ounces of glycerine. In every case we ever had ending in suppura- tion, we have always found it cheaper, in the end, to fatten and sell the cow. (iARGET-EOOT. (See Pigeon Berry.) GARLIC. Allim »epa. The cultivation of the garlic is of great antiquity. The priests of Isis, in ancient Egypt, were forbidden to eat «itlier garlic or onion. The Romans disliked garlic on account of its strong and disagreeable odor. The Greeks cultivated it extensively, and it was used freely by the poorer classes, and the Greeks of this day eat it freely. In Spain, Italy .and other countries of southern Europe it is still ■eaten in a variety of dishes, and it is grown all over central and southern Asia. Its cultivation is ex- •ceedingly simple. The cloves are planted in rows six inches apart, by the same distance in the row, and kept free of weeds. When ripe and dry they are tied in bunches or strings and ex- posed for sale. In the United States garlic is .seldom eaten, its use being almost wholly con- fined to medicine. GASTRJEUM. In zoology, the whole under surface of an animal. GASTRIC JUICE. The secretion of the stomach, which, by dissolving fibrin, albumen, <:aseine, and nutritious matters, has the power of producing chyle, which repairs the waste of the body. It contains pepsin, and is sometimes acid, at others alkaline. GASTRITIS. This is the name applied to impaction of the third stomach in ruminants, also called stomach staggers and mawhound. It is the distention of the third stomach {omasum) with undigested food, and may be followed by congestion, and inflammation of the lining mem- brane extending even to the fourth stomach. The symptoms are, glaring eyes, madness, stag- gering, or even prostration by fits, at other times there will be stupidity, and paralysis of the hind quarters. The bowels will first be loose followed by the most obstinate constipation. Blood and water may be passed, with violent -Straining, and hard lumps may be felt on the belly over the stomach. Give as a sedative two drachms extract of belladonna, and one ounce •of bicarbonate of soda, in a pint and a half of water, three or four times a day, allowing it to trickle down slowly, until the urgent symptoms .are abated. After that give a quart of linseed oil every day until the bowels are freely moved. The form of Gastritis occasioned in the West, by cattle eating smutty corn in the fields, is .attended with sluggishness, stupor and stagger- ing, or by wildness, delirium, and apparent blind- ness. 'I he following is recommended by Prof. Gamgee, who investigated this disease in behalf of the United States Government. One pound Epsom salts, four drachms powdered aloes, two ■drachms powdered ginger, and one quart of lin- .seed tea or corn meal gruel, aided by warm in- jections of a quart or two of lukewarm water every half hour, until the bowels are evacuated. If the bowels do not act freely by the second day, give one half drachm carbonate of ammo- nia, in a quart of linseed tea, repeated two or three times a day. Upon the return of the appe- tite, feed succulent food — roots and sweet hay, until the animal is entirely recovered. GATES. There are few more important con- veniences about a farm, and certainly compara- tively few farms that are as well supplied as thej' should be with free swinging gates, that will remain open without sagging. The cause of the sagging is from the settling of the post, or from its being drawn over out of the perpendicular line by the weight of the gate. This obviated, the construction of the gate is merely a question of taste and of the time or money to be expended. To prevent sagging, the posts should be large, set deep on a flat stone, and braced underground in the direction of the strain. The earth must be rammed hard, little by little, around the post. When great strain is expected, as in very heavy, long gates, a trench should be dug from the post at the heel to that at the latch end of the gate, and the two posts connected by scantling mor- tised into each post, six inches from the bottom, and again six inches from the top. Thus both posts are firmly united, and all sagging is pre- vented. If a gate is hung exactly perpendicular, it will turn freely in any direction and remain at rest whenever it is stopped. It is extremely difficult, however, to so nicely adjust a gate that it shall always remain exactly true. Hence, various devices have been adopted to prevent sagging or getting out of line. A gate to be self -shutting must be hung with an inclination. If the turning point of the upper hinge is one and a half to two inches nearer the gate than the lower hinges, the gate will fall shut if not opened more than three-quarters of the semi-circle it describes in being fully opened. Thus if the hinges are three feet apart, and two inches out of plumb, a gate twelve feet long will rise at the latch end, eight inches in opening, thus working over ordinary drifts in a snowy country. When the fixtures may be had, all things considered, slide gates are most handy. The swing and slide gate is easy to handle and easy to make, so far as light gates are concerned. Patents were granted in 1862 upon this device, senselessly, if not crim- inally so, since this idea has been used in the West for forty years or more. The idea is sim- ply to set the posts, upon which the gate slides or turns, diagonally; connect the posts with pins where the top and bottom slat rests ; the gate may be pushed back part of the way, and then swung round as desired. Any farmer who is handy with tools, may, by paying attention to the hints given, construct rough gates for the farm. AVhen ornament is desired, any good carpenter should be competent to perform the work. GEINE. The same as humus, geic acid, ulmin, humic acid. (See Humus.) GELATIN. That species of animal matter which forms jelly with water when cold. Isin- glass, glue, and size are representatives of this body in different states of purity. It abounds in skin, membranes, horns, and bones, but re- quires long boiling, at a high temperature, for its extraction. A very dilute solution is precipi- tated by infusion of galls, the product being- leather. Gelatin is not capable of itself to sus- tain life. When moist, it runs into the putrefac- tive decay, yielding a fetid odor, carbonic acid, water and ammonia. It is a powerful ammoni- acal manure in this state, and is best economized in composts. Unboiled bones owe some part of their effects to the decay of their gelatin, wliich is present to the extent of thirty per cent. GELDING. A castrated animal. The act of GENERATION 390 GENERATION castrating. The most proper seasons are either the early spring months or those of the autumn. GEMMA. A bud. Hence gemmiparous, bearing buds, or parts capable of development. GENA. In zoology, the cheek, or part of the face between the eye and mouth. GENERATION. The production of life has always been a favorite study of scientific minds. All labor, however, to this end, has really added little to our knowledge of the genesis of life. The theory of spontaneous gen- eration has been a favorite dogma with many superior minds, and yet, again, we have no real facts to support the theory. Hence it soon began to lose ground, and is now generally denied by scientific minds. The following condensed arrangements of facts, as stated by the Chemist of the Department of Agriculture of the United States, some years ago, will illustrate how gen- eration may become active, as well as give some means of preventing generation, as in preserving substances necessarj' to be kept intact. (See also Fermentation and Fungi. ) In regard to the origin of yeast cells, for instance, we have to con- tend with the same conjectures and diversity of opinion as when accounting for the sudden appearance of millions of infusorise in stagnant water, or in explaining the origin of intestinal worms. It has been stated that the yeast cells already existed in the juice of the living grape, and all other kinds of fruit able to yield ferment- able juice, such as apples, pears, blackberries, etc. These minute vesicles, "it was said, might readily pass through filtering paper, but it is cer- tain that filtered juice of fresh fruit when exam- ined under the mici'oscope, exhibits no solids, no organized ferment of any kind, but after two of three days apple or pear juice, for instance, will exhibit yeast fungi, and, at the same time begin to ferment. Hence the conclusion is inevitable that we have here to do with a spontaneous cell formation, called generatio equivoca or originariii; that is, the yeast plant may, without the media- tion of -a mother plant, originate in a liquid con- taining, besides water, sugar, dextrine, (gum,) and albuminous matter. The experiments of Schulze, Schwann, Pasteur, Schroeder, and Dusch favor the idea that the germs of the yeast fungi are diffused in the air and water ready to germinate and multiply whenever a favorable opportunity presents itself, like the eggs of the infusoria which have actually been traced in the air, water, mist, and even snow. Profs. Worm- ley and SuUivant, of (.olumbus, O., have carefully determined that even with the most powerful microscopes, vision is limited to objects of about one eighty-thousandth of an inch in diameter. Now, dome infusoriffi are not more than one twenty-four thousandth of an inch in diameter, and if we suppose that the ova of infusoria and the spores of minute fungi are no more than one-tenth of the linear dimensions of the parent organism, there must be an incalcula- ble amount of germs no larger than one two- hundred-and-forty thousandth or one one-hun- dred thousandth of an inch in diameter, which may appear in putrescible liquids, in far greater num- bers than the germs in atmospheric dust, visible by the aid of the microscope, would lead us to expect. Schwann established the experimental proof that when air is first passed through an ignited tube, before coming in contact with the solutions of sugar, containing besides some nitrogenous substances, no fermentation is- excited. The same negative result is witnessed when the air is conducted through an apparatus filled with concentrated sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) or even a strong solution of caustic pot- ash, (Schulze) or even when filtered through cotton-wool, (Schroeder and Dusch). Dr. F. Mohr makes some recommendations founded upon Schroeder's experiments, among which we- will mention that the casks should be closed, after the wine has ceased fermenting, with a bung, through which passes an air-tight glass- tube filled with cotton-wool. Thus the air will be sifted of germs as it enters the cask upon the withdrawal of wine by the stop-cock. The fer- mentation previous to that precaution is best con- ducted in. casks closed by means of a glass tube bent like an inverted letter U, one leg of which is inserted through the perforated bung, while the other dips into water placed in a vessel. By means of this arrangement all the carbonic acid liberated during the fermentation passes out through the water and can easily be watched, while the air is prevented from coming m contact with the liquid in the barrel. A layer of the heavier carbonic-acid gas on the surface of the liquor makes the exclusion still more complete and pre- vents the gathering of mold (fleurs du mrt)- though the cask be not full. Without such an arrangement it is impossible to prevent the access of air and spores through the invisible openings and fissures in the staves of th& casks. On the other hand a slow oxidation seems desirable, to separate nitrogenous matter and to ripen and improve young wines, whilst the develop- ment of the bouquet in older wines seems to be promoted by the exclusion of air or oxy- gen. This gas, in fact, destroys it when brought in free contact with the wine. The germs being destroyed by heat, chemical agencies, or mechan- ically i-emoved from the air, no yeast fungi are formed. From these facts, Appert's method for preserving different kinds of food may find its explanation. Milk, meat, and vegetables are put into tin cans; these are placed in boiling water and immediately hermetically sealed. Liebig's explanation is that the trace of oxygen in the air that may still be present with the food is at once taken up by some parts of it without giving rise to the formation of ferment at this high tempera- ture; while Schwann believes that by the desti'uc- tive influence of the heat on the germs of fungi and infusoria, the food is preserved. Though the old theory of spontaneous generation, even when limited to some of the lowest orders of vegetable and animal life, is daily losing ground, and the omne mtmm, ex ow has become the axiom with naturalists, still there remain yet many unsettled points in connection with this matter, which require further investigation. Thus if we take it for granted that, according to Gay Lus- sac's experiments, a few bubbles of oxygen gas obtained from chlorate of potassa at a high tem- perature induce fermentation (when admitted to grape-juice surrounded by an atmosphere of hydrogen or carbonic acid,) it must be admitted that in this case any vegetable germs must have been excluded, provided that those already pres- ent in the juice had been destroyed by boiling, and still fermentation took place; and if this lie so, were there no yeast plants present? It must also be remarked that in some of the experiments, where the results appeared to favor spontaneous- GENERATION 391 GEOLOGY generation a mercurial bath was made use of, to isolate the substances experimented upon. Pas- teur lias since ascertained that mercury taken from the batli of any laboratory is itself loaded with organic germs. He likewise found that the contact of the atmospheric air with a fcimenting liquor is primarily indispensable, onl}' as being a vehicle for the germs of the various ferments. Yegetable organisms frequently collect as mold in saline solutions, and decompose them; also even in dilute sulphuric acid. They have never as yet been observed in solutions of chromic acid and cliromates, whence these answer well for preserving brains and other highly albuminous anatomical preparations. A solution of tartaric acid will, even when left in tight glass-stoppered bottles, soon become turbid, and lose its acid taste. A microscopic examination will always trace the cause to a formation of mold which feeds upon the acid. The so-called vinegar plant is a vegetable organism, and acts as a ferment when brought into dilute alcohol. Some mineral waters containing free sulphuric acid, and tasting strongly sour, are filled with vege- table mold. Thermal springs of a very high temperature are not exempt from vegetable productions. Even in poisonous liquids con- taining arsenic, etc., we find some species of fungi which fiourish and multiply. Ehrenberg, the distinguished Prussian naturalist, who has devoted the greater part of his life to the study of infusorial life, is opposed to a generatio eguimca.and believes that infusorise are developed from eggs. He has described about eight hun- dred living species of these microscopic animals, which swarm almost everywhere. They abound in countless numbers even in the fluids of living and healthy animals. Owing to the extreme lightness of these beings we must not be sur- prised to learn of their transportation by storms over whole seas and continents. Ehrenberg believes that the baccilarise found upon some steeples at Berlin came originally from South America. In the Alps there is sometimes found a snow of a blood-red color ; it has beeh ascer- tained tliat tills coloring matter is composed chiefly of a one-celled plant (Protococeus nivalU) of the tribe algm; and, what is most singular, when tlie snow has been melted for a short time so as to become a little warmer than the freez- ing point, these beings die because they can not endure so much heat! The effect of antiseptics in arresting fermentation may be differently explained according as we favor Liebig's or Schwann's theory. The former assumes that corrosive sublimate, arsenic, and creosote, unit- ing with the ferment, prevent the decomposition of it, and, in consequence, that of other organic bodies with which it is in contact. Schwann believes that these substances, acting as poisons, destroy the life of the previously described organisms, and that hence the metamorphosis of vegetable substances is arrested by them. We must acknowledge that, notwithstanding the voluminous writings regarding the origin of many of the lowest forms of aniinal and vege- table life, it is yet a mystery, and that here fancy has as great scope as ever. The spontaneous change of azotized organic matter called putre- faction is most closely allied to the process of fermentation, being mainly characterized by the evolution of gases of a disagreeable odor, as ammonia, and sulphuretted and pliosphoi-etted hydrogen. For this transposition of elements, moisture, and contact with air, are in the first instance indispensable. It was believed that the animalculsB making their appearance in putres- cent substances constituted the primary agent or cause of decomposition; and even if more recent investigations have modified this view, it must be admitted that these minute animals hasten and intensify the resolution of the elements. GENERATION, EQUIVOCAL or SPON- TANEOUS. Being produced without known parents. Originating without apparent seed or germs. GENESEE OIL. A petroleum found floating on some of the waters of western New York, Ohio, Kentucky, etc. GENICULATE. Bent at a sharp angle, like the flexed knee. GENTIAN. A genus of highly ornamental plants; the roots of some afford fine bitters, especially the Oentiana lutea of Switzerland. GENUS. Plural Oenera. In natural history, a distinct but lesser family of plants or animals which are grouped under one general name, and contains distinct species. GEODES. Mineral masses having a hollow center. GEODESY. The measurem.ent of the earth's surface. GEOLOGY. Geology as an agency in the for- mation of soils is an interesting study to the farmer. Ry it he may not only form a definite opinion as to the nature of the soil, by knowing what earths are produced by the decomposition of certain rocks, and the elements of which they were composed, and the study is interesting as showing the various agencies in nature used in the formation of soils, and especially in the for- mation of western soils. Hon. James Shaw, of Illinois, some years ago, when more actively engaged than now in studies relating to the soil and soil uses, in an address before the Illinois State Horticultural Society, well and accurately elucidated the subject of geology, as relating to the origin and formation of soil, the district of country referred to being rich in various strata, and in its diversity of soil. Speaking of that part of Illinois lying north of the old Silurian beach, which crosses the State from a point near Hampton, north of Rock Island, on the Mississippi river, and passes eastward, a few miles south of Ottawa, bending up a little north of Morris, and passing on to the eastern line of the State, south of Chicago, says: The land north of this Silurian beach was compara- tively elevated table land at the time the coal deposits of the great coal basin lying south of this old beach were in process of formation. And there is evidence that over this comparatively elevated table land a great denudation has taken place. Some great force has worn off and swept away, from southern Wisconsin and Northern Illinois, a large amount of material, which has been deposited over the face of the country south and west of that elevated region. It is estimated by Prof, Whitney and other good geological authori- ties, that at least 300 feet has been denuded and carried away in the region of the Illinois and Wisconsin mounds. These mounds — Scales mound, the Blue mounds. Terrapin ridge, and the various elevated and island like elevations left over the general level surface of that part of the State north of this old Silurian beach — GeoIo^calMap ^ OF /OIV/I, MISSOURI, ILLINOIS, INDIANA, OHIOand KENTUCKY. SCALE OF MILES 2tl AO V> io llto ^jjtlll uinum W 'l g9*il 5i ii'EM ■ illl '"I ^\^r/jperSilm/nu Lower SiliiTicLn TertiaiY Cretaeeont CoalMeaisVies Sub-Carimnifoi oiis including MillSLon "ISiil iBm/oniaiv Metcaiiar]iliic (393) Saabhem lindf ofDcepDruft. (31)3) GEOLOGY 394 GEOLOGY are mountains left standing wlien tlie rest of the formation was swept away. Any one with thoughtful mind, who stands upon their tops and looks over the surrounding country, or who examines the regular succession of outcrops up their sloping sides, can not resist the conclusion that the general level of the whole country sur- rounding once corresponded with these highest points. As in reading a hooli, we at once miss tlie pages wliich are torn out, so in examining these mounds, we at once miss whole leaves and parts of leaves in the Great Stone Book, which have been removed by the forces of which I sliall presently speak. The Galena Limestone, the Cincinnati Group, and the Niagara Lime- stone, are the leaves, whose fragments yet remain to attest a time when each one of them in regular succession spread over the region now under •discussion. Against this Silurian beach the coal measures are shingled, as it were, or deposited. At Ottawa, 111., the old St. Peter's sandstone .shines like sugary masses along the river banks, and is elevated in fantastic shapes at Deer Park and Starved Rock, a little to the northeast; but at LaSalle, a few miles southwest, coal pits are sunk for hundreds of feet, and the black treasures of the earth found in the greatest abundance. At Sublette the Galena limestone is the bed rock nearest the surface; but at Prinqeton, toward the south and west, an artesian well, five hun ■dred feet deep, still exhibits coal measure deposits. This shows tliat this old Silurian beach, in the carboniferous ages of the world, presented tlie appearance of a somewhat abrupt range of hills across that part of the State. Over that part of the country north of this beach, the bed rocks are covered with superficial deposits frorn ten to fifty or one hundred feet in thickness, composed of clays, sands, loams, gravels, drift materials, and prairie soils of later growths. If this super- incumbent mass should all be removed, leaving the naked bed rocks, the general face of the country as to levelness of appearance, would not vary much from the present state of things. In •classifying the soils in this Rock river district, we find several well marked varieties. The alluvial deposits of the river bottoms are latest in formation, and deserve a brief notice. In examining river deposits, the first thing worthy of consideration is the flood bed. Here the action of the river is that of currents, or flowing water. Where the current runs strong, sand will be thrown up in tow heads, and sand banks, and sand islands; in the still places a fine black mud will be deposited ; and this force will exert a sifting and assorting influence, and form mud flats and banks, and deposits of pure sand. The next action of the river will be over its flood plain, or that part of its bed covered only by the high water of the spring inundations. This is usually a low bottom, covered at the flood of the river with water, and producing a heavy crop of sour prairie grass later in the season. Over this the water usually rises and falls without much current action, and a yearly Nile-like detritus, or fine mud, is precipitated. The soil thus formed is fat, deep, and sour, and is unflt for agricul- tural and horticultural purposes, until it has been built up beyond the influence of the river floods, and sweetened by the sun and atmos- pheric influences. Then it becomes a soil of inexhaustible richness and productiveness. Step- ping backward in geological time, we next come to the old river terraces, which are simply the ancient flood-beds and flood-plains of thepe same rivers, at a time when they rolled .an infinitely larger volume of water to the sea. Over these are the sandy soils, and the rich, flat bottom lands, Nile-like in their inexhaustible produc- tiveness. Tlie Mississippi _ river. Rock river towards its mouth, and many of the smaller interior streams present these well known river phenomena; and make a notice of these alluvial deposits, and this fluviatile action necessary in speaking of the soils of the State. Receding backward in geological time, we come to tlie bluff formations, the oldest deposits of the Quaternary system. This is called the Loess, or Bluff formation. It is not extensively devel- oped in Northern Illinois, but is present in most of the bluffs which skirt our streams. Deep rooting trees and vines find in it a congenial soil, and the best soil conditions of gi'owth. Some of these Loess or partly Loess formations in our part of the State would be the best fruit and wine producing districts in the world if kindly Italian skies and genial atmospheric con ditions smiled on the tops of the trees and vines. When the Mississippi and the Illinois rivers were lake-like in their expanses, and the waves beat up against their bluff shores, throwing up silt, oozy detritus, and frothy marls and sand, this bluff formation was deposited and accumulated. It is composed of light cream colored clays, greenish marls, muddy sands, and various com binations and mixtures of these; and, as already intimated, it affords the best soil conditions in the State, or in the world, for the growth of the vine and all kinds of fruit trees. Even in our chilling and unfavorable climate, fruit and grapes of fine appearance and good quality are begin- ning to be produced in considerable abundance. At Galena, MoiTison, Mount Carroll, and Ster- ling, I have seen small vineyards purple with their great crops of generous fruit, and orchards laden with the finest of our hardier apples; while the strawberry, raspberry, gooseberry, cherry, and other kindred fruits are raised in the greatest abundance, and of good quality, Next to the Loess in succession are the regular soils and clayey deposits which cover the uplands or general prairie level of the country. And inasmuch as these are originally derived from the decomposition of the rocks, it will be well to call attention to the character of the bed rocks in this part of the State. If tli£ dirt mantle covering these rocks, in that part, of the State now under consideration, was all stripped off, the rocks then exposed would be found to belong to the Galena Limestone, Cincinnati Shales, and Niagara Limestone, coining to the mrface in Irregularly shaped patches. Now, the soil orearth mantle covering these rocks, not^fithstanding the tremendous mixing to wliich they are sub- jected by the drift forces, to be spoken of here- after, partake somewhat of the n a ture of the depos- its lying immediately beneath it, and were in part derived from their decomposition. The evidences of this are strikingly manifest. The Galena Limestone and Niagara Limestone, although separated by an intervening formation, are strik- ingly alike in lithological character. Both are a coarse grained, cream colored and reddish mag- nesian limestone When tliey decompose a rather coarse grained soil is the rcsultajit. In many places, if we dig from the surface to these rocks. GEOLOGY 395 GEOLOGY we find a coarse, reddish, hard pan, or crumbly clay, resembling closely these rocks. As we sink into this clay we find pieces of float mineral and bits of the rock itself, the latter lying evidently in situ, unworn by water, and appearing like pieces of the original rocky mass, which was harder and had resisted the surrounding decay and rotting away of the rocky ledges. On the other hand, portions of the country underlaid by the Cincinnati Shales are covered by a close grained, finely comminuted, greenish, creamy col- ored subsoil, closely resembling in texture and lithological character the Shales from which it has evidently been derived. But these resem- blances of the earthy mantle to the rocks lying under them are only found in certain localities in and around the lead basin ; and only to that extent is the "lead basin a driftless region. But the Lead Basin is not a driftless region. In many places around it and through it evidences of •true northern drift are found. Bowlders are not rare in these places ; float or drift copper is fre- quently found ; drift clay exists, regularly strati- fied, and old river terraces may be traced, and modified drift and gravel is not rare. The lead region seems to have been only partially invaded by the drift forces, and these forces seem to have acted in a modified form. The heavy denuding forces spoken of already acted before the drift period. Then came on the drift conditions and the glaciation of the "continent, during which the transportation of clays and soils and a universal mingling and mixing of the surface materials of the earth took place, modified in the lead region in the manner just noticed. Soils and clays and sands in the first place, are derived from the decomposition of the rocky formations at and near the earth's surface. The processes of nature to-day, as in past geological ages are grinding rocks into soils and re-cementing and hardening soils into rocks. There was a time when the surface of the earth was covered with rocks, and rocks only, but atmospherical and chemical agencies, the solvent power of water, dews, and damp- ness, and aqueous forces kept in constant action processes of slow decay, and soils were gradually formed and carried as sediments into ancient seas. We all know the old adages about the con- stant dropping which wears holes in the stones; and the files of time, which wear and make no noise; but few realize how important apart these peaceful agencies have played in the creation of the present order of things. The frost and the rain, the dissolving power of water and the mighty power of freezing and cold, and other like agencies and energies of nature are all pow- erful to bring about the mightiest results. The tooth of time, gnawing away age after age, will nibble into clay and sand, the solidest rocky ledges. If undisturbed by mechanical forces, the superficial clays, loams, sands, subsoils and soils covering the underlying rocky masses, would be nothing but the residuum left after the re- nioval by percolation of water of the more solu- ble portions of the decomposed rocks. The soil would then be in situ. Regions of country under- laid by sandstone would be covered with a sandy soil; limestone districts would be covered with a soil with a limestone base, and the geologists could tell at a glance from the appearance of the soil, what rocks lay beneath it, and vice versa. But certain forces of nature transposed, mixed and mingled into one mass the materials derived from widely separated sources. The first of these forces are the same silent, peaceful agencies which we see operating round us in our daily walks over the earth's surface. There is a struggle going on all the time in our fields, in our streets, and everywhere, building up and tearing down, construction and destruction, an ever bal- anced antagonism. Gentle rains and earth-born torrents, little trickling rifls and strong streams are tearing down the soil from the hill sides and bear- ing it away to the lower levels. The small water- plowed trench of to-day, next year becomes a chasm, and ages hence a hollow, and the trans- ported materials have been built up in alluvial deposits, or are the fillings in in the bottom of some stream. Alternate freezing and thawing helps along the varying struggle, and God's great plowshare, the frost, runs annually through the surface, mellowing the whole. These familiar, always acting, somewhat silent agencies, in time produce great results. They mix the soil, they transport it to some extent, but they never cany it long distances from its place of origin, nor do they cany the heavy masses of thedriftmaterials for hundreds of miles away from their parent ledges. Other and mightier forces did this, and while doing it, they ground the stones into clays, and the clays into impalpable powder, as the wheat kernels are ground into supei-fine flour between the upper and nether mill stone. They were the mills of the gods, which ground exceed- ingly slow, but ground exceedingly small. There was some tremendous force, which tore the bowlders from their parent out-crops in the dis- tant Lake Superior regions, and drifted them on their journey to the South ; which grooved and planed the surface of the solid rocks, and strewed for hundreds of miles in its track beds of clay and sand and gravel, and mingled, mixed, transported and reformed the soils to such an extent as to well-nigh destroy their separate char- acteristics and origins over large portions of Northern Illinois, and greatly increase the diffi- culty of their proper classification. This force, whether floes and bergs of ice, loaded with stones, gravel and detrital matter, and borne along by winds and currents, or strong, earth-born water torrents, moving along and wearing the abraded materials, or the slow procession of the all-power- ful, crawling glacier — whatever It was, it moved like a vast army of shovelers, multiplied millions of tons of the loose materials denuded and worn down from the rocks of the north, and piled them like a thick earth mantle over the coal basins to the south and west. Of that great force I pro- pose now to speak. In order to understand what that force is, it will be necessary to refer .to the well-known action of ice and snow in the glaciers of the polar world. It has been shown that the struggle of the rain drop to get back to its mother the sea, produces the silent, peaceful agen- cies and energies of nature. The struggle of the snow flake to get back to its mother, the same sea, produced those mighty drift forces whose results are so evident around us. Agassiz, Tyndall, Forbes, and other trustworthy scientific travelers, have made us familiar with the action of the ice forces as they now exist in the Alpine glaciers. Away up in the mountain basins of the Alps snows accumulate in vast fields and in great thickness. When the mass becomes heavy and thick, pressure changes the bottom of the mass into a plastic, porous sort of ice. This basin is (396) Ge oloaiealJdap OF MimESOTA, WISCONSIN AND MICHIGAN scAL£ or Mn.ES Cretajceaas Triassic CoaUfeasures jS^ub- Carloniferous Devoniaji t 5 Upper SQiirmn mm^^m^^sm, 4. Jjourer Silurian Uozoic (Azoic) W ^3 '^^0'/;!- Jgneaiis (397) GEOLOGY 398 GEOLOGY the Mer de Cr.^^a, or sea of ice. Inasmuch as snow is constantly being added to it, the volume and thickness of this sea of ice would soon become so great as to produce serious consequences if some safety valve was not found to afford vent to the pent up mass. The lower part takes upon itself a slow, almost imperceptible motion, and soon fills the descending valleys with a stream or river of ice. As snow is added at the top, it sinks down to the bottom, and when it becomes ice, is drawn off, as rivers run out of lakes. This ice river flows slow, but is subject to all the laws of flowing water. It widens, it contracts, it deepens where the flow is slowest, and its motion increases where the mass passes over rapids. As it crawls down in its slow, irresistible motion, dirt bands are formed along its margins, stones and great masses of rock roll down upon it, the bottom and sides of the channel are grooved, planed and striated by the mighty power of the grinding, rubbing ice, and all the material accu- mulated is caiTied eventually to the lower end of the glacier, and there dumped off in terminal moraines and huge piles of gravel, bowlders, and other drift materials. In the case of tlie Alps, the glaciers melt when they reach the plain and before they find the sea, and glacier-born torrents begin where the ice ends, and the materials borne thither by the ice are further moved and assorted by the muddy, rushing waters which take their place. The struggle of the snow-flake has ended, and the struggle of the rain-drop now begins. Both are trying to get back to their mother, the sea. It is true the ice river flows infinitely slow, but in comparison with the river of water it moves infinitely strong. The Mississippi, if it were a glacier instead of a water river, could bear upon its back bowlders and whole ledges of stone as readily as it now floats a feather or a saw log. What it lacked in motion, it would make up in the slow, irresistible and mighty force of its all grinding, all consuming procession. Such is a glacier in the Alps, and these glaciers are knead- ing certain parts of Italy over now as in past time they kneaded North America. Over the new Wrangell's Land and in Greenland the same forces of the ice are in active operation, only to a much greater extent. All upland Greenland is one vast mer de glace. But the Greenland glaciers, instead of melting in intermediate sunny valleys, push down into the sea itself, and after crawling along its bottom in the indenting bays and fiords, keep breaking off great masses, which float away in the deep blue waters until they are caught by wind currents and gulf streams, to be borne by them as icebergs and ice floes, whither the drift of the ocean carries them. And thus they float, until warmer seas cause them to melt in sunnier climes, and the floor of the ocean is strewn with their adhering dirt and stones. Certain iceberg paths in the sea already are accumulating at the bottom of the waters fields of bowlders and huge win- drows and beds of gravel and dirt. Baffin's Bay, Hudson's Bay, and other northern seas and bays thus become nests of icebergs, and these icebergs before reaching the water, were glaciers, and these glaciers, at their origin, were the arctic snows of Greenland. Thus Greenland, like all other polar and circumpolar lands, is shipping her bowlders and her gravel to the bottom of distant oceans, and these, at some time in the future eternities of God, will become the face of continents. But we wiU come down to the prairies of Illinois. Start- ing with the.bowlders in the neighborhood of Lake Superior, we trace them south and west to the Missouri river. These crystalline sandstones, fl ame- colored granites and black-trap rocks, can be traced back to their parent ledges about the start- ing point. As we advance away from the parent ledges, the bowlders become smaller, and the drift materials towards the Missouri river are only gravels and drift clays. On seeing these curious, water-worn stones strewn over the face of the country, the most ordinary mind at once concludes that they did not grow there, but were brought there from some other place. They ai'e nigger heads, lost rocks, wanderers away from where they originally existed. They are entirely unlike any rocks outcropping round them, or in that region, and it is no great task to trace back the track over which they came. The world was lately excited over the Cardiff Giant, but men went to work and soon traced it back thousands of miles to its original bed in the gypsum quarries of Fort Dodge. In the same way they trace the bowlders back towards Lake Superior and Greenland, and could find the origin of each one if a few thousand dollars, or a laij^e humbug, were involved. In some parts of Iowa these loose stones, from the size of a man's fist to that of a shock of wheat, lie so thickly strewn over the ground and accumulate round the margin of the lakes to such an extent, that in the one case parties might walk over them, stepping on the bowlders alone ; and in the other, they have givete rise to the superstition or belief in walled lake^ In looking over a field of these bowlders once upon a time, my companion, who was somewhat irreverent, exclaimed, that it seemed to him as if the devil, when he sifted the soils down out of his great sifter, had emptied with a jerk the accumulated stones over this particular field. VL he had named the Creator, instead of his satanicvs, majesty, I would have thought the comparison a good one. Now, I believe the ice cap which covers Greenland at the present time once- extended down into the middle regions of Nortk America. Agassiz, some years ago, demonstrated to the satisfaction of the scientific world, that a great ice cap did cover the drift regions of the American continent. The carboniferous summer- slowly ended, and the glacial winter as slowly came on. An entire change of the flora and fauna of these parts of the earth took place. Glaciers covered our land in every favorable locality. Seas of ice accumulated in the basins. Stones were torn away from the outcropping- ledges: ledges were ground into sand and clay;, motion took place in various directions ; but the: general movement was towards the south and west. As the climate again grew warmer, the ice cap slowly melted, commencing at the south and melting the ice towards the north. Basins, became filled with water, and lakes and seas existed, into which glacial-born -cuiTents of muddy water poured, and in which icebergs and floes floated, as wind or currents drove them. And we thus have the compound forces of the glacier, the iceberg, and the water torrent in vigorous operation. These causes, added to and coming after the peaceful agencies and influ- ences, spoken of in the early part of these remarks, explain all that we see, while examining- the drift formations, with which our Illinois- rocks are covered. The peaceful causes wliiclL worked before the drift have also worked since GERANIUM 399 GERMINATION the drift period, and produced some of the later phenomena observable. On pages 392 and 393 will be found a geological map of Iowa, Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio and Kentucky, and on pages 396 and 397 a geological map of Minnesota, "Wisconsin and Michigan, which will present a fair view of the geological forma- tion of au important region of the great Missis- sippi valley, comprising as it does the great frain, grass and stock region of the United tates. The explanation of the geological terms used are as follows : Alluvium. Deposits of earth, sand, gravel, and other tran-porced matter, made by rivers. Hoods, or other causes, upon land not perm nently submerged beneath the waters of l«kes or seas. Tertiary. The first period of the mammals, or of the cenozoic era. Cretaceous. Having the qualities of chalk; abounding in chalk. Coal Measures. Strata of coal with the attendant rocks. Subcarbonifeious. Carboniferous formation, the series of rocks (including sandstones, shales, limestones, and conglomerates, together with beds of coal), which make up the strata of the carbimiferous ai^e or period. The prefix Sub sianifyiut; under or below, and includes in the map the millstone grits. Devonian. Pertaining to certain strata which abound in Devonshire, Eng. ; of, or pertaining to their age or for- mation. Silurian. A term applied to the earliest of the Pala;o- zoic ages, and also to the strata of the age. Toe strati- grapnical and palieontological break at tue top of the Water-lime making two great divisions of the American Silurian, Upper and Lower. Metamorphic. Pertaining to, or exhibiting, certain changes which minerals or rocks may have undergone since-their original deposition. Triassic. Pertaining, or corresponding to the salilerous beds or new red sand-itone of Great Britain. Eozoic —Azoic. The age preceding the existence of animal life, or anterior to the Silurian. Igneous. Resulting from the action of lire; as lavas and basalt are igneous rocks. (See also article Soils.) GrERANIUM. Geraniums have come to be as indispensable bedding and decorative plants, as they are beautiful in their variety of rich bloom, in the garden and green house. Tliey are now broken up into so many ornamental va- rieties, single, serai-double and double, and in the rich variety of coloring of the leaves, or in grate- ful odor of some of the scented leaved varieties, that there is now a broad field to choose from. Their ease of cultivation, adaptability to many soils — liking best, however, a rich, rather porous loam— has rendered them universal favorites with the masses, either for summer or winter bloom. At the time of frost they may be taken up, heeled in, in boxes, and kept over winter in a light cellar that does not freeze, and the next spring, after all danger of frost is over, set out in the border, to again bloom through the sum- mer. When taken up they should be cut back, fully half the wood, — sometimes more — being cut away. During the winter they should have but little water, only just enough to keep the soil about the roots from becoming 'completely dry. Those intended for winter blooming, should be taken up about the first of August, cut back to within three or four inches of the earth, carefully potted, and watered until they make new wood, and then be removed to the house before frost. A better way, however, is to strike from cuttings, early in the spring, and by pinching back, in- duce a stocky growth for winter blooming. The varieties now embrace every variety of shade, from white, through pink, salmon and red, to the deepest purple, and each year brings an endless variety, as candidates for popular favor. In speaking of white geraniums, we may qualify the statement by saying that we have never seen a white that would retain its purity, in the open air in the full glare of the summer sun; but when grown in the conservatory, or in partial shade, they retain their purity of color fairly well. GERM. The vital part or embryo. GERMEN. The seed vessel, ovarium. GERMINATION. The physical changes dur- ing the germination of seeds has long been a careful study by students of vegetable physiology. In the germination of seeds heat, moisture, and air are requisite. As each species of plants have their zero at which they are killed, so each has its temperature at which it germinates most kindly. Thus the glacier produces a so-called red snow, from minute species of algse, which grow at far below the freezing point, and are killed when the temperature is raised to the melting point of snow. To plants flowering in extreme cold succeed vegetation flowering almost as soon as the frost is out of tlie ground, Next come hardy plants that endure the frosts of our severest winters, and start into life witli the first warm days of spring. Half hardy plants follow still later, and tender plants do not begin to grow until all danger of frost is over, to be again cut down with the first frosts of autumn. The pea requires forty to fifty degrees of sun heat for its vegetation ; corn, fifty to .sixty degrees, and cucumbers sixty to seventy degrees as the lowest heat at which they germinate. The range for plants, hardy and tender, being from about 34° to 140° as the lowest germinating heat, and Pig.l. Fig. 2. the highest degree of sun, they will bear. Added to this, moisture at the roots must always be present. Indeed, many plants can not exist in a dry atmosphere at all. Some plants, as many northern ferns, require a moist, cool heat, and also shade, while tropical ferns, as well as many other tropical plants, require not only a high heat, but an atmosphere constantly saturated with moisture, or nearly so. And most of them require a strong heat, hence the necessity of artificial houses for their propagation and care, in the temperate zone. In the article Botany, the germination of the acorn is illustrated. The two lobes of the fruit do not perform the office of leaves as in the bean, but nevertheless serve to nourish the young plant. Above we illustrate, Fig. 1, the growth of the young maple. Here GERMINATION 400 GERMINATION Fig. 3. the two cotyledons escape from the shell, change color and become the first pair of leaves, of the plant, or seed leaves as they are called. The radicle, in its first growth, sends out the root, which pierces the soil, and the plumule (the bud above the leaves), puts forth true leaves. Fig. 3 shows the process of growth, the young rootlets, feeding from the soil, and the true leaves elaborating the sap furnished. It is now a true and independent plant, which in process of time will, if no disaster happens to it, form one of the monarchs of the forest. Pig. 3 shows the seed of wheat in the process of ger- mination. Here the seed remains in the earth and, by its change and decay, nourishes the plant until its roots can draw nourishment from the soil. The starch of the grain (a) is chemically changed to this end as in other seeds, and as in all the grasses, the radicle strikes root, and the spire rises, inde- pendently of the seed, above ground to elaborate the juices sent up by the root. Prof. Poey, in an article on Meteorology as Applied to Agriculture, some time since collected a mass of information from the most eminent investigators, at home and abroad. From this we condense the following inter- esting data in relation to the vital forces of plants: From the highest antiquity innumerable theories have been proposed explaining the vitality which precedes the development of the germ, the repro- duction and organization of living beings,animal and vegetable. That action has been successfully attributed to an entity, a principle, an agent, or a force, acting on organic matter exteriorly or interiorly, or in both cases at the same time. Prof. Joseph Henry, deceased, and during his life secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, tliought that vitality is a directing principle and not a mechanical power, the expenditure of whicli does work. This principle, as an engi- neer, directs the power which is given out when a part of the oxygenized molecules runs down into inorganic matter, namely, carbonic acid and water, etc. By the term running down he means to indicate the passage of molecules from a state of less chemical stability to one of greater, which is the case in the passage of organic matter into inorganic matter. It is well known that organic matter is in a very soluble condition, while car- bonic acid and water, into which it passes, pos- sess a high degree of stability. Dr. William B. Carpenter believes that what the germ really supplies is not tlie force but the directive agency ; that rather resembling the control exercised by the superintendent builder who is charged with working out the design of the architect. The vital force which causes the primordial cell of tlie germ first to multiply itself, and then to develop itself, is directly and immediately sup- plied by the heat which is constantly operating upon it, and which is transformed into vital force by its passage through the organized fabric that manifests it. Thus heat, acting through the germs, supplies the constructive force or power by which the vegetable fabric is built up. There is evidently in this hypothesis of Dr. Carpenter a double error of idea and of facts. If the germ supplies not the force, but the directive agency, how can the force-heat supply to the germ the constructive force necessary to build up the vege- table fabric, unless the germ in itself could par- take of the force of that heat? It would be, in other tei-ms, a force acting on another force, without the latter being influenced by the first force. It is, in one word, an impossibility. As to the question of fact, the production of heat in the germ is, from its origin, at the same time, a cause and an effect, consequently it cannot be the primary cause of its development. The decom- position, for example, of the carbon from the grain and its reconstruction in carbonic acid can not take place without a chemical action and a reaction, which, in both circumstances, produces heat. Which is the force that precedes here ; is it the chemical, or the calorific action? We could just as well say that the chemical action is the constructive force of germs, and in that case we should come near the running down of Prof. Henry, which is nothing but a purely chemical operation. That which proves the non-identity between the vital force and heat, electricity or magnetism, is the experiments of Dutrochet on the circular movement of the sap in the cellules of the chara. He found that heat and electricity act on the circulation of the chara in the same manner as other forces called exciting, in dimin- ishing its velocity, causing it to cease altogether, and establishing it anew But the magnetic force, even when it is prodigious, does not exert any influence. From this, Dutrochet concludes tliat no relation exists between the vital force which produces the circulation of the chara, and that of heat, electricity, or magnetism. Dr. Joseph Le Conte has published ideas yery similar to those of Prof. Henry, witli which he was acquainted before the issue of that gentleman's memoir, though he has made no mention of it. He advances the idea that the composition of the carbon of the seed and its combination with the oxygen of the air, to form carbonic acid, sets free a force by which germination is effected, and which suffices to organize the rest. By the formation of carbonic acid, he says, the seed loses weight, and decomposition and loss of weight is absolutely necessary to develop organ- izing force — the loss of weight being, in fact, the exact measure of that force. If an insoluble food be found capable of conversion into soluble form without loss of carbon, then germination of the seed might take place without loss of weight, by the direct conversion o^ the heat into vital force. Other authors, as Newport, consider light as the primary source of all vital and instinctive power. Fowler thinks that not only vitality has correla- tion with all physical forces, but it is the- artist of its own cause. Paget advances that every impregnated germ has in itself, and in the pro- perties with which it is endowed, the power to develop itself, according to a law, into the perfec- tion of an appropriate specific form, when the germ is placed in favorable conditions. Of its action, he says, we may specialize it as the germ- power, in consideration of its having its apparent origin and intensest action in the germ. The great doctrine of correlation and equivalency of physical forces, as applied to vital forces, is not yet clearly understood. We must first bear in mind that the laws which preside over vital phenomena, moral or social, differ from the laws of physical and cosmological phenomena only in a higher degree of complexity, always increasing from nutrition to innervation and intelligence. They are only less and less simple, less and less GERMINATION 401 GERMINATION general, and more and more subordinate to the action of a suitable medium. But these three orders of laws, physical, vital, and social, are by no means identical, and there is not even a grada- tion, nor an insensible transition from one to the other, as Darwin has supposed in his series of animals and vegetables. The elementary proper- ties of matter, according to circumstances, mani- fest themselves everywhere simultaneously, obeying the universal law formulated by Augusta Comte, of the equivalence between the action and reaction, the manifestation of one exciting the manifestation of the other or of many others of the same kind. This law is already fore- shadowed, and it is the one which we study to- day under the name of the law of the conserva- tion, 'jorrelation, and equivalency of forces, or of the mechanical equivalency of heat, etc. Experience shows us to-day that from all the bodies which form the inw-ganic world there are but four principal ones which enter as integral parts of the weft of living beings, and these are oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitro- gen. But the fact that living beings are only formed of cosmical elements leads us to an important view in philosophy, that vital force is immanent to organized matter and inherent to the elements which enter its composition, on the same ground by which gravitation, heat, etc., are inherent. One objects in vain that ia the vitality of the germ the physical or chemical elements introduced in organic combination acquire new properties which they did not possess previously, as in the case of sulphuric acid, which shows properties different from those which belong to oxygen and sulphur. This objection would stand good if the new compound, sulphuric acid, should manifest properties different from the chemical one. But it is only a transformation of the elements into another chemical element more complex. The same, the elements susceptible of organization, show but equal vital properties in the transformation into other vital elements more complex and less unstable to form vegetable and animal organisms. Consequently, we can not say, as Dr. Carpenter would do, that heat is transformed into vital force by its passage through the organized fabric. MilUer lias very well shown that in the germ the force of evolu- tion reaches its highest power; the nearly microscopic impregnated ovale becomes a body considerably larger; when it leaves the bosom of its parent the evolution is much less rapid; it is still less from infancy to puberty; at the adult state evolution arrests itself, and only makes up its own losses, and finally it ceases to compensate the.s6 losses; organic degeneration commences, until it becomes an impossibility to be, according to the philosophic expression of Fontenelle. As observes Littri, this evolution can be well represented by the curve of a projectile, whose movement is most rapid at the moment of departure, decreases gradually, and ends by stopping altogether. As the force of projection has space for its domain, and the projectile is aimed at a certain point, the force of life has time for its domain, and the germ is aimed at a certain term of duration. The duration of life is further subjected to the physical laws which govern our projectile; for it is an axiom in physics that movement once begun would last forever if it were not at last destroyed by the resistance it encounters. The vital force or the 36 life also would last indefinitely if it were not destroyed by its resisting medium. This medium is the molecules which are constantly added to and taken from the organism, and which consti- tute nutrition in the double motion of composition and decomposition, thus offering to us the true definition of life. But this medium being double, that of the cosmological world affects principally our physical organization, and the other in the social world influences principally our moral nature. So the cause of natural death is the resistance of the molecular medium. The source of life is also the source of death. Of the three fundamental activities of matter, nutrition, mobilit}^ and sensibility, a great number of living beings, such as vegetables, do not possess the two last, and still die by natural death. The phenomenon of natural death is then exclusively affixed to the phenomenon of life by the move- ment of composition and decomposition which constitutes nutrition. It may still be objected that if vitality consists in the immanence of organic matter itself, why does not life spring from aU the possible combinations of that matter. It is in this capital question that the immense influence of the medium on the development of the germ is shown by the following solution: An isolated inorganic molecule does not manifest certain essential properties ; for example, does not show any electric or magnetic action unless it is placed beside another molecule, under the con- ditions of influence and reciprocity necessary to those effects. Similarly, in the state of isolation, another molecule will not seem to own any affinity of combination without the required contact, immediately on which the chemical action appears. It is exactly what happens with the isolated organic molecule, which will not develop its vital forces unless it be placed in a convenient medium for this new manifestation. The duality, says Littr,5, brings in evidence properties immanent to matter, and does not create them. In the supijosition of Dr. Carpen- ter, the germ would have created a new force, at least a new property, by the transformation of the calorific into vital force. The principle of the transformation of forces was not thoroughly well understood by a great number of philoso- phers, for, strictly speaking, there is no trans- formation of forces, but a dynamic equiva- lence of all the various forces of nature. The properties of life are essentially chemical, as they consist in a continuity of composition and decomposition, the same, at the moment when any chemical combination takes place, a change happens analogous to life. The only difference is, that in chemical action the phe- nomena are instantaneous, and the body becomes again completely inert, while in every organism It renews itself as long as the movement of com- position and decomposition lasts. All organized bodies placed in a suitable medium present the double movement which characterizes life, by the increase (nutrition) ai;d decrease of its ana- tomical elements. So the vital force is not a cause; it is, on the contrary, an effect, a modus operandi, an immanence, in one word, the law of organic matter, as universal attraction is an immanence and the law of inorganic matter. The phenomena of vitality are therefore but properties of tissue, which are reproduced after- ward in each anatomical element. In fact Ufe seemingly complex, is yet in reality simple. GESTATION 403 GESTATIOF GESTATION. The gestatory term in quad- rupeds is much regarded by their bulk. In the elephant it is about 30 months, in the camel between 11 and 13, in the mare and ass the same. According to the observations of M. Teissier of Paris, in 583 mares, which copulated but once, Ihe shortest period was 387 days, and llie longest 419; making the extraordinary difEerence of 33 days, and of 89 days beyond the usual term of 11 montlis. The cow usually brings forth in about 9 months, and the sheep In 5. Swine usually farrow between the 130th and 140th day, being liable to variations, influenced appar- ently by their size and their particular breeds. In the bitch, on the contrary, be she as diminu- tive as a kitten, or as large as a boarhound, pupping occurs on or about the 63d day. The cat produces either on the 55th or 56lh day. The true causes which abridge or prolong more or less the period of gestation in the females of kept as a breeder it is better that she drop her first colt at three years old, and then rest one- year, so as to produce the next colt at five years- of age, and yearly thereafter; and since the mare- goes with young eleven months, care must be- taken that she does not go over the first heat before being again served. Most mares -will- receive the horse on the ninth or tenth day after foaling, and this period should never be- allowed to pass over without her being shown the horse. Some of these results do not alto- gether coincide with the results of observations in England, where, for example, July, the sea- son of copulation for the cow, is considered too- late. That period would produce late calves in the following year. November is stated to be the best season for the ewe; for the black-faced ewe it is, but for the Leicester, and, in many situations, for the Cheviot ewe, it is a month too late. The duration of the power of Kinds of Animals. al ii «§§■ ill Period of Gestation and Incnbation, Shoriest Period. Mean Period. Longest I'eriod. Mare 4 years 5 *' 3 " 3 " 2 " 2 " 1 " 1 " 2 " a " 4 " 5 " Years. 10 to 13 12 to 15 10 5 6 7 6 6^ 6 6 10 to 13 12 to 15 May. Days. 322 Days. 3*7 Days. 419 Stallion 20 to 30 July. 240 283 Bull 30 to 40 Ewe November.. 146 1.54 161 Tap 40 to 50 Sow March. 109 115 143 Boar 6 to 10 20'to'46" She-Goat November. 150 156 He-Woat May. 365 380 391 He-Ase 281 SB 308 60 335 Bitch 2 " 2 " 1 " 1 " 6 montlis 6 6 " 8 to 9 8 to 9 6 to 6 9 to 10 5 to 6 6 to 6 5 to 6 February. 63 Dog 48 BO 56 He-Cat 5 to 6 30 ■'" 12 to 15 Doe-Rabbit November. 20 28 35 Cock Turkey, sitting on Hen ( on the eggs of vDuck. ..-< the Turkey. ( Hen, fiittins; on the Duck ... \ eggs of the Hen | Duck 17 24 24 26 19 28 27 IB 24 27 26 30 21 30 30 18 28 30 30 34 3 to 5 24 32 33 ao quadrupeds, and of the incubation of birds, are yet unknown to us. Many persons are also unacquainted with the proper age for reproduc- tion, and the duration of the power of reproduc- tion, and other conditions even of the domesti- cated animals. It can not, therefore, but be interesting to find in the following table the results of observations made on this subject by the best ancient and modern naturalists. The development of the reproductive powers of farm animals diilers widely, both as to the age, when they begin to breed, as well as their time of carrying their young. The sow will breed at one year old, the period of gestation being 113 days. The ewe breeds at fifteen montlis, and carries the young 153 days. The cow will breed at two years old, and if well kept may be put to the bull at fifteen months of age, since she car- ries young nine months. The mare is usually not bred until the age of four years, but if to be reproduction accords with our experience as respects the mare and stallion; but 13 years of age for the cow, and 8 for the bull, is too young a period for old age in them, fine animals of both sexes, of a valuable breed, having been kept in a useful state to a much greater age. I have seen a short-horn bull in use at 13 years, and a cow of the same breed bearing calves at 18; but if the ages of 8 and 13 respectively refer to the usual time bulls and cows are kept for use, the statement is not far from the truth. From some carefully collected and very exten- sive notes made by Lord Spencer on the periods of gestation of 764 cows, it resulted that the shortest period of gestation, when a live calf was produced, was 330 days, and the longest 313 days, but he was not able to rear any calf pro- duced at an earlier period than 343 days. From the result of his experiments, it appears that 314 cows calved before the 384th day, and 310 calved GIRDLER TWIG 403 GLOMERATE GLAND after the 385tli; so that the probable period of gestation ought to be considered 284 or 285 days. The experiments of JI. Teissier on Uie gestation of cows, are recorded lo have given the followr- ing results. 31 calved between the 240th and 270th day, the mean time being 259+ days ; 544 calved between the 270th and 299th day, the mean time being 383 days; 10 calved between the 299th and 321st day, the mean time being 303 days. In most cases, therefore, between nine and ten months may be assumed as the usual period; though, with a bull-calf,, the cow has been generally observed to go about 41 weeks, and a few days less with a female. Any calf produced at an earlier period than 260 days must be considered decidedly premature, and any period of gestation exceeding 300 da3s must also be considered irregular; but in this latter case, the health of the produce is not affected. 3Ir. C. HilUard, of Northampton, Eng., states that the period of gestation of a cow is 284 days, or, as it is said, 9 calendar months and 9 da3S; the ewe, 20 weeks; the sow, 16 weeks; the mare, 11 months. The well-bred cattle of the present time would seem to bring forth twins more fre- quently than the cattle did fifty years ago, prob- ably the result of better care and feeding. The males of all animals, hares excepted, are larger than the females. Castrated male cattle become larger animals than entire males. GIBBOSE. Irregular, humped. GIBBOUS. Protuberant, convex. GIDDINESS. (See Epilep.sy.) GILL. The quarter of a pint. GILLS. These organs in tishes answer the pm-pose of lungs. 'I'he plaits under mushrooms of the genus a^anom are called gills. GIN. Distilled spirit, flavored with juniper berries. In machinery, an arrangement for tearing green seed cotton wool from the seeds. It consists of a cylinder closely set witli saws, which pass through a grating in an inclined side-hopper, and thus drag off portions of wool, which are conveyed half round the cylinder, and then cleared off by a revolving brush, while _ the freed seeds slide through to the bottom of the hopper and escape. (See Cotton.) It is also a machine used for raising great weights, driv- ing piles, etc. It usually consists of three long legs or spars, which support a pulley at the top, round which a rope is jjassed for elevating the weight. GINGER. Zimjihe.r officinale. This plant is a native of Hindostan, but also cultivated in the West Indies, in China and other warm coun- tries. The root is a rhizome, similar to that of the flag; perennial, but the leaves annual. GINGLYMUS. The hinge joint in animals; as the knee and elbow. GINSENG. Aralia guinquefolia. The root is fleshy, from one to three inches long, and about as thick as a finger, of a yellow color, and some- what resembling in flavor licorice. The plant is an herbaceous perennial, growing abundantly in the hilly and woody regions of the Northern, Middle and Western States, where it is gathered for shipment. GIRDER. In architecture, a principal beam in a floor for supporting the binding or other joists, whereby their bearing or length is les- sened. Perhaps so called because the ends of the joists are enclosed by it. GIRDLER TWIG. (See Twig Girdler.) GIRDLING. (See Wringing ) GIZZARD. A strong muscular stomach in birds, for the purpose of grinding their food with pebbles. It answers the place of teeth. GLACIERS. Immense masses of ice pro- duced fi-om the snow of mountams occupying the valleys of Switzerland and countries equally elevated. In geology, the study of glaciers is peculiarly interesting; many are ten to fifteen miles long by two broad, and from three hun- dred to six hundred feet high. (See Geology.) GLAND. In anatom3% organs such as the liver, spleen, etc., which consist of an immense development of blood vessels, and secrete a pecu- liar fluid, as bile, urine, etc. They are often mi- croscopic, as the mucous glands of the intestines, and Peyer's glands. Sometimes thej' receive the specific name of the secretion they produce, as mucuous glands, sel)aceous glands, lymphatic glands, etc. In botany, small lumps near leaves, or oval spots on the trunks of trees; they are un- important except as a means of recogiuzing spe- cies. GLANDERS. (See Farcy.) GLASS. That used for conservatories should be of the greatest clearness. The nature of the substance difEers with the kind of glass, for flint glass is a mixture of sand, red-lead, and fourteen per cent of potash. Crown, or window glass, contains soda, with sand and lime. The silicate of potash or soda in these cases ■ is very insoluble, and the effect produced can not be con- siderable unless a large dose is added. Pounded feldspar would form as good a manure. The pounded refuse is also used by glass-makers, and called cuUet. The finest powder is used in mak- ing sand paper. Glass may be converted into soluble silicate of potash by fusion with its weight of potash or soda in a crucible. GLAUBER'S SALT. Sulphate of soda. A saline purge used for horses and cattle. The dose is one quarter of a pound or more. GLAUCOLITE. A mineral, containing four and one-half per cent potash, with sUioa, alumina, and eleven per cent lime. GLAUCOMA. A disease of the eye, in which it becomes of a bluish color. GLAUCOPIS. A genus of passerine birds. Some of the species have wattles at the root of the beak. GLAUCOUS. Sea-green, like the cabbage- leaf, having a light, bluish tint. GLEANING. Collecting the refuse of the harvest. GLEBE. A tract of land belonging to the church. GLEDITSCHIA. (See Locust.) GLKNOID. The articular cavities of bones. GLIADINE. A name given by Taddei to the portion of gluten soluble in alcohol. Albumen. GLIRES. The Linnean name for Rodentia, from glis, a dormouse. GLOBULAR. Spherical. Globose, resembling a sphere or globe. GLOBULINE. A rather indefinite term used by botanists to describe spherical particles in plants, whether they be of coloring matter or starch. In physiology, it is the white albumin- ous substance forming the interior of the blood globules. GLOMERATE GLAND. Any gland which discharges at once into a duct without having any cavity. GLUTEN 404 GLYCERINE GLOMERULUS. A small capitulum, usually axillary, an old name for an inflorescence. "Wlien many branches terminate by little flower heads. GLOSS ANTHKAX. (See Blain.) GLOSSO. A prefix to muscles, nerves, etc., attached to the tongue. GLOTTIS. ''The upper opening of the wind- pipe. It is protected with a membrane called ' the epiglottis. GLUCINUM. The metallic base of glucina, a rare earth, existing in the beryl, emerald, and euclase. GLUCOSE. Grape sugar, starch sugar, sugar of diabetes, of lioney. It is difficult to crystallize ; exists in fruits, young stems; is readily ferment- able ; can be procured from starch by the action of dilute sulphuric acid and heat. It differs from cane sugar in containing more water. GLUE. Lat. gluten. Is prepared from the chippings of hides, hoofs, etc. The refuse mat- ter of the glue-makers, according to Mr. Miles, is an excellent manure for turnips. macaroni and vermicelli. There is generally more gluten in the wheat of warm climates than of cold ; heace the excellence of that grown in the south of Europe for the manufactures just mentioned. Gluten seems also to constitute the essential part of yeast. Its uses as a varnish, a ground for paint, etc., pointed out by Cadet, likewise deserve attention. Gluten was discov- ered in 1743 by Beccaria, an Italian philosopher, to whom we are indebted for the first analysis of wheat floiu-. The number of plants containing gluten is very considerable. Proust found it in acorns, chestnuts, rice, barley, rye, peas and beans, and in apples and quinces. He found it also in the leaves of the cabbage, cress, hemlock, borage, saffron, etc., and in the sedums; in the berries of the elder, the grape, etc. ; in the petals of the rose, etc. Gluten has been shown to resem- ble albumen so closely that they can hardly be con- sidered as distinct principles. Gluten contains nitrogen, and has, consequently, been called the vegeto-animal principle, on this account. It yields CASHMERE GOAT. GLUME. The husk or chaff of wheat and grain plants. The awn is called an arista. Olu- mosus, furnished with glumes. ■ GLU'I'jEUS. The name of some of the mus- cles of the buttocks. GLUTEN. Lat. The viscid elastic substance which remains when wheat flour is wrapt in a coarse cloth, and washed under a stream of water, so as to carry off the starch and soluble matters. Gluten, when pure, is inodorous, insipid, tena- cious, adhesive, and elastic. It is insoluble in water, but soluble in hot alcohol. It is also sol- uble in a dilute solution of potash. "When kept moist and warm, it ferments. Gluten exists in grains, and occasionally in other parts of veget- ables ; but it is a characteristic ingredient in wheat, giving wheat flour its particular toughness and tenacity, which particularly fits it for the manu- facture of bread, and for viscid pastes, such as ammonia, when suhjected to destructive distilla- tion; and the vegetables which contain it give out a peculiarly disagreeable odor during their putrefaction. JI. Magendie, after feeding ani- mals upon different kinds of food, states that gelatine, fibrin, albumen, when taken singly, do not possess the power of nourishing animals for any length of time; they always die. The reverse is the case, however, with gluten, upon which animals thrive well and long. GLYCEKIA FLUITANS. Water fescue, an Indigenous grass growing on the margins of lakes and rivers, resembling the water rice. GLYCERINE. A gelatinous body of a sweet taste. It acts as a base in fats and oils, which are indeed salts of glycerine, stearates, oleates, or margarates, of that body. In soap-making the potash'or soda combines with the oily acid, and separates the glycerine. GOAT 405 GOAT GLTCODEN. This is a term generally applied to animal starch, so-called, discovered by Vir- chow. He found it in generated liver and spleen ; also in diseased kidneys, brain granula- tions, and concretions of the prostate gland. He says such tissues assume a reddish-brown, or more rarely a dirty brov?n violet color, where treated with tincture of iodine; when treated with oil of vitriol and iodine in succession, the granulations acquire a green color, changing to a dirty violet or sometimes blue. GLVCYRRHIZA. The generic name of licorice. GLYCYRRHIZINE. Glyoion. Sugar ex- tracted from licorice and some sweet woods ; it has the peculiarity of combining with acids and bases. It is neither crystallizable nor ferment- able. GLYPH. In architecture, a vertical groove. GNATHIDIA. In ornithology, the lateral parts or rumi of the mandible or lower jaw, some mountainous sections of Europe and Asia, it is different. Large flocks .are kept, not only for their milk, but especially for the manufacture of cheese. This is especially true of Switzerland. In Mexico and New Mexico large numbers are kept. In some portions of Texas, and in Cali- fornia, they are more or less foflnd. In Alpine regions where subsistence may scarcely be had for cattle, the goat may eventually find a place in the United States. Such, however, has not yet been the case with the exceptions named. Here and there a goat is kept about stables for their supposed (?) good effect on the health of the horses. Of the other varieties of goats in- troduced into the United States, at different times, there has been great confusion of names. Thus, it has been said, the Cashmere, Persian, Angora, and Circassian goats are the same, only modified by altitude where raised. This is undoubtedly a mistake. The foregoing cut exiubits the Cashmere goat. The Cashmere and ROCKY MOUNTAIN GOAT. which are joined to the cranium behind, and meet in front at a greater or less angle. GNATHOTHECA. In ornithology, the horny or cutaneous integument of the beak. GNATS. Insects of the family Ciiliclclfi'. Their bites are best treated with lard or olive oil, mixed with a little ammonia. GNEISS. A stratified primary rock, com- posed of the same materials as granite, but the mica is somewhat distributed in layers, which give it a striped aspect. The gneiss rocks are remarkably rich in metallic ores. GNOMON. The inclined rod or style on a Bun-dial, the shadow of which marks the time. Their elevation depends upon the latitude. Gno- monics is the art of constructing dials. GOAT. As a food animal, neither the com- mon goat or its kids are much esteemed in the United States. As for their milk, we seldom see them kept, except occasionally for the use of invalids. In many countries however, as in Thibet goats are the same, and in their native country are said to yield only about three ounces of the precious down per fleece, of which the costly Cashmere shawls are made. In France the introduction of the Cashmere goat in 1819 did not prove profitable, the yield of down being too small. In 1832 a cross was made between the Cashmere and Angora goat, which brought the yield of down from three ounces to thirt}'-three ounces per fieece^ In 1849 the first introduction of Cashmere goats was made into the South. Other imporlations into other States have followed, notably to New York and California. They are now found in nearly every State in the Union, principally through their crosses on the common female goat. They are hardy even in Wisconsin, yet they have not proved profitable to their owners, even in mountain districts, and their breeding has pretty much been abandoned, except in some portions of the South, Utah, and California. Above GOLD THREAD 406 GOOSE is shown the wild species of the United States, Aplocerus Montanvs, tlie illustration being repro- duced from a cut of an animal captured in Montana. They are shy, seldom seen and scarcely ever captured alive, but seem well fitted to defend themselves against such car- nivorous animals as they may meet in their native haunts, yet it never fights if it be possible to escape by flight. GOAT'S BREAD. Trayopogon pratensia Sal- sify {T. pomfolius) is sometimes so called. GOLD. Gold coin may always be proved, if any counterfeit be suspected, b}' its great gravity of 17.157. Pure gold has a specific gravity of TOULOUSE GODSE. 19.3; the reduced weight of the coin is due to the alloy. Aqua Regia is the .solvent of gold. GOLDEN ROBIN. (See Oriole.) GOLDEN ROD. SdMago virfimirea. A com- mon weed, found on poor neglected fields. Both the flowers and leaves produce a yellow decoction with water. GOLD OF PLEASURE. Camelina saiiva. A cruciferous small ^nnual, bearing pale yellow flowers. It is cultivated like flax, prefers a light soil, and will yield two crops in the year ; the seeds yield a sweet oil, and ripens in about ninety days. Called also False Flax. GOLD THREAD. Coptis irifolia. A small evergreen, indigenous to Canada and the Eastern States. It grows in dark, shady, Alpine swamps. The root is tonic. HOMPHOSIS. In anatomy, a juncture of bones similar to that of the teeth in the jaw bone. GONIOMETER. An instrument to measure the angles of crystals. GON YS. In ornithology, the inferior margin of the symphysis (union of bones by cartilage, etc.) of the lower jaw. GOOSE. Anser. Of the eight sub-varieties of the goose family supposed to have descended from three distinct wild species, the common gray or white goose, the Bremen or Embden, and the Toulouse, ai-e supposed to have come from the gray-legged goose (Anser ferus), still found wild in the north of Europe. The following is a condensed account of some of the principal breeds of geese generally disseminated. The Bremen is a large, pure white goose, with brick-red legs and bill, first brought to this country from Bremen, in Holland. In England they are called Emb- den, from a town of the same name in Holland, where theirs were first obtained. They are said to be extensively bred in Geimany and 1 russia, and probably Austria. These geese are very large, weighing from twenty-two to twenty-six pounds, live weight, and occasionally full thirty pounds when in high flesh, as seen at exhibitions, and though so large, they are well propor- tioned, hardy, healthful, and very showy. They are quiet and peaceable, and take on flesh very i apidly with extra feed. They also supply a su- perior quality of feathers in very large quantity. The fe- male lays about the same num- ber 'of eggs as the common goose, but usually commences much earlier in the spring. The Toulouse constitutes the third sub-variety, and was brought to this coiintiy from the south of France. It is dis- tinguished from the common gray goose by the uniformity urd constancy of its color, wliith is alike in both sexes, and daiker than in the com- mon goose, and by its very large size being as heavy as the best bred Bremen. They are rather short-legged, have round, compact bodies, and a large development of the ab- dominal pouch, which, in the common goose, is a mark of considerable age, but commences its appear- ance in this variety when but a few months old. Like the Bremen, they lay early in the spring, are very quiet, fatten readily, and have excellent flesh. Our common geese cross freely with the Bremen and the Toulouse, the first cross yielding birds nearly or quite as large as either parent, but the results of the cross rapidly degenerate by breeding among themselves. To keep up the size, the cross birds should be bred to one of the larger geese. The cross between the Bremen and the Toulouse is even larger than either parent, but deteriorates by breeding-in. The time of incubation of these three varieties is from twenty eight to thirty days. The continents of GOOSE 407 GOOSE Asia and Africa have furnished us with the next family of geese, consisting of four sub-varielies, three of wliich are called China geese, while the fourth is known by the name of African or Hong Kong. These are all specifically, if not gener- ically, distinct from those previously described. They are all distinguished by a largef knob or excrescence on the lop of the bill next the head, that increases with age ; beak strong and high ridged ; their attitudes graceful and swan-like on the water, but stiff and usually quite erect on land; voices harsh, loud, and frequent; while their wings and tails are short, rendering it dif- ficult for them to fly. Time of incubation, thirty-three to thirty-five days. There is gener- ally great dissimilarity in size, the ganders being much larger than their mates. The three strains denominated Chinese geese are named the red- legged, the black-legged, and the white Chinese goose. The first two have dark gray or brown plumage covering the wings, back, and shoul- ders, the longitudinal stripe on the back of the neck almost black, while the front of the neck, breast, and flanks are fawn color, and the under and hind parts grayish white. In the red-legged, the bill, knob, and legs are red, while these parts are black in the black-legged, and this variety has usually a narrow white stripe surrounding the feather side of the knob. These brown CMnas are both beautiful little birds, the ganders being about the size of the common kind, wliile the geese are smaller. The white Chinese goose is considerably larger than the brown kinds, less erect, a long, thin neck, bright orange-colored bill with large projecting knob, and legs but a little darker. It is often called the White Swan goose. All the Chinese geese are excellent layers, producing about twice as many eggs annually as com- mon geese, commencing laying very early in the season. The fourth Mud, usually called African or Hong Kong, is colored the same as the brown Chinas, with bill, knob, and legs a dull black, while in size it has no superior. It is also distin- guished by a large fold of loose skin under the throat that increases with age, called the dew-lap. The Ameri- can wild goose (Aimej- Canadenm) is too well known to need a descrip- tion. It is a, distinct species. In a state of domestication the female does not breed until two 3'ears old. The gander will mate with the common goose, but their young are mules, and will not breed. Some flocks in the country are so thoroughly domesticated that they do not require to be pinioned, tliough it is generally safer to remove the first joint when young. There are several jjurely fancy varieties of geese that are kept to some extent, as the Barnacle goose, the White Canada or Hudson Bay goose, the Brant or Brent goose, the White- fronted or Laughing goose, the Bean goose, and the Egyptian goose. It should be known that _geese may be profitably kept on any farm where there is a pond or running stream of water, and plenty of grass range in summer; on this they will pretty much get their living. Where more confined they soon kill the grass by biting close, tramping, and especially from their dung. At night they must have a clean, dry piece of ground upon which to rest, and in winter their quarters must be both dry and warm. The late C. N. Bement, who gave much attention to geese and other farm fowls, wrote upon their management, from which we extract: In selecting a situation for a goose-house or pen, all damp must be avoided ; for geese, however much they may like to swim in water, are fond at all times of a clean, dry place to sleep in. It is not good to keep geese with other poultiy ; for when confined in the poultry-yard they become very quarrelsome, harass and injure the other fowls; therefore it is best to erect low sheds, with nests partitioned off, of suitable size, to accommodate them; and there should never be over eight under one roof; the large ones generally beat the smaller, in which case they should, of course, be fcpnrated, one from the other, by partitions extending out E.^lBDEN GOOSE. some distance from the nests. Nests for hatch- ing should be made of fine straw, of a circular shape, and so arranged that the eggs can not fall out when the goose turns them. From thirteen to fifteen will be as many as a large goose can conveniently cover. The ganders remain near when sitting, and seem to watch them as a kind of sentinel ; and woe be to man or beast that dares approach them. They seem very anxious to see the young ones, that are to be born, make their appearance. Incubation lasts from twenty - eight to thirty days, and not two months, as some state, and the goose should have water placed near her, and be well fed as soon as she comes off the nest, that she may not be so long absent as to allow the eggs to cool, which might cause her to abandon her task. After twenty-eight or twenty-nine day's incubation, the goslings begin. GOOSE 408 GOOSE but frequently at an interval of from twenty -four to forty-eight hours, to chip tlie shell. Like turkey chickens, goslings must be taken from under the mother, lest, if feeling the young ones under her, she might perhaps leave the rest of the tardy brood still unhatehed. After having separated them from her, they must be kept in a basket, lined with wool and covered with cloth ; and when the whole of the eggs are hatched, may be returned to the mother. The male seems to evince the same solicitude for the young as the mother, and will lead and take equal care of them. ' On the second day after they are hatched they may be let out after the dew is off, if the weather is warm, but care must be taken not to expose them to the scorching rays of the sun, way and succeeded well. Grass seems to be their natural food, and by following nature in all cases with dumb animals, and more especially with fowls, we have generally succeeded best. After they are three or four weeks old they may be turned out into a field or lane containing water. If their range is extensive they must be looked after, as the goose is apt to drag the gos- lings until they become cramped or tired, some of them squatting down and remaining at even- ing, and are seen no more. After the goslings are pretty well feathered they are too large to be brooded under the mother's wings, and will sleep in gi'oups by her side, and must be supplied with good and renewed straw to sit on, which will be converted into excellent manure. Being now WILD GOOSEBBRRY. ■which might kUl them. All authors seem to agree on the proper food to be given them, which is coarse barley meal, bruised oats, bran, crumbs ofbread soaked in milk or curdled milk, lettuce leaves chopped fined, or crusts of bread boiled in milk. In this country Indian meal moistened with water is generally given; but in our experi- ence we have found it too laxative, and to counteract the effect we have moistened it with boiled milk, and occasionally added chives chop- ped fine. It is our opinion, however, that more goslings are killed by over-feeding than by starv- ing. A person who is curious in thi se affairs informed us that he had been most successful when he let the goslings shift for themselves, if the pasture was good. "We tried a brood that able to frequent the pond and range the common at large, the young geese will obtain their own living; and if favorably situated, nothing more need he allowed them excepting the vegetable produce of the garden. We have, however,, found it a good practice to feed a moderate quantity of solid food to the young and store geese, by which means they are kept in a grow- ing and fleshy state, and attain a larger size ; the yriung ones are also forward and valuable for breedmgstock. Besides, feeding them, especially in the evening, on tlieir return, attaches, them to their home. In relation to the diseases of geese, colds and fogs are extremely against geese ^ therefore, when young, care should be taken not to let them out but in fair weather, when thej GOOSEBERRY 409 GOOSEBERRY can go to their food without a leader. They are particularly subject to two diseases; the first a looseness, or diarrhoea, for which Main recom- mendg hot wine in whicli the parings of quinces, acorns, or juniper berries are boiled. The second is like a giddiness, which makes them turn round for some time; they then fall down and die, if they are not relieved in time. The remedy recom- mended by Main is to bleed the bird with a pin or needle, by piercing a rather prominent vein situ- ated under the skin which separates the claws. Another scourge to goslings are little insects which get into their ears and nostrils, which fatigue and exhaust them; they then walk with their wings hanging down, and shaking their heads. The relief proposed is to give them on their return from the fields, some corn at the bot- tom of a vessel full of clear water; in order to eat it, they are obliged to plunge their heads in the water, which compels the insects to fly and leave their prey. It is the same with the goose, says Main, as with every other bird that is fattened up; that moment must be laid hold of, when tliej' come to a complete plumpness, or they soon get lean and die if they are not killed. Meal and skimmed milk will soon do the business; after ranging in the gram stubbles but little else will be required. These are called green geese, and are most esteemed by the epicure; they will then be about six weeks old, tender and fine. Steamed potatoes, with four quarts of ground buckwheat or oats to the bushel, mashed up with the potatoes, and given warm, it is said, will render geese, cooped in a dark place, fat enough in three weeks. The French method of fattening consists in ijluck- ing the feathers from under the belly ; in giving them abundance of food and drink, and in coop- ing them up more closely than is practiced with common fowls ; cleanliness and quiet being, above all, indispensable. The best time is in the month of November, or when the cold weather begins to set in. When there are but a few geese to fat- ten, they are put in a cask, in which holes have been bored, and through which they thrust their heads to get their food; but as this bird is vora- cious, and as with it hunger is stronger than love of liberty, it is easily fattened, provided they are abundantly supplied with the wherewithal to swallow. The Romans considered the liver of the goose a great dainty, and to increase its size they fed them sixteen days on a paste of Turkey figs, stamped and beaten up with cream; their livers would thus be brought to table, each weigh- ing three or four pounds. Equal parts of the meal of oats, rye and peas, mixed with skimmed milk, form an excellent feeding article for geese and ducks. The grand object of preparing, not geese only, but all kinds of poultry for market in as short a time as possible, is effected solely by paying unremitting attention to their wants ; in keeping them thoroughly clean, in supplying them with dry, soft, and green food, water, exer- cise ground, etc. They should be fed three times a day. GOO.SEBERRY. The original plant of the cultivated Gooseberrry of Europe is said to be Ribes uva-ciispa. It is found wild quite plenti- fully, and sometimes side by side with the culti- vated varieties, also run wild from gardens. In England many varieties of the cultivated fruit are known, but in the United States bui few varieties of the English gooseberry can be grown on account of the tendency of the fruit to mildew. In the West this disposition to mil- dew is so great that their cultivation is not attempted, except occasionally in the gardens of amateurs, who are sometimes rewarded with a fair crop for their care and pains. On the other hand our small native variety, improved by cul- tivation and selection from seed, may be grown GOOSKBEEKT SPAN WOKM. in every garden, on account of their freedom from mildew. The principal varieties are Amer- ican seedling Downing's seedling, Houghton's seedling, and Mountain seedling originated from the wild gooseberry of the United States, Eibes hiiieUiim. a cut of which is given. The bushes of our native varieties should be planted four by EUROPEAN CURRAMT SAW FLY. four feet or, better, five by three and a half feet, for ease in cultivation. All that is required is to keep the plantation free from weeds, the super- abundant wood to be cut away each fall. This, with the addition of a dressing of compost each autumn, will ensure uniform crops of fruit. The GOOSEFOOT 410 GOPHER cultivation of ttie European varieties is identical with the last, except, that the soil should have a slight dressing of salt each year. The spaces between the rows and about the plants should also be heavily mulched, since it has been found that mulch is a preventive of mildew. If mil- dew attacks the fruit, dusting with sulphur when the dew is on is one of the best remedies. The insects attacking the gooseberry feed also on the currant. In the article Currant Worm, we have given some of these. The principal species not given there are as follows : The Goosebeiry Span worm, more generally called the Currant Span worm (see cut); a, b, larvse, c, pupa, should not be confounded with the Saw fly given below. The perfect insect is a small moth, while the Saw fly is a two- winged fly. The Span worm, spins down when • disturbed, and either of the species should be care- fully hand picked. The egg, enlarged at a, and natural size at b, is also shown. The Span worm appears with the first leaves, while the Saw fly comes in May and June. EGO OF GoosEBERBY SPAN On page 409 arc cuts of WORM. EuropeanSawfly, a, male, ft, female; the cross lines showing natural size. Below is given cut of the Native Saw fly and larva. The larva of the European species is much iafger. The larvae of the native species. NATIVE SAW FLY. according to the late Dr. Walsh, are grass green worms, half an inch long with black heads, the heads becoming green after the last molt, but with a lateral brown stripe meeting with the opposite one on top of the head, where it is more or less confluent. They spin their cocoons on the bushes on which they feed, and the fly appearing about two or three weeks after, or about the mid- dle of August in the North. The larva of the imported Haw fly is larger, distinctly spined, and covered with minute warts, which the native worm does not have. Many persons use Paris Green and London Purple for dusting both cur- rant and gooseberry bushes to kill the worms. It should never be allowed on plants bearing fruit above ground after the fruit is set. White hellebore powder, however, is innocent to human life, and an effectual insecticide. GOOSEBERRY MIDGE. (See Midge.) GOOSEBERRY WINE. (See Gallizing.) GOOSEBERRY WORM. (See Currant Worm and Gooseberry.) GOOSEFOOT. The goosefoot family {cTwno- podium) is named from its more or less cleft leaves, somewhat resembling a goose's foot. The more common and best known is the pig weed or lamb's quarter (0. album) sometimes u.sed as greens. Another variety is the maple-leaved goose foot (C hybridvm) a common weed with a heavy odor of stramonium. A southern variety, the so-called Mexican tea (C. ambrosiotdei), £pd, as stated by Gray, the variety (C. aniJielminiicum). the latter known as wormseed, are both well known as vermifuges. The varieties of this genus are all comparatively worthless, and should be eradicated wherever found. GOOSE GRASS. Several species of Galium are so-called from being eaten by geese. GOPHER. The stnped and spotted squirrel found all over the West is incorrectly called Gopher. The gray squirrel of the prairies is also sometimes confounded with this species. The two-pouched gopher (Gemys bursa/rius) is entirely distinct, and, where it abounds, so destructive as to call forth the most persistent efforts from the farmer in its destruction. The true gopher is found in some parts of Indiana, Michigan and Wisconsin. South and east of the Illinois river it is abundant, but between the Illinois river and the Mississippi it is comparatively rare. In Missouri, Iowa, parts of Kansas, Nebrad^ and in Minnesota it is common. So, also, it is found in the valley of the Red river of the North up to Pembina. Its true habitat is on the prairie, where there are abundance of roots upon which it can feed. The late Robert Kennieott describes their manner of excavating burrows as follows : On the wild prairie the gopher throws up a mound of earth of considerable size, frequently ten feet in diameter and from one and a half to two feet in height, being highest in the low ground liable to inundation. In this mound is his nest, in which the young are bred, and from it endless galleries are excavated in various direc- tions, a foot or two below the surface. These are complicated, frequently intersecting and run- ning together, and, in short, forming a complete network of underground roads thi'ough which these strange animals can travel for miles. In digging them the gophers run up shafts at irreg- ular intervals from two to ten feet apart, wliich open to the surface usually a little at one side of the main gallery, and from each of these side cuts they throw out the earth brought from the main gallery below, to the amoimt of from a quart to one or more bushels, and thus form little piles of earth by which the general course of the burrow may be traced. They have a remarkable antipathy to the light, and these side cuts are usually closed again with earth after they have served their flret purpose; and, if a hole be opened into any part of the burrow, it is closed as soon as observed by the inmates. Only a portion of the earth taken by the gopher from his main highway is earned to the surface, much of it being used in filling the side cuts, into which it is packed, sometimes even more closely than the surrounding soil, and in digging about their burrows I have thus been able to trace these cuts. The galleries are also apparently enlarged by pressing aside the earth. These are of greater dimensions than would seem necessary for the accommodation of an animal of this size. The main galleries are about four inches in diameter, and the side cuts from two to three inches. I am informed that, in digging wells, shafts have been found sunk by gophers to a depth of ten or twelve feet, with water at the bottom. The opinion of those who have observed such holes OOPHER 411 GRADATORY usually is, that they are dug so as to procure water. The proper food of the gopher consists of roots, which are usually obtained without leaving his underground roads. Though he sometimes «omes to the surface to feed upon the leaves and ^eeds of plartts, this does not appear to be his principal means of subsistence. The manner in which he naturally procures food is by approach- ing it from below, without coming above ground at all. H« lays up stores, apparently at all sea- sons. Considerable quantities of the roots of the rosin- weed (Silpliium laciniatwm), wild arti- choke, or wild sunflower {Helianthus), spike flower (Liatria), and various other plants, are collected in its burrows on the prairies; while, in cultivated fields, the roots of the grasses, pota- toes, and other vegetables, are found in its holes. Wherever they exist on cultivated land, the gophers are very injurious. ISTo animal is more complained of by our prairie farmers. Scarcely a crop escapes their ravages. They desert the wild prairie to inhabit cultivated hay-flelds; and they particularly delight in clover and timothy meadows. Here they not only do mischief by devouring the roots of the plants, but impede the mowing and raking of the haj', by inequali- ties of surface caused by their mounds. Grain fields are much injured by them while the plants are growing; and, when the stacks are left standing after harvest, the gophers burrow from below, and frequently cut up and drag into their holes, or otherwise completely destro}^ entire sheaves. All root-crops suffer severely from them. In passing below the surface, they gnaw ■off the bottom of carrots, beets, turnips, and other tap-rooted vegetables, without disturbing the tops or coming above ground. In fields of common and? sweet potatoes, they work under the hills and remove the tubers, and thus some- times destroy half or more of the crop before the dying vines give evidence of the mischief. Instances are related in which potato heaps, covered with earth and. left out during winter, have been entered by the gophers and the tubers carried off. They sometimes enter melons, pumpkins, and squashes, through holes at the bottom, and eat out all the fleshy part, and then fill the hollow rind with earth, leaving it in a condition to create much astonishment when harvested. They also feed upon the bark of the roots of trees, as well as upon the fle.shy roots of herbaceous plants. Some farmers are gi'eatl}' injured by their destruction of Osage Orange hedges. No small item of their injury is the gnawing and cutting off the roots of fruit-trees. A considerable portion of all the trees have been killed annually in some young orchards in Iowa and Illinois; and several fruit-growers inform me that thay have seen as many as a dozen large bearing apple-trees killed by them in a single orchard. Forest trees, six or eight inches in diameter, have died in consequence of their roots being cut. Trapping is the most successful mode adopted for capturing this animal. A hole being opened into a gallery known to be traveled by him, a small steel trap, covered slightly with loose earth, is placed in the track, in such a posi- tion that, when he comes to shut out the unwel- come light, he must unavoidably be caught. It is not necessary to bait a trap thus used. The gopher can very readily be poisoned by strych- nine or arsenic "in pieces of vegetables placed in .their burrows, as is sometimes practiced with the California species. There could be no danger attending this, and the probability is that the method would be highly successful. In Georgia and Florida, another species of this genus (Oeiiiy.i pineiis) is found, where it is known under the name of Salamander, whereas a terra- pin, or fresh-water turtle, is tailed gopher. The pouched rat of Arkansas is also called Salaman- der. The name gopher is derived from the appellation of gauffre, given these animals by the Canadian voyageurs. It is stated that, on the Upper Missouri, they are sometimes called mulos. Twelve species of gophers inhabiting tlie United States are described in Baird's General Report on Mammals in the Pacific Railway Survey. Of these, only the present species and that of Florida are found east of the Mississippi. The Californian species (Oemys buMwiiis) is even more destructive than the eastern gopher. GOSS YPIUM. The generic name of the cotton plant. GOULARD'S EXTRACT. A concentrated solution of sugar of lead in water; it is used, diluted, as an application to galls and external inflammations. GOURD. Cucurbita lagenavia. Calabash. Annuals readily cultivated, requiring a deep soil. Many varieties exist. The pulp is purga- tive in most varieties. GOVERNOR. In machinery, an arrangement for regulating the speed of machines. GRACILE. GRACILIS,. Slender GRACKLE. The purple or crow blackbird. It has the reputation of being one of the greatest pests of the Western fanner. In regions where they flock, after nesting time, they undoubtedly do extensive mischief to the ripening grain, espec- ially to oats, and later to com. The remedy, however, is not difBcrdt: Three or four days persistent shooting, especially early in the morn- ing when they are flocking out, and at evening as they are returning to their roosts, will send them to other feeding grounds. At all other seasons of the year they are indefatigable hunters of the seeds of weeds, and in the breeding season, of insects. It is still an open question among farm- ers whether they do more injury than benefit. It is more than probable that to tlie farmer they are of more benefit than injury. The red-winged black bird is far more destructive to grain, and the Grackle is often confounded wth this bird when young, their size and plumage then being similar to the ordinary observer. The red- winged species is quite destructive in new settle- ments, sometimes so much so, during the ripening of small grain, and later, of corn, that organized efforts must be made by shooting or otherwise driving them away, in order to save the crops. The generic name of the Boat-tailed Blackbird of the Southern States is Qiiixcahni major, found near the sea coast, on the streams . Q. TersicoUrr is the Purple Grackle or Crow Blackbird of the North, and Q. ferrncjinus, is the Rusty Blackbird of the North ; both of the latter migrating to the South in the winter. GRACULA. The genus of jay birds. They are insectivorous. GRADATORY. A term applied to those animals which have legs nearly of the same length, so that they can walk on the four. Birds which have the lower por*ion of their legs covered with feathers. GRAFTING 413 GRAFTING GRADE CATTLE. Grade cattle may be defined as the descendents of any pure breed crossed upon the native or mixed breeds of a country. In the mixed farming of the older settled States the three purposes of beef, milk, and workinn' cattle are desired. Hence the grades are made up of Short-horn or Hereford bloodf or, beef, of Devon or Hereford for working cattle, and of Dutch, Ayrshire, or Jersey, bred with the native cattle of the region, according as beef, labor, or milk is desired. In the vicinity of large cities, where large quantities of fresh milk is consumed, the Ayrshire and Holstein (Dutch) cattle are much used, while, when quality and not quantity of milk is espec- ially desired, the Jerseys are the favorites. The adaptation of grades to the wants of the com- munity, therefore, determines the breed to be used. In New England, New York, Pennsyl- vania, and northern Ohio, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Iowa, and other dairying sections the milk breeds predominate, the old style Short-horns forming the basis of the stock worked upon. In all the more settled grazing regions of the coun- try the Short-horns predominate, though of late years, from their fine constitutions, early matur- ity, and superior beef, the Herefords have successfully competed, and, since 1876, large numbers of Short-horn and Hereford bulls have been shipped to the immense grazing grounds east of the Rocky Mountains and the great valleys interlaced within the Rocky Mountains, for the purpose of breeding grades for the eastern and European markets. Grade Short-horns and Herefords have been fed to a weight of 3,500 pounds, live weight, and at the stock yards at Chicago it is not unusual to find many that will average from 1,800 to 3,000 pounds. GrKADIENTS. On railways, the ascending planes. GRADUATED. Marked into regular divis- ions ; increasing in equal measures, as a scale for weighing quantities. GRAFTING. Grafting is the uniting of a shoot or scion containing one or more buds to a stock or root with a view, by their union, to produce a superior fruit upon the inferior stalk. There are a number of ways of grafting, cleft grafting being the mode usually adopted. This is simply splitting a stock, first sawed off square, and inserting on each side a scion tapered down to a thin, wedge-shape, with a sharp knife, so the inner bark of the scion and stock will just meet. To insure this meeting at some point the top of the graft is sometimes carried in slightly. The whole • is then covered with grafting wax to exclude moisture and air, and the grafts usually take kindly, if the grafting be done at the right season of the year, that is in the sprmg before the leaves appear. Root grafting is performed in precisely the same manner as stock grafting pieces of root being used as the stock. This may be done late in winter, the roots having been carefully saved in moist earth in a cool cellar for this purpose. The grafts may be cut any time in mild weather in winter, tied in small bundles, and kept in moist sand until wanted. The only tools for grafting, on tlie farm, is a sharp, panel saw, a keen pocket knife, for paring the stocks and sharpening the grafts, a butcher knife, and a mallet for splitting the stocks, and grafting wax for spreading over the mutilated parts. Saddle gi'afting is used only fitted accurately with stocks of a size corresponding nearly with that of the grafts. The accompanying cuts will show this manner of graft- ing ; n being stock and graft pared to fit each other, b showing the same united. Sometimes the stock is sim- ply pared to a thin wedge and the scion simply split and wedged on, but this is a vei-y crude and shift- less way of operating. In either of the operations of grafting described the whole- exposed surface should be well waxed with grafting wax, to keep out water. An- other common mode of grslf ting is by approach, or in arching, as it is termed. A modification of this is practiced where the bark of a valuable tree has been in- jured or gnawed by mice. The injury is pared smooth at the edges of the bark down to the live wood, and a piece of healthy bark thereto, and covered with grafting wax until it is healed; or scions set close together and brought fresh bark to fresh bark at top and bottom, and securely fastened. Dr. Warder, in American Pomology, in rela- tion to grafting old orchards, and upon root grafting, writes: Old orchards of inferior fruit may be entirely re- made and re-formed by graft- ing the limbs with such varieties as we may desire. A new life is by this •process often infused into the trees, which is due to the very severe pruning which the trees then receive;, they are consequently soon covered with a vig- orous growth of young healthy wood, which replaces the decrepid and often decaying spray that accumulates in an old orchard, and the fruit produced for several years by the new growth is not only more valuable in kind, according to the judgment used in the selection of grafts, but it is more fair, smooth and. healthy, and of better size than that which was - previously furnished by the trees. Certain vari- eties are brought at once into bearing when thus top-grafted, which would have been long in. developing their fniitful condition if planted as nursery trees. Others are always better and finer when so worked, than on young trees. In renewing an old orchard by grafting its head, it will not be a good plan to attempt the whole tree at once; the pruning would be too severe, and would be followed by a profusion of succu- lent shoots breaking out from the large branches, such as are called water-sprouts. Those who- have practiced most, prefer at first, to remove about one-third of the limbs for grafting, andi those should be selected at the top of the tree. The new growth thus has an open field for its development, and the lower limbs will be invig- orated, while they tend also to preserve the equi- librium of the tree in a double sense, physically and physiologically. The next year another- third of the limbs may be grafted, and the- remainder the year following, as practiced by Mr. Geo. Olmstead, of Connecticut, who, on the- sixth year from the first grafting, harvested. GRAFTING 413 GRAFTING twenty-eight and one-half bushels of choice apples from a single tree that was seventy-five years > Id, and which before only produced infe- rior fruit. J. J. Thomas recommends to give a well-shaped head to such newly formed trees, and to prevent the branches from shooting upward in a close body near the center of the tree, that the old horizontal boughs should be allowed to extend to a distance in each direction, while the upright ones should be lopped. The same writer also advises, instead of cutting off large branches and grafting them at once, it is better to prune the top in part which will cause an emission of vigorous shoots. These are then eitl)er budded, or grafted. And as the grafts gradually extend by growth, the remainder of the top may, by successive excisions, be removed. The illustrations we give will show the series of operations in grafting in its various stages: « is a stick of buds ready for working; b, section of graft pared ; c, stock cleft and wedged open "with wooden wedge ; d, same, with graft inserted ; ■■ g. \g- V. T. g. g- g- T: F. M. T. T. M. TMW T. W. TMW T. T. TMW T. M. T. T. M. T. T. W, M. T. W. TMW T. T. M M.'W. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. m.r.o, m. 1. s. r. m.r.o, s. r. m. r. r. m.r.o s. r. 0, B. r. 1. r. g- g- g- V. g. g- g- g- V. g. V. g. g- g- V. g. b. V. g. F. M. F. M. M. W. T. M. W. T. M. T. T. M. W. T. M. TMW r. M. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. 1 Unreliable. 3 Too small. 5 Suited only to clayey loams and certain localities. 6 Hardy everywhere. 7 Succeeds everywhere. 8 Bunches loose. 9 A promising white variety. 10 Wants rich soil and high culture. 16 Liable to drop from the bundti. CtRAPE 421 GRAPE small. Form — with reference to bunch and berry; s. r., short bunch, round berry; 1. r., large and round; m. r. o., medium bunch, round: Ish oval berry; m. r., medium bunch, round berry. Color — b., black, or nearly so when fully ripe; r., reddish or coppery-brownish red; g., .greenish-white or yellowish. Quality — g., good; v. g.. very good; b., best. Use — T., table; M., market; W., wine. Season — E., early; M., medium; L., late. Origin — Am., American. * One star signifies doing well; ** two stars, ■doing very well ; -j- a dagger signifies on trial. -As the foreign grapes are for cultivation under glass, they are not subject to those variations induced by climate or soil, and therefore they may be regarded as equally adapted to all local- ities. Very few of the local committees have made any report in reference to these grapes. The^f below contains such as have been already adopted by the Society, with a few others very generally esteemed. In California, Utah, and sections of the Southern States, they require no artificial protection or heat ; it has, therefore, been thought unnecessary to tabulate the States and Territories relative to them ; but, taking the old catalogue, and simply adding to it a column relative to variety as adapted to a cold house, or its want of fire heat, in our Northern States, the old form is continued. The columns explain: 1st — The color of the fruit ; 2d — flavor ; 3d — sea- son of maturity; 4th — ^cold, for a variety that does well without fire heat — hot, for a variety GRAPES — NATIVE. NORTHERN DIVISION. Between 42° and 49°. Il.-CENTRAL DIVISION. Between 35° and 42°. III.— SOUTH. DIVISION. Between 28° and 35°. .o e o S > * * * * * ** 1 3 £3 O ^ ** * t * * * * t t * t * t § a 1 * * ** * ** * .* * * t * :3 a; a o o ** i- o as * * * * ** * t ** * ** # * * t t * + * * * t 6 % 1 * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * i S n 5 S o O J a i O -CI O So n O ** ** S '3 a > a * * ** * t * * * * * * * # * * * * t * >> £ 1-3 * ** * * * * * + 1 d * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * t * t * > * ** ■■ t * ** t ** * t 1 6 o * 6 1 ** * * ** * * * t * ** * t t c3 g i * * * t * * * * V t S > * ** * »* ** * »* ** * ** '+ *♦ B g *♦ * * ** ** * t * * ** * t * t * a a a ** ** * * * ** * ** ** # ** O o i * * * ** V * * * * * * * ** * i ?^ * * * ** * + ** * t * * * * * * t * * v t ta as a S3 * ** t * * t + * v t d o 8 + d * V * * t t * v t 03 e ea n 1 * * ** * * * * * ** * t ** * * * ** a a o 0) * * * * * ** * * ** * ** ** * * ft* * s S < * * * * * * ** * 03 O 3 S3 i ■33 3 o =H 1 03 < 1 2 3 4 5 ■6 T 8 9 ao 11 12 IS 14 15 16 17 18 19 ^0 21 .22 23 24 ■35 26 27 28 29 -30 ■31 -32 .33 34 35 36 37 * * * * ** * + * * * * * * * t * * * t * * + * * ** ** ** * * * * * t- + ** * * * ** V * * * * * ** * * * V + * * ** V ** ** * t ** ** ** * ** * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 17 Makes the finest of white wine. 18 Unreliable except in a few locations. 30 Valueless at the West. 21 Valued for dark wine. 26 Vines require age to give perfect fruit. 34 The more known the better Uked. GRAPE INSECTS 432 GRAPE insects; wanting Are heat. In flavor, the only distinction is between those that are simply sweet, as the Chasselas or Hamburgs, and those having a distinct musky aroma, as the Muscats. and winged, the latter very rare. The leaf -form is said to be always wingless. The wingless fe- male of the leaf-form lays, on an average, SOO- eggs, and sometimes 500. Thereare perhaps five> No. FOREIGN GRAPHS. BarbarOBsa (Prince Albert, Brizola.) Black Champion Black Damascus Black Frontiguan Black Hamburg Black Prince Black July Bowood Muscat Buckland Sweetwater Calabrian Raisin (Raisin de Calabre.) Cannon Ha'l Muscat Chasselas Musque, or Joslin's St. Albans (Muscat blanc Hative ?). Dae de Magenta Early Silver Frontignan Golden Hamburg (Sto"kwood G. Hombnrg.) Golden Champion Grizzly Pronti^an (Red Frontiguan, Red Constantia.) GrOB Colman Lady Downe's Seedling Muscat of Alexandria Muscat Hamburg Mrs. Pince's Black Muscat Queen of Nice Red Chassela'i (Rose Chasselas.) Red Lombardy Rio Virgin Royal Muscadine White Nicb West St. Peter's Wilmot's Black Hamburg (Dutch Hamburg.) White Sweetwater (Dutch Sweetwater.) White Frontignan (White Constantia, Muscat blanc.) Zinfindal , Color. Black. Black. Black. Black. Black. Black. Black. White. White. White. White. While. Black. White. White. Amber. Red St, Yellow. Purple. Black. White. Black. Black. White. Red. Red. White. White. Black. Black. White. White. Black. Flavor. Sweet. Sweet. Sweet. Muscat. Sweet. Sweet. Sweet. Muscat. Sweet. Sweet. Muscat. Muscat. Sweet. Muscat. Sweet. Sweet. Muscat. Sweet. Sweet. Muscat. Muscat. Muscat. Sweet. Sweet. Sweet. Sweet. Sweet. Sweet. Sweet. Muscat. Sweet. Very Late. Early. Late. Late. Medium. Medium. Early. Medium. Medium. Late. Late. Early. Early. Early. Late. Medium. Medium. Late. Very Late. Late. Medium. Late. Medium. Medium. Early. Late. Very Late. Medium. Early. Medium. Medium. Vinury. Hot. Cold. Cold. Cold. Cold. Cold. Cold. Hot. Cold.. Hot. Hot. Hot., Hot. Hot. Hot.. Hot. Hot, Cold.. Hot. Hot. Hot. Hot. Hot. Hot. Cold. Hot. Hot. Hot. Cold. Hot. Hot. GRAPE INSECTS. Grape vines are attacked by numerous insects, on leaf and root, and also by borers. The most devastating and dreaded of late years is the grape Phylloxera , which, having devastated the vineyards of France and other principal vine growing districts of Europe, are now giving vinegrowers in the United States, and especially in California, much trouble. This . insect is especially troublesome in the lighter classes of mucky soil and in loams. In mtty soils, or soils containing much sand, the Phyl- loxera is less dreaded. Dr. C. V. Riley, Chief of the Entomological Commission of the United States, has spent much valuable time in the care- ful investigation of this enemy of the vine, both in France and in the United States. A synopsis of his investigations will be accepted as correct and valuable both by the ocientific and the gen- eral reader. Extracts are from the report of the Commissioner in the United States Geological Survey, containing valuable matter in relation to the Rocky Mountain Locust, and other insects. This destructive insect was first found in this country, and was described by Dr. Fitch, in 1856, under the name of Pemphigus mtifolm. Its proper name is Phylloxera mtifolim, though most authoi's speak of it as Phylloxera umtairix. It exists in two forms, one raising irregular galls on the leaves, and the other forming small swellings on the rootlets. The root-form is both wingless generations in a year. This leaf -form produces^ round, irregular galls, sometimes as large as a pea, but it does little damage compared with the root-form, which is much more abundant than the leaf-form, especially on native vines, in France, where its ravages have been so alarming- that the French government has offered a re- ward of 300,000 francs for a simple available rem- edy. The leaf -form descends to the roots in the- autumn, and there hybernates. The larvse of the- root-f onn are at first smooth and like the young of the leaf -form, but afterward molt and become- warty, so as to become readily distinguishable- from them. Prof. Riley and certain French ob- servers have lately proved that the gall-producers, or the leaf -form, come from the impregnated or- winter egg. The winged females begin to ap- pear in July, but are most abundant in August, and September. Like the wingless females, they reproduce by budding (parthenogenesis), the eggs- not being fertilized by males, no males being ia existence. Having issued from the ground while- in the pupa state, they rise in the air, and spread to new vineyards, where they lay two or three, sometimes eight eggs. These eggs are of two- sizes; and, in about a fortnight, from the larger- eggs are hatched wingless true sexual females, and from the smaller eggs wingless males. The- abdomen of the female, after impregnation, en- larges somevfrhat, and she is soon delivered of ai. GRAPE INSECTS 423 GRAPE INSECTS solitary egg; which differs from the ordinary eggs of the parthenogenetic mother, only in becoming somewhat darker. Fig. 1, Type Oallmcola; a, b, newly-hatched larva, ventral and dorsal view; c, egg; d, section of gall; f, swelling of tendril; /, g, h, mother gall -louse, lateral, dorsal and ventral views ; i, her antenna ; j, her two-jointed tarsus. The figure on the side of each enlarged drawing represents the natural size. This impregnated egg gives birth to a young louse, which becomes a virginal, egg- bearing, wingless mother, and thus recommences the cycle of the species' evolution. But one of the most important discoveries of Balbiani is that, during the latter part of the season, many of the wingless, hypogean mothers perform the very same function as the winged ones; i. e., they lay a few eggs, which are of two sizes, and which produce males and females, organized and constructed precisely as those born of the winged females, and, like them, producing the solitary impregnated egg. Thus, the interesting fact is established that even the winged form is by no means essential to the perpetuation of the spe- cies; but that, if all such winged individuals were destroyed as fast as they issue from the ground, the species could still go on multiplying in a vineyard from year to year. We have, there- fore, the spectacle of an underground insect, pos- sessing the power of continued existence, even when contined to its subterranean retreats. It spreads in the wingless state from vine to vine, and from vineyard to vineyard, when these are adjacent, either through passages in the ground itself or over the surface ; at the same time it is able, in the winged condition to migrate to much more distant points. Fig. 3, Type (root-form) Radkimlii; a, roots of Clinton vine, showing the relation of swellings to leaf -galls, and power of resisting decomposition; b. larva, as it appears when hybernating; c, rf, antenna and and leg of the same; e,f, g, forms of more mature lice; /(, granulations of skin; i, tubercle;^', transverse folds at border of joints; k, simple eyes. The solitary egg above referred to is the winter egg. As autumn advances, the winged individuals become more and more scarce, and only eggs, newly -hatched larvae, and a few wingless, egg- bearing mothers are seen. The latter are said to die during the winter, and consequently the spe- cies in winter is represented by the larvae and a few eggs. In spring the larvas molt their winter coat, and, after attaining matu- rity, lay eggs. The eggs laid by the winged females are placed in the down of the leaf of the vine, but more commonly in the earth around the roots. Fig. 3, Type (root-form) Madicicola; u,, b, pupa and imago of a problematic individual, or supposed male; c, d, its antenna and leg; e, ■\'esicles found in the abdomen. As to remedies, one hundred and forty have already been pro- posed in France, but_^ none are infallible. The best general remedy is flooding the vineyards in autumn or winter. The best specific applica- tion has been found to be the bisulphide of carbon, two ounces to be placed in a hole near the root, the earth becoming impregnated, the Kg. 3. insects are killed. Dr. Riley has strongly urged the use, of those American vines which resist the attacks of the Phylloxera, as one of the best measures to prevent the attacks of this dreaded pest. Dr. Riley supplements the natural his- tory of this insect, showing the means he employed to carry out the rearing of the perfect insect, saying: The results of these endeavors to supply the winged mothers as nearly as possible with the natural conditions have been satisfactory, and they prove that, as was surmised, the eggs are laid in crevices of the ground around the base of the vine, but still more often on the leaves, attached generally by one end amid the natural pubescence, or rather down, of the under surface; and while heretofore all efforts to arti- ficially hatch the progeny from these eggs have, for the most part, failed, I have this year suc- ceeded in hatching them without difficulty, (The illustrations given will show the various stages of the insect, so as to make the whole clear. — Ed.) I have also succeeded in getting both sexes of the American Oak Phylloxera, and in thus completing the natural history of both species. Though this true sexual form of vasta- trix, from the winged and agamous female, has never before been carefully observed and described, it was nevertheless anticipated by Balbiani in his studies of the European Oak Phylloxera (Phylloxera querciis- Fonsc.) and by myself in my studies of the American Oak species (P. lUleyi) . Balbiani had also obtained what is evidently the same from eggs deposited by wingless, hypogean mothers late in the sea- GRAPE INSECTS 434 GRAPE INSECTS son, and after the winged mothers cease to fly. The winged females carry in the abdomen from three to five and sometimes as many as eight eggs. These eggs are of two sizes — the smaller, which produce males, ahout three-fourths the size of the larger, which produce females. As the whole organization of these aerial mothers — with the stout proboscis and ample wings — indi- cates freedom and nourishment are needed to bring the eggs to perfection and cause their proper Fig. 3. oviposition. In confinement in small vessels, where these requisites are not easily furnished, the eggs are generally voided, with the death of the parent, on the sides of such vessels ; and those freely laid are with the greatest diflJculty brought to the hatching point. Only in two instances did I succeed in doing this last year. These failures in the past find their explanation not so much in the difficulty of supplying the nat- ural conditions, as in lack of experience as to what these condi- tions were. The ac companying illustra tion. Fig. 4, shows Sexed PhylloxersB: a, female vastatrkc, ven- tral view, showing egg through transparent skin; b, do., dorsal view; c, greatly en- larged tarsus; d, anal joints shrunken as they appear after oviposi- tion; e, male carya- caulis, dorsal view — the dots in circle in- dicating natural size. Whether owing to the want of down on the Clinton leaf, or that the minuteness of the eggs makes it about as difficult to find them on a square four feet of earth sur- face as the proverbial needle in a haystack, the eggs found on the vine in the aforementioned muslin enclosure were very few compared to the number of winged insects which must have come out of the ground. It was also next to impos- sible to find, and quite impossible to follow, the sexed individuals after hatching. In the pre- pared jars, where the tomentose leaves of Labrusca were kept, I obtained more satisfac- tory results; for, while a few eggs were laid on the surface of the ground, especially in the space between the earth and the glass, and a few others on the upper side of the leaves, by far the larger number were attached to the under surface, gen- erally by one end and thrust between the natural down of the leaf — evidently showing that this is the natural nidus chosen. The winged mothers die soon after ovipositing and tlieir shrivelled and decaying bodies adhere to the leaf-down. By taking a leaf bearing eggs that are eight or nine days old and enclosing it in a smaller, tightly corked tube, the sexed individuals hatch freely, and are easily watched. This hatching takes place on about the tenth day after deposition, with our late September temperature. The egg perceptibly enlarges during this time, a fact that might be explained by endosmosis of the leaf- juices were it not known that the same fact holds true of many soft insect eggs that are not attached to succulent leaves or other living vegetation. The red eyes are seen through the delicate egg- shell early in the development of the embryo, and just before hatching the joints of the body are perceptible. The egg-shell is so delicate that in the process of hatching it is usually pushed back in folds, and is left as a little wrinkled, whitish mass; occasionally, however, it more nearly retains its original form. The sexed indi- viduafe are at once distinguished from all the other forms which this interesting species assumes by the obsolete mouth-parts, the sexual organs and the more highly developed nervous system; otherwise, in size, in smoothness and in obso- leteness of the basal joint of tarsus, they most closely represent the newly hatched larva. The next cut, Fig. 5, Grape Phylloxera; a shows a healthy root; b, one in which the lice are work- ing, representing the knots and swellings caused by their punctures; c, a root that has been deserted by them, and where the rootlets have commenced to decay; d, d, d, shows how the lice are found on the larger roots ; e, female pupa, dorsal view; /, the same, ventral view; g, winged female, dorsal view; ?i, same ventral view; i, magnified antenna of winged insect; /. side view of the wingless female laying eggs on roots;, k, GRAPE INSECTS 435 GRAPE INSECTS shows how the punctures of the lice cause the larger roots to decay. Where this egg is natur- ally laid I have not yet ascertained, but in all probabilit.y it is carried into or near the ground by the impregnated parent. The young hatch- ing from it ig"'^ViV\-o'-t,o ::A -^i>^& HOLSTEIN HEIFER. (^.84) o o tn o t-l w ■H ■Isl •Q O (485) HOLSTEIN CATTLE 486 HOLSTEIN CATTLE Dutch race of cattle date from an older descent than those of Holstein, while, probably, second, the Holstein cattle originated from the Friesian breed, and from that of the Dutch and West- phalian emigrants. After this colonization, we have our attention directed to another remarkable particular in the history of the Dutch cattle-cul- tivation. The Herdbook, unable to maintain the priority of the name Holstein from an earlier his- tory of Holland and Holstein, might then, per- haps, seek its testimony in a later period, and the events to which your attention is now called. From the fourteenth on till the eighteenth cen- tury a large number of Danish oxen were annually turned for pasture into the grassy meadows of North Holland, formerly West Friesland, and sold at the weekly North Holland cattle-market. The oldest of these cattle-markets is that of the city of Hoorn. This market was already estab- lished in 1311, and, in 1389, the Danes and inhab- itants of the Eyder were allowed by Albrecht, Duke of Bavaria, to hold a weekly market there. In 1605, the Danish cattle-market was removed from Hoorn and transfei;red to Enkhuyzen, where, in 1634, the number of 1,179 oxen were sold. There was also in Amsterdam a lean cattle market, beginning in the spring, in the month of April, l3ut held at irregular periods, depending upon wind and weather, when cattle were allowed to be conveyed from Denmark and Hol- stein hither to graze. These were mostly brought by vessel. These importations of Danish and Holstein cattle into North Holland, to which the Herdbook might refer, did not consist of heifers, but of lean oxen, which were pastured on the fer- tile meadows of the Polders, and afterward sold at the markets of Hoorn, Enkhuyzen, and Ams- terdam as fat cattle. As to heifers, either then or now, having been imported from Holstein into Friesland and North Holland for breeding pur- poses, no such thing is known. To withhold nothing and to put nothing in a distorted light, we may add that in the middle of the eighteenth century several importations took place into Friesland of Danish cattle, consisting of young calves. This was at the time of the raging of the cattle- plague, which desolating disease carried off thousands of the finest cattle in Friesland and Holland. For the purpose of keeping the cattle- trade alive, and to fill the places of those destroyed by the plague, small Danish breeds and German cows of a diminutive size were substituted and crossed with the remaining and recovered natives. They were, says Scheltma, Danish-Holstein and small German cows, of which the greater part were smaller in size than the native race. We also find that one was reduced to the necessity, in 1769, of purchasing the needful cattle in the county of Bentheim, in the districts of Oldenburg and Munster, in Hanover, and other parts of Germany. In the work, Present State of Friesland, it is mentioned, that owing to the cattle-plague, the people were compelled to import from abroad all kinds of small cattle, chiefly Danish. But, what was remarkable, however small and ill-favored these animals might be, when compared with the handsome Friesian horned cattle, as a natural consequence, an improvement of food induced a favorable devel- opment of body, and, from the mixture of the two breeds, good and choice milch-kine were attained within two or three generations of the introduction of the foreign blood, no matter how much the race had in the beginning deteriorated through the process, and, eventually, the type of Danish and German cattle was quite lost. This, is, however, more than one hundred years ago. A fair consideration of what has been thus far stated will leave no justification of the Herdbook's imputation upon the antiquity and purity of descent of our Friesian or Dutch cattle, or its assumption that they are of Holstein origin. No, the genealogy of Netherland cattle is pure and unadulterated, and it is at least two thousand years old. I come now to the present time, and the question whether it is tenable to give to one variety of cattle the name of an entire group.and to reckon as appertaining to it all its several varieties or breeds, as, for instance, the Dutch, Friesian, Oldenburg, Holstein, etc. , and would it not be imperative in such a case to give it the- purely historical name by which it is generally known ? If it could be desirable to give a general name to the cattle of the just-mentioned districts, then that of Holstein cattle would not be appro- priate, and for it should be substituted that of Friesian cattle, whence all the varieties originated. The chief characteristics of this Friesian breed — its eminent milk-giving and fattening qualities — we find in all the just-mentioned districts, and extending still further southward, with this- difference, however, that wherever the land is. more fertile, the climate milder, and the tending, feeding, and breeding of the cattle observed with more care, in that measure, and according as. these requisites stand to each other in the closest proportion and harmony, they are more devel- oped, attain larger size, and are of a finer texture. If the intention be to convey a correct under- standing of the true qualities of the several varieties or breeds mentioned in their own dwelling-places, it is better that each breed should retain the name by which it is known, and that no collective name, though an historical one, should be given them. In order to be able: to readily classify a group of cattle of great extent, possessing the same chief qualities in. form, Strum proposed, so long as fifty years ago, to give to a group, subject to the same condi- tions of soil and climate, a name indicating those conditions, and thus originated the desig- nations -mountain cattle, highland cattle, and' lowland cattle. He also heads each of these divisions by the breed best representing the distinctive feature of its class, as its type. It ia under the denomination of lowland cattle that he places the different breeds of cattle of the coast-lands along the North Sea. Schmalz, Pabst, and many subsequent writers, adopt this classification — some with a few modifications;, but all find in the physical characteristics of the country to which they are indigenous, the- general denomination of the collective group. According to Schmalz's statement, cattle, adopt- ing Strum's classification, may be distinguished, in the following manner: A. Lowland race. — Primitive cow; Dutch Friesian cow. B. Moun- tain race. — Degenerate; quite the contrary of A; Swiss cow. C. Middle race. — Highland race;, forms the transition from A to B; Frankisk cow. Schmalz says: To the race A belong the- Dutch, as representative, the Friesian, the Olden- burg, and chiefly all lowland races, bearing the peculiar characteristics which identify it with the place of its sojourn. This is a purely natural division, and there is not the least arrogance in HOLSTEIN CATTLE 487 HONEYSUCKLE asserting, what history points out, that the Dutch cattle constitute tlie type of the oldest, purest, and best breed. All other varieties arc of less intrinsic value; they are coarser or smaller, possess l?ss productive qualities, though of local excellence in their native places. If cattle of the genuine breed are bought, imported else- where, and there bred, why is it not called by its native name, and why must an appellation be given to it quite foreign and unknown to it. One hears in Europe of lowland cattle, but purchases of them for the purpose of improving other breeds have, for the last hundred years, been only made in the chief Netherland pro- vinces, where the choicest cattle of the lowlands are found. Thus, thousands of Dutch and Friesian cattle are annually sent abroad under the name of Dutch cattle. Finally, I beg to add quotations from Dr. George May, director of the agricultural establishment at Weihen- stephan, who visited Holland about ten years ago. The Dutch cattle constitute the type of the properly so-called lowland race, which ex- tends throughout Netherlands, Flanders, Nor- mandy, Oldenburg, and Denmark. Further on he says : The Oldenburg cattle descend from the Dutch race, and are likewise distinguished as East Friesian cattle, as still partially found in Hanoverian Priesland. In the adjacent parts of Bremen it is called Bremen cattle. The Holstein and Breitenburg cattle in the Wilster and Kemp- ner marshes are equal to them, but with respect to their square build, the Breitenburg cattle are, in their properties, more like the finer Dutch cattle. To return to the Holstein: as milk- ing cattle, they are wonderful; as cheese makers they are superior, as butter makers, they do not stand the test so well. In fact Holstein breeders always tell how much milk their cows will give; the Ayrshire men, how much milk, butter, and cheese, their cows will make; the Jersey owners, how much butter and cream to the quart of milk. To show that the Holstein is not a butter cow the following is deduced from a table published by the London Agriciiltural Journal, the results of tests made by Mr. Amersfoordt, of Badhoeve, most competent authority, in the Lake of Haar- lem, Holland, who tested the milk of forty-six cows in June, and forty-nine cows in Novem- ber, with Prof. Fesser's lactoscope, which is claimed to give a close approximation to the actual fat in milk. In the table made by Mr Amersfoordt, the yield of each cow on the 15th of June and the 24th of November, is given, with the percentage of fat. The average yield of forty-six cows in June, is 13.87 litres, or thirty-one pounds each, and the percentage of fat 5.317. . Six of the largest milkers gave 20.3 litres, or forty-six pounds per day, with 5.3 per cent, of fat. On the 26th of November, forty- nine cows gave an average of 6.24 litres, of 13.98 lbs., with 6.32 per cent, of fat. The largest per- centage of fat was 7. 50. If the lactometer of Dr. Fesser is accurate, this shows that the Holsteins give milk as rich as our native cows, whose milk will yield five per cent, of butter, on flush grass in June, and seven per cent, in November, So, considering the noble milking powers of this breed, and their well known ability as cheese makers, their outcome in butter should be con- sidered satisfactory, in consideration of their many valuable qualities, for milk, beef and labor. HOMESTEAD. The regular arrangement of farm buildings, including the house. HOMINY. Corn, usually of the smaller white flint kinds, bruised in a hominy mill or a mortar until the external covering is removed and sifted. Samp is corn broken coarsely iu a mill. HOMOCJAMOUS. When all the florets con- tain both se.\es. HOMOGENEOUS. Bodies, all the parts of which are similar in composition. HOMOLOGOUS. Having the same ratio or proportion. HOMOPTEEA. The name of an order of insects, including those in which the wing-covers are of a uniform semi-membranous consistency. HOMOTROPAL. In botany, having the same direction as the rest of the plant, or that part to which it belongs. HONEY. Honey has been regarded, from the remotest ages, as a product of the first impor- tance to man. Wild honey is eagerly sought by savage and barbarous tribes, and bees have been kept from the earliest ages ly civilized man. Honey is the saccharine fluid of flowers, gathered by bees and deposited by them in the cells of the waxen combs. Honey undergoes slight modifications in the honey-bag of the bees, but although somewhat changed chemically it retains the flavor, and to some extent the aroma of the flowers from which it was gathered. Under a powerful microscope the pollen of the plants, from which the honey was gathered, may be, it is said, detected, and thus often referred to the plant to which it belonged. Hence certain districts have become famous for its honey, as Mount Ida, in Crete, and others again are noted for the poisonous quality of the honey, as that of Trebizond. The substances recognized in honey, are grape sugar, manna, gum, muci- lage, extractive matter, a little wax, pollen, acid, and the substances producing the odor of honey. Hone'y, as it drains from the comb, is quite fluid,* but as generally pressed out it con- tains a sugar identical with grape sugar. This, however, except its disposition to candy, is not essentially different from the fluid portion. All honey is disposed to crystallize with age, and also to become yellow. The adulterations of honey are numerous. Starch, chalk, calcined gypsum, and even pipe clay have been used. Of late years, however, the adulteration of honey consists chiefly in adding glucose, a sugar now manufactured largely from corn, but only con- taining about thirty-four per cent, of saccharine, calling cane sugar 100. The adulteration by means of starch, chalk, etc., may be easily detected by heating the honey and letting it stand, when the impurities will settle to the bot- tom. Honey adulterated with glucose is more difflcult of detection. Combs once used are even filled with the mixture. For this reason, pure white comb,' capped by the bees, com- mands fully double the price, in the markets, of strained honey. HONEY-DEW. An exudation of sweet gummy matter from the leaves of plants, espec- ially the oak, bfeech, linden, and hop. HONEYSUCKLE. (Lonicera peridymenum.) A hardy, attractive, and fragrant flowering- shrub, that used to be found in every garden, thriving under adverse circumstances, even under the shade of trees. Of late years, it is not HOPS 488 HOPS so generally cultivated, having given place to more pretentious, but not more handsome climb- ers. They should form a part of the collection about every farm house in the country. The following are the older and better known varie- ties: Periclymenum Americarmm, tine ewe^gre&n honeysuckle; P. Oermanicum, the German hon- eysuckle; P. Italicum, the Italian variety; P. Semper virens, Virginian honeysuckle, Trumpet honeysuckle, a beautiful and constant bloomer; P. racemosuni, the yellow flowering honey- suckle, with showy fruit, this is not strictly a climber; P. verticeUaium, a tree-like honey- suckle, with inflected branches, and coral col- ored flowers; P. vulgare, generally known as English honeysuckle, or woodbine; Lonicera Japonicais the so-called Chinese honeysuckle, a most valuable plant for covering arbors, trellises, and pillars, with delicate and fragrant flowers; L. braehypoda, or Japan honeysuckle, is still more attractive; L. eiUata, Twinberry, grows abundantly in the mountains of Oregon and Alaska, and the berries are used as food by the Indians ; L. Tartaricn, the Tartarian honeysuckle is upr^ht, or bush-like, and is well known. HOOipED. CucuUate. A descriptive term in botaaiy, to express the partial covering of a flower, etc. , by a petal or leaf, which is curved over it HOOVE. (See Blown.) HOPS. Humuhis. The importance of this crop in all civilized countries may be inferred, from its constantly extended cultivation, scarcely affording a supply for the increasing demand. Its principal use being in the manufacture of beer. In 1840 the entire product of the United States was 1,238,502 pounds; in 1850, 3,497,029 pounds; in 1860, 11,010,012 pounds; increased in 1862 to 16,000,000 pounds. Since this time its cultiva- tion extended wonderfully in the West until it was attacked by the aphis, when it began to decline. In 1866, the planting in Wisconsin raged like an epidemic throughout many parts of the State, and in Sauk county; one of the princi- pal localities where it was planted, the crop exceeded 4,000,000 pounds, returning $2,500,000 in one year. In 1869, the crop of the United States aggregated 25,456,669 pounds. Since 1869 tlie acreage steadily increased until, in 1876, it approximated that of England, which was nearly 70,000 acres. The hop crop reached its maxi- mum in 1877, beingllO,000 bales. The season of 1878 was a disastrous one to the crop, and the acreage since that time has been decreased, but is now again increasing. In relation to the cost, one difficulty in hop-growing in the West, was that farmers rushed into it, without properly under- standing the care and expense necessary to pro- duce the crop. Hence, while some cultivators made money others signally failed. As showing something of the cost of the crop when ready for market, the following data will be interesting: A convention of hop-growers in New England, at a late session, appointed three different com- mittees to estimate the average cost of producing hops. Committee No. 1, allowed $100 per acre for the average value of the land; cost of poles, fertilizers, and cartage, $44.10; labor in culti- vation, $18; harvesting and curing, $64,36; insurance and marketing, $11,83; boxes, etc., $3.98; total, $141.27. A crop of 1,000 pounds would at such a rate average 14^ cents per pound. Committee No. 2, allowing $80 per acre a.s the value of the land, estimated the average cost of 1,000 pounds at 12J cents. Committee No 3, at $100 per acre, and with a yield of 800 pounds, made the average cost 12 1-5 cents per pound. The average cost of producing hops in Kent county, England, a famous hop district, is estimated by a local authority at £5 or $24.30 per hundred weight (not quite twenty-two cents per pound). As an illustration of the change in conditions of production the following statement of a hop-grower in Sauk county. Wis., dur- ing the flush times of 1867, is given: His yard embraced four acres, and the capital invested, including land, poles, drying-houses, stove, presses, etc., amounted to $2,000. Dur- ing the second year of his investment, 1867, he estimated his expenses as follows: Interest on capital, ten per cent., $200; cultivation, setting poles, etc., $100; harvesting, curing, etc., $943; total expenses, $1,243. Receipts, for 11,520 pounds of hops at sixty cents per pound, $6,912; net receipts for hop roots, $3,040; total receipts, $9,952; net receipts, $8,709, or 435 per cent. The history of the hop shows it to have been cul- tivated from most ancient times. Mesne, an Arabian physician who died about 846, mentions the hop vine in his writings. When it was first introduced into England is not known, but about, 1525, a doggerel appeared as follows: '* Hope, heresy, pickerel aod beer Were brought to England in one year." In 1528, Parliament was petitioned to prohibit its use, as spoiling the taste of beer, nevertheless its cultivation continued to extend, until it has become a crop of prime importance among agri- cultural products. The soil and manure best adapted to the plant, may be determined by the general character of its growth. The soil should be deep, friable, containing humus, never wet but at the same time one that will withstand drought. Clay soils, if tenacious, should be thoroughly drained, since the hop roots penetrate deep and will not stand wet. Wet soils, hot suns, and drying winds in conjunction are fatal to the hop. Bather firm, deep, rich, well drained alluvial soils, protected from sweeping winds, are natural ones and the best, nevertheless, hops will not succeed in a close atmosphere, they require air, but do not like sweeping winds. The cultivation of the hop may be pretty well understood from the follow- ing, compiled from numerous authorities: The sexes of the hop plant are not united in the same plant, but some are male ajid others female. Since the sexual relation of the strawberry plants has been so thoroughly discussed in the United States, the importance of having some male plants in the hop grounds will be generally admitted. The male flower gi-ows in a loose panicle, whilst the female flower is compact, like the cone of the pine tree. Hop seeds produce plants, but as they are like fruit seeds, producing varieties of quite different qualities, the hop plants should be multiplied by slips from a well known and approved variety. At the base of each scale or leaf of the female blossom of the hop there is a flower, in which is the germ of the seed. As this seed matures the scales grow larger, and are cov- ered with resinous aromatic balls, called lupuline. These are the fine yellow powder of the hop, and containthe bitter principle that renders thehopso valuable in preserving and flavoring malt liquors. This bitter principle is stronger or more deli- cately flavored in some varieties of the hop than HOPS 489 HOPS in others, and in proportion as the seed is fully de- veloped. This female blossom is vitalized by the pollen of the male plant. Though the pollen, .sa3's an English writer, from its extreme light- " ness, can be wafted to a considerable distance, and some seeds in each cone may be so fertilized, yet it would be well to rear a number of the male iplauts among the others, or along the hedges of the hop gardens, to insure the fertilization of all the seeds. A bushel of hops collected from plants of the fourth j'ear, raised from seed, weighed thirty-six pounds, there being male plants near; a second instance, where the plants were raised from cuttings, weighed thirty-five pounds ; while a bushel, gi'own in a garden where the male plants were always eradicated, weighed only twenty-two pounds. Besides the greater quantity of hops thus obtained, the aroma is much greater, (the lupuline, on which the aroma depends, is considered by Blanch 6 to be the unappropriated pollen dust which has alighted on the scales of the females,) and the strength of the bitter much greater. On this point Mr. Rouse says: It is necessary that a small number of the male plants should be interspersed among the others, in order to give that energy and vitality to the seed which is essential to the perfection of the crop. If due care is taken in this particular, -a seed will be found at the bottom of each petal of the blossom possessed of a most pungent aro- matic flavor. Attention to this particular is, indeed, necessary to insure flavor and character to the product of the plant, giving it that fine aromatic bitter which is most desirable, and Tvhich it will not otherwise be possessed of, the petal or leaf of the blossom containing compara- tively but little of the astringent quality of the hop. This consideration is one which I apprehend is too frequently overlooked by the inexperienced cultivator, who sometimes rejects the male plants as barren, to the great injury of the crop. He recommends one male plant to fifty female. In selecting the varieties of the hop to plant, two things are regarded in Great Britain — the flavor and the time of maturing. The strong growers are usually the largest bearers, but have not that delicacy of aroma that is found in smaller and less prolific varieties. In large plantations, where the picking season should be long, such varieties are selected as will give different times of matur- ity. In preparing to plant, it is best to bed in the spring the necessary sets, for by the fall they will have attained a year's growth, and whether they are set out in the fall, or in the following spring, it will be so much time gained. Then they are more certain to grow, will require a less numberin the hill, and give much less trouble dur- ing the first year's growth after being planted. In Great Britain it is usual to plant in raised hills. But there the climate Is moist ; here the extreme droughts dry them too much. Hence, level cul- tivation, generally, has superseded hill cultiva- tion, and the hop plant should not be an excep- tion. In setting the plants, manure should not be put in the hill, especially new, unfermented barn- yard manure, but a richer soil may be added, if the ground is not rich. The roots of the sets should be spread out carefully, fine mold put around them, the soil pressed firmly, and the «arth heaped over them. Each hill should have two- poles. In England, the number is deter- mined by the kind of hop. The Farnham, Canter- bury white bines and the Goldings are strong grow- ers, and require large poles, from fourteen to twenty feet long. The Grape varieties are smaller, and need poles not exceeding ten to fourteen feet in length. As to the number of poles in Great Britain to the hill, the Cyclopaedia of Agriculture says: When there are about 1,200 hills on an acre, and the poles all eighteen feet long and upwards, we should recommend two to each hill ; with sixteen feet poles, every third hill to have three; with fourteen feet, alternately two and three poles; with twelve feet poles, three to each hill. But in this country, where ground is not so valuable as in England, a lesser number should be used, that more air and sunlight may be allowed, to lessen the evil of mold, and give greater vigor to the plant when held back by the aphis. The poles should be sharpened with a regular taper, and holes for them made by a heavy crowbar; and when two are in a hill they should be about a foot apart, the tops inclining somewhat apart, to give more r6om to each top, and prevent t he branches from intertwining. The strongest poles should be selected for the outside, especially for that part of the plantation most exposed to heavy winds. In the spring the num- ber of bines to each pole is selected. These should not be more than two ; but it is best when the wire-worm is apprehended to reserve two more against their depredations, and until danger to them is past. The bine should be fastened to the poles, as their growth advances, with woolen yarn; and it is best when unraveled from a stocking, as it is more elastic. The gi'ounds should be kept free of weeds or grass, and the hills almost level. The bines should be sup- ported the first season on small poles, so that their better growth may be encouraged. In the spring following, the grounds should be well and deeply broken up, as soon as the soil is in a proper condition. Care should be taken not to do this when it is too wet. The furrow should be thrown from the hill, and the hill itself care- fully weeded and pulverized, either with the cultivator or the hoe. The land should be leveled in the subsequent plowings with the cul- tivator. No better general directions can be given than to say that the hop should receive equal cultivation with the corn. A clean, mel- low soil must be maintained. How to do this will require less or greater labor, according to the season, and the cultivation will be modified by it. Sometimes the cultivator is all that is needed after the first breaking up ; at other times, when heavy, soaking rains have compacted the soil, it will be necessary to loosen with deeper working implements. Every operation demanded by the season should be performed in due time , and the more unfavorable the season is, the more cheerfully should be the labor given ; for, in the cultivation of the hop, more than in all other crops, is the proverb true, that the hand of the diligent maketh rich. In such years, says Mr. Mainwaring, it will far better requite the labor bestowed, yielding a better price, by reason of their scarcity, than in fruitful years, when almost every ground produces hops. Industry and ingenuity are most encouraged and best rewarded at such times, but ignorance and sloth come off with loss. When the hops begin to change their color from green to brown, and emit a fragrant odor, they are ripe. Mr. Rouse says that the hop should be in full perfection before it is picked, and this is known when the seed has changed from a HOPS 490 HOPS bright straw color to a pale brown, and emits a fra- grant smell. Morton says : A hop may be consid- ered ripe when it becomes hard and crisp to the touch ; when the extreme petal projects in a promi- nent manner at the tip of the hop ; when the color is changed from a light silvery green, to a deep primrose or yellow; and when, on opening the flower, the cuticle of the seeds is of a purple color, and the kernel, or seed itself, hard, like a nut. Even after the hop has attained a lightish brown color no real injury to its quality will have accrued, and, for many purposes, such hops are most esteemed in the market ; but, after the hops generally attain a dark brown hue, a great loss, both in quality and weight, will be sustained. It is better to begin early than late in picking; but care must be observed lest the pick- ing may commence too early. "When in a proper stage of ripeness, four pounds of undried hops will make one of dry, and five pounds, scarcely ripe, are required to make one when dried. The hop, then, it will be seen, does not admit of a lengthened harvest, and hence, the hop-grower should timely secure all necessary aid; and that aid, when promised, under no circumstances should fail, as it so often does, in the harvesting of other crops. In England, the hops are com- monly picked in large boxes, containing from twenty-four to forty bushels. These boxes are divided lengthwise by a thin partition, and then sub-divided into quarters. They are raised a little from the ground, and have handles at the ends to facilitate their removal from place to place, as may be desirable. One man and four girls are allowed to each box. Each girl deposits the hops she picks in her own division of the box. An industrious hand can pick twenty bushels in a day without difficulty. It is the business of the man to supply the boxes with poles, which he raises from the ground as needed, cutting the vines about a foot high ; to see that the picking is properly done, to remove the empty poles, clear them of the vines, and stack them in a systematic manner. In picking, the hops should , be kept free from stems and leaves, and all blasted or immature ones should be rejected. The boxes should be emptied at least once a day ; at all events, no hops should be left in them over night. Three-fourths of the weight of the hops are water. So large an amount in so much bulk, and to which the air penetrates, demands that the drying should at once follow the pick- ing, or heating and fermentation, when in bulk, will speedily follow. The hop house, or kiln, should be of a size proportionate to the quantity of hops to be cured, so that they may not accu- mulate on hand. To avoid this,- it will generally be necessary to keep the kiln heated both day and night. It is commonly built of an oblong form, and of two stories, the lower part being occupied by the kiln and the press-room, and the upper part by the drying-floor over the kiln, and by a room of about an equal size for storing the dried hops, which will, of course, be over the press-room. Kilns are sometimes built of bricks or stone, of a circular form, with a round opening in'the apex of the roof, surmounted by a movable cowl, or swinging ventilator, to enable the vapor of the drying hops to escape easily. If the building is of wood, the sides of the kiln should be lined with brick work, or thoroughly lathed and plastered. It is found to be most convenient and economical to heat it with stoves, from two to four of which will be necessary, according to the size of the kiln. The dry- ing-floor should be ten feet from the gi-ound, that there may be no danger of scorching- the hops in drying. This floor is formed of slats about one and a half inch each in width, and the same distance from each other. They are covered with a strong, coarse cloth, of open texture, so as to admit of a free trans- mission of the heated air from the kiln below. The drying-room should be of comfortable height for a person to work in it, and the sides should be lathed and plastered, that there may be no irregularity of the heat in different portions of the room during high winds. A good ventilator should be provided in the roof,, as described above. Openings should be left in the walls near the bottom of the kiln to admit fresh air from -without, the draught to be regulated by means of flues, or sliding doors. The cloth for the drying-floor should be well stretched over the slats and firmly nailed. On this floor the hops are spread to the depth of six or eight inches. The proper thickness will depend some- what on the condition of the hops; if they are very full of moisture, they should be laid on quite thin ; but if gathered when fully ripe, and in fine weather, a depth of ten inches will bp allowed. The great object, says Mr. Morton, with the hop-drier is to get rid of the condensed vapor from the green hops as quickly as possible, and the dry-houses should be so constructed as to effect this object perfectly. It must be borne in mind that hops should be dried by currents of heated air passing rapidly through them, and not by radiation of heat. This is a jdistinction of the utmost importance, since success is entirely dependent upon a strict adherence to the f onner principle. In order to accomplish this effect, the space above the hops must be kept hot, and all the lower parts of the kiln cold, whereby the greater density of the cold air will force the rarified air above, carrying with it the vapor from the hops, through the aperture or cowls upon the summit of the building. To aid this ascent of the heated air passing through the hops, a stream of heated air is sometimes thrown above tlie hops through a tube, thus adding greatly to the heat of the cuiTent passing through the hops, and giving it a gi-eater ascending power. The hops being spread as evenly as possible, the fires are immediately kindled in the kiln, and the tem'perature regulated to one uniform degree of heat. This, however, may be quite high at first, as there will be at that time but little danger of scorching the hops if the floor is sufficiently high. If the hops are rusty, or discolored from any other cause, it is usual to burn a little sul- phur under them, which will bring them to a uniform appearance. This is done as soon as the hops are well warmed through, and feel somewhat moist. Great prejudice formerly existed against the use of sulphur in drying hops ; but no objection is now made to it by the brew- ers, and it is generally thought that the use of it improves the appearance of all hops, and that it also facilitates the drying. During the drying process the fires should be kept up, and there should be a free supply of fresh air below, suffi- cient to keep up a regular succession of heated air from the kiln, passing through the hops and out at the ventilator, carrying with it the vapor expelled from the drying hops. This will be HOPS 491 HORSE found far preferable to a still, dead heat. As soon as the upper part of the hops appears to have felt the fire, the lower part may be con- sidered as nearly dry, and will rattle ., little. The heap may then be turned. Before this is done the heat should be suffered to abate a little, and increased again after the turning is finished. lam aware that many do not turn their hops while drying, nor suffer them to be disturbed at all until they are ready to be removed from the floor. Still, the better opinion, I tliink, is in favor of turning as tending to facilitate the dry- ing and render it more perfect by the more effectually exposing every portion of the mass to the action of the heated current of air, than would be the case were they allowed to remain as at first deposited on the floor, containing many inequalities in density even when the utmost care is exercised in their distribution. If turned at the right time, and in a careful manner, there need be no injury done to the hops. "When sufficiently dried they should be allowed to cool off a little, if time can be afforded, otherwise there will be great danger that they will break in moving, or a portion of them shell off and waste. Ten or twelve hours are required to dry a kiln of hops. Two kilns may be dried in twenty-four hours by keeping the heat up through the night. A twenty-foot kiln will thus dry 400 bushels in a day, as they come from the vines, making about 750 pounds of hops when dry. Let not the heat slacken, but rather increase it, till the hops are nearly dried, lest the moisture and sweat which the fire has raised fall back and discolor the hops. For these reasons chiefly it is that no cool air should be suffered to come into the kiln while the hops are drying. After the hops have lain about seven, eight, or nine hours, having left off sweating, and leap up when beaten with a stick, then turn them with a malt shovel or scoop made for that purpose ; let them remain in this situation for two or three hours more, till every hop is equally dried. They must not be turned while they sweat, for that will scorch and cause them to lose their color; the fire may be diminished a little before they are turned, and renewed again afterwards; the heat should be kept as equal as possible. It may be of service to make use of a thermometer, by marking upon it the degree of heat proper for drying hops, as soon as that degree is ascertained by experiment. Mistakes are often exceedingly detrimental to the hops, and great attention is required by the drier, night and day, until fin- ished. When they are thoroughly dry, which is known by the brittleness of the inner stalk, (if rubbed and it breaks short,) the fii'e should be put out, and the hops taken from the kiln into the cooling-room. Here they should be spread out not exceeding twelve inches in depth, and in a day or two will be ready to bale. Care should be taken to exclude a drying air from the cool- ing-room. The hops being dried, the next pro- cess is to bale them. This should not be done immediately after they are taken from the kiln, but they should be allowed to lie a few days in the store-room till tliey become a little softened, otherwise their extreme brittleness will cause them to be much broken in baling, and the sample be thereby greatly injured. The bal^s should be of a symmetrical and convenient form, and should contain about 300 pounds. They are formed in a box or bin prepared for the purpose. in the press-room, of such shape as will give the desired size and form. Across the bottom and sides of this box the baling cloth is first laid, and the hops are then let down into it from above and trodden down as they are dropped in until it is filled. Another cloth is then carried over the top, a follower applied, and the screws of the press turned down upon it until the whole is brought into a compact mass. The box is then taken apart, the cloth neatly secured around the bale, the screws are run up, the bale taken out, and the ends cased, when it may be con- sidered finished, and the same process is repeated in forming another. HOP CLOVER. (See Clover.) HOP-HORN BEAM. (See Horn Beam.) HORDEUM. The genus of barley grasses. HORIZONTAL. Level. A plane parallel to the horizon. HORN. Indurated skin, consisting for the most part, of modified albumen. It resembles hair in its chemical and agricultural properties, when shaved into thin strips, horn, whalebone, tortoise-shell, which are all similar, are readily softened by heat or hot water, and are then cut or molded into combs, handles for knives, rings, etc. Digested with water in an iron cylinder, under pressure, they are dissolved and yield glue. The horns of oxen and many other ani- mals are only a covering over a bony process rising from the front bone of the head. This bone (horn pith) is remarkably porous, and full of blood-vessels, so that when it is cut or injured violent hemorrhage often follows, which is difii- cult to stop. HORN BEAM. Carpinus Amerkana. Blue or Water Beech, or ironwood. Common along streams, growing from ten to twenty feet high. The trunk is ridged and the wood very white. The Hop-horn Beam, Ostrya Virginica is a. larger tree, from twenty to forty feet high, bearing oval, oblong, hop-like fruit, rarer in the West than the Blue Beech. HORNBLENDE. A dark green or black min- eral, massive or crystallized in prisms, of glassy lustre, and readily scratched by a knife. It forms the basis of numerous minerals, and is- found in several varieties, as augite, amphibole, pargasite, tremolite and actinolite. HORNBUGt. The beetles of the genus Lucanug, or stag beetles, especially L. capreolus. The grubs live in the trunks and roots of old trees. HORNET. Vespa maculata, the American species. They build a globular nest of a sub- stance like paper upon branches of trees, etc. It preys upon fruit, flies, etc. The European species is V. carbro. HORSE. Zoologically considered the family to which the horse belongs consists of a single genus, equxis, and is distinguished from all other quadrupeds by having only one apparent toe, and a single solid hoof on each foot, constitut- ing the soliped, single-hoofed family of Cuvier'& order, pacliydermata. The different species of the genus eg^n^s, as the ass, zebra, quagga, etc., are all fertile together, and sometimes produce- fertile hybrids. That between the male ass and mare, the mule is only second in importance to- the horse for performing labor. From the ease with which the progeny of horses that have run wild for centuries, are broken in it is probable that horses were among the first animals domesticated HORSE 492 HORSE T)y man. The time of the first doihestication of the horse is, however, lost in the obscurity of the far past, but is first mentioned in history as being in use among the Egyptians some 650 jears after the biblical account of the deluge. At the time of the exodus of the Israelites the horse-certainly was used for draft. For at that time Pharaoh had numerous war chariots drawn by horses. It was from Egypt that Solomon received his great stud of horses, and Herodo- tus states that Xerxes obtained a portion of cavalry from Ethiopia, and that of his native Indian troops some were on horseback and others in chariots. The horse has so long ceased to exist in a purely wild state, that nothing has ■come down to us as to his original country, his habits, stature, or color. Of all the so-called wild horses, even those of Tartaiy are the progeny of animals escaped from a state of domestication. Few, if any, of our domestic animals have under- gone such wide modification in size, color, and characteristics: or has become so widely spread over the earth as the horse. In Iceland and the Shetland Isles of the North, he is dwarfed to little more than the size of a large sheep, his limbs short but strong, his form uncouth from his shaggy hair, his mane and tail massive, •coarse,- and tangled ; how different from the high bred racer of England and America, the mighty ■Clydesdale, or Norman, the long-backed Flemish, the active Barb, or the compact and beautiful Arab. A peculiarity of the horse, and one which should never be foi'gotteu by the horse owner, is that he always breathes through his nostrils. Hence, in buying a horse, it should be especially noticed that his nostrils are capacious, open, and the covering thin and mobile. He is most sensi- tive to soimd, his quick ear catching the slightest sound long before it is apparent to his master. The eye is also indicative of the character and temper of the horse. A bold, full, mild, but bright eye, shows the perfection of temper in a horse; if much of the white is shown, or if he has the habit of showing much of the white in looking behind, one may be pretty sure that he is a rogue and not to be trusted. In the wild state the horse is thought by some to have had no intermediate gait between the walk and gallop; this, however, is mere conjecture, and undoubt- edly incorrect. The trot is to all appearances as much a natural gait as the walk, and generally used by colts of every breed, so in the domesti- cated horse the walk, trot, and gallop are the natural gaits, all others having been taught him, until through heredity, some of them, as the pace, may be called natural gaits. The age of the horse may only be told with any certainty by his teeth. The ancients understood this perfectly. Xenophon, in a work on horsemanship, alludes to the custom in selecting cavalry horses for the Gre- -cian armies, to the rejection of such as have lost the dental mark. The examination of the teeth of horses to determine their age is also alluded to by various Roman writers, as Columella, Varro, and Virgilius. The teeth of the horse are forty- six nippers or incisors, two canines or tushes and twelve molars in each jaw. The mare lacks the canines. The dental system is: six incisors in the upper and six in the lower jaw; one canine in each side of the jaw of the male, female none; six molars in each side of the upper and lower jaw, thus making forty teeth in all. There are two sets, the temporary or milk teeth, succeeded by the permanent teeth. The canines- are wanting in the colt's teeth, and in the permanent teeth of the mare, they seldom are apparent, though their rudi- mentary teeth may be foimd in the maxillary bone attached to the jaw. Three substances enter into the composition of the teeth, the enamel, the dental bone or ivory, and the cortical enTelope surrounding the fang or root. The teeth, both incisors and grinders, are constantly being worn down at the crown by use, but this loss is suppUed by gradual and continuous gi'owth at the root. Thus upon this wearing away at the crown is based a perfected system by which the age of a horse may be pretty nearly told by an observing person. Mr. Youatt, than whom there is no better authority extant, in his treatise on the horse has very accurately described the teeth and their characteristics, which, with the illustrations will enable any one to judge cor- rectly of the age of the horse. The statement is as follows: Seven or eight months before the foal is born, the germs or beginnings of -the teeth are visible in the cavities of the jaws. At the time of birth, the first and second grinders have appeared, large, com- pared with the size of the jaw, seemingly filling it. In the course of seven or eight days the two center nippers are seen as here represented. Fig. 1. In the course of the first month the third grinder appears, above and below, arid not long after, and gen- erally before six weeks have expired, another incisor above and below will be seen on each side of the two first, which have now considerably grown, but not attained their perfect height. This cut will then represent the appearance of the mouth. Fig. 2. At two months, the center nippers will have reached their natural level, and between the second and third month the second pair will have overtaken them. They will then begin to wear a little, and the outer edge, which was at first somewhat raised and sharp, is brought to a level with the inner edge, and so the mouth continues until some time between the sixth and ninth month, when another nipper be- gins to appear on each side of the two first, making six above and below, and completing the colt's mouth; after which the only observ able difference, until be- tween the second and third year, is in the wear and tear of these teeth. These teeth are covered with a polished and ex- ceedingly hard enamel; _,_^ indeed it is so hard that =■ ' it almost bids defiance to the action of a file. It spreads over that portion of the tooth which appears above the gum, and not only so, but as they are to be so much employed in nipping the grass, and in gathering up the animal's food, and in such employment even this hard substance must be gradually HORSE 493 HORSE worn away, a portion of it, as it passes over the upper surface of the teeth, is bent inward, and sunk into the body of the teeth, and forms a little pit in them. The inside and bottom of this pit being blackened by the food, constitute the mark of the teeth, by the gradual disappear- ance of which, in consequence of the wearing down of the teeth, we are enabled for several years to judge of the age of the animal. The colt's nipping teeth are rounded in front, some- what hollow toward the mouth, and present at first a cutting surface, with the outer edge rising in a slanting direction above the inner edge. This, however, soon begins to wear down, until both surfaces are level, and the mark, which was originally long and narrow, becomes shorter, and wider and fainter. At six months the four nippers are wearing to a level. The cut, Fig. 3, will convey some idea of the appearance of the teeth at one year. The four middle teeth are almost level, and the corner ones are be- coming so. The mark in the two middle teeth is wide and faint, in the two next teeth it is longer, darker and narrower. In the corner teeth it is longest, darkest and narrowest. The back teeth or grinders will not guide us far in ascertaining the age ^'S- ^■ of the animal, for we can not easily inspect them, but there are some interesting particulars con- nected with them. The foal is born with two grinders in each jaw, above and below, or they appear within two or three days after the birth. Before the expiration of the month they are succeeded by a third, more backward. The crowns of the grinders are entirely covered with enamel on the top and sides, but attrition soon wears it away from the top, and there remains a compound surface of alternate layers of crusted substance, enamel and ivory, which are employed in grinding down the hardest portion of the food. Nature has, therefore, made an additional pro- vision for their strength and endurance. Fig. 4 represents a grinder sawed across. The five dark spots represent bony matter; the parts covered with lines of enamel, and the white spaces a strong bony cement uniting the other portions of the teeth. At the completion of the first year a fourth grinder usu- ally comes up, and the yearling has then, or soon afterwards, six nippers and four grind- ers above and below in each jaw, which, with the alteration in the nippers we have just described, will enable us to calculate the age of the foal, subject to some variations arising from the period of weaning, and the nature of the food. At the age of one year and a half, the mark in the central nippers will be much shorter and fainter; that in the two other pairs will have undergone an evident change, and all the nippers will be flat. At two years this will be more Fig. 4. manifest. The accompanying cut. Fig. 5, deserves attention, as giving an accurate repre- sentation of the nippers in the lower jaw of a two-year-old colt. About this period a fifth grinder will appear, and now likewise, will com- mence another process. The first teeth are adapted to the size and wants of the young ani- mal. They are sufficiently large to occupy and Mg. 5. fill the colt's jaws, but when these bones have expanded with the increasing growth of the animal, the teeth are separated too far from each other to be useful, and another and larger set is required. The second teeth then begin to push up from below, and the fangs of the first are absorbed, until the former approach the surface of the gum, when they drop out. Where the temporary teeth do not rise immediately under the milk teeth, but by their sides, the latter being pressed sideways are absorbed throughout their whole length. They grow narrow, are puslied out of place, and cause inconvenience to the gums, and sometimes to the cheek. They should Fig. 6. be extracted. The teeth which first appeared are first renewed, and therefore the front or first grinders are changed at the age of two years. During the period between the falling out of the central milk ' teeth and the coming up of the permanent ones, the colt, having a broken mouth, may find some difficulty in grazing. If he should fall away considerably in condition, he should be fed with mashes and corn, or cut feed. The next cut. Fig. 6, will represent a three-year-old mouth. The central teeth are larger than the others, with two grooves in the outer convex sur- face, and the mark is long, narrow, deep and black. Not having yet attained their full growth, they are rather lower than the others. The mark in the two next nippers is nearly worn out and it is. wearing away in the corner nippers. The ages HORSE 494 HORSE ■of all horses used to be reckoned from the first of May, but some are foaled even as early as Janu- ary, and being actually four months over the two years, if they have been well nursed and fed, and are strong and large, they may, with the inex- perienced, have an additional year put upon them. The central nippers are punched or ■drawn out, and the others appear three or four months earlier than they otherwise woidd. In the natural process they would only rise by long pressing upon the first teeth, and causing their absorption. But opposition from the first set being removed, it is easy to imagine that their progress will be more rapid. Three or four months will be gained in the appearance of these teeth, and these three or four months will enable the breeder to term him a late colt of the preced- ing year. To him, however, who is accustomed to horses, the general form of the animal, the little development of the forehead, the continuanee of the mark on the next pair of nippers, its more evi- dent existence in the corner ones, some enlarge- ment or irregularity about the gums from the violence used in forcing out the teeth, the small growth of the first and fifth grinders, and the non-appearance of the sixth grinder, which, if it be not through the gum at three years old is swelling under it, and preparing to get through — any or all of these circumstances, carefully .attended to, will be a suflBclent security against -deception. A horse at three years old ought to have the central permanent nippers growing, the other two pairs wasting, six gi'inders in each jaw, above and below, tlie first and fifth level, the others and the sixth protruding. The sharp «dge of new incisors, although it could not well he expressed in the cut, will be very evident when compared with the old teeth. As the per- manent nippers wear and continue to grow, a narrow portion of the cone-shaped tooth is exposed by the attrition, and they look as if they had been compressed, but it is not so. Not only will the mark be wearing out, but the crowns of the teeth will be sensiblv smaller At three years and a half, or between that and four, the next pair of nippers will be changed, and the mouth at that time can not be mistaken. The central nippers will have attained nearly their full growth. A vacuity will be left where the second stood, or they will begin to peep above the gum, and the corner ones will be diminished in breadth, worn down, and the mark becoming small and faint. At this period, likewise, the second pair of grinders will be shed. Previously to this may be the attempt of the dealer to give his three-year-old an additional year, but the fraud will be detected by an examination similar to that which has been already described. At four years, the central nippers will be fully developed ; the sharp edge somewhat worn off, and the mark shorter, wider, fainter. The next pair will be up, but they will be small," with the mark deep and extending quite across them, as in Fig. 7. The corner nippers will be larger than the inside ones, yet smaller than they were, and flat, and the mark nearly effaced. The sixth grinders will have risen to a level with the others, and the tushes will begin to appear. Now, more than at any other time, will the dealer be anxious to put an additional year on the animal, for the difference between a four-year- old colt and a five-year-old horse, in strength, utility and value, is very great; but the want of wear in the other nippers, the small size of the corner ones, the little growth of the tush, the smallness of the second grinder, the low fore- hand, the legginessof the colt, and the thickness and little depth of the mouth, will, to the man of Fiff. 8. Common experience among horses, at once detect the cheat. The tushes are four in number, two in each jaw, situated between the nippers and the grinders, much nearer to the former than to the latter, and nearer in the lower jaw than the upper, but this distance increases in both jaws with the age. In shape, the tush some- what resembles a cone; it protrudes from the gum about an inch, and is sharp-pointed and curved. The appearance of this tush in the horse may vary from four years to four years and six months. It can only be accelerated a few weeks by cutting the gum over it. At four years and a half, or between that and five, the last important change takes place in the month of the horse. The corner nippers are shed, and the permanent ones begin to appear. The cen- tral nippers are considerably worn, and the next pair are commencing to show marks of usage. The tush has now protruded, and is generally a full half inch in height; externally, it has a rounded prominence, with a groove on either side; and it is evidently hollowed within. The reader scarcely needs to be told that after the rising of the corner nipper, the animal changes its name. The colt becomes a horse, the filly a mare. At five years, the horse's mouth is almost perfect — Fig. 8. The corner nippers are quite up, with the long deep mark irregular in the inside, and the other nippers bearing evident tokens of increased wearing. The tush is much grown ; the grooves have almost or quite disap- peared, and the outer surface is regularly con- HORSE 495 HORSE ■vex. It Is still as concave vritliin, and with the edge nearly as sharp, as it was six months before. The sixth molar is quite up, and the third molar is wanting. This last circumstance, if the general appearance of the animal, and particularly his forehand, and the wearing of the center nippers, and the growth and shapes of the tushes be likewise carefully attended to, -will prevent deception, if a late four-year-old is attempted to be substituted for a five-year-old. The nippers may be brought up a few months Fig. 9. Ijefore their time, and the tushes a few weeks, "but the grinder is with difficulty displaced. The thi-ee last grinders and the tushes are never shed. At six years — see Fig. 9 — the mark on the central nippers is worn out. There will still be a differ- ence of color in the center of the tooth. The cement filling up the hole, made by the dipping of the enamel, will present a browner hue than the other part of the tooth, and it will be evi- -dently surrounded by an edge of enamel, and there will remain even a little depression in the center, and also a depression round the case of enamel; but the deep hole in the center of the teeth, with the blackened surface which it pre- Fig. 10. «ents, and the elevated edge of enamel, will have disappeared. Persons not much accus- tomed to horses have been puzzled here. They expected to find a plain surface of uniform color, and knew not what conclusion to draw when there was both discoloration and irregu- larity. In the next incisors the mark is shorter, broader, and fainter, and in the corner teeth the edges of the enamel are more regular, and the surface is evidently worn. The tush has attained its full growth, being nearly or quite an inch long, convex outward, concave within, tending to a point, and the extremity somewhat curved. The third grinder is fairly up, and all the grinders are level. The horse may now be said to have a perfect mouth. All the teeth are produced, fully grown, and have hitherto sus- tained no material injtiry. During these impor- tant changes of the teeth, the animal has suf- fered less than could have been supposed possi- ble. At seven years — see Fig. 10— the mark, in the way in which we have described it, is worn out in the four central nippers, and fast wearing away in the corner teeth ; the tush also is begin- ning to be altered. It will be found that it is rounded at the point, roundedat the edges, still round without, and beginning to get round inside. At eight years old, the tush is rounder in every way; the mark is gone from all the bottom nippers, and it may almost be said to be out of the mouth. There is nothing remaining iu the bottom nippers that can afterward clearly show the age of the horse, or to justify the most experienced examiner in giving a positive opinion. Dishonest dealers have been said to resort to a method of prolonging the mark in the lower nippers. It is called Bishoping, from the name of the^coundrgl who invented it. The horse of eight or nine years old — for his mouth, see Fig. 11 — is thrown, and with an engraver's tool a hole is dug in the now almost plain surface of the corner teeth, in shape resembling the mark yet left in those of a seven-year-old horse. The hole is then burned with a heated iron, and a permanent black stain is left. The next pair of nippers are sometimes slightly touched. An ignorant man would be very easily deceived by this trick; but the irregular appearance of the cavity, the diffusion of the black stain around the tushes, the sharpened edges and concave inner surface of which can never be given again, the marks on the upper nippers, together with the general conformation of the horse, can never deceive the careful examiner. Horsemen, after the animal is eight years old, are accustomed to look to the nippers in the upper jaw, and some conclusion has been drawn from the appearances which they present. It can not be doubted that the mark remains in them for some years after it has been obliterated in the nippers of the lower jaw. There are various opinions as to the intervals between the disappearance of the marks from the different cutting teeth of the upper jaw. Some have averaged it at two years, some at one. Dr. Touatt was inclined to adopt the latter opinion, and then the age will be thus determined. At nine years the mark will be HORSE 496 HORSE worn from the middle nippers, from the next pair at ten, and from all the upper nippers at eleven. During these periods the tush is like- wise undergoing a manifest change. It is blun- ter, shorter and rounder. In what degree this takes place in the different periods, long and favorable opportunities can alone enable the horseman to decide. The alteration in the form of the tushes is frequently uncertain. It will sometimes be blunt at eight, and at others remain pointed at eighteen. After eleven, and until the horse is very old, the age may be guessed at with some degree of confidence, from the shape of the upper surface, or extremity of the nippers. At eight they are all oval, the length of the oval running across from tooth to tooth ; but as the horse gets older, the teeth diminish in size — and this commencing in their width and not in their thickness. They become a little apart from become less prominent, and their regular diminu- tion will designate increasing age. At eleven or twelve, the lower nippers change their original upright direction, and project forward horizon- tally, and become of a yellow color. The general indications of old age, independent of the teeth, are the deepening of the hollows over the eyes;, gray hairs, and particularly over the eyes, and about the muzzle; thinness and hanging down of the lips ; sharpness of the withers, sinkmg of the back, lengthening of the quarters; and the disap- pearance of windgalls, spavins, and tumors of every kind. Horses, kindly and not prematurely used, sometimes live to between thirty-five and • forty-five years of age; and Mr. Percival gives an account of a barge horse that died in his sixty- second year. As indicating what the best horses of the ancients were like, also as showing how near they approached to what would now-a-days be MEXICAN HORSE OR BRONCHO. each other, and their surfaces become round instead of oval. At nine, the center nippers are evidently so; at ten, the others begin to have the oval shortened. At eleven, the second pair of nippers are quite rounded, and at thirteen, the corner ones have also that appearance. At fourteen, the faces of the central nippers become somewhat triangular. At seventeen, they are all so. At nineteen, the angles begin to wear oflf, and the central teeth are again oval, but in a reversed direction; viz., from outward, inward, and at twenty-one they all wear this form. It would of course be folly to expect any thing like a cer- tainty in an opinion of the exact age of an old horse, as drawn from the above indications. Stabled horses have the marks sooner worn out than those that are at grass, and crib-biters still sooner. At nine or ten, the bars of the mouth called a well muscled horse of all work, or a good roadster, the description of Xenophon in his instructions are as correct to-day as when written over 2, 300 years ago, as follows : First, he says, we will write, how one may be the least deceived in the purchase of horses. It is evident, then, that of the unbroken colt one must judge by the bodily construction; since, if he has never been backed, ' ^he will afford no very clear evidences of his spirit. Of his body, then, we say that it is necessary first to examine the feet; for, as in a house it mat- ters not how fine may be the superstructure, if there be not sufficient foundations, so in a war horse there is no utility, no, not if he have all other points perfect, but be badly footed. But in examining the feet, it is befittingflrst to look to the horny portion of the hoofs, for those horses which have the horn thick, are far superior in their feet HORSE 497 HORSE to those which have it thin. Nor will it be well if one fail, next, to observe whether the hoofs be upright, both before and behind, or low and flat to the ground ; for high hoofs keep the frog at a distance from the earth, while the flat tread with equal pressure on the soft and hard parts of the foot, as is the case with bandy-legged men. And Simon justly observes, that well-footed horses can be known by the sound of their tramp, for the hollow hoof rings like a cymbal, when it strikes the solid earth. But having begun from below, let us ascend to the other parts of the body. It is needful, then, that the parts above the hoof and below the fetlocks (pasterns) be not too erect, like those of the goat ; for legs of this kind, being stiff and inflexible, are apt to jar the rider, and are more liable to inflammation. The bones must not, however, be too low and springy, for in that case the fetlocks are liable to be .abraded and wounded, if the horse be galloped over clods or stones. The bones of the shanks {cannon bones) should be thick, for these are the columns which support the body ; but they should not have the veins and flesh thick, likewise. For, if they have, when the horse shall be galloped in difiicult ground, they will necessarily be filled with blood, and will become varicose, so that the shanks will be thickened, and the skin be dis- tended and relaxed from the bone; and, when this is the case, it often follows, that the back sinew gives way and renders the horse lame. But if the horse, when in action, bend his knees flexi- bly at a walk, you may judge that he will have his legs flexible when in full career; for all horses as they increase in years, increase in the flexi- bility of the knee. And flexible goers are esteemed highly, and with justice; for such horses are much less liable to blunder or to stumble than those which have rigid, unbending joints. But if the arms, below the shoulder blades, be thick and muscular, they appear stronger and hand- somer, as is the case also with a man. The breast xilso should be broad, as well for beauty as for strength, and because it causes a handsomer action of the forelegs, which do not then interfere, but a,re carried wide apart. Again, the neck ought not to be set on, like that of a boar, horizontally from the chest; but, like that of a game-cock, should be upright toward the crest, and slack toward the flexure; and the head being long, should have a small and narrow jawbone, so that the neck shall be in front of the rider, and that the eye shall look down at what is before the feet. A horse thus made will not be likely to run violently away, even if he be very high-spirited, for horses do not attempt to run away by bring- ing in, but by thrusting out, their heads and necks. It is also very necessary to observe, ■whether the mouth be fine or hard on both sides, or on one or the other. For horses that have not both jaws equally sensitive, are likely to be hard-mouthed on one side or the other. And it is better that a horse should have prominent than hollow eyes, for such a one will see to a greater distance. And widely opened nostrils are far better for respiration than narrow, and they give the horse a fiercer aspect; for when one stallion is enraged against another, or if he be- come angry while being ridden, he expands his nostrils to their full width. And the loftier the crest, and the smaller the ears, the more horse- like and handsome is the head rendered; while lofty withers give the rider a surer seat, and pro- duce a flnner adhesion between the body and shoulders. A double loin is also softer to sit upon and pleasanter to look upon, than if it be single; and a deep side, rounded toward the belly, renders the horse easier to sit, and stronger, and more easy to be kept in condition ; and the shorter and broader the loin, the more easily will the horse raise his fore-quarters, and collect his hind-quarters under him, in going. These points, moreover, cause the belly to appear the smaller; which, if it be large, at once injures the appear- ance of the animal and renders him weaker, and less manageable. The quarters should be broad and fleshy, in order to correspond with the sides and chest, and, should they be entirely firm and solid, they would be lighter in the gallop, and the horse would be the speedier. But if he should have his buttocks separated under the tail by a broad line, he will bring his hind legs under him, with a wider space between them; and so doing he will have a prouder and stronger gait and action, and will, in all respects, be the better on them. A proof of which is to be had in men, who, when they desire to raise any thing from the ground, attempt it by straddling their legs, not by bringing them close together. Stallions should not have the testes large, and this ought not to be overlooked in foals. To conclude, in regard to the lower joints, of the shanks, namely, and the fetlocks and the hoofs, behind, I have the same remarks to make, and no others, than those which I have made above. Every horse- man should thoroughly understand the points of a horse, and the terms by which these are desig- nated. The above eloquent description of the horse has not been improved on since Xeno- phou's time. A study of the outline, and ex- planatory terms on page 498, will make the reader conversant with all that is valuable in the make-up of the horse, as seen in the exterior. A horse attains his greatest strength and vigor at nine or ten years of age, and continues in full vigor up to the age of fifteen, if he has been carefully used. Nine-tenths of the horses from being worked too young and from other abuse are often unserviceable before they attain the age of full vigor. At seven or eight years a horse is mature but has not arrived at his full vigor and strength. Their natural life is thirty years, but occasionally an individual lives to forty -five. If well cared for they will perform full work between the ages of eight and twenty years. An English writer, some twenty years ago, enumerates five horses in his stables whose ages respectfully were as follows: thirteen, twenty-one, twenty-six, twenty-nine and forty years. That they had been kept thus intact by good care, honest driving, and particular care in shoeing and attention to their feet. One of the best teams we ever owned were seventeen years old when bought, as lively as cats, and quite sound. They had been raised in the East by the farmer who drove them through from thence to Illinois before an emigrant wagon. The horse is the most perfect embodiment of strength and speed to be found in the animal kingdom. This is shown by his physiological development througliout. These have all been minutely described in many veterinary works, and in various enoyclopiedias. Hence a few extracts will here suflice. The skull is remarkable for the great width between the orbits, its flatness, the length of the face compared with the era- HORSE 498 HORSE nium, and the vertical depth of the lower jaw; the iatermaxillaries project considerably beyond the nasal bones, the latter overhanging the cavity of the nostrils; tha temporal arch is short, straight, and situated in the posterior third of the skull. The cervical vertebrae are of large size, and the posterior are oblong with short processes, so as to secure great freedom of motion in the neck; the dorsals are eighteen, with short transverse processes, and very long spines anteriorly to afford origins for the ligaments which support the head; the lumbar are six (but five in the ass), broad and firmly joined together, with remarkably developed processes, especially the transverse ; the sacrum is a single bone, made up of five consolidated vertebrae, in a continuous line with the rest of the spine, and united to the last lumbar by the very large articulating oblique processes of the latter, securing a springiness in this region in leaping and galloping; the caudals vary from seventeen there are no movements of pronation and supina- tion, but only of hinge-like flexion and extension. The muscular system of the horse is very differ- ent from that of man, and has been described minutely in treatises on veterinary medicine. The panniculus carnosus, of which the platysma myoides of man is a rudiment, is greatly devel- oped, and very movable, affording support and protection to various organs. The spinal muscles are of great extent and strength, especially in the neck and tail, which admit of much precision and grace of motion ; the extensors of the fore- arm, the gluteus medius (the kicking muscle), and the muscles of the loins, extremities, and neck are generally very powerful; the muscles of the face, particularly those of the lips and nostrils, are largely developed, giving the well known variety of facial expression in this animal. The explanatory terms given below of points of the horse or the names of th j several parts, wiU form an important study. They are. POINTS OP THE HORSE. to twenty-one having the form of vertebrae only in the upper ones. The chest is capacious, com- pressed laterally in front, and prolonged in advance of the first rib so as to somewhat resem- ble the thorax of a bird; in the. middle and posterior portions it is rounded, and extends far back toward the pelvis; the ribs are eighteen pairs, the anterior broad and massive (eight being true), and the posterior more slei der. The clavicle is absent, and the C' racoid process very rudimentary ; shoulder blades, triangular, with a prominent spine, closely approximated to the chest, transmitting the weight of this half of the body perpendicularly to the ground; the arm bone is short and strong; the forearm consists almost entirely of the greatly developed radius, the ulna being a mere appendage consolidated in the adult animal to its posterior surface, though its olecranon process is of large size, affording a powerful purchase to the extensor muscles; generally recognized by horsemen everywhere^ and should be correctly kept in mind by the reader, in that he may get a correct idea of the several parts. a, ibe muzzle. b. the face. Cj tiie forehead, a, the jowl. Cj the poll. /, tliecie>t. ff, the v'ithers. A, thewindpiBeorthrapple. i, the back. j, ihepi'int of the shoulder, ft, the b east oi chest. I, the fore-arm, called arm, m, the knee, n, the cannon bones, 0, I he fetlocks, p, the small patterns. g, the large pasterns, r, the hoofs, s, the heels. t, the elbow. M, the girth. «, the flank, w, the sheaih. a;, the t.ci'Otum. y, the hocks. 2:, the coronets. A, the h p. B, the croup or rump, t', the dock. IJ, the Quarier. E, Ibe thigh. F, the hamstring. (/, the point of the hock. //, the loins. 7, the gullet. ,/, the i-houlder. K, the arm (proper). L, the liarrel(the ribs)., M, the stifle. HORSE 499 HORSE The skeleton of the horse is the frame work upon which is built the motive power of the animal. A study of the anatomy, and the names of the several parts, is important. The cut and explana- tions below will give these correctly and clearly : A^ tbe head. a, the posterior maxillary, or under jaw. 6, the superior maxillary, or upper jaw; near the latter is a foiamen, throush which pass the ne ves aud blood- ve-sels, which c ieflysupply the lower pariof the face. c, the orbi', ur cavity coutaining the eye. d, the nasal hone.-^, or bones of the no e. e, the suture dividing i he parietal hones below from the occipital bone< II bo\ e. »- /, the inierior max llary bone, containing tbe upper incisor teeth. B. the seven cervical venebrie, or bones of tbe neck. <7, the eighieeii dorsal verte tne, or bones of t e back. Z*, the sixltimbar vet tebrte, op- bones of the loin. E^ the Ii\e sacr il vertebne, or b"nee of the haimch. F, tbe caudal verteoise, or bones of the tail, generally about fifreeu in u umber. G, the scapula, or shoulder blade. By the sterinim, or chesi. /, the ' o«lse, or ribs, seven or eight, nrticnlated with tbe sternum, an*! called the true ribs, and ten or eleven united together by cartilage, called the falseMbs. •7, the humerus, or hune of the arm. is simple and capacious; the intestinal canal is long, but short in comparison with that of the ruminants; but the colon is of enormous capac- ity, as also is the csecum, apparently occupying the greater portion of the abdominal cavity; the small intestine is about flfty-si.\ feet long, with a circumference of from two and a half to six inches; the caecum is two and a half feet long, and two feet in circumference at the widest part; the colon and rectum are twenty-one feet long, the former averaging two feet in circumference; the whole canal, therefore, is about eighty feet long. The liver weighs between four and five pounds, having no gall bladder, and the spleen twelve ounces; the urinary bladder is small in comparison with the size of the animal, its cir- cumference when moderately distended being aboilt one and a half feet; the mammary nipples are two, inguinal, and have at the base a hollow cavity which permits the accumulation of a con- siderable quantity of milk, which is often removed by man as an article of diet, especially for inva- lids. The hoof of the horse presents an admira- SKELETON OF THE HOESE. K, the radio p or bone of the forearm. Z, the ulna, or elbow. Tiie point of the elbow is called the olecranon. Jf, the t-arpu-*. or knee, consis ing of seven bones. J^,' the metacarpal bones. The large metacarpal, or cannon a d shank in front, and the smaller metacarpal, or splent bones, behind. a, the fore-p'ietem and foot, consi-ting of the os auffrag- inis, o- the uppei- iind largf r pasiern bone, witu the sesamoid bones behind, ar icn at.ngwith the cannon ands earerpa-tem; tl eos coronf, oru'ss pasiern, the 08 pedit, or coffin boue, ihe os ' aviculare, urnavicnlar or shuttle bone, not seen, and ar iculating with the small' r pasiern and coffin hones. A, the corresponding bones of th" hind feet. (?, the haunch, conxisting of three portions; the ilium, the ischiuin, and i he pubis. P, Ihe femur, or thigh. O, the stiBe j'ini, with the patella. S, the tibia, or proper leg-bone; behind is a small bone called the fibula. ,S, the tarsus, or hock, comnosed of six bones. The prom- inent pa t is the '5 calcis, or point of the hock, T, the metatarsals of the hind leg. The salivary glands, especially the parotid, are remarkably developed; the stomach of the horse ble adaptation to secure solidity and elasticity in an instrument of progression ; the whole exterior horny covering, to which the shoe is attached, composed of modified epidermic structure, is a hollow cone truncated above, into which the coffin bone is received ; highest in front, it grad- ually diminishes backward, where it is suddenly turned inward, becoming mixed with the sole, supporting the under parts of the foot, aud pro- tecting the sole and the frog from too rough pressure against the ground ; this internal wall, called the bars of the foot, by its sloping direc- tion distributes the weight of the body toward the sides of the hoof, with whose numerous per- pendicular horny laminse interdigitate similar processes from the vascular surface of the coffin bone. In the triangular space in the center of the foot, is an elastic horny mass called the frog, its base connecting the posterior curves of the hoof, the sides united with the bar, and the point extending about to the center of the sole; HORSE 500 HORSE OF ALL WORK on the sides are deep channels, to allow of its expansion and render the foot elastic ; its actual thickness in horn is not so great as farriers seem to think, from the freedom with which they use the paring knife; in a well formed foot, the base of the frog ought to occupy a sixth part of the circumference of the circle of the hoof; in the center of the frog is a horny conical cavity of considerable depth, which protects the partially cleft foot from further rupture, adds to the elasticity, secures a firmer hold on loose soils, and passing above into the substance of the sen- sitive frog, serves to unite firmly the two halves of the foot, which are completely divided in ruminants ; this horny cone has been called the f rogstay or bolt. The sensitive frog falls into the inverted arch of the- horny frog, which are thus held mutually in place and preserved from external shock. The sole is an irregular plate of horn, closing up the lower opening of the ifoot, of an arched form, abutting everywhere against the sides of the wall, another contrivance for securing elasticity. The foot of the horse, there- fore, though soUd in front, is partially cleft behind, so that the terms solidwigula and mli- poda can not strictly be applied to it ; indeed a solid, continuous, unyielding circle of horn would be very painful if not entire!}' useless as an instru- ment of active progression. Immediately under the hoof are extensive cartilages, attached to the last two bones, protecting the upper part of the structure and adding greatly to the elasticity of the foot, and permitting the movements of the coifin bone within the hoof. Under the hoof is also a very sensitive and vascular layer, from whicli the hoof originates, analogous to the soft core of lioUow horns and the matrix of nails. The eyes of the horse are large, and the sight excel- lent, and capable of distinguishing objects by night; the ears are large and very movable, and the sense of hearing very acute, as in other timid and comparatively defenseless animals ; the sense of smell is also acute, as is seen in their selection of food and in the recognition of their masters; the cutaneous sense is very fine, and the tactile powers of their movable lips exquisite. The movements of the horse are many; besides the walk, trot, gallop, and amble, pace, or rack, some horses gallop with the fore legs and trot with the hind, others move each leg separately in succes- sion, and others execute many artificial move- ments, the result of education. The horse is quick to perceive and has an excellent memory, two qualities which render his training easy and extensive; he is capable of deep, and lasting attachment. The neigh or voice of the horse is well known, the females exercising it less fre- quently than the males. In compact form, elegance of proportions, and grace of movement, combining speed and strength, it is surpassed by no animal ; sculptors and painters have made the horse the subject of their chisels and pencils, and poets, sacred and secular, have sung its praises from time immemorial. Almost every part of the horse, after death, is useful to man; his skin is valuable for gloves, his hair for making cloth, his bones for buttons and for grinding into fertilizers, his flesh as food for dogs, his hoofs for making glue, and his intes- tines for the manufacture of delicate membranous tissues; so that the horse, said in ancient fable to have been created by Neptune as the animal most useful to man, can safely lay claim to being of the greatest value to the human race. It is an error to suppose there were wild horses found in America at the time of its discovery. The so-called wild horses of America are un- doubtedly of Spanish origin escaped from the earlier Spanish adventurera, those of North America from the chargers abandoned by De Soto, and those of South America liberated at the abandonment of Buenos Ayres. This of course is mere conjecture, as to the exact source from whence they sprang. Certain it is, that no trace of horses were discovered by the first navigators visiting our shores. The same is true of the islands of the Pacific, and Australia, nevertheless, fossil remains of the equine race have been f ovmd, but they became extinct long before the historic period. Those which escaped from the Spaniards, however, soon multiplied, and con^egated into vast droves in the tropical and semi-tropical regions north and south of the equator, where they live in a semi-wild, and even fully wild state. HORSE-CHESTNUT, ^smlus MppocaMdr num. This tree is remarkable for the beauty of its figure, flowers, and early foliage. 1 he wood is soft and of little value. The nuts contain much nutritious matter, which is combined with a disagreeable bitter. The Buckeye is of this genus, or, rather, of the sub-genus Pwma. HORSE OF AIL WORK. The horse of all work may be designated as that class used principally on the farm, specially adapted to farm labor, but which being stout and true at a heavy pull, will at the same time be a tolerable saddle horse; and which on the road, besides drawing loads at a fair even pace, shall at the same time be capable of moving off at the rate of six or seven miles an hour, with the family carriage, if necessary. If to these qualities the animal, in addition should possess a handsome shape and carriage, he will indeed be a prize. It must be confessed that such animals are very rare, and when obtained are regarded by their owner with especial favor. In fact, such do not long remain on the farm ; some acute horse buyer is sure to pick up all such animals for sale in cities, as light carriage-horses and horses of light draft. The horse of all work is, of course, always of mixed blood, that of the thoroughbred on the ordinary cold blooded mares of the country producing the largest number. As a rule, from want of care in breed- ing, they are apt to be weedy animals, really unlit for anything except light work. The horse of all work should be not less than fifteen hands high, and from that to sixteen hands, with a good head, a neck of medium length, well set on, rather oblique shoulders, withers rather high, a, chest neither narrow nor broad, clean limbs, short bodied, round baiTeled, the rump and haunch long and muscular, and the tail set on rather high. A large, handsome roomy mare, stinted to a staunch, muscular thorough- bred makes, to our mind, the perfection of a horse of all work. A cross of a Cleveland Bay stallion,(which now-a-days possesses a strong dash of thorough blood,) crossed with a good sized, active, roomy, mare should produce animals that will do the work of the farm and road until six years old, and then be most salable horses for city work, either for the carriage, coupe, express work, or light draft, according to the style and make-up which they possess. In breeding for HORSE'S LIMBS AND FEET 501 HORSE'S LIMBS AND FEET such horses, however, the farmer must have studied horses carefully, to become successful; far more so than the generality of farmers do. The greatest mistake made, is in breeding to thoroughbreds, vreedy, or otherwise unfit for any profitable work. A stout, muscular thorough- bred, if he be handsome, and yet not speedy enough for the one or two-mile course, would be just the thing, and yet the most of the thoroughbreds used by farmers, who are horse breeders, are animals that can not possibly "stay" for more than a quarter, or at most half a mile. Two and three mile racers, stout and muscular, are wanted to assist in forming the horse of all work for our country districts. North and South. In the South, the horse of all work is especially a feeble and weedy animal. That section of the country lacks, essentially, the pow- erful work horses found almost everywhere in the North. Another class of horses suited to produce horses of all work, are stout, compact, large trotting stallions. Such are muscular, and of good bottom, and if, in addition, they are from fifteen and a half to sixteen hands, will leave their impress wherever used. If the farmer would select good sized, roomy mares to breed to such stallions, it would soon result in a class of farm horses, which, while doing the work of the farm, would, when ready for the market, command quick sale, and good prices. HORSE'S LIMBS AND FEET. It has been said that however superior the horse's body, lungs, and digestion, that he becomes an ineffi- cient servant without these are accompanied with the most excellent limbs, and good feet; limbs are useless if the feet are unsound. It is, therefore, of the first importance that the great- est care be taken, not only of the limbs, but especially of the feet, since these latter are most liable to injury. In the article. Spavin, will be h Fig. 1. found cuts of the upper or larger bones of the limbs, showing diseased bony growths. It will only be necessary here to show the limbs below the hock and knee, including the hoof, to give an idea of the importance of the limbs. Fig. 1 shows the bones of the fore leg, side view ; a, bones of carpus; b, splent or splitit bone; c, cannon bone; d, sesamoid bone; e, pastern bone;/, coronet bone; g, coffin bone. At Fig. Sis shown bones of hind leg, front view; a, b, c, d, e, bones of the tarsus;/, cannon bone; g, pastern bone; h, coronet bone; i, coffin bone. Fig. 3 shows a side view of hind leg; a, bones of the tarsus; b, splint bone; c, cannon bone; d, sesamoid bone ; e, pastern bone ; /, coronet bone ; g, coffin bone. It will be seen that below the knee and hock, the names of the bones are sim- ilar. Thus, with the cut of skeleton previously given, the reader will not only get a perfect idea of the proper location of the bones but their correct names. Following is a comprehensive statement Fig. 3. d e f 9 Fig. 3. relating to the foot of the horse, as found in the correspondence of the United States Department of Agriculture, which we illustrate with refer- ences. Immediately below the carpus and tar- sus is a single large metacarpal or metatarsal bone, called the cannon bone. Upon either side of this is a rudimentary bone, the splint bone. These two splint bones, expanded at their upper HORSE'S LIMBS AND FEET 502 HORSE'S LIMBS AND FEET extremities, where they enter into the formation of the knee and hock joints, grow gi-adually smaller as they pass down by the side, and rather to the rear of the main bone, and terminate be- Kg. 4. fore reaching the fetlock joint. Below the can- non bone,_ taking an oblique direction anteriorly from it, is the pastern bone, long pastern, (os svffmginis). In length it is from one-third to one- half that of the cannon bone. Below this is the coronet bone, short pas- tern, lower pas- tern, [os coronce) which is nearly square in form ; its transverse pj g diameter being however, greater than its vertical. The last bone terminating the extremity is the cof- fin bone, (oa pedis). This bone has been described as having a body and wings. Its general outline is semilunar anteriorly, supe- riorly in its convex, and posteriorly and inferi- orly it is concave. In texture it is light and spongy, perforated throughout by canals, (Figs. 4 and 5,) through which blood-vessels and nerves are abundantly distributed to the soft and .sensi- tive tissues that cover it. The wings extend di- rectly backward from the body, and support the lateral cartilages. Upon its superior aspect is a ' smooth and concave surface, placed obliquely to the body of the bone for articulation with the middle phalanx or coronet-bone. Applied to the joint between the coronet and coffin bones, pos- teriorly, and lying in the concavity of the coffin bone, is a small bone of peculiiir shape— the navicular, (Fig. 6). This is a sesamoid bone, being contained in, or attached to, the tendon of the deep flexor. It is from two to two and one- half inches long, three-fourths of an inch in width at its widest part, and half an inch in thickness. Two surfaces of this bone, meeting in front at an acute angle, are covered with car- tilage and synovial membran^. The posterior surface is rough for the attachment of the ten- don of the deep flexor. Attached to the upper edge of the wings of the coffln-bone are the two lateral cartilages. They are irregular in form, elastic, and extend backward, giving form, sub- stance, and elasticity to the heel upward as high as the pastern joint, and forward, so that only the width of the great extensor tendon of the foot separates them. In fact, the fibrous investment of the tendon is attached to these cartilages. The Cyclopsedia of Anatomy and Physiology says, this widely distributed cartilage may be observed passing downward and surrounding on every side the rough and knotty extremities of the heels of the coffin bone, entering and filling up its sinuosities and taking strong attachment to these processes. It then extends horizontally inward, passing over the horny sole and bars, and, meeting the sides of the sensitive frog, inti- mately unites with it, forming one inseparable mass and filling together the whole interior area described by the sides of the coffin bone. The upright or lateral portion of the cartilage forms with the horizontal portion passing inward a right angle, thus making together a hollow space or receptacle at the back of the coffin bone that contains the spongy, elastic stuffing of the heels, together with the tendons, vessels, and nerves passing through the sole of the foot. The upper surface of the horizontal process of cartilage is full of scabrous elevations and depressions that defy dissection, among which is found a quan- tity of gelatino-ligamentous tissue. Beneath, or to the under surface of this horizontal layer, the sensitive sole and bar are adherent. As it ap- proaches the frog or center of the foot, it loses its cartilaginous nature and becomes coriaceous, or rather ligamento-coriaceous, in texture, agree- Fig. 6. ing in this with the internal frog. The horizon- tal portion or process of the cartilage, known by veterinary writers as the stratiform process, is of greater thickness and substance than the other parts. It is also of coarser grain and more elas- tic nature. Both portions together communicate the general boundary of form to the lateral, pos- terior, and inferior parts of the foot. When the bars and the frog are thrust upward by pressure from without, they are acting against this same horizontal flooring formed by the cartilage and the frog, and are met by the depression of the bones of the foot forced down by pressure of the weight of the animal. The whole can then di- late exteriorly along with the posterior and more elastic parts of the hoof. Several important pur- poses are answered by this extensive distribution of elastic fibro-cartilage — 1, the interposition of a layer of elastic tissue between the hard hoof and the hard bone prevents shock and jar to the body as the foot strikes the ground in walking or running; 3, the coffin bone not extending pos- teriorly much beyond the middle of the foot, except by its projecting wings, a large portion of the hinder part of the foot is made up of soft elastic cartilage instead of bone, breaking the force of the blow of the tread; 3, the distribution of elastic cartilage serves to equalize the pres- sure of the bones of the foot upon the broader surface of the hoof; and, lastly, this arrangement HORSE'S LIMBS AND FEET 503 HORSE'S LIMBS AND FEET of an elastic cushion, increasing in tliickness toward tlie posterior aspect of the foot, affords an elastic support to the movements of the coffin bone in the hoof, thereby aiding the elastic laminae upon the superior convex surface in support of the bone. "While the toe of the coffin bone is comparatively stationary, there is considerable motion of the heel upon the toe as d center, thereby contributing to the extent, freedom, and ease of movement of the foot. Yielded upon the surface of the coffin bone, over its entire extent, is a thick, villous, highly vascular, and sensitive membrane having the general name of the sensitive foot, besides having several local names derived from the part of the hoof under which it lies, as sen- sitive laminse, sensitive sole, and sensitive frog. This tissue is derived mainly irom the skin. It may be said to be a process from the skin, cover- ing tlie coffin bone, and altered in its structure to adapt it to its office as an excretory membrane. It exactly corresponds to that portion of the human skin which produces the nails. The proper skin of the leg, as it arrives at the foot, becomes thickened and altered in its structure, constituting the mass around the summit of the hoof, to which veterinary writers have given the name of coronary band. This is lodged in a groove seen around the upper edge of the horny wall, and from this the straight fibers of the wall are secreted. From the coronary band there is a prolongation Of the skin downward over the coffin bone. This tissue is thrown into perma- nent folds or laminse, the sensitive laminae, between five and six hundred in number, aiTanged lengthwise of the foot. They secrete matter which enters into the formation of the horny wall, to the laminse of which they are -very closely united. According to Virchow, each lamina corresponds to a single papilla, as seen on the surface of the skin. Similar tissue, thickly studded with secreting papillae, covers the inferior surface of the coffin bone, the fibro- elastic frog, and the widely distributed cartila- ges, already mentioned. This tissue is richly supplied with nerves and blood-vessels, the latter iorming large plexuses which extend to and above the margin of the hoof. The elastic laminse are found around the whole convex surface of the coffin bone, having a breadth of about one- tenth of an inch, and a length of about two inches in front, decreasing to an incli at the heels. These laminse, much reduced in size and importance, are continued over the bars into the center of the foot. Each laminae consists of a single plait or fold of two layers of membrane, which apply closely to, and are firmly attached to, two corresponding surfaces of the laminse of the horny hoof. Either in the laminse them- selves, or in the fibrous membrane on which they rest, and which is the medium of their union with the bone, great elasticitjr resides, so that the coffin bone, with tlie weight it sustains, receives a large part of its support from the laminae, aetingashundredsof elastic springs It is this structure and arrangement that aid greatly in obviating shocks and preserving the integrity of the soft tissues at the bottom of the foot. By taking two strips of paper and folding them together in regular, even plaits, we have an illustration of the method of union between the soft and sensitive and the horny laminae. If, in addition, one of the layers be considered elastic, the philosophy of the elastic suspension of the foot would be obvious. The tissue constituting the sensitive sole, averaging, perhaps, one-eighth of an inch, thinner over the frog and thicker over the heels, is even more fibrous, vascular, and sensitive than the laminse. It is closely con- nected with the fibrous tissue of the sensitive laminse in front and the covering of the heels and frog behind. From it the horny sole and frog are secreted. The sensitive tissues (hat invest the bones of the foot are covered and protected by a thick, dense, horny cap or box, the hoof. ■The physiological relation of the hoof to the parts which it covers is essentially the same as that of the human nail to the parts covered by it. Functionally, its relations are more exten- sive and complete, and whatever differences exist in structure, in form, or extent of develop- ment, come from modifications for special use. The hoof consists of three portions, which are so closely united as to seem but one; yet, by maceration, or by boiling, they can be separated. These are the wall or crust, the sole and the frog. The wall (Fig 7, e, e, e) is all that part of the hoof that is visible below the hair when the foot is placed upon the ground. It is in the form of a cylinder, cut across obliquely at the top. It is deepest in front, from three to four inches, and grows gradually less in depth toward its posterior aspect. This wall, which is secreted mainly by the coronary band, and partly by the sensitive wall beneath, is in front about half an inch in thickness, becoming thinner on the back side as it extends around the foot. It has an edge bear- ing upon the ground of about half an inch around the outside of the bottom of the foot, (Pig. 7, e, e). Upon the inner side of the foot the wall is thinner than upon the outside. The explanation Fig. 7. will show the relative parts: Ground surface of hoof, 17, toe, ; a 1, inner toe; a 2, outer toe; b 1, inner quarter; b 2, outer quarter; c 1, inner heel,; c 2, outer heel; d, d, d, sole; e, e, wall of the hoof ; /, /, the bars ; g, g, the commissures ; h, k, I, the frog; h, part under the navicular joint; k, boundary of the cleft; i, i, the bulbs of the heels. ■ The wall is divided into toe, quarters, heels, and bars, superior or coronary border, inferior or solar border, and laminae. Passing any special description of the borders, the laminse deserve more particular attention. Thelaminaorfowrfte, are the very numerous, narrow, and thin plates which cover the entire interior aspect of the horny wall. They are in length from two inches in front to less than an inch at the heels. They HORSE'S LIMBS AND FEET 504 HORSE'S LIMBS AND FEET are also visible over the bars. They have a very- constant width of about one-tenth of an inch, and extend from the lower to tlie upper border of the hoof, are essentially parallel to each other, and have a free edge and two free surfaces. Each lamella is received into, and is very closely united to two of the lamellaB of the sensitive wall. By this arrangement the surface by which the horny wall is attached to the sensitive hoof is very largely increased, (by exact calculation of Dr. Evans, increased by twelve times), and this attachment, while possessing great strength, has great elasticity, and admits of considerable motion between the horny sole and the coffin bone contained in it. The toe (Fig. 7, a) consti- tutes about two-thirds of the wall, and is some- times subdivided, for minute description, into toe, inner toe, and outer toe, (Fig. 7, a, al, »3). It is the deepest andthicliest part of the wall, and stands at an angle, in the average of good feet, of about forty-five degrees. When the angle of inclination is much greater than this, the feet are designated as flat and weak. Flat and weak feet usually obtain in large and heavy animals, and it has been thought that as the foot is flat- tened, the anterior wall will be drawn down, by the weight, at length becoming fixed. The quarters (Fig. 7, S 1, 6 3) are the portions on each side, midway between the toe and the heels, and are designated as the inside and outside quarters. The fibers composing them run obliquely upward and backward, parallel to those of the toe. The quarters slope downward and backward, and become thinner as they approach the heels. The heels (Fig. 7, i, i, ) are the two protuberant por- tions of the wall by which it is terminated pos- teriorly. The wall here is shortest and thinnest, the fibers being only about an inch in length, and not exceeding the fourth of an inch in thickness. While, in its natural state, there is some degree of elasticity in the entire wall, there is much more in the portion that covers the heels. The bars (Fig. 7,/, /,) are reflections of the wall in toward the center of the foot, on its ground surface. They gradually approach each other, and come together a little in front of the center of the foot. The bars are usually regarded as parts of the sole, but maceration shows them to be separable from the sole, but inseparable from the wall. In the natural, healthy foot, that has never been shod, the" bars appear as sharpened prominences, like braces, between the center of the foot and the heels. The best writers agree that they are well adapted to keep the heels open, and prevent contraction of the hoof. In the unshod foot, the bars have a bearing upon the ground, second only to that of the edge of the wall. The sole (Fig. 7, d, d, d,) fills the space between the wall and the bars. It is in the form of an irregular arched plate, the concavity being toward the ground. It is firmly attached, by its outer convex edge, to the inner surface of the solar border of the wall, while its inner straight edges are attached to the bars. It has been described as joining the frog, but throughout its whole extent the bars intervene between the sole and the frog. The center of the sole is the thinnest portion of it, and it also constitutes the summit of the arch. The lower circumference of the arch, which is also the thick- est and strongest, everywhere abuts against the sides of the wall. The result of this mechanism is, that at every step, as the weight is thrown upon the foot, the coflln bone descends, elongat- ing the elastic fibrous tissue connected with the sensitive laminae, and, pressing upon the highly elastic tissue of the sensitive sole, which rests upon the arch of the horny sole, causes the latter to yield and descend. The wall being elastic, especially toward the heels, is readily pressed outward, so that the ground surface of the foot is larger while bearing the weight than it is when the pressure is removed. Whenever the weight is taken off, the wall springs back, and the sole recovers its arched form. By this means the step is rendered elastic, jarring is obviated, and injury to the sensitive sole and sensitive frog is prevented. The frog (Fig. 7, h ,k,l,)iaa, wedge- like mass filling the angular space between the bars, and consists not of solid horn, as might at first seem, but of a series of elastic arches. It has been not inaptly compared to an elastic keystone received into an elastic arch, communicating in some cases, and admitting in all, the springing movements of which such an arch is capable. The base of the frog lies between and connects the posterior curved portions of the hoof, limiting to some extent their action. The sides are con- nected with the bars by their upper edges, leav- ing \ipon the ground surface two deep channels between the lower border of the bars and frog, which have been termed the commissures of the frog (Fig. 7, g). The horny material arching over these channels is called the arch of the com- missures. In the center of the frog, as we look upon its ground surface, is a deep, narrow depression, the cleft of the frog, (Fig. 7, k,) wliich extends further into the soft tissues of the foot than the commissures. This cleft is arched over in a similar manner, and, the cone-like mass, as viewed on its inner upper surface, has received the name of frog stay or bolt. Looking upon both the exterior and interior suirf ace of the frog, we see that with the bars it forms three elastic foldings, which act as springs to keep the heels apart and the foot well spread. In the natural, unshod foot, the frog, though protected to some degree by the solar border of the waU and by the sharp prominences of the bars,, must still receive pressure at each step. '1 he order of force in which the different parts of the foot press the ground in walking, running, etc., has been stated to be as follows: First, the solar border of the wall; second, the bars; and third, the frog. In the foot that has never been shod the frog has nearly if not quite as much pressure in the full step as the wall. In rapid stepping, the edge of the wall, which is nearest the point of the coffin bone, receives the first force of the blow, while the frog, which mainly rests upon the elastic heels, a much more yielding substance, receives the weight as the foot settles back to its level. The effect of pressure is to flatten the arches of the commissures and cleft, to widen the frog, throw out the heels, and keep the foot freely expanded. The elasticity of the step of the horse is the result of a highly compound arrangement^flrst, the elasticity of the sensitive laminse ; second, the greater elasticity of the sen- sitive sole; third, the elasticity of the homy wall; fourth, the arch of the sole; and, fifth, the triple spring formed by the foldings of the frog and the manner of its union with the bars. The movements of the foot are produced by two sets of muscles, flexors and extensors, similar to the distribution of a single finger in man. The HORSK'S LIMBS AND FEET 505 HORSE'S LIMBS AND FEET flexors are two in number, and are situated upon the posterior aspect of the leg. In the fore legs these muscles are the flexor sublimis perfm-atus, (Fig. 6, 6,) and the flexor profutidus perforana, (Fig. 6, 7,) also called in works on farriery flexor pedis peiforaius and flea-or pedis perfo- rana; also familiarly designated as the common and deep flexor muscles. These muscles take their origin in common from the internal protu- berance of the humerus, and are united for a considerable distance down the arm, when they separate to form two distinct tendons. Of these, that belonging to the perforatus runs beneath the annular ligament of the carpus, to be inserted into the upper and back part of the lower pastern or coronet bone. Just before reaching the pastern joint, this tendon divides, to allow the tendon of the perforans to pass through it. Each division where it plays over the joint has in it a sesamoid bone. The ten- don of the perforans, lying deeper above, passes between the divided tendon of the flrst-named muscle, to be inserted into the posterior concav- ity of the cofliu bone. Attached to this tendon, as it passes over the joint formed by the coronet and cofliu bones, is the navicular bone, consid- ered as a sesamoid bone in this tendon. Two supplementary flexors, the accessores, are de- scribed as arising from the posterior and inferior aspect of the ulna and the radius, and uniting below with the two main flexors. These mus- cles flex the foot upon the leg. As antagonists to these, there are three extensor muscles situated upon the front of tlie leg, corresponding to the extensor communis digitonim and extensor minimi digiti of the human arm. The extensor com- munis, otherwisa called in hippotomy extensor pedis, arises from the external condyle of the humerus, and from contiguous fascia, and from the upper and lateral part of the radius, and has a strong, fleshy belly, which terminates in a single tendon which passes down over the front of the leg to be inserted into the coronal process of the last phalanx — the coflBn bone. It unites by a slip with the tendon of the next muscle. The eictensor proprius minimi digitiis represented in the horse by two muscles. One of these, called the extensor of the pastern, is inserted by a strong tendon into the side of the first phalanx, the pas- tern bone. The second muscle, placed between the two preceding muscles, furnishes a strong tendon which passes down in front of the carpus and becomes united with the communis at an acute angle. The united tendon (Fig. 6,5) passes behind the cjronary border of the hoof to its insertion in the cotfln bone. The office of these mmcles is to extend the foot upon the leg. Another muscle, the adductm- longus pollicis, called in hippotomy the oblique extensor of the cannon, by its insertion into the base of the can- non bone, acts as an extensor of the foot. A similar arrangement exists in the muscles of the hind leg. The tendon of the plantaris, of great strength, has a divided insertion corresponding to that of Xheflsxor subdmis perforatus of the fore leg, while the fljxor perforans sends its single strong tendon between the two divisions of the preceding muscle to be inserted into the terminal phalanx. These flexors of the foot are assisted by the tendon of the flexor hallucis, which unites with the tendon of the perforans. The extensor tendon of the hind leg, of great strength, is fur- nished mainly by the extensor communis muscle. The extensor bi'evis is represented by a few fibers which come from the cannon bone, and unite with the tendon of the communis. The united tendon passes, as the corresponding one of the fore leg (Fig. 6, 5) to its insertion in the coffin bone. The arteries of the foot are branches of the radial, in the fore, and of the tibial in the hind legs. The former descends along the radius, accompanied by the radial nerve, to a point a little above the knee, where it divides into the large and small metacarpal arteries. Of these the large metacarpal is the principal trunk, pass- ing under the posterior annular ligament. While passing down the cannon bone it divides into three branches. The middle one is distributed to surrounding tissues, while the other two become the plantar arteries, internal and external. The plantar arteries of the fore leg result from a division of the metacarpal, and in the hind leg from a similar division of the metatarsal, and the terminal distribution is alike in both. They descend to the lower part of the cannon bone (Fig. 8) pass the fetlock joint by the side of the sesamoid bones, in company with veins and nerves of the same names, and pass into the substance of what is sometimes called the fatty frog. They then pass the extremities of the coffin bone and enter the foramina on the posterior concavitj' of the bone. (Fig. 4, a, a, a, a). The branches of the plantar arteries are very numerous, and no part of the body is more fully supplied with blood than the foot (Fig. 5). The veins of the foot constitute a very intricate net-work of vessels. The veins of the frog, the sole, the laminae, the superficial and deep-seated coronary veins, unite Fig. a to form coronary and plantar plexuses (Fig. 8), from which are formed plantar veins, which, by their union, constitute metacarpal and metatarsal veins, which lie anterior to, and by the side of, the plantar arteries. Dissection of the horse's foot is shown at Fig. 8: 1, general integument, turned back; 3, fatty mass, forming a cushion behind the great pastern joint; 3, wall of hoof turned back, showing the vertically laminated processes pro- HORTICULTURE 506 HORTICULTURE jecting from its inner surface ; 4, section of -wall of hoof; 5, the articulation between the cannon and pastern bones; 6, 6, 6, aponeurotic tissues; 7, 7, extensor tendon of the foot; 8, 9, 10, flexor ten- dons of the foot; 11, 13, 13, 14, 15, expansion of the great cartilage of the foot; 16, the coronary band raised from the hoof; 17, the vascular or sensitive hoof; 18, elastic cushion of the heels; 19, 20, 2], plantar artery; 22, 23, plantar veins; 35, part of coronary venous plexus raised from its position; 26, 37, 38, plantar nerves. The nerves of the foot are known by names corresponding to those of the blood-vessels which they accom- pany. The plantar nerves (Fig. 8) lie by the side ■of and behind the corresponding artery, and, as they descend into the' foot, are distributed to the same organs and regions. The final branches •enter the foramina in the coffin bone, minutely subdivide in it, pass through its many canals, and ■escape at the edges of the sole to the sensitive parts of tljie foot, in company with the terminal twigs of the arteries as shown in figure five. HORSE-TAIL. The genera Equisetum, or scouring rush, and Eippuris, remarkable for the large amount of silica they contain. They grow in rich, wet places, and are of value for polishing. HORTICULTURE. In defining agriculture, in another part of this volume, we stated it as embracing all that pertained to the working of the earth, dividing it into two great branches, husbandry and horticulture. This latter is again subdivided into pomology, vegetable gardening,' the raising of nursery stock, floriculture and landscape gardening. These are the most ele- gant, as they are the most fascinating employ- ments relating to agriculture. Horticulture is never practiced by man, until husbandry has become a true art, nor until such a state of civilization exists in a nation, as not only to call for great variety in the culinary art, but elegance and ornament about the homes of the people. Ancient horticulture was but crude as compared with modern, as was their civilization, if we except the unqualified superiority of Greek sculpture, and not until within the last one hundred years has horticulture become more than a crude art, either in the superior variety of fruits culti\ated, the excellence of vegetables, or in the talent displayed in the adornment of the landscape. Horticulture, like agTiculture,not only has its practical but its scientific sense also. The uniting of the practical with the scientific is what makes the finished workman in every art or profession in life. Thus, horticulture was divided by the late W. C. Flagg, one of the most eminent horticultural writers of the West, while President of the Illinois Horticultural Society, into distinct branches, and grouped together, from which we extract, (Illinois being implied, but wljich with allowances for soil and climate will do' generally for the West): I. Use- ful, comprising Fruit Growing, which includes : orchard culture ; vineyard culture; small fruits and theii- culture. Vegetable or market garden- ing, including vegetables cultivated for their roots or tubers, as potatoes, onions, beets, etc. ; vegetables cultivated for their leaves or stems, as cabbage, asparagus, etc. ; vegetables cultivated for their fruit, as tomatoes, melons, peas, etc. Tree Growing, including hedging; belts, or wind breaks; timber plantations and woodlands; nursery culture. II. Ornamental, comprising ornamental tree planting; flower gardening; land- scape gardening. III. Scientific, comprising collections of fruits, vegetables, trees, flowers, and plants generally, made not so much for profit or ornamentation, as for experiment and to gratify a scientific taste. Horticulture requires special attention to the choice of soil and climate. The soil for nearly every horticultural product should be warm, deep, dry, and not too rich in humus, nor yet too sandy. The chief difficulties of tree growth in the northern part of the State and in States farther north, seem to be rather of the soil than of the climate. The soil, in some cases, is so loose as to freeze to the depth of six feet in hard winters, and very imperfectly protects any plant standing in it through the winter, whilst so rich as to start a late growth on very little provocation. Soil of a finer and closer texture would evidently be preferable in both respects. Our best soils, as a rule, are those of lighter color, on which forest trees are growing, or will most readily grow. The situation for all horti- cultural purposes should be as elevated as possi- ble above the surrounding country, so as to avoid the late frosts of spring and the early frosts of autumn; and that the winds may have access during the humid, Still heats of early summer, which are detrimental to most horticultural .growths. It should be distinctly under- stood that the summer needs of the fruit tree and its fruits are plenty of air and sunshine. Horticulture demands foresight. The question of a market for one's products, of the varie- ties of fruit that will be profitable twenty years hence, but that must be chosen and planted this year; of the future efEect of a clump of trees, and the prospective value of a given kind for lumber; these and many other points involving one's future prosperity and success must all be forecast by one who would proceed wisely and well. Lord Bacon said that, he who hath a wife and children hath given hostages to fortune. Hardly less is this the case with him who plants an orchard, a vineyard, or a forest. Horticul- ture, in all or nearly all its branches, demands very deep and thorough preparation of the soil for its best success. Shallow culture on most soils is to be deprecated in agriculture, much more so in horticulture, where the ground in some cases will not be replanted for many years, and where, in any event, the expense of seeding and culture per acre is much greater than in agriculture. But where deep preparation" of gi'ound is for any reason omitted, continuous stirring of the surface in clay soils, at least, has an excellent result, and probably for manjr smaller plants is a good, if not sufficient substi- tute. Of useful horticulture fruit growing is the branch most attractive to the masses of the people, and perhaps, as a rule, the most profit- able. Of these, orchard fruits comprise the apple, pear, quince, peach, nectarine, cheny, apricot, and occasionally other fruits growing on trees planted in order in a separate plantation or field. Of these we must say, in their favor, that once established they require comparatively little care in their after culture, and in many cases yield their fruit year by year gratuitously. On the other hand, they are less easily protected from sudden changes of weather than vines or shrubs, or from the attacks of insects and dis- eases. Of these orchard fruits, the apple is in most civilized countries the most important, and HORTICULTURE 507 HORTICULTURE probably as ancient as any. It is found in tlie remains of the lake dwellings of the Neolitliic period, apparently cultivated. The pear is also widely distributed, but gives evidence in a greater variety of names of having been domesticated by more different nations. But it seems less flexible in its organization, and in the New World, at least, not to withstand extremes of humidity and dryness, of heat and cold nearly so well as the apple. The quince may be grown at a profit, at least in small quantities.in the damper and richer soils. The success of a few, and the fact that it blossoms late and so avoids frost, would seem an argument that it can and will be more extensively grown in the years to come. But if so, it should be grown as a bush, and not with a trunli. The peach, south of 40° at least, is sufficiently hardy to be cultivated with moderate profit in many localities, and in some places large returns may be realized. This fruit, which is referred to by Confucius, and also, says De CandoUe, mentioned as early as the tenth century before Christ, is believed by later authors to be a modified form of the almond. For growing the peach the most favorable points .should be selected; such as the heights of the bluffs along our great rivers, the tops of the hills, the mounds, and other elevated points. The varieties having large blcssoms seem to be almost invariably the hardiest. The cherry, in one or more of Its varieties, is grown throughout the State, and occasionally with considerable profit. The hardy varieties of Early Richmond and Common Morello may be grown almost any- where and under great neglect. The sweet cherries can be grown in many localities where the subsoil is open and the upper soil not too rich. But the cherry needs a cool summer for the best results, and the buds of the sweet cherry are often nipped by the frost. The plum is quite tender in the bud, except in the Chickasaw, from whose varieties we may expect our best and most complete success in plum growingj just as we have found to be the case with native rather than foreign grapes. Vineyard culture has been wonderfully advanced, both by the discovery and dissemination of more reliable varieties, and in a better teaching and practice of modes of culture. The grape is a profitable fruit, but demands inexorably high culture, timely pruning, training, and pinching. Yet, its culture is snecially attractive to the cultivated taste, and remunerative to the good manager. The Ameri- can grape is a fi-uit of wide range. The frost grape grows as far north as latitude 50°, three degrees farther north than Quebec, on the Sas- katchawan; and the Southern Fox and summer grapes extend down quite to the southern ex- tremity of the United States. Consequentl}^ if we can guard against some of the extremes of cold, which are injurious to the vine, by cover- ing with loose earth, or even laying close to the ground, and can secure the leaves and fruit against the cool nights and hot humidity of the growing season, we can grow grapes nearly everywhere. Our continbntal climate is one of great extremes. Humboldt, in his Cosmos, inti- mates that we are fated, as Dante says in the third canto of the Purgatorio : To suffer torments both of cold and heat, or, as Milton has it, condemned To feel by tnra the bitter change Of fierce extremes; extrenftjs by change more fierce. We can not fully guard against these extremes, especially the saturation of soil and atmosphere that sometimes takes place in the season of most rapid growth. It is a curious fact, by the way, that some of the finest fruit is grown in these regions of greatest extremes. The finest apples of Russia are said to come from the Crimea, where the thermometer goes up to 100° of sum- mer heat, and the cold of winter is intense. The like is true of the finest fruit countries of Asia, which are all, presumably, continental in their cli- mates The small fruits, includingunder that name the strawberry, raspberry, blackbeiTy, currant, and gooseberry, (and we might include the cran- berry and whortleberry,) are in many respects desirable and valuable crops. The strawberry, from its early returns, fruiting heavily one year from planting, is a desirable crop for the person of small means, or for any one desiring early returns. As it is a low plant, its conditions can be more easily controlled than those of any other fruit by mulching or covering. The raspberry and blackberry bear some fruit in the second year, sometimes amounting to a good crop, and are desirable for that reason. The currant and gooseberry come later into bearing, and are valuable chiefiy for their involving small expense in culture and being hardy and productive, rather than high-priced. The strawberry is, without doubt, the most valuable of the small fruits, and the raspberry least so. Vegetable or market gardening near the cities and large towns and to a certain extent where there are good facilities for shipping, is a remunerative though a laborious business, and is associated to a cer- tain extent with fruit growing to advantage. In many cases it borders close upon ordinary agriculture. But in many instances again it requires the best skill of the hoi-ticulturist for success. Vegetables grown for their roots or tubers are such as the beet, carrot, onion, par- snip, potato, radish, nita-baga, sweet potato, and turnip. Vegetables grown for their tops or stems, are such as the asparagus, cabbage, cauli- flower, celery, and rhubarb. Vegetables grown for their fruit are the bean, corn, cucumber, egg-plant, melon, pea, squash, tomato, and watermelon. Tree growing, for timber and other purposes, comes late in horticultural pro- gress, and does not look to very immediate results. Yet the attention given to it by govern- ments and Individuals in the Old World, evinces its importance and warns us to provide for the future of our own country. Wc should have trees gi-owing on every declivity too steep for profitable cultivation, and on the west side, at least, of every farm. Hedging, under the impetus it has received from the high prices of fencing, and from the better knowledge of its management is getting on satisfactorily, and the abundant and cheap supply of Osage Orangle plants, is fast surrounding our prairie, and even our forest farms with a living wall. The Osage Orange is the surest, and, so far north as its culture can be safely carried, seems to be the best. Very beautiful as an ornamental hedge, and perhaps sufficient for a fence, is the Pijnis Japonim. As in other horticu'tuve, deeii and thorough preparation of ground, careful plant- ing, and clean cultivation are prime necessities. Belts or wind breaks have been highly extolled and somewhat planted in our prairies. For these belts immediate utility and rapid growth HORTICULTURE 508 HORTICULTURE are generally prime requisites, and hence trees of an inferior quality of timber, such as the soft maple, cottonwood, white willow, etc., are planted. But it is evident that evergreens and some of the better deciduous trees should be planted under their lee, to finally replace them. Ornamenta! horticulture, though very attractive, of course, makes comparatively slow advance in any new country. It appeals to the aesthetic part of our nature, and, therefore, can only receive due attention after hunger is satisfied, and the more immediate necessities of life pro- vided for. Ornamental tree planting, with the exception perhaps of some faint attempt at flower growing — the pathetic effort of a wife or daughter to redeem the arid desert of a corn and hog-grower's front yard, naturally comes first. An ornamental tree or shmb, in a farmer's eye has the immense advantage after once estab- lished, of taking care of itself. In ornamental tree planting we may plant many trees not very valuable on account of their beauty of form or foliage. The white elm is a conspicuous ex- ample of this kind. The linden is one of the finest, and the white and burr oak are magnifi- cent species, combining the picturesque with the beautiful. The study of these trees, singly and in mass; their characteristics of height and outline; shape of foliage; its shade of green and its autumn colors, as well as the effect of their blossoming, are Important as preliminary to the Souping and contrasts of landscape gardening. s a rule, trees of heavy foliage and dense shadow, like the catalpa and linden, with pen- dant rather than horizontal spray, as the white elm and the willow, and of varied tints, as the locust, in the different shades of Its younger and older leaves, or the sugar maple in its change from summer to autumn hues, are most admir- able for planting singly. Flower gardening can only be commended in its results. Modern art has compassed the globe, and brought to our homes the floral ti;easures of ancient Asia and the isles of the sea. But flower culture, attrac- tive as it is to the more refined tastes of woman, and all who sympathize with her, commends itself to us as one of the most innocent of amusements, and one of the most instructive and refining of pursuits. It has too — though that seems little thought of, its market value ; and the increasing demand for flowers by those who can not or will not grow them, will give an added interest to the occupation. Landscape gardening may be said to include the whole, of which ornamental trees and flower culture are parts. Here we bring under consideration the configuration of the surface; the surrounding landscape; the effects of grouping and massing trees, shrubs, and flowers of different colors and shades of color; the massing of single colors, and uniform outlines, and one knows not how many intricate festlietic questions. For land- scape gardening is painting in living colors. Longfellow addressing the children at their play, said Ye are better than all the poems That were ever sung scale insects, including the orange scale insect, and various eggsand larvae, especially those of the Colorado potato beetle, which, in the egg state, is preyed upon by a number of species of lady birds. They deposit their eggs in the midst of the- aphides, and, when hatched, the young larvse im- mediately commence feeding voraciously upon them, and continue to destroy them until they change to the pupa state; then they remain motionless, fastened to a leaf or branch, until they again change to the perfect insect — in this stage to feed on other insects and propagate their species. CkUocorus bimilneriis, a small black lady bird, with two red spots on its wing cover, is very useful in destroying bark lice, which are sa injurious to fruit trees. I have observed them early in the spring attacking the pine tree scale, ripping open the cases and devouring a few of the eggs, leaving the rest to fall to the earth when the trees are agitated by the wind, in this way destroying many of this injurious coccus. Exoehomus giiexi, a small red lady bird with twO' black spots is of similar habits. It is of great utility, by destroying the orange scale insect, which has proved so very destructive to the orange tree in Florida. If any farmer wishes ta satisfy himself as to the utility of the lady bird, he can easily do so. By minutely examining his rose bushes in the summer, when covered with lice, he will find an elongated bluish black insect, somewhat resembling an alligator in shape, with more or less orange or yellow spots^ on the back and sides. This is the larva of a red or black-spotted lady bird, and if placed under a tumbler with a fresh twig of the plant covered with plant lice, after a few days it will cease eating, fasten itself to a leaf, shed its skin, and assume the pupa state ; and in a few days more change again into the perfect insect. As a means of illustrating some of the more common species of these beneficial insects, we give a series of cuts — beetles, larva and eggs — with explanations from one of Dr. C. V. Riley's. Missouri Reports, which says : In the egg state; Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. the Colorado potato beetle is preyed upon by no. less than four distinct species of lady birds. Foremost among them is the Spotted lady bird (Hippodamia maculiitii, DeGeer) which is one of our most common species and is of a pink color, marked with large black spots as in Figure 1. Next comes the Nine-spotted ladybird (CoccineUa 9-notata, Herbst) which is of a brick-red color and marked with nine small black spots as in Fig. 2. Next, the Thirteen-spotted lady bird (lEppodamia lH-piinctata, Linn.) which is also of a brick-red color but marked with thirteen black spots as in Fig. 3. (To these we have added the black, two-spotted lady bird, CMlacorus bimil- nerus. Leach, Fig. 4. This is black, with a red dot on each wing cover and is useful in destroy- ing the lice of the apple, plum and other tree's. Bat.) And last but not least, the little species fig- LAMELLA 543 LANCASHIRE SWINE ured at 5 wbicli may be known as the Conver- gent lady bird (Hippodamia convergem, Guer), and which is of an orange- red color marked with black and white as in the figure. This last specius alone has been of im- mensi benefit in checking' the ravages of potato bee- tles. Its larva is represented of the natural size at Fig. 5 II. its colors being blue, orange and black ; when full grown it hangs by the tail to the under side of a stock or leaf and transforms into a pupa represented at Figure 5, b. In this state it is of the e.xact color of the Color- ado beetle larva and is doubtless quite often mistaken for that larva and ruthlessly destroyed. It may readily be distinguished however by its quiescence, and let every potato grower learn well to recognize it and spare its life ! The larvae of all these lady birds are more bloodthirsty in their habits than the perfect beetles, and the larva of the little Convergent lady bird is so essentially cannibal that whenever other food fails, it will turn to and devour the helpless pupse of its own kind. All these larvEe bear a strong general re- semblance, and with the aid of Fig. 5, a and Fig. 6, a good idea may be obtained of them. They run with considerable speed, and may be found in great numbers upon almost any kinds of herbage. The larvae of certain species that prey upon the Hop Plant-louse in the East are well known to the hop- pickers as black niggers or ser- pents, and are carefully preserved by them as some of their most effi- cient friends. The eggs of lady birds greatly resemble those of the Colorado potato heetle, and are scarcely distinguishable except by their smaller size and by a much smaller number being usually collected together in a single group. As these eggs are often laid in the same situation as those of the potato-feeding in- sect, care must be taken by persons who under- take to destroy the latter, not to confound those of their best friends with those of their bitterest enemies. LADY-BUG. (See Lady birds.) LIDT'S M4.NTLE. Plants of the genus AlchenuiUa; they are slightly astringent, but wholesome. LADY'S SLIPPER. Flowers of the genus Cypripedium, of great beauty. " LADY'S TRESSES. Small orchideous plants of the genus Spirantlies, of no importance. -L.i;VIS. Smooth. • LAGEN^FORM. Bottle-shaped. LAGOON. A shallow lake, into which the sea flows. LAGOPUS. The genus containing the grouse and similar birds feathered down to the toes. LAMBDOIDAL SUTDKE. The line of junction between the bone at the back of the head (occipital) and the side bone (parietal). LAMB SKINS. Their value depends on the fineness, brightness, and color of the wool, black being most esteemed. The skin is exten- sively employed in making gloves. LAMB'S LETTUCE. Com salad. LAMB'S QUARTER. (See Goose-foot.) LAMELL.X. The gills of mushrooms. Kg. 6. LAMELLICORNS. A division of pentame- rous beetles, in which the short antennfe are inserted into a deep fossa at the side of the head; the body is ovoid and heavy ; the anterior part of the head is commonly dilated, and projects; the mentum is large, covering the labrum or incorporated with it, and bearing the pupi. They are very numerous, and feed on excre- ments, rotten wood, and roots. LAMINA. The flat surface of a leaf . LAMIN.3E. A tribe of longicorn beetles, dis- tinguished by a vertical head, filiform palpi, antennae bristly and simple, thorax nearly equal throughout; some species are apterous. LAMINATED. Rolled or beaten to thin leaves or foil. LaMINITIS. (See Founder.) LAMPAS. The horse is subject to various local inflammations in and around the mouth, which prevents the proper chewing of the food, causing working of the jaws, ejection of the food, and often drooling of saliva from the mouth. Persons who do not apprehend the real cause apply to the nearest horse doctor (?) who, in his ignorance, burns the lampas out. Lampas is an active inflammation of the fleshy bars of the roof of the mouth, not unusual in young horses while shedding their teeth. Some- times they swell so much as to project beyond the nippers, and are so tender that hard food is refused. Scarifying the bars with a sharp lan- cet, so they will bleed slightly, is the proper remedy. If this does not suflice, touch the inflamed parts with a stick of lunar caustic, or swab them with a strong solution of the same every day until they disappear, or the inflam- mation is reduced. The glands of the lower jaw sometimes encroach on the cavity of the mouth, through enlargement. The glands should be painted with iodine until the swelling disap- pears. This form of swelling is called Vives. Paps is a name given to swellings caused by obstructions of the salivary glands. Touching with a pencil of nitrate of silver once a day, until it disappears, is the remedy. In cutting teeth, the gums of young horses are swollen, as in the case of infants. Cutting down onto the teeth with a sharp knife will give relief. Old horses are often supposed to have lampas, when the trouble is either decayed teeth, or from the increasing spaces between becoming filled with closely impacted food, so much sometimes that inflammation and even excoriation will ensue, causing foul breath. In fact, if the horse have a foul breath, the first thing to be looked for is decayed teeth, or else food lodged between. If decayed teeth are found extract them, if impacted food be found remove it and wash the parts with a solution of chloride of lime, in the proportion of one ounce of chloride of lime to a pint of water. LAMPBLACK. Fine charcoal obtained by imperfectly burning resins, etc. LAMPYRIN.E. A tribe of soft-skinned, ser- ricom beetles, characterized by palpi with enlarged terminations, a soft, straight, slightly depressed body, by the thorax projecting over the head, which it partially or wholly covers. LANATE. Covered with wool, or having the appearance of wool. LANCASHIRE SWINE. This is an English breed and it is divided into three sub-families. The Short-faced Lancashire, the Middle Breed, LANCASHIRE SWINE 544 LANDED ESTATES AND FABMS Lancashire, and the Large Lancashire. They are all pure white, and their characteristics, were described as follows, at a convention of Swine breeders in the "West : Until the fall of 1870 but little was known concerning this breed of hogs in the United States, but in England they have been known for over one hundred years. In 1767, at the First Manchester Agri- cultural Show, Manchester being in Lancashire, a hog of this breed was shown, taking the first prize in the class of White Swine. It is the representation of a hog of immense size, wit^ tremendous limbs, very coarse, and by no means an animal that would be approved of by the judges of the present day. Short-Faced Lancashire White Breed. — This breed of swine may be known by the following characteristics; The shortness of the face from the eyes to the end of the snout; prick ears; small bones; a good coat of white hair; cubic in form, with broad back and broad hams, well let down. The skin, as well as the hair, is white, although an occasional one may be found having a few dark-blue spots on the skin, but never dark or black hairs. Large Lancashire White Breed Swine. — This variety of swine have large bones, are of great height and length, and are the largest breed of swine known. They are a true breed, which is proved by the greatest wmners and most famous hogs being got by those who have won most prizes. Thus, Samson, Ranger, Victor, Great Western, Great Eastern, etc , etc. , hogs that won the First Royal All England Prizes, are the sires and dams of the present winners, and the size and quality descend from generation to generation — the quality being improved by judicious selection. Lancashire Middle Breed White Swine. — This breed is one which partakes of the quality of the small breed and the size of the large breed. Middle bred hogs are got by crossing large bred sows with small bred boars, but all attempts to attain the same results by reversing this operation, and putting large bred boars to small bred sows have proved failures. The largest of the middle bred sows are used to improve the large breed. Their characteristics are as follows: The small bred hog must have small bones; a short face; silky hair; fine, small, upright ears; a comparatively square form; must have good square hams, the most valuable part of the hog; must carry the meat near the ground; flat on the back; straight and cubic in form. Large Breeds. — Must be of large size; great length; flat back, with large square hams when fattened; must carry their width of back along over the hams; must have deep and tolerably straight sides, large feet and leg bones; hair short; may have a long face, but it had better be short, as they fatten better; may have a large, drooping ear, but, other qualities and size being equal, an upright, smaller ear preferred. They usually have a long, thick, strong tail ; must be of great weight when fat- tened, and above all must be descended from a hog having the foregoing qualities, and, if a breeder, must produce them. They are short of hair, but still are hearty. A middle bred hog must have a short face, and all other good qualities of the small breed, except that they may be longer in proportion to their width; must have thicker legs and longer bones to carry the greater size; should be well haired, fattening to full form often causes the hair to temporarily fall off, which must be allowed for. As good a short rule as can be adopted to judge them by is as follows: The best middle bred hog should have the most possible of all the qualities of the small breed, with the length, and, in a measure, the larger bones of the large breed. LANCEOLATE. Lance-shapsd, oblong, and gradually tapering to the ends. ^ LAN I). In agriculture, the bed, between two water furrows, LAN1)E1> ESTATES AND FARMS. As a nation increases in wealth the acquirement of large landed estates seems to become a passion among the wealthy. In Great Britain, the accum- ulation of land by the wealthy has been carried to such an extent that the entire land of the country is held by less'than 50, 000 individuals in a population of over 30,000,000. The same rule holds good, though not to the same extent, in other European countries except in France, where the land is generally held in small areas. In the United States, within the last ten years, the same passion has taken root among a certain class of wealthy Americans, and bodies of land running from one thousand to hundreds of thousands of acres, are now held by individuals. Yet, from the fact, that in this country, we have no law of primogeniture, the estates are eventually sub- divided and disintegrated. In England there are 33,342,000 acres of land. This vast area of land fifteen years ago, was owned by less than 44,000 proprietors. In Scotland there are 19.738,930 acres of land. It is owned by 4,000 proprietors. Within the last fifteen years these accumulations have steadily gone forward, and the accumula- tions have become greater and greater in indivi- dual hands. In France, the waste land in 1826 was one-twelfth of the whole surface, 10,000,000 acres; and since that time improvements have steadily been carried forward. In 1850 there were but 5,000,000 acres of waste land, and now there is scarcely an acre but has its money value, either in the crops it produces, in timber and brush wood, or in other valuable products. In many countries the pastoral lands form the chief wealth of the country; such are the steppes of Asia, the grazing regions of South Africa, Austra- lia and South America, where herds may live the year round. Corresponding to these are the plains of the United States, extending from the Mexican boundary on the south, to the British possessions on the north, and from the twenty-first meridian of longitude west of Washington to the Pacific ocean, comprising an area of over 1,000,000,000 acres, which is covered with rich grasses, a con- siderable portion of it now occupied with fertile farms; the mountain ranges rich in timber, and with inexhaustible mines of both the precious and baser metals beneath the surface. In Colorado, Wyoming and mountainous Utah, the first cattle were shipped east from these mountain and valley ranges, and now vast herds are there raised, feeding winter and summer on the bunch, and other nutritious grasses th^t retain their sub- stance even when dry. This country is bisected into nearly equal portions by the lofty and snowy range of Sierra Madre, or Mother of Moun- tains, of the old Spanish explorers. This moun- tain range, in its windings, measures fully fifteen hundred miles in length, and from its snow- covered tops a thousand streams take their rise and plentifully water its mountain slopes. It ia here that the Rio Grande, the Red, the Arkansas, LANDED ESTATES AND FARMS 645 LANDED ESTATES AND FARMS the Plattes, the Yellowstone, and the Missouri on the east, and the Columbia, the Sacramento, the Humboldt, the Green, and the Colorado on the west, with their many tributaries, take their sources in the everlasting snows. The soil of the country is produced by the disintegration of the limestone, sandstone and granite ridges of this mountain range, and it is therefore, dry, gravelly, and porous, except on the border of the streams. Along the streams the soil is a dark mold, formed from the decomposition of the vegetation growing on the mountains. The grasses of the wide plains and valleys and the lower mountain sides are the bunch, buSalo, grama, mesquite, and in some valleys the blue-joint, red-top, and wild rye grass. The grasses grow and flourish up to the timber and snow line — to an altitude of 10,000 feet. In addition to the grasses, there is a great variety of sweet, tender, and aromatic herbage, upon whicli sheep and goats delight to browsb. Of the arteraisia there are twelve to fifteen varieties, of which the wild sage furnishes five or six. There are four or five varieties of sheep-sorrel ; and of the' wild pea- vine there is an extensive family. There are also many kinds of the wild dock and the balm. The climate of this region is much like that of Asia. The rain- fall is light, being about eight inches annually in the country west of the Missouri river and east of the Sierra Nevada Mountains; while the snow fall, at the altitude of 7,500 feet, is only two feet. The fall of snow at any one time is small, and never lies on the ground to afEord sleighing or to cover the grasses. The rainy season is in May and June, and after these months the only i-ain that falls is from electrical showers. While the rain is falling in May and June, vegetation grows luxuriantly; but, when the rains cease, the grasses gradually dry on the ground, so that by the time the frosts come, in September, they have become perfectly cured uncut hay. The post surgeon at Fort Kearney, says of the country surrounding that post: The average tempera- ture for the year 1868 was 53° Fahrenheit. Snow does not remain any length of time. The report from North Platte station. Union Pacific Railroad, states that the climate is healthful, and the extremes of temperature, on account of the dry and rarefied atmosphere, are well borne. The rain and snow fall are small. From Fort Sedgewick, Dr. Monroe, United States Army, reports: The mean temperature for 1869 was 50° Fahrenheit, rain-fall 8.9 inches, snow-fall 10.83 inches. The atmosphere is usually dry. The prevailing winds are from the west. From Fort D. A. Russell, near Cheyenne, at the base of the Rocky mountains, at an altitude of 6,100 feet, Dr. C. H. Alden, United Stj,tes Army, reports: The mean temperature for the past two years, 1868 and 1869, has been 46.53° Fah- renheit; average rain-fall for the past two years, 6.35 inches. From Fort Laramie, "Wyoming Territory, Dr. Schell, United States army, writes: The mean annual temperature is 50.6°. The climate is healthy, autumn and win- ter mild, summer dry and sultry, spring usually rainy. Dr. W. E. Waters reports from Fort Bridger, in the extreme western portion of Wyom- ing: The climate is temperate and salubrious the greater part of the year; the weather during the fall months is mild and delightful, excepting a few storms of short duration. During the months of May and June there is a greater rain- 35 fall than in all the other months. The rain-fall for the last year amounted to 7.97 inches. Dr. F. L. Town, of Port Shaw, Montana Territory, in latitude 47° 30' north, writes: The climate of the Territory is exceedingly dry all the year round. The aggregate fall of rain and snow (melted) for the year 1868 was 10.14 inches. LANDED ESTATES AND FARMS 546 LANDED ESTATES AND FARMS Snow rarely lies on the ground long after a storm. The mean temperature for 1869 was 47.35" Fahrenheit. This shows conclusively that the climate is uniformly dry, tliat the rain and snow-fall is small, as in the interior of other continents, where winter grazing has been generally common through all historic periods. The total area of laud in the United States, as reported by the Land Commissioners, was esti- mated at 3,943,357 square miles, or 1,883,744,000 acres; or, if we include the Indian Territory, 3,010,377 square miles, equal to 1,926,636,800 acres. The following table will show, by States and Territories, the acres of cultivated and uncul- itvated farms in 1850 and 1860: Acres of improved Acresof unimproved States and land in larms. land in farms. 1850. 1860. i 18.50. 1860. Maine ;J,039,596 2,677,216 2,515,797 3,023,5.39 New Hampshire. 2,251,488 2,367,039 1,140,926 1,377,591 Vermont 2,601,409 2,758,443 1,524,413 1,403,396 Massachusetts.. 3,1:13,436 2(155,512 1,222,576 1,188,212 Rhode Island... 356,487 3i0.884 197,451 189,814 Connecticut — 1,768,178 1,830,808 615,701 673,457 New York 12,408,964 14,376,397 6,710,120 6,616,553 New Jersey 1,767,991 1,944,445 ■ 984,985 1,039,086 Pennsylvania . . 8,628,619 10,463,306 !i,294,728 6,548,847 Delaware 580,862 637,065 375,282 387,230 Maryland 2,797,905 3,002,269 1,836,445 1,833,306 Dist. Columbia . 16,267 16,267 11,187 16,789 Virginia 10,360,135 11,435,954 15,792,176 19,578,946 North Carolina. 5,453,975 6,517,284 15,543,008 17,245,685 Soutli Carolina. 4,072,651 4,572,060 12,145,049 11,633,860 Georgia 6,378,479 8,062,758 16,442,900 18,587,732 Florida 349,049 676,464 1,246,240 2,273,008 Alabama 4,435,614 6,462,987 7,702,067 12,687,913 Mississippi 3,444,358 5,150.008 7,046,061 11,703,556 Louisiana 1,590,025 2,734,901 3,399,018 6,765,879 Texas 643,976 2,649,207 10,853,363 20,486,990 Arkansas 781,530 1,933,036 1,816,684 7,609,938 Tennessee 5,175,173 6,897,974 13,808,849 13,457,960 Kentucky 5,968,270 7,644,217 10,981,478 11,519,059 Ohio 9,851,493 12,665,587 8,146,000 8,075,551 Michigan 1,929,110 3,419,861 2,454,780 3,611,581 5,046,543 8,161,717 7,746,879 8,154,059 Illinois 5,039,545 1,045,499 13,251,473 3,746,036 6,997,867 1,911.159 7,993,557 Wisconsin 4,153,134 Minnesota 5,035 554,397 23,846 2,222,734 Iowa 824,682 3,780,253 1.911,382 5,649,136 Missouri 2,938,425 6,246,871 6,794,245 13,737,939 372,835 2,430,882 1,284,626 California 32,454 3,861,531 6,533,858 Oregon 132,857 895,.S75 ;! 99,951 5,316,817 300,897 Utah 16,333 16,333 30,616 58,898 New Mexico — 166,201 16S,-i01 124,370 1,177,055 501,723 34,333 The older States have varied but little since. According to the report of the Commissioner of the General Land Office for 1878, the total area of the public domain was 1,814,772,648 acres, of which 724,311,447 acres had been surveyed, leaving 1,090,461,171 acres unsurveyed. Some of the unsurveyed lands are covered by inchoate titles that will inure to railway corporations and pre-emption settlers upon the completion of sur- vey, but the great mass of these unsurveyed lands are, as yet, entirely uncovered by any private claims, and are consequently open to settlement. Of the above .area of unsurveyed lands, 369,539,600 acres are in Alaska, of which a former Commissioner of the General Land Office, Mr. Joseph S. Wilfon, estimated that about 20,000 square miles or 12,800,000 acres are fit for some kind of agricultural settlement ; this is about half the area of Ohio. A large portion of the unsettled land west of the Mississippi river consists of broken mountain country and of arid alkali soil unfit for cultivation by any pro- cess now known. The Indian Territory, embrac- ing 44, 154, 240 acres, is reserved for the occupancy of Indian tribes, and hence it is not open to white settlement. Making all deductions, it is safe to estimate that of the unsurve3-ed lands there remain 500 million acres suitable for profitable culture and uncovered by private title of any kind. The annexed table will show the area in acres, the acres surveyed, and the acres appropriated, in 1874, of those States and Terri- tories containing public lands : States and Territories. California Dakota Territory Montana Territory.. New Mexico Terrify Arizona Territory. . . Nevada Colorado Wyoming Territory. Oregon Idaho Territory Utah Territory Minnesota Kant^&s Nebraska Washington Terrify Indian Territory. . Missouri Florida Michigan Illinois Iowa Wisconsin Alabama Arkansas Mississippi Louisiana Ohio Area in acres. 120,947,840 96,596,128 92,016,640 77,568,640 72,906,240 71,737,600 66,880,000 62,645,068 60,975,360 65,2-38,160 54,065,043 53,459,840 52,043,530 - 48,636,800 44,796,160 44,154,240 41,284.000 37,93i;520 36,128,640 35,462,400 35,228,800 34,511,360 34,462,080 33,406,720 30,179,840 26,461,440 25,576,960 Acres surveyed. 38,805,776 13,863,913 6,784,481 5,486,185 3,135,763 8,198,194 15,683,186 4,748,841 15,256,617 4,014,953 .5,984,792 35,897,912 45,770,685 32,372,410 10,190,046 22,332,725 41,284,000 29,345,870 36,138,640 35,462,400 35,228,800 34,511,360 34,463,080 33,406,720 a0,17i',840 23,909.253 25,576,960 Acres ap- propriated. 20,877,602 5,835,604 6,179,821 6,864,082 4,050,350 4,669,383 4,303,339 3,480,281 9,615.744 3,102,407 5,315.086 19,616,340 10,544,439 8 869,943 3,556,967 40,549,368 20.643,611 32,468,110 35,462,400 34,036,230 26,118,729 28,532,448 23,463,873 25,531,.387 20,033,897 25,576,990 Of the surveyed lands it is somewhat difficult to form anything like a satisfactory estimate. The public surveys have been completed in the States north of the Ohio river, in Alabama, Mississippi, and in all the States just west of the Mississippi river, except Minnesota. In Ala- bama there were 91,000 acres of United States land yet unoccupied and subject to entry in Crenshaw county, 85,000 in Monroe, 100,000 in Franklin, 46,000 in Conecuh, and smaller tracts in others. In Mississippi, Scott county reports 42,000 acres; Lauderdale, 40,000; and Winston, 30,000. In Florida, where 7,827,724 acres are still unsurveyed, Clay county reports 140,000 acres; Santa Rosa, 87,000; the southern coun- ties embracing the Everglades, have been to a small extent appropriated by private parties, though large areas have been donated to the State as swamp lands. Lousiana has 1,229,396 acres yet unsurveyed. Our correspondent re- ports 130,000 acres in Bienville, 39,000 in Clai- borne, and smaller tracts in other parishes. In Arkansas vast tracts of government land, all sur- veyed, are open to settlers ; about half of Garland county, 309,000 acres in Van Buren, 100,000 in Pike, and large bodies in other counties. Tlie.se Southern States probably still contain from fif- teen to twenty million acres of United States land open to settlers under the land laws, by pur- chase, pre-emption, and homestead titles. North of the phio riyer the government title has been LANDED ESTATES AND FARMS 54? LANDED ESTATES AND FARMS «xtmguished to all lands in Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, except a few isolated small tracts of refuse land. In northern Michigan several coun- ties still report vast bodies; Chippewa, 500,000 acres; Delta, 100,000; Alcona, 30,000, etc. Very large tracts are found in northern Wisconsin; ■Oconto and Lincoln counties are supposed to have upwards of a million acres; in the southern counties also large bodies are found unoccupied. In the absence of definite statistics it nia^- be safe to estimate the amount of government land in these States uncovered by private titles at from Ave to seven million acres. West of the Missis- sippi river, Minnesota, Nebraska, and Colorado still embrace 67,884,.5T9 acres of unsurvej'ed land, Iowa, Missouri, and Kansas having com- pleted their surveys. The total amount of sur- veyed land in these six States is 230,104,931 -acres. Of this area a very large amount has been donated to States and railway corporations, -and a very large area taken by private claimants. It is not unreasonable, however, to estimate that about 100,000,000 acres, or one-third the area of these States, remains at the disposal of the gen- •eral government. In the Territories of Dakota, Wyoming, New Mexico, Utah, Idaho, and Mon- tana, embracing an area of 438,119.680 acres, -about six-sevenths, or 373,748,118 acres, remain misurveyed, but of this area a considerable amount will inure to railway corporations as soon as the surveys are completed. Probably 250,000,000 acres of land suited to agricultural settement yet remain at the disposal of the gov- ernment. On the Pacific slope three States, California, Oregon, and Nevada, and two Terri- tories, Arizona and Washington, covering in all 851,408,000 acres, about five-sevenths, or 250,290,564 acres, remain unsurveyed. Indi- vidual or corporate title has attached to an area about equal to the surveyed lands, but of the remainder a large proportion is covered with mountain ranges, or with an arid climate, ren- dering it unfit for any kind of fanning except, perhaps, sheep farming. In regard to lands at the disposal of the different States, the informa- tion is less general or specific. None of our -correspondents found any such lands available for private settlement in the New England or Middle States. Craig county, Virginia, reports 2,000 acres. State lands undisposed of are also reported in several counties of North Carolina, -viz, Pamlico, Hyde, Graham, Bladen, Caldwell, Alleghany, Camden, Henderson, Tyrrel, Wilkes, -and Montgomery. Similar reports from Beau- fort, Colleton and Clarendon, in South Carolina. Camden, Georgia, reports 60,000 acres. All the ■Gulf States report considerable bodies of State land disposable in different counties. Texas on ier accession to the Union stipulated for the possession of her own public lands, and has con- sequently an immense domain open to settle- ment. The other Gulf States were all erected out of the public domain, and have been endowed by the general government with various land grants ufider the educational, swamp land, and other laws. Of the Southern inland States, only -Arkansas is a public land State, and hence has had numerous grants from the general govern- -ment, of which a considerable portion remains unsold. In Tennessee, where the unoccupied lands has been ceded to the Union b)'; North Carolina, the lands were found so covered by contradictory private claims that the general government ceded them to the State of Tenn- essee. Prom the returns we conclude that the mass of these lands have passed into private own- ership, as only two counties, Fentress and Meigs, note any remnant within their borders. West Virginia and Kentucky report no lands of this character. In Ohio no State land is reported ; in Indiana our correspondent, in Jasper county, reports 40,000 acres. In northern ^Michigan LANDED ESTATES AND FARMS 548 LANDED ESTATES AND FARMS large bodies of State lands are yet undisposed of. Wisconsin has largely disposed of her lands, yet several counties report from 10,000 to 30,000 acres. Minnesota has a large amount of State land undisposed of; only half the county of Crow Wing has passed into private ownership. Iowa has mostly disposed of her State lands. Consid- erable tracts are scattered through Missouri ; but Kansas, Nebraska, and Colorado present very large areas. The Territories have received but small endowments as yet, and consequently have but little to offer. On the Pacific coast numer- ous tracts of State land await disposal. Of lands granted for rail and wagon road construction the total area is 198,165,794 acres, of which 59,308,581 were granted to fourteen States, viz, Illinois, Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Kansas, California, and Oregon, in behalf of railways chartered by them. To the corporations commonly known as the Pacific roads were gianted about 135,000, 000 acres. The locality of many of the later donations can not be determined till the public surveys along their lines shall have been completed. The endow- ments vary in amount. The earlier roads, such as the Illinois Central, were allowed the odd numbered sections within six miles on either side of the road, and selections of odd numbered sec- tions between that limit and fifteen miles to replace sections within six miles to which prior riglits had attached. In some of the later grants the limits of the original and reserve tracts were increased to twenty and thirty miles respectively. Some of these grants have lapsed through failure of the grantees to comply with the conditions required by law. Of the above aggregate, 3,857;313 acres were granted to three States, viz, Wisconsin, Michigan, and Oregon, for military and wagon roads. Of unoccupied lands belong- ing to individuals, vast areas are reported in all sections of the Union. In the mountain and forest regions of the older States, for instance, we are informed that from half to three-fourths of whole counties are held, without occupation or cultivation of any kind, by private parties. Much of this represents valuable mineral lands, and other woodlands largely on mountain slopes. Such lands are to a small extent available for agriculture. There is no doubt that in a great many instances men have more real estate than they can profitably manage, and that many eligible farm tracts are available to purchasers from this source. Yet it is human nature to hold on to what is acquired as long as possible, and it must be confessed that the management of the great wheat growing farms in the North- west and the great cattle and sheep ranches on the plains, have been most admirable, so far as a good interest on the capital invested is con- cerned. As the country grows older, these investments will continue to pay less and less, until at length it will become imperatively neces- sary that these immense estates be subdivided into small estates. As showing the animus exhibited in acquiring these large estates, wo have shown, by illustrations, a stock ranch on the plains, an actual harvest scene in the North- west, a plantation scene in Texas, and also a round-up of cattle on the plains. The prices of farm lands, both cleared and timbered, were made subject of inquiry in several investigations. The following table shows the results of those inquiries for 1880. The first column gives the- States mentioned, except Rhode Island, from which there is no report ; the second column the- average value per acre of cleared land in 1880; the third column the average value per acre of timbered land, and the last column the average increase in value of both classes in one year : StateB. Maine New Hampshire.. Vermont Massachusetts .., Bhode Island Connectiont New York New Jersey Pennsylvania Delaware Marj;land Virginia North Carolina... South Carolina... Georgia Florida Alabama Mississippi Louisiana Texas Arkansas Tennessee Wett Virginia Kentucky Ohio Michigan Indiana Illinois Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa Missouri Kansas Nebraska California Oregon P- O Kl g g « 812 87 15 00 15 28 85 00 29 00 58 48 82 42 45 75 19 00 24 66 9 4-2 9 77 8 64 6 93 9 48 6 63 7 88 14 36 8 98 11 78 13 00 21 05 18 86 47 5S 34 89 30 46 33 03 26 07 14 45 27 36 14 52 11 82 8 93 27 16 21 71 S12 66 33 00 )7 73 43 25 21 50 40 88 66 82 29 70 15 00 35 50 7 48 6 63 8 24 5 45 3 03 4 08 3 78 3 53 4 00 3 48 7 28 9 39 12 82 41 87 20 27 26 90 23 68 111 55 12 25 39 36 8 26 19 12 25 85 8 56 4 50 as" Percent. 10 10 6 8 7 4.7 S.2 7 7.6 6.3 1.4. 6 9 10- 28 9 9 9 4.8- 7.3 8.7' 8 8.2' 8.5- 8 8.7 11 7 5 7.5- 1S.5 10.3 15.3 3.2- 2.6 It will be observed that every State shows am increased average value. A few counties report no change and still fewer a decline. The average- for the whole country is eight per cent, increase. New England reports an increase of eight per- cent. Timber lands here show a tendency to- advance in relative value, showing a growing- scarcity of this kind of lauds. In New Hamp- shire and Vermont the average value of timbered lands exceeds that of cleared • lands, while in Maine there is comparatively little difference. In Alabama, Mississippi and Louisiana wood, lands are comparatively lower. The proportion of urban to rural property and population is so- much greater, that the value of land depends more upon its market crops. In the Middle- States the average value of both classes of land, has advanced five per cent. The total area here is more than double that of New England. The advance in prices is mostly caused by the exten- sion of mining and manufacturing and is felt more strongly near the centers of those branches, of industry. Timber land also commands a higher price. In the oil regions quite an area, supposed to be rich in petroleum is held by speculators for higher prices. The South Atlan- tic States have advanced their land values six: per cent. Many counties report a very con- XANDED ESTATES AND FARMS 549 Landed estates and farms siderable appreciation from various causes. The increase in tobacco culture, the abundance and Jiigh price of the last cotton crop, manufacturing -and mining enterprises, etc., are mentioned as among the causes of this improvement. The ■Oulf States estimate a rise of eight per cent. The Florida figures, twenty-eight per cent. , are believed to be excessive, but the small area of farm land compared with other States in this section, renders tliis excess of little importance in the general estimate. On the other hand, the •estimate of Texas, 4.8 per cent., is evidently too low. In Florida, vast areas of timber land are just coming into market, and the special value •of the land depends not upon its adaptability for agriculture as for the timber to be cut off it. In all these States are large amounts of public lands available for settlement and purchase from the government. In the western counties the exodus of African laborers has caused some 3-eaction and caused some lands to be thrown this region, the latter at giant strides; but the advance in prices of farm lands in this region is evidently due to the immense crops of 1879. Several correspondents complain that timber land is becoming scarce, yet in all these States cleared land bears a higher average price. West of the Mississippi river farm lands increased ten per cent, in value. In the prairie States — Iowa, Kansas, and Nebraska — timber land bears a higher price than cleared land, and in these States a very considerable effort has been made to plant lands in timber. The rapid increase in population, together with the extension of man- ufacturing enterprise in these States, will account for the increase in farm values. The Pacific States show but three per cent, increase. In relation to the public domain of the United States, and the yearly surveys, in spite of the prodigal manner in which they have been given away in aid of public and private enterprises, there still remains a large body, surveyed and A TEXAS FARM. upon the market. The yellow fever also had its reactive influence. In several counties, a rapid denudation of timber lands is noted. The Southern inland States claim an improvement of nine per cent. In Arkansas the rapid increase ■of population and settlement will account for this improvement. In Tennessee and West Vir- ginia there has been a considerable increase in the mining population and in mining enterprise. The removal of colored laborers to Kansas has caused an influx of white labor. In these and in other Southern States it is noted that the freedmen arc becoming land-owners to an extent hitherto unexpected. North of the Ohio the enhancement in the value of lands was about nine per cent. An increased demand for real ■estate has sprung up under the operation of several causes. Mineral and manufacturing ■enterprise are advancing in different parts of unsurveyed, to be disposed of. This is exclusive of Alaska, which is not supposed to contain much land suitable for cultivation. The public lands surveyed during the year 1880 amounted to 15,699,253 acres, making, with previous survevs, a total of 752,557,195 acres in all survc^-ed, and leaving an estimated area of 1, 063,231, 7!37 yet to be surveyed. The annual survey is about double the number annually disposed of. How much really arable lands remain for the settler to take up can not, of course, be detennined from the land office reports, nor do the best authorities agree as to the proportion of good land to the whole domain. In respect to the amount of area susceptible of cultivation in the different coun- tries of Europe nature has been verv di\erse. Inaccessible and arid mountains, and lands sub- ject to overflow of the sea, constitute the greater portion of lands classed as not arable. The ' '''"'llilllil iTIIIilllll I' llllli I'liiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiii, I ' I I I ^ 1 I I !!'i illilliilk Irr i ii ill 'ill! m 1 1 i il il m. 11 il: i :i!i 1 \ 1 i;i il ilillli»;a? i;l v. i!;ii;iiiWl!l!iPI|ii'ilii^i:'i' ii ( 550 ) LANDSCAPE GARDENING 551 LANDSCAPE GARDENING percentage of lands not arable is greatest in Norway, being seventy-two per cent, of the whole; next comes Sweden, then Portugal, while Bavaria and 'Wurtembei-g have the least propor- tion not susceptible of cultivation, being less than two per cent. Great Britain has twenty- eight per cent, not susceptible of cultivation, Ireland thirteen per cent. , and France only uiue per cent. The amount of land devoted to cereal crops and to fallow and pasture also differs greatly, according to the habits and traditions of the inhabitants. Belgium has the largest pro- portion of land in cultivation, having fifty-nine per cent.; France has fifty-three per cent., and Great Britain thirtj'-nine. In the United States no effort has been made to find the area suscep- tible of cultivation. It is, however, one of the most favored of any country on earth, consider- ing its vast area. In the prairie country, for instance, there is almost none of the land but what may be cultivated, and the mountain area of the wliole cfmntrv is comparatively small. LANDSCAPE (GARDENING. Landscape gardening is one of the departments of Horti- culture, by which the effect of a natural scenery is heightened by art, or by which a mon- otonous area is rendered beautiful, by means of walks, drives, lakes, bridges, rock-work, and the planting of trees, ^ shrubs, and flowers. In fact, in its broad sense, it is high art, in which but few professionals ever arrive at high emi- nence. So far as the present work is concerned, it will not be necessary to go into the minutia of details. To point out some means by which the farmer may beautify his home, and give illustrations of nature's, and of artificial work, will be suiiicient Many farmers seem to be im- bued with the idea, that time and money spent in beautifying the grounds about the home is time and mone}' thrown away, and yet there is no means that may be employed that will give so much pres- ent satisfaction, or that will more enhance the ^•alue of a property if it is to be sold. In this they are not altogether to blame. They have been taught to believe that it could only be accomplished at a large outlay of monej', and through the labor of a professional gardener. Nothing, how- ever, could be more fallacious. It is not merely artificial suiTOundings that they are to creiite, but to take advantage of the natural beauties of a home and heighten these by blunging the grass into a'close and smooth sward, to lay out and build walks and drives, and so an'ange the planting of the whole that it may be partially shaded with handsome trees, and to shutout offensive objects by closer planting. In fact the whole farm is to beconsidered. Ifthereis an unsightly knoll near crown it with deciduous and evergreen trees. If there is a depression, some parts of which are marshy, form a lake, and from it a small stream to carry away the outflow, taking advantage of any facility that may offer to drain the balance. Plant the edges of the pond with weeping or other willows, and thvis three important objects are subserved, drainage, water, and shade. In nine cases out of ten the drained land will pay the cost of the whole. If there is a meandering water course running through a valley, clear the banks, leaving clumps of elms, maples, and lin- dens at the bends here and there Cover the banks with a firm sward of grass, and here again three objects are attained: superior pasturage, available water, and shade. In time the groups of timber will grow into tree.s, when they may be thinned and the s\irplus sold. There should be woodland on every farm, and if one can take advantage of land otherw-ise of little value for the planting, two objects again are attained: a provision of timber for the future, and a land- scape effect that will be pleasant to the eye. In all this do not seek the picturesque, it is only here and there a place tliiit can be height- ened by picturesque planting, and these situa- tions, picturesque in themselves, as for instance where there is a waterfall or rugged scenery. Sylvan beauty is what is wanted on the farm, and in no country in the world is the ground work more carefully laid by nature than in the "West, where we have undulating prairie. There are but few farms where a permanent thread of water may not be supplied by artificial drainage Intelli- gently conducted, and what is more beautiful than the soft haze lying about distant bits of SOUTHERN J-OREST SCENE. woodland in the spring. The cool, invitingshade in summer, and the gorgeous splendor of the autumn when the maples are blazing with t' eir many tints, while the other trees tone down tl'.eir beauty with their more sober hues. It is the home grounds, however, that require the nicest atten- tion. Here there should be plenty of room. A five acre lot is none too much for the farmer's home, for none can better afford it than he, and here it is grass and trees that beautify. Plenty of grass and only trees enough to shade it here and there. This"may be partitioned off with light wire fences, to afford pasturage to sheep, calves and colts, or the grass may be mown so it need not be lost. If the ground be somewhat broken plant the knolls with clumps of trees just so as to LANDSCAPE GARDENING 553 LANDSCAPE GARDENING break the view but not to shut out the vista beyond. Do not have too many roads and walks, these cost money, for they should be well made, and at least have the appearance of being made for use. Above all, never make the mistake of setting a pietentious mansion down on the prairie, with nothing about it but rough fences and rank herbage. The owner of a fine house without anything about it to tone down its glaring exte- rior, has made one of the most comfortless mis- takes possible. A cottage, however humble, shaded by trees and with its vine-clad porch, with a winding path, gladdened with a few flow- ers, leading to it, is far more beautiful as it is far more homelike. Other things being equal, the farm with its pretty cottage and comfortable barns, protected by wind-breaks, and enlivened here and there with clumps of trees, will bring far more money, than the other with its barn- like mansion and its bleak surroundings. How NORTHERN FOREST SCENE. this will look may be .seen in the cut of a Southern Homestead on page 553. Mr. McWor- ter, one of the most observing and practically scientific horticulturists in the West has given the following ideas on making a homestead. They will well repay perusal. He says : Not to dwell at length on the various mistakes most commonly made in homestead arrangements, it may be briefly stated people are generally too stingy of the little bit of ground around the house ; they allow no ground for shady lawns or homestead scenery ; they fence themselves up in a little narrow door-yard, and then to save stepsin doing chores they get the barn and its numerous appendages closely and conspicuously located, if not exactly in front of the house, at least so as to break the view to the road in a side direction. In short, the arrangements for the comfort, convenience- and pleasure of cattle, hogs, chickens and children, are too closely mixed and commingled together. Even people who are anxious to have everything very nice, conceive of no way only the old, stiff, rectangular square rule plans for every thing — every thing is brought to straight lines and square corners — fences all straight, gate exactly in front, a straight walk to the front door, shade trees ar- ranged in exact military order. Such grounds present no pleasing variety — nothing but the tiresome sameness of straight lines and rectan- gular forms. It is difficult to give any very def- inite rules for homestead arrangements, because scarcely any two situations are exactly alike. But, to bring the matter to your minds, we will suppose you are about to prepare for yourself a country home. You are inspired with the beauties of nature — you have listened to the music of the pines ; and nature's picturesque scenery and flowing outlines have nearly expelled the old rectangular, iron square plans all out of your mind. You first choose your building site. You do not choose the most level portion of your farm; be- cause for your building sites, groves, orchards, and general homestead scenery, you prefer grounds somewhat rolling ; and for farming -purposes you prefer the level lands. You choose a site for your house on a rising swell of ground, some ten or twelve rods from the road. You want room in front of your house for some breadth of grassy lawn, and some pleasing diversity of landscape scenery. You next de- cide on a spot for your barn, back of your house, and not too near, because you want room back of your house for garden and fruit-yard ; for you know it is in bad taste to have a fenced- up kitchen garden next to the road. Having chosen the place for your barn and feed -lots off back of the house, you want a lane from these to the public highway ; but you do not want this lane to infringe on the grounds of your house-yard, and you give this lane a graceful curve around your buildings. You border this lane with large trees — il gives a rich expression to your home- stead and furnishes grateful shade. You plant trees of large gTowth back of your house, that will rise above the house and partially screen the barn and its appendages from view. You do not commit the blunder of planting all your evergreens exactly in front of the house; because you know, though they might look well enough there at first, they will, in time, grow to broad proportions, and even darken the light of your windows, and nearly hide your house from view. You group the evergi'eens mostly ofl: in side directions, to the right and left; only allowing a few of symmetrical form and smaller growth on the grounds in front. You plant perhaps a few trees of large growth at the extreme outer border of your grounds, along the road. You avoid getting your front grounds too much filled up with low shrubbery; for you prefer that your front views shall con- sist mostly, of a clean, grassy lawn, with only LANDSCAPE GARDENING 553 LANDSCAPE GARDENING a few scattering trees to afford a pleasing play of sunshine and shadow. In short, you desire to have your largest trees back of your house, and breaking round in irregular groups toward the road, with only scattering trees in front. When your trees have grown up, your house, when viewed from the road, will appear to stand back in a kind of bay, partially encircled with a rich background of sylvan scenery, and having a breadth of green lawn in front. It is a very •common error to plant too many trees in front, -and not enough back of the house, and off at the. wings. If a natural grove of young timber .should be on the ground you have selected for your homestead, you will consider this very for- tunate. The most charming situations are such as are already adorned with a growth of young timber. You will make such improvements on "what nature has supplied at your hands as good taste and landscape effect will suggest. If you can preserve a natural grove of some extent, ■contiguous to your building ground, 3'ou will ■consider yourself especially favored. Nothing could add more to the sylvan attractions of a homestead. A country that is di- vested of its natural groves is bereft of its richest garlands of beauty. In plant- ing trees and laying out grounds you will imitate nature's rounded turns and flow- ing outlines, so as to make groups of ever- greens and masses of shade trees present a scenery of wild diversity. The aspect of your situation, or make of ground, will suggest natural curves or rounded turns to the outside boundary of your grounds. You will determine on the place for your entrance gate — not exactly in front of the house, but off in a side direction, so as to afford a richer view of the architectural forms of the house, and also to afford more changing views in the scenery of your grounds. Perhaps a gate for foot men will enter your grounds, in a side direction, froih the one side, and the car- riage gate off at the other. Your carriage- drive may either pass by a graceful curve in front of your house, and thence around your house; and off back to the barn, or (what is better) it may curve up near the house, and then wind its way toward the barn. Your walks, also, should take such eas_v turns or windings as the make of your ground or groups of trees will sug- gest. There should always be some seern- ing necessity for any or all turns in your walks. It is often proper to plant groups of trees to occasion a necessity for such turns in a walk or carriage-drive. Fences are obstructions in landscape scener}-. and should only be built where absolutely necessarj'. Where a fence is indispensable, as along the public highway, it should be such as will obstruct the view as little as possible. If swine are excluded from the public highways, (as they should he in every civilized community,) fences may be constructed in good taste, that will be very little obstruction to landscape views. Out door-yard fences :shouId be no higher than necessary — if a picket fence, let it be of square pickets, and as wide apart as security will permit. Do not paint ycinr fences white. It is from a want of due reflec- tion that people so often commit the error of painting their boundary fences white. A glar- ing white picket fence should never be placed in front of a beautiful landscape. The ostentatious white fence stands there m self-display, and attracts all attention from the landscape scenery beyond the fence. Let the fence be painted in some color that will harmonize with the bark of the surrounding trees, such as a sober drab, or the softer shades of ' brown. For objects of ornament, that stand back in some shady portion of the grounds, such as a pretty summer house, for a small building, partially screened by trees, or' if a low cottage, white is not inap- propriate for the dweUing itself; but for buildings of any considerable architectural pro- portions, other shades of color are preferred. Having thus rapidly presented some general prin- ciples in the arrangement of homestead scenery, we will briefly add a few suggestions on the management of grounds. In commencing the work of preparing a homestead on wholly naked ground, it is advisable to first plow and harrow the entire grounds. Your whole plan is next laid out and staked off. Your trees are planted by A SOTTTHEBN HOMESTEAD. experienced workmen. Knowing the import- ance of giving your trees a vigorous growth on the start, you decide to cultivate tlie whole ground for a few years. You perhaps appro- priate the more open portions to some low, hoed crops. A good, steady single horse and careful diiver may be employed in the work of cultiva- tion. After two or three years of this treatment, your trees get a luxuriant start and begin to pre- sent a pleasing aspect; and you finally prepare your grounds for seeding. This, in favorable seasons, should be done in Atigust, so that if the August seeding is not a success, another sowing or seeding can be made very earlj' in the sjiring. It is not verj- important what kind of grass seed is used, provided some blue grass st-ed is mixed with it — the blue grass will ultimately occupy the ground. In preparing grounds for seeding. LANDSCAPE GARDENING 554 LANDSCAPE GARDENTNG- no labor sliould be spared in getting the surface perfectly even. After your grounds are seeded, it may be necessary to nurse the growth of some of your favorite trees by mulching, or by sur- rounding them with circular flower beds. You will not neglect the frequent and timely use of the lawn mower. What can be more charming tlian an expanse of closely mown lawn, enliv- ened by the lights and shadows of sylvan scenery? Your walks, also, must be kept free from weeds. A few of your evergreens most contiguous to the house may be kept trim- med in neat S}"mmetrical forms; but those in more remote portions of your grounds should be allowed to assume a free growth and natural proportions. As illustrating natural scenery the cuts will show, first, a Southern forest scene, second, a northern forest scene. As illustrating great natural beauty, when water forms the prin- HOBTHSBN HOSESTEAC. cipal feature, the illustration showing islands in the Jlississippi will suffice. From the fact that it would occupy too much space to go into the details of landscape work from a working standpoint, and from the added fact, that no two places sliould be treated alike, we leave these suggestions as they are ; but as a means of edu- cating the eye to purely artificial work, so that when nature's effects have been heightened by art, and to natural picturesqueness, and also to sylvan landscapes, we have interspersed through this article landscapes which explain themselves. A few words as to the trees for planting will not be out of place. The barns and other farm build- ings should be well protected, especially in prairie regions. Strong winds require strong trees, and cold winters warm shelter. Oaks, maples and elms, among deciduous trees and the Norway Spruce, white pine and firs, among evergreens, will be proper. Cottonwood, and other soft wooded trees may be allowed for a time while other trees are growing; but for permanent plant- ing, they give a cheapening — not to say penny- wise — appearance, and where they are allowed to tangle with and overgrow better trees, a slovenly, not to say shiftless, appearance, while the other class express strength, sturdiness, independence and retirement. The common mistake made in. new places is too thick planting, and especii^lly in negligence in thinning. There is, however, no- objection to rather thick planting of young trees but be sure you thin before there is even an appearance of crowding. Among the most beauti- ful of deciduous trees is the hard maple on suit- able soil. On well drained prairie soil, although rather slow at first, it will clothe itself in the most luxurious foliage, and grow more and more _ beautiful year by year. The red or swamp maple, on moister soil, is hand- some in summer and magnificent in autumn. A weeping willow is always- beautiful in a valley or near water, and next to it the black willow. The golden willow is also beautiful in early spring, looking like a light green cloud in the distance. The elm is always beautiful and assumes so many graceful and pendent forms when planted singly that it should not be neglected. The Linden (basswood) is among the most beautiful of trees in summer where it has plenty of room to spread. It is on the whole a cleanly tree, handsome in its bloom at midsummer, and its broad leaves are somewhat tropical in ap- pearance. Among shrubs for orna- ment the planter must be guided by circumstances. Small flowering shnibs may be interspersed about the lawn and herbaceous perennials may form center pieces for beds of flowers, or be placed nearer the house. In all cases when the planter may be in doubt, if practical descriptive text books be not at hand, the nearest in- telligent nurseryman should be con- sulted. Nevertheless, the intelligence of the female portion of the household may here be generally relied on to- guide correctly, in the arrangements and care of beds. So also their taste will be generally correct as to the proper planting of trees, shrubs, curves of walks and drives. In regard to the planting of trees and shrubs avoid straight lines. A good plan in the setting of trees and groups, is to provide a tall stake that may be easily seen from a considerable distance, and the requisite number of smaller stakes. Let tlie assistant be sent up- on the ground to be planted to hold the stake, while the director stations himself from the point of view, as the porch of the house, etc. ; direct the stakes to be set, so no two of them will come in line, at least not near together. Once they are fixed from the principal point of view, pro- ceed to another principal point,' and if there is a glai-ing defect, as seen from thence, have it recti- fied by moving the offending stake to anoTher position that will not interfere with the view from the first point. Thus you may get your planting so it will easily harmonize as a whole. LANDSCAPE GARDENING 555 larcb: and it will have been accomplished tit a mini- mum outlay of time. In preparing your grounds, you have the satisfaction of having not onlj' accomplished a work not generally supposed pos- sible for farmers, but of having illustrated that it is not difficult. That it only requires a little thought and the display of original ingenuity. Neither of these are really difficult to him who should be as observant of what is going on about him in nature and art as the farmer. Because one labors with his hands it is no sign that he may not be an artist. In fact the inspiration of art seldom comes unsought or without thought. In conclusion we also present several forms of beds carefully prepared by !Mr. H. DeVry, Assistant Superintendent of Lincoln Park, Chi- cago, from the more simple to those somewhat intricate with a list of plants proper for planting therein. The taste of the female portion of the family, however, may be relied on to make these beautiful with other flowers, annual, biennial, and perennial. The idea being to so blend color, form and size that the whole shall make a harmonious picture. I.— A. Ageratnm, dwarf, blue. B. Geraniam, 'Wonder- fu', scarlet. C. ColeuB, Buttercup. The border, Alter- nanthera amcena. n.— A. Coleus. la Nigra. B. White or pink Geraniums. C. ColeuB, South Park Gem. The border, Achyranthus Lindenii. IV ni.— A. Colens, Crown Jewel. B. Geranium, Mme. Thi- boot. C. Blue and white Verbenas, mixed. The border, Alternanthera amoena. IV.— A. Scarlet Geranium B. Colens, Mrs. Kirkpat- rlck. C. Achyranthus Vershafleltii. The border, Ciner- aria Maritima. V Mountain of Snow. G. Geranium, Earl Roslin. H. Bluer Verbenas. J. Coleue, Park Gem. The border, Achyran- thus Lindenii. VI v.— A. Ageratum, blue. B. G°raninm, Wonderful, scarlet. C. D. E. Coleus, Vershaffeltii. F. Geranium, VL— A. Coleus, Mai7 Stuart or C. Rubra. B. Coleus,. Park Gem. C. Coleus, Versicolor. D. Coleus, Puck. The border, Gnaphallum lanatum. Under the articles Forestry, Gardening, Horti- culture and Lawn, will be found other valuable information relative to the subject of Landscape Gardening LANIARIES. Denies laniarii. Conical teeth at the sides of the jaws, next the incisors. LARCH. Larix. A class of trees having the general characteristics of the Coniferas, except in the loss of the evergreen character, the family being strictly deciduous. When raised from seed the young plants hold their leaves for two, sometimes three years, and thereafter become deciduous, dropping their leaves and remaining^ bare during the winter. The larches, however, are treated precisely like evergreens, are subject to the same rules in transplanting, and in the- effects to be produced upon the landscape. The species are few. The American Black Larch and the European Larch will serve as the types of the species. The European Larch for all purposes of ornament and excellence is the variety now generally planted. The wood is- firm, very lasting, of tolerably quick growth, and has the peculiar quality of resisting fire. The tree is handsome in its drooping foliage and one of the most picturesque of trees in age, being especially adapted to planting on promontories, rocky places, gorges, etc. The best situation for the larch is sound land where the roots will not be drowned in winter nor suffer with drought in summer. The whole family are natives of cold climates and mountainous districts of Europe, Asia, and America. When planted in proper situations, the larch is a fast growing tree, but if transplanted should be done early in the spring, since the buds are apt to start with the first few warm days. The best way to handle larch is to transplant in the fall after the leaves have dropped, and protect the first winter with mulch and staking. Besides the European and Ameri- can Larch, the Dahurian Larch may be men- tioned, growing well up into the colder regions of Siberia. It seems nearly allied, according ta the description of it by European writers, with the European Larch. In the colder regions of Siberia, it is a mere shrub, but further south becomes a large tree, with irregular, twisted, drooping branches. The Sikkim Larch, a native LARCH 556 LARKSPUR ■of Bhotan. Sikkim, and Nepal, an inelegant, sprawling branched tree, says Dr. Hooker, with the branches standing out awkwardly, and often drooping suddenly. In the autumn, the foliage is said to change to a bright red, forming a fine contrast to other trees. In the Altai mountains, ■of Siberia, is found the Altaian Larch, similar to the common larch, but with smaller cones, a, strong growing tree, luxuriant, with large leaves and pendulous habits. The Western EUROPEAN LARCH. Larch {Larix ocddentalis) found on the western slopes of the Rocky mountains, and thenco toward Oregon. That the larch is a valuable tree for planting upon the soils we have described there is no doubt. That it is altogether unsuited to that class of prairie soils that are liglit and fluffy and subject to be wet in the winter and spring, is quite as evident. The evidence in regard to the success of planting on the western plains is conflicting, but the weight of testimony so far would seem to be that it is a valuable tree for planting. LARD. The leaf, intestinal and other fat of swine when tried into oil. It is one of the most important products next to the meat, and f onns a very considerable portion of the carcase. The average ranging about thirty-four pounds per hog, when the average weight is 317 pounds varying according to fatness. In 1874-75, the average weight of all the hogs slaughtered in the West and Northwest, was 209.77pctunds; the average weight of lard jfer hog was 35.03 poulifls. This was an exceptional year, the hogs being very fat. In 1876, the United States exported 168,405,839 pounds of lard of the value of $32,429,485 ; an average value of 18.3 cents per pound. LAROE-FOOTED HAWK.— (See Buzzard.) LARK. The Meadow lark, or American starling is the best known of our larks. Its song is of exceeding sweetness, the few plaintive notes it utters being wel- come to all as one of the earliest harbingers of spring. It is one of the most beneficial of birds to the farmers, living exclusively on in- sects and seeds in the cultivated fields and meadows. It is one of our most common birds West, is found in the southern New En- gland States, and thence South and West. Nuttall says, in mild winters it remains through the j'ear, but generally leaves for the South late in the fall, and returns about the second or third week in March, It commences building about the second week in May, sometimes earlier ; the locality is generally in a meadow or low field. The nest is usually built in a tussock of grass; it is pretty ^ compact, made of dry, wiry grass, ' to which a hidden and almost winding path is made, and gen- erally so w^ell concealed that the nest is only to be found when the bird is flushed. Their food con- sists of the larvaB of various in- sects, as well as worms, beetles iuid grass seeds, to assist the diges- tion of which tlicy swallow a con- siderable portion of gravel. It does not appear that this species ever adds berries or fruits of any kind to his fare, like the starling, but usually remains the whole summer in moist meadows, and in winter retires to the open grassy woods, having no inclination to rob the orchard or garden ; and, except in winter, is of a shy, timid, and retiring disposition. But one brood is reared in the season. In the North it is a bird of passage, arriving among the first of the spring visitors. LARKSPUR. Delphinium. Very ornamental, hardy, flowering plants, both annual and peren- nial, and single and double, combining the richest possible variety of brilliant and effective LAVENDER 557 LA"W colors, with great duration and profusion of bloom, The dwarf growing varieties are very effective in long lines and groups ; the candela- bra-flowered forms a beautiful pyramid, shaped like a many-branched candlestick. For large beds on lawns, or masses and mixed flower bor- ders, also for cut flowers, the taller growing varieties are the most desirable. The perennial larkspur should be more cultivated in the rural gardens than it is; all are remarkable for gi-eat beauty, diversity of shades of color, and decora- tive qualities. They also differ greatly in their habit of growth ; som9 produce magnificent spikes of flowers, while others are dwarf, and completely covered with bloom. The principle color is blue, shading from the softest celestial to the darkest purple blue, while all are more or less shaded or marked with some other color. With the exception of D. carcliopetaZum, all are hardy perennials. LAKVA. The caterpillar or maggot state of insect life; Uie young of some amphibious ani- mals are also called larvae. LARVIPARi. Producing larviE by the undermining of water, or by an earthquake. LARYNGOTOMT. The operation of making an opening into the larynx; this is sometimes necessary in cases of choking or severe inflam- mation, where the opening of the larynx, along which air passes, is closed. LARYNX. The upper part of the windpipe, formed of cartilage, and lying at the root of the tongue. LATENT HEAT. Heat supposed to be pres- ent in all bodies, and on which their form depends; it can not be felt, but, by a change in the form, is given out, and becomes sensible or free heat. Vapors and gasses contain most, next fluids, and last solids; so that, by the abstraction of heat, vapors are condensed, fluids freeze, and, by the reverse, solids become fluid or gaseous. LATEEITIOUS. A deposit of a reddish color from urine, etc. LATEX, The milky or -elaborated juices of plants: it circulates in a peculiar arrangement of tubes called the laticiferous vessels, which anastomose over the plant. LATH YR US. A genus of handsome climb- ing, leguminous plants, much cultivated for ornament. LATICIFE ROUS VESSELS. Milk vessels ; they carry the latex. LAUDANUM. Opium dissolved in alcohol, tincture of opium. LAUREL. Shrubs, or small trees, of the genus Laums; several are evergreen ; they yield aromatic resins and oils. LAURINB. A fatty, acrid substance, found in the berries of the common laurel, LauruB communis. LAVA. The porous molten mineral matter which has flowed from volcanoes. LAVENDER. A plant of the order Lab- iatuB. Lamndula vera, is the variety from which the lavender oil is made; which is distilled from the flowers. It is a small shrub from the south of Europe, but not hardy in the North and West. L. spica yields oil of spike. This is darker in color, not so agreeable in its perfume. It is an ingredient in some liniments, and is used in mixing colors for painting on porcelain, and in the preparation of certain varnishes. LAVER. Porphyra ladniata. vulgaris. A sea- weed eaten as a delicacy when boiled; green laver { Uha lattssima) sometimes is substituted. LAW. Laws relating to agriculture, such as- bird, dog, fence, forests, manures, roads, stock, weights and measures, etc. , should be generally understood by farmers. It would save much costly litigation and neighborhood quarrels. We, therefore, give some of the most important laws in relation to the subjects of interest to the farm. The following digest of the bird laws of the United States was prepared by Hon. J. R. Dodge, one of the most correct statisticians in the United States : In Maine the penalty is one dollar for taking larks, robins, partridges, woodpeckers, or sparrows, between March 1st and July 1st; and ten dollars to the owner of lands, with the liquida- tion of all damage suffered for any trespass committed, between March 1st and September 1st, in hunting or killing the above birds. The law in New Hampshire prescribes a fine of one dollar for killing, taking, or having in possession, at any season of the year, any robin, thrush, lark, blue- bird,or4ole,sparrow,swallow,martin, woodpecker, bob-o'-link, yellowbird, linnet, fly-catcher, or warbler, or rail, yellowleg, or sandpiper, between March 1st and August 1st. The fine is three dollars, for each snipe, woodcock, or plover, between March 1st and Augustlst ; or for each partridge, or grouse, or quail, between March 1st and Septem- ber 1st. One dollar additional is assessed for each bird, if taken in defiance of a publislied notice by the owner of the land — one-half for the use of the complainant, and the other half to the town or city. The action of the law may be suspended for one year, at any time, by vote of a town or city, so far as relates to such town or city. In Vermont the fine is one dollar in each case for taking, wounding, or killing, or for the- destruction of the nest or eggs of the robin, blue- bird, yellowbird, cherry, or cedar bird, catbird, kingbird, sparrow, lark, bob-o'link, thrush,, chickadee, pewee, wren, warbler, woodpecker, martin, swallow, night-hawk, whippoorwill, groundbird, linnet, plover, phoebe, bunting, hummingbird, tattler, and creeper. The penal- ties for the violation of the Massachusetts bird and game laws are as follows : Two dollars each for killing, at any time, robins, thrushes, linnets, sparrows, bluebirds, bob-o-links, yellowbirds, woodpeckers, or warblers; the same for killing birds on salt marshes, the owner excepted; five dollars for killing partridges or quail, between March 1st and September 1st; woodcock, between March 1st and July 4th; five dollars for trapping or snaring any birds at any time, save partridges ; twenty dollars for killing grouse or heath hen at any time, and ten dollars to the owner of the grounds and a search warrant authorized for any one suspected of the offense; and twenty dollars for hunting deer with hounds or dogs in Plymouth or Barnstable counties, 'There is a fine of one dollar for killing between sunset and one hour before sunrising any plover, curlew, dough-bird, or chicken bird. Any city or town may vote to- suspend, within its limits, any of the provisions of this law. The Rhode Island law-makers have prescribed a penalty of two dollars in each case for killing, destroying, gelling, buying, or having in possession any lark, robin, wood duck, gray duck, or black duck, between February 1st and September Ist, or quail, partridge, or wood- cock between January 1st and September 20th;. LAW 558 LAW snipe, between May 1st and September SOtb; grass plover, between February 1 at and August 1st; grouse, or heath hen, between January 1st And November 1st, and swallow, or box martin, between May 1st and October 1st; twenty dol- lars in each case for killing woodcock between ■January 1st and July 1st. In addition, five dol- lars may be imposed, to be paid to the owner of the land, for the first' offense, and ten dollars for the second offense, besides a liability to damage for trespass. Action must be brought within three months. In Connecticut a law was made in 1850, after much opposition, which has since been modified and rendered more effective. Insectivorous and song birds have greatly in- creased since, especially near towns and villages, and on the shore of Long Island Sound. A fine •of three dollars is imposed for killing, selling, or possessing, or destroying a nest of eggs of wood- cocks between the first day of February and the first day of July; pheasants, partridges, or ruf- fed grouse, between the first day of February And the first day of September; quails of any species, between the first of February and the first of October; wood duck, widgeon, black, gray, broad-bill, canvas-back, or teal duck. The fine is one dollar for killing, or trapping, a nightingale, bluebird, Baltimore oriole, finch, thrush, lark, sparrow, catbird, wren, martin, swallow, or woodpecker, at any time, or a robin, or'bob-o'-link, between the first of February and the first of September. The taking of brook or Jake trout between September 1st and January 1st is fined one dollar. It is also forbidden under -a penalty of ten dollars, to take pheasants, part- ridges, or quails, on the land of any other per- .son. The laws of New York, both local and general, relative to birds and other game, are numerous, and frequently modified or suspended. By the recent law, insectivorous and other birds are protected between February 1st and October. The fine is placed at five dollars for each wood- •cock, between January Ist and July 4th; ruffed grouse, between January 1st and September 1st ; •quail, between January 1st and October 30th; wood, black, gray, and teal duck, between Feb- ruary 1st and August 1st, (excepting upon the shores of Long Island). It is forbidden to catch quail or ruffed grouse with a snare at any time; and it is unlawful to take prairie fowl within ten years, under penalty of ten dollars for each one killed or taken. Five dollars each is the penalty for taking trout between September 1st and March 1st. A penalty is incurred of one hun- dred dollars and damages for putting lime or drugs in any lake, pond, or stream, by which fish may be injured. Owners of dams, if two feet or more in height, on the tributaries of Lake Ontario, Champlain, or the river St. Law- rence, are required to provide a sluice at an inclination of not more than thirty degrees, suit- ably constructed and protected, as a passage- way for fish. Deer are prohibited game from February 15th to August 1st, in all counties, except Clinton, Franklin, St. Lawrence, Jeffer- son, Lewis, Herkimer, Hamilton, Essex, Warren, Fulton, and Saratoga, (where the prohibition is taken off only in October,) and in Kings, Queens, and Suffolk, where November is the only month for their pursuit. The fine in the last-mentioned counties is twenty-five dollars each. For fishing,. except with hook or line, in certain interior lakes, the fine is twenty-five dol- lars. A similar penalty attaches to trespass in fishing, after public notice has been given. It is forbidden in Pennsylvania, under penalty of two dollars, to trap, kill, or shoot any blue-bird, swallow, martin, or other insectivorous bird, at any season of the year, and the same penalty attaches to the destruction of eggs or nest of any of the birds mentioned in law. A fine of five dollars is laid for killing rail or reed birds betweed June 1st and September 1st; pheasant, between February 1st and August 1st; wood- cook, between February Ist and July 4th; partridge, or rabbit, between February 1st and October 1st, and a similar penalty is incurred by buying these birds out of season to sell out of the State. Laws have tended to restrain men and boys to some extent, yet, it is to be regretted that there is room for great improvement, so far as insectivorous birds are concerned. The game laws of New Jersey iihpose a fine of five dollars each for killing any partridge, water fowl, grouse, quail, or rabbit, between January 1st and November 1st, or woodcock between January 1st and July 5th; to be recovered with cost of suit, and in default of payment imprison- ment for sixty days may be adjudged. A pen- alty of fifteen dollars is laid for placing decoys for geese, ducks or brant, at a distance of more than three rods from ice, marsh, meadow bank, or sand bar, or for hunting them with a light at night; and it is made unlawful to kill geese, ducks, or brant between April 15th and October 15th, in or about the waters of Barnegat bay, or Manasquon river. The fine is five dollars each for killing geese, ducks or brant, between April 1st and December 1st, at Cape May. A trespass, after having been once forbidden to enter lands, renders one liable to a fine of three dollars. The Secretary of State believes these laws effective, though hot very vigorously enforced. By the laws of Delaware it is vmlawful for non-resi- dents to catch or kill any wild goose, duck, or other wild fowl, under a penalty of not less than fifty and not more than one hundred dollars. Citizens do not rest under this prohibition. A warrant may be issued by a justice of the peace, upon affidavit that anj^ person has violated this law, and the offender arrested, tried, and, upon conviction, fined not less than fifty nor more than one hundred dollars, and imprisoned until fine and costs are paid. By giving bonds in the sum of two hundred dollars, the arrested party can elect to be tried before the court of general sessions. Any boat, gun, or decoy, used in violation of this law, may be seized and confiscated, and the penalty for resisting an officer is fixed at one hundred dollars. The law does not prohibit persons from killing game on their own premises, but it is unlawfulfor others to kill a partridge, pheasant, robin, or rabbit, between February 1st and October 15th, (in New- castle county, between January 1st and October 15th;)woodcock, between February 1st and July 1st. The penalty is one dollarf or each bird killed. A person not a citizen of the State, gunning upon land not his own, without permission ot the owner, is liable to a fine of five dollars for each bird or other game. Some persons permit gunning upon their property; others exclude all hunters. The penalty of hunting or killing deer is two dollars. No general law for the preser- vation of game or birds has been enacted in Maryland. Laws of a local character have been LAW 559 LAW made with a limited and partial jurisdiction. In Ohio the penaltjr is from two to ten dollars for killing, or attempting to injure or kill, at any season of the year, any sparrow, robin, bluebird, martin, thrush, mocking-bird, swallow, meadow lark, pewee, wren, cuckoo, indigo bird, nuthatch, •creeper, flicker, warbler or finch, oriole, redbird, or catbird. The same penalty in each case is incurred by disturbing the nest of any of these birds; also for killing dove, wild rabbit, or hare, jrellow-hammer or flicker, between February 1st and September 15th. From five and to fifteen dol- lars may be imposed for killing or hunting wild turkey, quail, ruffed grouse, prairie chicken, or wild deer between April 15th and September 1st; woodcock between February 1st and July 4th, and wood duck, teal, or other wild duck between May 1st and September 15th. Exposing for sale or having in possession* incurs the same penalties, and the costs of prosecution are in all cases to be paid by the offender. The Secretary of State says the law is effective through most portions of the State ; that there are numerous prosecutions, and judges usually aflBx the extreme penalty. The penalty for killing small birds in Michigan is fixed at five dollars each, and for wild turkey, partridge, or ruffed grouse between February Ist and September 1st ; for woodcock between March 1st and July 1st; prairie chicken or wild duck, goose, or swan between February 1st and August 15th; for quail from January 1st to October 1st. It is made unlawful to destroy nests or eggs. The £nes go to the school library fund. Indians and inhabitants of the upper peninsula are exempt from the effect of these provisions. Illinois has no general bird law. In a portion of the counties it is jnade unlawful to hunt or kill deer, turkey, grouse, prairie hen, or quail, between January 15 and August 15th. A fine of five dollars is imposed in the State of Wisconsin for killing grouse or prairie chicken between December 1st and August 12th, or partridge, ruffed grouse, or quail between December 1st and the first Tuesday of September. An exception is made for the benefit of the Indians not civilized. Half the penalty goes to the pro- secutor and half to the county. It is unlawful to kill or take woodcock in Iowa between the 1st of January and 1st of July ; prairie hen or chicken between 1st of January and 1st of August, or quail, ruffed grouse, pheasant, or wild turkey, or deer, between the first day of January and 1st of September. In Minnesota the penalty is five dollars each for killing at any time a nightingale, whippoorwill, nighthawk, bluebird, finch, thrush, lark, linnet, sparrow, wren, martin, swallow, bob-o'-link, robin, turtle dove, catbird, or other birds ; five dollars for each woodcock, from Jan- uary 1st to July 4th; partridge or ruffed grouse between January 1st and September 1st ; ten dol- lars for trespass in sporting; twenty-five dollars for killing each deer, elk, or fawn, or having the skin of one in possession between January 1st and August 1st. A fine of five dollars is also imposed for each speckled trout taken, except in Lake Superior, Mississippi, Minnesota, St. Croix and Root rivers. In California there is no law for the preservation of the insectivorous or song- birds Game is so abundant that not even the boys are disposed to kill them. The destruc- tion of hawks, coyotes and other wild animals has caused a marked increase of small birds. In «ome sections quails have increased so as to prove ■destructive to farm crops. Wild geese, in some places, do great injury by feeding upon the joung grain after it is sprouted. A game law exists which makes it unlawful to kill any quail part- ridge, grouse or ducks, between March 15th and September 15th, except in San Bernardino and Los Angeles counties. It is also unlawful to kill elk, deer, or antelopes from January 1st to July Ist. A fine of twenty -five dollars is imposed for hav ing in possession or exposing for sale such game. Fines may be laid to the amount of five hundred dollars in a single case. A very stringent bird law exists in the District of Columbia. In 1863 the levy court of the county of Washington passed an ordinance for the protection of insectivorous birds, prohibiting the shooting or taking of such birds under a penalty of five dollars for each bird so killed, possession being held as prima facie evidence of killing. The law confiscates the gun of any person carrymg or using such weapon on Sundays. Pheasants, partridges, woodcock, snipe, rail or reed birds and blackbirds, may be killed at certain seasons. Only hawks, crows and owls are unprotected. All other birds not here mentioned are protected at all seasons, except the last fifteen days of the year. The rigid enforce- ment of this strict law has peopled the woods and groves anew in the vicinity of Washington. In giving the laws relating to agriculture we have been obliged to generalize. If the farmer wishes to know specifically as to the latest law on any given subject he must consult his lawj'er. We aim simply to give the original laws, those having been amended from time to time. The compiler of these laws says in relation to them. The laws of the several States indicate a transi- tion period between pioneer life, with its inevitable dog companionship, and a state of permanent settlement and superior civilization. The silly prejudice that allows dogs to trespass upon a neighbor's grounds and destroy his sheep, while enacting laws to restrain sheep from wandering from their owner's pasture, is rapidly giving way to a common sense that would make restraint equal and just. In most of the States are certain provisions of a just law upon the subject, but a lack of completeness, or want of penalty attached to neglect in enforcement, render them partly inoperative, or wholly inefficient. In Pennsylvania there is, practicall}'. only a threat held over the heads of the dogs, for which they seem to care very little; in Maine, each separate township has the option to ratifj- or nullify the general law — a non-committalism that is far worse than no law; in Ohio, dogs are instructed that it is unlawful for them to run at large at night, but their owners are held to no proper responsibility for their effective restraint; and in most other States some radical defect exists. Jlassachusetts has the best law. It taxes dogs from two to five dollars each ; owners are made responsible, under heavy penalty, for their registry and taxation; assessors must make accurate lists, and evasions of the listing are heavily fined; refusal or neglect of officers to execute the law incurs a penalty of one hundred dollars; and untaxed dogs are killed without mercy, and district attorneys are required to prosecute officers who neglect to destroy them. Such a law, or one more guarded and efficient still, should be on the statute book of every State. In Maine a law taxing persons owning or liar- boring dogs one dollar for each dog was enacted in 1862 with a saving clause as follows- Pro- LAW 560 LAW vided, that towns or cities shall so vote. By its provisions dogs inflicting damage subject their owners to fines of double the amount of the damage done, to be recovered by an action of trespass. Any person may lawfully kill a dog that assaults himself or other person while walk- ing or riding peaceably, or is found worrying, wounding, or killing any domestic animal. Any person finding a dog strolling out of the enclo- sure of his owner may, within forty-eight hours, make oath before a magistrate that he suspects such dog to be dangerous or mischievous, and notify 4he owner by giving him a copy of the oath ; and if the dog shall be found again at large, he may be lawfully killed ; and if he shall there- after wound a person or kill a domestic animal, the owner shall be liable' to treble damages and costs. In 1862 the legislature of Kew Hamp- shire levied a tax of one dollar on male and two dollars on female dogs. Prior to this the com- mon law was the only protection enjoyed by owners of flocks. In 1863 a law was enacted forfeiting double the amount of damage done by dogs, recoverable'from the owner by an action of debt ; or a complaint may be made to the select- men of towns, who are required, upon proof made within thirty days, to draw an order upon the treasury, which is registered and made pay- able, in whole or in part, from the fund accru- ing from the dog tax, on the second Tuesday of March annually. The following is the law of 1862 for Vermont: Sec. 1. The listers in the sevenl towns of this State shall in each year set all dogs in their respective towns in the grand lists ro the owner or keeper of the same at the sum of one dollar each ; and no person shall be entitled to have the amount so assessed deducted from their lists in consequence of any debts owing. Sec. 2. Every owner or keeper of a dog shall, when called upon by the listers for their lists, notify them of the dogs by him owned or kept; and every owner or keeper of a dog who shall neglect or refuse to notify the listers as aforesaid, shall forfeit and pay to the town in which he resides the sum of two dollars, to be recovered In an action on the case in the name of the treasurer of such town, before any court competent to' try the same, with full costs. Sec. 3. It is hereby made the duty of the owner or keeper of a dog, whether set in the lists or not, to cause a collar, with the name of the owner or keeper plainly writ- ten rhereon, to be worn on the neck of each dog by him owned or kept; and it shall be lawful for any person to kill any doj running at large off the premises of the owner or keeper not having on such collar; and the owner or keeper of such dog shall recover no damage for such killing. By another law, owners of dogs that have wor- ried or wounded sheep are made liable for dou- 'ble da.pages and double costs ; and they can sus- tain no action for damages against persons who have killed dogs assaulting them off the premises of their owners, or chasing or worrying sheep. In Massachusetts, where sheep husbandry of a high order is on the increase, stringent and effec- tive laws have been passed. The following is a synopsis of the last law : An Act concerning dogs and for the protection of sheep and other domestic animals: Sec. 1. Every owner or keeper of a dog shall annually, on or before the thirtieth dtiy of April, cause it to be reg- istered, numbered, described, and licensed for one year from the first day of the ensuing May, in the office or the clerk of the city or town wherein he resides, and shall cause it to wear around its ueck a collar distinctly marked with its owner's name, and the registered number, and shall pay for such license two dollars for a male dog and five dollars for a female dog. Sections second, third, and fourth provide for licensing and the payment of money into the treasuries: Sec. 5. Whoever keeps a dog contrary to the provisions- of this act shall forfeit fifteen dollars, to be recovered by complaint, and the money shall be p id to the treasurer of the county in which the dog is kept. etc. Sec. 6. The assessors of the cities and towns shall annually take a list of all dogs owned or kept in their res- pective cities and towns on the first dfiy rf May. with the- owners' or keepers' names, and return the same to the- city or town clerk ,on or before the tenth day of July. Any owner or keeper of a dog who shall refuse to give-, just and true answers to the assessors relative to the ownership thereof shall be punished by a fine of not less- than ten dollars. Sec. 7. Mayors of cities and the chairman of the select- men of the towns shall annually, within ten days from the first day of July, issue a warrant to one or more police- officers or constables, directing them to proceed forthwith, either to kill or cause to be Killed all dogs within their respective cities or towns not licensed and collared according to the provisions of this act; and any person may, and every police officer imd constable shall, kill, or cause to be killed, all such dogs, whenever and wherever found. Such officers, dtht-r than those employed under regular pay, shall receive one dollar for each dog so des- troyed from the treasurers of their respective counties, etc Sec. 8. The mayors of cities and the chairman of the selectmen of towns shall, after issuing their warrant to police officers or constables, as specified in the preceding section, forthwith certify the (act under oath to the dis- trict attorneys of their respective districts, whose duty it shall be to prosecute all such officers as fail to comply with this requirement. Sec. 9. Whoever suffers loss by the worrying, maim- ing, or killing of his sheep, lambs, or other domestic ani- mals by does, may inform the mayor of the city, or the chairman of the selectmen of the town wherein the dam- age was done, who shall appoint two disinterested per- sons, who, with the mayor or chairman or the selectmen, shall proceed to the premises where the damage was done, and determine whether the damage was inflicted by , dogs, and if so, appraise said damage. The amount of said damage shall be certified by the board of appraisers, and, except in the county of Suffolk, be transmitted to the county commissioners, who shall during the month of December examine all such bills, and, when any doubt exists, may summon the appraisers, and make such exam- ination as they may think proper and shall issue an order upon the treasurer of the county iu which the damage was done lor all or any part thereof, as justice and equi^ may require. The treasurer shall annually, on the first day of January, pay all such orders in full, if the gross amount received by him under the provisions of this act, and not- previously paid out, is sufficient therefor; otherwise, he shall divide such amount pro rata among such orders in. full discharge thereof. Toe board of appraisers shall receive from the county, or in the county of Suffolk from the city or town treasurer, out of the moneys received under the provisions oi this act, the sum of one dollar each for every examination made by them as prescribed in this suction. Sec. 10. Any town, city, or county officer refusing or neglecting to perform the duties herein Imposed upon, him, shall be punished by a fine not exceeding one hun- dred dollars, to be paid, except in the county of Suffolk, into the county treasury. Sec. 11. The treasurer of any county may, in an action ot tort ayainst the owner or keeper of any dog concerned in doing damage to sheep, lambs, or other domestic ani- mals in said county, whicn damage has been ordered to be paid by the county commissioners, recover the full amount thereof to the use of said county. If the amount so recov- ered exceeds the amount, so received by the owner of the- sheep or other animals, under the provisions of section nine, the excess shall be paid by the county treasurer to such owner. All fines ana penalties provided in this act may be recovered on complaint before any police court or trial justice in the county where the offence is committed. Moneys rcceiveil by the treasurer of any county, city, or town, under the provisions of this act, and not expended, in accordance with its provisions, may be applied to the payment of any county, city, or town expenses. In Rhode Island, hj the law of 1860, a dog^ might be killed with impunitjr if found without a collar hearing his owner's initials, or worrying or wounding sheep or other stock out of the enclosure of his owner. Any person might make oath to any case of injury, or to the special ill- fame of any particular whelp, and if the allega- tion was sustained, the dog must be confined, or J.AW oGl LAW the life of the animal was forfeited. An addi- tional law has just been passed, which requires dogs to be collared, registered, numbered, described, and licensed, with the payment of $1.15 for each male and $5.15 for each female dog, before the last day of April, and one dollar additional for each dog after that date, and previous to"the first of June. It provides for the appointment of suitable persons to make a list of the owners or keepers of dogs, to be returned to the clerk previous to the first of JIaj', who is required to furnish to such persons a list of all dogs licensed for the current year, and to make another list o£ those not licensed, with the name of the owner or keeper, to be suitably posted or advertised. Any one keeping a dog contrary to these provisions is liable to a fine of ten dollars ; and persons appointed to make the lists are required to make complaint and prosecute delin- quents prior to the first of July. Such persons and constables and police officers are required to kill and bury all unlicensed dogs, and any per- son may lawfully do so, and for such service the sum of one dollar shall be paid. Removal of a collar is punishable by fine not exceeding fifty dollars. Damages to sheep are recoverable upon proof made within thirty days from the town or city treasury on the first day of June, or a pro rata proportion of them if the tax fund is insuf- ficient for payment in full ; and the city or town may then recover from the owner of the dog doing the mischief. By the law of Connecticut for the protection of sheep — that of July, 1863 — the tax upon male dogs is one dollar each, females two dollars. The selectmen are authorized to collect of negligent collectors the taxes unpaid, as in the case of other arrearages due from col- lectors; and they are not empowered to abate such tax unless upon satisfactory proof that the dog is dead. The selectmen are also empowered to institute suit against the owners of dogs for the amount of damage for sheep maimed or killed; and if the owner resides in another town, the suit may be brought against that town. The provisions of the former law, yet partially in force, require the registry of all dogs over three months old, and sanction the killing of all not registered, and persons neglecting or refusing to register are liable to a fine of three dollars each. Dogs of known bad character shall be killed, although registered; and it is lawful to kill any dog taken in the act of woiTying sheep. The laws of New York upon this subject, as amended by that of 1863, impose a tax of fifty cents for the first dog, $3 for each additional; $3 for the first female dog, and $5 for each additional. The assessors are required to annex to the assess- ment roll the names of persons liable, and supervisors must return them, when, if failure in paying the tux occurs, it becomes the duty of the collector, and the privilege of any other man, to kill the dog. The collector has a commission of ten per cent, on fines, and one dollar for each dog killed. The previous enactment provided that the owner of dogs killing sheep should be liable for injuries perpetrated; and in case the owner should not be found, the loss should be paid out of the fund arising from the dog tax. By the laws of New Jersey dogs are taxed from fifty cents to one dollar each. Persons may lawfully kill a dog found worrying or wounding sheep : damages sustained by such depredations are col- lectible from the township committee, if the 36 fund arising from such tax is sufficient. If the owner of a dog committing depredations shall neglect' for twenty-four hours after notification to kill the animal, he shall forfeit ten dollars and costs to any person suing, and triple damages to the owner of the stock injured or killed. A provision is made for the assessment of damages sustained, to be certified by t^YO disinterested freeholders, the amount not to exceed five dollars for each sheep or lamb killed. Some counties have had special enactments allowing full dam- ages to be paid. By the provisions of a more recent act actual damages sustained by any per- son are esMmated by appraisement by two disin- terested freeholders, the oath of the owner being also required as to real cost and -value, the town- shin where the injury was committed paying the owner, and the amount annually ascertained being laid upon the owners of dogs as a dog tax. No effective law is in existence in Pennsylvania for the protection of sheep. The owner of a dog, knowing that he has worried or killed sheep, and failing to kill him after such knowledge, is liable for all damages done by him thereafter. A dog may destroy a flock of sheep, without danger to himself or loss to his master, until he has offended a second time. If he kills a second flock, and his owner conveniently ignores the fact of the former offense, he may await, with the wool yet in his teeth, for an opportunity to return again and kill. Delaware legislation, relative to protection of sheep, was initiated early in that State. A law of 1811 made the owners of dogs liable to the value of all sheep killed by them ; that of 1820 forfeited the lives of dogs at large, without collars on their necks. By the law of 1811 the tax was from twenty-five to fifty cents for the support of the poor; b}- that of 1817 it was from fifty cents to |3 for a fund to pay for sheep killed by dogs; by that of 1839 from fifty cents to $1 for county purposes ; by that of 1843 one dog was exempt, others §1 each for county purposes ; by that of 1858 from %\ to $3 for a fund to pay for sheep kUled by dogs. These are repealed, their prin- cipal provisions being incorporated in the fol- lowing laws: The owner or possessor of a dog which shall kill, wound, or worry a sheep,, or lamb, shall be liable to pay the owner of such sheep, or lamb, the full value thereof, and it shall be lawful for any person to kill such dog. It shall be lawful for any person to kill any dog running at large in Newcastle county, beyond the owner's premises, without a collar upon his neck with the owner's name upon it. The law of 1833 requires an assessment list, of persons owning dogs, to be returned to the levy court. The tax is placed at fifty cents for each male and $1 for each additional dog, and $2 for each female dog, which shall procure the fund from which damages shall be paid, not to exceed §3 for each lamb and $.5 for each sheep injured or killed, the remainder, if any, to go into the school fund. A dog not on the assessment list, which may be wandering or caught worrying sheep, may be killed. Persons paying taxes upon dogs are deemed to have property therein, and may recover damages for theft of or injury to such dogs. In Maryland the owner of a dog proved guilty of killing or Injuring sheep, is required, upon complaint and exhibition of proof, to kill such dog, in default of which the owner of the sheep may kill him off the premises of his owner, or require a constable to do so, wherever LAW 562 LAW found. If the dog shall he killed immediately by his owner, the owner of the sheup injured can have no cause of action; if not thus killed, his owner is liable for double damaofes, with costs, recoverable by an action of debt. Seve- ral laws have been enacted in Ohio to restrain dogs, none of which have been very stringent or effective, or generally executed. One waspasSed by the general assembly in 1863, declaring it unlawful for any dog to run at large oif the premises of the owner in the night season, between the hours of seven o'clock in the evening and six o'clock in the morning, unless accom- panied by the person owning or harboring the animal; and the owner or keeper is lequired to keep the dog upon his premises between those hours. It is of so negative and incomplelfe a character as to be practically worthless. The only real protection of an Ohio flock is a well loaded gun in the hands of its owner. In Indi- ana a license is required, at fifty cents for the first male dog, one dollar for each additional dog, and one dollar in every case for a female dog. All unlicensed dogs are declared nuisances that may lawfully be killed. Accruing funds are set apart for the payment of damages suffered from injuries to sheep in the several townships. The sufferer has his option of the following remedies : Within ten days after hav- ing knowledge of such depredations, he may substantiate it to the satisfaction of the township trustee, and draw the amount at the end of the current year, or a pro rata pi'oportion if the fund is deficient; or he may recover by suit full damages from the owner of the dog. A fine of from five to fifty dollars and liability to dam- ages, recoverable by the owner, are the penal- ties for killing licensed dogs that maintain a fair canine character. The Secretary of the Board of Agriculture reports that the law is so defec- tive that it virtually amounts to nothing. In Michigan a law approved March 29, 1850, authorizes the destruction of dogs attacking any kind of domestic animals, except on the premi- ses of the owner of the dog, and such owner is liable for double the amount of damages done by the dog. When notified of such damage, neglect of the owner to kill the dog is punish- able by a fine of $3, and $1.50 additional for every forty-eight hours thereafter, until such dog shall be killed. Supervisors, upon com- plaint of a citizen, verified by his oath, are required to prosecute and recover the fines imposed by this act. An act was passed March 20, 1863, requiring township assessors to ascer- tain the number of dogs liable to be taxed, and the names of their owners ; and if such owners refuse for ten days after demand to pay the taxes assessed, it becomes lawful to kill the dogs so taxed. By the law of 1860, dogs in AVisconsin are required to be numbered, collared, regis- tered and licensed on payment of one dollar for males and three dollars for females; and police officers, constables, and marshals are required to kill and bury all unregistered dogs, and to receive twenty-five cents for such service. A person may be fined fifty dollars for removing a collar. Persons suffering loss from dogs are paid full damages at the first of April, if the tax fund is sufficient; if not, pro rata; and the owner of the dog is liable to the town for the full amount. The fine for keeping unregistered dogs is five dollars. Oflicers neglecting, or refusing to obey the law, are fined $20 for every twenty-four hours of such neglect. Towns may increase the license not more than one dol- lar, and the penalty not more than ten. The following is an epitome of the law of Minnesota, of March, 1863, which repeals previous enact- ments on the subject: Every owner or keeper of a dog shall cause such dog to be registered, numbered, described, and licm.scd, paying one dollar for each male and two dollars lor each female. The township or city clerk shall con- spicuously post a list of all licensed dogs, and furnish one to constables and chief of police. Failure to license shall make one liable to a pen- alty of ten dollars. Stealing or poisoning a dog is punishable by fine not exceeding fifty dollars, and killing subjects to liability for damages double the value of the dog Constables and police officers shall and any person may, kill any unlicensed dog; any one may also kill a dog assaulting him, or worrying sheep out of the enclosure of his owner. Witliin thirty days after suffering injury or loss of sheep by dogs, proof of damages may be presented to the county auditor, who may draw an order upon the treas- urer, payable from the fund accruing from taxes of dogs, when the city or town may sue and recover full damages from the owner of the dog. It is made the duty of the mayor and. aldermen of cities, and the supervisors of towns, to require the destruction of unlicensed dogs, and officers refusing or neglecting to perform these duties are liable to a fine of twenty-five dollars for the benefit of schools. All of these penalties may be recovered, on complaint by any householder, before any justice of the peace of the county. Money remaining after the yearly payments from the tax fund is turned over to the school fund. A law was passed in 1862 by the Iowa legislature for the protection of sheep against the ravages of dogs. At the following session, called with reference to legis- lation in the interest of the soldiers, the law was repealed. We have given considerable space to tlie summary of the dog laws, for the reason that they interest many — those who keep animals subject to be worried, and those whO' keep dogs. From these, communities will easily understand the laws necessary to be enacted in. the special cases that may occcur in each State. The laws concerning manures (commercial) are constantly varying in those States where the sale is an important industry. No commercial manures should be bought, except accompanied with an analysis, and from parties of known business probity. (See Manures.) The fence and stock laws are contained in the article Fenc- ing, which see. The Jaws in relation to Forestry by the general Government grants eighty or 160' acres to the settler who plants and cultivates a certain area in forest. Individual States have done something to encourage tree planting through the remission of taxes. Horticultural Societies and State Boards of Agriculture have offered premiums, and have discussed the bene- fits of tree planting. Thus inducing the prose- cution of this necessary and important work. So far as the laws of Congress are concerned the new settlers who have planted groves have been illy able to incur the labor of tree planting, as necessary as this work is, for the land that from one to three hundred dollars would have bought. Speculators, first incited the laws that they LAW 563 LAW might reap the henefits, in having groves adja- cent to the lands which they were holding until the new settlers had made them valuable by demonstrating the adaptability of the soil to cultivation. These laws have been several times amended until now the settler acquires title to 160 acres of Government land if he shall plant and keep in cultivation ten acres of the same for five years. In relation to taxation for road pur- poses in Iowa, it is as follows : The Board of Supervisors has the general supervision of roads in the county, with power to establish or change them as provided by law. The town trustees' levy a road tax each year of not less than one mill nor more than three on the dollar of the tax- able property in each road district. A road supervisor is elected in each district, who has the supervision of the roads in his district, and it is his duty to keep these roads in as good repair as he can with the funds at his disposal ; it is also his duty to require each able-bodied man between twenty-one and fifty years of age to perform two days' labor on the roads, betveeen April and August of each year, himself or by proxy. There is great similarity in the systems of taxation, it being generally a poll tax in labor, varying in the different States from one day to five per annum ; and in some portions of the country a money tax, varying from one mill to two cents on the one hundred dollars; and in others a tax for bridge purposes alone, as high as four cents on the one hundred dollars of taxable property. Owing to the abundance and excellence of material in some regions, and the scarcity and inferiority of it in others, there is a difference of at least tenfold in the cost of con- struction and maintenance of good roads. Good ones are the exceptions in all the States. In a majority of the States there are general stock laws prohibiting cattle and other stock from running at large; in some instances, however, authority is delegated to counties or towns to make by-laws upon the subject, or there is special legislation for particular counties or districts. The law of estrays diffei's in the various States in no essential particulars. If an animal is found running at large, in violation of law, it may be taken up and impounded, where public pounds have been provided ; or it may be held by the person so taking up, on his own premises. If the owner is known, notice must be given him at once; if unknown, the animal must be advertised for a specified time ; and no owner making claim, it must be sold to the highest bidder. The person taking up the estray is entitled to a reasonable compensation for maintaining the beast. In some States, after a certain time, the estray becomes the property of the person taking it up, the prescribed legal notice having been given. When an animal is found doing damage on the land of another, the fences being constructed according to law, it may be held as security for damages. In all cases whei-e the owner is known, he must be notified of the facts, and a reasonable time allowed him to reclaim and fo inspect damages. In the majority of the States, also, owners of stock are required to adopt certain ear marks, marks, or brands, and to make a record of them. A glance at some of the principal features of the laws relating to stock in the several States will show the importance attached to the subject, and may prove suggestive to communities where legislation is defective. In Maine and K"ew Hampshire, towns may make by-laws concerning the running of animals at large. The laws of Maine pi-ovide that persons injured by beasts may sue for damages, and distrain the animal. New Hampshire allows the owner of stock irapou' ded for doing damage, four days to respond to notice of the fact; and if he fails to answer, the animals may be sold and the amount of the damage be deducted from the proceeds. In Vermont, twenty days are allowed for re- demption. Ungelded animals are not allowed to run at large Rams must be restrained from August 1st, to December 1st, and be marked with the initials of the owner's name; and if found at large, a forfeit of five dollars is due for each one taken up, to the person so taking up. The owner of such animals is responsible for all damage done by them. Sheep infected with foot-rot or scab, must be diligently restrained, and for all damages resulting from neglect of this provision the owner is responsible, and is also subject to a fine of ten dollars. Any person finding such diseased animals at large, may take them as forfeit, and no action at law, or in equity will he for their recovery. Any person who shall drive, or in any manner bring, into the State any neat cattle, knowing them, or any of them, to have the pleuro-pneumonia, or of hav- ing been exposed to that disease, is liable to a forfeit of a sum not over five hundred dollars, or to imprisonment in a county jail for not more than twelve months, nor less than one month. Towns may establish regulations, appoint officers or agents, and raise and appropriate money for the purpose of preventing and arresting the spread of pleuro-pneumonia. The laws of Mas- sachusetts provide that when a person is injured in his crops or other property by sheep, swine, horses, mules, or neat cattle, he may recover damages in an actii >n of tort, against the owner of the beasts, or by distraining the beasts doing the damage; but if it be found that the beasts were lawfully on the adjoining lands, and escaped therefrom in consequence of the neglect of the person who suffered the damage to main- tain his part of the division fence, the owner of the beasts shall not be liable for such damages. The selectmen of towns and the mayor and al- dermen of cities, in case of the existence of pleuro-pneumonia or any other contagious disease among cattle, shall cause the infected animals or those exposed to infection to be se- cured in some suitable place or places, and kept isolated, the expense of keeping to be paid, one- fifth by city or town, and four-fifths by the State. They may prohibit the departure of cattle from any enclosure, or exclude them therefrom ; may make rules in writing to regulate or prohibit the passage of any neat cattle to, or through their respective cities or towns, or from place to place and arrest and detain them at the cost of the owners. They are authorized to brand infected animals or those exposed to infection, with ,the letter P on the rump. For selling an animal so branded, there is liability to fine not exceeding $500, or imprisonment not exceeding one year. Notice of any suspicion of the existence of contagious disease must be given, with a pen- alty for neglect or refusal. A board of com- missioners is appointed for the State, with au- thority to use any measure to control the intro- duction of diseased cattle into the State, or the LAW 564 LAW spread of the disease. The rules and regula- tions made by this board supersede those of the selectmen of towns, and mayor and aldermen of cities. The moving of cattle into other States without permission is prohibited. The law of 1867 provides that no cattle diseased, or suspected of being diseased, shall be killed, ex- cept by order of tlie governor. The owners of cattle ordered to be killed are indemnified. In Rhode Island, animals trespassing on lands are held a year and a day ; and if ahorse, must have a withe kept about his neck during that time. Each town is required to erect and maintain at its own charge one or more public jDounds, and it is lawful for any freeholder or qualified elec- tor or field driver, and it is made the duty of every surveyor of highways, to take up and impound any horse, neat cattle, sheep, or hogs found at large on any highway or common. Provisions of the act extend also to goats and geese. In 1860, in view of the dangerous disease which had become prevalent in other States, the gen- eral assembly enacted that neat cattle might only be brought into the State from places west of the Connecticut river, upon thoroughfares leading into the western and the southern portions of the State, under regulations established by a board of commissioners, until they should prohibit importations from any of said places. For a violation of the provisions of the act, a penalty was provided, not exceeding $300 for each of- fense and liability to indictment, and, on con- viction, imprisonment not exceeding one year. In case of the introduction of a number of dis- eased cattle at the same time, the introduction of each animal is to be deemed a separate and dis- tinct offense. Town councils are empowered to take all necessary measures to prevent the break- ing out or spreading of any infectious diseases among the neat cattle in their respective towns, and to prescribe penalties in money, not exceed- ing $500. A board of commissioners is provi- ded for, to be appointed by the governor, con- sisting of one person from each county, to see that the law is faithfully executed. It is made the especial dul}' of the board to endeavor to ob- tain full information in relation to the diseases known as pleuro-pneumonia, and to publish and circulate the same, at their discretion ; and in case the disease should break out, or there should be a reasonable suspicion of its existence in any town, they are required to examine the several cases and publish the result of their examination, in order that the public may ha\e correct infor- mation. If satisfied of its existence in any town, they must give public notice of the fact in prin- ted handbills, posted up ; and, thereafter, any incorporated company or person who may drive, carry, or transport any neat cattle out of the town into any other town in the State, is liable to the penalties above stated. Any person who sells or offers to sell any cattle known to be in- fected with pleuro-pneumonia, or with any dis- ease dangerous to public health, is liable to in- dictment, and, on conviction, to punishment by fine not exceeding $1,000, or imprisonment not exceeding two years. The act of March 36, 1864, provides that any person knowingly bringing into the State any neat cattle or other -animals suffering from any infectious disease, ■or who knowingly exposes such cattle or other -animal to other cattle and animals not infected with such disease, shall upon conviction, pay a fine of not less than $100, and not exceeding $500. The laws of Connecticut allow owners of sheep to keep flocks in common, and to make their own rules and regulations concerning their care and safety. No horses, asses, mules, ^eat cattle, sheep, swine, or geese are allowed to go at large in any highway or common, or to roam at large for the purpose of being kept or pastured on the highway or commons, either with or without a keeper. Any person may seize and take into his custody and possession any animal which may be trespassing upon his premises, provided the animal enter from the highway, or through a fence belonging to the owner of the animal, or through a lawful fence belonging to any other person. He must give immediate notice to the owner if known, and may demand for every horse, mule, ass, ox, cow, or calf, twenty-five cents; and for every sheep, goat, goose, or swine, ten cents; together with just damages for injuries occasioned by such ani- mals, if applied for within twenty-four hours after such notice shall have been given. If the owner is not known, the animal shall be sold by the town clerk, after due public notice. The cattle laws of New York allow any person to seize and take into his custody any animal which may be in any public highway, and opposite to laud owned or occupied by him, or which may be trespassing upon his premises. Notice must be given to ajustice of the peace, or a commissioner of highways of the town in which the seizure has been made, who shall post up notices in six pub- lic places that the animal will be sold in not less than fifteen nor more than thirty days. The sur- plus money, after payment of all charges is sub- ject to the order of the owner for one year. The owner, before sale, may pay all charges and take the animal. If the animal has been trespassing by the willful act of another than the owner to effect that object, the owner is entitled to the animal upon making demand, after paying the compensation fixed by the justice or commis- sioner, but no other costs ; and the person com- mitting such willful act will be held liable to a penalty of twenty dollars. In New Jersey town committees, upon notice of the existence of any disease supposed to be contagious, are re- quired personally to examine the cause, and If the symptoms which characterize contagious diseases are exhibited, shall cause such animals to be removed and kept separate and apart from other cattle and stock, five hundred feet distant from any highway, and the same distance from any and all neighbors. If any die of the disease, or are killed, they must be buried immediately, five hundred feet distant etc., as above. No cattle that have been sick, and have recovered from any supposed contagious or infectious disease, shall mix with other cattle, or be removed, unless permission has been given by the town commit- tee. Any person knowingly storing a hide, or any other portion of a diseased animal, is sub- ject to a fine. The town committee are authof- ized to prohibit the importation or passage of cattle from other places into or through their respective towns. After notice of prohibition, owners are liable to a fine of $100 for every animal driven into a township. A fine of $100 is imposed for every animal sold and known to be diseased. The act of 1866 authorizes the Agricultural Society of the State to take measures for preventing the introduction or increase of LAW 565 LAW rinderpest, and any other disease among cattle, at their discretion. And also animals affected with glanders are authorized to be killed. Cattle must not be marked by cropping both ears ; nor must either ear be cropped more than one inch. The running of cattle at large is controlled in Pennsylvania by towns and counties, through •special legislation. The sale of cattle or sheep affected with pleuro-pneumonia, or any other contagious or infectious disease, is punished by a fine not exceeding ^rM, or imprisonment not exceeding six months. Animals must not be sold alive from, or slaughtered on, premises where disease is known to exist, nor for a period of two months after disease .shall have disap- peared from the premises. Cattle and sheep are not allowed to run at large where any contagious disease prevails. Constables of townships are required to take up and confine any animals so found, until all costs are paid. In Delaware, by act of general assembly, cattle are forbidden to run at large in certain districts. Stallions over eighteen months old are not permitted to be at large. The laws of Maryland provide that any person aggi-ieved by trespass upon his premises of any cattle, hogs, or sheep in the possession or care of a non-resident, may impound them, and have the damages sustained by the trespass, valued on oath by two disinterested citizens of his county, and the animals may be sold for the damages and costs. The laws of Virginia pro- vide that if any horses, cattle, hogs, sheep, or goats enter into any grounds inclosed by a law- ful fence, the owner or manager shall be liable to the owner of the ground for all damages; and for every succeeding trespass by such ani- mals, the owner shall be liable for double dama- ges; and, after having given at least five days' notice to the owner of the animals of the fact of two previous trespasses, the aggrieved party shall be entitled to the animals if again found tres- passing on the same lands. Horses diseased and unaltered, are not allowed to be at large. Every person shall so restrain his distempered cattle, or such as are under his care, that they may not go at large off the land to which the\- belong; and no person shall drive any distempered cattle into or through the State, or from one part of it to another, unless it be to remove them from one piece of ground to another of the same owner; and when any such cattle die, the owner thereof, or person having them in charge, shall cause them to be buried (with their hides on) four feet deep. Any justice, upon proof before him that any cattle are going at large, or are driven in or through his county or corporation, in violation of law, may direct the owner to impound them ; and if he fail to do so, or suffer them to escape before obtaining a certificate that tliey may be removed with safety, they shall, by order of the justice, be killed and buried four feet deep, with their hides on, but so cut that no one may be tempted to dig them up. For the protection of sheep special laws have been passed taxing dogs in certain 'counties, and for their restraint in those counties. In North Carolina, if cattle are driven from one part of the State to another, they must be certified to be healthy, sound, and free from any infectious distemper; the granting of such certificate by any justice, without affida- vit, is a misdemeanor in office. Stallions and mules over two years old are not allowed to go at large, under a penalty of twenty dollars. Damages for injury done by trespassing animals are recoverable as in other States. In South Carolina horses, cattle, hogs, sheep, or goats breaking into any field having a crop of any kind growing or ungathered, with a lawful fence, may be seized and kept confined until notice is given to the owner, within twentj-four hours of the seizure, who shall be bound to pay the owner of such field fifty cents a head for each horse or mule, and twenty five cents for every head of cattle, hogs, etc., before he is entitled to have the animal delivered up to him. For the second breaking, within one month after the first, the owner is liable to the person injured for all damages sustained, in addition to the fine. Full satisfaction lies for injuring any animal found in any field where the fence is not a lawful one. In the State of Georgia, if any trespass or dam- age is committed by stock on any lands not pro- tected by lawful fences, the owner of the animal is not liable to answer for trespass; and if the owner of the premises should kill or injure the animal in any manner, he is liable in three times the damages. "When fences are made pursuant to law, and any animal breaks in, the owner of the inclosure shall not kill or injure him for the first breaking, and not until after notice is given to the agent or owner, if possible, but the owner shall be liable for double the damage done by his stock. In Florida there can be no trespass or damage if the fence is not a lawful one; nor in such case can stakes, canes, or other devices to maim or kill cattle, sheep, swine, etc., be used, under a penalty of ten dollars for each offense, and full damages. Marks upon stock are required. Any person is allowed in Alabama to take up any horse, mare, jack, neat cattle, hog, or sheep found running at large, if the owner is unknown. If any stallion or jackass over two years of age, is found at large it must be taken before a justice, who shall cause it to be advertised. The taker up is entitled to five dollars from the owner, and reasonable compen- sation for keeping. If such stallion or jackass is not claimed within three months it may be gelded. The laws of Mississippi provide that every owner of cattle, hora^, mules, hogs, sheep, or goats shall be liable for all injuries and tres- passes committed by breaking into grounds inclosed by legal fence. If any person whose fence is not a lawful one, shall hurt, wound, lame, or kill, by shooting, or hunting with dogs, or otherwise, any cattle, etc., that may have broken into his inclosure, he shall pay the owner double damages. A ranger is elected in each county to attend specially to estrays, of which he is required to keep a record. When an3' person finds horses, mules, jacks, cattle, sheep, or hogs straying upon his land, he may take them up and forthwith send them to the owner, if known; if unknown, he must give notice to the ranger, or some justice of the peace. The owner of all estrays appraised at ten dollars and not exceeding twenty dollars, is allowed six months, and if less than ten dollars, three months, from the date of certificate of appraisement, to claim and prove his property. It is not lawful for any drover or other person to drive any horses, mules, cattle, hogs, or sheep of another from the range to which they belong; but it is made his duty if any such stock join his, to halt immediately at the nearest pen, or some other convenient place, and separate LAW 566 LAW such stock as does not belong to him, or to the person by whom he may be employed. For neglect a forfeit of twenty dollars for every ■offense is provided, and lial)ility to all damages. Any person may confine and geld any stalUons that are above the age of two years, found run- ning at large, at the risk of tlie owner, but this will not apply to stallions usually kept up, or to those which accidentally escape. Any ani- mal addicted to fence breaking may be taken up by owner of land, who may recover seventy-five cents a day for keeping, provided owner has been notified, if known; but condition of fence may be shown in mitigation of damages. Double damages may be recovered for injury to animals where fence Is not a lawful one. Defacing or altering marks of animals subjects to a penalty ' of imprisonment in the penitentiary for not more . than three years, or fine of not more than $500, and imprisonment in county jail for not more than one year, or both. No neat cattle belong- ing to non-residents are allowed to be taken into Texas for grazing or herding purposes, under pain of forfeiture to the county into which they shall have been so taken. Severe penalties for altering the brands of animals are provided in that State. In Arkansas, if any horse, cattle, or other stock break into any inclosure, the fence being of the required height and sufficiency, the owner of the animal shall, for the first offense make reparation for true damages; for the second offense, double damages; and for the third the party injured may kill the trespassing beasts, without being answerable. If any stallion or jack over two years old is found running at large, the owner may be fined two dollars for the first offense, and ten dollars for each subse- quent offense, and is liable for all damages that may be sustained. Any person may take up such animal, and, if not claimed within two , days, may castrate, and recover three dollars for doing so; but the life of the animal must not be endangered. If any such animal can not be taken up, he may be killed, if notice be first put up at the court-house, and at three other of the most public places in the county for ten days, accurately describing the animals. In Tennes- . see StalUons and jackasses over fifteen months old are not allowed to run at large under pen- alty to the owner of not less than five dollars or more than twenty-five dollars. The animal may be taken before the nearest justice of the peace who shall give public notici'. If not claimed within three months the animal may be gelded at the risk and expense of the owner. The party taking him up is entitled to five dollars and reasonable expenses for keeping. There is no law in force in West Virginia to prevent cat- tle from running at large; but if they break into an inclosure and destroy any grain or crops, the owner is liable; provided the fence is a lawful one. A law exists to prevent diseased sheep from traveling on the highway. In Kentucky, breachy and mischievous bulls may be taken up and altered; a jack or stallion may be gelded if found at large, allowing the owner, if known, at the rate of twenty-five miles a day to reach the place where the animal is held, and recover the animal; when the owner is not known, the ani- mal is dealt with as an estray, and may be ordered by a justice to be gelded. If the owner of any distempered cattle permits them to run at large, or drives them through any part of the State, he is liable to a fine of ten dollars for each head; and if any die the owner must cause them to be buried, subject to a penalty of five dollars for neglect in each case. The State of Missouri has created a board of cattle inspectors to prevent the spread of the Texas or Spanish fever. The C(mnty court of each county is authorized to appoint three competent and discreet persons to act as a board for the inspection of cattle sup- posed to be distempered or affected with the dis- ease known as the Texas or t^panish fever. They may stop any drove of cattle. If they adjhdge cattle to be diseased or distempered, and in a condition to communicate any contagious or infectious disease, they are required to order the cattle to be removed from the county without delay, upon the same route upon which they came in, if practicable. If the owners comply with the order they will not be further liable; but if they, or the persons having the cattle in charge, willfully delay or neglect to do so, the president of the board will direct the sheriff to drive the cattle out by the route they came in, or to kill them, if the board think it necessary in order to prevent the spread of the disease. The parties owning, or in charge of the cattle ordered to be removed or killed are liable for all the costs that may accrue in case of examination, removal or killing. The act to prevent the introduction of diseased cattle into the State provides that no Texas, Mexican, or Indian cattle shall be driven or otherwise conveyed into any county in the State between the first day "f March and the first day of December in each year, but this does not apply to any cattle which have been kept the entire previous winter in the State. Cattle may be earned through the State by railroad or steam- boat, provided they are not unloaded, but the railroad company or owners of the steamboat are responsible for all damages which may result from the Spanish or Texas fever, should the same occur along the line of transportation; and the existence of such disease along the route shall be prima facie evidence that the disease has been communicated by such transportation. For every head of cattle brought into the State con- trary to law a line of twenty dollars may be recovered, or the party may be imprisoned in the county jail not less than three nor more than twelve months, or maybe subjected to both fine and imprisonment. It is lawful for any three or more householders to stop any cattle which they may have good reason to believe are passing through any county in violation of the act. In Illinois the owner of animals breaking through a legal fence is liable to full damages for the first trespass, and to double damages for any subse- quent trespass. Where the fence is insufficient, and the land-owner injures or destroys animals, he is answerable in damages. Stallions over one year old are not permitted to run at large ; but if so found may be gelded, if the owner does not reclaim them, one day for every fifteen miles' distance of the animal from home being allowed, after notice. Diseased horses, mules, and asses must be kept within the owner's inclosure, under penalty of twenty dollars damages. Estray hogs must be sold from November 1st to March 1st. To convey any Texas or Cherokee cattle into the State between the first day of October and the first day of March renders the party so doing lia- ble to a fine not exceeding $3,000 nor less than $500, and imprisonment at the discretion of the LAW 567 LAW court. Any and all fines are paid into the county treasury, subject to the order of the board of supervisors, or county court, for the purpose of being divided pro rata among persons who may have suffered damage or loss on account of any such Texas or Cherokee cattle. All persons or corporations are liable to injui-ed parties for any damage arising from the introduction, by any of them, of any diseased cattle. It is made the duty of any circuit or county judge, or justice of the peace, upon oath of any householder, setting forth that Texas or Cherokee cattle are spreading disease among the native cattle, to forthwith issue a warrant to any sheriff or con- Stable of the county, commanding him to arrest .and impound such cattle, and keep them by themselves until the first day of October follow- ing. Texas and Cherokee cattle are defined to mean a class or kind of cattle, without reference to the place from which they may have come In Indiana laws regulating the running at large of stock are local ia their application, county boards designating what animals may or may not run at large. However, when any animal is found at large contraiy to local law, and has been taken up, the owner may reclaim it within ten days, after which time the animal may be sold. It is unlawful in the State of Ohio for any one to sell, harter, or dispose of, or permit to run at large, any horse, cattle, sheep, or other domestic ani- mal, knowing them to be infected with contag- ious or infectious disease, or to have them indirectly exposed thereto, unless he firet duly informs the party to whom he may sell as to the facts. The fine for so doing is not less than $20 nor more than $300, with costs, or confinement in the county jail not more than thirty days. Por allowing infected animals to come in contact ■with animals belonging to another, a fine is pro- vided of not less than $50 nor more than $500, -with cost of prosecution, or confinement in county jail not less than ten nor more than fifty days. If any horse, mule, ass, or any neat cattle, hogs, sheep, or goats, running at large, break into or enter an inclosure other than inclosures of railroads, the owner is liable for all damages, and the animal so breaking into or entering an inclosure is not exempted from execution issued on any judgment or decree rendered by any court. For allowing any such animals to run at large in any public highway or upon any unin- closed land, or for herding any of them for the purpose of grazing on premises other than those owned or occupied by the owner or keeper of the animals, the party offending is liable, for every violation, to a fine of not less than $1 nor more than i^S. i3ut a general permission may be granted by the commissioners of any county for certain animals to run at large, and in counties where there is no such general permission, town- ship trustees may grant special permits, such general and special permits terminating on the first ^Monday of Jlarch of each year; and special permits are revokable at the discretion of the trustees, upon three days' notice in writing to the owner of animals. Special permits mast be directed to individuals, and for particular animals described therein. The owner of tres- passing animals is liable for all damages upon premises of another without reference to the fence which may inclose the premises. Any person may lake up and confine an animal found at large contrary to law, and the owner may reclaim the same within ten days. The fees are as follows: For taking up and advertising each horse or mule, $1 ; neat cattle, seventy-five cents each; swine, fifty cents each; sheep or geese, twenty-five cents each ; and reasonable pay for keeping the same. It is unlawful for the owner or keepers of any animals knowingly to permit them to enter the inclosure of any railroad, or, having entered, to remain therein ; or to lead or drive any such animals within the inclosure, or along or upon the track of any railroad, at any other place than the regular street or road cross- ing, or farm crossing or way. In Michigan it is not lawful for any cattle.horses, sheep, or swine to run at large on the highway, except in those coun- ties or parts of counties where it shall be otherwise determined by the board of supervisors in such county. Where the law is in force, any person may seize and hold in his possession any animal found running at large, and give notice to a justice of the peace or a commissioner of high- ways, who is required to post up notices describ- ing the animal. The animal must be sold at public outcry in not less than thirty nor more than sixty days after date of notice; but the owner may redeem the animal by paying costs and compensation for keeping — redemption to be made within one year. An animal found trespassing by the willful act of another, may be taken by the owner on demand, after paying reasonable compensation, but the person com- mitting the act is liable to a fine of $20. Any person taking up a beast going at large contrary to law, or contrary to any by-law of a township, is entitled to fifty cents per head for all horses, mules, asses, and neat cattle, and ten cents per head for all sheep, goats, and swine. When any person is injured in his land by animals, he may recover damages in an action for trespass against the owner of the beasts, or by distraining the beasts doing damage, unless the animal shall have been lawfully on adjoining lands, and shall have escaped therefrom in consequence of the neglect of the person who has suffered the damage, to maintain his part of the division fence. The laws of Wisconsin permit ;owns to make regula- tions concerning the running of animals at large. The owner or occupant of lands may distrain all beasts doing damage within his inclosure. and when any distress shall be made, the person dis- training is required to keep such beasts in some place other than the public pound until his dam- ages are appraised; and within twtnty-four hours he shall apply to a justice of the peace, who shall appoint three disinterested free-holders to appraise the damage sustained. If within twenty- four hours after appraisement the damages are not paid, the animals may be placed in the public pound, to be there maintained until the amount of damages and costs is recovered by due process of law. If the owner of any sheep infected with contagious disease, permits any of them to go at large out of his own inclosure at any season of the year, he shall forfeit the sum of $5 for each and every such sheep, to the person who may enter complaint, for each time they are so found running at large. If the owner neglects to restrain such sheep, any person is authorized to take them up and put them in some safe place other than the public pound. Rams are not per- mitted to go at large between July 15th and December 1st, and the owner forfeits $10 to the person taking up the animal for each time so LAW 5U8 LAWJSr found abroad. The electors of each town in the State of Minnesota have power at their annual meetings to determine the numher of pound masters, and the location of pounds, and regulations for impounding animals, and to fix the time and manner in which cattle, mules, asses, and sheep may be permitted to go at large, provided that no cattle, horses, mules, nor asses be allowed to go at large between the 15th of October and the 1st of April. The owner or occupant of lands may distrain all beasts doing damage upon his lands during the night-time, from eight o'clock in the evening until sunrise; and when any such distress is made the distrainer shall keep such beasts in some secure place other than the public pound, until his damages are appraised, unless the same is made on Sunday, in which case, before the next Tuesday morning thereafter he shall apply to a justice of the peace of the town, who shall appoint three disinterested persons to appraise damages. No damage can be recovered by the owner of any lands for dam- age committed by any beasts during the day- time, until it is first proved that the lands were inclosed by a lawful fence. Distress may be made at any time before the beasts doing dam- age escape from the lands, and without regard to the sufficiency of fences. The owner of any horse or other animal, having the disease known as the glanders, who knowingly permits such animal to run at large, or be driven upon any of the highways of the State, or any hotel keeper, or keeper of any public barn, who permits any animal having such disease to be stabled, such person shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction before any justice of the peace, shall be punished by a fine of not more than $100 nor less than $35. In Iowa no stal- lion, jack,bull,boar, or buck is permitted to run at large. Persons aggrieved are allowed to distrain any such animals, and compel the owner to pay damages. If the animal is not redeemed within seven days, seven days' notice of its sale at public auction must be given, the proceeds to apply on damages after deducting costs. If any domestic animal, lawfully on adjoining land, escapes therefrom in consequence of the neglect of the person suffering the damage to maintain his part of the division fence, the owner of the animal is not liable for any damages. If beasts are not lawfully upon the adjoining land, and came upon it, or if they escaped therefrom into the injured inclosure, in consequence of the neglect of the adjoining owner to maintain a partition fence or any part of one, which it was his duty to main- tain, then the owner of the adjoining land shall be liable as well as the owner of beasts. Pence viewers appraise all damages. An act of April 8, 1868, forbids any one to bring into the State, or to have in possession, any Texas, Cherokee, or Indian cattle. Transportation on railroads through the State is not forbidden, nor the driv- ing through any part of the State of such Texas or southern cattle as have been wintered at least one winter north of the southern boundary of the State of Missouri or Kansas. The penalty of violation is a fine not exceeding $1,000, or imprisonment in county jail at the discretion of the court, not to exceed six months, together with all damages that may accrue by reason of such violation of the law. Any one driving or importing diseased sheep into the State, knowing the disease to be contagious, is deemed guilty of misdemeanor, and is punishable by fine of not less than $50 nor more than $100. The same fine is imposed upon any person who may turn out of his inclosure, or sell sheep, knowing them to be diseased. In Kansas, when a majority of the electors in any township petition county commissioners for orders to confine animals during the night-time, such orders shall be made and notice thereof given. The owner is liable for depredations of animals during the continu- ance of such orders, without regard to condition of fences. Persons damaged in their property have a lien upon the stock. If any stallion or jack over the age of two years is found at large, the owner, if known, must be notified of the fact; and if he fails or refuses to confine the animal he is liable to a fine of $5 for the first offense, and $10 for each subsequent offense, and all damages. Stallions and jacks, not used for breeding purposes, may be ca.stratcd by the per- son taking them up, if the owner fails, after three days' notice, to reclaim the same, and pay dam- ages, or such animals may be killed after six days' notice. Any bull, boar, or stag found running at large may be taken up at any time or place. Electors of townships may decide whether swine may run at large or not, at least ten voters having petitioned for the submission of the question. No hoi'se, mule, or ass diseased with glanders is allowed to be at large, under a penalty of not less than five dollars nor more than $100. Knowingly to import or drive into the State sheep affected with contagious disease is a misdemeanor, with a fine not to exceed $200. The same penalty is provided for any owner allowing such sheep to run at large, together with responsibility for damages to other owners. Rams must be restrained between June 15th and December 15th, under penalty of five dollars for each day allowed at large. Electors of town- ships determine whether or not sheep shall run at large. In February, 1867, a sanitary measm'e was passed for the protection of cattle from the ravages of the Spanish fever. Stock from Texas and the Indian Territory brought into the State between the first day of March and the first day of December in any year, are not to be driven through the State except in the remoter parts on the plains, and then not within five miles of any highway or ranch, except by consent of the owner of the latter. Violation of the law is treated as a misdemeanor, and the first offense is punishable by fineof $100 to $1,000, and impris- onment from thirty days to six months; for subsequent offenses the penalties are doubled. In Nebraska cattle and other stock are restrained in particular counties. The legislation concern- ing cattle etc., is also of a local character in the State of California. The laws of Oregon interdict the running at large of any stallion, jack, or mule, over eightet'u months old, within tlie months of April, May, June, July, September, and October. If not kept for breeding purposes, the animal may be gelded. If kept for breeding purposes, the distrainer may return him to the owner, and recover two dollars. The owner of such an animal is liable for damages. Animals affected with contagious diseases must not be brought into the State under a penalty of not less than $50 nor naore than $500 for the intro- duction of each animal so diseased. LAWN. The. lawns of England have been celebrated the world over for their verdancy. LAWN 569 LAYERING closeness of texture aud general beauty. This is owing to four reasons : A most thorough pre- paration of the soil, the moist climate, thick sowinw of grass seed, and frequent cutting with the lawn mower. In preparing for a lawn, the grojjntl sliould be plowed deep and heavily man- ur/d. because deep tilth and decomposed manure afe favorable to the retention of moisture. Thick feeding brings a close firm sward which keeps / the ground shaded, frequent mowings, saj' once I in two weeks keeps the sward dense, and prevents the roots from becoming long and straggling. They form a dense mat under the surface and prevent evaporation of moisture from the surface. Thus a closely mown lawn, acts as a constant mulch and the earth will be moister and cooler than on a surface wholly or partially exposed. The thermometer will quickly show this. The moist climate we have not got. Hence, during July and August, it is impossible to keep a lawn per- fect in its greenness without a good soaking once a week. Hence, during this time it is not a bad plan to let the grass grow even to a height of ten or twelve inches. After the first heavy rain of the late summer cut the grass as closely as possi- ble, aud then go over it with the lawn mower and in three days it will again be perfect. In making a lawn, never use lawn grass mixtures. They are as high priced as they are generally worthless. The basis of a good lawn is in the preparation of the soil. Kentucky Blue grass, pun pratensis, Spear grass, poa 1:0111 pressa. Red top, Agrostis tulgaris, and White clover, Tri- folium repem, should form the bulk of the grasses used. Rye grass, Lolimii peirnne, is sometimes used, but it does not stand close cutting. Tim- othy two pounds per acre is good in the forma- tion of a lawn, since it acts as a kind of a nurse to the other grasses. The sowing of oats is often advised for the same purpose. Do not use it. It robs the young-grass of nourishment, and is dead just at the time the grass wants the protec- tion most. Timothy is not a good lawn grass, it is too coarse, but it may be easily killed by close cutting late in the summer, since it has a bulb just at the top of the ground, which if cut des- troys the grass. Sow lawn grass in August. The following is a good mixture : Red- top, one bushel; Kentucky Blue grass, one bushel; Spear grass, one bushel; and two pounds White clover. Then sow two pounds flat turnip. Divide the grass seed into two parts, sow one-half one way and the other half the other way. This is suifi- cient for one acre. Finish with the turnip seed and you will not only have your seed sown evenly, but the turnip leaves will partially shade the land, and act as a mulch. Just before it freezes up cover with slough hay or other mulch to protect the grass from heaving the first win- ter; early the next spring rake off the mulch cleanly, sow two bushels salt per acre, roll as soon as the land is firm enough, and if you have prepared the whole as directed you will have a first class lawn. At any cost, the surface of the land must be perfectly smooth and level before sowing. This may generally be accomplished by means of a revolving or other harrow and a level -r, two or three hard wood scantling eight feet long, one side brought down to a sharp edge, the whole fastened together Jwo feet_apart, and drawn by means of a chain from each side ending in a toggle link. If the soil is clayey, plant it to some hoed crop, as potatoes, before making the lawn, and in this case leave it rough for the win- ter. Then when quite dry in the spring, level and sow. Thus you have that most beautiful of rural objects, a perfect lawn. The following are the general rules, by which a good lawn may be had and kept intact. To have a perfect lawn, says Mr. William Saunders, it is absolutely necessary to have it properly laid down at the outset. This, however, does not consist so much in enriching the soil as in rendering it friable and porous by draining, subsoiling and pulverizing. The main feature in keeping lawns is frequent mowing, and if this is neglected fine lawns can not be maintained. It will matter but little how much expense and skill ma}- have been incurred in the preparation and seeding of the ground if it is allowed to grow at random afterwards, as the strongest foliaged grasses and clover will event- ually supersede the finer kinds if the cutting is not regularly attended to. On the other hand, lawns that have been but indifferently prepared ma}- be rendered close and regular by frequent mowing and judicious top-dressing. Early cut- ting prevents the growth of the coarser grasses and induces lateral growth on the finer, thus cov- ering the surface with a dense foliage, which resists the efEects of sun and long-continued dry weather. Every lawn of any pretensions should be kept smooth by a machine. Not only is it economical as regards labor, but it is scarcely practicable to keep it with a scathe so smooth, thick, and velvety as can be done with a good lawn-mower. Another advantage is that the grass is -not removed, but falls down in a shower over the roots, forming a very efficient mulching and enablingus to impart to our pleasure grounds all the character of the finest lawns, an attain- ment that has. hitherto been deemed beyond our ability to realize. When the grass becomes thin and of weakly growth a top-dressing of good stable manure should be laid over the surface in December. It is important that the manure should be well rotted before being used, and as occa- sion offers during winter it should be broken up and manipulated with an iron rake. The object in view is to distribute it evenly over the whole surface. Break it finely, so that it will settle down and nourish the grass roots. When spring opens, the rough, strawy portions, if any are left, should be removed; otherwise it would inter- fere with the proper keeping of the surface. LAXATIVE. A gentle-purgiug medicine. LAVERINCr. The lajing down of a branch, aud covering with earth, in order to induce the formation of roots is termed layering. It used -to be extensively practiced with all that class of plants, as carnations, that were supposed not to strike readily from cuttings, and indeed they do not, except under special conditions. But modern scientific horticulture has demonstrated that any plant that will strike from layers will do so from cuttings. Layered plants are stronger however, than those from cvittings. Layering is still quite common with some varieties of grapes, as the Delaware, for instance, that is shy in striking. In the farm garden it is a simple and easy way of propagating, and is done as follows; The branch or shoot to be operated on is cut with a rather long gash, say one or two inches in length, according to size. A sliver of wood is thrust in to hold it apart. It is then bent down and laid in a trench so it may be covered two or three inches deep in moist earth. LAYERING 570 LEAVES and firmly pegged in place. In the case of grape vines, tiie whole branch is covered, when it will generally form roots, and a separate plant at every joint. With carnations and that cl&s of short stemmed plants, the cut portion is pegged down and covered, and the tip of the shoot left out. The following cut will explain the manner of rooting a branch without severing it from the plant. It has been in use for many years with pot plants, and is also useful with hard wooded plants. Select the shoot to be operated upon, pass a small pot carefully over the branch, cut diagonally half way through the branch, about midway of the pot, with a long cut, hold this slit open ■with a chip, ' and pack the earth firmly about the branch, fastening .the pot so it will not move. The ■details for layering the grape will answer for all plants that can be layered out of doors. They are as follows: For the propagation of plants for removal, the vine dresser selects such parts of the branches .as may suit his purpose when he is going over his vineyard at the season of winter pruning. These are left, instead of being cut off ^^^ lateeino. as in the regular trimming; and they must be so situated as to be easily bent down to the ground. After dressing the vine- yard in the spring, these branches are either at once pegged down and buried in the soil, with •the smaller twigs protruding, or shallow .trenches are opened, into which the branch to be layered ,'is simply pegged down, if it be a vigorous cane of the last year's growth. As the spring opens. STRUCTITRE OP THE LEAF. , the shoots must J)e then tied to a stake. As ■ soon as the new wood at the lower joints begins to harden, mellow earth should be gradually drawn up to them, and they will immediately put forth a circle of roots from near their junc- tion with the old shoot, which roots greatly aid their growth and relieve the mother vine. In the autumn, the layered branches may be taken up and divided, when every bud which has forced up a shoot will be found to have become a strong well-rooted plant; so that, in this way, a large increase may be made, and the roots, being in a circle, are well disposed for planting, and may be removed from the soil without injury. Layers should never be allowed to remain attached to the parent vine after the first season, as they are believed to be injurious. It will also be perceived that this sort of robbery of a plant will materially affect its bearing; so that, where cuttings grow readily, as is remark- ably the case with the Catawba, Concord, etc., the plan is not generally pursued. With the Herbemont and the Schuylkill or Cape, which are difficult to grow from cuttings, and with new varieties which it is proposed to multiply, this plan is generally adopted. Some persons prefer layered plants to those grown from cuttings, on account of the arrangement of the roots. Fqr home use, they are greatly to be preferred, because they may be brought into bearing much sooner than cuttings planted in the vineyard at the same time, and because a large number may be grown from the old vines. LEATHER WOOD. Dirca pnlustm. A small indigenous shrub with very flexible branches, and a tough, leathery bark. LEAVEN. A piece of sour dough used to make other dough light; it is well kneaded into it, and produces fermentation, but inferior to yeast. LEAVES. The leaves of plants act, in a sense, both as do the stomach and lungs of ani- mals. They are the vital organs and may not be unduly taken away without serious injury to the plant, for just in proportion to the leaf surface so will be the roots. Hence the more leaf surface that is ac- quired by a newly transplanted tree, the niore vigorous will be the root action, for root action can never become vigoi'ous until leaf action is established. Many persons are in the habit of stripping the lower leaves of plants in the garden to feed to pigs and cows. Nothing could be more senseless, since it directly reacts upon the vigor of the plants. The leaves remaining when plants are mature, if suitable for the food of animals, as corn, beets, cabbage, etc., are of value, and the dried or dead leaves are valuable as manure. The leaves of forest trees are e.specially valuable for mulch, and as a separator for strong heat- ing manure in making hot-beds, since they not onlj' counteract vio- lent fermentation, but cause the heat to be held for a long time through their slow decomposition. As mulch, leaves are cleanly, easily gathered and applied and keep the ground cool, and when decomposed are valuable through the humus, and potash they contain. Bagasse, the stalks of sugar cane after it is crushed, makes an excellent mulch in the South, and the bagasse of sorghum in the North. LEEK 571 LEGHORN FOWLS Potato and tomato stalks dry, make an admir- able mulch for strawberries in the garden. Where forest leaves are plenty and bedding scarce, these should by all means be gathered in the autumn, and stored away dry for use. The •structure of the leaf presents a curious and instructive study. A section of leaf properly prepared, and placed under a strong microscope, will show the breathing pores, numbering often over 60,000 to the square inch, the cellular struc- ture, and thebranching vascular bundles. Accom- panying we present a section of leaf highly magnified, showing the cellular structure of the orange leaf. When viewed under a high power it becomes an object of much interest. The branching vascular bundles will be distinctly seen, resembling in some respects the arteries and veins of the human body. A careful exami- nation will show that these are also covered with a very fine lace-work of cells under and over them, and interspersed among the latter will be seen a vast assemblage of translucent ■dottings, each having an opening across it cor- responding to those of the stomat^s, under wMch they were situated before dissection. The structure of the leaf, taken as a whole, indi- cates the gi-eat necessity of cleanliness and high culture; for the more complicated the organic structure of the plant is, the greater will be the number of its economic products, and ihe more apt are abortions in the form of fruit to be pro- duced in the case of neglected culture or unfavorable climatic conditions. In plants there are milk-vessels, turpentine, oil-receptacles, and the like, which form canals or cavities between or among the cells, and are filled with the par- ticular product of the plant. Not so with the lower forms of fungi. Their roots may gi'ow in profusion, although frequently torn to pieces, because of their simple form of structure and habits. A single cell of mycelium will germi- nate, bud, or reproduce its kind as perfectly as will a spore of its fruit. LEDGERS. In building, the pieces of tim- ber used in scaffolding, which lie parallel to the wall, and horizontal. LEECH. Siinguisuga officinalis and medici- iialis. They inhabit shallow brooks and ponds, and are valuable in relieving local inflamma- tions, by drawing off an excess of blood. LEEK. Allium porrum. In the United States the leek is less cultivated than in most other countries. It belongs to the onion family. It has always been regarded with particular favor by the Egyptians, who eat it raw with their broad, or as a sauce for meats. It is fre- quently associated with the name of St. David, the patron saint of Wales, for the reason that Welshmen are accustomed to sport leeks in their hats upon his festival, the first of March. This is a very ancient custom, and we find frequent mention of it among the old writers. Some per- sons have thought that it commemorates the intro- duction of the plant into that country by St. David; but more probably, as Shakspeare says, in his Henry the Fifth, it is worn as a memo- rable trophy of predeceased valor. According to an ancient tradition, in a celebrated victory of the Welsh over the Saxons, in the sixth century, the former under the prelate's directions, were ■ distinguished by leeks which they gathered near the battle ground. As he was supposed to have , power to work miracles, it is not strange that i their glorious success should have been attrib- uted to this cause. Whatever may be the origin of the custom, it would be quite as remarkable to find a Welshman without his leek on the first of March, as it would to discover a genuine Hibernian without a shamrock in his buttonhole on St. Patrick's Day. For certain purposes the leek is preferred to the onion. The seed of the leek should be sown as early as possible, in a well prepared bed, and transplanted when large enough, in shallow trenches one foot apart. In the row they should be left six inches apart; the soil should be light, rich, and mellow. If the weather turns dry, the plants must be watered, since they are impatient of drought; keep the soil mellow, and draw it about the stems from time to time. The London-flag-leek is hardy, and the variety usually cultivated in the United States. The whole plant is used in various ways, either boiled, or in soups, stews, etc. LEGHORN FOWLS. The Leghorns are called by Tegetmeier, a well known English authority, an American breed. They certainly are a thoroughly Americanized breed, but are undoubtedly an Italian breed originally, being said to have been first imported from Leg- horn, whence their name. They are among the best of our breeds, a modified Spanish fowl, with all their good qualities, and lacking the weak points of the Spanish. They are bred of various colors, except black, but the White and the Brown Leghorns are the most fashionable. The white variety much resemble the Spanish in size and plumage, but are their direct opposite in color. The combs of the cocks are upright, single, large and much serrated; wattles full and large, cream colored or white ear-lobes. The combs of the hens frequentlj' fall or double over. The cut will furnish a good illustration WHITE LEGBOBNS. of this strain of Leghorns, as the description will also of the Brown. The Brown Leghorn is pre- cisely like the White, except in color, which is a rich brown. The comb is the same as in the White, legs bright yellow in both White and Brown. The Brown Leghorns have the breast black, splashed with brown, the wings reddish brown, the tail large, full and with the sickle well curved. In the White the sickle is carried more upright. The ear-lobes.pure opaque white, rather pendent, thin and close fitting to the head, smooth and free from wrinkles. The neck, hackle and saddle of the White Leghorns may be tinged with gold or straw color, but all LEICESTER SHEEP 572 LETTUCE the rest of the plumage must be pure white. As showing the appreciation of tlie Leghorns in England, whence they were sent from breeders in the United States, Tegetmeier says, the birds are of a sprightly, active carriage, good foragers. BKOWN LEGHORNS. they are abundant layers of full sized eggs, the hens rarely showing an inclination to sit, the chickens are hardy, and unlike those of the Spanish, they feather quickly and mature rap- idly. He fully endorses all that American breeders hold to be excellent in these admirable fowls. LEGUMEN, LEGUME. A pod like that of the pea, bean, etc. A one-celled, one or many seeded, two-valved, superior, and commonly dehiscent fruit. LEGUMIN. The caseine of leguminous plants. LEGUMINOSJI. An extensive natural fam- ily, very important in agriculture, from yielding peas, beans, clovers, indigo, etc. The genera are often immense trees in the tropics, as log- wood, mahogany, but are usually small herbs in the North. The most remarkable characters are the presence of legumens with irregular, often papilionaceous flowers. LEGUMINOUS CROPS. Crops of clover, beans, tares lucerne, and other leguminosce. Some writers, however, very improperly allude to root and leaf crops under this term, imagining that all ameliorating crops should be called legumi- nous, as being distinguished from white or cul- miferous crops, which also exhaust the soil. LEICESTER SHEEP. Originally the Lei- cester Sheep were large, coarse, heavy, poor in flavor as to the meat, with long, thin, tlat-sided carcases; large boned, long, coarse wooled, and poor feeders. Robert Bakewell in the last cen- tury, by selection and proper feeding and breed- ing, brought them into great celebrity, begin- ning in 1775. In 1780, it is recorded that his rams were let at iif ty dollars each for the season's use; in 1784, at $525 each; and in 1786, one ram was let for $1,575. Subsequently seven were let for $10,500 for the season, and $3,300 was paid by each of two breeders for the use of a ram. Mr. Bakewell reserving one-third of the use of this ram for himself, making his yearly value $6,600. After his death, his successors not having the tact of Mr. Bakewell, the sheep declined, became delicate in constitution, and of late years they have become mixed with the blood of the Cotswolds. So far as we can learn the Leicesters have not held their own in the United States or in Canada. It is an open question, however, whether the Leicester might not be used in certain cases to refine the Colswold, in the hands of breeders whose close study of anat- omy and form, would enable them to breed them intelligently. LEMON. A tropical plant of the citrus family, including the orange and citron. The lemon is • not cultivated to any considerable extent; but in some of the Gulf States, notably Florida, oranges are largely cultivated. (See Orange, for the cultivation of the lemon). LEMON, ESSENCE OF. The oil distilled from the peel, mixed with alcohol. The pure oil is termed the oil of lemons. I-EMON SYRUP. Lemon juice is kept with diflSculty in bottles; made into a strong syrup, it is better preserved. The fluid sold by this name is often common syrup, acidulated with a little oil of vitriol. LENITIVE. Medicines which gently soothe. A gentle purgative. LENS. A thin solid, the faces of which are curved, and the general figure usually circular. The glasses of spectacles are lenses. Those lenses which have two convex or protuberant sides, or one side plane, magnify objects, and concentrate the rays of heat to a burning focus ; hence they are termed magnifying or burning glasses. Concave lenses minify, and do not collect heat to a real focus. The name of the lens differs with the figure of the curved surface. LENTICULAR. Shaped double convex lens. LENTICELLS, or LENTICULAR GLANDS. The specks or knots on the stems of some trees, from whence, if in the soil, roots would proceed. LENTIL. Ermim lens. A leguminous annual, similar to the vetch. It is much cultivated in France and some parts of Germany as food for man. LENTOR. Viscidity, clamminess in fluids. LEPIDOPTERA. Insects of the moth and butterfly tribe. LEPIDOTUS, LEPIDOTE. Scurfy, scaly. LEPISMA. A family of wingless insects, the bodies of which are covered with glistening scales, the feet short. They are very active, and found about old wool, and in dark, moldy places. LEPRA, LEPROSY. A disease of the skin, which becomes rough and covered with scaly patches. LEPTURA. A genus of longicorn beetles, of the family Leptwida. Head inclined posteri- orly behind the eyes, or contracted at its junction with the thorax into a neck ; thorax conical or trapezoid, narrowed anteriorly; elytra becom- ing gi-adually narrower; eyes rounded and entire, or, if emarginate, antennae inserted before emargination. LETHARGY. Drowsiness, morbid desire to sleep. It is sometimes a precursor of apoplexy, and calls for blood-letting if occurring in a full habit. LETTUCE. Laeiuca saiwa. Lettuce is a hardy annual of which the original country seems to be unknown, but thought to be a native of Asia. It has been found wild in many different parts of the world, and was first cultivated in England about the year 1563. It is divided inta two families, called the Cos and the Cabbage let- tuces. The first, distinguished by an upright LEY 573 LICHENS growth — was introduced fi-om the island of Cos ; iiiul the second — the habits of which are some- what indicated by its name — from Egypt. Our climate is not altogether favorable to the Cos family. The botanical term Lncliicd in derived from lue, the Latin word for milk, in allusion to the milky juice which exudes from the stem when broken. This juice when the plants are young, contains but a small quantity of the narcotic principle; but it gradually acquires a strong, bitter taste, and becomes nota- bly sedative. This property seems to have been known at a very early period, and a lettuce sup- per was thought highly conducive to repose. Lettuce can only be grown tb perfection in a rich, mellow soil, and one cool and moist. Hence it is always best in the West, when started in a cold frame and transplanted to the open air as .>iOon as danger of hard frosts are over. It may be transplanted when it has only three or four leaves, or when it has formed six or seven. For succession the seed may be sown in a warm bor- der, and again in the open garden in rows twelve inches apart, allowing the plants to stand finally six inches apart in the row. When it is to be transplanted set the plants six inches apart <_-\-ery way, take out every other row as may be required for use, and again alternate plants in the remaining rows, allowing the plants to stand twelve by twelve inches, when, if the soil be rich enough and plenty of moisture be present, they will form handsome heads completely covering the ground. Among the cabbage lettuces, the White Silesian is the one generally cultivated, and all tilings considered one of the best. LEVELER. (See Lawn.) LEVELING. The art of discovering the level of surfaces, or how high one place is above another ; in agriculture, the reduction of hills or mounds to a level or plain surface. LEVELING STAVES. Straight rods, six or more feet high, and divided into marks at the inches, which can be distinctly seen at a short E. BODY LOUSE. ci:ab louse. and itch, are often attributed to lice. These are, indeed, caused by parasites which burrow under the skin, and may be destroyed by the same gen- eral means that will kill lice ; that is by dipping in a decoction of tobacco-water to which flowers of sulphur is added. True lice, however, and ticks also, being confined to the surface and not under the skin may be destroyed by gentler means. On cattle, by an application of a preparation of lard oil and creosote, in the proportion of four parts of the first to one part of the latter. On horses, they may be clipped, and washed with a decoction of two ounces of powdered stavesacre seed in one quart of boiling water, applied cool, care being taken that the animal does not lick the wash, will be effectual. In mild cases, an ointment of two ounces of Scotch snuff thoroughly mixed with six ounces of lard will sufHce, or one drachm of calomel and one ounce of crude petroleum, will not only kill the lice but allay the irritation. Hen lice are often irritating to horses. They usually congregate about the roots of the tail and mane. They are almost microscopic and hence not readily noticed. When found they should be eradicated with the last named remedy, and all parts of the stables whitewashed with lime, in which carboUc acid has been dissolved. LICHENS. Plants of a very low organization. LIFE, ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE which grow on the hark of trees or rocks, where they form a kind of incrustation, or upon tlie ground, where thfey consist of irregular lobes, par- allel with the earth's surface, Occasionally, in all situations, they are found in a branched state; but their subdivisions are generally irregular, and without order. Their fructification consists of hard nuclei, call d shields, which break through the upper surface of the thallus or main sub- stance of the lichen, are of a peculiar odor and texture, aud contain the reproductive particles. Liche-is abound in the cold and temperate parts of the world. The greater part are of no known use; but some, as the reindeer-moss (CenomyRe raiij f nil, i), the Iceland moss {Geti-aria Idmidira), and various species of Qyrophora, are capable of sustaining life, either in animals or man. The Iceland moss, when deprived of its bitterness by soaking in an alkali and then boiling becomes, indjej, a diet recommended to invalids. Others are used as toaic msdicines, as Variolnri i, faginea and P.irmi'ia pariet'ii'c Their principal use is, however, that of furnishing the dyer with bril- liant colore; archil, cudbear and peroUe, with many m^)re, are thus employed. LlCHi'jNIiV. The starchy matter of lichens. Lli-'t:, AXiMAL AND VEGETABLE. Ani mal and vegetable life has been defined, by Aaguste Le Oomte, as resulting from a double molecular motion, general and continuous, of composition and decomposition, in relation to the organism and inorganic medium. This definition is correct enough as an hypothesis showing the action of life. What is life, is a question as yet too profound for the mind of man to elucidate. The action of life upon the medium has been defined to be as supposing not only a being organized in such manner as to permit the phenomena constituting the vital state, but supposes further the not less indis- pensable idea of the ensemble of external agents, physical and chemical, proper to furnish to the organism tiie principles necessary for its nutrition and the manifestation of the properties of its anatomical elements. This ensemble of condi- tions we name the medium. The idea of life and that of the medium are two conceptions so inseparable from each other that no life is possible in a medium improper for the accom- plishment of organic phenomena. There must be a certain harmony between these two media. As this harmony diminishes, the phenomenon passes from the normal state to that of sickness or perturbation, a prolongation of which occa- sions death. Organic perturbation may occur in three different modes, which it is important to fully understand before proceeding to analyze the nature of the perturbation. Prof. Poey says : 1. If the medium is much more permanent, simpler, and more general, the living being alone is modified. 3. If the medium is much more unstable, more complex, and special, it is then more modifiable than the living being. 3. If the medium be as complex as the living being the modifications will correspond in both terms. In the capital question of 'the reciprocal influence of climatologic agents upon living beings, and mce versa, the problem to be first resolved by way of experiment is the following: To learn and separ- ate, in meteorological observations, the sum of the actions of the medium, gravity, heat, light, electricity, etc., favorable for organic existence, from the sum of actions unfavorable for this 574 LIFE, ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE existence, and, after this correction, to calculate: the effects of action and reaction between the being and the medium. This problem having been formulated by Alphonse de CandoUe, solely with reference to the influence of temperature on vegetation, was extended by Prof. Poey to all the other meteorological influences, by introduc- ing the most capital element of the action of media upon living beings, and of their reaction upon media — a consideration overlooked by thia savant. The persistent harmony between vital forces and external modifiers, which concur in the phenomena of life, being thus established in the theory of media, the last problem remaining to be practically resolved is the following: A living being and a medium being given, to determine their reciprocal influence. Such was the course pursued by Prof. Poey in examining those meteorologic and climatologic elements that exert any influence upon vegetable life, in it* relation to the agricultural art. The principle of the correlation, conservation, and equivalency of heat and motion has been extended to all the forces both of organic and inorganic nature, and lately to the intellectual and moral functions. We thus identify all the forces acting in the living body with those acting in the inorganic universe, the former having only a higher degree of complexity. Hence the organic constitution (animal and vegetable) may be compared to an engine in which heat is the principal agent. The power of the steam engine is derived from the heat applied to its boilers, which heat is but the expression of the chemical changes involved in combustion. The same with vegetable activity, the force of the solar light being used up in the decomposition of the carbonic acid of the atmos- phere by the growing plant. Combustion in the furnace of the steam engine is sustained either by wood which is the product of vegeta- tion or by coal which represents the vegetable life of a remote geological epoch. In either case, therefore, we come directly or indirectly to solar radiation. But as Liebig says, our animated machines create no power, but only return what they have received from the external medium. In fact. Liebig defined life to be that plants live and grow; while animals live, grow, and feel. This, while as a rule being correct, is not so, strictly speaking, since it is not possible to verify the statement as to the lowest forms of life, any more certain than to state as a verity that vegeta- bles do not feel. Some of the low forms of ani- mal life seem to have no feeling, or indeed, power of voluntary motion. Some plants have the power of voluntary motion, as in the Sensi- tive plant, which immediately folds its leaves upon being touched; others again, as some of the acacias, fold the leaves at night and seem to sleep. Again, an animal may consist of a sin- gle cell, and in the lowest forms of life, there is neither muscular fiber, nervous filaments, head, heart, stomach, nor other organs common to most animals ; they seem to live simply by absoi-ption. Yet the absence of all these do not demonstrate that the substance is not animal. Albumen is the great nutritive element of animals, and starch of plants. So the chemical composition of the tissues of animals differs from that of plants. The basis of vegetable structure is cellu- lose, (see Cellulose,) and yet in the lower pro- tozoa, cellulose is found ; just as in some low forms of vegetable life, (fungi,) starch is defl- LIGHT 575 LIGHT cient. Plants absorb and assimilate by their roots and leaves, and give off oxygen, retaining the carbon of carbonic acid, while animals digest their food, consume oxygen, and give off (respire) carbonic acid from the lungs. (See articles Generation and Germination ) LIGAMENTS. Elastic fibrous textures unit- ing the bones together. LIOATURE. A bandage. In farriery, a ligature is a fine, strong thread of silk, with which blood vessels, etc. , are tied in operations. LIGHT. Light is that natural force which, acting on the retina of the eye, produces the sen- sation of vision. Upon light, the continued vitality and growth of plants is dependent, and in its absence animals soon lose vigor, and at length their health is broken. In agriculture, the growth of plants is dependent upon the quantity of light received, and hence in seasons when the sun is much obscured by clouds, vegetation sensibly suffers. In the effort to produce seed, although if sufficient heat be present, the vegetation may be luxuriant, but will lack in vigor. The sun is the great source of light and heat, for so far as vegetation is con- cerned, both are necessary to successful growth. Besides the sun, all the planetary and starry sys- tems give off light, but not appreciable heat, although some late experiments with delicate instruments would seem to show that appreciable heat was thrown back by the moon. Plants during light nights have been observed to grow faster than during dark nights, but experiments in this direction have not j-et been carried forward sufficiently far to prove this beyond doubt. The principal phenomena and discoveries in the relation of light to vegetation, have been com- piled by Prof. Poey, which will be interesting. The condensation of the principal experiments and facts are given below as follows: The paleness or whiteness of the parts of vege- tables, when they are sheltered from the action of light, called by the moderns the etiolation of plants, did not escape the observing mind of Aristotle, who described it correctly enough, only he wrongly believed that the roots owed their paleness to their underground position; for they do not become green when exposed to light, and those which gi-ow there are white. Still some roots are in themselves green, with or without the production of green matter or chlorophyl. The celebrated botanist, John Ray, first among the moderns, proved in 1686, by many experiments, that light alone exerts an influence upon the green color of plants, that they scarcely vegetate at all under an opaque vase, and that their stems become extremely elongated ; this phenomenon was neither owing to the want of air, nor to the influence of heat. Charles Bonnet established that it was owing to the dark. Meese and Senebier analyzed the cause and the circumstances. Michellotti also first proved that light was injurious to germination, and Ingenhousz and Senebier found that seeds germinate more rapidly in the shade than in sunshine. After the tendency of stems to turn toward the light, three other phenomena were discovered at the commencement of this century relating to the influence of solar rays upon vege- tation. Thomas Andrew Knight indicated for the first time in 1812 the tendency of some stems to shun the light in place of seeking it, and Dutrochet demonstrated it in the most incon- testable manner. Dutrochet himself pointed out, in 1824, the tendency of roots to turn toward the light, and, in 1844, J. Payer dis- covered the contrary disposition in other roots to shun the light. After recognizing the action of natural and artificial light upon the growth of plants and the production of green matter, it will be interesting to study the influence of the different colors of the spectrum upon vegeta- tion, by the aid of colored glass and liquids, and b}' the colored rays of the solar spectrum. Sene- bier, who appears to have been the first to take up this important question, published in 1783 experi- ments which he began seven years before, which were continued during four years. His conclu- sions are as follows: 1. The size of the stems and their whiteness are so much the greater as the plant's illumination is less; but the green color of the leaves .does not follow this rule absolutely. 2. The highest illuminating rays, the yellow and red, do not give the leaves the most decided green tint; the violet ray produces this effect with the lowest illuminating power. Senebier draws the conclusion that the green color will be deeper when there is less light reflecting from the leaf and more penetrating it, and on account of this the violet ray gives the leaves a deeper green than natural light. 3. After the violet rays, plants become more de- veloped in the red rays than in the yellow. By submitting plants to the action of light trans- mitted through glass of different colors, I'Abbfi Tessier remarked, in 1781, that the intensity of the green tint of leaves went on decreasing from white glass to deep yellow; that leaves become sensibly green under the influence of lamps and of the light of the moon. He also observed that the stems are very strongly inclined when we place black materials behind the plant; the inclination is very feeble when the stuff is white ; and it is almost nothing when we place a look- ing-glass behind the vegetable. Leaves which were placed behind a pane of white glass were green; less, however, than if the pot had been outside of the apartment. Leaves behind a pane of blue glass were still more green, tliere being between them and the preceding a sensible shade. Leaves behind a clear yellow pane differed from the last only by being a shade less green. In flne, the least geeen of all were those which had been placed behind a deep yellow pane; the difference was striking. In 1817, Dr. Sebastian Poggioli, instead of submitting plants to light transmitted through colored glass, conceived the happy idea of placing them under the rays of the solar spectrum. He observed, after the third day, that the smallest plant submitted to the violet rays, surpassed, in development, those under the influence of the red rays, the latter, on the fourth day, appearing to be blanched. The cotyledonous leaves of the plantlets in the two vases changed their positions and directed their upper surfaces one toward the red light, and the other toward the violet. The direction was more rapid with the plantlets submitted to violet rays than with those which had been submitted to red rays. The two cotyledonous leaves which crown the plantlets of Saphanus rutstkaniis directed their upper faces, in the first place, toward violet light, and in the second, toward red. The seeds of Bramira cruca ger- minate more promptly under the influence of red rays than under green rays, and more promptly LIGHT 570 LIGHT under green than violet rays. In 1830, Adolplie Brogniart and de Jussleu saw the two opposite leaves which terminate the plantlets of Aldiie media direct in the same manner their upper faces toward the red light to which alone they were submitted. Thus I he phenomenon was the same as that observed twenty-seven years before by Poggioli. Brogniart remarlcs that he had observed, as had diaries Morren, that the yellow rays approached, in their action, nearer than any of the others to white light; but, as tills depended upon the fact tliat yellow glass allowed a very large quantity of white light to pass through it, while greeu and blue passed but a little, and red glass none at all, the intensity of light differed extremely in all these experiments. In 1832, Charles Morren, by the aid of experiments with colored glass, reached the following conclusions: 1. That the colors of the spectrum, excepting green, only, like darkness, assist germination as their luminating power becomes less. 2. That under the colored rays of greatest illuminating power, the radicles develop least and slowest, and that the plumules, on the contrary, grow best and quickest. 3. That under the rays with low illuminating pow- ers, the radicles and plumules develop as they do in the shade. 4. That, consequently, the etiola- tion of vegetables, under the prismatic rays, happens in inverse proportion to their illuminat- ing property. 5. That the green color of vege- tables is developed much more rapidly under the influence of composite light than under decom- posed rays. 6. That the yellow rays possess the maximum, and tlie orange rays the minimum degree of coloring plants green, and the other rays do not turn tliem green at all. 7. That the yellow ray greens them more when it is less intense, but that it requires much more time to pro- duce this effect than white light does, and that it can never produce the same depth of color. In 1837 and the following years, Dutrochet made a great number of experiments upon the influence of light on vegetation. None of the stalks of Lepidium satimim showed the least inflection toward light transmitted by red glass. At the end of eight days tliey had increased consider- ably in length, but remained straight and verti- cal. These observations completely confirm those of Payer upon tlie same plant. On the contrary, the stalks of Alsine media were, at the end of tliree days, all turned toward light trans- mitted through red glass. On turning the vase in sucli a way as to direct the inflection of the stalklets toward the base of the apparatus, four hours afterward they were bent anew toward the red light. Dutrochet then proved that this depended on the size of ( the stalklets of the two plants; that the only plants bent toward red light were those whose diameter was less than fifty-five hundredths of a millimetre; a tenth of a millimetre difference between the diameter of one stalklet and another of the same species, near a certain limit, sufficed to bend one toward tlie light, and leave the other in its natural posi- tion. The experiments of Dulrochet prove that tlie stalks of plants are bent toward red light transmitted without mixture by glass of this color; while, according to Payer, they inclined toward blue or violet light. Dutrochet here raises an important question, whether it is not tlie luminous intensitj' of tlie colored rays which determines the inflexion of vegetable stalks, an intensity tarying with the transparency of the glass. Tlie first flexion in the stalks toward the light is shown without exception in those sub- mitted to the violet rays; afterward, in the indigo and blue rays, and ordinarily at the same time in the lavender rays which form the almost invisible continuation of the spectrum beyond the violet; then in the yellow and green rays, in the orange, and finally in the red rays. Beyond violet the flexion of stalks reaches twenty and sometimes even thirty centimeters, according to the intensity of the light; but beyond the red rays the flexion of the stalk extends very- little. Previous to 1837, Dr. John William Draper, of New York, having made several experiments on the action of different rays of the solar spec- trum, concluded that the yellow ray, the most luminous, had the power of producing chloropliyl. Plants become also gi'een in light that has been submitted to the action of the yellow solution of bichromate of potassa, and so deprived of those rays which blacken chloride of silver; the same is true of light which passed through sulpho- cyanate of iron, and sulphate of copper and ammonia; in every instance the leaves becoming green. Seeds of common cress were caused to germinate and grow under these circumstances. It is not this or that ray, adds Draper, which gives rise to tlie color of beans. The absence of the chemical or the calorific ray does not appear to affect it, nor have we any direct proof that the calorific ray exerts any influence. Humboldt has stated that in the mines of Germany plants grow in recesses where the sun's light never comes, and, provided hydrogen gas be present, the color is green. In the abysses of the ocean, at depths to which no solar beam can penetrate, and where there is perpetual night, green plants are found flourishing. Light, which seems to act merely as a stimulus on the green organs of vegetables, indirectly bringing about the decom- position of carbonic acid, though accessoiy, is not, however, essential to the growth of plants. From 1840 to 1847 Robert Hunt was engaged in an extensive series of experiments on the process of germination and vegetable growth as affected by solar radiations. These experiments were undertaken under the auspices and at the expense of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. The results to which he was led are : 1. Light prevents the germination of seeds, as was formerly asserted by Michellotti, Ingen- housz, Jleese, Senebier, and others. 2. Actin- ism, or chemical rays, quickens germination. 3. Light acts so as to effect the decomposition of carbonic acid by the growing plant. 4. Chemi- cal action and light are essential to the forma- tion of the green matter of leaves, or chloropliyl. 5. Light and chemical rays, independently of the calorific rays, prevent the development of the reproductive organs of plants. 6 The heat radiations corresponding to the extreme red rays of the spectrum facilitate the flowering of plants and the perfecting of their reproductive prin- ciples. As to the conditions in which the lumi- nous, chemical, and caloric principles exist in light during the different seasons, he has found that — in the spring, chemical action is the most powerful, and is in very considerable excess of pure light and heat. As summer advances the quantity of light and heat increases to a very great degree above chemical action. In the autumn, light and chemical action both diminish. LIGHT 577 LIGHT and the calorific radiations predominate. These facts bear strikingly upon all Hunt's experi- ments; they appear to confirm his conclusions in a most satisfactory manner, and also to point to a singularly interesting order in nature, which is the following: In the spring, when seeds ger- minate, and young vegetation awakes from the repose of winter, we find an excess of the prin- ciple which imparts the required stimulus — that is of chemical action ; seeds then germinate, and young buds and shoots are developed. In the summer this agent is counteracted by another possessing different powers, upon the exercise of which the formation of the plant's structure depends — that is luminous action. As the sun becomes more active the formation of woody fiber proceeds under this agency, and the chemi- cal power is rendered less active by the purity of the light. Finally, in the late summer and in the autumn these are checked by another agency with diminished power of light, upon which the development of the flower appears to depend, the ripening of the fruit, and the perfection of the seed — and this is thermic action. The experiments of Hunt have also led him to detect some curious influences which appear due to dissimilar rays, and in their action exhibit great inconstancy of effect. One class of rays, the same to which Sir J. Herschel has given the name of parather- mic rays, are so subdued by the influence of more refrangible rays, as to be nearly inactive during the spring and early summer months; indeed in the spring they scarcely produce any effect upon dead vegetable coloring matter, unless their action is assisted by the use of some decomposing agent such as sulphuric acid. These rays increase in power toward autumn, and to them appears due the browning of the leaf. In all his writings Hunt has repeatedly stated that seeds would not germinate under the influence of light, when deprived of that principle on which chemical change depends; and has declared as a law, that in its relation to vegetable life, light prevents germination. This statement has been decidedly objected to by Doctors Draper and Gardner, of New York. By numerous experiments Hunt also found that the chemical principle of solar radiation pro- duces an acceleration of the germinating pro- cess, so that in every instance the seeds influ- enced by these chemical rays germinated in one- half the time required by the seeds placed in the dark. In ascertaining if the influence of the chemical rays was confined to the surface of the soil, or extended below it, he obtained the most satisfactory evidence, that under the rays which passed through blue glass, germination began at a depth below the surface, where it did not take place under ordinary conditions. In every instance germination through the agency of radiations, which had permeated the blue glass in less time, and to a greater depth in the soil than was possible in comparative experiments where the seed was exposed to the full influence of light and its associated radiations as combined in the solar beam. As to different colors of light. Hunt says, that if the young plant continues to grow under the influence of blue rays, it will for some time exhibit luxuriance and present in its earlier stages an appearance far superior to that of plants grown under other influences, or even white light. The leaves will be of a darker green, and altogether show external signs of vig- 37 orous health. Even in the earliest stages it will be found that the plants grown in the full sun- shine, or under yeUow or red media, representing the luminous and calorific principles, give a larger quantity of woody fiber and less water than those grown under chemical influence. Plants growing in the shade, in like manner, contain more water than those in full sunshine; hence, we can not infer that anything more than the deprivation of light influences the condition of plants in these experiments. He ascertained that as great a difference exists in the quantity of water found in plants growing in artificial shade, and plants of the same class growing unshel- tered, under the ordinary conditions of sunshifte. It is therefore evident that all those experiments, which have been made on the increase of grass crops by littering the fields with the boughs of trees and the like, are liable to the error alluded to; and it is questionable if the increased pro- duct of an acre is not principally due to water, rather than to any carbonaceous product; conse- quently the increase of the nutritive property is not in the ratio of the increase of weight. Hunt further observes that it frequently happens, when the media employed cut off a large quantity of light, and admit the chemical principle freely, that no formation of leaves takes place after the development of the plumule or first leaf bud; the ground stem, instead of solidifying, remains soft, and without increasing in diameter, extends to an enormous length. Nothing like this occurs under the influence of either light or heat. It would appear that this abnormal condition is due to the excitement of the chemical rays, acting possibly with great power upon the living principle in the roots, by which the elaboration of some organizable matter is pro- duced, which they supply as food to the stem. As there is but little power to decompose carbonic acid, there is not the necessary supply of carbon to give rise to those stems and leaves which naturally form the primitive stem. That this is something like a true explanation is fur- ther proved by the fact, that in the practice of planting shoots, the use of blue media is highly advantageous. It appears to increase the ten- dency to develop roots, and it is satisfactory to learn that some gardeners have, without any knowledge of the cause, employed cobalt blue- glass to aid in the striking of cuttings. Accord- ing to Senebier, plants decompose the carbonic acid absorbed by their leaves much more readily under the influence of violet rays than under any other. In his early experiments Hunt thought he had found the correctness of Senebier's opinion. Dr. Daubeny and Dr. Gardner both think that the decomposition of carbonic acid increases with the increase of light, and that it is more rapid under the influence of the yellow ray than any other. In the experiments of Hunt, by which the quantity of woody fiber increases with light, this agent seems to be essential to its formation. But Hunt explains this fact by say- ing that the decomposition of carbonic acid by plants under the agency of light is not a simple chemical operation, as has been supposed by some, effected by the chlorophyl, but the result of an exertion of the vital principle of the grow- ing plant which requires the external stimulus of light to call it into action. Hunt seems to have discovered a capital point, to which he has not himself done justice, and which has passed LIGHT 578 LIGHT entirely unacknowledged by other observers. It is that in all his experiments he has found that each variety of plants employed was influ- enced by dtflferent rays. Cress and mustard, for example, become green most rapidly in the green ray, mignonette in the yellow, and peas in the blue ray. He observes, however, that the influ- ence was always most decided between the limits of the mean orange and the mean blue ray, and that it took it much longer to green plants in the red than in the blue ray. The importance of this discovery, should it be con- firmed, will consist in showing the action of light upon plants to be identical with that of heat. If each plant, as we have seen above, possesses its own zero of temperature and requires a certain different degree in order to accom- plish each of its physiological functions, in light the greening of the leaves or production of chlorophyl (and probably the decomposition of carbonic acid and the fixation of carbon) needs also the chemical action of a certain colored ray of the solar spectrum. The difference existing between each color of the spectrum being only a difference in greater or less velocity of vibra- tion, and of properties purely relative, as in heat and light, each plant will be therefore chemi- cally affected by rays of different colors. Hunt thinks that the manner in which the power of solar radiation is exerted on seed beneath the soil is not clear to us. We do not know whether it is a mere disturbance of something already diffused through matter, or in the seed, or an emanation from the sun. All which we are ena- bled to declare is that the germination of seed is more rapid under the influences of chemical rays, separated from the luminous, than it is Tinder the influence of the combined radiations or in the dark. That the formation of chloro- phyl is not directly dependent upon either light or chemical action, regarded as isolated princi- ples, but on the action of both forces acting upon plants. It has been stated by Dr. Gard- ner, adds Hunt, that plants exhibit a lateral movement bending toward the yellow i-ay. This appears to be a mistake; plants under the influ- ence of the red rays bend from the light but along the line of the ray; and those exposed to the most refrangible rays turn toward it, but still in the line of the ray. Now the plants which first become green, by careful treatment in this way, are those exposed to the rays between the mean green ray and the extreme blue. The action is continued eventually to the edge of the most refrangible violet below the yellow ray. No change is effected beyond the visible spec- trum, notwithstanding the abundance of dark chemical rays; and the change is shown only where there is really the largest amount of light. He therefore concludes that the lumi- nous rays are essential in producing the decom- position of the carbonic acid and the deposition of carbon, which is afterward, in all probability, continued with hydrogen under the influence of the purely chemical rays of solar light. Finally, Robert Hunt communicated a letter to the Brit- tish Association at its meeting in 1853, from Messrs. Laws and Co. , of Edinburgh, in which it was stated that by adopting the plan of cutting off luminous rays by the use of cobalt blue glass, as recommended by Hunt, they succeeded in obtaining healthy germination far more rapidly than in ordinary circumstances. They con- structed a house glazed with blue glass, and in this their seeds were tested. The practical application of a scientific discovery was of the utmost value to them. Tropical seeds, under the same circumstances, were found to germi- nate in a few days, when in ordinary conditions many weeks were required for the process. According to I'Abbfi Zantedeschi, Carradori had, in 1841, confirmed the results of Senebier, so far as that the power of light to color vegetables green, resides in an eminent degree in the violet and blue rays, although it is more feeble than in ordinary light. In 1843, J. Payer, by making use of colored glass, and afterward of the solar spectrum, found that the tendency of stems toward the light was so much greater as the light was less intense or reached a lower point. As the plant found between two luminous rays of dif- ferent intensities is always ciu^ed on the side of the stronger light, between the blue and violet, the blue region has always the greater amount of this action, and in it is found the maximum. But Payer has not studied the action of invisi- ble chemical rays beyond the violet, upon the flexion of the stems, as Guillemin has done later, although Hunt found no influence upon vegetation in the ultra-violet rays. Hence, Prof. Poey is also inclined further to believe that Hunt has not paid attention enough to the obscure and chemical rays. In ISS, I'AbbS Zantedeschi drew the following conclu- sions from his experiments upon the influence of solar rays transmitted by colored glass: 1. Vegetation under the influence of light transmit- ted by any kind of colored glass is languishing and sickly, as was observed by Senebier and Car- radori. 2. The order observed for germination, under colored glass, is different from that observed by Senebier. 3. Violet light has a power little inferior to that of ordinary light to green certain vegetables, as Senebier has said: the balsam is in this condition, but it does not take place with (halts muUiflora. 4. As to the vigor of vegetation it is no greater under violet glass than under yellow and red glass, as Sene- bier has observed. 5. Green light is less favor- able to vegetation than red light. 6, The most vigorous vegetation for Oralis multijiora takes place under blue glass. In 1844, Dr. D. P. Gardner, of New York, claimed to have settled the question beyond dispute, that the yellow rays produce chlorophyl in leaves, as Dr. Dra- per had flrst advanced ; but he is in complete disagreement with Hunt and other experimenters. Here are his conclusions: 1. That chlorophyl is produced by the more luminous rays, the maximum being in the yellow. 2. This forma- tion is due to pure light. 3. That the ray toward which plants bend occupies the indigo space in Fraunhofer's lines. 4. This movement is due to pure light as distinguished f lom heat and chemical action. 5. That pure light is capable of producing changes which result in the development of palpable motion. 6. The bleaching of chlorophyl is most active in those parts of the spectrum which possess no influ- ence in its production and are complementary to the yellow rays. 7. This action is also due to pm-e light. In the same year, Robert Harkness, of England, objected to Gardner's conclusions, and made the following very judicious remarks, which were approvingly quoted by Hunt: If the absence of solar light is one of the condi- XIGHT 579 LIGHT tlons almost necessary for the germination of seed, one should not expect that ray in which the maximum of light is found, to facilitate .germination; but on the contrary, according to Hunt, to retard it. If, again, the yellow ray is the operating cause by which carbonic acid is •decomposed and chlorophyl produced, we should ■also expect that, so far from assisting in germi- nation, it would exercise a highly injurious influ- ence. We know that the presence of oxygen is necessary for the vegetation of seeds, also that this oxygen is absorbed, and by uniting with a portion of the carbon in the seeds reappears in the form of carbonic acid, a process the oppo- site of that which takes place when chlorophyl is produced. So if the decomposition of carbonic acid is owing to the yeUow ray, this ray ought to be the last to produce any effect on the germina- tion of seeds. Moreover, seeds, as well as fully ■developed vegetables, possess the power when ^ieprived of light, of absorbing oxygen and evolv- ing carbonic acid ; and to this circumstance we must ascribe the effect of the blue ray shown by Hunt's experiments. In 1850, Cloez and Gratio- let advanced the opinion that the decomposition of carbonic acid by the green parts of plants with the aid of colored glass is at its maximum with colorless polished glass ; next comes yellow glass, then colorless transparent glass, red, green, and in the last place blue glass. In 1852, J. H. Gladstone, in experimenting with peas, drew the following conclusions, in entire opposition to Hunt's experiments : The cutting off of the chemi- cal rays favors the first germination of the seed, and this appears to be the principal, if not the only advantage obtained bj burying the seed in the soil. The development of roots also requires the absence of the chemical ray, yet it does not go on to the greatest extent when all the solar influences are excluded, but is favored, rather than other- wise, by heat and luminosity. The first devel- opment of the plumule also proceeds best under the same circumstances ; yet these are not the con- ditions which produce a healthy plant ; If all the solar radiations are withdrawn, whether en- tirely or only to a great extent, the plants absorb much water and grow very tall, without devel- oping secondary branches or many leaves. The whole force of these radiations, on the contrary, prevents or greatly impedes the growth of those plants under the circumstances of the experi- ments. The chemical force is the most antago- nistic to the growth of the pea, and luminosity also militates against it; the heating rays are fa- vorable. If the plant is fairly established, those radiations which are, comparatively speaking, devoid of light, but replete with chemical power, are the most suitable to a healthy growth. The influences which facilitate rapid growth are dia- metrically opposed to healthy development. Upon the question whether the j'ellow light stops germination by some specific action or merely by excess of light, Gladstone says that the yellow light did not at all interfere with germination in his experiments. In the case of wheat and peas it decidedly facilitated the early development of both root and plumule. He thinks that the yellow ray, however, has a specific action of its own, and that the yellow and obscured yellow give quite different results from those of any other glasses. On the whole, Gladstone's experi- ments are in accordance with Draper's. In one or two cases, the seeds exhibited a tendency to ger- minate more readily under a blue glass. In 1854, Robert Washington, in some experiments made on the influence of colored glass on the growth of plants in sea-water, found that red sea-plants grew best in cases whose light was allowed to pass through gi'een colored glass, and that the brown and green confervoid growths were thus de- stroyed. The flrst observer, as far as I am aware, who studied the action of the ultra-violet or in- visible rays of the spectrum upon vegetation, and according to exact scientific methods, was C. M. Guillemin. His first care was to vary the nature of the prisms which he employed, in order to turn to account the special transparency that each prismatic substance presented to rays of differ- ent refrangibility. He chose, for instance, quartz for aU rays more refrangible than blue, rock-salt for the red and calorific rays, and flint for the mean rays of the colored spectrum. Heavy flint which he had also employed, is the most disper- sive of all; but it absorbs in great part the calo- rific and ultra-violet rays, transmitting only the least refrangible of them. In a paper presented to the Academy of Sciences of Paris, in 1857, Guillemin reached the following conclusions: "The ultra-violet rays determine the formation of the green matter of vegetables. These same rays effect the flexion of the stems more rapidly than the rays of the visible part of the spectrum. In a second paper to the same academy he acknowl- edged that in his first communication he had given as certain the first proposition, but that he had some doubts on the second ; further re- searches, however, had fully confirmed both of these prior propositions. His conclusions are the same as those he afterward published in a third, more extended work. Thej' are as follows: Young etiolated plants curve under the influence of all the rays of the solar spectrum ; the least refrangible calorific rays or those of low temperature appear to form the only exception. The calorific rays less refrangible than the red, and the chemical rays more refrangible than the violet, present two maxima of action for the flexure of vegetable stems; intermediate colored rays determine, on the contrary, more actively than the preceding the formation of chlorophyl. In the spectrum obtained with a quartz prism, the limit at which the flexion of the stem ceases, passes beyond that of rays more refrangible than violet, indicated by fluorescent substances and iodide of silver. Lat- eral flexion extends beyond the red and violet extremes ; its center is in the indigo rays ; it is often produced in spite of screens which separate the different colored rays. The development of gi'een matter has its maximum in the yellow ; it diminishes slowly as it proceeds toward the vio- let, passes this limit and becomes vil in the last fluorescent rays. Blue, green, yellow, orange, and red rays turn etiolated leaves green more quickly than direct solar rays. The action of yellow is almost equal to that of diffused atmos- pheric light. Polarized rays appear to act at close intensities, like common rays. The principle of the identity of radiations, which already rested on the observation of a large number of physi- cal phenomena, is here fully confirmed in the physiological order, by tlie analogy of the mode of action which the calorific and ultra-violet ray.s exert upon the flexion of stems and the develop- ment of gi'een matter. Unhappily for these important researches, if we compare Gnillerain's first conclusion with the eighth of his second LIGHT 580 LIGHT note, we find a flagrant contradiction upon a question of the highest importance, the maxi- mum action of the colored ray of the solar spec- trum, under the influence of which the formation of the green matter or chlorophyl takes place. According to the first conclusion it is in the ultra-violet rays that this is produced, while in conclusion eight it is in the yellow ray, and even diminishes slowly proceeding toward the violet. Thus it is wholly the reverse of the first case. Such a contradiction throws a weighty doubt on the whole of these experiments. In the follow- ing paragraph we see that Prof. Henry agrees with Robert Hunt and Prof. Poey as to the nox- ious influence of light on the germination of seed: Germination can be carried on in the dark, and, indeed, the chemical ray which accompanies light retards rather than accelerates the process. Its office is to separate the atoms of carbon from those of oxygen in the decom- position of carbonic acid, while the function of the power within the plant results from the com- bination of these same elements. The forces are therefore antagonistic, and hence germina- tion is more rapid when light is excluded; an inference borne out by actual experiment. In 1869, Dehfirain proves that the evaporation of water by the leaves of plants takes place under conditions entirely different from those which regulate the evaporation of an inert body, as it occurs in a saturated atmosphere ; that it is espe- cially effected by light; and that the luminous rays efficacious in causing the decomposition of car- bonic acid by the leaves, are also those which favor evaporation. The yellow and red rays, which have little action on photographic paper act with most intensity in causing the reduction of carbonic acid, while the blue and green rays decompose the chloride of silver, and have no action on the leaves. These experiments confirm the old observation of Guettard, that the hard and smooth upper part of the leaves evaporates the most water. Boussingault has shown that the greatest amount of carbonic acid is decom- posed by the same portion. Prof. Poey con- cludes as follows: After t\ie long series of experiments I have announced, and which each one should utilize for himself, I must formulate my own conclusion, which I advance only with the title of hypothesis until I have the means of submitting it to experimental test. I remark first, that these experiments have been performed after different methods, and are therefore not to be compared with each other. Some experi- menters have made use of colored glasses, others of colored liquids or solutions, and others still of the solar spectrum. In these three methods the nature and action of the colored rays must have undergone modifications so various as to make the results very discordant. For example, the most of colored glasses are impure, because they allow white light and various tinted rays to pass besides those of their own proper color. Yel- low and green glasses, which are usually too clear, allow a great amount of white light to pass. The thickness of glass, the density of liquids, and the composition of analyzing prisms, are points of the highest importance, which no one has taken into account, and which modify greatly the tints of colored rays. Another cause of error is, that each observer is contented with submitting the plant to the action of this or that colored ray, and not to each of the seven colors of the spectrum. In short, no observer except Guillemiu, not even Hunt, conceived the idea of studying the influence of invisible rays beyond red and violet, which afford: the first, the maximum of calorific action, the second, the maximum of chemical action. These are errors of method only, without counting the personal errors of experiment, or even the errors which could result, from the physiological and physical action of the plant. We have already seen in the case of Dutrochet, that one-tenth of a millimetre's dif- ference in the diameter of two twigs of the sam& species was enough to bend one toward the light and the other away from it. In .analyzing the action of light on vegetables, three great physio- logical acts of the plant must be considered:. 1 The germination of the seed. 3. The- decomposition of carbonic acid from the atmos- phere and the fixation of carbon by nutrition in, the tissues of the plant, which results in the for- mation of chlorophyl. 3. The flowering and fructification. In germination, according toi Theodore de Saussure, we should distinguish two- periods, the one during which oxygen is trans- formed into carbonic acid, which is the period of germination, properly speaking; the other during which carbonic acid is decomposed and oxygen is exhaled, which is the commencement of vege- tation. The green color in which the plant clothes itself is the index and the consequence of that function which takes place only under the action of light; in its absence the plant continues, the phenomena of the first period of germina- tion without development, and remains color- less. If the physicists who have studied the influence of light on germination had taken the- chemico-physiological action which it wrought in the plant more into consideration, they would not have committed another grave error, as. Gladstone has done, in saying that the yellow rays, which possess the maximum of luminous, power, and by consequence the minimum of chemical force, could in any manner favor the ger- mination of seeds. The physicists who sustain this opinion have not sufficiently distinguished fermination from vegetation, properly speaking, during germination the plant loses the carbon furnished by the carbonic acid, and only respires. On the contrary, during vegetation the plant retains the carbonic acid, fixing the carbon and drawing in oxygen, and therefore the functions, of nutrition and assimilation of plants do not, really begin till the moment of the appearance of green matter. The relations of plants and light are altogether different during the two periods;, injurious during the period of germination, light is, on the contrary, indispensable in the- second period of vegetation. It is for this the- plant seeks always after light. Its shoots clings toward the side of incidental rays and inflect, themselves constantly in that direction. It is a. phenomenon general in plants, from the phseno- gamia to the cryptogamia, and in microscopic- vegetation. Light is as indispensable to the nutrition of plants as the gastric juice is to- digestion and the transformation of food. The assimilation and fixation of carbon in plants is greatest and most rapid when, all other things, being equal, the supply of light;is greatest. In the light of the solar spectrum, besides the special property of the seven colors which reduce themselves to three pi'imary ones, three forces also are found intimately combined and working X,IGHT 581 LILY ■simultaneously. These are the luminous, the •calorific, and the chemical force. Each one of these three great powers acting diversely on inorganic matter, there is no reason why they should not act equally after their nature on organic matter, whose chemical elements are the same. In fact, modern chemistry conclusively demonstrates that the vegetable, like' the animal kingdom, is formed of but four elements, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen. These four elements being combined in the most diverse and ■variable relations, it results that an innumerable quantity of organic components enjoy properties most distinct. On the other side, these four simple bodies are precisely those which consti- tute the atmospheric air. "We can say with Dumas, that the whole vegetable kingdom is only the air condensed, and that it forms a vast apparatus of reduction. The base of these vegetable productions is always the same, the atmospheric air; the arrangement of molecules and their number is all which varies for consti- tuting that mysterious force which one com- monly calls life. From these considerations we ■establish hypothetically — 1. That it is the purely ■chemical rays or ultra-violet with the aid of a •certain quantity of obscure heat found mixed with tlie rays, which penetrate the vegetable stratum of the soil and determine the germina- tion of seeds. 2. It is the purely luminous rays ■of the spectrum, the yellow, which determine, principally by the leaves, the decomposition of carbonic acid from the atmosphere and the roots, the fixation of carbon and the production of •chlorophyl, and which explains the spontaneous and natural tendency of the plant to the light. ■3. It is the purely calorific or ultra-red rays ■which determine the two physiological acts of flowering and fructification. Now the blue and -violet rays on one part, the green on another, :and the red rays have a purely secondary action in the production of these three great physiolog- ical acts of the plant, as the chemical, luminous, ■or calorific actions predominate in the second place. But it must be remembered before all that what we call the vital force proper to the plant precedes and modifies at will the three .actions of the solar ra}-s, chemical, luminous, or ■calorific in all the physiological acts of the Tegetable kingdom. If this is true, we see at ■once the application to be made to agriculture and horticulture. First, in the arrangement of greenhouses, which leaves much to be desired at present. They should have compartments covered with pure glass, whose maximum chem- ical, luminous, and calorific properties ■would ,be more advantageous to each development of the plant. For example, in germination the glass should have chemical properties of the highest degree. For coloring the leaves and giving growth to the plant, glass should have the maximum of light; for flowering and fructiflca- ■tion, the maximum of heat. As for the colors of the spectrum, the blue-violet, the yellow, and the red will yield the most advantage in these physiological acts of the plant. . In general practice, however, these conclusions of Prof. Poey have not been found applicable, and yet in certain cases, especially in the case of plants requiring peculiar conditions, they are worthy of consideration. A few years ago prominent individuals, apparently jumping to conclusions, advocated the adoption of blue glass indiscrimi- nately and as a means of securing health to invalids as well as plants. It resulted in a great sale of blue glass, but the great results not com- ing about that was expected, the sale soon ceased. The glaziers, however, made hand- somely by the sale. The experiments here col- lected will show the facts in the case. (See Chemistry, Agricultural.) LIGHTNING. One of the visible exhibitions of electricity. It occurs in several characteristic states, as, sheet lightning, or the reflection of invisible lightning on the clouds, in direct and zigzag lightning, and in what appears to be balls of fire, occasioned it is supposed by extraordinary accumulations passing through a conducting medium. (See Electricity.) LIGNEOUS. Wood like. LIGNIN. The pure fiber of wood divested of starch and other impurities ; according to Payen, it consists of an investing or cellular matter, cel- lulose, isomeric with starch. Fine linen from hemp or flax is insoluble in water, decays very slowly, and is converted into dextrine by the action of dilute sulphuric acid and heat, and finally into starch sugar. LIGNIPERDOUS INSECTS. Those insects which bore into or otherwise destroy wood. LIGNITE. A kind of partially formed coal, in which the wood structure is distinct. It belongs to the secondary formations. LIGULA. An appendage of the sheathing petioles of some grasses. The lower lip or labrum of insGots LIGULATE. Shaped like a riband. The outer florets of some composite flowers are called ligulate. LILAC. Syringa. A well known hardy shrub found in almost every garden, and of two principal colors, the lilac, and white. .S^. tiil- garis, is the more common variety. 8. Persica, is more profuse in its flowering; and in some res- pects is the better of the two species. It has been used for hedging occasionally. It will not form a protection against stock, but it holds its green color and bears the shears well. It is hardly to be recommended where either arbor-vitse or privet will stand. LILI ACE Ji]. A family of endogenous plants, remarkable for their brilliant flowers, including the lilies, hyacinths, tubei-oses, etc. They are characterized by six petals, six stamens, superior ovary, anthers bursting inwardly. LILIACEOUS. Flowers resembUng the lily. LILY. A class of superb flowering bulbs, or perennial plants, the most of them either hardy or surviving the winter in the North, under a good protection of mulch. There are many species, including the white lily, L. candidum; Marta- fon, L. manayon; tiger, L. tigrinum; orange, .. aurantium, and the bulbous, sorts, L. buWife- rum. The sorts named are all hardy and com- mon. The Japan lilies contain some magnifi- cent specimens, as for instance, L. auratum, the splendid gold banded lily. These may be left out over winter under a protection of mulch, and will make a profusion of magnificent bloom. The half hardy sorts require to be taken up in the fall and kept over winter in half moist sand. The hard}' sorts should be taken up every three or four years and replanted. For pot culture of the tender sorts, they should be removed from the pot only when they require repotting. That is when the bulbs become too close. The best LIME 582 LIME soil is equal parts of peat, strong loam and fine sand. They should have Dots of large size and the bulbs should be deep" enough to allow the stem fibers to grow freely. They should never be repotted except when the bulbs are dormant, then they may be turned out of the old pots, and the drainage, potsherds, if any, carefully removed, so as to avoid injuring the fibrous roots, or shaking off the earth. Repot in a larger pot in proper soil, being sure the drainage is good. The varieties are propagated from seed and the small offsets. The lily hyacinth is SciUa Lillia- hyacintlms; the lily of the valley, convaMaria mnjalisj the lily pink, Aphyllanihes, and the lilly- thorn, a catesbea. The day lily is a Hemerocallis. AmaryUus, a splendid and extensive genus of plants, mostly hothouse, are sometimes but incorrectly called lilies, the same may be said of the calla sometimes called Ethiopean lily. LILl, AMERICAN WATER. NelurnMum luteum. The sacred beau. It bears the largest flower in the Northern States. The beans are edible. Nympha odorata, of botanists, or sweet scented nymph, is the large double-flowered water lily of our ponds and sluggish streams, and altogether the most interesting of our aquatic flowers. While the yellow nelumbo is interesting as being the only American representative of the sacred lotus of the Egyptians, the white pond lily will always be regarded for its rare beauty and fragrance. As we go South it increases in size and beauty, but may be grown North in ponds that do not freeze to the bottom, and the water is not more than five or six feet deep, wherever the Concord grape will ripen. LILY, DAY. Hemerocallis fulva. This has been recommended as an herbage plant. It is perennial, stands the summer well, and cattle are very partial to the leaves. It yields abun- dantly. LILY OF THE VALLEY. GomallaiHa moycdis. Sheep and cattle browse on it. Propa- gated by parting the perennial root. LILY, YELLOW WATER. Nupar luUa. Common in ditches and ponds, bearing a yellow flower. LIMACIDjE. The family of slugs and snails. LIMB, LIMBUS. The flat or extended por- tion of the petal. LIME. What is generally understood by the term lime is quicklime, the protoxide of calcium, produced by burning limestones or sea-shells in the free draft of a fire. The process of calcina- tion, drives off the carbonic acid contained in the limestone. If fresh burned lime be kept from access of air and moisture it will retain its condition unchanged. Its affinity for moisture, however, renders this diflJcult. Quicklime does not absorb carbonic acid from the atmosphere until it has first absorbed moisture. It then absorbs carbonic acid, and becomes a combined carbonate and hydrate of lime. For agricultural uses, lime is used air-slacked, after being burned, in which state it is a fine powder. Its mechani- cal action is to render heavy soils more porous, and light soils more tenacious. It does not act chemically on soils when freshly burned, and hence it is often mixed with three or four times its bulk of earth and spread upon the surface of the land. The weight and exceeding fineness of lime causes it to sink in the soil, hence it should always be applied near the surface. Lime is not a manure. It does not bring plant food to the soil, but assists that which is there for vegetable- nutrition. It produces physical conditions en- abling plants to assimilate the nutrition already in the soil. Hence the effect of lime on rich soils deficient in lime, and hence also the fact, that lime should not be used except in connectioa with other fertilizers, since one of the principal actions of lime is to convert insoluble matter of the soil into available plant food. Sometimes, its effects are surprising upon worn soils. In this case it may be inferred that the fertility was. then but locked up in an insoluble condition, a not by any means uncommon state of things. Hence the well known adage that, the only way to know if land wants lime is to try it. Theoretically a soil should contain three per cent, of lime, in connection with the percentage- of vegetable matter and other plant food. The- following table shows the am lunt in tons neces- sary to add from one-quarter of one per cent, to- four per cent, of lime as it comes from the kiln, to a soil at the varying depths three, six, nine, and twelve inches in depth. . Tone. 3 inch, per cent. 6 inch, per cent. 9 inch, per cent. 12 inch. per cent. 4 tons give 8 " " . ... 13 " 16 " 1 % 1 1 IK. 2 1 a 3 4 The quantity generally applied is from four to- twelve bushels per year, or from twelve to fifty bushels every three years. Lime is always found- in plants, not as pure lime but chiefly as the carbonate, phosphate, or sulphate of lime, that is in combination with acids. Therefore, when it is found that a soil does not contain three per cent, of lime, it should be added. Prof. Way has determined the amount of lime in various- plants;. in ibO parts of the ash of the following- plants, he found : Of the grain of the creeping wheat 6.76- Of the straw and chaff 7.46- Of the grain of chevalier barley 1.48. Of the grain of potato-oats 1.31 Of the chaff of cats 8.65 Of the grain of rye 2.61 It is recorded as noticeable that the amount of lime present in the ash of various specimens of wheat was the most considerable — 8.21 per cent, in some Hoptoun wheat grown on silicious; sand, and that in another specimen of the same- wheat grown on a chalk soil, the ash only con- tained 1.83 per cent, of lime. In the ash of various green crops. Prof. Way found, in lOO parts, the following amount of lime : Eed-clover hay While clover hay Sainfoin, (in flower) Sainfoin, (in seed) Italian rye-grass, (in flower) Italian rye-grass, (in seed) Flower of hope, (mean of three specimens), Parts. 3-1.02 26.32 24.30' 29.87 9.95- 12.29 19.33 The amount of lime in the red and white clover did not vary in different specimens grown on silicious or clay soils. ,It would have beea LIME 583 LIME reasonable to expect a large proportion of lime in the sainfoin, which flourishes best in a cal- careous soil. The specimen, however, analyzed by Prof. Way was grown on a light gravelly loam, with a subsoil of gravel above chalky clay. In a ton of the ordinary roots and legumes (the entire plant) Prof. Way found the following amount of lime ; Tliruip MaDgold Carrot Kohl-rabi, (bulb) Kohl-rabi, (leaves) Peae Pea-straw, (2,989 pounds) . . . Beans Bean-straw, (2,270 pounds). So that, as the professor remarks of the roots, twenty tons o£ bulbs and four tons of tops will require of lime : Pounds. Turnips . . Mangolds, Carrots. . . 93 21 197 The ash of the various natural grasses was found by Prof. Way to contain from 14.94 per cent, (the Phleum pratense) to 3.94 (the Alo-pecurus pratenm;) in that of the artificial grasses he found from 45. 95 per cent . (the Medicago satua) to 13.40, (in the AchiUea millefolium). It is noticeable that the amount of lime present in a plant varies considerably in its different portions. Thus, the ash of the Kohl-rabi contains 10.20 per cent, in that of the bulb, but 30.31 in the ash of the leaves. The ash of the root of the carrot yielded 5.64 per cent of lime, that of the leaves 34,04. The ash from the flowers of the hop 9.59 per cent., that from the leaves 30.78 per cent., that from the vine 23.71. The ash of the potato analyzed by Prof. Way contained in that of the tubes 4. 50 per cent. , in that of the haulm 29.86. The action of lime when applied to soils abounding in inert, organic matter, like the peaty, is not only to furnish a supply of lime to the plants which tenant such soils, but caustic lime tends to bring any dead vegetable matters which they contain into a state of decomposition, so as to render them more soluble in water, and so more available as food for growing plants. It is in this way that we account for the success of the mixture of lime with the scrapings of ditches, collections of weeds, pond mud, etc. This compound, after allowing it to remain in a heap for two or three months has been found to be a very useful manure, and acting quickly. It should be distinctly remembered that lime must never be applied as a part of the compost with fermenting manure, unless muck enough is used to take up the ammonia set free, since the effect of lime is not to fix ammonia, but to free it ; to fix it, copperas or gypsum is to be used. This requires to be well remembered, for nitro- gen is one of the most important and expensive in the whole category of substances necessary in the soil when maximam crops are to be raised. The following analyses of six samples of lime will enable the reader to get a good idea of the constituents : Constitnents. No.l. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 6. No. 6. Pr. ct. 74.2.S 2.44 1.60 3.93 17.90 Pr. ct. 69. 7B 12.12 6.44 2.80 8.88 Pr. ct. 79.81' .66 2.85 .09 16.63 Pr. ct. 88.44 .51 1-6.13 i 4.92 Pr. ct. 86.97 3.35 4.55 5.13 Pr. ct. 89.93 Magnesia Alumina and iron oxide. Residue, in- soluble Water and carbonic... acid 2.15 5.77 2.15 100. too. 100. 100. 100. 100. An analysis of hydraulic limestone gave the following results : Insoluble in acid, 27.49 per cent., consisting of: Silica Alumina ' Iron oxide Manganese oxide Lime Soluble in acid, 72.51 per cent., consitting of: Lime Magnesia Iron and alumina Carbonic acid Phosphoric acid Soda Potassa Water Per cent. 18.67 6.23 1.83 .64 .31 38.04 60 2.92 .23 26.27 1.56 1.90 1.00 100.00 In agriculture lime assists in pulverizing the soil, by acting chemically upon the silicates therein, dissolving out a portion of the silica and liberat- ing potash and soda. It is for this cause that lime tells so well on poor granitic soils. From 100 to 600 bushels to the acre are used ; wet, stiff lauds, and those destitute of calcareous matter, requir- ing most. Lime corrects injurious substances in the soil, as sulphate of iron, etc. For this pur- pose a heavy dose is required. Lime breaks up or pulverizes stiff clays, improving their texture. For this purpose a heavy dose of quicklime is most effective. It decomposes inert vegetable matter, as peat, roots, etc. The dose for this pur- pose may be less than above ; thirty to 100 bushels will be enough, if lime has been previously employed; but on peat lands, well drained, much more is necessary. Lime is found in large quan- tities as an ingredient in leguminous plants, pota- toes, and other roots; hence it may be added as a special manure to such plants, three or four bushels being placed in the manure used for them. It hastens the decay of stable manure and putrescent substances and may be sprinkled over them when plowed into the soil, but not allowed to be added for any length of time to heaps of manure, for it drives off any ammonia already formed, and ultimately reduces the action of the dung. One bushel to three or four loads will be enough. A first liming for improvement of bar- ren lands may be heavy ; but if afterward a dose of twenty bushels to the acre be added every four or five years, it will save a very heavy addition for some time. Quicklime would be the best to add as an amendment, but it is diflicult to handle, LINCOLN SHEEP 584 LINDEN from its causticity and must never be added to wet soils, lest it convert them into a hard mortar. On the whole, therefore, water-slacked lime is the most useful. Air-slacked lime is used as a top- dressing to meadows, the other being too caustic; it is also employed to kill and annoy insects, which it does without injury to the plant. It is also added, in doses of a half to one peck,-to the roots of fruit-trees, worked into the soil. The best kind of lime for the former is that obtained from burned shells, the common limestone usually con- taining magnesia, which, in a caustic state, is injurious to vegetation, from the slowness with which it becomes mild, so that it injures the roots of plants long after the lime has become quite mild. The older limestones, and especially those of a bright white-, crystalline appearance, form the best lime. Lime is used in composts to pul- verize inert vegetable matter, which it does very eflfectually, converting it in part into humate of ter, dead weight. It is recorded that fourteen pounds average has been sheared, as a first clip, from a lot of thirty yearling, wether lambs, and which at fourteen months old averaged 140 pounds live weight. The Lincolns of the begin- ning of the century were large, coarse animals, with long, ragged, oily fleeces, the flesh of which however, was considered excellent. The sheep were inclined to make fat inside. Improve- ments in this breed of sheep have increased their value, both in flesh and wool. This improve- ment resulted through the use of Leicester rams, careful selection, and as careful feeding, and now it is celebrated for its long, lustrous and worsted wool, and in England has a separate class at the fairs. Like the Romney Marsh sheep they do well on rich alluvial soils and drained marshes, requiring plenty of rich succulent food and careful attention. These sheep have been introduced into the United States, West, and into LINCOLN BWE. lime; the action of the lime is similar to potash or soda, and termed by chemists catalytic, or pre- disposing. Lime-water and a cream of lime, made by mixing lime with water to the consist- ence of cream, are much used as a steep for seeds, and to wash the bark of trees, etc., to preserve them from insects; it is also supposed to preserve timbsr. LINACE.I;. The family of plants to which flax belongs. They are remarkable for their mucilaginous seeds and tough fibers. LINCOLN SHEEP. The Lincoln are consid- ered as furnishing the best representative of nice combing wool in England, ewes shearing fifteen pounds per annum. It is also one of the largest of English sheep. The ewe of which a cut is given girted six feet, weighing alive 364 pounds, and when killed dressing sixty-seven pounds per quar- Canada, where they are reported so far as doing well, but it will require some further time to fully establish the fact of their adaptability to our con- tinental climate. This, however, would seem to be probable, since other of the long-wooled sheep do well on our flush summer pastures, and also on our winter food, which is principally com- posed of hay and grain, neither white nor Swed- ish turnips doing well in our hot summer climate. Our climate however, is well adapted to beets, carrots and parsnips, which may be very properly substituted. LINDEN. Tilia. The American linden, T. Americana, is one of our most majestic and beautiful shade trees, and in those sections of country where pine is scarce, it supplies the place of this tree in its lumber. It is generally known as bass-wood, linden, or linn. It is common ia XINEATE 585 LINIMENT •all the Northern and Middle States, and the northern Mississippi valley, an allied species Tilia heierophyUa succeeding it as we go South; the latter larger than the Northern species in its leaves and flowers, and smaller in the size of the tree. Both species produce seed freely, which ripens in the fall. For planting they should be saved over winter in moist sand, or sown imme- diately. If not carefully kept they are difficult of germination. The European linden has a etc. , which are narrow and of the same width throughout. LINE OF DIP. In geology, the inclination of strata from the horizontal line; it is estimated in angles, and the direction of the dip toward the point of the compass given. LINGUA. A tongue. In entomology, an organi placed within the labium, and serving the office of a tongue. Used also to designate the speech of a country. WHITE-LEAVED WEEPING LINDEN. ■denser foliage than the American species, but it casts its foliage early, and docs not seem adapted to the Western prairie soil. When it succeeds well it is the better tree for shade. The American species is good enough and should be planted more freely than it is. The cut shows one of the ornamental forms — the White Weep- ing Linden. LINEATE, LINEATUS, LINEAR. Leaves, LINGUATE, LINGUIFORM. A thick leaf, etc. , shaped like the human tongue. LINIMENT. In farriery, a semi-fluid oint- ment, or a soapy application to rub upon pain- ful joints. The term is also applied lo spiritu- ous and other stimulating applications for exter- nal use. Liniments are intended either to lubri- cate or to stimulate; but in either case they can only be regarded as topical applications, their LIQUORICE 586 LIVER influence not extending beyond the part to which they are applied. In some instances they are anodyne, and contain solutions of opium in oil. LINSEKD. (See Flax.) LINSEEl) JELLY. Is easily made by adding to six quarts of water one quart of linseed, boil- ing; it for ten minutes. This mixed with other substances, is sometin^es given to live-stock as food, and, mixed with milk, is very nutritious for calves. LINSEED MEAL. Ground linseed. LINSEED OIL. Is an excellent purgative — for sheep, from two to three ounces ; for horses, in doses of from sixteen to twenty-four ounces; for cattle, from sixteen to twenty ounces. The quality of linseed oil may be determined in the following manner: Fill a vial with it, and hold it up to the light; if bad it will appear opaque, turpid, and thick; its taste is acid and bitter upon the tongue, and it smells rancid ; and strong oil, from fine full-grown ripe seed, when viewed in a vial, will appear limpid, pale, and bril- liant; it is mellow, and sweet to the taste, has very little smell, is specifically lighter than impure oil, and when clarified dries quickly and finely. LINT. The staple of flax, hemp, and other textile plants. The scrapings from pieces of linen, of great use in dressing wounds and stop- ping slight hemorrhages. LINTEL. A horizontal timber or stone over a door, window, or other opening, which sustains the weight above. LIP. Laidlum. In botany, the divisions of a monopetalous corolla, as the sage, mint, etc. It is divided into an upper and lower lip. LIPPED AND HARLED. A wall built without mortar, but afterward having the joints filled with mortar, and the whole rough-cast or harled. LIQUEFACTION. Melting, fusion, con- verting bodies into the fluid state, solution. LIQUID MANURES. Manures applied in a soluble state, especially the stable wash. They are of especial service to produce rapid growth in young plants, and for steeps. In very dry seasons manures may also be applied in this state; but when added any length of time before the plants get size there is a loss by drainage; and the expense of application must always be heavy. The liquid soaked into peat, charcoal, etc., and added, as a top dressing, during moist or wet weather appears to be much preferred in the United States, and to be more economical. (See Manures.) LIQUOR AMNIOS. The fluid suiTounding the foetus in its mother's womb. In botany, a fluid contained in the nucleus of the ovule, and supposed to nourish the embryo. It is absorbed during the ripening of the seed, sometime leaving behind a delicate sac only. LIQUOR AMMONIJE. Solution of ammo- niacal gas in water. LIQUORICE. Glycyrrhiza glabra. A half- hardy, herbaceous, perennial plant, cultivated for its roots, of which the well known form of glucose called liquorice is made, by extracting the juice and boiling. An American form of this plant, O. lepidota, is found in the North- western States and in Alaska, and is eaten by the Indians. The liquorice of commerce is obtained by slicing the roots and boiling in water. The liquor is then strained and evapo- rated to a proper consistency. It is refined by redissolving, purifying, and again evaporated, and formed into quill-sized rolls. It is used somewhat in medicines, and by brewers and confectioners. The cultivation of the root was introduced into some of the Middle and South- ern States some years ago, but the results did not prove profitable. LIQUORICE, WILD. Qaliwm circmam. The leaves have the taste of liquorice. LIQUOR OF FLINTS. A solution of silicate of potash, made by fusing three parts- carbonate of potash with one of sand. LIRELLA. In lichens, a linear shield, with a furrow in the center. LITHARGE. An impure fused protoxide of lead. It is used for some plasters. LITHIA. A rare alkali, resembling potash. It corrodes platinum. LITHIC ACID. Uric acid. LITHIUM. The metal of lithia. Lithia ia the protoxide. LITHOLOGICAL. Relating to the structure, characters, etc. , of minerals or stones. LITHONTRIPTICS. Remedies which dis- solve stones in the bladder. An abundance of water acidulated with cabonic acid is the best. LITHOTOMY. The operation of cutting through the perinaeum into the bladder to- extract a stone. LITHOTRITY. The operation of intro- ducing an instrument into the bladder through the natural passage, to crush and break to small pieces a stone. LITMUS. Turnsole. A blue color prepared from a lichen {Bocetta tarta/rea), and used in the arts (archil) and in chemistry. Solution of lit- mus, or paper stained thereby, is of great use in detecting acidity in a fluid, the blue changing rapidly into red by the acid. Alkaline mixtures restore the paper so reddened. LITRE. The French standard measure of capacity in the decimal system. The litre is a cubic decimetre; that is a cube, each of th& sides of which are 3.937 inches; it contains. 61.028 English cubic inches, and is, therefore, rather less than our quart. Four and a half litres are a close approach to the imperial gallon.. LITTER. The straw, weeds, or other diy substances which are placed under horses and cattle in the stables, cow-houses, farm-yards, piggeries, etc ., for the purpose of keeping the animals clean and warm, and providing a sup- ply of manure. In this last view all sorts of dry materials should be carefully collected and stacked up for winter use. LITTORAL. LITTORALIS. Of the sea- shore. Littoral formations, in geology, are such as have evidently been ancient sea beaches. LIVE OAK." Quercus mrens. Evergreen swamp oak. LIVER. A large gland or viscus, placed in quadrupeds, on the right side of the body,, immediately under the chest, and adjoining the stomach. It is saturated with blood-vessels, and separates the bile from blood. The bile is stored up in a small bag, called the gall-bladder, and thrown from hence, during digestion, into the small intestines, to be mixed with the chyme. The function of the liver is of the first conse- quence to health; but it is readily impaired, especially in damp foggy places, subject to ague and bilious fevers. Its action, when insufiBcient, LIVE STOCK 587 LIVE STOCK is rapidly stimulated by the use of calomel. Jaundice and yellowness of the white of the eye indicate disturbance of the liver. LIVER FLUKES. (See Rot in Sheep.) LIVER OF SULPHUR. A brownish sub stance, of a foetid smell. Fused sulphuret of potassium. LIVERLEAF. LIVERWORT. HepaUca Americana. An herbaceous, perennial rooted plant, of small size, found on the skirts of wood- lands. A decoction used to be considered a specific and was prescribed in coughs. LIVE STOCK. A term used to designate the animals usually kept on the farm ; of these, cattle and horses are firet in importance, then swine, mules, and sheep follow in respect to money value. The tables given will show the number of horses, mules, cows, other cattle, sheep, and swine in the United States, the average price, the value of each class and the total value as taken from the government statistics: Number. Average price. Value. Hpi^es* Males 9,735,300 1,414,500 11,085,400 16,785,:W0 85,935,300 25,726,800 $64 96 75 33 28 89 19 04 2 60 6 80 $632,446,985 106,563,114 320,346,728 319,623,609 93,666,818 175,070,484 Uowe Sheep Total 1,647,719,138 In the raising and preparing and transportation of live stock for market, and fitting it for the consumer, the following may be held as a fair exhibit of the real status of the business, from a. Business stand point, outside of the direct inter- ests of the several persons and firms interested :; Raising cattle is a copartnership business. The grower has one share, and the other must go to those who ta)^ the bullock off his hands, carry him to markietftand slaughter and sell him. The largest item_of'expense is the transportation, as will be shown! While en route to market he i& generally, the property of the drover, who has- purchased him from the grower, and who is the second factor in this trade. The drover look& after him while on the road, and sells him the first opportunity, provided he can make a fair profit. If no such opportunity occurs the bullock goes on to the seaboard, where he must leave the- car and go into a yard. He has already had this experience, and had the cost charged to bis account two or three times. This yarding costs- forty cents a head. If the cattle are not sold immediately, and must remain over night, feed must be bought at a high price. The next operator who appears on the ground to make his profit and livelihood oat of the cattle is the wholesale butcher, who purchases at the yards and either slaughters there or transports the animal by barge at an additional cost of forty cents to his own slaughtering establishment, from whence the quarters of beef, if designed for domestic consumption, are sent to the city Horses. Mules. Milch-Cows. States. Number. Average price. Value. Number. Average price. Value. Xumber. Average price. Value. 79,400 47,000 74,500 104,700 14,700 51,100 679,100 115,700 585,100 19,600 105,500 194,900 189,700 56,900 118,800 16,700 104,400 89,100 76,300 770,400 168,900 318,000 111,900 364,700 760,800 296,900 675,600 1,091,700 352,100 172,400 685,800 581,500 227,300 67,900 209,300 91.400 10,900 115,100 $81 41 80 94 83 24 89 94 97 87 82 14 90 09 110 81 .84 70 83 45 83 22 69 53 74 97 88 58 79 37 78 22 71 36 76 04 58 78 33 17 54 09 62 64 59 44 66 94 69 14 82 31 61 76 59 75 67 05 75 09 68 88 45 41) 49 63 69 42 45 46 42 68 54 00 65 00 $6,463,964 3,804.180 6,201.380 9,416,718 1,488,689 4,197,354 61,119,000 12,824,188 49,557,970 1,635,620 8,779,710 13,551,897 10,473,309 5,040,202 9,389,471 1,308,274 7,449,984 6,775,164 4,484,914 25,654,168 8,594,901 19,919,520 6,651,336 20,766,018 52,601,712 24,487.889 41,725,056 66,229,075 23,608,305 12,945,516 43,774,614 26,400,100 11.280,899 4,718,618 9,514.778 3,900,952 58',(i00 6,330,500 164.300 98.200 209.500 140,300 20,400 110,900 1,4%,300 144,900 837,000 23,000 100,700 227,000 201,000 159,300 266,100 66,800 168,200 174,600 89,600 600,100 160,900 225,700 126,500 244,700 809,600 361,100 434,900 717,800 474,000 233,500 621,800 488,200 235,700 69,700 363,800 80,900 9,900 290,500 $:i7 00 38 50 33 70 48 83 39 00 48 38 37 50 44 37 34 6S 32 00 30 31 22 77 15 48 19 75 17 02 14 62 20 27 21 03 20 71 15 72 16 20 20 83 25 77 27 94 32 65 33 70 27 40 29 06 26 76 25 19 26 90 20 86 23 76 28 09 81 46 21 75 33 00 27 50 $6,079,100 8,780, 700^ 7,061), 150' 6,780,099 796,s00- New Hampshire. Vermont 4,805,297 66,111,250 6,429,213, 29,027,160 736,000' 8,052,217 5,168,790 3,111,480 3,146,175 4,512,002. 9(6,616 3,409,414 3,671,838 1,855,616. 7,861,572. 2,608,680 4,701,331 3,284,135. 6,836,91& 26,433,440 New York New Jersey Pennsylvania . . . Delaware Maryland 18,500 15,000 26,300 4,000 11,000 29,800 51,700 44,700 96,200 9,600 101,400 96,100 79,900 110,700 88,400 101,900 2,400 85,000 26,500 8,800 68,400 111,100 6,200 8,200 37,CrOO 126,200 20,700 4,600 19,400 3,700 1,100 26,000 $98 88 128 32 96 15 95 00 105 86 85 60 82 54 94 07 87 12 91 65 80 2P 97 07 88 96 53 59 67 50 67 82 68 08 68 93 72 04 96 12 71 71 71 37 85 26 95 ■i9 82 21 56 03 64 40 98 00 77 20 45 68 78 00 71 50 $1,819,475 1,924,800 2,6i8,746 380,000 1,164,460 2,660,880 4,267,318 4,204,929 8,880,944 879,840 8,132,280 9,328,427 6,708,404 6,982,413 5,629,600 6,910,858 163,392 5,009,060 1,909,060 365,256 4,187,864 7,929,207 443,362 306,528 3,041,770 7,070,986 1,333,080 450,800 1,497,680 169,016 86,P00 1,859,000 North Catolina . . South Carolina. . Georgia FlorWa Alabama Mississippi Louisiana Texas Arkansas Tennessee West Virginia. . . Kentucky Michigan 12,169,070 11,916,260 20,852,090' Wisconsin Minnesota 12,679,500 5,88l,86& 16,726,420 9,140,85a Kansas Nebraska California 5,600,232 1,676,973. 11,445,148 1,759,575 Nevada Territories 326,700 7,988,750 Total 9,735,300 6)2,446 9<5 1,414,500 106.565.114 11,085,400 $820,346,728: 1 Grand Average $64 96 $75 38 $28 89 LIVE STOCK 588 LIVE STOCK "market, to be sold by a commission merchant at five per cent, commission. The retail dealer then carries them to his stall or shop, where they are cut up and sold by the piece to the consumer.^ So the grower has one share of the bulloclj ior his part, and the consumer pays for that and the other share which is divided among the others. It is a close business; the drovers not averaging over one dollar per hea^or their net profits, and the wholesale butcher^a»lizingfrom two to three dollars as their share of jgain, with a heavy expense to come out of it, vizii^he use of a large capital, buildings and appliances, and the cost of killing. The seller gets five per cent, with all risk of debts, etc. , and the retailer cuts his meat and figures to sell at ten per cent, in- crease on the cost. It costs now in New York forty dollars to transport a hundred cattle from the railroad termini to the private slaughter- houses, as they all have to go by barges on the water; whereas theywere formerly driven across the city on foot at an expense not exceeding two dollars. This is required by local law. There is but little probability of reducing the various ex- penses connected with the trade in fresh meat, unless it be possible to get rid of the speculative •drover, whose fitful profits really average but little. He seems, after all, to be a necessity, as breeders are not used to the transit, dislike its risks, and will probably continue to sell to the drovers rather than to send forward their stock on their ■own account. Many cattle are sold by brokers at the yards, who charge a commission on their sales. This is an extra tax on the beeves, which the consumer pays. Cattle sent to Europe are purchased at the yards by the shippers, who se- lect and slaughter their stock on the ground, and thus avoid some of the extra expenses which fol- low stock which are designed for home con- sumption. The wholesale butcher, in order to make his profit of two or three dollars per head, turns every part of the animal to account. Every thing possible is saved and sold for cash. The retail dealer must cut his profit out of one- third of the beef. If the balance can be made to bring cost he is satisfied. When the carcase costs nine cents a pound he must sell one-third in roasts and steaks at an average of eighteen cents per pound. One-fourth of a sheep can be cut into chops, which must be sold at eighteen cents and the legs of the hind quarters for fifteen cents, to make an advance of ten per cent, on the cost at eight cents per pound by the carcase, as the balance of the sheep will not sell for more than five cents per pound. The profits of dealers on a beef weighing six and one-half hundred pounds would be less than six dollars, and on a sheep weighing fifty pounds the advance would be but forty cents. These figures, of course, will vary, according to location, nearness to market, etc., but they will approximate nearly enough for all practical purposes. In fact, experience as a rule is simply the basis for calculation. — The following table shows the estimated number, average price, and value of oxen and other cattle, sheep and hogs, from government statistics: Oxen and other Cattle. Sheep. Hogs. States. Number. Average price. Value. Number. Average price. Value. Number. Average price. Value. Maine 201,910 118,000 130,500 1-20,000 16,000 114,100 663,200 83,000 708,100 31,700 119,300 397,600 313,200 186,700 400,900 368,400 327,300 307,100 171,900 8,343,700 261,300 3-23,700 235,200 389,600 864,900 410,000 772,300 1,287,000 448,900 329,500 913,200 818,800 486,200 86,900 1,075,000 137,600 46,700 786,000 $35 44 38 12 29 33 47 59 49 72 36 68 81 85 36 60 29 03 24 73 22 87 16 86 10 19 11 69 8 91 8 14 12 79 11 85 11 68 9 57 10 62 12 19 21 63 21 14 24 87 26 35 19 65 21 64 20 89 20 05 20 91 17 38 18 95 20 76 20 08 12 75 21 00 18 78 $7,155,336 4,493,160 3,8-37,565 6,710,800 795,520 4,185,188 21,122,M) 8,037,800 20,556,143 783,6-M 2,7-28,391 6,701,850 3,191,508 2,182,523 3,672,019 2,9.-,8,076 4,186,167 3,639,135 2,007,792 22,429,-209 2,776,006 3,945,903 5,087,376 8,286,144 21,610,063 10,803,500 15,175,696 27,721,980 9,153,071 6,606,476 19,095,012 14,143,844 9,213,490 1,804,044 21,586,000 1,754.400 980,700 14,761,080 526,900 242,400 490,500 76,300 26,300 92,500 1,936,500 125,800 1,640,500 23,600 141,200 356,400 283,900 143,700 371,200 37,800 185,900 151,800 68,800 1,691,400 192,400 341,700 644,500 683,600 4,546,600 3,450,600 1,260,000 1,311,000 1,162,800 193,200 1,663,900 1,284,800 128,900 48,900 6,750,000 710.500 80.900 3,049,800 $3 78 2 70 3 74 8 63 3 96 4 18 3 95 5 01 8 58 3 67 3 89 8 93 1 58 1 81 1 73 1 94 1 93 1 81 2 04 2 00 2 01 a U 2 55 2 85 2 72 8 66 8 63 8 41 2 74 2 63 8 66 1 86 2 80 8 7T -2 02 1 99 2 60 2 80 $1,987,9.12 654,480 1,884,470 276,969 100,188 386,650 7,649,175 630,258 6,872,990 86,612 549,268 1,044,25-?. 448,662 258,287 643,176 73,382 358,787 274,768 140,362 3,382,800 386,724 730,987 1,388,475 1,918,260 12,366,752 9,144,090 3,275,000 8,159,510 3,186,072 500,226 4,425,974 2,888,612 346,9.'0 135,453 13,635,000 1,413,895 54,840 8,637,760 58,800 87,300 51,800 76,600 16,300 57,900 668,700 158,000 •875,000 46,700 233,500 589,800 758,800 275,900 1,360,700 175,400 755,900 792,900 232,600 1,090,000 901,200 1,026,400 248,400 1,604,800 1,596,100 459,700 2,186,000 2,640,100 540,700 213,400 3,296,200 1,874,800 846,500 80,900 863,300 181,500 5,200 116,600 $11 66 16 20 12 19 18 03 17 05 16 73 11 39 13 83 11 60 10 61 7 10 4 45 4 01 4 11 3 91 8 26 8 99 4 81 3 98 4 09 3 31 5 -22 6 38 5 51 8 06 7 93 7 70 8 63 7 58 6 99 8 08 6 94 8 91 7 58 7 17 4 41 9 00 8 75 $686,608 New Hampshire. "Vermont Massachusetts . . . Bhode Island . . . Oonnecticut New York New Jersey Pennsylvania . . . Delaware Maryland Virginia North Carolina.. South Carolina., Georgia Florida 604,260 631,442 1,868,068 277,915 968,667 6,477,493 2,115,990 10,063,500 495,487 1,657,850 2,624,610 3,040,783 1,133,949 5,330,337 396,404 Alabama Mississippi Louisiana Texas Arkansas Tennessee West Virginia... Kentucky ■Ohio Michigan 3,016,041 3,417,399 885,948 4,468,100 3,523,693 5,357,808 1,:M,393 8,839,693 12,864,566 3,646,421 16,447,200 Illinois 22,784,063 Wisconsin M^innesota Iowa 4,098,506 1,491,666 26,633,296 Missouri 11,133,348 2,106,315 Nebraska California Oregon 613,822 2,604,861 800,415 46,800 Territories 1,019,375 16,785,300 319,6-23,509 85,935,8C0 $93,6ii6,318 26,726,800 $175,070,484 Grand Average $19 04 $2 60 $6 80 LIVE STOCK 589 LIVE STOCK LIVE-STOCK MARKETS FOR 1879. Products. NEW YORK. Cattle: Extra beeves cental Good to prime " Common to fair '* Poor to common " Texas and Cherokee, cental Milcli cowe head Veal calves cental Sheep Swine CINCINNATI. Cattle : Fair to good shipping steers cental Common to choicebutch- ers' grades cental Cows, heifers, etc. " Sheep " Sw?ne " CHICAGO. Cattle: Extra beeves cental Choice beeves Good beeves Medium grades. . Inferior natives . Texane Veal calves Sheep Swine SAINT LOUIS. Cattle: Choice natives. . -cental Fair to prime natives, cental Fair lo good butchers' steers cental Common to good stock steers cental Texans and Cherokees. cental Sheep cental Swine Horses : Pings head Southern horses. . . Streeters Heavy draft. Saddle horses Extra drivers Good matches Mules : 14 to IS hands high 15 to 16 hands high 16 to 16^ hands high NEW ORLEANS. Cattle: Corn-fed beeves . . cental Choice Texas* beeves, head Texas, 1st quality. head Texas, 2d quality.. " Milch cows " Calves " Sheep " Swine " Horses : Common ** Plugs " Good working " Mules: First-class " For sugar plantations, head For city use head For rice culture, small head $10 25 to $10 50 8 75 to 10 00 7 50to 8 50 January. $10 25 to $10 SO 9 00 to 10 00 7 75 to 8 75 6 7510 7 50 40 00 to 60 00 2 SO to 7 SO 4 OOto S 00 2 90 to 3 10 4 00 to 4 7S 1 25 to 2 50 to 2 OOto 2 25 to 4 60 to 4 10 to :i 60 to 3 OOto 1 75 to 4 00 3 75 4 50 3 00 4 00 3 50 2 00 2 75 to 4 SO 2 75 10 4 25 2 65 to 3 00 3 37i to 8 86 2 75 to 3 60 2 60to 2 65 2 75 to 2 OOto 8 20 to 3 SO 4 25 2 73 10 OOto 30 00 25 OOto 80 00 75 OOto 90 00 90 OOto 190 OO 110 00 to 170 00 250 00to400 00 55 00 to 95 00 80 00 to 140 00 115 00 to 140 00 2 OOto 4 60 OOto 35 00 OOto 25 00 OOto 90 00 OOto 8 00 OOto 4 00 OOto 4 00 SO 00 to 100 00 00tol75 00 00to225 00 00 to 935 CO 00 to 150 00 February. $10 50 to $10 75 8 75 to 10 75 8 00 35 OOto 65 00 2 75to 7 60 4 OOto 5 60 3 50 4 25to 4 75 1 50 to 2 50to 3 OOto 2 60 to 4 75 to 4 25 to :J SOto 3 25 to 1 80 to 4 36 4 00 5 25 3 85 5 25 4 50 4 00 3 SO 2 25 3 00 to 4 76 3 00 to 4 60 2 OOto 3 75 4 75 to 5 25 4 00 to 4 55 3 OOto 4 00 2 25to 2 76 2 25 to 4 76 3 40 to 3 90 15 OOto 35 00 30 OOto 85 00 75 OOto 90 00 95 00 to 190 00 110 00 to 170 00 250 00 to 400 00 40 00 to 80 00 60 OOto 120 00 100 00 to 120 00 2 OOto 4 50 30 OOto 35 00 15 00 to 25 00 30 00 to 90 00 6 OOto 9 00 2 OOto 4 00 2 50to 3 50 50 00 to 100 00 100 00 to 175 00 175 00 to 225 00 175 00 to 225 00 100 00 to 150 00 March. 60 OOto 60 00 6 50to 7 50 4 87ito 6 00 4 25 to 4 60 4 25 to 4 75 2 OOto 2 50 to 3 OOto 3 OOto 4 80to 4 60 to 4 OOto 3 75 to 2 OOto 4 50 4 25 4 75 4 20 5 00 4 70 440 4 00 2 50 3 OOto 5 00 3 25to 5 00 3 OOto 4 00 4 60to 6 10 4 20 to 4 35 3 S5to 4 00 2 OOto 2 90 3 60to 5 50 3 50 to 4 15 00 to 35 00 30 OOto 85 00 75 OOto 85 00 95 00 to 190 00 110 00 to 170 00 250 00 to 400 00 35 OOto 75 00 55 00 to 115 00 95 00 to 115 00 2 50to 6 00 30 00 to 35 00 15 OOto 25 00 25 OOto 75 00 6 OOto 9 00 2 OOto 4 50 3 50to 4 50 50 00 to 100 00 100 00to«5 00 175 00 to 225 00 175 00 to 225 00 100 00 to 150 00 April, $10 50 to $10 75 9 60 to 10 60 8 25 to 9 25 7 00 to 8 00 $10 SO to $10 75 n 25 to 10 25 8 SOtO 9 00 30 OOto SO 00 4 00 to 6 00 5 12i to 7 00 4 3-J 4 50 to 5 20 2 OOto 3 OOto 3 OOto a 90 to 4 85to 4 60 to 4 20 to 3 85 to 2 00 10 S 00 4 75 5 26 4 26 5 10 4 70 4 SO 4 15 2 50 3 00 to 5 00 3 75to 5 75 3 70to 4 15 4 80to 6 15 4 65to 4 80 4 12ito 4 65 3 25to 4 00 3 80to 4 OOto 2 90 to 4 60 5 00 4 16 15 OOto 35 00 30 OOto 90 00 75 OOto 90 00 95 00 to 190 00 110 00 to 170 00 250 00 to 400 00 35 OOto 80 00 55 00 to 115 00 95 00 to 115 00 3 60 to 6 00 30 00 to 36 00 15 00 to 25 00 25 CO to 75 00 6 00 to 9 00 2 00 to 4 50 3 OOto 3 SO 50 00 to 100 00 100 00 to 175 00 175 00 to 225 00 175 00 to 223 00 100 00 to 150 00 May. 45 00 2 SOtO 5 00 4 SOtO 6 50 3 80to 4 00 4 60tO 5 00 2 OOto 3 OOto a OOto 2 SOtO 4 &5to 4 SOtO 4 10 to 3 85 to 2 OOto 5 00 4 66 5 00 3 76 5 15 4 70 4 40 4 15 2 SO 3 OOto 5 00 a 60to 5 76 3 25to 3 60 4 75to 5 10 4 25 to 4 70 3 75 to 4 40 3 00 to 3 75 3 SOtO 3 OOto 2 SOtO 4 50 4 70 3 76 15 OOto 35 00 30 00 to 90 00 75 00 to 90 00 95 00 to 190 00 110 00 to 170 00 250 00 to 400 00 35 OOto 100 00 75 00 to 130 00 95 00 to 130 00 3 00 to 6 00 30 00 to 35 00 15 OOto 26 00 25 00 to 76 00 6 00 to 9 00 2 00 to 4 50 3 00 to 4 60 60 00 to 100 OO 100 00 to 175 00 175 00 to 225 00 175 00 to 225 00 100 00 to 150 00 June. $8 25 to $9 60' 8 OOto 8 50 6 50 to 7 00 6 00 to 6 50 35 00 to 55 00 2 75 to 6 00 3 50 to 5 7S 3 70 to 3 90 4 OOto 4 50 1 76 to 3 OOto 2 50 to 2 5) to 4 SOtO 4 65 to 4 25 to 4 OOto 1 SO to 4 40 4 25 4 K 3 60 6 10 4 75 4 SO 4 25 200 3 OOto 4 75 2 75 to 5 M 2 75 to 3 60 4 75 to 5 00 4 25 to 4 70 3 75 to 4 40 3 00 to 3 75 3 OOto 3 SOtO 2 75 to 4 OO 3 45 3 60 20 00 to 40 00 30 OOto 85 OO 85 00 to 110 00 100 00 to ISO OO 75 00 to 150 00 100 00 to 145 00 230 00 to 400 00 56 00 to 85 00 75 00 to 140 00 110 00 to 140 00 3 00 to 4 50 2") 00 to .M 00 20 OOto 24 00 15 OOto 18 00 25 (OtO 75 00 H 00 to 9 00 200to 400 3 00 to 4 SO 50 00 to 100 00 103 00 to 175 00 175 00 to 225 00 175 00 to 225 00 100 00 1» 150 00 The above table explains itself, and is given as furnishing an indication of the relative view of the live stock markets and prices in the United States, for general reference. lilVE STOCK 590 LIVE STOCK LIVE-STOCK MARKETS FOR 1879— CoNToniED. Products. NEW TOBK. ■Cattle: Extra beeves cental Good to prime " Common to fair " Poor to common '■ Texas and Cherokee, cental Milch cows head Veal calves cental Sheep Swine CINCraNATI. «attle: Fair to good shipping steers cental Cemjuon to choice butch- ers' grades cental Cows, heifers, etc. Sheep JSwine CHICAGO. ■Cattle; Extra beeves cental Choice beeves Good beeves Medium grades. . Inferior natives . Texans Veal calves ■Sheep Swine SAINT LOUTS. <^attle : Choice natives . . . cental Fair to prime natives, cental Fair lo good butchers steers cental Common to good stock steers cental Texans and Cherokees, cental "Sheep cental Swine Horses : Plugs head Southern horses. . . Streeters Heavy draft. Saddle horses Extra drivers Good matches Mules : 14 to 15 hands high 15 to 16 hands high 16 to 16i hands high $ 9 50 to $10 00 8 00 to 9 25 7 50 July. |10 50 $ 7 75 to 10 00 30 00 to 50 00 2 50 to 5 50 3 00 to 5 6ai 1 75 to 3 00 to a 25 to 3 00 to 4 75 to 4 '10 to 4 10 to 3 75 to 2 00 to 2 75 to 3 'iSto 2 2510 3 OOto 4 25 4 00 4 75 4 00 4 90 4 60 4 40 4 00 240 3 50 5 25 4 75 3 85 4 70to 5 00 4 15to 4 65 3 75 to 4 25 2 25 to 3 40 OOto 4 00 75 to 3 12i 40 to 4 00 OOto 40 00 OOto 70 00 OOto 100 00 00 to 140 00 00 to 150 00 OOto 175 00 00to400 00 00 to 90 00 00 to 140 ori 00 to 140 00 August. $10 50 to $10 76 7 75 to 10 25 6 50to 7 00 25 00 to 35 UO 2 87 to 6 25 3 75to 5 76 4 00 to 4 25 3 75to 4 50 1 50 to 2 75 to 2 OOto 2 75 to 4 80to 4 40 to 4 OOto 3 50 to 1 75 to 2 2510 3 25 to 2 50 to 2 25 to 4 00 3 75 4 00 3 70 a 15 4 60 4 10 3 90 2 25 2 80 600 4 3 76 4 70 to 4 ! 4 16 to 4 65 3 75 to 4 40 3 OOto 3 75 3 OOto 4 00 2 50 to 2 95 3 4510 400 25 00 to 40 00 40 OOto 70 00 80 no to 100 00 90 0010 140 00 75 00 to 1.60 00 i-ffi 00 to 175 on 226 00 to 400 00 55 00 to 95 00 85 OOto 140 00 110 00 to 140 00 NEW OnLEANS. ■Cattle; Curn-fed beeves .. cental Choice Texas beeves. head Texas, Ist quality. head Texas, 2d quality.. " Milch cows " Calves ** Sheep " Swine " Horses ; Common " Plugs " Good working ■' IM'iles ; First-class " For sugar plantations, head • ■ 'Fbr city'usc head For rice culture, small, head OOto 35 00 00 to 28 00 00 to 20 00 OOto 75 00 00 to 8 00 OOto 4 00 OOto 4 50 60 00 to 100 00 175 00 to 175 00 00 to 225 00 00 to 325 CO 00 to 150 00 30 00 to 36 00 24 00 to 28 00 15 OOto 2Q 00 25 00 to 75 on 5 OOto 8 00 2 00 to 4 00 3 OOto 4 50 50 00 to 90 00 9j 00 to IIJ 00 125 00 to 190 00 140 00 to 200 00 September. $ 9 75to$10 00 8 75 to 9 50 7 00 to 8 50 6 60to 6 75 30 00 to 45 00 2 26to 5 50 3 75to 5 26 3 60to 3 80 4 OOto 4 50 1 .50 to 3 OOto 2 OOto 2 60 to 4 00 4 00 4 25 3 70 5 OOto 6 30 2 00 to 3 50 2 Sto 2 66 2 50to 4 76 3 OOto 3 75 4 70to 4 86 3 75to 4 60 3 OOto 3 60 2 00 to 3 25 2 25to 3 75 2 15 to 3 2o 2 80 to 3 56 25 00 to 40 00 40 OOto 70 00 70 00 to 100 00 90 00 to 135 00 75 00 to 150 00 125 00 to 200 00 60 OOto 90 00 86 00 to 135 00 110 00 to 165 00 October. $ 9 75 to $10 2.1 7 50 to 9 50 6 25 to 7 00 35 OOto 48 00 4 00 to 6 26 3 50 to 5 00 4 00 to 4 30 3 85 to 4 40 1 50 to 3 OOto 2 35 to a 80 to 3 75 3 65 4 25 3 85 3 25 to 4 00 2 2510 2 75 2 40 to 2 60 2 50 to 3 1510 4 26 3 80 4 70 to 4 80 3 76 to 4 60 3 00 to 3 60 2 OOto 2 75 2 OOto 2 50 to 4 25 3 76 25 OOto 40 00 30 OOto 70 00 80 00 to 100 00 90 00 to 125 00 75 00 to 150 on 125 00 to 200 00 50 OOto 90 00 90 00 to 140 00 110 00 to 175 00 30 00 to 35 00 24 00 to 28 00 15 OOto 20 00 25 00 to 75 00 5 OOto 8 OJ 2 OOto 4 00 3 OOto 4 50 50 OOto 90 00 90 00 to 120 00 175 00 to 225 00 140 00 to 210 00 100 OOto 110 00 36 00 to 80 00 5 00 to 8 00 2 00 to 4 00 3 00 to 4 60 50 OOto 90 00 90 00 to 100 00 140 00 to 210 00 November. $10 00 to $10 50 7 75 ■ o 9 75 7 25 to 7 75 40 00 to 60 00 2 26 to 7 25 3 00 to 4 80 3 OOto 4 30 3 80to 4 60 1 50 to 3 OOto 2 25 to 3 OOto 4 70to 4 36 to 3 80to 3 25 to 1 50 to 2 4010 3 OOto 3 OOto 3 40 to 3 60 3 50 4 25 4 00 4 90 4 60 4 20 3 76 2 26 3 10 4 75 3 75 3 96 4 70to 4 80 3 75 to 4 60 3 OOto 3 60 2 00 to 2 75 2 2710 2 26 to 2 OOto 3 75 4 15 20 00 40 00 to 70 00 80 00 to 90 00 85 00 to 130 00 70 00 to 126 00 85 00 to 135 00 50 OOto 85 00 85 00 to 140 00 110 00 to 175 00 2 50 to 4 00 35 OOto 80 00 7 00 to 9 00 2 00 to 4 00 3 50 to 4 60 60 00 to DO OD 90 00 to 120 00 100 00 to 120 00 160 00 to 190 00 160 00 to 200 00 105 00 to 135 00 December. 40 00 to 60 no 2 00 to 7 5') 5 25 to 5 50 3 50 to 4 31 3 90 to 4 50. 1 40 to 2 OOto 2 60 to 3 5no 4 65 to 4 25 to 3 75 to 3 15 to 1 75 to 3 60 2 50 4 60 4 75 485 4ro 4 15 3 65 200 2 75to 4 75 3 00 to 4 25 4 00 to 4 70 4 to to 4 70 8 50 to 4 40 3 00 to 3 60 2 00 to 2 75 2 2.1 to 3 75 2 2.i to 4 00 3 20 to 4 00 25 00 to 40 00 30 OOto 70 00 80 00 to 100 00 90 00tol25 00 75 00 to 150 00 85 00 to 200 00 50 OOto 70 00 75 00tul40 00 110 00 to 175 00 2 50 to 4 OD 36 OOto 80 00 7 00 to 9 00 2 00 to 4 00 3 00 to 4 50 45 00 to 75 00 90 00 to 100 00 150 00 to 210 00 150 00to2l0 00 100 00 to 120 00 The above table explains itself, and is given as furnishing an. indication of the relative. view of the live stock markets and prices in the United States, for general reference. XOCKED JAW 593 LOCUST The total number of the various live stock of ihe United States in 1879, the average price and the total valuation is as follows : Namber. Average price. Value. "RftrRPR 10,9.38.700 1,713,100 11,826,400 21,40^100 38,123,800 34,766,100 $52 41 56 06 21 73 15 39 207 3 18 $573,254,808 96,033,971 256,933,928 3i9 543,327 79,023,984 110,613,044 Milch COWS ■Oxen and other cattle. Sheep Hogs Or again, the total number of live stock in the United States may be stated, in round numbers, at about 100,000,000, worth |1, 500, 000, 000, an immense aggregate amount considering the low average value, the great bulk being produced at lar distant points from the place of consumption. J'or other matter in relation to stock, see articles <}attle. Horses, Sheep, Swine, Poultry, etc. For birds see articles under the several names of the various kinds noticed. LIXITIATION. The process of washing out the soluble from the insoluble portions of mineral substances, as in making lye; hence, lixivium means a lye or alkaline solution. LIZARDS. LacertidcB, Lacertiaris. Harmless Teptiles, but of utility from the insects which they devour. LOAD. A vague measure; it is better under- .«tood when divided into one, two, or three horse loads. A single horse load is generally estimated at thirty bushels, one cubic yard, or one ton by weight. LOAM. A vague term, meaning soil, and containing a large proportion of vegetable matter and clay. In Prof. Johnston's lectures, a loam is represented as a soil containing thirty to sixty per cent, of sand, the rest being clay, limestone, or vegetable matter; a clay loam contains but twenty to thirty per cent, sand, and a sandy loam upward of sixty per cent. sand. This word is often improperly written loom, and applied to a friable rich soil, containing much decaying vegetable matter. LOBBY. An anteroom or hall. LOBATE, LOBED. Divided into large curved segments more or less circular. LOBELIA. A genus of plants containing many very poisonous species, as the Indian tobacco (L. inflata), which is of use in asthmas, and as an emetic. They are pretty herbaceous plants, with perennial roots, and often cultivated for their beauty. LOBLOLLY BAY, HOLLY BAY. Gordonia lasianthus. A large southern evergreen found growing in swamps, producing large white flowers. The wood is rosy, but light and brittle; the bark is extensively used in tanning in the southeastern States. It very much resembles the magnolia. LOCKED JAW. Tetanus, tiismus. A con- sequence of injuries about the feet, or of worms, severe nervous diseases; the muscles become rigid, and finally locked jaw supervenes. When it arises from a wound or laceration, the case is usually hopeless; when disease (tetanus), large doses of opium are found to do most good, with the removal of all causes of irritation. The strength must be sustained by injections of brotlis and soups. LOCKING WHEELS. Hindering the rolling of one or more wheels in descending steep hills. It is done by fastening a chain from the body of the wagon to the spokes of the wheel, or by levers of a drag. LOCOMOTION. Change of place. LOCUAR. A cell or division in a fruit; thus, fruits are unilocular, bilocular, etc. LOCULICIDA. A term designating the bursting (dehiscence) of a seed vessel along the back suture. LOCUST. Caloptenus. Qrtliopiera. The great devastation produced by grasshoppere, as they are generally called, but which are really locusts, deserve more than a passing notice of these destructive insects. In every age of the world they have scourged continental countries. In the United States their depredations have been confined to the trans-Mississippi regions, and hence, until the settlement of that country they have attracted but little notice. The late Dr. Walsh, and his since famous pupil and co-laborer, Dr. Riley, and Dr. Thomas, the pre- sent State Entomologist of Illinois, and Dr. Packard, have spent much labor in investigating the history -and liaWts of the American species, and the three latter gentlemen are now just finishing up this work, as members of the Entomological Commission, under a special act of the Congress of the United States. In 1866, Dr. Walsh published the results of his pre\'ious investigations of the insect which has since com- mitted such wide-spread havoc, and to which he gave the name of Caloptenus spretus, and the English name of hateful grasshopper. In pre- senting this subject Dr. Walsh remarked that the eggs, which in the autumn of that year were deposited in the trans-Mississippi country, in countless myriads, would not hatch out that autumn, but would lie in the ground until the succeeding spring, and then hatch out, if the conditions for life were proper, and do vast injury. At the same time he distinctly foretold that the locusts developed from these eggs would have their generative functions so impaired by the difEerence in food, climate, density of air, temperature, moisture, etc., which they met in the lowland country, that they would become incapable of further propagating their species, and that they would then and there die out; also that the species would never cross the Mississippi river. The first of these predictions were fully verified, and the second has so far been as fully correct. The United States Ento- mologicalCommission has now been engaged some three years in their investigations of the locust, and have added much valuable information and suggestions to what was known before. From their reports published by the Government, we shall freely extract the principal points of general interest. The account of the visitations up to 1877 will be found in the table on the next page. The classification and nomenclature or characters of the species of our locusts are given as follows: When the popular name of a group of insects or other animals, that is generally accepted, cor- responds somewhat closely in its application to the scientific division, it is not difflcult to convey to the general reader a correct idea of the posi- tion and characters of a given species by refer- ence to and comparison with well-known species of that group. Unfortunately, in the present instance, not only is the opportunity for refer- LOCUST 593 LOCUST P3 H P o O O P3 <1 00 00 0= t-OO » i 00 00 0000 004 \tnoiSu(qsBii SoSSf: ■BP8A8JJ ii ^ g ■oolxaK Mail H 1 •qsja j^ i-liH iH j< jH rH r^ ,^ « rH r-i j< rH jH ^ ^ i-H .-< ijH CO00« • •OpBJOIOO Pill i * « » ■SnnnoijVV 1 11 1 « * # » •oq«pi i 11 i| ■BaB^llOK i-({Me0^lO(Ot-aOOSO-»e«00"*l£5»t- eOtOCOCOCOtOfOCOtOt-t-i^t-I^C-t^t- ODOOQOQO GOOOODOOOOOOOOOO 00 00 00 00 00 ■K|03lBa i SB 00 00 OC 00 OO (COO 00 CO 00 CO 00 QO t « * w •BjosanaiH tl i 1 tOtOt' 1863 1864 1866 1866 1867 • • •BMOI i ii » ii 00 00 OO CO CO ■sjlsBjqaK •Ii 1 * « » « * « •SBsass i il 1-t •1866 •1867 1868 1869 i 0000 00 00 # * » ■unosstH ii •1866 •1867 1868 1869 0000 ooS ♦ • • -.181 OTipni ^WSOt; •SB9nB2lXV ;il •SBX9X • If • a 1 ;i U I ii (5 10 4 » ^1 ;l 1 is • * 'I 1 -t r 2gE: 000 00 LOCUST 593 LOCUST ence to well-known species wanting, but the popular names applied to species and groups are so confused and erroneous that their use is cal- culated to convey incorrect ideas to unscientific readers. Even the name locust as formerly, and yet very generally, applied in this country is incorrectly used, referring to an insect not even belonging to the same order as the locusts of oriental countries. The seventeen-year locust of North America is, in fact, not a locust in the true sense, but a species of Cicada, or harvest- fly, belonging'to the order Hemiptera, which con- tains only insects with a mouth prolonged into a horny, jointed tube formed for sucking the juices of the plants or animals on which they feed. On the contrary, the locusts of the Old World, to which the term was originally and correctly applied, are species of migratory grass- hoppers belonging to the order Orthoptera, and are furnished with strong biting jaws or mandi- bles. There are other very material differences between the two, but these will suffice to show that they are quite distinct. The very common name grasshopper has likewise been unfortunate in its use and application not only in a popular sense, but even by scientists, referring at one time to the true locusts or to the various species of the family to which they belong, and at another to species of a different family, which includes katydids. In fact, the term as gener- ally used applies to most of the species of two different families of Orthoptera. In order, there- fore to convey a correct idea of the destructive species now under consideration we are neces- sarily compelled to fall back upon the scientific arrangement and characters of the family, sub- divisions, and species. Commencing with the order, we will give briefly the characters of the various divisions and subdivisions leading to the genus Galopienus, to which the Rocky mountain locust belongs, omitting those divisions and groups not represented in the United States, and referring only to those characters which are most easily recognized, and which apply specially to our acridian fauna. The order Orthoptera is distinguished from the other orders of the insect class chiefly by the following characters: Mouth furnished with mandibles or strong biting jaws; wings four (occasionally wanting,) upper pair coriaceous or parchment-like and flexible ; under pair thin and membranous, folding lengthwise only in plaits like a fan ; transformations incom- plete, being active in all stages after hatching from the egg. Although not as extensive as some other orders, it contains a large number of species which differ very materially in appear- ance and characters, and are generally known in this country by the common names earwigs, cockroaches, devil's-horses, walking-sticks, grass- hoppers, and crickets. Each of these names, except the next to the last, represents a distinct family of the order, as given below: Earwigs Family 1. Forfleuladm. Cockroaches Family 2. Blattidce. Devirs-horees Family 3. Manlidie. Walking-sticks Family 4. Phaemldm. n V, „„™ ) Family 5. Acridicke, Grasshoppers ^ FsLmils 6. Locusiidce. Crickets Family 7. QryUida. As will be seen from this list, there Is no con- fusion between the scientific and common names until we reach grasshoppers, among which our insect belongs. Other names, it is true, are some- times applied to insects of the previous families, 38 but with the exception of earwig they corre- spond in their application with the family limits as here given. As before stated, the term grass- hopper is applied to insects of two families — Acndidm and LoemtidxE; but notwithstanding this difficulty in using the popular name the insects which compose the family are easily dis- tinguished from each other by prominent char- acters. LocustidcB includes those species usually found on the grass, bushes, and trees, which have very long thread-like antennse, generally longer than the body of the insect ; the tarsi or feet are four jointed ; the female is furnished at the tip of the abdomen with an exserted ovipos- itor, usually more or less curved and sword- shaped; and the upper wings of the male are furnished, at the base, with a peculiar arrange- ment of the nerves, with which, by rubbing them together, they produce sharp, shrill notes. To this family belong true grasshoppers, katydids, and similar insects; and there are other species which strongly resemble and are usually called crickets that belong to this family. Acrididm, includes those species which usually reside on the ground, and are distinguished from those of the other families of saltatorial orthoptera by the following characters: The antennse are com- paratively short, never exceeding the body in length, and in North American species composed of from twelve to twenty-flve joints; the tarsi are apparently three-jointed; the females are fur- nished at the tip of the alDdomen with four short corneous pieces, two of which curve upward and two downward ; the male is without the shi'illing organ at the base of the wings found in the Locustidm. This family contains the true locust, such as those of oriental countries and the Eocky Mountain Locust ; also such so-called giasshop- pers as the common red-legged species of the States and those found hopping on the ground in open waste fields, along roadsides, etc. There- fore, in speaking heresifter of these species, we shall use the term locust. As the family con- tains a very large number of species varying considerably in form and character, entomolo- gists have endeavored to divide it into sections or subfamilies, by bringing together those minor groups having certain characters in common. The various results of these attempts can not be introduced here, as this would not only require too much space, but also the introduction of matter of purely scientific interest, and of no practical use in this brief review of the classifica- tion. These subdivisions vary in number according to the characters selected by the dif- ferent authors, some making as many as eleven subfamilies, others only two or three. Yet, as a general rule, the difference is not so much in the grouping as in the value attached to the groups, the sub-families of one author being considered as subordinate divisions by other authors. Without undertaking at this time to decide upon the respective merits of these several arrangements, we have selected for present pur- poses that which makes but three subfamilies, as it appears to be the simplest and most easily understood by general readers. In our descrip- tions of these subdivisions we shall confine our- selves to those represented in the orthopteral fauna of that portion of North America north of Mexico, and so far as possible select such char- acters only as are necessary to distinguish these divisions from each other. The first subfamily. LOCUST 594 LOCUST Proscopince, contains only exotic species, and may therefore be omitted from further consideration. The second subfamily, Aeridiim, Is distinguished by having the pronotum in the form of a shield, which covers the prothorax and extends back- ward at farthest only a short distance upon the base of the abdomen, never reaching more than half way to the tip, and seldom half this dis- tance ; the presternum or front breast is drawn up, that is, it Is not in the same«plane as the rest of the sternum or breast; It is spined, tubercled, or smooth, but never advanced upon the mouth in the form of a muffler; elytra or upper wings, when present, always as long as the wings ; tarsi with pads between the claws. The third sub- family, TettigiTUB, Is characterized by having the pronotum, in the form of a shield, extending 1)ackward nearly or quite to the tip of the abdo- men, and sometimes even beyond it; the pro- stei'num in tlie same plane as the rest of the sternum, and advanced upon the mouth in the form of a muffler; elytra when present usually shorter than the wings, and placed at the sides of the body; tarsi without pads between the claws. The two latter families are represented in the United States, but the great body of our locusts belong to the Acridinm, the species of 'I'ettigina being comparatively few, quite small, and seldom noticed by unscientific observers. As the Oaloptenus spretus and all other migratory locusts belong to Acridince, we shall limit our further consideration to this subfamily. It con- tains several subordinate groups, but the char- acters by which these are distinguished from each other are not so apparent and uniform as are those separating the various sub-families. Although at least one species of Oedipodini is migratory in the Old World, and a species in North America (Oamnula pellucida, Scudd.) be- longing to the same group was formerly supposed to be the migratory locust of California, yet at present our observations are confined to Acridini, which contains the destructive locust of the West. This limits us to those species found in the United States which have the head more or less subglobular or ovoid, and the front breast armed with a spine. The latter character is easily recognized by any one, as the spine may be seen by examining the under side of the neck; it usually stands out like a little blunt thorn, very distinct. If this is wanting, the observer may know without further observation that his speci- men does not belong to the migratory species of our country. If it has the spine, and the head is not conical or pyramidal, then he must refer to the characters hereafter given of the genera and species. We have now reached the genera, which can not be fully discussed at present, as this would require, if properly done, a revision of the Oalopieni and PezotetUgi, and an examina- tion of all our native species. We will, therefore, simply mention the more iniportant genera of the group represented in the United States, calling attention to a few of the more prominent charac- ters by which Oaloptenus Is separated from those genera most closely allied to it. We will also make use of localities, habits, etc. , wherever they will assist the general reader in any way in de- termining whether or not a given specimen be- longs to Oaloptenus. The following genera of Acridii which are mentioned by North American authors may be omitted from further considera- tion for the reasons given below : Tro-pidaais, Dietyaphorus, Bhomaiea, Ommatolampis, Platy- phyma, Dactylotum, and Chromaei-w. The first contains onlygigantic species, and if represented at all in the United States, it is only by a single species occasionally found along the southwest- ern border of Texas. Bhomaiea may be consid- ered as a synonym of DictyapJiorus, which Is represented by but two subtropical species, which are large, with brightly colored under-wings, chiefly red ; while those of our Calopteni are trans- parent. Ommatolampis has been superseded by Mr. Scudder's genus Hesperotettix. Platyphyma and Ohromacris have probably been introduced by mistake. Dactylotum has been introduced into our nomenclature for the reception of a very short-winged and brightly-colored species — Pezo- tettix picta Thos. This leaves only the following genera as necessary to be considered : Acridium, Oaloptenus, Hesperotettix, and Pezotettix As Hes- perotettix contains, so far as we are aware, but three species, easily distinguished from Oaloptenus spretus by the following characters and facta it may be also excluded : One is short-winged, green, and found only In the Eastern Middle States; another somewhat common in the West Is green, with reddish bands around the femora; the other has so far been found only in Arizona ; it Is yel- low, thickly dotted over with black, and the an- tennae annulated with alternate colors. There is a difference of opinion in reference to the char- acters of the genera Oaloptenus and Pezotettix; Professor Stal, of Sweden, maintaining that if properly limited Oaloptenus does not embrace any of our species. He places 0. femur-rubrum, and consequently the closely allied species, in Pezotet- tix. Without attempting to discuss the question so far as it relates to the proper characters, we have concluded, for reasons which will be men- tioned further on, to retain the name Oaloptenus and to use the genus in the sense understood by American and most European authors. Although the chief distinction between this genus and Pezotettix, as adopted in this country, the differ- ence in the length of the wings, can not be con- sidered satisfactory, yet, as it will answer present purposes, we will avail ourselves of it in order to eliminate the group from consideration. Acri- dium, so far as represented in the United States, may be characterized as follows, : Vertex but slightly inclined, angularly expanded in front of the eyes ; antennal grooves profound and extend- ing downward to the clypeus; eyes elongate- elliptical. Pronotum somewhat compressed on the sides, depth usually considerably more than the width, moderately but distinctly expanding behind the last sulcus (very slightly in rvbigin- osum); lateral carinae obsolete on the anterior lobes, the sides rounding up somewhat as the sides of anarch to the median carina; the dorsum of the posterior lobe more flattened, with the lateral carinae subdlstinct; the lower margin of the lateral lobes straight, the posterior lateral angle slightly obtuse, varying from about 100° to 110° ; posterior margin obtuse-angled and rounded at the tip. Elytra and wings, with one excep- tion, considerably longer than the abdomen, and in the exception pass it slightly. Abdomen elon- gate, rather slender; that of the male not en- larged at the tip ; the last segment of the male subcorneal and distinctly notched at the tip, usu- ally with a square notch; cercl of the male flat, usually broad, oblong, and straight. Prosternal spine, robust, subcyllndrical, blunt, and approxi- LOCUST 595 LOCUST mating the margin mesosterniim. Tlie spines of the posterior tibiae always have at least the basal portion pale, either yellowish or white, even when the tibiae are black. Posterior femora long, reaching to the tip of the abdomen, mod- erately robust, the outer face flat. The species, with one exception, are large, the females exceeding two inches in length, the exception, rubiginosum, is rare in the West, and so far has not been found west of the Mississippi. We have omitted A. frontalis (Thos.), as it does not properly belong to this genus, having been placed here by the author provisionally. As it is green, there is no danger of its being con- founded with C. spretus. To this genus belongs A. Americamun, a large reddish-brown species, marked on the outer wings with cellular quad- rate fuscous spots, which often does considera- ble injury to crops in the sections south of the latitude of St. Louis, which is nearly its northern limit. In 1875 and 1876, and even in 1877, it was seen migrating in considerable numbers, causing much alarm, as those who saw them supposed they were veritable Rocky Mountain locusts. Such flights were observed in southeast Indiana, southwest Ohio, South- ern Illinois, and Georgia. These flights are very limited in extent, reaching at farthest but a mile or two. Their large size, coloring, generic char- acters, and southern habitats will readily dis- tinguish them from the C. spi-etus. We may remark here that one of the most destructive migatory species of southwestern Asia and northern Africa {Acrklium peregrinum) is not only congeneric with this species, but so closely resembles it that ordinary observation would scarcely detect the differences between the two. As before stated, the characters by which the genus Pezotettix is distinguished are not satis- factory, and undoubtedly require revision, but in this country the abbreviation or want of wings has generally been adopted as a leading character, which, whether well chosen or not, is sufficient to distinguish its species from C spre- tus, wliich answers our present purpose. This limits us to the genus Caloptenus, and the species belonging to it which are found north of Mexico. The character of Caloptenus and Pezotettix, as given by H. Fischer, (Orthoptera Europea, 1853) were evidently Intended to embrace only European species, and although we infer from his remarks that he would include our species of C'alopteni in the former genus, yet the char- acters render it very doubtful where they would fall. Therefore, while we admit that the group stood sadly in need of revision at the time Stal entered upon the work, yet we do not think the facts warrant him in dropping the generic name Caloptenus, or in Tevao^ing femnr-rubriim there- from, hence we can not follow him in this change. This is, perhaps, not a proper place to discuss a question of this kind, but we have con- sidered it necessary to say this much in expla- nation of our reasons for differing with so dis- tinguished an entomologist, in his special field, as Dr. Stal. Under the circumstances it is per- . haps best that we should define the genus as we understand it, or at least give the characters which the North American species have in com- mon, which wd include in Caloptenus. In this conn3cti«m the editor would say, that for the reasons given above, and also as a means of perfect identification not only by the scientific but the general observer as well, we append the full description, which is as follows: Calojitemis, general character, head subglobnlai', front vertical, or nearly so. Eyes ovoid, sometimes almost suborbicular, but usually the length is to the breadth as three to two, and the front side is more or less straight- ened; usually the upper canthus is more or less angular, but sometimes it is rounded so as to obliterate the angle ; generally rounder and more prominent in the male than in the female: separated above by a little less than their width? Vertex narrow between the eyes, the width at this point being a little less than the width of the eye; usually though not always sulcate, the sulcus or groove shallow; expanding slightly, abruptly, and angularly immediately in front of the eyes ; deilexed (15° to 40°), and generally rounded in front. Frontal costa usually quite prominent, about as broad as the ver- tex between the eyes; t-ides parallel; flat, or shallowly sulcate, reaching to or nearly to the clypeus. Prouotum subquadrate, that is to say, a cross section (in the middle) will present a quadrate figure or parallelogram with the upper corners slightly rounded : the sides are nearly per- pendicular; the disk or dorsal surface is very nearly fiat, with a little thread-like, median carina, usually nistinct on the posterior lobe, but sometimes obliterated on the middle and anterior lobes; the lateral carina are obtuse, but distinctly marked as the angle where the disk and sides meetj on the posterior lobe they sometimes appear as true carinas, though not prominent or sharp; the lower margin of the sides is nearly straight, sometimes project- ing a little in the middle, where the triangular piece con- nects: the posterior lateral margin varies somewhat; in some species it lorms a distinct entering angle at the shoulder or lateral carina, in others it continues to the tip in an almost straight line; the three transverse incisions are distinct and situated close together, the posterior one being a little behind the middle and always cutting the middle carina; all three sever the lateral carinee, but the anterior one ends^at the upper margin of the sides with a slight and short curve forward ; the posterior and middle ones extend down the sides well toward the lower margin, and most generally about midway down the posterior sends out at right angles a branch sulcus which often crosses the intermediate space to the middle one; there is *^ also a fourth sulcus extending down the sides close to the anterior margin; the posterior sulcus and usually the middle one make a short curve forward immediately at the median carina; theposteriormarginisobtuse-angled, rounded at the tip; the posterior lobe is usually finely punctured, while the middle and anterior lobes have a velvety or felty appearance. The elytra and wings extend to or beyond the tip of the abdomen : the former are nar- row (except in C. bivittaiuB) ; the latter transparent in all our species; sometimes a very light greenish-yellow or a bluish tinge is observed, the nerves usually more or less dark. The abdomen is usually subcylindrical, presenting no distinct keel above; that of the male enlarged at the tin and curved upward; the cerci are usually flat, rounded at the tip, and curved up but some are straight and others tapering. The last abdominal segment, which curves upward like the prow of a boat, is sometimes truncate above, sometimes with a slight angular notch. Posterior femora robust, much enlarged near the base, the external face more or less convex, in the female never longer and generally shorter than the abdomen; in the male the reverse is the rule. Pads between the claws large, reach- ing a maximum size in some of the species. Most of our species have the upper portion of the inner face of the posterior thighs marked with three oblique dark bands (the one at the base often indistinct). There is gener- ally a dark stripe on the side running back from the eye to the last transverse sulcus of the pronotum, it is often interrupted, broken, or partially obliterated, but is sel- dom wholly wanting in those species any way closely allied to O. tpretvs or C femur-rvbrvm. The aniennse are filiform and slender, reaching their maximum length in the male of C. differendalie, where they sometimes attain the middle of the body. The prosternal spinels usually stout and conical, quadrangular at the base, and generally slightly transverse; in one or two species it aptirosimates the mesostemum, but this is not usual. Our species vary in length from six-tenths to two and a half inches. The genus as thus characterized is represented in the territory embraced in our observations by a number of species, several of which are so,, closely allied to C. spretus that it is difficult for any but an experienced entomologist to determine to which a specimen belongs. We think it more than likely that future investigations will show that seveial of the species which have been LOCUST 596 LOCUST described as distinct, are but varieties of otlier closely allied species. C. bilituratus, Washing- ton Territoiy, has been observed at but one or two points. There are but three species, femur- nibrum, spretv^, and aitorew, which require special mention in this connection, as they are the only ones generally distributed which are so closely allied to each other as to render it difficult to dis- tinguish them. Calopienus spretus, Thomas. As every fact relating to the histoj-y and habits of this species is either of economic or scientific interest, we give here a brief history of its nomen- clature. About 1860, Mr. Thomas, then residing in Southern Illinois, sent some specimens of Orthoptera collected in that locality, to Dr. P. B. Uhler, of Baltimore, Md., for determination; among those returned was one marked Acridiwm sprctin, with a note stating that it was new. In a paper written by Mr. Thomas on Insects injuri- ous to vegetation in Illinois, in 1862, he describes a species of locust under the name A. spretis Uhler, as follows: general color a dark, brown- ish purple, with dusky points and lighter rays. Head brown, with dusky points ; antennae red- dish yellow. Thorax an ashy brown, with a velvety luster on the anterior half, the latter half punctured; the lower edges, at the sides, paler — sometimes pale red, at others almost white. Elytra extending about half over the abdomen (or not exceeding two thirds), marked along their internal margins with a light, reddish-brown ray; external margin dusky ; a few dusky dots along the internal margins. Wings not quite as long as the elytra; transparent, pale yellowish on the disk, tinged with red at the base (in recent specimens). Posterior thighs crossed by two black bands, and black at the knees ; intermedi- ate spaces pale yellow — often almost white. Length of female, one inch and three-eighths ; of the male, slightly over an inch. This species is quite common here, along the road-side and among low weeds and grass. In Mr. Scudder's Catalogue of the Orthoptera of North America, published in 1868, it is mentioned under the name Acridium spretum Uhler. No description of the species having been published previous to the appearance of the Synopsis of the Acrididse of North America, Mr. Thomas describes it as follows: Verymuchlike G.femur-rubi^um.'Bxma., the principal difference being in the length of the elytra and wings, a notch at the tip of the last {S) ventral segment. Posterior lobe of the pronotum slightly expanding; median somewhat distinct. Elytra and wings pass the abdomen about one third their length. The last ( ,5 ) vent- ral segment, which is turned up almost vertically, is somewhat tapering and is notched at the apex, which distinguishes it from thefemur-rubrum,; the notch is small, but is distinct. Prosternal spine, robust, subcylindrical, transverse. Migra- torj^ Color, scarcely distinct frorathe O.femur- rubnuih. The occiput and disk of the pronotum generally reddish-brown ; the posterior lobe some- what paler than the anterior and middle. Spots as in femur-r-iibruin, arranged in a line along the middle of the elytra; these are a little larger and more abundant toward the apex. The head and thorax are sometimes a very dark olive-brown, at others reddish-brown and even brownish-yel- low, the color deepening with age. The wings are pellucid, nerves dusky toward the apex; when flying high anS against the sun, their wings look like large snow-flakes. Dimensions : S Length (to tip of abdomen)! to 1.2 inches; elytra as long as the body; posterior femora, 0.55 inch; posterior tibiae, 0.5 inch, i Length, 0.85 to 1 inch; elytra, 0.9 to 1.05 inch. (The sign $, signifies male; ?, female. — Editor.) In relation to the chronological history, the commission say: The history of the American or Eocky Mountain locust is in nearly all respects parallel with that of the locust of the Old World. It breeds over a large continental area, and periodically, in seasons of extreme drought and other favoring meteorological conditions, migrates in immense hordes for several hundred miles beyond its usual habitat. Unlike the locust of the Eastern Hemisphere, our species naturally affects the cooler and more elevated portions of the tem- perate zone in the New "World, though its southern limits extend at times into the hot and dry plains of the Great Basin. Fitful and periodical in its visits to the older, settled por- tions of the West, the history of the Rocky Mountain locust is difficult to trace beyond a period of about thirteen years. Previous to the year 1864 it had been rarely referred to by travelers in the West, and after examining the reports of the government expeditions and the works of Lewis and Clark, Pike, Irving, and others, we find little or no mention made of it. It is a question in our mind whether in some regions it may not have increased in numbers since the Far West has been partially settled, particularly in those regions where irrigation has been practiced, as in Utah and Colorado and in the western edge of the Mississippi Valley, as in Nebraska, Kansas, Iowa, and Minnesota; but this is entirely uncertain, and it is more reason- able to suppose that as the Western Temtories become more thickly settled the numbers of locusts will become diminished. In treating of the history of locust invasions, we will first con- sider the subject in a very general way, and then state the facts more concisely, arranged accord- ing to separate States and Territories; and, thirdly, present a summary of the subject in a tabular view. The latter is calculated to send a chill to the agricultural heart when one sees how dense the figures are from 1864 until 1877, and to lead one to infer that the evil is waxing greater and greater as the years go on. This may be due, however, to the greater extent of the country settled and to the fact that the pop- ulation is growing denser and denser. However that may be, we shall deal with facts and not with theories, and would remind the reader that in a number of the years there recorded large harvests resulted, the injury done by locusts being local and only confined to a portion of the season, while in 1877 the largest wheat harvest ever grown was safely harvested. Leaving out of account the locust visitations in the Atlantic and Pacific States, which were made by different species from the Rocky Mountain locust, the first authentic statement is to be found in Neill's History of Minnesota, wherein it is stated that in 1818 and 1819 vast hordes of grasshoppers appeared in Minnesota, eating everything in their course, in some cases the ground being covered three or four inches thick. In the same years they were destructive in the Red River country in Manitoba. In 1820, or the succeed- ing year, they ravaged the western cgunties of Missouri, and Riley suggests that the 1820 swarms may have also ravaged Kansas and the XOCUST 597 LOCUST neighboring regions northward. In 1842, locusts uppeared in Minnesota and Wyoming; in 1845, in Texas; in 1846 and 1847, in the limits of what is now Wyoming; and in 1849 in Texas, and possibly in Minnesota. In Utah they liave appeared from 1851 until 1877, except only the jears 1873 and 1874, and a glance at the table shows tliJit this Territory is liable to suflEer annually more or less, especially in the northern portion. Vast swarms of locusts were seen in Idaho in 1853, as well as in Utah, while Dakota was visited, or had native swarms, in 1853. The year 1854 was a year for locusts in Texas, Kansas, and Utah, and 1855, notable for locust ravages on the Pacific coast, was not a bad year «ast, Texas only having been invaded, although A. S. Taylor states that they abounded on the immense grassy prairies lying on the eastern slopes of the Rocky mountains, a statement supported by no facts, so far as we can learn. In the year 1856, however, locusts prevailed in Texas, feansas, Iowa, Minnesota, possibly Wyom- ing and Utah, and in the succeeding year they committed extensive ravages in Manitoba, and the States mentioned as suffering in 1856, with the addition of Nebraska. The States of Texas and Nebraska received slight injury from the pro- geny of those that migrated thither the previous two years. In 1860, the region about Topeka, Kan., was visited by what must have been a limited and rather local swarm. The year 1861 witnessed the presence of locusts in Nebraska, Montana, and Utah, but the accounts are scanty. Montana and Utah sustained losses from locusts in 1862, but in 1863 they occurred not only in those territories, but also in Dakota and Min- nesota. But the most decided increase in the numbers of locusts was felt in 1864, a year of general visitation in Utah, Montana, Dakota, Colorado, portions of New Mexico, and east of the plains in Nebraska, Iowa, Minnesota, as 'well as Manitoba, and there were resulting swarms, in most cases the progeny of those which came in 1864, in Iowa, Minnesota, Dakota, :and Manitoba, while Montana, Colorado, and northern New Mexico had swarms of their own. A notable locust year was 1866, and, as Riley states, the injury committed was sufficiently great and wide-spread to attract national atten- tion. The insects swarmed over the Northwest and did great damage in Kansas, Nebraska, and northeastern Texas, and invaded the western counties of Missouri very much as they did in 1874. They came, however, about a month later than in that year. They were often so thick that trains were seriously delayed on account of the immense numbers crushed on the track. Iowa, Minnesota, Colorado, and Utah also suf- fered. While in 1867 local damage was done in the spring by the young of the swarms of the previous year, late in the summer new swarms flew across the plains from the West and North- vrest, and invaded the border States; in fact, the same States suffered as in 1866, as will be .seen by a glance at the tabular view. In 1868 and 1869, local injuries ensued from the ravages of the unfledged locust early in the season, and reports from Montana, Idaho, Dakota, Colorado, .and Utah show that there was some trouble in those territories. The year 1870 was a season of comparative immunity from locust invasions, though Iowa and Minnesota received some swarms, and the insects were observed in Dakota, Idaho, Wyoming, and Utah. Kansas received slight injury from these pests in 1873, as well as Minnesota, Dakota, Montana, Color- ado, and Utah, but it was not marked. In 1873, the hosts gathered for a fresh onslaught upon the agricultural region bordering the great plains. The invasion of 1873, says Riley, was pretty general over a strip of country running from the northern parts of Colorado and southern parts of Wyoming, through Nebraska and Dakota, to the southwestern counties of Minne- sota, and northwestern counties of Iowa, the injury being most felt in the last two more thickly settled States. The insects poured in upon this country during the summer and laid their eggs in all the more eastern portions reached. The cry of distress that went up from the afflicted people of Minnesota in the fall of that year is still fresh in mind, and the pioneers of Western Iowa, in addition to the locust devastations, suffered severe damage from a terrific tornado. By far the most disastrous locust year, however, was 1874, as the more thickly settled portions of the Mississippi Valley west of the ninety-fourth meridian were invaded by dense and most destructive swarms. The States of Colorado, Nebraska, and Kansas were overrun, while por- tions of Wyoming, Dakota, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, New Mexico, Indian Territory, and Texas were ravaged by swarms from the North- west, as they were abundant that year in Mon- tana and in British America. The loss to these States and tenitories was estimated at not much less than |50,000,000. Much of the loss this year resulted from the progeny of the invaders of 1873, which early in the season devoured the crops of the region where they hatched, and eventually spread to the southeast. Kansas suf- fered, perhaps, more heavily than any other State. This, like most other locust years, was one of long-continued drought, and in Missouri the evil was complicated by the ravages of the chinch-bug. The next year (1875) the young hatched in immense numbers over an area vari- ously estimated at from 250 to 350 miles from north to south and from 200 to 270 miles from east to west, embracing portions of Nebraska, Kansas, and Missouri. The tract in which the injury done by the destructive enemy was worst was confined to the two western tiers of coun- ties in Missouri, and the four tiers of counties in Kansas, bounded by the Missouri river on the east. The greatest damage extended over a strip twenty-five miles each side of the Missouri river, from Omaha to Kansas Citj-, and then extended south to the southwestern limit of Missouri. About three-quarters of a million of people were, to a gi'eater or less extent, made sufferers. The experience of different localities was not equal or uniform. Contiguous farms sometimes pre- sented the contrast of abundance and utter want, according to the caprices of the invaders, or according as the}-^ hatched in localities favorable to the laying of tlie eggs. This fact gave rise to contradictory reports, each particular locality generalizing from its own experience. The fact is, however, that over the region described there was a very general devastation, involving the destruction of three-fourths of all field and gar- den crops. While the injury was greatest in the area defined above, the insects hatched in more or less injurious numbers from Texas to British America, the prevalence of the insects in Mam- LOCUST 598 LOCUST toba being such that in many parts little or no cultivation was attempted. (Riley.) Missouri had never before been visited by a calamity so appalling and so disastrous in its results as the locust ravages of 1875, and detailed returns of the damage done in that State showed a loss of over $15,000,000. (Riley.) In 1876 no trouble was experienced in the spring, there being in the border States little damage done by the young, except in portions of Minnesota and Colorado, and it was hoped that no further losses would ensue this year. But locusts bred in great quan- tities in Montana, and in British America, north of this territory, and in Wyoming, Dakota, and Colorado, this being a year of unusual drought in those territories, and in August and the autumn following, immense swarms swept over the plains, falling upon the larger part of Kansas and Nebraska, the western half of Iowa, and some of the western counties in Missouri, and reaching into the Indian Territory,, Texas, and the north- west corner of Arkansas. Besides this, local swarms hatching in Minnesota early in the year flew south and southwest into Iowa and Nebraska, and they laid eggs in August. The spring of 1877 opened with dismal prospects all over the States east of the plains, as well as in Colorado. Happily it was a spring in which there was an unusual rain-fall in April, May, and June, the country along the Missouri being flooded in places. The weather was also excep- tionally cool; and this condition of things extended over Colorado, northern Utah, Wyom- ing, central Montana, and British America. In consequence of this season of wet and cold, the young hatched grasshoppers died in immense numbers, and comparatively few lived to acquire wings. South of the parallel of 40° they flew, late in May and early in June, in a general northwest and northerly course ; and from Min nesota and Iowa many took flight to Dakota and Montana, whence their progenitors came, and others remaining behind flew about irregularly in the States of Minnesota and Iowa. The six stages of growth of the Rocky Mountain locust, and their metamorphoses, are described as fol- lows : The Rocky Mountain locust requires on an average about seven weeks, from the time of hatching, to attain full gi-owth. Belonging to an Order in which the tranformatlons are incom- plete, the young locust differs but little in gene- ral structure from its parent. The most strik- ing differences are the want of wings, and the less flattened, narrower prothorax, which rises from the sides more in the shape of a roof. The abdomen is also more roof -shaped. The perfect winged form is gradually assumed through a series of five molts, at the first four of which the wing-pads become more and more apparent, and at the last of which, from the pupa to the per- fect state, the thorax becomes flattened, full wings are acquired, and the insect ceases to grow, except as the female abdomen becomes gravid and heavy with eggs. Yet with each molt, aside from the colorational changes, cer- tain minute and less striking structural changes invariably take place, by observing which we may always know the comparative age and the particular stage of growth of any mdividual. 'European authors differ as to whether there are three, four, or five molts in the European migra- tory species; but we have watched spretus from. the egg to the imago, and thousands of mounted and alcoholic specimens of all ages show the stages enumerated. The transition from th& second to the third, however, is sometimes not very marked, and it is not improbable that, as is^ the case with many other insects, the number of molts may vary according to the amount of nutrition and rapidity of development. The sexual characters are not well marked, and the sexes are consequently distinguished, with some- difliculty in the first three stages. In the first pupal stage the differences become apparent, and in the true pupa the parts are sufliciently well formed to permit coition, which, as we have had evidence, exceptionally takes place thus, prematurely. The depth of coloring varies greatly in the immature stages, and the pale mediodorsal line, so conspicuous on some of the larvae, is- entirely wanting in others. The ground-color after the first stage varies from pale-yellowish- gray, the common and typical color, to orange- brown, and even black, and from pale yellow to- pure green. A marked green variety (var. Viri- dis, Riley) occui-s, in which the normal pale yellowish-gray parts are bright green, the green being first distinctly noticeable in the third lar- val stage, and enduring to maturity. We have never seen this green variety among the fresh arrivals from the mountain regions, but it is con- spicuous among its brown companions when hatching in the Temporary region, and constitu- tes ordinarily about one in a thousand, though sometimes a much larger proportion, of the progeny of invading swarms. Like all creatiires- which suffer exuviation or the shedding of skin, our locust quits feeding for a while, and remains, quiet during the process. The first three or larval skins are almost invariably shed on or near the ground, the young insects congregating under grass in little hollows or depressions, or under any shelter that offers for the purpose. The cast-off exuviae are often very abundant in such sheltered places, and are not infrequently, mistaken for dead locusts. The last two or pupal molts, on the contrary, more often take place above ground, the insect at these stages^ of growth preferring to fasten to some elevated- object. Immediately after each molt the whole body is soft and colorless, as it was immediately after hatching. In order to illustrate the inter- esting process of molting; we will trace an indi- vidual through the last molt — from the pupa to- the winged insect — as it is the most difficult, and, on account of the larger size of the animal, most easily watched. The other molts are very similar in mode of execution. When about to- acquire wings the pupa crawls up some post, weed, grass stalk, or other object, and clutches, such object securely with the hind feet, which are drawn up under the body. In doing so the favorite position is with the head downward, though this is by no means essential. Remain- ing motionless in this position for several hours, with antennae drawn down over the face, and the whole aspect bet6kening helplessness, the thorax, especially between the wiiig-pads, is noticed to swell. Presently the skin along this swollen portion splits right along the middle of the head and thorax, starting by a transverse, curved suture between the eyes, and ending at the base of the abdomen. As soon as the skin IS split, the soft and white fore body and head swell and gradually extrude more and more by ^ series of muscular contortions; the new head XOCUST 59.) LOCUST slowly emerges from the old skin, which, with its empty eyes, is worked back beneath, and the new feelers and legs are being drawn from their •CEisings and the future wings from their sheaths. At the end of six or seven minutes our locust — no longer pupa and not yet imago — the four front pupa-legs being generally detached, and the insect hanging by the hooks of the hind feet, which were anchored while yet it had that com- mand over them which it has now lost. The receding skin is transparent and loosened, espe- cially from the extremities. In six or seven minutes more of arduous labor — of swelling and contracting — with an occasional brief respite, the antennae and the four front legs are freed, and the fulled and crimped wings extricated. The «oft front legs rapidly stiffen, and, holdingto its support as well as may be with these, the nascent locust employs whatever muscular force it is capable of to draw out the end of the abdomen and its long hind legs. This in a few more minutes it finally does, and with gait as unsteady as that of a new-dropped colt, it turns round and ■clambers up the side of the shrunken, cast-off skin, and there rests while the wings expand and •every part of the body hardens and gains strength — the crooked limbs straightening, and the wings unfolding and expanding like the petals of some pale flower. The front wings are at first rolled longitudinally to a point, and as they expand and unroll, the mnd wings, which are tucked and f:athered along the veins, at first curl over them, n t*n or fifteen minutes from the time of extri- cation these wings are fully expanded and hang down like dampened rags. From this point on the broad hind wings begin to fold up like fans beneath the narrower front ones, and in another ten minutes they have assumed the normal atti- tude of rest. Meanwhile the pale colors which always belong to the insect while molting have been gradually giving way to the natural tints, and at this stage our new-fledged locust presents an aspect fresh and bright. If now we examine the cast-off skin, we shall find every part entire with the exception of the rupture which origi- nally took place on the back ; and it would puzzle one who had not witnessed the operation to divine how the now stiff hind shanks of the mature insect had been extricated from the bent skeleton left behind. They were in fact drawn ■over the bent knee-joint, so that during the pro- cess they were doubled throughout their length. They were as supple at the time as an oil-soaked string, and for some time after extrication they show the effects of this severe bending by their curved appearance. The molting, from the bursting of the pupa-skiu to the full adjustment •of the wings and straightening of the legs of the perfect insect, occupies less than three-quarters ■of an hour, and sometimes but half an hour. It takes place most frequently during the warmer part of the morning, and witliin an iiour after the wings are once in position the parts have become sufficiently dry, and stiffened to enable the insect to move about with ease; and in another hour, with appetite sharpened by long fast, it joins its voracious comrades and tries its new jaws. The molting period, especially the last, is a very critical one, and during the help- lessness that belongs to it the unfortunate locust falls a prey to many enemies which otherwise "would not molest it, and not mfrequently to the ■voracitj' of the more active individuals of its own species. The differences in the immature stages between the Rocky Mountain, the Lesser, and the Red-legged Locusts are thus stated. Spreiiis, (the Rocky Mountain Locust) though palest when mature, has the most black in the immature stages, and its black face is quite characteristic. One who has great familiarity with these three species in life can distinguish them at an}"^ stage (they all three go through the same number of molts), and can even distinguish between the exuviae, those of spretus being darkest, those of atlanis most gray and uniformly speckled, and those of femur-rubrum palest, with the black streaks more strongly contrasting. The con- tinuation of the report is as follows : The eggs may be laid in almost any kind of soil, but by preference they are laid in bare, sandy places, especially on high, dry gi-ound, which is toler- ably compact and not loose. It is often stated that they are not laid in meadows and pastures, and that hard road-tracks are preferred; in truth, however, meadows and pastures, where the grass is closely grazed, are much used for ovipositing by the female; while on well- traveled roads she seldom gets time to fulfill the act without being disturbed. Thus a well- traveled road may present the appearance of being perfectly honey-combed with holes, when an examination will show that most of them are unfinished and contain no eggs; whereas a field covered with grass-stubble may show no signs of such holes and yet abound with eggs. In fact, wherever holes are noticed, it may generally be taken for granted that they contain no eggs, for the mother covers well the hole when she has time to properly complete her task. Further- more, the insects are more readily noticed at their work along roads and road-sides than in fields, a fact which has also had something to do in forming the popular impression. Newly- plowed land is not liked; it presents too loose a surface; but newly -broken sward is often filled with eggs. Moist or wet ground is generally avoided for the purpose under consideration. We have noticed that in the Permanent breeding- region, wherever the vegetation is scant the females show a decided preference for the shaded base of shrubby plants, among the roots of which they like to place their eggs; whereas in the Temporary region, where the vegetation is generally so much ranker, exposed situations, or those comparatively bare of vegetation, are preferred. The experience of 1876 proved very conclusively, also, that they are instinctively guided toward cultivated fields, where the j'oung will find good pasturage; for the eggs were noticeably thickest, and hatched most numer- ously in 1877 in cultivated areas. In the Cypress Hills region of British America, as Mr. J. G. Kittson informs us, the high lands and protected slopes of the hills are preferred. The soil of the mountain-region, where the insects perman- ently breed, is mostly of a compact, scantily- covered, gravelly nature, and the notion that they lay most in pure sand is an erroneous one. Sandy soil that is compact, especially when having a south or east exposure, is much chosen, but in loose and shifting sand the eggs would perish. In 1876, it was generally remarked that the insects were more indifferent than usual in ovipositing, and that eggs were much more frequently laid in low, and even wet, land than in former years. The mass seldom reaches more LOCUST 600 LOCUST than an inch below the surface, except where some vegetable root has been followed down and devoured, and the insect leaves her eggs before emerging; in this way the mass is sometimes placed a foot below the surface. In abnormal or unhealthy conditions, the eggs may be laid in exposed places without any hole, in which case they doubtless never give birth to young. In other cases, the female will fiU her hole almost entirely with the sebific matter. Nor are the eggs invari- ably laid in the ground, for while we know of no exceptions to this normal position in spretus, yet Mr. Boll informs us that around Dallas, Tex., in 1876, the eggs of differentialis were very num- erously placed under the bark of elm and hack- berry logs that had been felled on low lands. We have also received from A. W. HofEmeiser, of Fort Madison, la. , some of the eggs of a species of Stenobothrus, and the young that hatched from them, the eggs having been thrust into holes made by some carpenter-bee in a fence-post; while OMoealtis conspersa habitually bores in dead wood. The female, when about to lay her eggs, forces a hole in the ground by means of the two pairs of horny valves which open and shut at the tip of her abdomen, and which, from their pecu- liar structure, are admirably fitted for tlie pur- pose. With the valves closed she pushes the tips into the ground, and by a series of muscular efforts and the continued opening and shutting of the valves she drills a hole, until in a few minutes (the time varying with the nature of the soil) nearly the whole abdomen is buried. The abdomen stretches to its utmost for this purpose especially at the middle, and the hole is generally a little curved, and always more or less oblique. Now, with hind legs hoisted straight above the back, and the shanks hugging more or less closely the thighs, she commences ovipositing. When the hole is once drilled there exudes from the tip of the body a frothy, mucous matter, which fills up the bottom of the hole, and bathes the horny valves. This is the sebific fluid which is secreted by the sebific or cement gland. The mucous matter binds all the eggs in a mass, and when the last is laid, the mother devotes some time to filling up the somewhat narrower neck of the bur- row with a compact and cellulose mass of the same material, which, though light and easily penetrated, is more or less impervious to water, and forms a very excellent protection. When fresh, the mass is soft and moist, but it soon acquires a firm consistency. During the opera- tion the female is very intent on her work, and may be gently approached without becoming alarmed, though when suddenly disturbed she makes great efforts to get away, and extricates her abdomen in the course of a few seconds, the time depending on the depth reached. The legs are almost always hoisted straight above the back during the process, with the shanks hugging more or less closely the thighs. Sometimes, however, especially when the abdomen is fully buried, the ends of the hind feet may rest firmly on the ground, as has been observed by Mr. Packard in the case of femur-rubrum. The time required for drilling the hole and completing the pod will vary according to the season and the temperature. During the latter part of October or early in November, 1876, when there was frost at night and the insects did not rouse from their chilled inactivity until nine o'clock a.m., the females scarce had time to complete the process during the four or five warmer hours of the day; but. with higher temperature not more than from two to three hours would usually be required. The soils and locations' preferred by the female in ovipositing will be those in which the young will most freely hatch, viz, compact and sandy or gravelly knolls and hillside's, with a south or southeast exposure. The experience of 1877' shows also that hatching takes place very freely in late-mown meadows or prairies, or grazed pastures, where the exposure of the gi'ound per- mits ready oviposition, and the warmth of the sun. In dry, well-drained, and compact soils of a light nature the eggs are much better pre- served than in heavy clays and loams, where they are more subject to mold and rot. The experience of 1877 is rather misleading on this point, and indicates the necessity of generalizing, not from the experience of one, but of many years. The insects were most numerous, and seemed to hatch most numerously in the low lands and in sheltered situations along river- courses. The facts are that in such situations those which did hatch survived in larger pro- portions than did those which hatched in more exposed places because the former were better protected from the cold rains and storms of spring. Those eggs which are laid earliest the previous year will also hatch earliest, and since, as we have already seen the egg-laying covers an average period of six or eight weeks in the same locality, and lasts generally till frost, it follows that the eggs pass the winter in every state of development — some with the fluids clear and limpid ; others with the embryo fully formed and ready at the first approach of spring to hatch. In the same locality hatching will take place — ccBteris paribus — first on light dry soils and on south and southeast exposures; latest on low, moist, and shaded or tenacious ground. We see, therefore, that the hatching will not alone vary according to temperature and the earliness or lateness of the spring, but that it is quite varia- ble under the same conditions. In every BBD-LESGEB LOCUST. instance there will be a few hatching when the first hatched in the same locality are getting wings, and we give it as a general rule that the bulk of the eggs hatch out in the different lati- tudes about as follows: In Texas, from the middle to the last of March. In the southern portions of Missouri and Kansas, about the sec- ond week in April. In the northern parts of Missouri and Kansas and the southern sections of Iowa and Nebraska, the latter part of April and first of May. In Minnesota and Dakota, the usual time of hatching ranges from early in May in the southern portions to the third week. LOCUST 601 LOCUST ifl the northern extremity. In Montana and Jlamtoba, from the middle of May to the first of June. In short, the bulk of the insects hatch in ordinary seasons about the middle of March in latitude 35°, and continue to hatch most numer- ously about four days later with each degree of latitude north, untilalong the forty-ninth parallel the same scenes are repeated that occurred in southern Texas seven or eight weelts before, ihe summary of our present knowledge of the locust is as follows ; The eggs are laid an inch below the surface of the ground in July, August, and September, as the latitude varies; and the young hatch in April and May, becoming fledged m about seven weeks from early in June until the last, swarming from the first of July until the last of September. Birds and insects eat the eggs and young, and a mite, Tachina fly. I.OCKY MOUNTAIN LOCUST. and hair-worms infest the adults. While the Rocky Mountain locust occurs permanently on the eastern slope of the Rocky mountains, on the high, dry plateaux between 4,000 and 7,000 feet elevation, the district liable to its periodical invasions is between latitudes 30° and 52°, and longitudes 102° and 93°. It occurs, though of smaller size, in California and New England, and probably in British America from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Its migrations take place at irregular intervals during or after hot or dry seasons, when immense swarms are borne from the Rocky Mountain plateau by the pre- vailing westerly and northwesterly winds, some- times 500 or 1, 000 miles into British America, Min- nesota, Nebraska, Kansas, Missouri, and Texas, where they lay their eggs. The progeny of the emigrant swarms return the following season in a general northwest direction for at least hun- dreds of miles, to near the original habitat on the plains. The periodical invasions may after a whUe be predicted with more or less certainty, should the Government take measures to appoint suitable persons to observe them, or delegate the task to the Weather-Signal Bureau ; meanwhile, by the use of the telegraph, the arrival of swarms may be announced several days in advance. In vears of plenty in the border States and Terri- tories grain should be stored up for use in locust years. Preventive measures, such as nlantiuK of forests along lines of railroads, nrnnnd towns and extensive farms; the use of ■ Vation oiling ditches and canals, bonfires and irnga ^^^^^ rolling the soil, and collection of ^''^«- bounties to be paid by Government in the T^ 'tories or by tlie local authorities in the atafls infested, for the egg-sacs. Co-operation ftiaicB ^g^j.jjiers and others, in resisting the ^^°nks of insects, to be enforced by proper leg- ■ 1 f ■ n both in the Territories and border States, w till need more light on the natural history and migrations of the locust, and the United States Government should appoint entomolo- gists, who should study the locust comprehen- sively for several years in succession. Local entomologists should be appointed for each Ter- ritory, and the border State legislatures should appoint salaried entomologists to further study and report on the locust, and serve for a term of years, until the entire subject be studied, and the knowledge thus acquired be freely diffused among the agricultural community generally. In relation to the geographical distribution of the Rocky Mountain locust, a glance at the map, pages 602 and 603, showing the distribution of the Rocky Mountain locust {Caloptenus spreius), will show the probable limits within which it will be found. At least there is no probability that the locust will ever afilict farmers east of the limits assigned. The eastern limits have been defined by Professor Riley, for Texas, Indian Territory, Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska and Min- nesota, while the northern and northeastern limits have been indicated by Prof. G. M. Dawson. The southwestern limits are somewhat conjectural, but they have been indicated by Mai. J. W. Powell ; also the western limits in Nevada and Idaho have been pointed out by Prof. Cyrus Thomas. The range of the small variety {aUanis f) in California and British Ameiica (Van- couver's Island) has been indicated by Messrs. Edwards, S. H. Scudder, and Dr. Packard; while tlip eastern range of the eastern vari- ety ailanis has been indicated by Messrs. Riley, Thomas, Scudder, and Dr. Packard. The locust area is divided into two regions, one the permanent breeding-places, on the elevated plains among the Rocky Mountains and the great plateau lying east and extending approximately to longitude 102°. Beyond the edge of the great plains are found the temporary breeding places of the locust, which comprise the prairie-lands of the border States as far east as longitude 93° or 94°. (The deeply shaded portions show the permanent breeding places; those shaded with single lines, the sub-permanent breeding places, and the dotted portions, the districts devastated by the migrating swarms in their periodic flights. Editor.) In dealing with this fearfully destruc- tive insect, which has attracted so much notice from the public, and in seeking for remedies against its devastations, it is of prime importance to have a thorough knowledge of its breeding- places, the frequency and extent of its migra- tions, and to seek for the connection between the direction of the winds and other meteorological phenomena and the flights of the locust itself. The locust is quite or nearly as destructive in Africa, Asia, and southern Europe as in this country, but the laws of their migrations and their connection with meteorological phenomena have never been studied in those regions, and it remains for the United States, with its Weather Signal Bureau, to institute, in connection with the scien|ific surveys of the West, investigations regarding the nature of the evil and the best means to overcome it. In endeavoring to trace the connection between the migrations of the locust and the course of the winds at different months, the writer has been led into some theo- retical considerations which seem to be supported by the facts presented in the unpublished report and which may be confirmed or disproved by future investigations. The following table, com- (603) (603) LOCUST 604 LOCUST piled from the reports of A. R. Taylor, the late Mr. B. D. Walsh, Prof. C. V. Riley. Prof. C. Thomas, Mr. G. M. Dawson, and the observa- tions of Mr. W. N. Byers, together with the reports in the Monthly Weather Review, will show the years when the locust was excessively abundant and destructive in the different Terri- tories and States, and also serve to roughly indi- cate the frequency and extent of the migrations of the destructive locust of the West. The dates which are starred are years when the progeny of the locusts of the preceding year abounded, and when in most cases there were no fresh incur- sions from the westward. The species referred to under the head of California, Washington, and Oregon may be some other than Caloptenus spretus. This table and the data on which it is based are necessarily very imperfect, owing to the vast extent of the territory over which the locust swarmed, and the fact that the greater portion is uninhabited, while the inhabited por- tions have been settled only within comparatively few years. It will be seen, however, that since for the hatching of the eggs laid the year previ- ous, but for the growth and development of the larvae or young. Look now at the conditions for the development of locust life on the hot and dry plains, chiefly of Dakota, Montana, Wyoming, and Idaho. We have no extended meteorologi- cal records from these regions at hand, but it is more than probable that the years preceding the migrations of the locusts were exceptionally warm and dry, when the soil was parched with long sustained droughts, as we know that the corresponding species east of the Mississippi river abounds during dry summers following dry and warm springs. Given, then, the exceptional years of drought and heat and the great extent of territory, and we have as the result vast num- bers of young hatched out. The year previous having perhaps been warm and dry, the locusts would abound, and more eggs than usual would be laid. These would with remarkably few exceptions hatch, and the young soon consume the buffalo grass and other herbage, and move about from one region to another, following s .sl t3 li WyomlBg and Idaho. d 1 o III 111 .11 ^1 B S gg SO 181S 1818 181S is-zo 1827 or 1828 1834 01- 1835 1838 1S19 1830 or 18-21 1845 1845 1846? 1846 1852 1855? 1852 1855 1856* 1857 18 i9 1855 1856* 1855 1 1855? 1865 1855 1856* 1856 1857* 1864 1865* iSM 1864 1864 1864 1865* , ' 1866 1867 1868* 1869 1870 1871 1872 1866 , 1867 / 1868* J 1869* , i866 1867 ■ 1867 186T 1867 1868 1868 1HB9 1873 1871 Blight. 187a 1874 1875 1876 '.'.::::.::::."}" 1873 1874 1875 1876 1873 1874 1875* 1876 1873 1874 1875* 1876 /■ 1873 SoiitherD. California. 1874 1874 * 1875 I 1876 ' 1874 1875 1876 1875 1876 1873 the evil has been greater and more wide- spread than ever before. The immediate cause of the migrations of the locust from its original breeding places is the unusual abundance of the species during certain years. It has been found in some cases that the exceptional years when the locust migrates are periods of unuisual heat and dryness, conditions unusually favorable to the excessive increase of insect life. As may be seen in the accounts of the eastern locust, the grass-army-worm, the grain-aphis, the chinch- bug, and other less destructive insects, when the early part of the season, the spring and early weeks of summer, are warm and dry, without sudden changes of temperature, insects abound and enormously exceed their ordinary numbers. When two such seasons occur, ^one after the other, the conditions become still more favorable for the undue development of insect life. Now it is well known that in the Eastern States the summers of 1860 and 1874, preceding the appear- ance of the army-worm and grain-aphis, were unusually warm and dry, and favorable not only often a determinate course in search of food. In this way large broods may migrate a long dis- tance, from perhaps twenty to fifty miles. In about six or seven weeks they acquire wings. Experience shows that the western locust as soon as it is fledged rises up high in the air, some- times a thousand feet or much higher. They have been seen to settle at night on the ground, eat during this time, and toward noon of the next day fill the air again with their glistening wings. As more and more become fledged, the vast swarm exhausts the supply of food, and when the hosts are finally marshaled, new swarms joining perhaps the original one, the whole swarm, possibly hundreds of miles in exte'nt, begins to fly off, borne by the prevailing westerly and northwesterly winds, in a generally easterly and southeasterly course. (It should be remembered that prevailing winds from a given direction will deflect the flight of the locusts- north or south, according to the intensity and continuance of the winds. — Editor. ) Those plants- the locusts do not like and which are usually XOCUST 605 LOCUST cultivated are principally peas and other legu- minous species, castor beans, sorghum, broom- corn, tomatoes, sweet potatoes, etc. Such wild plimts to which the insects are particularly par- tial, as tansy, wild buckwheat, etc., might be periodically sprinltled with Paris Green water or powder, so as to kill the young locusts that feed upon them. Such plants might also be sown and encouraged around cultivated fields where the young insects are expected to hatch out. These young will also congregate on timothy in preference to other grasses or grain, and. a strip ■of timothy around a corn or wheat field, to be poisoned in the same way, might save the latter. It is also currently supposed that the common Jarkspur (Delphinium) is poisonous to these insects, but how much truth there is in the state- ■ ment we are unable to tell. Trapping can easily J)e accomplished, especially when the locusts are making their way from roads and hedges. The use of nets or seines, or long strips of muslin. on only by its aid, and where means are already extensively provided for the artificial irrigation of large areas. Where the ground is light and porous, prolonged and excessive moisture will cause most of the eggs to perish, and irrigation in autumn or in spring may prove beneficial. Yet, experiments prove that it is by no means as effectual as is generally believed, and as most writers have assumed to be the case. In pastures or in fields wliere hogs, cattle, or horses can ba confined when the ground is not frozen, many if not most of the locust eggs will be destroyed by the rooting and traniping. The eggs are fre- quently placed where none of the above means of destroying them can be employed. In such cases they should be collected and destroyed by the inliabitants, and the State should offer some inducement in the way of bounty for such collec- tion and destruction. Every bushel of eggs destroyed is equivalent to a hundred acres of corn saved, and when we consider the amount of THE RILEY LOCUST CATCHEK. ■calico, or similar materials, converging after the manner of quail nets, have proved very satisfac- tory. By digging pits or holes three or four feet deep, and then staking the two wings so that they converge toward them, large numbers may be secured in this way after the dew is off the ground, or they may be headed off when march- ing in a given direction. Much good can be accomplished by changing the position of the trap while the locusts are yet small and congre- gate in isolated or particular patches. Many machines have been made for trappmg locusts. We illustrate the one invented byDr.C.V. Riley, which will be found simple and effective. Irrigation is feasible in much of the country sub- ject to locust ravages, especially in tlie mountain regions, where, except in unusually favorable locations, agriculture can be successfully carried destruction caused by the young, and that the ground is often known to be filled with eggs; that, in other words, the earth is sown with the seeds of future destruction, it is surprising that more legislation has not been had, looking to their extermination. One of the most rapid ways of collecting the eggs, especially where thej'are numerous and in light soils, is to slice off about an inch of the soil by a trowel or spade, and then cart the egg-laden earth to some sheltered place where it may be allowed to dry, when it may be sieved so as to separate the eggs and egg masses from the dirt. The eggs thus collected may easily be destroyed by burying them in deep pits, providing the ground be packed hard on the surface. In the thickly settled portions of Europe, where labor is a,bundant and cheap, this metliod may be adopted with some advantage. LOCUST 606 LOCUST but it will scarcely be employed in this country, except as a means of earning a bounty, wben, in the more thickly settled sections, it will prove beneficial and give employment to young people and others who have nothing else to do. In relation to the destruction of the young or un- fledged locusts, the commission say : It is with some degree of pride that we point to the fact that this part of the locust problem is solved. The experience of 1877 has added much to our knowledge of the practical and feasible ways of destroying the young locusts, and has firmly established the fact which we had previously maintained, that, with proper means, effort, and co-operation , the farmer, in the more fertile and set- tled portions of the country liable to their injury, may successfully cope with them ; that, in short, he can protect his crops against them with about as little labor and expense as he must annually employ to protect most of these same crops from weeds. Farmers themselves were surprised at what could be accomplished by well-directed, intelligent effort; and it was the almost universal testimony that there need be, in future, no serious fear of the young insects, even where little effort has previously been made to destroy the eggs. In the destruction of the young, no methods that will not sweep them away in wholesale fashion have any value for our Western farmers, however valuable they may be to the owner of a small fiower or truck garden. It is for this reason that we have been able to profit so little by European methods, and have had to invent means suitable to our broad Western fields and the extensive nature of our farming operations. The best that most European authors can advise is the killing of the insects with flattened imple- ments or brush; while Gerstacker and other writers devote page after page to prove the superiority over other methods of catching the insects with hand nets — a method which, while doubtless of some utility in dense German settle- ments, would prove absolutely futile on our large and scattered prairie-farms and against the excessive numbers of the pests which our farmers have to deal with. While, therefore, we shall mention all available means that have been or may be employed, we shall devote more es- pecial attention to those which are useful in a broad and general way in the field. Experience has shown that the results of any particular measure will vary in different regions, dependent, to some extent, upon the nature of the soil, the condition of the crops, and the gen- eral characteristics of indigenous vegetation. Cir- cumstances may also render some particular mea- sure available and profitable to one farmer where it would be unprofitable to another. For con- venience, the means of accomplishing the desired result may be classified into : Burning, crushing, trapping, catching, and use of destructive agents. Burning is, perhaps, the best in prairie and wheat-growing regions, which compose the larger part of the area subject to devastation by this locust. In such regions there is usually more or less old straw or hay which may be scattered over or around the field in heaps and windrows, and into which the locusts, for some time after they hatch, maybe driven and burned. During cold or damp weather they congregate of their own accord under such shelter, when they may be destroyed by burning, without the necessity of previous driving. Much has been said for and against the beneficial results of burning the prairies in the spring. This is chiefly beneficial around cultivated fields or along the roadsides, from which the locusts may be driven, or from which they will of themselves pass for the shel- ter the prairie affords. Scarcely any eggs are laid in rank prairie, and the general impression that locusts are slaughtered by myriads in burn- ing extensive areas is an erroneous one, at least in the Temporary region. In burning extensive prairies after the bulk of the locusts hatch, the nests and eggs of many game birds are destroyed ;. but as the birds themselves escape destruction on the wing, they may and do return and nest again, while, on the contrary, many injurious insects, like the chinch-bug, for instance, are killed, so that, even leaving the locust question out of con- sideration, the burning proves beneficial by exter- minating other noxious insects, and has some advantages from an agricultural point of view. As locusts disperse more and more from their hatching-grounds into the prairie as they develop, burning the grass in spring is beneficial in pro- portion as it IS delayed. Machines for burning have been used in several localities with consid- erable success. Mr. J. Hetzel, of Longmont, Col., has employed a machine drawn by horses. It is twelve feet long, from two to two and a half feet wide, made of iron, and set on runners four inches high. An open grate on the top of the runners is filled with pitch-pine wood, a metal sheet covering the grate to keep the heat directed downward. The grate is generally made with a net-work of heavy wire, such as telegraph wire. Two men and a team can readily burn from ten to twelve acres a day, and kill two-thirds of the insects, but for this it requires a hot fire. Hand- burners, consisting of any form of pan or grate, or wire sieves, with handle attached, to hold com- bustible material, will do excellent service in gardens and small inclosures. There is another method by which large numbers of locusts can be burned, consisting merely of a bundle of rags or tow, which, after being attached to long wire or iron rods and saturated with kerosene, can ba ignited and carried over the field. This method has been quite satisfactorily used in Colorado. A stout wire, say forty feet long, is thoroughly enveloped in rags soaked in coal oil. A small wire is wound around the rags to keep them iiL place, and the simple device is complete. Two men carry this rope, after setting fire to the rags, across the field to and fro until the fuel is exhausted; and as it is not necessary to pass over the same ground more than once or twice, a larg& field of grain can be thus protected during the half hour or so that the rags burn. The effect is that of a miniature prairie fire. To destroy locusts satisfactorily by crushing, can only be advantage- ously accomplished where the ground is smooth and hard. Where the surface of the ground pre- sents this character, heavy rolling can be success- fully employed, especially in the mornings and evenings of the first eight or ten days after the- newly -hatched young have made th eir appearance, as they are generally sluggish during those times, and huddle together until after sunrise. It is also advantageously employed during cold weather at any time of day, since the young when the temperature is low seek shelter under clods, etc. Harrowing in the autumn, or during dry, mild weather in early winter, will prove one of the most effectual modes of destroying the eggs and LOCUST TREE 607 LORE preventing future injury, wherever it is available. It should be enforced by legal enactment, whenever the soil in any region is known to be abundantly stocked with eggs. A revolving harrow or a cultivator will do excellent service in this way, not only in the field, but along road- ways and other bare and uncultivated places. The object should be, not to stir deeply but to scarify and pulverize as much as possible the soil to about the depth of an inch. Where the cultivator is used, it would be well to pass over the ground again with a drag or a brush harrow for this pur- pose. Some of our correspondents have urged, and with some reason, that wherever land can con- veniently be prepared to induce the females to oviposit in it, as by plowing and then rolling when the insects are beginning to breed, such preparations should be made. A subsequent har- rowing will be the more easy. In practice, this method will not often be adopted, because it will pay only under exceptional circumstances. Next to harrowing, plowing is one of the most geuer- allj' available means possessed by the farmer of dealing with locust eggs, and it is well to fully understand how it may be made most effectual in destroying them. As showing something of this, and the depth at which the locusts should be buried, the following series of experiments was made with eggs obtained at Manhattan, Kan. , early in November, and similar in condition to those in the first series: Large tin cylindrical boxes, made of different depths, and varying from four to eight inches in diameter, were used; and in order to hasten the result they were kept indoors at the temperature already mentioned. The soil in all the boxes was finely comminuted and kept in uniform and moderately moist con- dition. It was gently pressed with the fingers, so as to approach in compactness the surface soil of a well-cultivated garden. In each instance the eggs were placed in the center of the box. A large number of eggs were buried at diflferent depths outdoors where they were under natural conditions of soil pressure and temperature. The soil was a tolerably stiff yellow clay, and was pretty well compacted by many heavy rains, after the frost was thawed out. The results of the outdoor experiments comport with those made in the boxes. The eggs being placed at every depth from one to eighteen inches, and each batch covered with a wire screen, the result was accur- ately determined. All at one inch below the sur- face hatched; about one-third of those at two inches managed to escape, and none from any greater depth. Examined May 12, they had hatched down to a depth of twelve inches, and worked their way upwaid, and horizontally, seldom extending more than one inch in the for- mer, or more than two inches in the latter direc- tion. >Iost of those at greater depths were at that time unhatched. In looser soil they would doubtless have managed to push somewhat further. LOC'USTA. The inflorescence resembling the spike, but occurring in grasses, the flowers hav- ing no calyces, but bracts only. LOCUST TREE. Of the so called locust trees, there are two genera, first the common locust or false acacia, {Bobinia). The common locust, R, psetbdacaeia, valuable for its timber and as an ornamental tree, when it escapes the Locust Borer unfortunately generally common through the West. It is, however, said to escape, com- paratively well, this pest on limestone soils. Its- handsome foliage, fragrant white flowers, and invaluable timber makes it a subject of regret that it should be so almost universally attacked in the West. It is hardy throughout the North and southward to Tennessee, and makes a noble timber tree. The Clammy locust, R. viscota, is a smaller tree found in the latitude of Virginia and south. The twigs and leaf stalks clammy, flowers tinged rose-color, crowded in oblong racemes, pods glandular — vispid. The bristly or Rose-acacia, B. ixispida. is an ornamental flower- ing shrub, a native of the mountains of southern Virginia and the South, growing from three to- eight feet high. It is cultivated for ornament in the North but requires winter protection. The honey locust, (Qleditschia,) has two species,^ Q. iriacanthos, a large tree armed with stout, strong thorns in threes, but varying. The foli- age is light and graceful, and the tree peculiar but handsome. It is much valued in the West as a hedge or barrier, hardy and effective where the Osage Orange will not stand. It grows m rich woods from Pennsylvania to Illinois and southwestward. The pods are from twelve to eighteen inches in length, flat, sometimes twisted,, and containing a sickish sweet pulp between the seeds. The water locust, O. monosperma, is a. western tree, found in swamps in Illinois and southwestward, with slender spines, mostly single, pods oval, one-sided and pulpless. L ODICULA. The two minute fleshy hypogy- nous scales beneath the ovary of grasses. LOESS. Alluvial formations By the Eng- lish it is often used for a yellow loam, with, chalky concretions. LOG. A portion of the trunk of a tree. LOGWOOD. Hamatoxylon campecManum. A small leguminous tree of Central America and the tropics. The central heart wood, deeply stained, from old trees is preferred; the logwood bath is of great service in the production of black dyes, browns, and reds. LOLIUM. The generic name of rye grass. (See Grasses.) LOMENTUM. An indehiscent pod resem- bling a legume, but divided by membranes between each seed. LONG-EARED SYRIAN GOAT. (See Goats.) LONG-HORNED CATTLE. A breed of neat cattle now nearly extinct, chiefly distinguished by the length of the horn, the thickness and flrm texture of the hide, the length and closeness of the hair, the large size of the hoof, and the coarse, leathery thickness of the neck. LONGICORNS, LONGICORNE. Coleopte rous insects with long antennse, often longer than the body ; they are borers. LONGIPALPS, LONGIPALPI. A family of short-winged beetles, with the maxillary feelers (palpi) almost as long as the head. LOOPERS. Caterpillars of the family Geom- eters. (See Span-worms.) LOOSESTRIFE. Small weeds of the genus LysimacMa; they are wholesome. The creeping loosestrife, or money wort (L. nummularia,) is said to be a good remedy against insects, when steeped in oil and sprinkled over the granary floor. LORE. In ornithology, the space between the bill and the eye, which is bare in some birds, as the great crested grebe, but is generally LUCERNE 608 LUCERNE covered with feathers. In entomology the term is applied to a corneous angular machine observ- able in the mouth of some insects, upon the intermediate angle of which the mentum sits, and on the lateral ones the cardines of the max- illare, and by means of which the trophi are pushed forth or retracted, as in the hymenopte- rous insects. LOSS OF CUD. (See Cud, loss of.) LOTION. An external wash: it may be evaporating (spirituous) or watery. Indolent sores require stimulating lotions ; painful wounds, anodyne lotions, etc. Lotions are also used to •discuss tumors and inflammations near the fikin. LOUSE. (See Lice.) LOUSEWORT. Pedieularis Canadensis. An insignificant perennial, herbaceous weed; the rattle. LOVAGE. Ligusticum lemsticum. A peren- nial (biennial), herbaceous, disagreeable aromatic plant, of the family Umbellifei'CB, the seeds of which are used as medicine in flatulence. LOVE APPLE. Tomato. LOVE GRASS. A small grass, ornamental, with pretty spikelets, Eragrosiis. LOW CLOVER. (See Clover.) LUCAMA. A Chilian fruit resembling, in size and flavor, a peach. LUCERNE. Medicago. There are several varieties of Medicago (medick) cultivated as M. ■saii'Da, or lucerne ; M. lupulina, or black medick •or nonsuch; M. maculata, or spotted medick; and M. denticvlata, or denticulated medick. The first only is useful in the United States. Lucerne, called generally Alfalfa in the United States, is a most valuable forage plant for warm climates. It is extensively cultivated in California and •should be in the South. It delights in a loose, deep, sandy soil, but also does well in dry, deep, loams, rooting deeply, and after being established stands any amount of drought. It will not thrive well in the climate of the North, but from Kentucky south it is a most valuable forage crop. Given rich, clean, and dry land, it Will, after the first season, furnish an enormous amount of forage for farm stock, who learn to eat it with avidity. The roots are sought after by hogs who follow them to great depths. In climates that do not freeze severely, as in Cali- fornia and the South, it may be cut five or six times a year. When it begins to fail at the end of several years, it may be again renewed by plowing and harrowing the ground thoroughly, when it will immediately spring up from the •deep roots. Of its culture South, Rev. C. S. Howard says: On many accounts, lucerne is one of the most bountiful gifts of Nature to the Southern planter. No grass or forage plant in cultivation at the North will yield nearly as much hay as lucerne at the South. In good seasons, and on land sufficiently rich, it can be cut four or five times during the year. An acre of good lucerne will afford hay and cut green food for five horses the whole year. Ten acres will supply fifty head of plantation horses. This can be cut down in a day with a mowing machine. How unwise in the planter, then, to damage his corn by pulling fodder — that most irksome and senseless work of the plantation. A few acres of lucerne would save him this labor, and the tedious time occupied in pulling fodder could be employed in the improvement of his land. It is useless to attempt the cultivation of lucerne on poor land. It will live, but it will not be profitable. There are certain indispensa- ble requisites in the cultivation of lucerne. The ground must be good upland ; it must be made very rich ; it can not be made too rich. If the ground is as carefully prepared for it as an asparagus bed, the lucerne will spring almost with the rapidity (after cutting) of asparagus. It must be very clean. When the lucerne is j'oung it is delicate, and may be smothered with the natural weeds and grasses of a foul soil. Land which has been in cotton, worked very late, if made suflttciently rich; is in a good state of pre- paration for lucerne. The manure put upon it must be free from the seeds of weeds; hence, a mixture of guano and phosphatic manures would be an excellent application. On this farm, land designed for lucerne is put in drilled turnips well manured and worked. The turnips are folded with live stock — that is, they are fed on the ground, which thus gets all the solid and liquid excrements of the animals, and becomes very rich, and is also very clean. Great depth of cultivation is necessary in preparation of the soil for lucerne. If the ground was broken up with a four-horse plow, and in the same furrow a two-horse subsoil plow was run, stirring it eighteen or twenty inches, it would be to the advantage of the subsequent crops of lucerne. Ten pounds of seed are required for an acre, sowed broadcast. Drilling is unnecessary if the ground be properly prepared and the lucerne is not pastured. If the preparation has been imperfect, and the lucerne is to be occasionally pastured, it is better to drill at such a distance as will allow a narrow plow to be passed between the rows when the surface requires stirring. Either early in autumn or eai'ly in February are good seasons for sowing lucerne. The seed should be lightly harrowed in, and then the surface should be rolled. Lucerne lasts a great number of years, the roots ultimately becoming as large as a small carrot.. It should be top- dressed every third year with some manure free from the seeds of weeds. Ashes are very suit- able for it. The lucerne field should be as near as possible to the stables, as work-horses, during the spring and summer, should be fed with it in a green or wilted state. As lucerne is much earlier than red clover, it will be found a useful adjunct in hog raising. Hogs are very fond of it, and will thrive on it in the spring, when it is cut green and thrown to them. This extended notice of lucerne is given because it is remark ably adapted to our soil and climate, and is, beyond all comparison, the most valuable plant for hay-making and soiling to the southern planter. It thrives in no part of Eui'ope with freater vigor than it does in the Southern States, 'he following interesting statement by a gentle- man of California, will be of interest: A freshet cut away the bank of a creek, exposing a section of an alfalfa-field. The roots of the plant had penetrated to a depth of from twelve to twenty feet, and were exposed by the washing away of the bank from the surface to the water-line. The diameter of the root at the crown on the surface varies from an eighth to half an inch. They taper gradually to the lower end, from which a cluster of roots or feeders put out. In the section exposed the roots were close together, but entirely disconnected, each one growing LUPINE 609 LYMPH straight through the soil to the water, and pro- ducing on the surface a luxuriant branch of alfalfa, which keeps green the year round. A farmer near San Jos 5 sowed three and a half acres with alfalfa in February, and in September it was producing feed enough to sustain six milch cows. Up to that time it had been cut twice. He thinks that ten cows may be -sup- ported when the grass has become fully estab- lished. A gentleman who has noted the cultivation of this plant in California for twenty years has in no instance seen it succeed without irrigation except upon alluvial soils, such ii.s are found in the low flats along the margins of livers. The conditions of successful cultivation are a friable, mellow, moist soil, easily penetrated by the long tap-roots, which should find a permanent supply of water at a depth of not more than six to eight, and not less than three feet; the land should be thoroughly plowed and the surface-crust well pulverized, and about fifteen pounds of clean seed sown per acre and brushed in, but not covered too deep. The sowing should be just before a rain-fall. LUMBAR, LUMBALIS. Belonging to the loins. LUMBER. Timber, especially in the rough state. LUMBRICUS. The generic name of worms resembling the earthworm ; some species infest the bodies of animals. The earth worms, when not too numerous, tend to improve the soil by their castings; when over numerous, they eat the roots of plants, and may be destroyed by a heavy salting (twenty bushels to the acre,) or liming, with a summer fallow. LUNAR CAUSTIC. Nitrate of silver. Pre- pared nitrate of silver, sold in thin cylinders, and used as a caustic: it is one of the best caustics. A solution is valuable as a lotion in some forms of inflammation. LUNATE, LUNULATE. Crescent-shaped. LUNATION. The period from one new moon to another, the synodic revolution. LUNG FEVER." (See Pleuropneumonia.) LUNGS. The viscus in which air is received, and the blood changed by its presence. The lights, pulmonary apparatus. The substance of the lungs resembles a fine, regular sponge ; they are so light as to float on water; the windpipe communicates with every cell throughout the viscus. Common air received is changed in the lungs by an absorption of four per cent, of oxygen^ and the substitution of an equivalent of carbonic acid, derived from the blood. This oxygenation, or aeration of the blood, taking place in ^e lungs, is one of the great functions on which life depends, and can not be interrupted for a minute without injury or death. By this change, black venous blood is changed into the scarlet arterial fluid, which alone is capable of sustaining the wants of the body. LUNGS, INFLAMMATION OF. (See Pleuro Pneumonia.) LUNGWORT. Pulmonaria officinalis. An exotic, perennial, herbaceous plant. The whole genus are pretty, and readily propagated by seeds. LUPINE. L/upinua. A flowering plant sometimes cultivated in gardens, and exten- sively cultivated as a forage crop in France, Germany, and the southern portions of Europe. The wild lupine of the United States, L. perennis. is common in sandy soils, in which all the varie- ties delight. The cultivated lupine is tender, and the attempts to introduce its cultivation in the South have not met with favor. The culti- vated lupine is an annual, and hence the cost of cultivation will not pay in a country where peren- nial grasses thrive abundantly. The garden varieties are attractive, and of various colors, white, blue, yellow, and variegated and striped. L. polyphyUus is a perennial and nearly hardy. It is of two colors, white and blue. LUPINIX E, A gummy matter of lupines. Lupinite, a bitter substance extracted from the leaves of the lupine. LUPULINE. The yellowish resinous dust hanging about the scales of the hop, on which its flavor and value depend. LURCHER. A coursing greyhound, with shaggy coat and pricked ears; swift and saga- cious. LURID, LURIDUS. A color of a pale-yel- lowish purple, frequently associated with poi- sonous properties in mushrooms and flowers. LUSUS NATURiE. A sport of nature. Un- natural form in animals. LUTE. In chemistry, a pasty matter used to adapt two vessels, or coat their surfaces from fire. Clay, putty, dough, lime, white of eggs, and melted India rubber are variously used for this purpose. LUTEOLINE. A yellow crystalline coloring matter of weld. LUTESCENT. Yellowish. LUXATION. A dislocation of a joint. LYCOPERDON. The genus of puff-ball mushrooms. LYCOPODIACEiE. A family of crypto- gamic plants, growing in moist places, and re- sembling ferns, but with a higher organization, approaching that of the conferee, or pine-trees; the club moss family. These are low growing plants, generally of moss-like appearance, with solid and often woody stems, thickly clothed with sessile, awl-shaped, or lanceolate, persistent and simple leaves, bearing the two to f our-valved spore cases, sessile in their axils; they are repre- sented only by two genera. These are Lycopo- dium or club moss, with the sporangia scattered in the axils of the ordinary and uniform leaves, which are dark green and shining, rigid about the eight ranked leaves. The other genus is Selaginella, with leaves all alike, equally imbri- cated, and those of the spike similar. Both the Lycopodiums and Selaginella contain handsome varieties, used in the conservatory and green- house. Among the Lycopodiums, native in the North, are the common ground pine, and the common club moss. Among the hardy Selagi- nellas are the delicate 8. Apers growing in low, shady places, and resembling a moss or Junger- mannia. LYCOSA. A genus of spiders dwelling in holes on the ground, or in chinks, and pursuing their prey with great activity. The tarantula is of this kind. LYE. A fluid saturated with potash or other salts. LYMPH. The fluid of the lymphatic vessels. It is slightly milky, but becomes pink on expos- ure to air, and divides into a clot and fluid part. It is the surplus nutritious fluid returned from every part of the body to the blood through the thoracic duct. (610) MADDER 611 MADDER LYMPHANGITIS. This disease is variously known as AVeed, and Shot of Grease, and is really an inflammation of the absorbent vessels ■commencing by inflammation of the lymphatics, or absorbent vessels of the hind legs, and when extending to the cellular tissues it becomes chronic, with swelling of the limb or limbs and permanent effusions. It is usually caused by iigh feeding and want of exercise, especially if the grooming and care of the stable be neglec- ted Hence it is often prevalent in the stables of some farmers, and especially of horses of a gross habit, thicklegged, and coarse porous bones. There will be heat, tenderness, and sometimes the swollen glands can be felt beneath the skin. As the swelling increases, abscesses form and •discharge, and once the disorder becomes chronic, the horee will always be liable to a recurrence. In the early stages of the disease the horse should be warmly clothed, and a ball given composed of one drachm of calomel and four drachms of powdered aloes, with syrup and lin- seed meal sufficient to form the bolus. If the chills and shivering continue, give, as one dose one to two ounces of arnica in warm water as the indications may seem to require, as a stimulant to the skin and whole system. In the hot stage, foment the limb with cloths wrung out of hot water. Keep the bowels moderately loose, and allow an ounce of Saltpetre two or three times a day in the water given to drink. Open the abscesses freely with a knife if they appear, and dress with cloths wet with carbolic acid solution, an ounce of acid to a pint of water. The horse having suffered with frequent attacks of Lym- phangitis, has the leg permanently thickened. If so, give moderate diuretics and alteratives, as nitre and powdered resin, each one-half ounce, and ten drops of oil of juniper, given as a ball once a day. In connection with this rub the swollen leg with iodine ointment to reduce the swelling. LYMPHATIC HAIRS. In botany, the trans- parent hairs on some leaves. M MACARONI. The dough of wheat flour drawn out into tubes. MACE. The envelope of the nutmeg. MACERATION. The softening of animal or vegetable bodies by immersion in fluids, either -water, alcohol, ether, etc. MACHICOLATED. With parapets project- ing beyond the walls, and supported by arches springing from corbels or consoles. 3IACULATE, MACULATUS. Spotted. MADDER. This plant was formerly culti- vated to some extent, in the middle portions of the United States, rich, dry, sandy bottom lands being best adapted to its growth, and the pro- duction of the roots. These were formerly •extensively used for dyeing red, but they are now in a great degree superseded by petroleum dyes. The product is about 2,000 pounds per acre. It is hardly probable that the cultivation of madder will be profitable in the United States ; it requires much hand work, and hence, our expensive labor can not compete with the •cheap labor of France, Turkey, 'and India. Madder requires a comparatively mild climate for its growth such as may be found in the lati- tude of Cincinnati, and South and West. Its manner of cultivation in France is as follows: It is grown from seed in a chalky alluvial deposit, and is sown in beds five or six feet wide, with a space of eighteen inches between the beds. In November of the first year, the young plants are covered two or three inches with earth taken from between the beds. In the second and third years the beds are carefully weeded, and the foliage cut for forage when in flower. The roots are dug in August or September of the third year, and simply cleaned if the earth is dry, but washed if sodamp as to adhere. In digging, th^ earth is loosened by a spade or fork, and the roots are drawn, piled, dried in the open air, and packed in bales. The seed should be per- fectly dry and free from fermentation. A ridge •of eight or nine inches wide and one inch and a lialf deep is made with a spade and sowed. At & distance of two inches another ridge, of the same size, ia run, having care to cover the seed of the first ridge with the earth taken from the second, and so on to the completion of the third ridge. These three ridges form a. platband about three feet wide, separated from each other by a space one and a half feet in width, left as a path for the laborer in weeding. From this path also is taken the earth to cover the plants in autumn, when the leaves are dead. For the sake of economy these paths are sometimes planted with potatoes, beets, etc. , but each extra plant should be put far apart. If the earth is well pulverized, instead of the seed being sown. one had better plant roots of the preceding year's growth, as crops obtained from the plants dis- play much finer roots than when raised directly from the seed. But if the ground is not friable, but hard and clayey, the plants would not grow well, and possibly would not take at all. In this case seed must be sown. An acre of madder produces seed sufficient for three or four acres of sowing. For the transplanting of roots, as indicated above, ridges, about three feet wide and three inches deep, are made, and the roots laid therein just free from each other; and between these ridges an uncultivated space is left, as in. sowing. The seed is sown, or the roots transplanted, in March, and gi'eat care must be observed in keeping the land free from weeds ; the paths, also, being attended to in this respect. When the land is dry, from drought, it will be necessarj' to water it by irrigating the intermediate paths, if possible. Slimj- water is preferable to clear water for this purpose. In autumn, when the plants lose their verdure and turn to a grayish tint, they must be covered with one and a half or two inches of earth taken from the paths. In the following spring the clods mu.st be broken with a rake. The madder cultivated in strong, dry soils may be removed in three years, and from wet lands in eighteen months. Thus the madder of the mountain requires three years to mature well, while the ' 'paluds" may be dug in from one and a half to three years. The roots should not be extracted until. the seed has been produced. Some cultivators, who are pressed for the moneAcd results of their labors, do not MAGNESIA 613 MAGJSrOLIA- wait for the seed; but the madder thus prema- turely gathered is of an inferior quality. The ramifications of the stalk are first cut, dried, and tlireshed for the seed; the straw, or refuse, is saved as fodder for cattle. The roots are then dug with the spade or fork, and as their length will average one and a half feet, it can be seen that their removal leaves the land in a prepared .itiite for some other crop. When dug they are spread on the "aire," usually a level, paved" spot of ground, where they are dried by the action of the sun and air. When the larger roots may be easily broken, they should be heaped up, so that the smaller tips, (pettia couts,) m&y become thoroughly dry. Care must be taken that this place be free from dampness. When the roots are sufficiently dry they are embaled and sent to the manufacturers, where they are stored in a well ventilated granary. It is taken from the granary in proportion to each day's demand, and, having caused it to lose fifteen or sixteen per cent, of water in a drying oven, it is passed under a large mill-stone and ground to powder. The bolters keep the coarser portion for a second grinding^ MADEIRA CIDER. Mix new cider, with honey until it bears an egg, boil in a copper ket- tle for one quarter of an hour, skim, cool, barrel, and, in March, bottle. It will be as strong as Madeira wine in six months. MADEIRA NUT. A nut belonging to the walnut (rarya) family. MADIA. Madia sativa. Sometimes called Gold of Pleasure. A composite plant inhabit- FL0^VER8 OF MAGNOLIA SPECIOSA. ing South America, the seed of which yield an abundance of good table oil. It is extensively cultivated in Germany, is a summer crop, matur- ing in 137 days from seed. MACxGOT. The larva of dipterous and other insects. The fly in sheep. MAGMA. A thick fluid, or mud. Thick, feculent matters from solutions. MAGNESIA. One of the primitive earths having a metallic basis. It is an oxide of mag- nesium. It is sometimes found native, nearly in a state of purity; but it is generally prepared by calcining the common carbonate of magnesia. It is inodorous and insipid, in'theform of a very- light, white, soft powder, having a specific grav- ity of 2.3. It turns to green the more delicate- vegetable blues, and requires for its solution 2,000 parts of water at 60°. It is found com- bined with carbonic and other acids in plants. It is a useful purgative in an acid state of the stomach; and taken dally, with short intervals intervening, it is a useful preventive of red gravel or lithic acid deposits in the kidneys. MAGNESIUM. The metallic basis of mag- nesia ; it is bright and white like silver. MAGNESIAN LIMESTONE. Limestone- rocks containing magnesia; they abound above the coal formation. MAGNETIC NEEDLE. A small bar or- needle of steel, fully magnetized, and suspended or supported so as to move freely over a card divided into the points of the compass. It is much used by surveyors to take down the bear- ing of the fences and other lines of a farm. MAGNETISM. The electric fluid manifest- ing itself on a metallic body; iron, cobalt, and nickel are magnetic metals. MAGNOLIA. The magnolia is one of the- most magnificent of the flowering trees of the- United States, being handsome in the tree and leaf, elpgant in its bloom, and exceedingly fra- grant. Unfortunately none but the more incon- spicuous are hardy in the West, north of the latitude of Tennessee. In Nashville, Tenn. , we have seen large trees of Magnolia Grandi- flora, in the yards of citizens, the leaves scarcely browned by the winter. In the Gulf States, its native home, this, splendid species is a common tree of the open forest. Even of those- called hardy, none of them are so in the West, much north of the lati- tude of St. Louis. The Umbrella tree- or magnolia, M. umbrdlu; the Cu- cumber tree, M. acumwata, and. the small or Lau- ral magnolia, M. glauca, are the- most hardy. The- Great-leaved mag- nolia, M. macro- phylla, is a native of southeast Ken- tucky. The Ear- leaved magnolia, M. Fraseri, is. found in Kentucky and Virginia, and south along the entire range of the AUeghanics. M. cordata is the great Cucumber tree of Georgia,, and M. Qrandiflora, the gi-eat Laura! magnolia of the Gulf States, .are the evergreen species There are many hybrid sorts that have been pro- duced by florists, none, however, worthy of attention that are hardy in the North. As among the so called hardy varieties, .we give a cut of the flowers of magTwlia spedosa, a Chinese hybrid, called Showy-flowered magnolia, the flowers of quarter size. The flowers are hand- some, late, and hold their bloom well, and the MAIZE 613 MAIZE -tree is one of the hardiest of the foreign varie- ties. Nevertheless, we should not advise the planting even of the hardy varieties north of 40°, except in peculiar situations, as for instance Rochester, N. Y., and the fruit region of the •eastern shore of Lake Michigan. MAGPIE. Nuttall, Bonaparte, and Swain- son regard the magpie of America and Europe as identical, and Audubon approved their judg- ment. Its range is generally throughout Europe, but in this country it is restricted to the western and northern regions. It is stated by Dr. Richard- .flon that it has not been seen nearer to the Atlantic on this continent than the head of Red River, in Louisiana. It dwells in the fur coun- -tries of the North in winter as well as in summer, and is a common resident of the interior of Texas, •western Louisiana, Arkansas and Missouri. It suffers from the want of food, but not from celd, in high northern latitudes, where travelers have been almost unable to protect their galled horses from its assaults. Unlike the magpie of Europe, it then has little fear of man, the young especi- ally coming to his encampment or habitations, an& greedily devouring whatever food they can •obtain, even from his hands. The raven is often its companion, but the crow is not found with it. In the central table-land of the Rocky moun- •tains, the nests of the magpie may be seen, usu- ally in low thick bushes, barricaded over and floored with interlaced twigs; and it is common jiear Monterey, in California. Its common call is pay, pay, and when approaching each other, they practice a low chatter, but utter a monoto- nous and gluttonous croak while eating. The accounts of the habits of the European magpie, given by Macgillivray, is recited by Audubon in treating of the American bird. He states that its food consists of testaceous mollusca, slugs, larvae, worms, 3'oung birds, eggs, small quadrupeds, •carrion, and sometimes grain and fruits of dif- ferent kinds, in search of which it frequents the fields, hedges, thickets, and orchards ; it occasion- ally visits the farm-yards, prowls among the .stacks, and perches on the house-tops, whence it sallies to examine any attractive spot. It is prob- .ably unjustly accused of picking out the eyes of lambs and sickly sheep; but it eats eggs, or the young of chickens or ducks, when the old are not present to repel it. Its more wary character, in Europe, is the result of the persecution it experi- ences because of its depredations. The magpie walks like the crow, but often leaps in a sidelong manner. It is prompt to apprise its companions •of the approach of danger, which it does by a ■chatter indicating its own fears. The eggs of .this species are from three to six in number, and vary in form and color. In general they are regu- larly ovate, or a little pointed, more than one and a half inches in length, and nearly or quite an inch across. They are frequently pale-green, freckled all over with umber-brown and light purple, and sometimes pale blue, or bluish-whi^f , or green- ish-white, with smaller spots and dots of the same dark colors, so as very nearly to resemble the eggs of the jay, which, however are smaller. MAHALEB. A species of cherry, used as a grafting stock ; the fruit aflfords a violet dye. MAIDEN HAIR. Ferns of the genus .4fte(»- ttim, a beautiful race. MAIZE. Zea Maya. Corn, Indian corn. To the American ear, the word corn signifies that important member of the grass family, denomi- nated, outside the United Stales, among English speaking people, Indian corn, (the word corn in Great Britain being the term used to designate grain generally). It is a plant of prime vahie, rivaling rice and sugar cane, in its importance to the human family at large, and in the United States standing ahead even of wheat, in money value, and in the number of bushels produced yearly, exceeding wheat nearly four times. It is a very important article of consumption alike for man and beast and is, indeed, the staff of life to the poorer classes in the South, where it is in more general use as an element of human food than in any part of our country. Botanically the corn plant is a most interesting one. The staminate flowers, (tassel) are arranged at the summit of the plant where their pollen may fall upon the pistillate spikes, (ears) below ; these are dense spikes covered with sheaths of abortive leaves, the husks, which often have their blade more or less developed. The silk of the ear is the elongated pistils, one of which pro- ceeds from each ovary or kernel. The cab is the thick rachis, and the chaff which covers it the glumes and paleae. From the lower nodes or joints aerial roots are often thrown out, imi- tating in an humble way the celebrated Banyan- tree. The juice of the stem, before the grain is perfected, contains a considerable amount of saccharine matter, and sugar has been obtained from it. The young e^re of some varieties have much sugar, which is changed to starch as the grain ripens. In the varieties known as sugar corn much sugar remains unchanged and gum is also a constituent. Under the words corn and Indian corn, in this work, we have referred to the word maize as designating corn, and this to prevent confusion to others than American readers, and for reasons explained in tliis article. Maize is a native of South America, but before the discovery of America had become pretty generally distributed among the wandering tribes of Indians in the temperate regions of North America. Although a tropical plant and of course exceedingly sensitive to frost, even the late varieties will ripen where there is about five months of sum- mer without frost, and the earlier varieties in 100 days. Cultivation and climate has broken this remarkable grain up into numerous varie- ties, of every color from dark purple through the reds and yellow to white, and varying re- markably in their constituents of starch, sugar" gum and oil, some, as the dent varieties of the West and South, producing large quantites of starch, others, as t*e flint varieties of the East hav- ing gum and oil notably. Those varieties denom- inated sweet corn, being especially rich in gum and sugar. The stalks of all the varieties are rich in saccharine when the grain is in milk. So much so that sugar in notable quantities has been produced therefrom, not however in quan- tities to warrant working it, since, in the South, the true sugar cane, and in the North the varieties of sorghum are more profitably worked. Indian corn may be properly divided into four distinct groups. The Flint corn of the sea coast States, the Dent corn of the West and South, the Sugar varieties containing gum, sugar, oil, and but little starch, and the Squaw or flour corn. The varieties being marked by their tender- ness, the skin being filled with starch granules which readily break into powder, the flint MAIZE 614 MAIZE varieties contain largely of gum and oil, and the dent varieties as largely of starch and oil. The analysis by M. Payen given below shows the amount of proximate principles of maize as compared with the other cereal grains: 0) . 8 S 1 A CD 100 parts of — ja a B §1 1 s i 3 '1 OQ a o p 1 i Wheat 68 12 2S 75 9 50 4 00 Rye 65 65 13 50 12 00 2 15 4 10 2 60 65 43 13 96 10 00 4 75 3 10 Gate 60 54 14 39 7 06' Maize 67.55 12.50 4.00 8.80 5.90 1.25 89.15 7.05 1.00 .80 3.00 90 As showing the constancy of species in retaining characteristics for long ages under cultivation, where no especial means were used to change them by special cultivation, we give three illus- trations. Fig. 1 shows a cob of Indian corn from a rock cave of Arizona; P'ig. 2, the corn of the present time as cultivated by the Puebla Indians of Arizona; Fig. 3, an ear of corn found with a mummy of Ancient Peru, the date being so far distant that the age can not even be guessed at. To return to Indian corn of the present day, Dr. Emil Wolff, makes the plant, cut early, or just at the time of blossoming, to contain in 100 parts: water, 82.3; organic mat- ter, 16.7; ashes, 1.1. Or, of nutriment contain- ing nitrogen 1.1; nutriment not containing nitro- gen, 10.9; woody fiber, 4.7; total nutriment, 12.0. Or, again, fat 0.5; phosphoric acid, 0.08; lime, 0.07. The total amount of nutri- tious matter exceeded, that of Swedish clover, peas, vetches, oats and lucerne, cut when in flower, as it also did the leaves of cabbage, beets and carrots. As compared with the common English field turnip, the per centage of flesh form- ing nutriment is the same, of fat forming mate- rial nearly double, as between the maize plant, and turnips, while the amount of water in the green stalks and leaves is less than half as much, a> curious and interesting comparison, consider- ing that the turnip is the sheet anchor of English husbandry. Maize is tlie real fallow crop of- •the West. It was once, and should now be, the fallow crop of American husbandry, both North and South. From many analyses made by Mr. J. H. Salisbury, of ^ew York, the fol- lowing is the average, of the whole plant calcu- lated without water, and just before the forma- tion of the ear; Sugar and extract 35.00 Matter obtained from fiber by a wealt solution ol' potash '2.00 Dextrine or gum 6.0.i Albumen and caseine 7.96 Woody fiber 39.00 Total 100.00 The analyist as to the value of maize as fodder, says, the plant during tasseling, owing to the very large per centage of sugar and extract, with the respectable quantity of albuminous matter and dextrine which the stalk, leaves, and sheaths contain, must form a very palatable and nutritious fodder. This has been well borne out since, by those who have drilled, cultivated, and fed Indian corn to dairy cows in the West. Those who- have persisted in sowing the corn thickly — three to four bushels per acre — and feeding it half grown, blanched and watery, from overdue crowding, liold contrary opinions. If they will drill it, in rows two feet apart, at the rate of one bushel per acre, and cultivate it until it begins- to shade the ground, and will feed it from the time the blossom begins to appear until the grain is half grown, it will be found a most valu- able and economical forage plant to tide over the dry season in the West, from the middle of July to the middle of August, especially, if they avoid the mistaken idea of sowing the late varieties of Southern com, and use instead early and more dwarf sorts, especially the medium early varieties- of sweet corn . The insects and their larvae, which infest maize, are rather numerous, and yet with the exception of Wire worms which attack the- young plant under ground, the Heart worm, which destroys the plant by boring into the heart of the stalk, and the Com worm which attacks the young ears, they are not common enough to- do' serious injury. The range of Indian corn is most extensive, reaching from the torrid zone well up into Canada Far north the plant often does not reach four feet in height, the ears being not thicker than a man's thumb, or more than four inches in length. On the other hand, some of the Southern varieties sometimes reach the height of from fourteen to sixteen feet, with, ears as many inches long. It is a curious fact, however, that the largest yields j)er acre are obtained in the middle region of cultivation, and. with varieties neither dwarf nor yet of great height. The corn zone may be stated to lie- from the middle latitude of Tennessee and Kentucky to that of central Michigan, southern. Wisconsin and northern Iowa, The best cli- mates being the latitudes of Ohio, Indiana, Illi- nois, southern Iowa, northern and central Missouri and Kansas. The center of corn pro- duction and also the center of wheat production since 1850 has moved gradually West, with each recurring decade, the center of wheat production,, however, advancing West faster than corn.. The center of corn production in 1877 was a line- drawn north and south, near the center of Illinois. In another decade, we shall find the center of com production removed to near the Mississippi river, and that of wheat undoubtedly beyond the- Mississippi river. The center of corn production can not travel much further West, for the reason that the dryer climate of the far West is not suited to the production of maize. As showing the wonderful increase in production, we give a table below showing the progi'ess of the produc- tion of maize in the last sixteen years, as gathered from the statistics of the United States. It must be remembered that the first three years were years of civil war, with decreased production and inflation of prices. The acreage in the first two years is lo^, and the price excessive. The year 1865 was a prolific one, with by far the largest average yield reached during the whole period, even in 1879, a year of great crops, giving less than thirty bushels per acre. The acreage of 1865- was nearly doubled in 1866, and nearly tripled in 1878. IDuringthe year last named ourcornfielda ■yvere nearly «iual in area to the State of Kansas. The average product per acre was substantially the same throughout, amounting to 26.6 bushels. MAIZE 615 MAIZE during the latter eight years, against 26.8 bushels in the previous eight years. The four crops, 1875-1878, each exceeded considerably a billion and a quarter of bushels. As in the case of -wheat, the supplies have grown faster than the eign outlet. During the first eight years we sent abroad but 1.20 per cent, of our product; during the latter eight years, 4.37 per cent. ; of the crop of 1877, we shipped abroad six and one- half per cent., and of the crop of 1878 in about '•y: ::«fcl«» 'fl W^M ^^aMt Fig. 1. Fig.. 3. W'^r Fig. 2. AZTEC INDIAN CORN— PAST AND PRESENT. population. During the first eight years the out- turn averaged 21.40 bushels per capita, and dur- ing the latter eight years, 24.07 bushels; in 1875, it amounted to nearly thirty bushels. Our sur- plus in later years has found an increasing for- the same proportion. The average price obtaiaed by the farmer has fallen off two-thirds in fifteen years, being 99.7 cents per bushel in 1864, and 31.8 cents In 1878. The last named crop, though greater by 46,000,000 bushels than MAIZE 61G MAIZE its predecessor, fell short of it $39,000,000 in aggregate value. The average value of each acre's yield has fallen to the unprecedented low figure of $8.55 in 1878; in 1864 it amounted to stalks of Indian corn, at that period when they are fullest of elaborated sap will make sugar equal in every respect when refined to cane sugar. Yet it is hardly probable that the making of Tears. Acreage. 1 3 ■3 ■g i 1 f as ■3 ft s 3 Corn and com meal exported in the fiscal year closin? June 30, follow ing. 1 II 1863 15,812,441 17,438,752 18,990,180 33,306,538 32,620,249 34,887,246 37,103,245 38,646,977 34,091,137 . 35,526,836 39,1OT,148 41,036,918 44,841,371 49,033,364 50,369,118 51,685,000 Bush. 25.98 30.42 37.09 25.30 23.63 26.9 28.6 38.3 29.1 80.7 33.8 20.7 29.4 28.1 26.6 26.9 Bushels. 397,839,212 580,451,403 704,427,853 867,946,295 768,320,000 906,527,000 874,320,000 1,094,255,000 991,898,000 1,092,719,000 932,274,000 850,148,600 1,321,069,000 1,283,827,000 1,342,558,000 1,:»8,218,750 $0.69.9 99.5 46.0 68.2 79.5 62.8 75.3 54.9 48.2 39.8 48.0 64.7 43.0 37.0 35.8 31.8 $378,089,609 527,718,183 324,168,698 591,666,296 610,948,390 569,512,460 658,532,700 601,839,030 478,275,900 435,149,290 447,183,020 550,043,080 555,445,930 476,491,210 480,643,400 441,158,405 $18 16 30 26 17 07 17 21 18 49 16 Hi 17 74 15 57 14 02 13 24 11 41 18 40 12 38 9 69 9 54 8 56 Bnehels. 5,146,192 8,610,402 14,465,751 16,026,947 12,493,522 8,286,665 2,140,487 10,676.873 35,727,010 40,154,274 35,985,834 30,025,036 50,910,532 72,652,61 1 87,172,110 p. ct. 18B4 .68 2.05 1.85 1.62 .91 .24 98 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 , 1870 1871 3.60 3 68 3.86 3 53 3.85 5 66 1872 1873 18;'4 1875 1876 1877 1878 Average of whole period 36,930,407 26.7 959,174,988 52.8 501,616,287 18 96 Average 1863-' 70 28,650.703 26.8 768,010,845 67.7 520,306,421 18 16 Average 1871-'78 43,210,111 26.6 1,150,341,531 42.0 482,923,164 11 18 $30.64, The last named year, however, was one of extreme moneyed inflation. The table above will show the production for sixteen years The corn crop of 1879 aggregated 1,547,901,790 bushels, on 53,085,450 acres, of the value of $580,486,217, or within about $50,000,000 value of the wonderful wheat crop of that year. In 1880 the production of corn was 1,537,535,900 bushels; less than that of 1879. Now as the production of wheat in 1880 was 32,000,000 gi'eater than in 1879, while corn was less, we may conclude, that wheat was more remunera- tive than corn. It is quite probable that we have already arrived at the maximum production which the country is capable of under an eco- nomical system of agriculture, even allowing which is true, that the corn crop is the great fallow crop of the West. It will be seen by the scale representing production and exports, given below, that the years 1875 to 1878 inclusive show an increasing export. Of the crop of 1878, over 100,000,000 bushels were exported, and of that of 1879 still more. One reason why the area of corn production has remained com- paratively steady is, that the demand for export wheat has wonderfully increased for the last three years, owing to short crops in Europe. Hence the remarkable increase in wheat produc- tion since 1876, as shown in the wheat scale, which has steadily increased including the year 1880. On this page is another table showing the number of bushels, acreage and value of maize, by States, for the year 1878. It will be seen that the four States of Illinois, Iowa, Indiana and Ohio raise about one half the corn grown in the entire country. For the years 1879 and 1880 these figures would be largely increased. It should not be omitted in this article, that the Corn Crop 1878. States. Bushels. Acres. Value. 2,180,000 3,307,400 2,275,600 1,260,000 268,800 2,220,000 25,020,000 9,792,000 44,066,000 4,600,000 11,209,600 18,200,000 32,603,200 12,376,000 24,398,000 2,124,000 23,928,000 10,474,000 16,875,200 58,396,000 22,992,000 37,422,700 10,118,400 45,922,100 108,648,700 31,247,700 138,252,000 225,982,700 36,900,000 17,106,900 175,256,400 93,062,400 81,563,400 64,232,000 3,467,250 166,600 2,670,000 54,500 66,600 65,500 35,000 8,400 76,000 695,000 27i,O0O 1,359,000 180,000 477,000 1,040,000 ■ 1,662,000 1,320,000 3,218,000 236,000 1,994,000 1,498,000 848,000 2,246,000 958,000 1,989,000 372,000 2,028,000 8,113,000 835,500 4,21.5,000 8,337,000 984,000 449,000 4,686,000 3,552,000 2,406,000 1,291,000 100,500 5,000 89,000 $1,417,000 1,346,514 1,319,790 781,300 143,464 1,376,400 12,510,000 4,406,400 21,151,200 1,755,000 5,0(4,275 7,836,000 10,171,440 6,639,040 14,883,780 1,650,520 14,117,530 13,463,360 10,135,120 25,694,340 11,086,160 15,343,307 4,249,738 18,368,840 35,853,431 11,874,136 37,338,040 56,483,175 10,701,000 4,961,001 58,041,024 34,193,284 15,497,046 8,675,520 New Hampshire Vermont Massachusetts Rhode Island New Jersey Pennsylvania Maryland Virginia North Carolina Sonlh Carolina Georgia Florida Alabama Louisiana Tennessee West Virginia Kentucky Ohio Michigan Illinois Iowa ... Kansas Nebraska California.. .. 2,080,350 153,180 1,602,000 Nevada, Colorado, and the Terriroiies 1,388,218,760 51,685,000 441,153,405 MALLOW 617 MAMMALIA •corn sugar will ever become a profitable indus- try in the United States, notwithstanding the assertions of enthusiasts. It will not supersede the true sugar cane in the gulf States, nor sorghum further north. Nevertheless, it is possi- ble, that some early varieties, rich in saccharine, may be available in prolonging the season of su!>ar making in the North, by working corn before sorghum is ready for the mill. MALACODERMS. A tribe of soft-skinned, serricorn beetles. MALARIA. The poisonous exhalations of stagnant marshes and low new lands. It is most active at nightfall and during night. MALE FLOWERS. Such as have stamens only, and no ovary or swelling under the petals. MALIC ACID. The sour principle of apples, oranges, and numerous fruits; when pure, it is intensely sour and crystalline. MALIGNANT. Rapidly fatal, poisonous. MALIGNANT ANTHRAX. (See Blain.) MALIGNANT PUSTULE. (See Murrain.) MALLEABILITY. The property of being extended by hammering, as in the case of gold, copper, silver, platina, iron, etc. MALLENDERS. This is a skin disease attacking horses above the feet, usually back of the knee in the hollow of the joint. If it occur in the hollow of the joint below the hock it is called Sallenders. Technically it is psoriasis of the carpus and tarsus, generally beginning with a moist tetter often difficult to cure. If attended with indigestion and constipation, these must be attended to. The animal should also have light, digestible food, and have an ounce of Fowler's solution of arsenic once a day in the drink. Touch the sore spots lightly with a stick of nitrate of silver, first thoroughly wash- ing with castile soap suds, and drying ; then cover with pure wood tar. If it do not heal kindly, cleanse thoroughly and use the following oint- ment: One drachm powdered camphor, one half drachm acetate of lead, and one ounce mercurial ointment. MALLOW. Mahncem. The mallow family includes Althea (A. officinalis) being the well known and useful marsh mallow, and the com- mon hollyhock of the garden. The mallow {Malta), an introduced weed; Sida, (S. spinosa) being an introduced weed from India, and quite common in the South; Abutilon, containing some handsome flowering plants, and the well known A. avicenrm, Indian mallow or velvet leaf of the West, a noxious weed in many places; Abelmos- chus, of which okra (A. eseuleirtvs), produces the pods so much in repute South and West as an ingredient in gumbo, and other stews, requiring mucilage; Hibiscus, or rose mallow, to which the shrubby althea or Rose of Sharon, and other ele- gant flowering plants belong. The family also contains Gossypium, O. JwTbaceum,hemg the well known cotton of commerce. Cotton and okra are treated of under their separate names. The others may be regarded as weeds, with the exception of marsh mallow, which is a most valuable demulcent. The Indian mallow yields & most elegant fiber, and near Springfield, 111., its manufacture was at one time actually carried on, but did not prove lucrative, and it was aban- doned. 'I'he quality of the fiber was superior to hemp, being as strong as manilla, taking colors well, the fiber being valuable as warp for carpets, Tugs, and other fabrics requiring color. MALT. Barley which has been prepared or malted, by which sprouting is induced, and the grain becomes much sweeter. MALUfS. The generic name of the apple. MALVACEjE. a natural order of mucila- ginous, exogenous plants, with polypetalous flowers and monadelphous stamens. The species are herbs, bushes, or trees, and are found all over the temperate and tropical parts of the world, especially the latter. Their flowers are in many cases large and handsome; but the order is chiefly interesting from the Oossypium, or true cotton plant, forming a part' of it. Another species is the marsh mallow. Some yield a fiber fit for manufacture into cordage. MAMMALIA. The study of animated nature with reference to agricultural economy is cer- tainly of importance to the farmer, for thus he learns of those beneficial or noxious. The fol- lowing will give the principal points relating to the subject, originally written by Mr. E. A. Samuels, of Massachusetts ; and from which this is condensed. Taking our terrestrial animated nature, or fauna, and analyzing it we find it to consist of four great classes — mammals, birds, reptiles, and ihsects. The characteristics of each of these classes, are, of course, familiar to all; they may be described briefly as follows : Mam- mals are warm-blooded vertebrate animals that suckle their young. They are viviparous — that is, they bring forth their young alive. Birds are warm-blooded vertebrate animals clothed with feathers; they are invariably oviparous — that is, the young are batched from eggs by the action of heat imparted from the body of the parent bird. Reptiles are cold- blooded vertebrate animals; they are oviparous, the young being hatched by the heat of the sun. Insects are those articulate animals which undergo changes, called metamorphoses, before the perfect animal is formed; these changes are three in number after the eggs are laid ; first, the caterpillar stage; second, the pupa stage; and after these the imago or perfect insect stage. The study of the first class is called mammalogy ; that of the second, ornithology; the third, her- peiology; and that of insects entomology. The stuay of entomology is undoubtedly of the great- est 'mportance to the agriculturist, but the present paper will not treat of it otherwise than in a general description of the characteristics of the different orders, and incidentally in the enu- meration of destructive species which furnistf food for some of the mammals and birds. Her- petology is of but little importance to the far- mer, as we have but few species of reptiles, most of which are, however, beneficial. Begin- ning with the great class mammalia, we find it divided by naturalists into different classes called orders, each of which is distinguished by peculi- arities in structure, habits, and food. Those orders indigenous to this country among the ter- restrial mammalia of importance to the agricul turist, eithei' as beneficial or injurious, are: Cheiroptera, the bats; Insectivora, the insect devouring animals; Carnivora, the flesh devour- ing animals; Rodentia gnawing animals; Marsupialia, pouched animals; and Rumin- antia, animals which c\m\\ the cud. Of these animals the Cheiroptera, Insectivora, and Carnivora are beneficial; the Rodentia are generally injurious; and the Ruminantia are valuable only as food, and are, to a .slight MAMMALIA 618 MAMMALIA extent, injurious in the wild state. In the order Cheiroptera are included those animals known as the bats ; there are several species in the United States, all of which can be pioperly included in the family Vespertilionida, the characteristics of which are an excessive prolongation of the An- gers of the anterior extremities, which are connected together, and with tlie posterior extremities, which are connected with the tail by a thin, semi-transparent, generally naked membrane, which enables them to fly. Their food, which they almost always capture in the night, as the habits of the animals are strictly nocturnal, consists entirely of insects, chiefly nocturnal lepidoptera, which they seize while on the wing. The number of these noxious insects which they destroy is immense; and this fact, together with their harmless dispositions and habits, establishes them as valuable friends to the farmer, who should encourage them to take up their abode on his premises, and protect them as much as possible. At the approach of cold weather, the bats seek convenient quarters in caves, hollow trees, and buOdings, where they remain torpid until spring, suspended by the sharp hooked claws of their feet. Of the large and important order, Insectivora, we have many representatives included in the two families, Soricidm, (shrews), and Tal/pidcs, (moles). The shrews may readily be distinguished by their mouse-like form, long and pointed head, dimin- utive eyes, and attenuated muzzle, prolonged into a movable snout. In the true or typical shrews included in the genus Sorex, the body is rather slender, nearly cylindrical, and covered with a soft glos.sy fur; the ears are large, but nearly concealed by the fur of the head, the eyes are minute, but visible ; and the snout is elonga- ted, flexible and sensitive; the tail is variable in length, but generally is long; series of glands are placed along the flanks which secrete a fluid of disagreeable odor, in consequence of jvhich they are seldom destroyed and eaten by the Oarnivora. The animals of this family are small, some of them the most diminutive of mammals. Their habits are generally nocturnal, and none of the species hybernate, I believe, as individuals are often seen in winter busily engaged in searching for insects in their various forms, in and beneath piles of stones and rubbish. The shrews inhabit the woods, fields, and gardens, and being possessed of voracious appetites they are continually active in destroying numerous noxious insects, of which their food almost entirely consists ; consequently they are all emi- nently beneficial to agriculture, and are certainly worthy the protection of the farmer. There are also in this country besides the genus Sorex or true shrew included in the SwkidcB, other genera, of which Blarina is the most important. In this genus are placed the mole-shrews or short-tailed shrews. These may be recognized by their stout ■ body, short tail, and the other features of the genus Scrrex. The family Talpidas (or moles) is rep- resented in this country by several ^ecies, in all of which the body is short and strong, the snout flexible and very sensitive, and the head is long and tapering. The external ear is wanting, and the eye is so smalf as to be hardly visible, or is completely covered with the skin of the head. The limbs are short and strong, (the forward ones which are provided with strong claws for dig- ging, ) exceedingly so. These peculiarities of form are all adapted to the subterranean habits of these animals. Their food consists of insects and worms ; these, which they destroy in great quantities, are all, or nearly so, captured beneath the surface of the ground. They are almost constantly employed in searching for food in consequence of their voracious appetites, and their labors are valuable in destroying these in- sects. In reviewing the habits of the different animals that subsist entirely upon insects, we find them to be generally nocturnal in character. This seems to be a wise provision of nature, whereby the birds (generally diurnal in habits) which destroy .great numbers of insects, and even in a great many species, subsist entirely upon them, are continually assisted in keeping reduced this formidable and destructive element. An- other interesting and valuable fact is, that these animals to make their work the more sure, hunt jn different circles: The yeapertilionidm destroying great numbers of insects in the air; the Soricidee on the surface of the earth, and the Talpidm beneath the surface. In studying these beauti- ful laws, so nicely calculated for so desirable an end, we admire and wonder. Appreciating them, and noting their efficacy, we learn to respect and even love the instruments by which they are executed. The Carnivora, a great order, generally diffused over the entire globe, is represented in this country by the following families : FelidcB, (the oats;) Ganidm, (the dogs;) Viwridm, (the civet cats;) Mustelidce, (the weasels, skunks, etc. ;) and Ursidce, (bears.) The external characteristics of the Pelidm are — a rounded head, light, elastic, muscular body, strong limbs and sharp retractile claws on all the toes, which are five in number on the anterior feet, and four on the posterior. In this family are included our panthers, lynxes, and wildcats. The habits of these animals are both nocturnal and diurnal, but generally the former. In capturing their prey they always spring suddenly upon it from some concealed station, and if they fail in their first attack they seldom repeat it. By nature they- are cowardly and cruel ; they are gifted with acute senses of sight and hearing; they are only beneficial in destroying many of the injurious herbivorous mammals; and it is a doubt whether or not the damage they inflict by destroying great numbers of beneficial birds and valuable ruminants, does not more than balance the little good they do. At any rate the hatred all farmers have for them is so great that they lose no opportunity to de- stroy them, and, probably, this one of their prej- udices is founded on reason. In the family (Jan- idee, are included our wolves and foxes ; the same remarks will apply to them as to the cats re- garding their usefulness. The family Viteridce has no importance to our agriculturists. The family Mustelidm, in which are placed our mar- tins, weasels, otters, badgers, and skXinks, is the most important of the Carnivora to agricul- ture. Its characteristics are based principally on peculiarities of the teeth, of which these animals have six incisors in each jaw; two canines; six or eight pre-molars; two molars in the upper, and two or four in the lower jaw. Their bodies are "generally long and slender; legs short; feet, five-toed, provided with long sharp claws; the tail is generally long, and sometimes bushy, as with the skunks. These animals generally have glands at the root of the tail which secrete a liquid of offensive odor. With the skunks this MAMMALIA 619 MAMMALIA. secretion is used as a weapon of defense ; its of- fensive odor exceeds anything in nature. The weasels and skunks are the most important mem- bers of this family ; they are continually active in destroying the mice and rats ; the form of the weasels being peculiarly adapted to following them to their most secret haunts. Insects also form no inconsiderable portion of the food of skunks and wpasels. Birds and their eggs, and young, are often destroyed by them, but not to an ex- tent at all balancing the benefit they do; nor is the injury caused by an occasional raid into the poultry yard at all comparable to the immense benetit we receive from their unceasing nightly labors in the destruction of rats, mice, and insects. The otters and badgers are of no importance to agriculture. The Ursidm, in which are inclu- ded. our raccoons and bears, are omnivorous in nature, although they are placed by the natural- ists in the Carnivora. In consequence of thier depredations in the corntields and sheepf olds they are in ill favor with the farmers, who improve every opportunity to destroy them. But little can be said of their benefit to agi'ioulture. In closing the order Carnivora it would be proper to say that these animals are slow to multiply. If this were not the case, they would, in consequence of their voracity, exterminate the other animals on which they subsist, (and which are also valu- able as food for man,) and thus defeat the object for which they were created. A knowledge of the characteristics and habits of the animals of the order Rodentia is of great importance to the agriculturist,, from the fact that these animals constitute one of the most destructive elements with which he has to contend. To properly un- derstand these characteristics, it will be neces- sary to enter into a more careful and less gen- eral examination of the animals, and trust less to external peculiarities than we have thus far done ; and we will, as far as possible, simplify these examinations, that they may be brought within the comprehension of all who have not already made the subject a study. The animals of this order are all of small size, the beaver and marmots being among the largest. The species are all very prolific and numerous, and all are destructive, some exceedingly so. The promi- nent characteristics of these iinimals is the pecul- iar formation of the teeth. These arc ,of two kinds, incisors and molars; the canines are want- ing; the incisors are generally two in number in each jaw; they are large and powerful, and provided with sharp, cutting, chisel-shaped edges adapted to gnawing. The constant severe action to which they are subjected would in time destroy them were they not continually growing, or being replaced by a pulpy secretion at their bases. The molars vary in number from twelve in the upper and ten in the lower, to but two in each jaw; these, like the incisors, are composed of two sub- stances; an external layer of hard enamel, and a softer material in the interior ; their surfaces are irregular or tuberculated, adapted for grinding vegetable substances. These teeth are replaced in the same manner as the incisors. The forms and habits of the animals in this order are of a great variety. They will be discussed in the descriptions of the different families, of which we have in this country five. They constitute each a natural group, with generally familiar representatives. They are called the Scinridm, (the squirrels), 8aceomy idoe, (the pouched rats and gophers); MuricUB, (rats and mice); HystricidoB^ (porcupines); and Leporidix, (rabbits and hares). The detailed peculiarities of these families can not be, in the present paper, discussed at great length, but those most prominent will be men- tioned sufficiently to have them understood. The Seiuridas of the United States are included in the two natural divisions or subfamilies Sciumim, (squirrels and woodchucks); and Oastorinw, (beaversV The subfamily Sciurinm, in which are placed tne squirrels, both ground and arboreal, the woodchucks and spermophiles, is very num- erous in this country, and the members of it are generally injurious, from the fact that the great bulk of their food, of which they generally secure large quantities for their winter subsistence, con- sists principally of the various seeds, nuts, and grains which are valuable as a means of subsist- ence to man and the domestic animals. These- animals also consume great quantities of cultiv- ated fruits, and even vegetables, to an extent, in some districts, involving to the farmer consider- able pecuniary loss. Woodchucks, especially, are very mischievous, not only in what they eat, but to the crops of clover,, grass, and grains, which are destroyed by numerous trails or paths- leading from their burrows. This family is of small value, either for food or for their fur. The Oastm-inm, or beavers, are of no great importance, economically speaking, to agriculture. They are valuable for their fur, which always commanda a ready sale at a high price. These animals are rapidly becoming extinct, and are only found in the wildest and most retired districts of the country. In the family Saccomyidm are included all the gophers and pouched rats. They may be readily distinguished by their large cheek pouches. These animals, are all eminently injur- ious. They burrow in the earth in grain fields, and grass lands, and often do considerable mis- chief by visiting the gardens, orchards and nur- series, where they eat the roots of the plants and gnaw the bark from the trees. In this manner large numbers of fruit trees are destroyed yearly. The cheek pouches are used in conveying food to- their burrows. This food consists of roots, grains, grasses, seeds, fruits and nuts. Of these they devour great quantities. "Various methods have- been devised for their destruction, the most suc- cessful being by poison. Great numbers are destroyed by the carnivorous animals and birds, and were it not for these they would, in conse- quence of their numbers and rapid increase, be a, serious pest. These are, however, not found in New England. The great family Jlurtda is, economically speaking, the most "important la our indigenous Rodentia. In it are included the rats and mice, all of which are injurious, in some genera, seriously so. These animals have- characteristics in common, but they naturally fall into several groups, which possess peculiari- ties sufficiently marked to rank them as sub- families. They are called the Dipodinai, (jump- ing mice); MurinW; (rats and mice proper); and ArmcoliTUB, (short-tailed field mice). In the sub- family Dipodinm we have but one genus, (Jaculus), in this country. These animals are readily dis- tinguished from the field mice by their very long posterior limbs and tail, and their progression by long leaps. This genus is not a large one, and consists in this country of but one or two species. They are not abundant in any districts, and can hardly, from their retiring habits, and the nature MAMMALIA 620 MAMMALIA «f their food, which consists largely of the seeds of wild plants, be called greatly injurious. Their number will probably be kept reduced by the Oamivora and reptiles. The subfamily Murinm is largely and widely distributed. It is charac- terized by a robust body, moderately short limbs, strong and fully developed clavicle, and the tibia and fibula are united below. The anterior feet are four-toed, with a wart-like tubercle sup- plying the place of a thumb ; the post^ior feet are five-toed; the tail is generally long, and cov- ered more or less thickly with scales, which are arrayed in whorls, and between which spring scanty hairs which partially conceal them. In this subfamily are included our common rat, Mua decumanus, (Pallas); black rat, M. rattua, e, or onlv to a small extent. Chkuine, and generally sulphuric acid, remain unal- tered in quantity in liquid manure passed through dif- ferent soils. In most cases liquid manure left in contact with different soils becomes richer in lime. The proportion of lime which liquid manure takes up from the soils with which it is brought in contact does not altogether correspond with the relative proportions of lime in the different soils. Liq:uid manure passed through a sandy soil greatly deficient in lime became poorer in lime; thus snowing that the property of soils, of storing up food lor plants, is not confined to ammonia, potash, or phosphoric acid, but that it is a property which manifests itself in a variety of ways. Thus soils rich in lime yield this substance to liquid manure. Again, potash usually is remo* ed from liqnid manure left in contact with soils; but in particular cases liquid manure may even become richer in potash after filtration through soil. Very soluble saline fertilizing compounds are probably injurious to vegetation when supplied too abundantly to the land. All moderately fertile soils have the power of rendering the more important soluble fertilizing matters much less soluble; but in none of the experiments were ammonia, potash, phosphoric acid and other compounds that enter into the composition of the ashes of our cultivated crops, rendered perfectly insoluble. It does not appear probable that plants take up mineral food from the soil in the shape of totally insoluble com- binations. In surface manuring, not always practicable, but when so, always effective and economical, since fresh manure may be used, as in the case of fallows, meadows, pastures, orchards, etc., we save the elements of strength in the manure and really get the benefits of liquid manuring. In relation to this matter, Mr. Bright, a well known horticulturist, and writing on manuring from a, horticultural stand point, says: The practice of top-dressing, or of surface-manuring, has long been the favorite method employed by all intelligent gardeners within the circle of my acquaintance. We have long ago learned that masses of rich, nitrogenous manures are not what plants require about their roots, but that MANUEE 626 MANUEE manures are applied much more successfully (and less injuriously) by top-dressing, either in solid or liquid form. Nature never manures her plants with crude masses of concentrated fer- tilizing substances, but imparts her stimulating and mineral food in a state of the most minute division — almost infinitesimal — ohiefly from the surface of the earth. No wonder so many fruit trees have been killed, so many grape vines destroyed or rendered barren by excess of wood, in consequence of the heavy manuring at the roots so universally recommended by writers on gardening and horticulture. The great objec- tion to surface-manuring is founded upon the probable loss of ammonia, caused by the expo- sure of decaying manures upon the surface of the earth. But this loss has been shown, by sound reasoning, and by facts deduced from practical experience, to be much less than is commonly apprehended ; while the benefits aris- ing from surface-manuring in other respects, more than counterbalance any p ssible loss of ammonia from this practice. In the first place, when manures are exposed upon the surface of the earth, even in hot weather, decomposition no longer goes on so rapidly as when the same manures are kept in a' heap, and the ammonia that is produced is gradually carried into the soil by rains. The other soluble substances, as potash, lime, the phosphates, etc. , are of course not lost, because they are not volatile. Nor are these soluble and valuable substances lost to plants by being carried into the soil before they are needed by growing plants. It has been con- clusively shown by eminent scientific authorities that any good soil, containing a fair proportion of clay and carbon, is capable of taking up and retaining effectually ammonia, ,lime, potash, soda, etc., in a soluble form, so that little, if any, passes off in the under-drainage water of such soils. These substances, it is true, may wash from the surface, but they can not pass through a good soil and go off in the drainage water. By surface-manuring we mulch the ground, and render it cooler in summer and warmer in winter. More shade is an important element in culture — so important that some writers have thought shade alone to be equiva- lent to manure. A piece of soil heavily shaded by surface-manuring actually decomposes like a manure heap — that is, it undergoes a sort of putrefaction or chemical change, which sets free its chemical constituents, unlocks, as it were, its locked-up manurial treasures, and fits its natural elements to become the food of plants. Darkness, moisture and air are the con- ditions required for vegetable and mineral de- composition, for under these conditions decay is quick. These conditions are produced in the soil by surf ace-manuring. Then, again, when the surface-manure decomposes, its elements are washed into the soil in a state of solution pre- cisely fitted to meet the wants of plants, and they become active agents in promoting further decomposition and chemical changes in the body of the soil. Manure, then, chiefly upon the sur- face. Do not waste your manures by mixing them deeply with the soil. Plant "shallow. Keep roots of all trees, plants, and vines as near ■the surface as possible. There are weighty reasons for the position assumed in preceding sentence, says our authority, and he reiterates most forcibly, plant then shallow. Let your soil be deep and dry, but plant near the surface as much as possible. Top-dress your grass, after mowing in July or August, under aburningsum- mer sun; top-dress in the fall, before and during the autumn rains ; manure the surface while snow is on the ground, while the March winds blow, and while the April rains fall. Manure your gi'ass, instead of your corn and wheat, broadcast at any time when you have manure and leisure, and you will be abundantly satisfied with the result. In the application of farm-yard manures, criti- cally carried, out in the United States, there have been but comparatively few well digested exper- iments. In Europe the case is different. There they have experimented largely and with barn- yard and commercial manures. The Superin- tendent of the Kansas Agricultural College farm made the following experiment, to determine the value of green manure both, as against yield on poor land with manure and as against yield upon naturally rich soil, and also, as between manure and no manure on homogeneous and fer- tile soil with the following results, illustrating its decisive value even on the more fertile of western soils: One half of field No. 7 of the Kan- sas State Agricultural College farm is a badly washed hill-side, washed to the underlying red and yellow clay. The other half of the field is second bottom; the soil a deep alluvium, rich and black. A sharper contrast in one field could hardly be imagined. This contrast furnished aa opportunity for testing the relative merits of manure, an opportunity that was gladly im- proved. Early in May the clay hill-side was dressed with green stable manure, at about the rate of thirty tons per acre, which was immedi- ately plowed under to the depth of five or six inches, the nature of the soil not permitting^ a deeper furrow. Even at this shallow depth the soil rolled up after the plow in hard, sticky- masses, upon which harrow and roller had but little effect. Many who saw the field at thi» time expressed the opinion, that the hill-side would not produce even corn nubbins. After plowing, the clay hill-side was top-dressed with a compost of rotted manure, ashes, and old mor- tar, at the rate of fifteen two-horse loads per acre, after which the whole surface was repeat- edly harrowed and rolled. As soon as this was finished the whole field, the lower half having^ been plowed to the depth of eight inches and thoroughly harrowed in the mean time, was marked off and planted with corn, the Milton or Mammoth Dent. No manure was used upon the lower part of the field. Both parts were cultivated alike. The land was new, this being the second crop from the sod. The crop waa harvested the last of November, and returned forty-five bushels per acre from the lower land and sixty-five bushels per acre from the manured clay hill-side, an advance of forty-five per centum in favor of the washed hill-side, and attributable alone to the effect of the manure. In the earlier part of the season this field was frequently trespassed upon by cattle, and prob- ably one- third of the crop was thus destroyed. As the two parts of the field suffered alike, the result pro rata is the same, and we have in contrast the poorest and best of our Kansas soils. The poorer, treated with manure at the cost of $11 per acre, exceeding by forty-five per centum the yield of the better soil without manure. It would be diflScultto more strongly illustrate the MANURE 627 MANUKE effect of home-made fertilizers upon Kansas clays. The contrast in this single instance, however, may be too well defined for general application. Fields Nos. 5 and 6 of the Col- lege farm present no such contrast, being iden- tical in soil and situation, the division being entirely arbitrary, and only indicated by a narrow drive. Tliese two fields are a fair representation of prairie loam, conforming essentially to the soil of the second bottom of field No. 7. Field No. 5 received an application of green stable-manure, at the rate of forty _tons per acre. No. 6 received no manure. Cultivation essen- tially the same. Result : the yield of sound corn upon field No. 5 was 100.1 bushels per acre, as ascertained by actual measurement by a commit- tee of disinterested persons. The return from No. 6 was between sixty and sixty-five bushels per acre, or an increase of fifty-eight and one- third to sixty-six and two-thirds per centum per acre, due solely to the use of manure. At the Michigan Agricultural College the follow- ing results were obtained : One acre of very light sandy soil was selected from a clover field, the second year from seeding and mowed once in 1867. This acre was equally divided into sixteen plots, and manures were applied to every alter- nate plot, as follows; The two composts of muck and ashes, and the two of muck and lime, having been carefully mixed, under shelter, in February 1868, and .shoveled over from time to time, till properly incorporated. On plot 1, one load of muck and leached ashes, mixed in the propor- tion of five loads of muck to two loads of ashes ; on plot 3, one load of muck mixed with quick- lime slaked with water, in the proportion of five loads of muck to ten bushels of lime ; on plot 5, one load of muck and quicklime slaked with a saturated solution of common salt, in the propor- tion of five loads of muck to ten bushels of lime; on plot 7, one load of muck and wood ashes, in the proportion of five loads of muck to one load of ashes; on plot 9, one load of muck ; on plot 11, one-half bushel of ashes and one-eighth bushel of gypsum; on plot 13, one-half bushel of ashes; on plot 15, one-eighth bushel of gypsum. The following table exhibits results in pounds : o Mann res applied. o Ch O 2 pi 1 Gain. Gain per acre. 1 2 Muck and leach- fd atshuB So manure Muck and lime el iked with watrr No miinure Mitck and Lime slaked with 865 200 800 185 188 134 m 188 884 811 804 154 169 164 818 190 141 98 78 39 80 40 90 8?. 10 J 89 67 41 49 46 92 45 414 898 278 1B4 158 174 894 270 326 30U 271 197 218 210 310 235 116 1,856 3 4 47 752 5 Lobs 11 Loss 176 H No manure Muckaud aBhes No manure Muck 7 8 q 73 46 1,153 785 1i» Ko manure Ashes and Gyp- u 23 868 v N manure Ai-hes No manure Gypsum No manure 13 14 15 16 15 88 240 ■■ 1,468' According to this exhibit, the total products of the unmanured plots, respectively considered, ranged from one and one-sixth ton to two and one-seventh tons of hay, reckoning 2, 240 pounds to the ton. It will be seen, by reference to the widely-ranging products of the unmanured plots, that the soil was, in the first place, quite unequal in productiveness. Caution is, therefore, required in drawing conclusions from these results. The statement of gain arising from each applied manure is estimated by comparison with the yield of adjoining unmanured plots. The prom- inent points of the exhibit are these : The muck and leached ashes, the gypsum, and the muck Dbsoktption of Manures. C OS S.S Bg, Plots. ^ C" a Si £-S ^ ^-' 03 s» 2.S CJ * o 11 1 s as 0,5 S3 02 feg 1 1 Ml 1 P.5 1 1 3S% 45 36 3i 384 1914 16% 19% 35 9'i ^Yz 331/2 Ilk 244 35 10% 2 24'i 35 }f »»i 22 m-i 13'/j 28% 3614 15% 3 56'/b 371/5 36?^ 30 34% 17', 57H 3b% 4056 47?i 36 Vi 31% 4 7BV4 39!.i 54 50 J^ 364 36 •28=8 58^ 35% 50 61'. 36% 441^4. 5 ean 384 425f 353^ 2.-! 55 36% S4% 51>-i 36% 33'4 6 69% •'iB% 49% 50 B5M 285<;- 6OV.1 33JC 4si 59j; 36 42'4 The following is an abstract of a report of pri- vate experiments made in Scotland: Tlie soil was a good clay loam of very even quality, in very moderate agricultural condition, the subsoil a light sandy loam. The field was divided into sixteen plots of one-eighth of an acre each. Fur- rows were laid out twenty-seven inches apart, the manures were placed in the bottom of these furrows, and potatoes of the regent variety were dropped thereon, ten inches apart, May 1, 1871 ; the potatoes were then covered by ninning the plow through the ridge made between the fur- rows and throwing back the earth, according to the cun-ent practice of the region. The after cultivation consisted of hand and horse hoeing, and finally earthing up. The potatoes were dug artificial manure alone. The table shows the manures applied and the results obtained per acre, and given substantially in the order of largest yield, as it occurred. The left hand col- umn indicates the relative locality of each plot. The sulphate of ammonia contained twenty-four per cent, of ammonia; the dissolved coprolites, twenty-six per cent, of soluble and five per cent, of insoluble phosphate; and the kainit, or potash salt, twenty-four per cent, of sulphate of potash. As to the sources of manure it is stated as fol- lows : Carbonaceous matter is derived from the natural decay or chemical decomposition of vegetables. Vegetables collected into masses, as leaves, wood, gi'asses, straw, the stalks and stems of all plants, fruits, grains, roots, etc., tmder Makube per acre. 400 pounds sulphate of ammonia, 400 pounds dissolved coprolites 200 pounds sulphate ammonia, 4U0 pounds dissolved cop- rolit 8, 200 pounds kainit 200 itonnds sulphate ammonia, 400 pounds dissolved cop' routes 16 loads dung, 200 poands sulphate ammonia, 300 pounds ittcoprolit -.»-... dissolvedcoprofites, 200 pounds kainit. . Ditto. 400 pounds sulphate of ammonia 400 pounds sulphate ammonia, 400 pounds kainit. 16 loads dung Ditto. 400 pounds dissolved coprolites, 400 pounds kainit. . 400 pounds kainit No manure •Diito Ditto. Di.to 400 pounds dissolved coprolites. Large potatoes per acre. T3_=0 & Total of large and small potatoes per acre. 13 bfl R*53 12 16 20 4 16 20 8 16 12 16 24 20 16 November 3; were sorted over a one and five- eighths inch riddle and the large and small were separately weighed and pitted. At this time no diseased tubers were observed. On the 15th of March they were taken from the pits, the dis- eased tubers thrown out and the sound ones weighed. The diseased tubers amounted to about one-third of the whole crop, the propor- tion not varying greatly between the different plots, but being somewhat greater in the plots which received dung than in those which received favorable conditions of temperature and moist- ure, rapidly undergo, first, the fermentation; and, secondly, the putrefaction process. Where there is too much or too little heat, or too much or too little moisture, fermentation will not go on. The fibers of vegetables thus collected in masses, under favorable circumstances, soften and swell, and become permeable to air and water. Their salts, starch, gum sugar, gluten, and extractive matter are dissolved, their carbon combines with oxygen, and carbonic acid is MANURE 630 MANURE formed and penetrates the whole masB. This acid combines with the alkalies that are present, as potash, lime, soda, magnesia, and ammonia, and carbonates of potash, lime, etc., are formed. Certain elements in the mass soon take on the action of putrefaction. This process is owing chiefly to the presence of elements containing nitrogen, as gluten and other matters of animal origin. All animal suhstances pass rapidly into the process of putrefaction, and the larger the J>roportion of such substances mingled with the vegetable masses, the more rapidly putrefaction proceeds. Hence the addition of animal mau- lires to vegetable composts facilitates putrefac- tion. By. the process of putrefaction liydrogen also is rapidly developed, and combines with phosphorus and sulphur when these are present, forming sulphuretted and pliosphoretted liydro- gen. Wlien the surfaces of these putrefying masses are exposed freely to the atmosphere, these gases, which are very volatile, are rapidly dissipated. To prevent this, substances should be applied which have the power of absorbing and retaining them. Carbon, when nearly pure and dry, has a strong affinity for them. The addition of dry charcoal, or of peat, will absorb large quantities of them. When these gases are thus absorbed their presence ceases to be indi- cated by their peculiar odors. The sulphates of lime, iron, and zinc have a similar power hence their value as deodorizers. These sulphates have also the power of decomposing carbonate of ammonia, displacing the carbonic acid, and forming sulphate of ammonia, which is not volatile. Chloric and nitric acids will also decompose carbonate of ammonia, forming with it chlorates and nitrates of ammonia, which are soluble in water, as are also salts which they form with the other alkalies. . Vegetable com- post, then, when the decomposition is complete, consists cliiefly of carbonaceous matter combined with gases and salts. By a process in many respects similar to that above described, vege- table substances are decomposed in the-digestive organs of animals. The fibers are comminuted by the teeth, and fitted to be pervaded and softened by the fluids contained in the stomach and intestines. A large portion of the starch, gum, sugar, gluten, and salts is dissolved out, and taken up by the lacteal vessels of the animal, and serve the purposes of nutrition, while the re- mainder, mixed with the juices of the animal, con- taining various salts, is ejected. This process is accomplished much more rapidly than the ordi- nary process of vegetable decay, and the substance resulting is mixed with a large amount of animal matter, which fits it for rapid putrefaction. When the necessary conditions are present, this animal matter, which pervades the mass like leaven, sets up the process of putrefaction at once. These two processes, vegetable compost- ing and the feeding of animals with vegetables, are the sources from which carbonaceous man- ures are chiefly derived. Vegetables reduced h.y the process of digestion, although they have parted with a large portion of their nutritive elements, yet, in consequence of the condition to which they are brought, and the additions which they have received, are more valuable as manures than when, without serving the pur- poses of nutrition, they are reduced by the ordinarj'' process of decay. But the slow decomposition of vegetables is always going on in nature, and thus one generation of plants affords nutriment to those that come after it. The carbonaceous matter resulting from the decay of vegetables is not all taken up as it is formed. Masses of it have accumulated in swamps, basins, and meadows. These accumu- lations, mingled with more or less of insoluble earths constitute muck or peat, and furnish an almost unlimited amount of carbonaceous mate- rial fitted for the immediate use of the cultivator. The difference which ig found in different accumulations of this material is owing in part to the difference in the vegetables from which it has been formed, and in part to the difference of the soils upon which it rests and by which it is surrounded. In some deposits the matter is almost purely carbonaceous; in some the com{)o- sition is complete; in others but partial. But the most essential difference in different deposits of muck is, that some contain acids, or acids com- bined with minerals, while others are nearly or quite free from them. These acids are the car- bonic, humic, crenic, and apocrenic. When- deposits of muck are underlaid by clay, or receive the wash of clay beds in their vicinity, and iron is present, which it often is in the form of bog ore, the sulphate of alumina, which is the basis of clay, is decomposed, and the sulphuric acid combines with the iron and forms sulpliuret of iron, or pyrites, which is often found in muck in sufficient quantity to impair its value as a fertil- izer. When any of these acids abound in muck it is unfit to be used in a simple state. Alkalies are the proper correctives, and of these lime seems to be the best adapted to remedy the evil.. Quicklime, mixed with peat, has the effect of rapidly rendering it pulverulent and light. Its influence seems to extend through the whole mass, like that of yeast through the whole mass of dough, while at the same time it combines with the acids and decomposes the salts of iron, forming salts of lime, which themselves are essential to the growth of many plants. Muck, when free or nearly free from acids, may be used by itself with great benefit on light, sandy soils, or on any soils from which the vegetable matter is exhausted ; or it may be composted with stable manure, ashes, guano, or animal matters, with peculiar advantage, since it has, as we have already observed, the power of absorbing and condensing tlie gases arising from the putrefac- tion of these substances. Such composts are adapted to nearly all the uses of the garden and field. No substance is so well adapted to com- posting with night soil and urine as dry muck, since it deodorizes these manures and retains all their valuable elements, and renders thein man- ageable and easy of application, affording at the same time the dilution which is necessary for the sale application of concentrated manures. Com- posted with putrefying fish, muck forms , an exceedingly valuable manure. The best mode of preparing muck for use is to throw it from its bed in the autumn, and leave it exposed to the action of the frosts of the succeeding winter. If it is to be composted with lime or ashes it may be used the following spring. But if it is to be composted with stable manure, night soil, or animal matters, it is better to let it remain in the heap until the following autumn, when it should he deposited in the barn-yard or cellar, and mixed, from time to time, with the drippings of the animals. It is evident that it should be MAPLE 631 MAPLE BARK LOUSE provided in sufficient quantity to be used freely as a deodorizer about the premises whenever or wherever it may be wanted. It will thus become charged with gases and salts, and be converted into a highly valuable manure, which for a garden and for fruit culture has perhaps no equal. Many skillful farmers consider a com- post of one-half good muck and one-half stable manure fully equal for corn culture to pure stable manure. Vegetable composts, animal ■excrements, and muck are then the chief sources of carbonaceous manures. With these, as we have seen, are combined various gases and salts which are essential to vegetable growth, either as elements of nutrition or as stimulants. These may also be found in more concentrated forms and in smaller bulk, capable of more easy and direct application to growing plants. Variously combined and condensed, these fertilizing ele- ments constitute the numerous articles known in commerce as artificial manures. All plants during their growth take from the soil more or less mineral matters. Some require them in large quantities. Such plants are said to ■exhaust the soil on which they grow. The small grains, which appropriate in their culms and seeds much silex, lime, and potash, are instances of this class. The elements of which we are now speaking are all soluble, and are washed out of the soil — and the better the soil is worked and the finer the tilth, the more rapidly does this take place — and, unless they are fre- quently renewed, the cultivated soil is soon ■exhausted of them. Owing to their small bulk they are easily applied. Nitrogenous manures are Peruvian guano, night-soil, poudrette, urine, hair, wool-waste, fish manures, and animal sub- stances generally. The phosphates are bone- meal, superphosphate of lime, and Mexican guano. All these are combined with mineral earths and alkalies, and it is to these that is due whatever permanent value such manures possess, the other elements being so soluble and volatile that their effects are immediate and temporary. ' In this connection we may mention the saltpe- tres or nitrates, a class of manures to which little attention has been paid in this country. Earth containing nitrate of potash is often found in caverns, where it has been accumu- lating for ages, protected from the weatlier. Large quantities of it are imported from Chili. The nitrates may be manufactured artificially by means of nitre beds. These are formed by meani of earth and animal manures mixed with potash, lime, and soda. They are protected from the rain by roofs open on all sides to the air. The mixture is kept at the proper degree of moisture, and frequently stirred to expose new surfaces to the atmosphere. Nitrates of lime, potash, and soda are formed, and the whole mass becomes impregnated with them. MANURING. (See Manure.) MAPLE. Ac^;r. The maple family is an important one to the United States, both from the value of its timber, and for the saccharine juices wiiich some of the species yield. These are notably the Sugar maple, or Rock maple, A. saccharinum, and the variety, A. nigrum, or Black maple. The Sugar maple is the variety that produces the Bird's-eye maple. The Red or Swamp maple, A. rubrum, and the Ash-leaved maple or Box elder, Ai-er negundo, or more prop- erly, negundo aceroides, are also rich in saccha- rine jaice. The other species are the White or Silver maple, A. Dasycarpum; Mountain maple, A. spicutum, a tall shrub, growing in clumps in rich, moist woods, and the Striped maple, A. Pennsyliiiinicum, known also as Striped maple and Moose-wood, a tree, small, slender, and with light green bark, striped with dark lines. The Norway maple, A. phitanoides, is a foreign tree, a native of Europe, and, as an ornamental tree, finer in some respects than our own, with fine, abundant foliage, which continues green much later than our native maples. The great maple, A psendo-platimus, is also an European tree introduced into the United States, and some- times planted. This and the Plane tree (Pla- tanus) is sometimes called Sycamore. The true sycamore is, however, a species of fig, Ficus syeamorus. We should not advise the planting of either of the foreign named; our own Sugar or Rock maple, the Red or Swamp maple, and the White or Silver maple, are preferable. None can be finer than the Sugar maple in summer ; and all, both the Sugar and the Swamp maple, are magnificent in their varying foliage, after the frost has touched the leaves in the autumn. The Ash-leaved maple is among the fastest growing of any of the family, a most ornamental tree, and every way worthy of planting when a quick effect is desired. The seeds of the Silver maple ripen soon after the leaves have become fully grown, and should be sown immediately. The seeds of the other maples, including the Ash-leaved variety, ripen in September and October. If the seeds are not sown immediately, they should be kept over winter in sand, just moist, and as cool as possi- ble, even down to the freezing point. (See arti- cle Acer.) MAPLE BARK LOUSE. Pulmnaria Innv- meraMlis. Miss Emily A. Smith, of Illinois, one of the most accomplished entomologists of the West, says of this insect : Although the soft maple {Acer dasyca/rptim) is generally one of the first trees attacked, yet they soon spread to the other species. The insects live by puncturing the bark, and the females soon become clothed with a white, cottony substance, proceeding from the posterior parts. In this the eggs are deposited. The cut of the insects, highly magnified, shows the female, and also their work on the bark ; a, bart with insects at work; b, dorsal view; c, ventral view; £?. beak. In the natural condition, the young insect settles down upon the leaves of the maple almost immediately after hatching, the preference being given the under side and near the midrib, although they are found upon the upper side to some extent ; this is entirely owing to the number of insects upon the tree. When in a state of rest, the young lice draw the anten- nse under and parallel with the last joint of the fore pair of legs, the two remaining pair extend- ing backward. During the summer the young insects increase in size, and continually grow darker. They molt several times during their growth, and do so by shreds of skin peeling off and not cast off entire, as in the usual way. Although they seldom leave the position first assumed, during the summer, they have full use of their legs, since when the leaf is detached from the tree, the young lice will withdraw their beaks and move quite actively about in search of fresh food. When young, the males and females can not be distinguished one from the other, but MAPLE BARK LOUSE 633 MAPLE BARK LOUSE in a few weeks the males cease growing and change into the pupa state. The male scale is lighter than the growing females, and becomes longer and narrow. As the transformation pro- gl'esses, two anal stylets project from the poste- rior end, and soon after the end is slightly raised and the male comes forth, leaving behind on the leaf the whitish larval scale. These are found scattered about among the females, on both upper and under sides of the leaf. The male louse is very different from the female. During the pupa state he has acquired wings for the new sphere into which he is about to enter, and, although he still retains the legs and antennae, the beak and mouth organs are wanting, since, in the short existence granted him, there will be no need of food. The males generally appear the latter part of the month of July, and con- tinue some two weeks. They are very active, flying about the leaves with great rapidity. At this time, impregnation takes place, the males dying shortly after, while the females remain on the leaves and continue to develop. We find that this louse is single brooded, the females living a few weeks over one year, the eggs depos- ited the latter part of May, and the young lice MAPLE BABK LOUSE. appearing three weeks and a half after. That they settle down at once upon the leaves of the tree and remain until autumn, when they return to the under side of the leaves, remaining in this assumed position the remainder of their lives. The males appear in eight weeks after the young have hatched, and the females are then fully developed; in two or three weeks the males disappear entirely, while the females remain dormant on the limbs six months and a half of the entire year. It is well known that the varied temperature has great effect upon the length of time the insects remain in their several stages of growth. The manner in which this insect is conveyed from place to place is undoubtedly through the transportation of the trees, the scales of the female adhering to the limbs when transplanted. The insects spread from tree to tree by the aid of the wind when in the egg state, the waxy mass becoming detached from the tree in very stormy weather, and, being light, it is easily blown about. Many flies, wasps and bees are attracted to the trees by the sweet substance in the waxy mass, and the young lice, when crawling about, before settling dowp upon the leaves, will become attached to the legs of these insects and thus conveyed to other trees. Nature has made violent efforts to assist in destroying MALE MAPLE LOTJSE. the PutmnaiHa innumerabilis, and one of the most successful ways of combating with this destructive insect is by cultivating and protect- ing the natural enemies. To the lady birds we are the most indebted for services in this direc- tion, since, unlike many kinds of insects, they continue their work of destruction throughout their entire active life, the larva and imago sub- sisting upon the same kind of food. Three kinds of lady birds are very often found upon the infested trees during tiic summer months. The female maple louse has one true parasite, (Coceopliagiis Lecanii, Smith}, which is double- brooded, and lives in the body of the female. The insect is small, having a black body and four membraneous wings. The perfect insect and the pupa are shown at a, and 6, the hair lines denoting the natural size. When the imago is about to emerge, the dorsal part of the louse becomes very black and presents a rounder appearance; later the parasite makes a small circular opening, from which it takes flight. The first brood occurs in early spring, the second in CHALCIS PARASITE. August. Remedies: The fact that the young lice settle upon the under side of the leaf and limb, renders the use of fire extinguishers charged with liquid solutions possible and to good effect. When the lice are first hatched they are very small and delicate. A wash containing an alkaline solution applied at this time is suflicient to destroy them. By attaching a wire bag to a MAPLE BORER 633 MAPLE SUGAR common sprinkling hose, filling the bag with Koft soap and turning on the water, a soap-suds will be formed which will at once kill the insects. The scarcity of the water system in small cities renders - this plan impracticable, however, and experiments led to a plan, easily attained by all, and which has proved successful the two seasons past. The plan recommended is as follows: Charge a fire extinguisher, in the usual manner, with bicarbonate of soda and sulphuric acid ; add to the water one spoonful of crude carbolic acid to every eight gallons of water. Apply this to the tree ; the force from the extinguisher will convey the fluid to all parts of the tree alike; the disposition of the insects to settle upon the lower surface of the leaf and limb serve to further this plan. Two applications should be made upon the same tree; the first, three weeks after the first deposition of eggs, and the second, four weeks from the first application. If the work is delayed, the insects become strong and the strength of the solution must be increased, which would be liable to injure the tree itself. The actual cost is not exceeding twenty cents an application, which is trifling compared to the cost of replacing the tree. MAPLE BORER. Legged Maple Borer. (.Iberia Acerni.) This insect of late years has done extensive damage especially to shade maples in the West. Dr. C. V. Rile}', in his sixth Missouri Report, says of this insect, that, vieingwith the Flat-headed Borer in destructive- ness, but generally following in its trail and ren- dering more conspicuous the damage which that species does to our shade maples, the insect under consideration deserves notice. It may be called the Legged Maple borer, because the pos- session of sixteen legs, at once distinguishes it from the Flat-headed Borer. It is, indeed, in structure similar to, ' and belongs to the same LECtGED MAPLE EOBEB. family as the common Peach-tree Borer, and the more common Current-stem Borer (JE. tipu- liformis, Linn.). The cut shows that the worm jburrows under the bark of our soft maples, feed- ing on the inner bark and sap-wood and never penetrating deeply into the more solid heart- wood. It is so numerous at times that it com- pletely girdles, and thus kills outright, trees of considerable size; while smaller trees are weak- ened, and rendered liable to be broken by wind, even where the worms are less numerous. The burrowings of the worm are filled with dark brown pellets of excrement, and cause the bark to crack open and loosen. The cocoon is loosely formed of white silk, and covered with the same brown excrement, and when about to give forth the moth, the chrysalis works its way partly out of the bark through a passage which, as larva, it has providently prepared, having left but the thin epidermis, which the chry.salis easily pushes through. The moth is a very pretty species, particularly distinguished by the large anal tuft of bright orange-red hairs. It appears to be very generally distributed over the country ; though, as none of the older eastern writers on economic entomology refer to its injuries, we may infer that it does not attract the same attention in the Atlantic as it does in the Middle States. ' The moths begin to issue from the trees the lat- ter part of May, and continue to issue through- out the summer. The worms are also found of all sizes, during this time, and throughout the win- ter. I have always found the worms in such trees as have been injured, either by the work of the Flat-headed Borer, the rubbing of the tree against a post or board, or in some other way. Where the bark is kept smooth, they never seem to trouble it, the parent evidently preferring to consign her eggs to cracked or roughened parts. For this reason the worm is not found in the smoother branches, but solely in the main trunk. Whether the soap application will prevent the moth from depositing her eggs, is not known ; judging from analogy, probably not. Yet it will tend to keep the bark smoother, and, in being used to shield the tree from the other borer. It will indirectly shield it from this one. Mr. Gennadius recommends whitewashing the trunks, and filling up all holes and fissures with mortar, so as to render the bark as smooth as possible. MAPLELEAF CHESOPUDIUM. (See Goosefoot .) MAPLE SUGAR. In the article Sorghum, will be found matter relating to sugar making, from the best data except that of making sugar from the true sugar cane, and making maple sugar. So far as condensing the sap of the maple is concerned and converting it into sugar the ideas expressed in the article Sorghum will apply. The tapping of the trees and gathering the sap, when there is a considerable sugar orchard, must be carried out systematically, and, when proper implements are to be obtained, it is cheaper that the best quality of these be bought. Yet, in many localities, it is difficult to procure modern uten- sils, especially in the settlement of a new coun- try. Thus, we will suppose that one of the early settlers, a farmer, is going to engage in making maple sugar, he would commence operations in something like the following manner : The first thing to be done is to procure something in which to catch the sap, and just before the season for making sugar arrives, he takes his axe, goes into the woods where the work is to be done, and proceeds to make a sufficient quantity of troughs. These are generally made out of soft timber, such as will split freely and work easily ; trees of about one foot in diameter are selected and cut into lengths of from two and a half to three feet; ?.IAPLE SUGAR Go4 MAPLE SUGAR these are split througli the center, and the blocks thus made are dug out with the axe, and made large enough to hold from one to two pails of sap. He next wants some spouts to conduct the sap from the tree to the trough; these are made of some limber that splits well, and are made by cutting or sawing bloclis one foot in length, and splitting them into thin, narrow staves. If a f rooked frow can be obtained to split them with, they ai-e of the desired form ; but if they have to be split with an axe, as is frequently the case, then a shallow groove has to be cut on one side for the sap to run in ; one end of the spout is sharpened to correspond with the shape of the tapping iron. This instrument is about one foot in length, and made of iron in the shape of a carpenter's gouge, the cutting end being about two inches wide and usually made of steel. When ihe sap will run, the trees are tapped by Inaking two incisions on the body of the tree, near the giound, or as near as the snow will admit; these incisions are made in the form of the letter V; just below the point of these cuts, another is made with the tapping iron by driving it into the tree with the axe, and into this the sharpened end of the spout is driven, and under this spout a trough is placed to catch the sap. Previous to tapping the trees, a place is prepared to boil the sap; this is done by felling a large hard wood tree; from the- butt end two logs are cut, the length of these depending on the num- ber of kettles to be used. If only two are u.'^ed, they would be about six feet long. These logs arc placed on the ground parallel with each other, with a space between them wide enough to hang the kettles. At each end of the logs a crotchcd stick is set into the ground, and across these a pole is laid ; from this pole the kettles are suspended. These are generally iron, and hold from twelve to fifteen gallons. In boiling the sap, when the logs are burned up, others are cut from the same tree and rolled up to supply their places If the tree did not supply logs enough for the season, and others could not be brought conveniently to the fire, a tree was cut in another place and the boiling place removed. It was usually the custom, however, when it was desirable to have a permanent boiling place, to go in the fall or winter previous and cut and pile logs enough near the boiling place to last through the season; sometimes wood was cut and piled ready for use, but generally the wood used was green, and cut from day to day as it was wanted. The sap was gathered and carried to the boiling place in buckets or pails suspended from tlie ends of a wooden yoke, made to fit the shoulders of the person who gathered the sap. In gathering sap when the snow was deep, unless paths were made to go in, it was necessary to use snow-shoes to go around on the snow. Gener- ally a rude shanty was erected near the boiling place, under which the tools that were used and sometimes a little dry wood were placed, and into which the man himself could also go when occasion required. Our fathers had but limited means for storing the sap when gathered ; and during a good run much of it would be wasted, and during stormy weather much snow and rain would get into the sap. In boiling sap in kettles hung between logs, the wood to make the fire with had to be set endwise between the logs and kettles, and as the lower ends burned off, the tops of the sijiall sticks would frequently fall into the kettles; leaves knd ashes would occa- sionally be blown in by the wind, and when the sap was nearly boiled down to syrup it would burn on the sides of the kettles, thus- giving the contents of the kettles an additional color. In some instances the syrup was strained through hemlock boughs, and then boiled down to sugar, if a mixture made by boiling such a compound together could be called by that name. Those who wished to make a nice article would strain the syrup through a linen strainer, then clarify it with milk or eggs, then strain it again and boll it to sugar. In this way a much better article of sugar was made than one would suppose. At the close of the season the troughs were turned bottom upwards by the tree, or set endwise against it, where they were ready for use next spring. The spouts were taken from the trees, and with the kettles and other tools, earned to the dwelling-house of the owner for future use. After a series of years wooden buckets began to be used in the place of troughs, and instead of tapping the tree with the axe and tapping iron, an auger was used. The trees were tapped by boring a hole into the tree from one to two inches in depth, and short, round spouts driven into the holes; an iron spike was driven into the tree a few inches below the spouts on which the bucket was hung by means of a hole bored through one of the staves near the top. A caul- dron kettle was substituted for boiling the sap, and this large kettle was hung up to one end of a long pole resting on a crotched stick set in the ground ; this pole was so balanced that when the kettle was filled with sap, the other end of the pole would rise and let the kettle down to the fire; but when the sap was boiled down low, the kettle would rise out of the way of the fire. The advantage of having it hung in this way was, that much less of foreign substances got into the sap while it was boiling ; and if the per- son who was boiling the sap should be absent from the fire for some time, and the sap get low, it would swing up from the fire, and thus pre- vent it from being burned. After this, those who had cauldron kettles began to set them in arches made of stone, and these arches were generally protected from the storm by a shelter of some kind, at the same time the wood for boiling the sap was cut the season before it was wanted for use, so that it would be dry when wanted. Those persons having sugar lots near their dwelling-houses, accessible to a team, and having conveniences at their dwellings for boiling sap, drew it and boiled it there ; the sap was gath- ered and put in barrels, and drawn on sleds to the boiling place. Soon after this, as there began to be a market for maple sugar, those engaged in the business began to build permanent houses and enlarge their accommodations and facilities for manufacturing. These sugar houses are generally built on the sugar lot, and were made large enough to contain not only boiling fixtures, but the storage for sap, the sap buckets when not in use, anii generally the wood to be used These improvements in the manufacture of maple sugar which have been mentioned would bring us down to about thirty years ago, at which time considerable attention had been given to the business, both in the manufacture of the sugar and the preparation of it for market. About this time sheet iron pans began to be used for boiling sap, and from thence a new era seems MAPLE SUGAR 635 MAPLE SUGAR to have commenced in the business. It was soon ascertained that those who used these pans for maliing sugar obtained a much better article than tliose who used iron kettles, and that those who made tlie best sugar sold it for the highest price; and tliat while there were generally plenty •of customers for a good article, it was often diffi- cult to dispose of an inferior one at paying prices. These considerations, with the increasing demand for maple sugar have stimulated those engaged in the manufacture to make all the improve- ments that were possible, so as to produce a superior article at the least expense and with the least labor. The most approved way of build- ing sugar houses now is to locate them so that the ground on one side of the house will be sev- eral feet higher than on the opposite side. The general plan of the house and fixtures for boil- ing and storing the sap is as follows: The house is made large enough to enclose the ai-ch and store-tubs at one end, with the wood in the other end, and the sap buckets in the upper part. The arch is built near one side of the house, and on the opposite side is built a platform on which the store-tubs are placed. These tubs are so arranged that the sap can be drawn by means of a faucet in the bottom of the tubs into a spout, and run into the heater or pans. On the outside of the building the ground is fitted at such a height that the sap can be drawn from the bot- tom of the gathering tubs and run into the tops of the store-tubs. With this arrangement all the labor of lifting the sap after it is placed in the gathering-tubs or buckets and brought to the house is avoided ; the only force used after this until the sap is in the pans is that of gravitation. In the sides of the building are doors, so calcu- lated as to afford means for the steam from the ■boiling sap to pass off. The arches are generally ■built of brick, though where suitable stone c:in ■be obtained it is sometimes used. The arch is usually made wide enough to set on one pan and long enough to place one or two pans, as may be •required, and a heater. The pans to be set first from the mouth of the arch, and the heater "between the pan and chimney. The mouth of the arch is fitted with a cast iron frame and door. About eight inches from the bottom of the ar(?h is a bed on which the fire is made; this floor is generally made of narrow, flat stones, with suffi- ■cient space between them for the coals and ashes ■to fall through into the lower part, and thus pre- vent the fire-place from getting clogged up, as it would do in boiling any length of time without ■the floor. In this arrangement of the floor, the draft of air passes under and up through the fire, throwing the flame and heat of the fire ■against the bottom of the pans. The pans are generally set directly on the top of the arch, which is made level and smooth for that pur- pose. The ends of the pans rest on iron castings made for that purpose. On the end of the arch where the heater is placed is fitted a cast iron frame, in which the heater sets. The pans for boiling the sap are made of Russia sheet iron, and are of different sizes, holding from one to four barrels. The size of a pan holding one barrel is two feet three inches long, and two feet wide on the bottom; a two-barrel pan, five feet ■five inches long and two feet wide: a three-bar- rel pan, five feet four inches long, three feet three inches wide, a one and a half barrel pan, four ■ieet four inches long, and two feet wide. The depth of the pans is seven and a half inches. The sides of the pans usually flare about three inches on a side, which would make the top of the pan six inches wider than the bottom. Handles are placed on the sides of the pans near the top. The cost of the pans will vary with the price of iron and also the quality of the stock. The sap-heater is a modern improve- ment. Experience in the process of boiling sap has shown that whatever vessel is used, the larger the surface exposed to the fire the faster will evaporation take place, and that evapora- tion will proceed faster in shallow vessels than in deep ones; and on this principle the sheet-iron pan has been constructed. In the construction of the sap-heater the Idea was to make a vessel in which a much larger surface of the vessel, and consequently the sap, would be exposed to the fire than was in the pan then in use. To accom- plish t^is it was proposed to incorporate into a sap-pan the principle, and as far as practicable, the form of a high-pressure steam engine. The plan adopted was to make a pan, with a box or pit extending down from the bottom of the pan. Into this box were placed a number of tubes: the ends of tubes made tight to the sides of the the pit, and holes out through the sides of the pit against the ends of the tubes. In making the pit the holes are first made in the sides ; then the tubes fitted in. When the pan was placed on the arch the pit of tubes would be placed in such a position that the heat and smoke of the fire should pass through these tubes, ^hus expos- ing a very large surface to the action of the fire, and, consequently, when the vacant places iDetween the tubes were filled with sap, a ver}^ rapid evaporation must take place. Another consideration in the use of the heater is, that no additional fuel or heat is required ; the heater, being placed in the arch behind the pans, receives the heat from the fire after it passes from the pans, so that all that is accomplished in boil- ing with the heater is a clear gain in time and fuel. In using the heater it was found necessary to have the top part of it made high, to prevent the sap running over when boiling; for when the fires are hot the heater is filled with foaming sap. Even with the high top it is necessary to have one or two tubes or spouts in the side near the top, to let the boiling sap into the pan before it, and also to make the system of boiling arrangements complete, which will be examined hereafter. The sap heater is made of the best quality of tin; the usual sizeis as follows: The upper part is nineteen and three-quarters by thirteen and one-quarter inches wide on the sides at the bottom, and eighteen inches high; the sides flare about two inches, so that the top is about four inches wider than the bottom. The pit is twelve and one-half inches deep. The tubes are thirteen and one-half inches long, and one and three quarters inches in diameter. A pit of this size will contain thirty-five tubes, placed in five rows, seven tubes in a row. Near the top of the heater, on the side next to the pan, one or two tubes are placed to carry the sap from the heater to the pan. On the sides of the heater, at the top, are handles for taking it off. The cost of the heater is from eight to fourteen dol- lars, according to the size. The method of tak- ing off the heater is to have a windlass directly over it. When the heater is not in use in boiling sap, a piece of sheet or cast iron, is used to cover MAPLE SUGAR 636 MAPLE SUGAR the place in wliicli it sets. To remove the pans from the arch when they contain hot sap or syrup various ways are used. The simplest and safest way is to have a strip of board nailed to the studs on the side of the house, tlie top edge of the board level with the top of the arch ; then have two strips of board just long enough to reach from the side of the house to the bottom of the pan on the arch; have the upper side of the ends of the boards next to the pan beveled off to an edge ; place these near the ends of the pans. After the greater part of the syrup has been dipped out of the pan, stand at the side of the arch between these boards; take hold of the handles of the pan and draw it upon the boards where it can be emptied of the rest of the syrup. The plan for boiling sap in the arrangement Just described is, after the sap has commenced boil- ing, to have a stream of sap running into the heater, and from the heater into the pan before it, in which it is boiled down to syrup. If two pans are used, the sap is dipped from one to the other. The quantity of sap which can be boiled in a given time depends on many circumstances. Sap will boil much faster on a clear day than on a cloudy or stormy one, and weak sap will boil away faster than that which is stronger. With a three-barrel pan and a heater, with good wood and favorable weaiher, sap enough for eighty pounds of sugar can be boiled in a day as an average day's work. The kind of wood used may be either hard or soft, though it is now thought that equal parts of both kinds, mixed together, are the most economical. With one pan and heater the wood should not be cut over three feet long; some think two feet long enough. If the wood is too long it will clog up the back part of the arch with coals, so that the heater will not work as well. One cord of wood, (running measure,) two feet long, will boil as much sap as a cord four feet long. One cord of wood two or three feet long, is calculated to make one hundred pounds of sugar. The buckets used to catch the sap are made both of wood and tin, the wooden ones being generally used. These are made of pine lumber, hooped with iron, and painted with oil paint on both sides; at the top of the bucket, on the outside, is an ear made of sheet iron, through which is a hole large enough for the spike to pass on which it is hung. The spouts used for convey- ing the sap from the tree to the bucket are principally made of wood, although metallic ones are used to some extent. The wooden spouts are made of hard wood, birch making the best. They are made by taking inch boards, sawing them into strips one inch wide, then cut into pieces the length of the spout, which is about six inches ; these are then put into a lathe and turned round and smooth, one end of which is tapered down to a little less than half an inch in diameter; a hole about one-fourth of an inch is then bored through the entire length, and the spout is ready for use. The spikes foi' hanging the bucket on the tree are made of wrought iron, and are about two inches in length, with the head on one side of the nail, to prevent the bucket from slipping off. A common half-inch bit is used for tapping' the tree, though many use one seven-sixteenths of an inch for that purpose, and a one-half inch bit for boring the second time. In all sugar lots where the surface of the laud will admit of a team being used, the sap is drawTl from the different parts of the lot to the sugar house, on sleds. For this purpose a gathei'ing-tub, holding three or four barrels, is used. This tub is made with a head in both ends, the diameter of the bottom being much larger than the top, to prevent it from tipping when filled. In the top of the tub a hole is cut large enough to turn in the sap ; a lid is made to fit this hole, so that when the tub is full it can be closed tight, to prevent the sap from being wasted in going to the house. The tub is fastened on the sled with stakes or chains. The tubs in the house for storing are usually about the size of the gathering tubs; they have but one head, and the tops of these are the largest. Both the gathering and storing tubs are made of sprace or pine planks, hooped with iron, and usually painted on the outside. The storing- tubs should be painted on the inside like the buckets, to prevent them from becoming sour and discolored with mildew. Whenever stor- ing tubs or buckets become sour, they should be immediately washed clean before putting more sap in them. In those lots where a team can not be used to draw the sap, a hand sled can be frequently used with advantage. Many of the sugar lots are located on the sides of hills so steep that neither teams nor hand-sleds can be used to draw the sap. In these lots leading spouts or pipes can be used in a way to save much severe labor. By having the sugar house located at the lowest part of the lot, lines of leading spouts can be put up from the house to different parts of the lot, and in these spouts the sap can be run from those places to the house. Spouts can not be used when it snows, as the snow that falls into them will choke up the passage of the sap, so that it will run over and waste. In rainy weather considerable water will collect in the spouts if the line of spouts i& a long one. At the upper end of the line a store-tub is placed; by means of a faucet the sap is drawn into the spouts, and the size of the stream gauged to their capacity. Pipes are a. great improvement on the wooden spout. It can be used as well in stormy as in pleasant weather. The size of the tube generally made is one-half inch ; one end of these spouts is made a little larger than the other, so that the ends will fit tight in putting them up. The quantity of sap which different trees produce varies largely; some will produce as many pailsful as others do quarts. As a general rule, second-growth trees that have the most top will produce the most sap ; with first-growth trees the difference is not as great. Trees standing in open land will pro- duce much more sap than those growing where the timber is thick. Sap varies much in sac- charine strength. Trees growing in open fields, or in exposed places produce a sweeter sap than those growing in the forest. Some years the sap will produce much more sugar than in others. Taking one year with another, eight pounds of sugar to a barrel of sap is a good average yield. Sap requires to be reduced to about one-twentieth of its bulk, to form good syrup. In making maple sugar or molasses, one thing is indispensably necessary in order to make a good article ; that is, cleanliness in every pro- cess from the time the sap is collected till it is made into sugar. Great care should be taken that all the implements used to hold the sap or syrup should be kept clean and sweet. The same MAPLE SUGAR 637 MAPLE SUGAR care should be takeu to prevent all foreign sub- stances, such as bark, leaves and dirt, from get- ting into the sap, and also to remove them as soon as possible, whenever tliey do get iu, as everything of this nature has a tendency to impart a dark color and also an unpleasant flavor to the sugar. Sap usually runs best in pleasant weather, when the air is clear and wind west — an easterly wind dries up the sap — but at tliis season of the year, changes of weather and storms are frequent, and if it can be avoided, sap should not remain out to be exposed to the storm, as water from any source injures the quality of the sugar. Experi- ence has shown that the sooner the sap is con- verted into sugar after it leaves the tree, the bet- ter; and especiallj' is this the case when the weather grows warm ; for the sap is liable to sour in the buckets, and also in the store-tubs. When the weather is quite warm — as it sometimes is for a day or two — sap will sour in twenty-four hours. At such times the boiling should be forced to the utmost extent, night and day, if necessary. At no time should much sap be allowed to accumulate on hand, if it can possibly be avoided. After the sap has been gathered, if there Is dirt in it without ice, it may be strained as it runs into the pans. After the boiling has commenced, it should be kept up without cessa- tion until it is reduced to syrup. Twelve hours is long enough to boil at one time for syruping off. The syrup should be b died down as thick as it can be strained when taken from the fire. Whatever dirt and scum arises on the surface of the sap when boiling should be removed with a skimmer. As soon as the syrup is taken from the tire, it should be strained into a tub used for that purpose, and allowed' to settle. The best strainers are made of home-made flannel — one thickness of cloth answering for a strainer. After the syrup has settled, it should be made into sugar. Pour off that part whicli is clear into the pan or kettle to be used in boiling it, leaviOg the sedi- ment in the tub. Bj' turning some hot sap into this it can be settled again, and either boiled down by itself or with the next lot of syrup. It was formerly the practice to clarify the syrup with milk or eggs, to Temove the impurities; but if the syrup be well settled it needs none, for the simple reason that tliere are no impurities to remove. After the syrup is placed on the flre it should be kept boiling with a steady fire until it is done. Sometimes, while boiling, it is inclined to run over. To prevent tliis, put a piece of but- ter the size of a marble into it, and sometimes it may be necessary to put in a second or third piece before it will settle. A very good way is to take a stick long enough to reach across the vessel; lay this stick across the top of it, and from the stick suspend a piece of fat pork ; when the sj-rup rises against the pork, it has the same effect as the butter. If neither of these methods will prevent the syrup from running over, the heat of tlie fire must be reduced until it boils steadily. The degree of liardness to which the sugar needs to be boiled depends on the subse- quent treatment. If it is to be put into tubs and drained, it should be boiled only enough to have , it granulate readily; if it is to be put into cakes, it should be done so hard tliat it will not drain at all; it is necessary to boil it as long as it can and not burn. There are various ways of telling when the sugar is boiled enough. A convenient and good wa}- is, when snow can be obtained, to have a dish of snow, and when some of the hot sugar is put on the snow, if it does not run into the snow, but cools in the form of wax on the surface of the snow, it is done enough to put into tubs to drain. But wlien it is to be caked or stirred, it sliould be boiled until, when it is cooled on the snow, it will break like ice or glass. When snow can not be obtained, stir some of the sugar in a dish, and as soon as it will granulate, it is done enough to drain ; when it will form bubbles, feathers, or ribbons, on being blown, it is done enough to cake or stir. To try it in this way, take a small wire or stick and form one end into a loop; dip this loop into the sugar and blow through it to produce the forms described. When the sugar is done it should be taken from the flre Immediately, and cooled. It is then ready to be put up in any waj' that may be wanted. In large places, or where large quantities of sugar are made and the syrup is sugared off at the sugar house, a one-barrel pan fltted to a small arch is used to make the sugar in ; but when the sugar- ing-off is done on the stoves of the dwelling- houses, as large quantities of it are, smaller pans or brass kettles are used. These pans are made of sheet iron, tin and copper; a convenient size is one of twenty-two inches long by thirteen wide on the bottom, and thirteen inches high, with handles on the ends. From forty to fiftj pounds of sugar can be made in a pan of this description. The general method of putting up maple sugar for family use is to place it in tubs and drain it. When put up in this way, the sugar should stand long enough after it is taken from the flre to become well crystallized before it is put into the tubs. The best tubs for this purpose are those holding from one to two hun- dred pounds, made flaring, largest at the top, and having two bottoms. There should be a space of several inches between the bottoms, to contain the molasses which drains from the sugar. The upper bottom should be fltted loose, so that it can be taken out when the tub is empty. In this bottom one or more holes should be made for the molasses to drain through. When the tubs are to be flUed with sugar this hole should be stopped with a stick long enough to reach above the top of the tub. After the first batch of sugar put into the tub has become hard, the stick should be loosened and raised a little, and this process continued until the tub is fllled. The molasses will drain through this hole into the receptacle below the sugar, wliere it is secure from dust and insects, and when wanted for use it can be drawn out by means of a faucet in the side of the tub. Many families are in the habit of stirring a portion of their sugar, as in this form it retains its flavor better than when it is drained, and is in a more convenient form for use. When the sugar is to be stirred it should be boiled hard enough to cake. When it is done, take it from the fire, set the pan in a cool place, and with a wooden paddle commence stirring it briskly, and continue to do so until the sugar is grained and dry, or of the consistency of the brown cane sugars. If it is then put into tight boxes or tubs and thus kept, it will retain the fresh maple flavor for some length of time. When the sugar is to be caked, it should be allowed to stand after it is taken from the fire until it is partially grained, when it should be run into the moulds. Care should be taken not to let it get too cold before it is put into the MARJORAM •638 MARKETING CROP& moulds, for it hardens so fast at this stage that it must be handled quickly in order to calie in good form. If it is desirable to have the sugar of a coarse grain, it should not be stirred while it is crystallizing; but if a finer grain is wanted by stirring it moderately, while cooling, any desired grain can be obtained. Both wooden and tin moulds are used to cake sugar in, and these are made of different forms and sizes — the weight of the cakes varying from two ounces to several pounds. The general form of the onke is a square, as this is the most convenient one for pacldug in boxes, in Avhich form it is put up for market. Previous to putting the sugar into moulds, they should be wet with water as this prevents the cakes from sticking. After the sugar is removed from the moulds, they should be washed before they are filled again. In drain- ing sugar most of the coloring matter can be taken out and a white sugar obtained; but in this pro- cess much of the maple flavor is lost. The method is to cover the top of the sugar with wet cloths, flannel generally being used. These cloths should be wet and also washed daily in cold water until they are removed from the sugar. MAR.VSMUS. Leanness, wasting away. MARBLE. Limestones with a granular and crystalline appearance; they are for the most part primary or transition. The colors and variegations are adventitious, depending upon the presence of other minerals. Good marble being entirely carbonate of lime, yields fifty-six per cent, of lime when well burned. MARC. The matter which remains after the pressure of fruit; or any substance which yields oil ; or, in fact, any fluid matter for the separa- tion of which the action of the press is required. What remains in the press is the marc. MARCESCENT. In botany, a' term applied to leaves, etc., which are permanent, and when withered do not fall off. MARE, The mature female of the horse. (See Horse.) MARE'S TAIL. Hippuris vulgaris. A curi- ous indigenous aquatic, growing in marshy situa- tions, and in ditches, pools, and the borders of MARGABIC ACID. An acid obtained from animal fat. It derives its name from its resem- blance to pearl. Its appearance and properties very much resemble those of stearic acid, another product of animal fat, the chief difference being in the greater fusibility of the margaric, which melts at 140° Fahr. MARGARINE. The solid white fat of oils. A margarate of glycerine. MARGARITIC ACID. One of those fat oils peculiar to castor oil. MARttARONE. A product of the distillation of margaric and stearic acids; a white, pearly mass. MARIOOLD. Gdlend/ula. A genus of showy plants, among which is the old and well known common marigold (C. officinalis). This species was formerly used in soups and broths, but is now little regarded. Some of the newer varieties are beautiful. MARINE ACID. Muriatic acid. MARINE SALT. Common sea salt. MARJORAM, Origiinum. A genus of well known, pungent, and gratefully aromatic herbs. The plants are all of easy cultivation ; the shrubby kinds are increased by cuttings or slips; the . herbaceous species by dividing at the roots. The species generally cultivated are t he common or pot marjoram (0. milgare), and sweet or summer marjoram (0. majorana), and bastard or winter marjoram (0. fteradeoticum.) A light, dry, and moderately fertile soil is required for their healthy growth ; and if it is one that has not been cropped for a considerable lime, it is the more favorable for them. If the soil is wet or rich, they are deficient in their essential qualities, and the perennials are unable to withstand severe weather. The sowing is performed either in drills, six inches apart, or broadcast; in either case the seed being buried not more than half an inch deep. The tops and leaves of all the species are gathered when green, in summer and autumn, for use in soups, etc. ; and dried in July or August, just before the flowers open, for winter's supply. MARKETING CROPS. The marketing of crops is not the least important of the various divisions of agriculture. Here the farmer becomes the salesman, and as much tact, com- bined with strict integrity, is necessary here aa in selling any product whatever. In the city or village, certain individuals become known for their produce being precisely as represented. In this case the buyer of grain takes it, the price being fixed according to the sample shown. If the farmer understands the ruling value of the commodity, but little trouble is experienced in selling in any market where there is competition. If there is no competition so much more the necessity that the seller knows the precise money value of the article to be sold. In the case of grain, he must understand the various grades, and prices. If live stock, the price according to fatness. If wool, the grade, whether it be fine, coarse, middle, or combing wool, and the price according to clean- ness, and uniformity in packing. If butter, cheese, eggs, or other minor products of the farm, the seller must be competent to state the quality exactly, and then he can always fix a price anywhere in reason. The buyer is never deceived iu the goods he examines, but may be in the statement of the seller, if he relies on his word. The buyer is an expert, or should be. So should be the farmer. Thus neither party will be deceived by misrepresentations of the other. In the case, where articles are to be con- signed to a commission man in some distant city, a statement should be sent, detailing arti- cles, quality, number of packages, weights, gross, tare and net, or number of bushels, or count, including bill of lading — is especially important in the case of butter, cheese, eggs, vegetables, fruits, berries, etc. If grain, samples should be forwarded by express, in case it is to be sold to arrive. In the case of perishable articles, as vegetables, etc., that are delivered from teams from day to day, these products should be care- fully gathered, washed, when necessary, and tied in bunches, packed in uniform packages, of a bushel or integral parts of a bushel, unless sold by the bushel from the measure. The marketman soon learns to display his. products in the most inviting manner, consistent with close packing in the wagon. As to market systems, all large cities are provided necessarily with market laws more or less stringent. In New York the market system includes fourteen or more principal market houpes, and the firms MARKETING CROPS 639 MARSH-MARIGOLD of butchers and grocers, distributed over the city, who deal in vegetables and fruit. In St. Louis the regular market houses do the pi'inci- pal part of the trade. In Chicago, certain streets, as portions of Water and Marliet streets are occupied by marketmen, who sell the products consigned to them to butchers and grocers who supply the families direct. It is well under- stood, however, that in our great cities the inhabitants can not depend upon getting their supplies at regular market houses, directly from hucksters. This has been found to be the case in Boston and New York, and the evils of this sys- tem has tended to prevention of this system in the newer cities of the West. Philadelphia has probably the most perfect system of market houses in the country. Philadelphia has for generations been noted for the excellence of its market system. The law provides that vege- tables, provisions, or fruits, exposed for sale shall not have been previously purchased within the limits of the city. When the city erects a market house, one-half of the building remains free tor the use of the country people attending the market; and no fees, tolls, or perquisites are to be exacted from them for the use thereof. Persons who send or carry the produce of their farms to market, may sell beef, mutton, etc., slaughtered on their farms; and persons so sell- ing such meats, etc. , are not liable to any fine for selling in less quantities than one quarter; provided that farmers using the stalls in the market houses for such purposes shall pay a rent or compensation for each stall not exceed- ing $20 per annum. . The select and common council annually elect a commissioner of market houses. No person is allowed to sell or expose for sale, elsewhere within the market limits than in the stands specially provided therefor, any fruits, vegetables, or other provisions (except fresh fish, meat, or flour) which have been before purchased within the city of Philadelphia. No person exercising the trade ' of a butcher is per- mitted to occupy a stand or station without the market house free of rent; and no person is allowed to offer for sale any veal, beef, lamb, etc. , unless the same is the produce of his or her own farm, upon any of the streets authorized for the stands for market wagons, under a pen- alty of $20. The stalls and stands within the public market houses, and places for the use of which rent may be lawfully charged, are let annually. No person is allowed to use steel- yards or spring-balances within the market houses. No person, except farmers bringing the produce of their farms to market, is allowed to sell or expose for sale any butcher's meat in any streets or other highways of the city south of Lehigh Avenue, east of the river Schuylkill, or north of Morris street, in any cart, wagon, etc., nor carry, about the same for sale. The execution of these regulations provides better marketing than some towns of one-fifth her pop- ulation. On Wednesdays and Saturdays, in the afternoon, thousands of pounds of butter, poul- try, meat, and sausages are sold to consumers by farmers from all the counties within thirty miles of the city. The drawback to this system is that the poor are required to go considerable distances daily for their marketing. Neverthe- less, prices should be enough cheaper to make it up, when the produce is sold direct from the producer to the consumer. In Chicago, the market business is all done through middlemen who receive the fruits, vegetables, etc. , from the producer, and sell to those who supply the ft;m- ilies. The commission man receives from five to ten per cent., and the retailer from ten to twenty-five per cent. Nevertlicless, but little complaint is heard, except from fruit growers who have to pay a heavy additional tax in the shape of freights, sometimes carried several hundred miles. Chicago is the greatest fruit distributing market in the country, and in no market are fruits and vegetables cheaper or more abundant. MARKET GARDENING. (See Gardening.) MARL. A mixture of earths containing a large amount of mild lime. It is clayey or argillaceous when it has the mechanical charac- ters and touch of cla}', sandy when silicious, and calcareous when almost entirely composed of mild lime; it is also shelly when full of fossil shells. There is one feature common to all true marls, viz., effervescence with acids. Marl may be derived from ancient formations, more especially the upper red sandstone but is for the most part of tertiary origin, or modern, being pioduced in ponds and rivers flowing in lime- stone countries. The richest shell kinds are best, as they contain bone earth. The value of marls is precisely as the amount of lime they contain. When very rich, they may be burned for quicklime, which much increases their activity and value. Marls seldom contain more than twenty per cent, of carbonate of lime associated with sands or clay. They are applied at the rate of fifteen to thirty loads to the acre, and do much good by altering the texture of some soils, as when a clay marl is applied to sand}' lands. In some cases one hundred loads have been applied. They are chiefly indicated where the soil lacks lime, or may be improved mechan- ically; but being, for the most part, mineral composts, marls are usually serviceable, and often extremely beneficial, especially to poor, sandy lands. Shell and coral sands are of the nature of silicious marls, but more active, from containing organic matter. MARMORATUM. In building, a cement of pounded marble with lime. M.IRSH-MALLOW. Althma. This is a genus of tall, free-flowering plants. The biennial and annual kinds should be sown in the open border in spring, and transplanted when sufficiently strong. The herbaceous kinds may be increased by dividing the roots or by seeds. A. roxea, the parent of the many beautiful varieties of hoUy^ hock, yields a blue coloring matter equal to indigo. The common marsh-mallow {A. offici- nalis) is in England an indigenous perennial, growing abundantly in marshes, especially toward the sea. The root is perennial, tap- shaped, rather woody. Bees are very fond of its melliferous flowers. The whole plant, especially the root, yields in decoction a plentiful, taste- less, colorless mucilage, besides a fatty oil, uncrystallizable sugar, starch, and phosphate of lime. It is emollient, and' salutary in cases of internal irritation. A syrup made with the root, as well as the decoction, is an officinal prepara- tion used in the coughs of children. MARSH-MARIGOLD. Caltha. The species of this genus are showy, and do best in a moist situation, but will grow and flower in a common border. They may be increased by seeds or MATTER 640 MAY BEETLE divisions. The British indigenous species are two in number, viz; The common marsh-mari- gold (C. paluatns) which grows in marshy meadows, and about the margins of ponds, rivers, and brooks, almost everywhere. It is perennial in habit, blooming in March and April. The root is thick and somewhat tuberous, with many simple libers. Stem twelve or eighteen inches high, round, hollow, leafy, branched, fur- rowed. Leaves variously heart-shaped, rounded. Flowers from three to five, large, bright, yellow, on alternate solitary stalks. The flower- Ijuds, pickled, serve for capers, which they resemble, except in having numerous germens. A double variety is frequent in gardens. Creep- ing marsh-marigold (C. radicans). This species is found by the sides of lakes and rivulets in Scotland, and is scarcely half the size of the common G. palustris. A double variety of this is cultivated near London. MARSH MIASM. The pestilential effluvia from marshes, producing agues and intermittent fevers. MARSUPIALS. Quadrupeds with an abdominal pouch, in which their young reside, as the opossum, kangaroo. MARTINGJAL. An attachment of the bridle fastened by a strap to the girth and furnished with two straps caiTying rings, through which the reins pass. It prevents the horse from toss- ing his head. MARUM. Bitter. In botany, the term is used to signify an herb with a strong smell. MASCAGNIN. Native sulphate of ammonia, found in volcanic districts. MASH. A soft diet occasionally given to horses. It is prepared by pouring boiling water upon a small quantity of ground malt, bran, or other similar substance, in a pail, so as just to wet It well. After this has been done. It should l)e well stirred about, till it is thoroughly mixed and sweetish to the taste, when, after becoming lukewarm, it Is in a proper state to be given to the animal. It is frequently used after purges to increase their operation, as well as after hard labor, and in the time of disease. Mashes are very useful for restoring animals in these circum- MASONRY. The art of building, especially with stone. MASSETER. The muscle which moves the lower jaw. MASSICOT. Yellow oxide of lead. MAST. The nuts or seeds of the beech, oak, chestnut, and other nut trees. (See Acorn.) MASTIC. The resin of the Pistacia kniiscus, extensively used in making varnishes; also a cement used in plastering walls. MASTIFF. The largest of watchdogs. He has small drooping ears, smooth skin; is vari- ously colored,hanging lips, large jaw, and is strong, and sometimes savage. MASTOID. Small knots or elevations on bones, etc. MATERIA MEDICA. The collection of drugs used in medicine, farriery, etc. MATRASS. A chemical flask, with a long neck, used for heating or boiling fluids. MATRIX. A womb. A place where any- thing is formed. The mineral in which metallic ores or choice crystals are imbedded. MATTER. Anything that has weight or sen- sible properties, as divisibility, impenetrability, extension . It is organized or inorganic, element- ary or compound. MATTOCK. The pickaxe. The ends may be pointed or of the figure of a chisel. MATURATION. Ripening. The formation of pus in abscesses. MAT WEED. The sea reed. MAUL. A large mallet, or beetle, to split wood. MAW. The stomach. Maw skin, the pre pared stomach for rennet. MAWBOUND. (See Gastritis). MAW SEED. The small Poppy, which see, MAXILLA. The jaw. In zoology, it mean? the upper jaw ; in entomology, the inferior pair of jaws. MAXILLARY. Related to the jaws, as the maxillary glands, arteries. MAT APPLE. Podophyllum peliatum. WiW mandrake. An herbaceous perennial, growing in moist woods, bearing one stem with two leaves; the roots are cathartic; the yellow fruit often two and a half inches long, is acid an(' pleasant; it is worthy of cultivation. MAY BEETLE, JUNE BEETLE. ZncJmos tminfusca. This is one of the greatest pests oi meadows,and occasionally of pastures. Pastures, however, are not so liable to be severely injured when fully fed down, since the continued tramp- ing of stock is not favorable to either the egg oi' the future growth of the insect. Cereal cropf also suffer sometimes to a fearful extent, and once the grubs are found in numbers it is better that the land be plowed and summer fallowed, since the grub requires to live three years in the larval state before transforming to the perfect bettle. We have seen large tracts of meadows, so completely eaten off about an inch under the surface that the sod could be rolled up like a carpet, and, of course, the field as a meadow was rendered worthless. A heavy sowing of salt will W'ptfPi" MAY BEETLE. kill the grub, but to be effective. It must be heavy enough to kill vegetation. Hogs are persistent hunters of these grubs, and if turned into a field infested will soon rid it of these pests, but, of course, also at the expense of the crop. The cut shows the insect in its several stages, as at 1, the pupa; 2, full grown larva; 3, beetle side view; 4, the same, back view. In relation to the MEADOWS 641 MEASURES application of nostrums, as salt, ashes, lime, etc , to kill these insects, it must be remembered that the first year of their lives they do comparatively little injury. The second year, unless in great numbers, the damage is not always particularly noticed. The third and last year of their life the farmer resolves to destroy them in earnest, and applies liberally the so-called specifics. The succeeding year they are not found, and he rejoices in the efficacy of the doses, but if he be an observing man, he vpill find the May Bugs (beetles) flying in great numbers. Here is the time to destroy them by killing them vsrherever found. Among the most effective means, the beetles being nocturnal, is to place torches, fed with kerosene or petroleum, in the fields. The beetles will fiy to the light, and their wings being scorched, they are incapable of further mischief. MAY TREE. The hawthorn. MAY WEED. Matricaria chUmomilla , and other plants. Perennial rooted, composite herbs, overrunning rich cultivated lands ; they should be mowed before flowering, and exterminated by cultivating hoed crops. MEAD. A wine made by fermenting one part honey boiled in three parts water, or so the liquid will bear out an egg the size of a ten-cent piece ; and flavored with various aromatic herbs, accord- ing to the taste. MEADOWS. Lands seeded down to grass to be cut for hay are terqied meadows. Those used exclusively for grazing are pastures. Never- theless, a meadow does not become a pasture simply because the aftermath is eaten off on the ground. The seeding of meadows is for an entirely diiferent purpose than that of pasturage. In meadows the idea is to select such grasses as will furnish the heaviest swarth of palatable and nutritious hay, and which shall ripen together. The principal hay grasses in the United States are. North, Kentucky blue grass, orchard grass, fowl meadow grass.smooth stalked meadow grass, tall fescue, timothy, and red top. When Ken- tucky blue grass ripens in June the other grasses will ripen as follows : orchard grass, June ; fowl meadow grass, July and August; 'smooth stalked meadow grass, July; tall fescue, June; timothy, July; red top, July and August. In seeding meadows more or less clover is generally sown. If with timothy and red top as the basis, the clover must be allowed to get pretty ripe in order that the timothy may be cut when the seeds are half formed. Then the red top will be in its prime, and the clover will have thickened at the bottom. Blue grass, orchard grass, tall fescue and clover ripen nearly enough together, so they may form the meadow; fowl meadow grass and red top ripen nearly enough together so they may be fit for hay at the same time. Clover, timothy, blue grass and orchard grass like a strong, rather dry soil, red top will grow in moist soil, so will fowl meadow grass. Timothy should not be cut close, since the bulb at the top of the ground will be injured. Clover, red top, fowl meadow, smooth stalked meadow grass, and blue grass make excellent hay for cattle and sheep. For horses, timothy, orchard grass, and blue grass make superior hay, since the hay is clean and generally free from dust. In the South, clover, blue grass, orchard grass, timothy and red top do fairly, but in the Gulf States the main dependence seems to be on crab, crowfoot, Bermuda and gama grass, which are extensively 41 sown. What is necessary. North and South, is careful experiments with various grasses both for meadow and pasture. If a meadow is to be pastured it should not be a timothy meadow, that is intended for seed. The bulb is injured, the seeds of other grasses come in and the timo- thy is ruined as a seed crop. For shipping, clean timothy sells better than any other hay, especially in city stables. At the stock yards, mixed hay is not objected to if well cured. In the seeding of meadows plenty of seed should be used. It gives a better stand, and finer hay. All the grasses may be sown in the latter part of summer. If the gTass miss, sow again in the spring. Clover should only be sown in the spring, and that as early as possible. (See article Grasses.) MEASLES. This is a parasitic disease of swine producing peculiar small cysts, scattered through the muscular and other tissues. These cysts contain the form that produces the tape worm in the intestines of the human family. If the flesh is cooked most thoroughly, these blad- der worms as they are called are destroyed, but it is better not to eat it. A hog with the measles, will have a cough, a discharge from the nose, running from the eyes, weakness of the hind parts, general debility, and there will be small pustules on the skin. Small doses of sulphur and saltpetre is recommended, daily for several weeks. Still there is little evidence that this or any other medicine will kill the worms. Once encysted they cause the animal very little fur- ther trouble. MEASURES. Measure is of length, breadth, and thickness, estimated by known lengths, or compared by other known quantities : Thus there are 12x12x12=1738 cubic inches in a cubic foot; and 3x3x3^37 cubic feet in a cubic yard. The following collated from the Library of Refer- ence, will show at a glance, the measures of capacity, weight, length, and time, both ancient and modern. Measures of capacity are : The Imperial gallon is 277,274 cubic inches. A gill, or quarter of a pint, is 8^ inches. The Imperial gallon contains 10 pounds avoirdupois of distilled water, weighed in air, at 62", with the barometer at 30 inches. Two gallons a peck, eight a bushel, and eight bushels a quarter. One English wine gallon ie equal to .0833111 Imperial gallons. One ale gallou=l .017045 Imperial. One corn bushel— 0.96943 Imperial. One Imperial gallon— 1.80032 wine gallon. One Imperial gallon=0.933811 ale gallon. One Imperial [^nllon=1.03152 com gallon. An Imperial gallon Is 4.843452 litres. Heaped measure, pei-bushel, is 2815^ cubic inches clear. The standard bushel kept at Guildhall contains 2145.6 cubic inches of water, weighing 1131 ounces and 14 penny- weights. The Winchester bushel is ISVS inches diameter and 8 inches deep, containing 2150.42 cubic inches. A quarter of com is the fourth of a ton, and eight bush- els, or two sacks. A strike is four pecks. 1000 ounces of rain water are equal to about tM gallons wine measure, or to a cubic foot. 7 pounds avoirdupois is a gallon of flour. A chaldron of coals is 58ji cubic feet. Twelve wine gallons of distilled water weigh 100 pounds avoirdupois. Nineteen cubic inches of distilled water, at 50", weigh 10 ounces, Troy. A cubic inch of distilled water at 62°, in a vacuum, is 252.724 grains. The Imperial measure for heaped goods contains 80 pounds avoirdupois of distilled water, and is 19!4 inches Irom outside to outside at the bottom; the heap to he in a cone at least six inches high from the outside; three mak- ing_ a sack and twelve sacks a chaldron, which ought to weigh 28 hundredweight. MEASURES G43 MEASURES The Imperial dry bushel, when not heaped, is 2J18.192 cubic inches; the peck 554.548: gallon 277.274, and quart 69.3185. The bushel is 8 inches deep, and 18.8 wide; with a heap 6 inches high. A tun is 2 pipes, 4 hogsheads, 3 puncheons, 8 barrels, or 252 gallons. A pipe of port is 138 gallons ; of Lisbon 140; Madeira 110; and sherry 120. The hogshead of claret is 67 gallons, and the aum of Hock 36 gallons ; Teneriffe 120, and Cape 20. A tun of wine is 2 pipes, and each pipe 2 hogsheads of 63 gallons . A tun of beer is two butts, and each butt 2 hogsheads of 54 gallons. A bushel of wheat is 60 pounds, rye 53, barley 47, oats 38, peas 6), beans 63, clover seed 68, rape 48 pounds. 53 hundred weight is a chaldron at Newcastle, England. Aked of 8 Newcastle chaldrons is lo'/4 London chaldrons. The Imperial corn bushel of 2218.192 cubic inches, is to the Winchester of 2160 42, as 33 to 31. The Imperial coal bushel of 2816.459 inches is 1 J4 inches more than i he old coal bushel of 2814.9. The Imperial wine measure is to the old measure as fi to 6; 5 Imperial gallons being 6 wine gallons and one forty- five hundredth over. The new and old ale measures are as 60 to 59. To convert old com measure into new, multiply by .96943 or thirty-one thirty-seconds; wine by .83311 or five- sixths ale by 1.01704 or fifty sixtieths. Wood, the fuel of France, is sold Dy the corde of 576 square feet: and 80 square cordes make what is called a journal. At 70° the specific gravity of water is 0.99913; at 38° is 1.00113; andat54°isl.O0OB4. The difi'erfnce between 62° and 39° in a gallon of 277.276 Inches is one-tbird of a cubic inch. A last is a commercial measure, of twelve barrels of soap, ashes, herrings, etc.; ten quarters of com, or two cart loads; twenty-four barrels of gunpowder; twelve sacks of wool; and 1,700 pounds of flax or feathers. A Scotch pint is four English pints. A Scotch pint is 105 cubic inches, and a wheat firlot 21i Scotch p'nts. The Scotch quart. 206.8 cubic inches. A tnb of butter is 84 pounds and afirkin 66 pounds. A Scotch boll is an English sack, A soldier's canteen contains three pints. A litre is 61.0279 English cubic inches, or 2% wine pints. The stere, or cubical metre, is 35.3171 cubic feet English. There are 545,2670,000 cubical yards in a cubic mile, A Roman quadrantal was a cube containing 80 pounds of water, or 48 sextaries and 8 congii. A gower was 7 pints. The jKpAa/i was the sixth part, or 1747.7 cubic inches, nearly an English cubic foot. The Winchester bushel is 35.2466 litres. The stere is 36.817 cubic feet. MBASTJRBS OP WEIGHT. Weight is the tendency or force with which bodies of various density tend to fall toward the earth. The standard of weights is the cubic inch of distilled water, weighing 252.458 troy grains ; the troy poand 5760 grains, or 22.8157 inches The same standard of 7,000 troy grains makes the poundavoirdupois,27.7274cubicinches: ten of which or 277.271 beiugthelmperialgallon; aquart 69.32; and a gill, of 5 ounces of water, equal 8.664. In Troy weight, S4 grains make a pennyweight, (mean- ing graias of wheat) 480 an ounce and 5760 a pound. ; or 30 pennyweights an ounce and 12 ounces a pound. Ill Apothecaries' weight, twenty grains make a scrapie, 60 a drachm ; and then as in troy weight, 480 makes an ounce, and 5,760 a pound. There are 12 ounces to the pound, 8 drachms to an ounce, 3 scruples to a drachm, and 20 grains or drops to a scruple. The drachm is 60 grains. In Avoirdupois weight, 16 drachms make an ounce; 256 apound; 16 ounces a pound ; 112poundsahundred«'eight; and 20 hundredweight or 2,240 pounds, a ton, English. The American ton is 2,000 pounds. 175 pounds troy are equal to 141 pounds avoirdupois; and 1*75 ounces troy are equal to 192 ounces avoirdupois. 80 oances avoirdupois are equal to 73 ounces troy, and 14 pounds avoirdupois to 17 troy. A troy pnund is 13 ounces 2.65 drams avoirdupois ; and a pound avoirdupois is 1 pound 2 ounces 11 pennyweights 16 grains troy. The avoirdupois pound of 7,000 grains is 453.61 French grammes; and the troy pound, 5,760 grains, is 373.14 grammes. One troy ponnd=0.822857 Imperial pound. One Imperial pound— 1.215271 pounds troy. Henry III, enacted that an ounce should be 640 dry grains of wheat; 12ounces a pound; 8 pounds a gallon of wine; and 8 gallons a London bushel. Latterly the malt lic|Uor measure has been 282 inches to the gallon, and the wine measure 231. 7,000 grains of water,thermometer 62 degrees,and barom- eter 30 inches, are 1 pound avoirdupois. The French gramme is 15.434 English grains. The smaller French weights are in tenths, decreasing, as deci, centi, and milli grammes. The larger are deca, hecato, chilio, and mirio grammes, in tenths, increasing. The kilo-gramme, or 1,000 grammes is equal to 2 pounds, 2 ounces, 4 grains avoirdupois. In (ireece, a drachma was 2 pennyweights, 16 grains ; a minae 1 pound, V/^ ounces; a talent 67 pounds, 7 ounces, 6 pennyweights. The Roman weights were the As, equal to 12 ounces, and the uucia an ounce. The American quintal is 100 pounds. The Mysore cutcha seer is 9 ounces, IIH drachms. A bale of Egyptian cotton is 90 pounds, of Brazil 160, of Georgian and Sea Islands 280, Orleans 300, East India 300, West India 350 to 400. A pack of sheep's wool is 240 pounds. The livre, or French pound, is 500 grammes, or 7,714 grains English, or 1 pound, 1 1-5 ounce. 10 drachms avoir- dupois. The quintal, of 100 kilo-grammes, is 220.486 pounds. The Bengal maundis74 pounds, 10 ounces, \0% drachms avoirdupois : the^eer 1 pound, 13 ounces, 13.866 drachms ; the chattock 1 ounce, 13.366 drachms. The Baza maund is 82 pounds, 2 ounces. A seam of glass is 24 stone of 5 pounds each. The weight of a cubic inch of distilled water, in a vacuum is 252.722 grains; and in air is 262.456 grains. The quintal is 10 mirio-grammes, or 2 hundredweight, or 224 pounds, English, nearly. A sack of wool is 22 stone of 14 pounds, or 308 pounds. In Scotland, it is 24 stone of 16 pounds. A pack of wool is 17 stone 2 pounds, or a horse load. A tod of wool is 2 stone of 14 pounds each ; and a sack is 13 tod; 12 sacks is a last, or 4,368 pounds. 50 or 60 pounds is a truss ol bay, old or new, and 40 pounds a truss of straw; 36 trusses being a load. A Spanish quintal is 312 Spanish pounds. The arroba is 25 Spanish pounds, of 6,644 grains each ; and 6 arrobas make a quintal. The Portuguese arroba contains 32 Lisbon pounds of 7,005 grains. The Venetian mirre contains 30 pounds of 4,215 grains. The shippondt of the northern nations i;", in Sweden, for copper 320 pounds, of 9211 grains, and for provisions 400 such pounds. At Riga it is 40J pounds of 6,149 grains. At Hamburgh 300 pounds of 7,315 grains. 100 pounds English is equal to Ui% pounds of Russia, to 93 pounds 5 ounces of Hamburgh, and to 132 pounds 11 ounces at Leghorn, and 104 pounds 13 ounces in Port- ugal, and 91 pounds 8 ounces at Amsterdam. The commercial pound of Amsterdam is 7,636 grains, and the troy pound equal to 7,602 grains. The Dutch stone is 16 pounds. The Norwajr pound is 7,833 grains. The Spanish pound is 7,038 grains. The Chinese kin is 6,802 grains, or 376 two-tenths French grammes. The Turkish pound is 7,678 grains. The Danish 6,941. The Irish 7,774. The Naples 4,952. The Scotch pound troy 7620.8. The Smyrna pound 6944. The following table shows the weight, in pounds, of a cubic foot, of the following substances: Loose earth or sand Common soil Strong soil Clay Clay and stones Mason's work Distilled water Pure gold Pure silver Cast iron Steel Lead Platina Copper Cork Portland st^ne Tallow Oak Brick Crown glass Fir Mahogany Air 124 127 136 160 206 62.6 1203.626 664.8 460.45 489.8 709.5 1218.75 486.76 15 167.5 59 73.16 126 180.75 34.376 66.4 0.0753 ItlEASURES 643 MEASURES MBASUKES OF LENGTH. Measures in length are the distance of one •object from another in some agreed standard. A line 16 the tenth of a digit, and the 100th of a foot. A digit measure is three-fourths of an inch, or 4 barley- -corna laid breadthways. A hair's breadth is the 48th of an inch. A barleycorn is .00217th of a cubic inch, or about 460 jnake a cubic inch, or 3 to an inch in length. A geometrical pace is 4.4 feet English, and an English jnile contains 1,200, or 1,760 yards, or 5,880 feet. The Paris foot is 9 lines shorter than the English foot, ■or 0.91 tol. The Roman foot was 0.915. The Ehineland or Leyden foot is 0.86935 English. A Scotch mile contains 1,500 paces. A German mile 4,000. A Swedish andDanishmile5,000. 'The Hussian mile 750 paces. A great league in France is 3,000 paces, and a mean league «,500. A nautical league is one-twentieth of a degree. A hand used for horses is 4 inches. A degree of latitude is 69 one-seventh English miles at *he equator. A nail's breadth is the 16th of a yard, or 254 inches. A sur\'eyor's chain is 4 poles, or 66 feet, divided into -100 links of 7.92 inches. A square chain is 16 poles, and 10 square chains are an acre. 640 acres are a square mile ; and 4,840 square yards are .an acre, 169.58 yards each way. The Irish acre 7,840 square yards. A 3?rench ai-pent five-sixths of an English acre. The Scotch acre 1.27 English. Idl Irish acres are equal to 196 English. 48 Scotch acres are equal to 61 English. 11 Irish miles are equal to 14 English. 80 Scotch miles are equal to 91 English. The Turkish dreah, or pik, is 3 palmi, or 26.41 inches, -and the lesser pik is 19.03 inches. The jaghire is 10.46 English inches. A cawney is rather' jnore than an acre. A hide of land was one plow's work. An ox-gang is 15 acres, or as much as an ox can plow in .a year. The long-line adopted in the navy is 48 feet. A sea league is 3.4536 miles, or the 20th of a degree. 6,078 feet are a sea mile. A palm is 3 inches. A fathom 6 feet. The French metre is 36.9413 French inches, or 39.371 English, or 3.2389 feet. In Greece, a digit was three-fourths of an inch, a cubit 13J4 inches, and a large cubit 18^4 inches; a pace 2 yards and H an inch, a stadium 201 yards 1 foot 3 and two-fifths inches ; 8 and two-thirds stadia a mile nearly. The ple- Tthron, 10,000 square feet. A Bengal coss is 6 000 feet, or 1 mile 240 yards. The haut or cubit is 18 inches. A baggah of land is 1,600 square yards, about a third of an acre. A span was 10,944 inches. Ezekiel's reed was 10 feet, 11 and one-third inches. A Sabbath day's journey was 1,155 yards or about two- thirdis of a mile. A day's journey was 33^ miles. The Egyptian cubit, or ardub, was 21.888 inches. The Greek foot was 12J4 inches. The Hebrew foot was 1.212 English feet. The Hebrew €ubit 1.817; the sacred cubit 2 English feet; and the great «ubit 11 English feel. The stadium, 625 feet; and the milliarium, 5,000 feet. The Amsterdam foot is .927; and the ell 2.233. The Berlin foot .992. The Bologna foot .125. The Brabant ell 2.268. The Brussels foot .95. The Chinese imperial foot 1.05. 'The Chinese lie is 629 yards. The Turkish foot is 1.165. The Florence foot .995. The Geneva foot 1.919. The Hamburgh foot .933. "The Italian mile 5,299 feet. "The Portuguese foot .952. The Madrid foot .915. The Moscow foot .928. The Neapolitan mile, four German miles, or one-sixtieth -of a degree. The Koman palm .733. The Roman foot .966. The Roman mile ime seventy-fifth of a degree. The geographical or Italian mile is 1,000 geometrical paces, or five-sixths of an English mile. The Roman braccio is four palms. The cauna eight palms. The Russian werst is 3,608 English feet, about two-thirds ■cf a mile. The Scotch ell is 37 2-10 inches. The Scotch mile 5,952 feet. The Spanish league 4 miles English. ' The Swedish foot 1.073 English feet. The Venice foot 1.14. The "Venice ell 2.089. The Vienna foot 1.036. The Vienna post mile 24.888. The Wirtemburg foot 11.28. The Levant pig is three-fifths of the French ell. The Venetian ell is eight-fifteenths of the French ell. The candi, of India, is equal to the Venetian ell. In Siam, the ken is 86 inches nearly, and is divided into 2 soks; these into 2 keubs; and each keub into 12 nlons, at 5C of an inch. 3 inches is a palm; 3 palms, or 9 inches, a span. 5 feet is a pace. 2 yards is a fathom. The German mile is the 15th of a degree of latitude, or more than 41,4 miles English. A league is 3 sea miles. 17 Spanish leagues is a degree, or about 4 miles, which is the Dutch and German league. The Persian league, or paraeang, is 30 stadia or furlongs. The Paris line .0888. The Paris ell is 43.9 inches. The French toise 6 feet 4.T33 inches. The French league 1-25 of a degree. The French metre 39.37079 inches. The metre is 443.2959 lines, and .513074 of a French toise. Eight chili- ometres is about 5 miles English. 1,000 feet is nearly 305 metres. The metre is the ten millionth part of the quadrant of the earth from the equator to the north pole. It differs slightly from the length of a pendulum which, in the lati- tude of London, vibrates seconds in a vacuum, at the level of the sea, where it is 39.1393 inches; therefore, the metre is only .23 of an inch longer than our pendulum. The millimetre, or thousandth part, .03937 inches Eng- lish. The centimetre .39371. The decimetre 3.93708. The decametre is 10 times the metre. The hecatometre 100 times. The chiliometre 1,000 times ; and the myriametre 10,000 times. The area is 3.95 English perches. An inch English is 2.54 centimetres; a yard is 0.91438 metres; and a mile is 1609.3149 metres. The French metre is the ten millionth of a quadrant of the earth, taken as 6217.857 English miles, or 32,809,167 feet, and a mean degree of latitude at 69.0429. A cen- tesimal degree is ,54 minutes. A league at 25 to a degree Is 2.7617 miles. A post league 2,000 toises, or 2.3 miles English; a toise being 6 feet 6% inches English. The pied one-sixth of the toise; and the aune 3 feet 11 j^ inches English. A degree at the equator is 365,101 feet, or 69.148 miles, or 69 1-7 nearly. In latitude 66.20 Mauperlius measured a degree of latitude, in 1737, and made it 69.403: and Swan- berg, in 1803, made it 69.292. At the equator, in 1744, four astronomers made it 68.732; and Lambton. in lati- tude 12, 68.743. Mudge, in England, makes it 69.148- Cassini, in France, in 1718 and 1740, made it 69.12, and Biot 68.769: while a recent measure in Spain makes it but 68.63, less than at the equator; and contradicts ail the others proving the earth to be a prolate spheroid, which was the opinion of Cassini, Bernouilli, Euler, and others, while it has more generally been regarded as an oblate spheroid. Degrees of longitude are to each other in length, as the cosines of their latitudes. Longitudinal lines run from north to south; latitude from east to west. For every 10° they are as follows: Equator 69.2 10° 68.15 20 65.27 30 59.93 40 63.1 50 44.48 55 39 69 60 84.6 70 23.67 80 12.02 The diameter of the equatorial circle is 41,837,494.8 feet, and its circumference 131,436,444 feet, which, in a sidereal day, gives a velocity of 1,.535 feet per second of rotation. Then 1,525 x 4—6100 for the velocity of the surface of the whole sphere, which+16.08728. the mean force per second, gives 93.132 feet per second for the orbit velocity of the earth; and this multiplied by 31 558,161 seconds in a sidereal year, gives a mean orbit of 586,527,362-6 miles; and a mean radius, or distance from the earth to the sun, of 93,348,800 miles. The aphelion distance is 94,918.500 miles, and the perihelion 91 779,000. MEASURES 644 MEASURES The pendulum which Tibrates seconde 39.1393 inches at London, is the standard for the British measures. One mile Is equal to 1B18.833 such pendulums. MEASTTBES OF TIME. Time is best defined as the succession of motion and phenomena, independent of relative human perceptions. Time is measured by man by the impressions of successive ideas, and these diminish in a ratio of their own increase ; conse- quently, time appears less as men advance in age, or are variously employed. At ten, a year seems to be twice as long as at twenty; three times as at thirty; four times less at forty; five times at fifty; and six times at sixty; circumstances of employment and position being the same. Hence a month employed in traveling seems equal to three of usual pursuits. Time being mentally measured by the impressions of new ideas. Absolute time, independent of the feelings of individuals, is measured by certain regular motions, as the rotation of the earth, the swing of a pendulum, the fall of a body, the revolu- tions of the moon round tiie earth, or the eartli r6und the sun. The tropical year is 365 days 5 hours 48 minutes 51.6 seconds; but the sidereal year, or return to the same star, is 365 days 6 hours 9 minutes 11 seconds; but as the line of apsides or aphelion point advances 655 seconds, the orbit is completed in 865 days .6 hours 15 minutes 20 seconds, and this is called the anoma- listic year. The Chaldeans made the sidereal year 365 days 6 hours 14 minutes, or one minute 49 seconds more than our present year, and the tropical year 865 days 5 hours 49 minutes 80 seconds, being 38 minutes 4 seconds more than ours. If Hypparchus was right in his measure of the tropical year, it is 11.3 seconds less than in his time. The B.rahmins made it 1 minute .43 seconds more than now. The precession of the equinoxes is performed in 35,868 years ; and the revolution of the line of apsides is 20,931, or 1 degree, 43 minutes, 10 seconds in a century. The precession ol the equinoxes is 50 minutes ^-seconds per annum, or 1 degree 5'.i minutes 45 seconds in a century, or the 360 degrees in 25,868 years. Leap year is the year which divides evenly by four; but the year 1900 will not be leap year, to make up for the odd minutes gained between the astronomical and computed year, as 365 days. The astronomical equinoxes are on the aist of March and the Slst of September, and the sun is in the tropics on the 21st of December or June. Quarter days in civil reckoning are March 25, June 34, September 29, and December 25, being festivals of the Catholic Church. The Synodlcal lunar month of her departure from the sun's center to the return, or from full to full, is 29 days 12 hours 44 minutes 12 seconds, and was the universal month of the ancients, twelve being accounted a year. The difference between the solar and lunur year is nearly eleven days. The sun and moon return invariably to the same relative positions every 223 lunations; according to the ancient Chaldeans in 6585 days 8 hours. Our modem tables make it 17.29 seconds less. The Eastern nations, where the day varies little, reckon the day from sunrise. The Romans reckoned as we do, from midnight Christian nations assign thirty days to April, June, September, and November, thirty-one to other months, and twenty-eight to February, making three hundred and sixty-flve; but three hundred and sixty-six in Leap-year, when February is twenty-nine. The Romans added the day in Leap-year on the sixth of the calends of March, making two- sixths or bis eexius^ and hence the word Bissextile. The astronomical day is the time which elapses from the sun's being on the meridian of a place till his return, divided into twenty-four hours of sixty minutes. And astrono- mers begin the day at the departure of the sun from the meridian of the place, counting twelve hours till midnight, p.m. or after; and twelve hours from midnight till noon a.m. or before; their day after twelve at night beingaday later than civil reckoning, which begins a new day at twelve at night, and reckons from twelve at nighr. to twelve the next night. Ah the earth advances in its orbit 61 minutes 9.9 seconds, when in its peiihelionj and only 57 minntes 10.7 seconds, when in its aphelion, while it returns the same meridian to the sun, that meridian arrives at the same fixed star in twenty -three hours 56 minutes 41 seconds or 3 minutes 5.59 seconds less : others make it twenty- three hours 56 minutes 34 seconds or 3 minutes 56.6. seconds less. Sidereal days are always the same, and accord with a true clock; but owing to the unequnl velocity, as expressed, of the earth in its orbit in the perihelion and aphelion, the sun's return to the meridian varies; and also- as the earth's path is inclined to the axis of rotation, the^ solar days vary. Owing to the first cause, the extreme difference is 7 minutes 39 seconds on March 21, and 6 minutes 5 seconds on May 6; on July 1, making the sun slower than the clock; but owing to the obliquity it is on March 21 ; 9 minutes 53 seconds on May 6th, and O- June 22, making Ihe sun faster than the clock. Thecom- bination of both causes produces the table of equation of time by which true clocks ought to he kept faster or slower than the meridian sun or a sun dial, called appar- ent time, and the other true or mean time. As the earth moves forward in its orbit 59 minutes 8.8 seconds, while it turns on its axis, anyplace arrives at a fixed star 3 min- utes 56.6 seconds, before it arrives again at the center of the sun, called twenty-foarnours; hence ihesider.'al day is but 24 hours 66 minutes 3.4 seconds, which i» the lual period of revolution. Hence, in 365 solar days, the e rth turns 366 times on its axis, and by this exact qnau.i.y it gains in its orbit with reference to the sun and star,~ in every revolution, and hence the procession of the equi- noxes. For as the orbit is caused by the sun, imd the equinoxes have reference to the sun and not to the- stars, so the equinoxes fall back 24;89a miles, or in space .50.30 seconds with reference to the stars. Every other body like the earth turns once on its axis by going round a central body, and this, therefore, is the sole cause of the equinoxial points. The Chal- deans, Egyptians, and Jews, began their civi 1 year from the- autumnal equinox. The Persians, (jieek.-'. liomans. and the English till 1752, began the yearat the vernal equinox. Theuce to make dates agree with those of other nations, between January and Lady-day, writers used to put two- 1708 dates, as Feb. 10, The bottom date being from 1709 January 1, and the upper thatfrom the previous Lady-day.. Sidereal days are always 23 hours 56 minutes 3.4 seconds ; but as the axis of the earth is inclined to the orbit, and the- earth moves iaster iu the winter than in the summer the clocks which measure equal time do not agree with the sun. A clock and a sun dial will, therefore, vary as follow8:March 21, clock too fast7 minutes 35 seconds; April 5. do. 2.55 seconds; April 20, June 13, September 5, December 25, they are equal. When the sun is in Libra and Scorpio, or in October and November, the ditference is from ten minutes to 16 minutes 18 seconds, and the clock ought to be so much faster than the dial. The difference of velocity makes the dial faster than tile clock, while the earth is moving from its perihe- lion on January 1, to the aphelion July 1; and on the contrary, the dial is slower from July 1 to January 1. But the obliquity makes the dial faster from March 21 to June- 22; and from September 22 to December 21, and slower- from June 2i to September 22, and from December 21 to March 21. The union of both produces the common equa- tion table, page 89, showing to the nearest minute how much a true clock should be faster or slower than the sun. The pendulum for true and exact measuring of time was a suggestion of Galileo, in consequence of his observing the -oscillations of a chandelier. Every oscillation, whe- ther long or short, of the same pendulum, is pei-fornied in the same time. A pendulum which vibrates seconds iit London ought to be 39.1 39 inches nearly, and the length of ?endulnms for less or greater times is as the square of time, a India a day is divided into 60 Ghui-ries. a Ghui-ry- into 60 Puis, a Pul into 60 Prans. and a Pran into lO Tap,, in S-5ths of a second. The beats in an hour of a common second's clock are 3.600, and 17.280 a common watch ; but second watches beat 18,000 times, or 5 per second. A lumi- nous point to produce avisual circle must go round seven, times in a second. Fewer than 80 vibrations in a second give no sound, and when the vibrations exceed 7,520 in a, second the tones cease to be discriminated. 10 beats of a, liealthy pulse is equal to 9 seconds. The Roman lustra were periods of 5 years; and the Greek olympiads periods of 4 years; and the first commenced in 776 B. C. The Metonick cycle Was 19 years, intended to be Squivalent to- the Chaldean period. It was afterward adopted as the- golden number for Saster. The Hegira, or Flight, took place July 16, 622, and is the Mahomedan Era. Their year IS 12 lunar months, or 354 days 8 hours 48 minutes; and 11 days being lost, a year must be allowfd every 33. to- recont-ile their dates with ours. The periodical month of the Turks and Arabs, or sidereal period of the Moon is 27 days 7 hours 43 minutes 48 seconds. The synodlcal month, or return to the conjunction of the Sun is 29 days 12 hours 44 minutes 3 seconds 11 thirds. The Jews began the year in March, and the months were Nisan, Zif» IVIEASURES 045 MECHANICAL POWERS Sivan, Tammnz, Ab, Elal, Tisri, Bui. Cisleu, Tibeth, She- bat, Adar. The Sabbath, or seventh day is Saturday. The ^ays and nighte, from sunrifie to suusei, were divided into twelve equal parts or hours, 1, 2, 3, etc. The night watches were three hours each, from suuset to sunriKC. The months were lunar, or 30 days and 29 days, and they intro- duced un exira month every two or three years. The day <;ommence8 and ends atsunset. The Jewish months were -alternately 29 and 30 days, and their year of twelve luna- tions 354 days. Their year commences with the vernal equinox. To recover the four days they intercalcate a wnole month after every two or three years, ioUowing their twelfth month, or Adar; and they call this extra month, ve-adar. The Jewish day commences at six in the ■evening, or sunset, and continues till the same hour on the following evening. Their civil year commences with the new moon near the vernal equinox, in the month called Tisri, of 30 days, corresponding with pa^t of September And part of October. The year 1829 was the Jewish year 5539, and ended September 27, beginning September 9, 1828. tt B OD EC .S i ua B A •« ^ ■«L> K P 3 Ix S fl g >» 9 B 03 & o c3 a* •- ^ n H j§ a n H S January 1 4 August 9 5 §i i( 3 5 d 15 4 tS " 5 6 d " 20 3 S " 7 7 CQ *' 24 2 •?, *' 9 8 ^ • * 28 1 s *' 12 9 g »' 31 O 15 10 *' 18 11 5 September 3 1 " 21 12 s*. 6 2 a it 25 13 ■f 9 3 rS *' 31 14 ■S 12 4 ^ February 10 15 ^ 15 5 S '* 21 14 g 18 ?i " 27 13 3 21 ilarch 4 12 u 24 8 S '* 8 11 27 9 S " 12 10 30 10 1 (I 15 9 October 3 11 1 19 8 *» 6 12 " '■ 22 7 '* 10 13 ■« '- 25 6 *' 14 14 o " 28 5 fe " 19 15 O April 1 4 § It 27 16 n 4 3 a Notember 15 15 '* 7 2 ■", 20 14 d 13 a '* 11 1 O *' 24 15 s (( 27 30 13 " 11 S *» 19 1 December 2 10 « ' 2t 2 ci 6 9 § May 30 13 8 4 S •3 " 7 9 8 a 7 ^ *' 29 3 ^ " 11 6 £ 6 S June 5 2 g " 13 " 10 1 ** 16 4 « " 15 Q u 18 20 II (4 80 1 k 11 22 1 3 ♦» 25 2 -2 " 24 29 3 Jnly 5 4 ^ " 26~ 1 S *^ 11 5 I '• 28 2 S 28 6 3 30 3 S The Mahometan year In 18S9 was 1244, and ended July 2, beginning July 14. The Persians gave names to every day In the month, just as we give them to days of the week. Saturdaj^, the 7th day, is, by the Arabs, called Sabt. And Monday is called Jama, in all the Eflstem languages. Law proceedings preserve the Roman names of the days, as JOies Solus, Lunae, Martis, Mercurii, Jovis, Veneris, and Saturni, derived from the ^ioman deities. But in ordinary nse, the names are deiived from the Saxon or Teutonic deities, the Sun, Moon,Tue8co.Woden,Thor,Friga,and Sat- urn. Themonth8,orlunarperiod8,areRoman: andSeptem- ber, October, November, ond December were so called when the Roman year began in March. April Is so called from Aperit, the spring. As the orbits of the planets complete their seasons, their periods are taken to be their years; hence Mercury has nearly 4 years in ours; Venus two-tbirds; Mars is nearly 4 times as lone; Jupiter 12 times; Saturn .SO; Herschel 83; and more distant planets lon; 2.33 Alkalinesalts (containing phosphoric acid) 2.91 (0.31> 56.29 Sugar 100.00 100.00 The second sample, it will be seen, contains nearly twice as much fat (pure butter) as the first, which was evidently produced from skim-milk. The sample No. 1 had a nice taste, and, not- withstanding the deficiency of butter, was a superior preparation in comparison with the second sample, which had a disagreeable taste of rancid butter. A much better description of concentrated milk has been prepared for a good many years past in America under Borden's MILK 653 MILK patent, and a few years since an American Com- pany—the Anglo-Swiss Condensed Milk Com- pany — had established a factory at Cham, near Zug, in Switzerland, for the production of pure Swiss preserved milk. This company, with a •capital of £13,000, employs about sixty opera- tives in their factory. The number of cows hired for the year is 1,440, and the average amount of ■condensed milk prepared daily during each of the 365 days of the year is 110 cases, of four dozen each of one pound cans; these equal 1,937,300 cans as the product of the year. The price of the crude milk is about two pence per quart; and the daily cost of the tins or cans made at this establishment amounts to £16 10s. About one-half of the product is sent direct to London, where one-half is consumed, while the remainder goes for ships' stores, is exported to the colonies, and sent to the provincial towns of England. One-half of the produce not sent to London is distributed over Germany, and there is some demand from France and Russia. The success of the condensing factory depends entirely upon the ability to put a fine flavored, perfect article into the market. The milk must be uniformly good, and a fastidious neat- ness and cleanliness must be observed in the establishment. The milk is evaporated down in vacuo at a uniform temperature of 160° Fahr., with the addition of the best refined white sugar, until it reaches the consistency of thick syrup or honey. It takes about seven hours to condense the milk, seventy-five per cent, of its original bulk in water being driven off. The condensed milk thus prepared has been preserved in good condition for years. Mixed with three to four pints of water it readily dissolves, yielding a somewhat sweet but agreeably tasting fluid, having a flavor of boiled milk. It consists of nothing but cows' milk and the best white sugar, and is well adapted for use during long voyages and in all other situations where good cows' milk is not readily procurable. A sample of preserved milk prepared by the Anglo-Swiss Company, on analysis, yielded the following results : Water 24.89 Fat (pure batter) 8.36 Caserne (curd) 10.15 (containing nitrogen) (1.624) Milk and cane-sugar 54.18 Mineral matter (aeli) 2.42 100.00 About one-half of the solid substances of the condensed thilk consists of sugar added in the process of condensation. The remainder con- sists of butter, caseine. milk-sugar, and ash con- stituents. It is but right to state that the analyses of other samples of preserved milk, prepared by the Anglo-Swiss Company, show about ten per cent, of butter, and somewhat less water than was found in the sample analyzed In buying condensed milk, however, one should know that it is pure. It is chemical test alone which will solve this. The only other recourse is to buy only of respectable companies who have a reputation to lose. It should be labeled so as to show that it is whole milk, honestly condensed. In fact all commodities of sustenance should be branded just what they are, and, if found adulterated or subtracted from, heavy penalties should be attached. The following tables will show some interesting information in relation to condensed milk taken from the United States Department of Agriculture Report for 1873 : Components. s M-6 n 8%^ Butter pr.cent. 4.00 4.00 5.00 0.65 86.35 pr.cent. 16.00 16.00 20.00 2.60 45.40 pr.cent. 1.75 15.80 18.90 2.21 61.34 Caseine . . . . Sugar Salts Water 100.00 100.00 100.00 In the latter case there remained not more than one-eighth of the butter contained in the original milk, seven-eighths having been skimmed off and sold for cream. It is a notorious fact that most of the condensed milk companies regularly send cream to the New York market. It is added that anatyses of samples of the plain condensed milk of several companies, presented by Dr. Chandler in May 1873, are as follows: Components. i d 1 13 § i o to u o m Batter Caseine Sugar pr. cent. 13.74 14.12 17.24 2.64 52. S6 pr.cent. 11.39 12.96 14.12 2. .30 59.28 pr. cent. 11.67 12.63 13.89 2.24 59.57 pr. cent. 11.77 1303 14.38 2 36 58.46 pr.cent. 13.12 U.44 16.30 2.60 53.54 Salts 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 Of the average adulteration of milk and its effect on prices, Dr. Chandler calculates, from long- continued investigation, that the milk supply of New York and Brooklyn receives, on an average, one quart of water to every three quarts of pure milk before the commodity reaches consumers. As the result of a large number of experiments with milk from different breeds. Dr. Sturtevant presents the following conclusions: The butter- globules of the milk show a certain and-definite relation between the quality of the milk and the breed. The breed determines, to a large extent, the composition of the butter. The breed deter- mines, to a large extent, the most economical and advantageous manufacture of cheese. In the Ayrshire and Jersey breeds he considered his experiments fairly complete; in the Dutch or Holstein breed, more limited. As to the charac teristics of the milk of these different breeds, as indicated by his experiments. Dr. Sturtevant says: The milk-globule of the Jersey breed is larger than is the corresponding globule of the other breeds mentioned, and there are fewer globules under a certain size, one twenty-seven thousandth of an inch, and such, for convenience, I shall call granules. The milk-globule of the Ayrshire breed is smaller than that of the Jersey, and intermediate in size between those of the Jer- sey and Holstein, and the milk from individual cows of the Ayrshire breed can be grouped into two classes or grades, according to the size and distribution of the globules. This milk abounds MILK 653 MILKIN& in granules. The milk-globule, of the Holsteln is the smallest of the three. The globules are more uniform in their size than in the Ayrshire milk, and there are fewer granules. The globules determine some of the physical characteristics of the milk. If samples of the Jersey, Ayrshire and Dutch milk are placed in a percentage-glass, under like conditions, it will be noticed that the cream will rise in each sample with a different rapidity ; the larger globules, on account of their less specific gravity, reaching the surface first. As a matter of experiment, some Jersey milk threw up its cream in four hours, leaving a blue skim-milk ; some Ayrshire samples, in about ten hours, leaving a white skim-milk scarcely recog- nizable as such ; some Dutch milk, in about, five hours, leaving a blue skim-milk. The larger milk-globules, and few granules being in part the explanation of the first, the evenness of size of milk-globules and few granules the interpretation of the reaction of the third, and the numerous granules and unevenness of size of globule offer- ing a solution for the appearance and action of the second sample. The milk of these breeds acts differently in the churn. The larger the globule, the quicker is the butter produced from the milk; and the more uniform the size of the globule, the larger the yield of butter from a given quantity of cream of equal richness by analysis. The globules of similar size appear to be evenly affected by the process of churning, and break at about the same time. This was well illustrated by an experiment made of churn- ing a portion of milk from two cows separately, and weighing the produce. The amount of but- ter was largely in excess of that gained by churn- ing the same quantity of the same milk mixed, and the microscope revealed the cause. A curi- ous feature brought out by these experiments is, that the mixed milk from two breeds will not pro- duce as much butter as will the same milk churned separately. The explanation is in the variation in the sizes of the globules. When a large-globuled milk and a small-globuled milk are churned together, the larger globules sepa- rate first into butter, and the breaking of the smaller globules appears to be retarded. "When, therefore, a Jersey cow is kept in an Ayrshire or Dutch herd for the purpose of influencing the color of the butter, the large globules of the Jer- sey milk are broken first in the churn; and while the smaller globules are being broken, the butter which first came is being overchurned, and theoretically, at least, the quality of the result is impaired, if not the quantity lessened. When a few Ayrshire or Dutch cows are kept in a herd of Jerseys, and the milk churned together, both theoretically and practically a large portion of the butter of the small-globuled milk is left in the buttermilk in the state of globules. Dr. Sturte- vant arranges the breeds in the order of the aver- age size of the milk-globules, as follows : Jersey, Ayrshire, (butter family); Ayrshire, Holsteln, or Dutch (cheese family). Likewise we can arrange the breeds in accordance with certain properties of the milk : the rapidity with which the cream rises — Jersey, Ayrshire, Dutch ; the rapidity with which the cream churns — jersey, Ayrshire, Dutch; the completeness with which the cream rises — Jersey, Dutch, Ayrshire; the value of the milk for cheese — Ayrshire, Dutch, Jersey; quali- ties desirable for the milk-retailer — Ayrshire, first; Dutch or Holstein, second; Jersey, third. In conclusion, the following, condensed from a statement by Mr. Gold, of Connecticut, will show the importance not only of keeping the cows healthy but also of exceptional cleanliness in the care of milk, from the time of milking through every stage of its manipulation. Cows differ almost as much in the quality of their milk as they do in their external form- and appear- ance. The amount of the principal constituents, as caseine or curd, butter, oil, and sugar, can be easily ascertained and their variations marked, but there are more subtle qualities, giving rise to flavor and to its hygienic properties, which, while more difficult of determination, are of no less importance in a sanitary point of view and in the estimation of the customer. If the pro- duct varies so much when the animal is in health, how will it be when disease supervenes to form another important element in the calculation? Cows often continue to give a good flow of milk under local and constitutional disorders. The cow-pox, the fouls, garget, disturbances of the alimentary canal, foot and mouth disease, and pleuropneumonia, though interrupting, do not always prevent, the secretion of milk. The cow- pox, even in its mildest form, often causes the teats to crack and bleed, and the exudation may. drop into the pail. Harsh handling of the uddei' in milking, or some slight injury, often causes, one-quarter to give bloody milk; and garget, when it does not entirely stop the flow of milk, injures its quality in all degrees of vileness. All the secretions of an unhealthy animal must be tainted, and milk is no exception. Garlic and onions, and in some degree the cabbage family, to which the turnip belongs, give their peculiar odor to the milk. Weedy pastures abound in vegetation of strong odors and taste, liable to be transferred to the milk. Drink as well as food may introduce impurities. Out of 170 familiea supplied with milk from a dairy in Islington, England, seventy suffered from typhoid fever. One hundred and sixty-eight individual cases occurred in ten weeks, and thirty died. An investigation showed that the cows drank water from an old undergi'ound tank, built of wood and much decayed. Prof. Law, of Cornell Univer- sity, relates a similar case where the milk had a ropy or slimy character, and a microscopic examination revealed the presence of certain animated germs, which had their rise in the filthy pool from which the cows drank. These entered into the secreted milk, and there multi- plied to such a degree as to render it entirely unflt for food. Even impure air breathed by the cow will taint her milk. It is reported on good authority that the milk from a dairy in the State of New York when brought to the cheese factory was found tainted, and on examination the cause was discovered to be a putrid carcase lying in the pasture. Milk and cream set in the dairy are very susceptible to odors of every kind. The 'smoke of the kitchen, of cooking vegetables, are readily absorbed. The proximity of the hog-pen, or of the milking-yard, sometimes taints the milk. Wherever milk is kept, either in "the spring-house or dairy, every pains should be taken to secure a pure atmosphere. When the milk is set in a kitchen, dust and smoke will affect it injuriously, and first-quality butter can not be made from it. MILKING. The importance of regularity, care, and system in milking can not be overesti- MILLET 654 MITE mated. The quicker a cow is milked, the more ■completely will the milk be given down, and the ability to milk fast is only acquired by practice and an attention to the proper manner of obtain- ing the milk most easily. The act of milking is •difficult to be described, and yet easy enough •once the individual has been shown how. The teat should be grasped by the hand, the thumb and fore-linger should be first closed around the teat, and then the others in quick succession. Having squeezed it dry, raise the hand to the lower part of the udder, but without letting go entirely of the teat. It will almost instantly fill again, proceed as before, working each hand alternately, and so continue until the udder is stripped clean. When you begin to milk do not cease until you have milked the cow entirely clean. Slow milking not only needlessly worries the cow, and in the end dries her up, for if not taken as fast as it is given down it is apt in the end to be withheld. Milking should be done by grasping the teats diagonalljr, one forward and -one hinder one. In stripping do not use the thumb and fore-finger pulling down. Every drop can be had by pressing the hand well up and under the bag, gathering the milk with the thumb and fore-finger, and pi'essing it out with the others. ■ MILKTREE, COWTREE. Oalactodendron dulce. A tree of South America, of the same family as the fig ( Uriicaceoi). The sap obtained by tapping is like milk, and very palatable ; it contains a creamy matter like beeswax, fibrin, sugar, an acid, salts, and water. Other trees also yield milk, as the Olusia galactodendron and the Tabernce Montana utilis. The milky juice of most plants is acrid, and often very poisonous. MILK VESSELS. In plants, the anastomos- ing tubes lying in the bark or near the surface of plants, in which a white, turbid fluid is secreted. MILK-VETCH. Astragalus. This is an ex- tensive genus of herbaceous and shrubby plants ; many of the species are very handsome and well .suited for the flower garden. There are four species indigenous to England. MILKWORT. Poll/gala. All the species of this genus are very showy. The annual kinds require sowing in the open ground, preferring a peat soil. Some of the species possess useful medicinal qualities. A considerable number of the species are natives of the United States, among which the best known is the P. senega, or Seneca snakeroot. MILLIPEDE. The centipede. MILLE r. Sm-ghum, setaria and panicum, are all popularly and botanically denominated mil- let. Under the head Sorghum, this important genus will be treated. In this article only the millets, Italian. {Setaria Italiea), and German millet {panicum miliaceum) usually known as Hun- garian grass, {P. Oermanieum). The first used to be largely cultivated under the name of mil- let and Bengal gfnss, but it has lately given place to Hungarian grass. All farm stock take kindly to the hay made from Hungarian grass, but if the seeds are allowed to get ripe, it is supposed to bring on disorders of the kidneys, especially in horses. For this reason it should be fed rather sparingly to horses unless it has been cut when in bloom ; cut at that time, we have never observed any evil effects from feeding the hay to horses. We have never, however, fed it except with full rations of bats, to working horses, and always cut it just as the blossoming .season had past, at which time, any of the plants have their maximum of nourishment in the stalk and leaves. Fed to cattle it is an excellent forage, and if well cured will carry them nicely through the winter; two feeds a day and one feed of straw being given. In the absence of careful experiment to determine the precise effects it may have on stock, when fed steadily it would not be advisa- ble to keep stock wholly on it. MILL-STONK GRIT. A geological forma- tion immediately under the coal; beds of coarse quartzose sandstone. MILSEY. A sieve in which milk is strained. MILVINES. A family of raptorial birds, of which the kite (Milmts) is a member. MIMUS. The genus of passerine birds, of which the mocking-bird (M. polyglottus) is a species. MINDERERUS SPIRIT. Solution of acetate of ammonia, a febrifuge. MINERALOGY. Thi- science which has for its object the examination and description of minerals. MINIUM. Red-lead, used in painting. MINT. (See Peppermint.) MINUS. Less, distinguished by the mark — , and used in physics tp designate quantities below a standard; thus, all degrees of tempera- ture below zero (0) are minus, and read minus 50,-30, etc. MIOCENE. The intermediate portion of the tertiary epoch, in which some seventeen per cent, of recent shells are discovered. MIRAGE. Fata Morgana. Looming. An optical delusion, in which ships and objects at sea appear depicted against the clouds. MIRROR. Any polished surface used as a reflector. Mirrors are plane, concave, or burn- ing (magnifying), and convex, or minifying. MISTLETOE. Viscus album, mrticillatum. Shrubby, parasitical plants, growing occasionally on large trees. Many fabulous virtues were attributed to it. MIST. That atmospheric condition in which the moisture of the air is condensed in fine drops (See Dew.) MITE. A name generally applied to minute insects of various kinds, which attack the leaves of trees and plants, living bj' either burrowing under the epidermis, just as the mange insect does under the scurf skin of animals, and acari found on the outside of the leaves and tender shoots, subsisting by sucking the juices, which produces fungoid-like brown patches 'on the leaves of pear trees, and are so small as to be scarcely visible to the naked eye. They are sometimes found in myriads, as are all the louse family, and do great damage to various trees. The remedy is to use a wash of whale oil soap, weak carbolic acid, or in the case of such plants as may be small enough, (pot plants), to dip them in the solution by inverting the pot in which they grow. Fumigation with tobacco smoke is also a remedy. All infested leaves also should be picked off and burned. Mites as a class are wingless, belonging to the aoa/rii. Those living on the outside of plants are called lice. Many minute insects that infest hams are dipterous (two-winged) insects in their perfect state. To this latter class the cheese mites belong, others are minute wood borers, the MOLDINESS 655 MOLECULE larvae of minute beetles. They however, are not properly called mites, since only those we have named may properly be so called. MITRAL VALVES. The valves of the left ventricle of the heart. MITRE. In building, the junction of two pieces of wood, etc., bjr cross fitting. MOBILIT Y. Capacity for movement, mobile. MOCKING BIRD. (See Mimus.) MODILLON. An ornament, or scroll, placed at intervals under the corona. MOHAIR. The silky hair of the Angora goat, used for camlets and other costly stufEs. MOISTURE. The water of all lakes, ponds, rivers, brooks, and springs, is derived from Tain. This is the evaporation from the whole surface of the earth, whether land or water. This is held in suspension by the air, until changed meteorological conditions set it free, either as dew or frost, or as rain, hail, or snow. This moisture, some of it, runs off along the surface, some sinks down indefinitely to form springs. These two forms being the supply of lakes, ponds, and streams, the balance is held by the soil, to be given up to the roots of plants, to rise again by capillary attraction to the surface, and again to be given off to the air as evaporated moisture. The moisture which runs off along the surface and that which enters into the soil by percolation will vary according to the nature •of the soil. Loose soils will percolate all the water except those of the most dashing showers, where the angle of elevation is not acute. Water wiU always sink down perpendicularly, unless it meets with obstructions as rocks, strata of olay or other impervious substances. These impervious strata form the water line along which the water glides, at last to be collected in undergi-ound reservoirs forming springs. (See .articles. Drainage, Meteorology, Rain-fall, etc.) MOI-ARS, MOLARES. The grinding teeth, placed behind the incisors. MOLASSE. A soft, green sandstone, of the miocene epoch, found in Switzerland, MOLASSES. The thick, dark fluid which nms from raw sugar; it consists of uncrys- tallizable sugar, an acid, aromatic bodies, and water; when fermented, it yields rum by distilla- tion. MOLD. Mold is produced by fungus growths. The sporules producing mold being everywhere present in the air, and only requiring warmth and moisture to enable them to grow, wherever deposited. Bread mold, is a minute fungus, Aacophora mucedo, found on moist, starchy sub- stances, in the process of decay. These minute cryptogamous plants are found in almost every -substance, in the presence of heat and moisture, especially peas, hops, and other plants. Once it attacks it spreads rapidly, unless checked by dryness. Hence blight is the result of the action ■of mold, and not the disease itself; rather the action causing disability in the plant to perform its natural functions, and sometimes whole fields "will be suddenly attacked, and the crop be ruined. MOLD- BOARD. The large curved side of a plow, which turns the furrow slice. MOLDINESS, MOLD, MILDEW. Minute cryptogamic plants, of a grayish aspect usually, :but of all colors, which appear upon damp linen, cotton, and vegetable substances, as bread; they belong to the genera Aspergillus mucor, and ■other mucedines, and are to be avoided only by dryness and proper exposure to the sun and dry air. The genera which appear on plants, as the hop, pea, etc., are very numerous. MOLE. The moles of America belong to the genus Sciiiops, and not to the true moles, Talpa, found in Europe. The ground mole, Scalops aguaticus, is found in the Eastern and Southern States. The Western mole, S. argentea, being found in Indiana, Michigan, Illinois, Iowa, Mis- souri, and Kentucky, and in fact in the valley of the Mississippi nearly to the gulf, being always found in dry land. The fore parts of this ani- mal is strong and muscular, its fore hand-like paws, extending side ways, the more readily to enable it to make its way under ground, in exca- vating its galleries, in search of its food, which is entirely insectivorous. They have been accused of eating vegetable roots and tubers. This, however, is a mistake. It certainly often does much dam- age to garden crops, bj' loosening the earth and uprooting plants in burrowing. The only ques- tion for the farmer to decide, is whether the moles or insects do most mischief. We have seen lawns rendered unsightly by moles. So we have seen the grass entirely killed by the ravages of the larva, (white grub,) of the May beetle. A little labor will eradicate the burrows of the mole, but it is difficult to destroy the white grub, especially where they are so thick as to so entirely destroy the sod, that it may be rolled up like a carpet. It is undoubtedly true that shrew mice and other small rodents, follow in the tracks of moles, and eat corn, tubers and other vegetables, but there is no well authenticated evidence that the mole does so. When moles become so numerous as to be severely destructive, they may be trapped by sinking pitfalls of tile or other material under their run-ways, or they may be caught under deadfalls. These should be placed under one of their regular galleries, leading to their place of rest if possible, since it is not always that they travel in the surface burrows. They may also be poisoned by placing strychnine in small pieces of meat and laid in their buiTOws. The Star nosed mole, condylura cristaia, is another species, and quite rare, except in some portions of Central Illinois, where it is rather common. It inhabits all the Eastern and Northern States to the Mississippi, and is found even in Minne- sota. It prefers rather moist soils, and is found in the vicinity of swamps. It does not burrow to such great length as the species previously described, and is not so strong. Its fore feet are longer and narrower than the common ground mole, and the tail is longer and larger. It may readily be known by its ciliated nose, from whence its name. MOLECULE. An atom not capable of mechanical subdivision. The minute atoms of which bodies are formed. Of organic molecules, the late Prof. Henry said, we are able to con- struct a crystal of alum, from its elements, by combining sulphur, oxygen, hydrogen, potas- sium and aluminum ; but the chemist has not yet been found who could make an atom of sugar from the elements of which it is composed. He can readily decompose it into its constituents, but it is impossible to arrange the atoms artifici- ally, as in the ordinary cases of chemical manip- ulation, to produce a substante in anj- respect similar to sugar. When the attempt is'made the atoms arrange themselves spontaneously into a MOMENT 650 MORASS greater number of simpler and smaller groups or molecules of high order, each containing no less than thirty-four atoms of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. For the building up of organic mole- cules, the vital principle must come into play upon inferior groups of simple elements. Thus are formed plants, trees, insects, fishes, and sen- tient animals ; in fact everything which has life. Atoms, once formed, may be combined and re-combined in the laboratory of the chemist, and new compounds arranged out of them. Organic bodies formed of organic molecules, are greatly complex, and readily distributed and resolved into a greater number of lesser groups. Thus taking the constituents of cane sugar. Prof. Henry shows that organic bodies, are in what may be called a state of power, or of tottering equilibrium, like a stone poised on a pillar, which tlie slightest jar will overturn ; they are ready to rusli into closer union with the least disturbing force. In this simple fact is the explanation of the whole phenomena of fermen- tation, and of the efEect produced by yeast and other bodies, which, being themselves in a state of change, overturn the unstable equilibrium of the organic molecules, and resolve them into other and more stable compounds. Fer- mentation, then, simply consists in the running down from one stage to another of organic molecules, changing their constitution, and at last arriving at a neutral state. There is, how- ever, one fact in connection with the running down of the organic molecules which deserves particular attention, namely, that it must always be accompanied with the exhibition of power or energy, with a disturbance of the ethereal equilibrium in the form of heat, sometimes even of light, or perhaps of the chemical force, or of that of the nervous energy, in whatever form of motion the latter may consist. It is a general truth of the highest importance in the study of the phenomena of Nature, that whenever two atoms enter into more intimate union, heat, or some form of motive power, is always generated. It may, however, be again immediately expended in effecting a change in the surrounding matter, or it may be exhibited in the form of one of the radient emanations. MOLE-PLOW. A plow provided with a deep, sharp foot beneath the sole to penetrate the earth. (See Draining.) MOLE-TREE. Euphorbia laiJiyrua. Com- monly called Caper Spurge, and, by the French, Epurge; a plant with a biennial root; stem two to three feet high; found in the United States in gardens and lots. It is a naturalized foreigner, and was originally introduced under a notion that it afforded protection against the cursions of moles. MOLLITES. A disease of the bones, hoofs, etc., in which they become soft, and often flexible. MOLLTJSKS, MOLLUSCA. The animals inhabiting shells, and those of similar conforma- tion, but without that covering; they are of low organization, and cold blooded. MOLTINGr. Change of plumage. It takes place annually for the entire plumiage, and also partially where feathers of new colors ai-e pro- duced. MOMENT, MOMENTUM. The availing force of a moving body at any time ; its velocity multiplied into its weight. MONADELPHOUS, MONADELPHIA. Flowers in which the stamens are united into one mass by their filaments. MONANDROUS, MONANDRIA. Plants or flowers having one stamen only. M0NA8, plural MONADS. A genus of extremely minute, simple, polygastric, infusi- MONILFORM. Resembling a string of MONKSHOOD. Aconitum ncvpeUm. Wolfs- bane, aconite. Handsome perennial-rooted plants, with large blue flowers, very poisonous and narcotic. MONO. An ailix to many compound words. MONOCHROMATIC. Having but one color, incapable of decomposition by the prism. monochlamydej:, monochlamyde- OUS. All flowers with only one envelope, or perianth, as the tulip, lily. Those furnished with a calyx also, are called diclamydeous. MONOCOTYLEDONS, MONOCOTYLEDO- NIA. Endogens. Plants and trees, the seeds of which have but one lobe, as grasses and palms. MONCECIA. Plants which bear pistillate and staminate flowers, perfectly distinct, but on the same stem, as Indian corn. MONOGYNIA. Flowers with one pistil. MONOMERANS. A section of the coleop- terous insects, in which the tarsus is supposed to be formed of a single joint. MONOPETALOUS. A corolla, the petals of which cohere into a tube: synpetalous, gamope- talous. monophyllus, monosepalous. a calyx with the sepals united. Monosepalous is- used to indicate the same form. MONSOONS. The periodical trade winds of the Indian ocean. MONSTROUS PLANTS, MONSTROSITY. Plants which, by cultivation or otherwise, have become changed from their original forms. MONTANT. In building, any upright piece- in framing. MOON BLINDNESS. (See Eyes, Inflamma- tion of.) MOONSTONE. Adularia. Semitransparent. feldspar. MOON TREFOIL. Medicago arbm-ea. A. species of medick. MOONWORT. Boirychium. A genus of indig- enous, unimportant ferns. MOOR-BAND PAN. The incrustation pro- duced in some ferruginous soils. The pan may be calcareous in limestone soils, and when not very hard can be destroyed by the subsoil plow. MOOR GRASS. Sesleria dactyloides. MOOSE. Alee. The largest of the deer genus. They live in troops in swampy places, and are confined to the northern portions of the States, and to Canada. The American moose is, A. Americanus; the European species is, A. Mai- MOOSE ELM. The red elm. MOOSE WOOD. Acer striatum. The striped maple. This term is also applied to the Birca palusiris, or leather wood. MORAINE. The longitudinal masses of stones and rubbish found at the bases and along the edges of great glaciers, or in places where they have existed. MORASS. Swampy land. ( 60? MORNING GLORY 638 MOTH MORDANT. A substance which unites chem- ically with the fiber of wool, cotton, etc., and with the coloring matter also, forming with both insoluble compounds. Acetate of alumina, alum, solution of tin, and pyrolignite of iron (red liquor) are important mordants. MOIIDELLA. A genus of coleopterans, now the type of a family, M'^rdellidcB. They are het- eromerans, with an elevated and arched body, low liead, thorax, semicircular, or trapezoid, elytra very short, pointed at the tips. MOREL. Morchella exculenia. The latticed mushroom. An edible mushroom much esteemed in Europe. It grows in woods, has a wide, hol- low stalk two inches high, with a yellowish or grayish ribbed head, of small width, and two or three inches deep. MORGAN HORSES. The Morgan horse, which probably owes its principal celebrity to the Black Hawk strain (see cut), and" Iiis descendants have years since passed the zenith of their popularity. Admirable as these horses were for light driving, their small size and light weight was against tliem, and in speed, except in rare instances, they could not compete with the descendants of Messenger and other' first- class thoroughbred trotting sires. For draft teams they were found not to be of value for the reason heretofore assigned, the want of size. The stock was widely disseminated especially, in the Northwest, and while they added style and vigor to the common stock of the country, the decrease, in the size of the get has rendered undersized horses much more common than formerly. Farmers were not slow to see this, and hence they were in as much haste to get rid of the blood as they were in the first place to breed to it. It is perhaps to be regretted that more of this stock could not have been kept pure, since their ambition, liandsome form, docility, courage, and great style would have made them most acceptable horses, for pony phaetons, for ladies and children and light driv- ing on tlie road. The animal from whicli sprung the Morgan horses, is pretty generally conceded to have been the horse Justin Morgan, so named from the gentleman who bought him at two years old in 1795. . He is recorded to have been foaled in 1793, and to have been sired by True Britain, who was sired by imported Traveler. The dam of the Justin Morgan horse is reported to have been a Wildair mare, sired by Diamond, and he by Wildair. The horse Justin Morgan was a dark bay, with black mane and tail, and without white hairs; he was about fourteen hands high, weighing about 950 pounds, and with coarse, heavy, but straight mane and tail, docile, obedi- ent, spirited, and a fleet runner at short dis- tances. He was not a fast trotter but an honest one, going in four minutes to the mile easily, and as honest at a dead pull as he was exhaustless on the road. The most noted of his descendants were Black Hawk, though all of his get seem to have been imbued with wonderful stamina, spirit, and beauty of form. MORNING GLORY. A convolvulus of which there are many species, chiefly twiners. Annuals, biennials, and perennials. Oonmhulus major is the well known morning glory, climbing plants of various brilliant colors, and effective for covering trellises, rock work, etc. G. tricolor is the dwarf morning glory, more or less trailing in habit, though some are of upright growth as O. MircauUs. O. Mauritanicus is fine for hang- ing baskets and vaises. Of the convolvulus family, the Ipomeas are a superb class of twin- ing plants. The Cypress vine, /. quamodil is- well known. Bona nox expands in the evening. A curious variety, leploj-'hylla, from Colorado, has an immense bulb, which is perennial, the- stems being annuaj. MOROXYLIC ACID. An acid found in the bark of the white mulberry tree. MORPHIA. The active narcotic principle of opium. MORPHOLOGY. The doctrine of the met- amorphosis of plants, from which it ajipears that petals, stamens, and carpels ai-e merely modifibd leaves; that their position and mode of develop- ment are similar to that of leaves. A seed is- also analogous to a leaf bud. MORTIFICATION. Gangrene; the death of part of the body. When it occurs in the limbs, a distinct line of separation of a red color may be seen between the mortified and living parts; the limb should be removed as soon as possible above the healthy part. Mortification of internal organs, when extensive, is necessarily fatal;; when it comes on there is great loss of strength, freedom from pain, usually a disagreeable or gangrenous odor, delirium, cold sweats, and death. The lungs are most subject to gangrene, as a consequence of inflammation. Sloughs and sphacelus are small portions of gangrenous flesh removed from wounds. MORTISE. The union of two pieces of wood or other substance, by introducing one into a hole made in the other; the former is called the tenon. MORUS. The generic name of the mulberry. MOSSES. In common language, are any- minute, small-leaved, cryptogaiftjc plants. Thus club-moss is a lycopodium; Iceland and reindeer mosses are lichens; and the numerous species- of Jungermannia are all comprehended under the same term. But in systematic botany no- plants are considered mosses except such as- belong to the natural order, Bryaci w or Musci. Such plants are simple-leaved; without spiral vessels or stomata; with a distinct axis of growth; and with the sporules, or reproductive matter enclosed in cases called sporangia or thecae, coyered by a cap or calyptra. It is not a little singular that such plants should have cases called staminidia, containing powdery matter; among which are found animalcules, not distinguishable from - such as are called! spermatic, and which swim about freely in water. None of the mosses are of anj' known use, except for the purpose of packing plants, and surrounding their roots when they ai'e sent to a distance. They are bad conductors of heat, and might be employed, instead of straw, to- guard delicate-growing plants from the influence of frost. MOTH. The common understanding of the word moth, is the larva of a class of insects, Tinem. which destroy clothing, carpets and various fabrics. The term, however, now in- cludes entomologically, the genus crambidm, in which the bee or wax moth is placed. The word is also used to designate the perfect insect of those caterpillars, which are hairy, (downy) and fly by night. The various species are all noxious and however brilliant the perfect insect may be they should be destroyed wherever found. MUCOUS MEMBRANE 659 MULBERRY CALCULUS MOTHER- WATER. In chemistry, the sohi- tion from which crystals have been obtained, and which furnish a second supply when evapor- ated. MOTION. In mechanical philosophy, motion is the change of place; that is, of the part of space which the body occupies, or in which it is -extended. Motion is real or absolute when the moving body changes its place iu absolute space ; it is relative when the body changes its place only with relation to surrounding bodies; and it is apparent when the body changes its situation VTith respect to other bodies that appear to us to be at rest. All the phenomena of motion are derived by mathematical deductions from the three following laws of motion of Newton: A body must continue forever in a state of rest, or of uniform motion in a straight line, if it be not disturbed by the action of an e.Kterual cause. Every change of motion produced by any exter- nal force is proportional to the force impressed, and in the direction of the straight line in which the force acts. Action and reaction are equal, and in contrary directions; that is, equal and contrary changes of motion are produced on bodies which mutually act on each other. MOTTLED. Maeulatiis. Stained with colored blotches or dots. MOULDINtir. The curved or straight lines, or fillets used in architecture, as decorations or members of the common orders. MOUNTAIN ASH. (See Apple.) MOUNTAIN LAUREL. Kalmialatifolia. A handsome shrub ; the flowers are poisonous. It sometimes grows fifteen or twenty feet high. MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE. The strata of this material lies immediately below the coal measures. MOUNTAIN MAHOGANY. Setulalenta. The ill fl f* K 1^1 T*Oll MOUNTAIN MAPLE. (See Maple.) MOUNTAIN RICE. Oi-yzopsis asperifolia. A perennial; culmalmost naked, leaves rigid, erect, and sharp at the point; flowers in a panicle. MOW-BURNED. Injured by fermentation in the mow. Fodder, when too green, heats rapidly, becomes black, and acquires a bitumin- ous taste; this is disagreeable, and sometimes injurious to cattle. MUCID ACID. An acid produced by the action of nitric acid on gum and sugar of milk. It is a white crystalline powder, feebly acid, soluble in six parts boiling water, and insoluble in alcohol. MUCILAGE. A thick solution of gum in water. • The ropy fluids extracted from certain plants by pressure are also called mucilage. MUCIVORA. A family of dipterous insects, which eed on the juices of plants and decaying matter. MUCK. A name for peat, marsh mud, and decaying vegetable matter generally. MUCOUS MEMBRANE. The membrane which lines the mouth, nostrils, exterior of the eyes, lungs, stomach, intestines, bladder, and, urinary apparatus. It secretes an animal fluid, mucus, by which it is moistened and protected from the contact of air and other substances. Irritations and inflammations are very common, and do not extend so rapidly as in other mem- branes. They are usually subdued by bleeding, cathartics, or special medicines when the lungs or urinary membrane is attacked. MUCRONATE. In botany, a leaf or other organ, having a rounded extremity, tipped with a sharp point or prickle. •MUCUS. The viscid, ropy secretion of the mucous membrane. It contains five per cent, solid matter (albumen), and is azotized. MUD. The tine particles o earth and organic matters suspended in rivers, etc., and deposited by subsidence. When mellowed by exposure to trost, and composted with one bushel ot lime to the cubic yard, it makes a good amendment to loose, thin soils destitute of humus. MUD FLYER. Scratches. (See Grease.) MUDER. (Jaloiropis gigaiitvu. An asclepia- deous plant, used in scroiula in the East. MUFFLE. A semi-cj'lindrical vessel of earth- en-ware, capable of resisting a high temperature, in which cnicibles arc placed in assaying, and by which means tliey are exposed to a great heat without coming in contact with the luel. The upper, curved side, is usually cut into slits, to allow the passiige of reflected heat. MUGWORT. Artemisia vulgaris. A kind of wormwood. MULBERRY. Morus. The red mulberry, Morus rubra, is the only native species of the mulberry in the United States. The black mul- berry of Europe is occasionally cultivated for its fruit. The white mulberry, M. alia, is culti- vated in silk growing regions for feeding silk worms, and the paper mulberry, Brnvssonetia papyrifera, is grown sparingly as a shade tree. Our native mulberry delights in rich, moist,, bottom lands, where we have seen it, in Illinois, two feet through. Usually the tree is only of moderate size. The timber is most lusting and valuable, almost rivaling live oak in durability. As a shade tree and for ornamental planting the native mulberry is not desirable, except in extensive grounds. Grown singly, it is a spread- ing tree. It is liable to the attacks of but few insects, the wood is valuable for turning and carving, and the bark is sometimes used in the place of cordage, after having been first steeped in water to separate the fibers. The bark of the root is reported to be a cathartic and vermifuge. The mulberry is propagated either by seeds or from cuttings; the cuttings grow easily, and where a given variety is wanted, cuttings must be resorted to, since plants do not come true from seed. There are a number of sub- varieties in cultivation, bearing superior fruit. The fruit, however, is not held in much estimation, except by children, and if it were, it is entirely too soft for shipping. An exception, however, should be made in respect to Downing's everbearing mulberry; a cut of leaves and fmit, which we give, natural size, on page 54. The fruit is one to one and a half inches in length and from one- half to five-eighths of an inch in diameter, and under high cultivation will exceed this size. Color, purplish black, and of a rich sub-acid taste. The tree is hardy, vigorous and comes into bearing the third or fourth year after removal from the nursery, the fruit growing larger as the tree acquires age. The tree is ele- gant in itself, and seems quite worthy its dis- tinguished originator, Mr. Charles Downing, of Newburg, N. Y. It is now thirty-six years since it was first originated. MULBERRY CALCULUS. A stone of the bladder of the color and appearance of the mul- berry fruit, and consisting of the oxalate of lime. MULCH 660 MULCH MULCH. Any diy litter placed about trees, or vines, covering the ground, is called mulch- ing. The object of mulching is to keep the soil cool, moist, and free from weeds, and to protfect the roots from freezing in winter. Hence the mure porous the mulch the more valuable it cult to get. Mulching is beneficial to vines and small fruits If applied after a general rain, and after the season of cultivation has passed to remain during the winter and removed when theseason of cultivation returns, for mulch is not expected to supersede cultivation, but to supplement it; So DOWNING'S EVBEBEAEING MULBERRY. becomes. Hence green grass, manure or tan bark, should be used sparingly. Two inches of tan bark is the most that should be applied. The best possible mulch is charcoal dust. This however is costly anywhere, and generally diffl- any garden vegetables may be mulched with profit after they have gained sufficient size so cultivation may cease. Even in the case of fruit trees we are not in favor of keeping the ground constantly covered with mulch, as has been MULE 661 MURRAIN advocated by some. It induces root growtli at the surface of the ground if persisted in, and this will be detrimental to the tree when the final removal of the mulch is decided on. In winter mulching, especially of trees, the mulch should not be placed next the stem, since it induces the attacks of mice. M[JL£. A mule is a hybrid between two species of the same genus. Thus, there may be as many varieties of mules as there are species that are fertile one with another (See article Hybrid.) By common consent however, the term mide is understood to be the product of the male ass and the female horse. The mule is a very timid animal and there is no stock on the farm that requires such careful handling. If properly treated, they are gentle and perfectly safe. If abused they soon become vicious and learn to use their heels. In the raising of mules it is not so usual to halter break them at weaning time or before as it is with colts. We have, however, always done this, since when the mule is finally taken up for work at two years old, they may be considered half broken. In fact it is gen- erally the case, that if kindly handled, the young mule will go right along, rather awkwardly it is true, but nevertheless, steadily, the first time they are put to the wagon. Until the mule is three years old, it should not have anything but light work. Thus they will be more active than if allowed to go until three yea is old before being broken; besides this they will not be so strong and difficult to handle. In handling the young mule either to halter break or to labor, care must be taken that it does not get away since if so it will never be forgotten. The same gen- eral rules may be followed as advised for the horse, which see, but, the mule will be more quiet and more easily approached to handle, if a a horse or broken mule, with which it is acquaint d, be present. Even another unbroken mule will tend to inspire confidence. Mules are particularly sensitive to cold, far more so than horses. On the other hand they are far less affected by heat than horses. Thus mules, whether the young and growing or the working mules must have warm stabling in winter. In the South the protection of a good wood lot is by soime considered as sufficient, the best masters, however, provide warm sheds in addition. From the time the young mule is dropped until ready for work, it must be liberally fed, so it may be kept gi-owing. There is nothing gained in allowing any farm stock to suffer for want of suf- ficient food. It is especially the case with mules. A mule that has been half starved and frozen during the winter, never recovers. It may indeed get flesh, but, will never be of the same stamina as the mule kept warm and well fed, besides, this extra feed enables the mule to go to work a year sooner than it otherwise would. A good lively two-year old mule will bring more than a stupid three-year old. South of 40° for all kinds of farm work and teaming on the road, mules are fully equal to horses. Thej- are not so liable to scare, cy if so, not so much inclined to run away. They stand the sun and heat better than horses, and require rather less care in cleaning. We have never found, that weight for weight, the mule would eat less than the horse. Their true value lies in being able to work hard in the hot- test weather, which the horse can not. North of 40° the mule becomes less and less valuable, until north of forty-three degrees, the horse is the most serviceable and generally used. When they have warm stables in winter, they make admirable teams, even in the climate of Minnesota, since even so far north, in the West, there is plenty of summer weather that will seriously distress the hoi'se. The proper col or for a mule so far as service is concerned, is a self, dai'k color; cream colored mules, especially if they have a white skin, are soft and unserviceable. So, pure white mules arc objectionable both in color and stamina. Spot- ted or calico mules, and light dapples are said to be alwaj'S washy. Iron-gray, duns, and bays are the best colors, and mare mules are consid- ered more hardy and trustful than horse mules and always bring a better price in the market. To those who have the facilities for breeding and rearing mules it is a particularly lucrative business. They will sell for more money at two years old, merely halter broken, than the average horse will at three, after being broken. The late and increasing demand for mules for export to Europe, has given a fresh impetus to the trade. St. Louis is the principal mule market in the United States. Buyers visit the farmei-s "^ in the mule breeding districts, central Indiana, and Ulmois and southeast of the Mississippi River, and southern Iowa and all of Missouri west of the river. Compared with horses there were in the United States in 1877, 1,443,500 mules, valued at $99,480,976, or an average of $68.91; of horses there were 10,155,400, valued at $610,206,631, or an average of $60.08, mak- ing a difference in favor of mules each of $8 83. This is an important showing as to value, when W3 remember the slight variation in the price of mules, in comparison with that of horses, and shows conclusively, that the profit lies in breeding mules rather than common horses, whenever the climate is suited to mules. MULLEIN. Vevhiiscuin. The common mul- lein, V. 'J hapsus, is fortunately not common in the West, seeming, like the Canada thistle, to delight in dry soils. Wherever found it is generally on very dry or poor, sandy lands. It is a biennial plant with woolly, entire, and alternate leaves throwing up its flower spike the second year from seed. It is usually indicative of worn or poor soil ; perhaps one reason why it is not more found in the West, the fertile soil not being congenial to the plant. V. Blaltm-ia or the moth mullein and V. Lychnitu, are also common in some localities, but are not consid- ered so common as the common variety. MULLION. The upright poster bar dividing two lights in a window. MULTIAETICULATE. A term applied in natural history, to the antennae, legs, etc., of animals or insects which have many joints. MCLTIFID. Divided into many segments. IffULTlLOCULAR. Having many compart- ments or chambers. MURIATE. (See Chlorine ) MURICATE. Thorny. In zoology, a sur- face armed with short conical eminences, having a sharp apex. MTRIDjE. a family of rodents, of which the mouse is a type. MURRAIN. A disease, one of the forms of Anthrax, (which see). Bloody murrain is malig- nant anthrax, sometimes called black quarter from the engorgement of the neck, shoulder, quarter, breast, or side of the animal, producing MUSHROOM 663 MUSHROOM a black and bloody appearance of the tissues in the latter stages of the disease. There will be lameness, stiffness, and great tenderness of the affected limb, with crackling when pressed, swelling of the parts, and sometimes oozing of yellow or bloody serum from the skin. Black tongue is another form, both in horses and cat- tle, with black, purple, or red blisters on the tongue, ending in sores, with more or less swell- ing. Murrain attacks all the herbivora, and may be communicated, in its malignant forms, to dogs, birds, and even man, taking the form in man of a malignant p\istule, sometimes very fatal. As soon as murrain attacks a herd, remove all the well animals to a high, dry pas- ture, and the ailing ones to another entirely iso- lated. Above all let the water be pure. Put a seton in the breast, daily smeared with irritant ointment. As medicine, the following is recom mended by the best English surgeons, especially by Youatt, than whom there is no better author- ity: Take two to four drachms chloride of lime, one ounce prepared chalk, two drachms lauda- num, mix and give every two or three hours in warm gruel. In severe cases.French veterinarians recommend quinine in one to two drachm doses €very two or three hours. Stimulants, as car- bonate of ammonia, are also valuable. If a vet- erinary surgeon can be had, he would be likely to use hypodermic injections of two grains solu tion of iodine, five grains iodide of potassium, one ounce water, using a. syringe full every hour, in extreme cases throwing it directly into the vein. MUSACEiE. A small family of tropical plants, resembling the marantaceae, and includ- ing the plantain (Musa swpientum) and banana (M. par/idmaca.) The leaves are also used for thatch, and the fibers of the stem for cordage. The curious flowering plants called strelitzias are of this family. MUSCICAPA. A genus of dentirostral pas- serine birds; living on insects and small birds. MUSCIDjE. a family of dipterous insects, resembling the fly {musca. ) MUSHROOM. Mushooms are eaten by every civilized nation, when fresh, forming a delicate and palatable food. The difficulty in obtaining non-poisonous kinds, and the distress- ing and sometimes fatal effects of eating poison- ous fungi deter many persons from using them at all. Nevertheless, a person may soon come to be able to determine between the poisonous and non-poisonous kinds. Prof. Peck, the New York State botanist, gathered eighty species there and Dr. Curtis, of North Carolina, has tested a list which we give further on. A species of morel, a peculiar, round, pock-marked fungus, is found growing under oak trees in northern Indiana and other oak openings in the West. The genus Agan'eus, however, is the species generally cultivated. Mushrooms are propagated from spawn, sold in the form of bricks, and made as follows : A quantity of fresh horse-dung, mixed with short litter, is composted with one- third part of cow-dung, and a small portion of good loam. This compost is cut up into bricks, which are to be set on edge, and frequently turned, until they become half dry. Then a couple of holes are to be made in each, by means of the dibble, and in each hole is to be put a piece of spawn as large as a walnut. When the bricks are dry, they must be piled upon a layer of dry horse-dung, six inches thick, and covered with sufficient fresh dung to produce a gentle heat through the whole. As soon as the spawn has spread itself through the bricks, the process is ended, and they may be stored in a dry place, where they will preserve their vegetative powers for many years. Beds for the culture of mush- rooms are constructed in several different ways. Sometimes they are in the open air, when they require a covering of boards to prevent Injury from cold or wet weather; at other times, in boxes or baskets, in pits or frames, in sheds or moderately warm cellars; and again, in mush- room houses. The latter are decidedly the best, when the necessary expense may be justified. They are sheds builtin a dry place, ten feet wide, and "of any length desired. A walk runs through the center, so as to accommodate a bed on each side of four feet in width. In the first place, it is necessary to procure a sufficient quantity of good horse dung, and make it up into a heap, which must be turned frequently to induce regular fermentation. In a fortnight all the rankness will probably have escaped, when it will be time to build the bed. The dung should be well shaken by the fork, and built up with perpendicular sides to the height of twelve inches, and then gradually di-awn to the center like the roof of a building. In a mushroom house, the beds should be three feet high on the back side, sloping toward the walk. Every forkful is to be well beaten into its place, so that the sides of the bed be even and firm. Cover the dung with long straw or litter, in order to exclude frost and prevent the escape of the volatile gases. In the course of ten days, or a fortnight, the temperature will be sufficiently reduced, and the covering is to be removed in order that one inch of fine loam may be laid upon the dung. On this plant the spawn, which has been broken into pieces of the size of a walnut, in rows six inches apart each way. Put on a second inch of mold, which, after being beaten smooth by the spade, must be protected by the covering of straw. Where the bed is in the open air, it will need mats during stormy weather. Guard against the extremes of heat and cold, and of drought and moisture. A medium tempera- ture is probably somewhere about 60° The covering of straw must vary in thickness from three to twenty -four inches, according to circum- stances. When the mold appears too dry, a gentle application of tepid water should be given in the morning; in summer, this may be neces- sary every other day, but in winter perhaps once a month. After each watering, the covering ought not to be replaced for some fifty or sixty minutes. If the operation be successful, young mushrooms may be expected in about five or six weeks after the date of spawning, although from a variety of causes, the time is frequently much longer. Where tile bed has been kept too hot and moist, the spawn may have been destroyed; but, in many cases, it requires only a little extra warmth, or a gentle sprinkling of wateii|po pro- duce a generous crop. In gathering mushrooms, after the straw has been removed, each one is drawn up by a gentle twist of the fingers, and the hole is then filled with earth. A knife ought never to be employed, because the stumps left in the ground become nurseries of maggots, which prove very destructive to the succeeding growth. MUSHROOM 663 MUSTANG HORSES Mr. "William Saunders, of Washington, D. C remarks on the mushroom, Agartcus, as follows, and describes the variety generally cultivated. The Agaricus campe^tris, or common mushroom, is the only species that is generally grown artifi- cially. It is thus botanically described ; Stipes, (or stalk,) two or three inches in length, white, solid, fleshy, furnished with an annular veil, (a thin membraneous substance encircling the stalk.) Pileus, (cap, or edible part.) fleshy, dry, convex, couvexo-plane, white, changing from yellowish to brownish. Gills, (thin parallel plates, underside of the cap.) free, ventricose, ^swelling unequally on one side,) pink, changing to deep purplish brown. Flesh (internal sub- stance) white. There are several species of the Agaricus besides the preceding, and also a few vai'ietiesof the A. campestris, that are sometimes grown for the table. It is unnecessary to describe them here, as those who purchase spawn need be under little apprehension of receiving a spuri- ous article; at least so far as my experience goes. I have never been disappointed in this respect. So far from there being any difliculty in growing them, I venture to say that not one in fifty who makes the attempt will fail. Of course some little attention is requisite, as with everything else artificially circumstanced. A knowledge of the condition under which they are most plentifully found In nature will be of material assistance to the grower. In very dry seasons, mushrooms are most plentiful in low situations, on rather strong soils; on the contrary, should there be much wet, they are more abundant in uplands and drier localities. A continuance of warm, dry weather, followed by slight showers, and a hazy, still atmosphere, brings them most pro- fusely. These considerations are worthy of being kept in mind in their artificial culture. There is no particular season for making a mush- Toom-bed. In winter it requires to be under cover, and in summer the diflSculty lies in keep- ing it cool and moist. Autumn is perhaps the best season for making a bed out of doors ; and, if a constant supply be an object, a bed should be made up ih some spare cellar about the begin- ning of November. Some varieties of edible fungi have been lately described by Dr. Curtis, which we give below ; the italics refer to the generic name, and the Roman to the names of varieties: Agaricus. (ATnanita.) CiKSarius, strobiliformis, rubes- ArmiUaHa. MuUeup. Boletus. Liiteap, elegane, fiavidus. collinitng, graniilatns, boauim, subtumeutosud, edulis, versipulliB, scabur, cant II eiif. Can. hareilue. Cibarias. Clavaria. yUamaria.) Flava, botrvtia, fastigiata, mu?- c ij s u-tragona, cristata, ru,-06a, uligluea, macro- pus, sulitil.s, pyxidaia, aarea, formosa. Cli oc h . H -huiariB, odorac, giganieus, cespitosus. Clltoplli/8. Pruuulus. OoHyb a. Radicauia, esculentus. Cop nus. C,>iiiaius. aii-ame tarine. Corti ariuB. InfriictUB violaceue. . Coriln,ariits. Pnoliduus, cinuauiomeus, castan&s. £'i8i'uU a. Hepatica. Hydnum. (1. Me opus.) Imbricattim, subsquamosam, ]£Wgat nil, repandum, rufeeceus. H^gro horus. Chrysudou, eburneue, pratensie. Laetarlous. Tuniiinoeiie, mBajBus,iplperatus, deliciosus, voieuiue, subdulciB, Lepio'a. Procerus, lachndea, excbriatus, mastoidBUB. Marasmius. On^adea, hCjrodoniua. Jierisma. Cinalloidt-a, caput-Medusfie. Mcrisma. Frondosiie, criaiaiua. coiifiaenB, giganteua, BuliiUureuB, lierkeleii. JPholiota. Squarrosua, matabilis. Pleyrntus. Ulmarioua, tesaulatua, Pometi, glandulosua, ostn-aluB, salignus. Pol; yp rus. (1. Mesopus.) Leucomelaa, ovinua, por- iiies. Psalliota. Cimpestria, arvensia, amygdalinua, oretaceua, Bv vaticiia. Huss'ula. Adupta, lepida, virfacens. Buss la. Ocliroleuca, aluiacea. Svari;sis. Criapii, luminnea. Tremella. loliacea, meaenterica. Trhhol'Tna. Eunaula, Iruracntaceup, liypnpithyus. Col- li nibftta. ca-tuB, iillielluB conaociatuB, peroonatus. Toharia. Bombycinua, specii'Sus. Dr. Curtis says that hill and plain, mountain and valley, woods, fields, and pastures, swarm with a profusion of good, nutritious fungi, which are allowed to decay where they spring up, because people do not know how, or are afraid, to use them. And adds: By those of us who know their use, their value was appreciated, as never before, during the late war, when other food, especially meat, was scarce and dear. Then such persons as I have heard express a prefer- ence for mushrooms over meat had generally no need to lack grateful food, as it was easily had for the gathering, and within easy distance of their homes, if livmg in the country. Such was not always the case, however. I remember once, during the gloomy period when there had been a protracted drought, and fleshy fungi were to be found only in damp shaded woods, and but few even there, I was unable to find enough of any one species for a meal, so, gather- ing of every kind, I brought home thirteen difl:er- ent kinds, had them all cooked together in one grand pot pourri, and made an excellent supper. One important use to w-hich several species of fungi can be applied is the manufacture of cat- sup. For this purpose, not only is the mush- room, Agnricus campeslris, and the horse-mush- room, Agaricus arwnsig, available, but also Agaricus rubeseens is declared to be excellent for the purpose, and a delicious, but pale, extract is to be obtained from Marasndus oreades Other species, as Coprinus comatus and Coprinus atrameniarim, are also available, together with FisUdina hepatica and Morcehella esculentn.. In some districts, when mushrooms are scarce, it is stated that almost any species that will yield a dark juice is without scruple mixed with the common mushroom, and, it should seem, with- out any bad consequence, except the deteriora- tion of the catsup. MUST. The fresh juice of the grape before fermentation. Other juices capable of fermen- tation. MUSTANG HORSES. The mustang has been denominated the wild horse of North Amer- ica, and with the same truth as the term wild horse of South America is used. There are no wild horses in America except such as having escaped from domesticity in an early day have since become wild so far as the term may be properly applied to animals which are obliged to subsist entirely without the care of man. The mustang has descended from the Spanish horses brought hither by early adventurers, and esca- ping from confinement, have covered the plains of Central America, Mexico, Texas and California with vast herds, furnishing the Indians of the plains of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona with fleet and untiring chargers, domestication having had the seeming effect of improving their powers of endurance. The mustang as found on the plains of Mexico and Texas is undersized, slight limbed, long necked, long backed, and with seem- MUTTON SHEEP 064 MUTTON SHEEP ingly weak haunches. Their hoofs, also,' are inclining to flatness. Their heads are long, lean, but well shaped and well set. Their nostrils wide, and their manes and tails fine. Considering their external appearance they perform admirably under the saddle. They are easily outstripped by well bred horses, are vicious, but easily sub- dued, under the severe treatment of the herds- men of the plains, or cow-boys as they are called, nearly as wild as the mustangs themselves. Their money value is exceedingly small, and year by year they are becoming less an d less in numbers, civilization gradually rendering them less and less numerous, from the constant increase of better blooded stock among the ranches of Texas, and the stockmen of the far West. MUSTARD. The mustard family crueiferm includes many most valuable plants to man; among them nasturtium, water cress, cabbage, turnip, the radish, horse radish, pepper grass and mustard. The varieties of mustard cultivated for the seeds which are ground into the mustard of commerce, are the white, Sinwpis alba, and the black, S. nigra. The latter makes the stronger mustard, but the white the handsomest. The wild mustard, or charlock has come to be a most common and noxious weed in the West, infesting the fields of slovenly farmers until some of the oat fields ai-e yellow with the blos- soms. It has come in generally by sowing the seed of badly cleaned flax, and following with oats, and then seeding with oats just as they come from the threshel'. Thus foii' want of a little care in cleaning seed grain, fields have been overrun at a great expense to the outcome of crops, to say nothing about the unsightly appear- ance over large tracts of land. The seed may be eradicated by two successive crops of Indian corn kept clean, or by a clean kept corn crop and a summer fallow. The cultivation of the seed for manufacturing may be either broad- cast or in drills, the latter preferable. A rich deep, moist, and mellow, sandy loam is prefer- able for the crop, though it will grow well on any soil of average fertility, if warm and tol- erably well drained. In drills the seed should be sown rather thin, the drills two feet apart for ease in cultivation. If an implement is had that will work in an eighteen inch row this distance is preferable. When a majority of the seed is ripe or the pods turned yellow, cut with a rea- per, and set it up like flax or buckwheat. When dry thresh immediately, having the bottom of the wagon rack covered with a cloth to catch the shelled seeds. Broadcast it may be sown a peck to the acre. In drills six quarts is ample. It will reseed itself, and to rid the land of it, plow under the crops when in flower, and follow with corn. MUSTELLA. The genus containing the weasel and other vermin quadrupeds. MUX AGE. A process to stop the fermenta- tion of must. It is practiced either by diffusing sulphurous acid in the cask into which the liquor is racked by burning sulphur matches, or by adding a little sulphite of lime to the must; the latter is the best. MUTIOUS. Beardless, without awns, or MUTTON SHEEP. Within the last ten or fifteen years the demand for superior mutton has led to the extensive importation of sheep adapted particularly to the production of mut- ton. P^locks of the improved breeds are now found all over tlie United States, and especially within easy reach of our larger cities. The wool of some of the mutton breeds is also eagerly sought for by manufacturers of clothing wool, and for the manufacture of various fabrics in which a long stapled or combing wool is desired. For superiority of mutton the South Down stands pre-eminent everywhere. In the Atlantic States north, the South Down is crossed on selected grade Merino ewes, giving lambs that are much sought for. In tlie Atlantic States, South, South Down and Cotswolds are largely bred. In the West the Cotswold has become a favorite sheep, for its large size, constitutional vigor, and the length and quality of the wool. In Kentucky and Tennessee in the Blue Grasa and other regions of flush pasturage, the Lincolns are gaining ground on account of their great size, and the length and luster of the wool. In the hill region, the Merino, the South Down and their crosses, are used. The Leiceister is also much liked by many breeders Bast, West and South for their early maturity, and fattening qualities for the food eaten. On the great plains- and the mountain regions of the United States, where sheep are herded in immense flocks, the Merino and its crosses with native and Mexican sheep are used, since the larger breeds do not work well in large flocks. One hundred of mutton sheep is about the number that should be flocked together, but the natives and M erinos may be kept in flocks of one thousand or more. The natives_ and Merinos, either Spanish, French or American Merinos, are not distinctively mutton breeds. In fact the quality of their mutton is not first rate, neither is it produced of any considerable weight per carcase. Yet in the United States, from the large numbers kept, the bulk of the mutton of the country is produced from natives. Merinos, and their crosses. Yet in treating of mutton sheep, they will not be included, but will be found under the head of fine-wooled sheep, which see. The breeds of sheep therefore that are considered the best breeds for mutton are the coarse wools, short, middle and long, as distinguished from the finer Merino wools. Of the improved mutton breeds, the South Down holds its rank against all others, but in the United States, wool as well as mutton must be taken into consideration. Then again Ameri- cans are not so choice in their taste for mutton as the English and hence the larger breeds that will produce high grades of combing wool, weight of carcase, and aptitude to lay on flesh are sought for. Neverlhelcss in the neighbor- hood of large cities, prime South Down mutton will always pay. The Lincolnshire sheep, one of the largest races in England, will show the best staple of long combing wool, next in rank is the Leicester, a race of sheep for combing wool the most generally distributed of any in England. It is tender in constitution, but of early matu- rity, and prime fattening quality. The next ia rank for combing wool are the Cotswold sheep. In the United States, and especially in the West the Cotswold are much liked, they are hardy in constitution, mature well and make excellent mutton except it is I'atlier fat. The long wooled sheep that have been the most widely dissem- inated in the United States, of the short or middle wools, are the Soutli Downs, the Hamp- MUTTON SHEEP GB3 MUTTON SHEEP shire Downs, the Shropshire Downs, and the Oxfordshire Downs. Of those the Hampshire Downs are the largest, averiigin,e- 113 pounds thirteen ounces each, and the South Downs eighty-eight pounds, in two lots of fifty each. Of the long wools the Cotswolds, Lcicesters. and New Oxfordshire, have been widely spread. Of these fifty each of Leicester and C'otswold weighed to average the first 101 pounds and the .'iccond 119 pounds thirteen ounces each. The Leicester as generally shown in this country and in England are larger, rivaling the Cotswolds In weight. Even in Canada where much attention is paid to Leicester sheep, there is said to he comparativel}' few flocks of the true Leicester, probably from the fact that the true Leicester Is delicate in constitution. Yet they have early maturity, good form, and tendency te fatten. breeds as he saw them. Speaking of the Downs , he says; The distinguishing characteristics of the ancient Su.ssex Downs have been retained , more fully in the course of impi-ovement than j have the pecuharities of any other improved • breed. That improvement has been effected, as I have little reason to doubt, solely by selection, ! there being little, if any, po.sitive evidence that the Leicester or other blood has aided In the I amelioration. In the production of Hampshire and Shropshire and other breeds, bearing the ' Down name, it is well known that other blood ! has been effectively used; but it should be remembered that these families, or rather breeds, are not really improved Downs, but have come from selected individuals of other hardy prim- itive breeds, moulded into a modification of the , South Down type by large and repeated infusion HAMPSHIRE DOWN RAM. and are said to have been made by crossing the Leicester on Lincolns, and other of the large breeds. In England, Leicester wethers from twelve to fifteen months old have been marketed to weigh from 120 to 150 pounds each. The fleeces will average six to seven pounds each. In this country they have been sheared, wethers up to fifteen pounds, and breeding ewes eight pounds. The New Oxfordshires were produced between Leicester and Cotswold, the latter blood predominating. Yearlings in ordinary flesh weigh 13.5 to 175 pounds, and fat, full grown wethers from 175 to 200 pounds. For mutton, however, the Downs excel all others in the superiority of their flesh, and they are justly prized here as in England, where quality is tlie test. Mr. J. R. Dodge, in a late visit to England, thus describes them, and some other mutton of that blood, with occasional dashes of Leices- ter to give greater size and aptitude for fattening. The changes effected in the true South (or Sussex) Down have been mainly these : Speckled faces have been changed to a uniform tint of brown or f aAvn color, sometimes almost a gray ; the forehead and cheeks have been partially covered with wool; a greater symmetry of form has been obtained; a larger size and greater fattening aptitude. The flock of Lord Walsing- ham exhibited some deviation from the Sussex type, having somewhat greater length and a decided development of the fore quarter, giving greater weight, at the expense of reduced value, to the butcher. They are splendid animals, and have been largely sought by continental pur- chasers, though disapproved by many breeders of the South Down in its purity. The true South MUTTON SHEEP 666 MUTTON SHEEP Down may, perhaps, be considered a purer breed, stamping its peculiarities upon its cross- bred offspring more certainly and strongly than any other of the English breeds; and for this reason, together with its hardiness and the unsurpassed quality of its mutton, it is deemed of greater practical value in its crosses than in its pure-bred floclss. But for tlie fact that quan- tity and quicltness in lamb production ai'e of more pecuniary value than superior quality, it would far surpiiss the Leicester in its prevalent use for cross-bred early lambs. The Hampshire Down, see cut page 665, bred largely on the chalk-downs of Berkshire, Hants, Wilts and Dor- set, was originally the result of crosses upon the Wiltsliire horned sheep and the Berkshire Nott, which secured greater size and increased hardi- ness of constitution. Sixty years ago, in the hands of different breeders, working with diff!er- ent aims, there was a laclt of uniformity, which began to disappear about 1845, under the skillful efforts of modern breeding, and the necessity of obtaining superior flesh-maliing tendency through an infusion of the blood of some of Jonas Webb's largest and best-fleshed Downs. This Hamp- shire, or West count}' Down, much larger than the true Down, and superior in fattening apti- tude, is the natural result of the enclosure of the commons, the introduction of artificial manures, and the production of such crops as turnips.rape, vetches, trifolium, rye and Italian rye grass. This is one of the facts with which the history of British sheep husbandry teems, illustrating the necessity of change in breeds, with changed con- ditions of production or consumption. It is estimated that the weight, both of mutton and wool, have been increased in this region fifty per cent. The statistics of 10,000 Hampshires for three successive years showed the average yield of lambs to be ninety-one per cent , the mortality of ewes, five and a half per cent. , and of tegs, three per cent, per annum. The wool is of fine quality, but short staple, averaging four and a half pounds per fleece. The best speci- mens of these sheep may be found at the Overton and Weyhill fairs, in Hampshire, and the Brit- ford and Wilton fairs in Wiltshire. The wether lambs are now usually sold in the latter part of .summer or early autumn, and the ewes are kept three years for breeding. The Shrop- shire Down, though of comparatively recent origin, still occasionally exhibiting variations from absolute fixity of type, are very widely diffused and highly regarded. They resemble the Sussex Downs, with greater size and weight, a somewhat longer face (which is unilormly dark in color, but not black), a full and large eye, flat and weil-wooled forehead, and thin and erect ears of good size. The quality of the flesh is superior, being close-grained, the tissues well bedded in fat, and the color dark and rich. And while tlie mutton is claimed to be equal to the best South Down, the fleece is much heavier, a flne flock on good land often yielding seven pounds per fleece. Tliey do not mature quite so early as the Leicester or Cotswold, on account of the closer texture of the meat, but with ordinary management yearlings can be marketed in good condition during the summer without other sup- plies than abundant grass. It is a very prolific breed, twins coming in large proportion — fifty per cent, of doubles being a common result. There have been instances in which a flock of a score or two of ewes have brought up more than twice the number of lambs. The yearlings are frequently made to yield eighteen to twenty pounds per quarter as early as May. There is a reported instance of an old wether being fed up to fifty-nine pounds per quarter. As compared with the Hampshire, they are less in size, but they mature earlier. The Oxford Down is another improvement of local forms ol this branch of farm economy, and locally highly esteemed. There is another breed of English sheep inhabit- ing the rich, alluvial soils of Kent, known as the Romney Marsh sheep, which pertinaciously retains its distinctive features, though modified and improved by recent breeding. It is a lai'ge sheep, not very symmetrical in form, having narrow fore-quarters and flat sides, and coarse bone and muscle. It has a white face, a long and thick head, and a tuft of wool on the fore- head. The wool is of more value than the mut- ton, perhaps (but would not be profitable without it), being long, fine and lustrous, and in demand at good prices for export to Flanders and to France for the manufacture of cloth of gold and similar fabrics. Other breeds have been intro- duced upon the marshes, but can not maintain themselves in competition with the Romneys. The country is flat, open to the east, and very bleak, yet these sheep live through the winter in the open fields, and have little protection or supplied feed. The ewes are comparatively pro- lific, about thirty per cent, of doubles being expected in reproduction. The lambs come late, after the severity of the winter is over. With a good course of turnip feeding, after the first wintering, they can be brought to seventeen pounds, sometimes to eighteen pounds per quar- ter, yet they are more usually kept' over a second winter. They are not very early in maturing, and grass is the main reliance for growth, if not for fattening. The lands where breeding sheep are kept generally carry three per acre in winter, and five or six in summer. The fattening fields carry four or five sheep. There are cattle on the farms, but sheep greatly predominate, and fur- nish the principal profits. The breed of British sheep kept to the greatest age, and fed almost exclusively upon the natural growth of perma- nent pastures, and the management of which,- therefore, bears the nearest analogy to our own practice in sheep-husbandry, is that generally known as the Scotch Black-face. It also has the widest range of any of the British breeds. It is found, and has been for centuries — so long a period that doubts exist whether they are abori- ginal or an importation during the Norman con- quest or the Norwegian occupation of the Wes- tern Isles — upon nearly all the mountjiin lands of Great Britain, including much of the area of Scotland, the mountain chain extending through the north midland counties of England, and the heath and moorlands both in England and Scot- land. They are a hardy race, whose place could not be occupied by any of the more improved breeds, enduring, to an almost incredible extent, both cold and hunger, and getting a fair subsis- tence beneath the drifts of winter, thriving where the pampered long-wools would starve. And yet they are not Merinos. Their wool is of inferior quality, hairy, uneven, used for carpets and coarse cloths, and weighs about four pounds per fleece. The average three-year old wether yields twenty-eight pounds per NAILS 66; NAPHTHA quarter, deemed unequaled by epicurean taste in quality of meat and richness of gravy. The •ewes are kept for five years, and are then drafted without distinction, while the wethers are full :grown and fat on good grass lands at three, but they are now generally sold for fattening on tur- nips in the low countries. Thus the slowest of breeds in maturing is made to subserve the pur- poses of meat-production, and increase the farm profits under apparently unfavorable conditions. As the Black-faces monopolize the higher moun- tain lands, the Cheviots occupy the lower eleva- tions, the hills of the border counties between England and Scotland. They have been system- atically improved by the crossing of carefully selected rams of Lincolnshire, before the day of the improved Lincoln race . It has been claimed that the Leicester blood produced the improve- ment, but the hardiness of the breed and the testimony of breeders tend to invalidate the opin- ion. They were formerly light in bone and wool, of scraggy frame, bat with a constitution wonderfully hardy. Draining of lands, pro- vision of shelter, and a greater abundance, both of summer and winter food, have aided the efforts of the breeder, and the result has been one of the most useful and profitable of known breeds of sheep No animal has so contributed to the prosperity of the Scottish border and hill farms as the Cheviot sheep. Their mutton ranks very high in the Smithfield market, and some people give it a preference over the game- flavored mutton of the Black-face. Iii the mountainous section of Somerset are found the Exmoor sheep, a horned breed, so hardy that a few days' burial in a snowdrift is said to be not too severe a test of their endurance. They have long been remarked for their drum-like round- ness of form, though they are becoming square vmder the recent efforts of breeders They are larger, and in all respects better than the Welsh mountain sheep, good feeding bringing them up to eighteen and twenty pounds per quarter, and in some cases to twenty-four pounds. At •eighteen months they can be made to weigh fifteen to twenty pounds per quarter. The "Welsh, the Scotch Black-face, the Cheviot, have been tried upon the Somerset hills, but most farmers have gone back to the improved Exmoor. They have white faces, legs and fleeces; the wool close set, and now increased in weight from three pounds up to four pounds. Their mutton is considered of excellent quality. The drafted ewes are often purchased for lamb-breed- ing, as they are prolific mothers and good nurses. The Welsh is another mountain breed, indig- enous and still unmodified in the higher eleva- tions, while they are the basis of the more culti- vated flocks inhabiting the more productive valleys. They are small, weighing as store sheep about seven pounds per quarter. The head is small and well set up ; the poll clean, except sometimes a tuft upon the forehead ; the faces unusually white, with occasional instances of gray, speckled, or rusty brown. They are narrow-chested, low-shouldered, highrumped, long-tailed, active in movement, having little regard for fences or hedges, hardy and thrifty with scanty herbage. The wool is fine, though not very even in quality ; fleeces weighing about two pounds. They are not prolific, as one lamb is enough for a mother to care for in mountain pastures, but are good nurses, and are sought for on that account for breeding fat lambs from Leicester or Down crosses. MUZZLE. The nose of an animal. A kind of halter fastened over the nose to prevent an animal from biting. Muzzle of a plow is the end of the beam to which the clevis is attached. MYCELIUM. The young, flocculent fila- ments of fungi. (See Fungus.) MYOLOGY. An account of the muscles of the body. MYOPS. Shortsightedness. MYRIAMETER. Ten thousand metres, equal to two leagues. MYRICIN. That portion of wax which is insoluble in alcohol. MYRISTICAC'E.E. A family of tropical trees, exogens, containing the nutmeg. Nearly allied to the laurels. MYRONIC A(ID, MYRONATES. An acid existing in cruciferous seeds, and containing sulphur. MYROBALANS. A bitter, austere fruit, used in India in calico dyeing and medicine. MYRO^YNE. A substance resembling emul- sin, or caseum, in mustard seeds. MYRRH. An odoriferous gum resin imported from the East. Sweet cicely is sometimes called by this name. MYRTACEjE. a family of small trees and shrubs, particularly developed in tropical cli- mates, and yielding the pimento, cloves, guava, cajeput, and other aromatic products. MYRTLE. Myrtus. There are eleven principal species, and many varieties. They are mostly green-house and hot-house evergreen shrubs. Mijrtus c •mmunis is the common myrtle. The myrtle bilberry is a' whortleberry, Vnccinium myrtillus. Sweet Gale or Dutch Myrtle (Myriea gale) is the bayberry, or wax myrtle. JST NACREOUS. Reflecting iridescent light, like pearl. NACRITE. a pearly mineral. Silicate of a,lumina and potash. N JEV DS. A natural mark, blotch on the skin. NAG. A small horse. NAILS. The horny extremities modified into •claws, talons, hoofs, etc. They are of the same composition as hair, 100 pounds during decom- position yield twenty pounds of ammonia. The •composition of horn, gives, of nails, hoofs, etc., fifty-two carbon, 6.7 hydrogen, 17.3 nitro- gen, twenty-four oxygen and sulphur, with less than one per cent, ashes, in 100 pans. NAKED. In botany, without the customary covering, as a stem without leaves, corolla with- out calyx, etc. NAPHTHA. A highly inflammable fluid, of a peculiar odor, specific gravity 0.75, which exudes from the earth in some places. A similar fluid is distilled from wood tar, and called wood naphtha. It is used as a solvent of India rubber, and for other purposes. Petroleum is identical in its composition. NASCENT 608 NATIVE CATTLE ^ NAPHTHALINE. A white crystalline, vola- tile product of the destructive distillation of pit coal. Naphthalic acid, naphthalamide, etc., are derivatives. NAPIFORM. Formed like a turnip, tuber- ous. Swelled in the upper part. N ABC EI A. A vegetable alkaloid from opium, producing salts of a blue color. NARCISSUS. Ornamental bulbous rooted flowers, hardy, and blooming in the spring. NARCOTICS. Anodynes. All drugs which produce sleep, drowsiness, and allay pain, as opium, henbane, tobacco, camphor, stramonium, and other plant extracts. NARES. The nostrils. NARRAGANSETT PACERS. This wonder- ful breed of saddle horses seems now entirely extinct. A century ago, and up to the early years of the present century, it was one of the more fitted to unite with otlier bodies. Hydro- gen, nitrogen, and other gases, in the aeriform state, combined only slowly with substances, but when nascent enters readily into union. NASTURTIUM. (See Cress.) NASUTA. -A prolongation of the muzzle into the form of a nose. NATANS, NATANT. Floating or .swim- ming. NATATORY. In zoology, when the feet or tail are provided with a membrane or haii's to repel or displace water, and buoy up the insect or animal. NATIVE CATTLE. The genus Bos is not native to either North or South America. They were originally brought here by the early Span- ish adventurers, and escaping domestication, became semi-wild, and increased to such num- bers on the vast plains of Tej&s, Mexico, Cali- GROUP OF TEXAS CATTLE. most valued and distinct breeds of horses in New England. These horses are said to have been of Andalusian origin, of fair size, of fine carriage, and natural and easy pacers. That is their mode of traveling was to pick up both feet on a side squarely and alternately. Rhode Island has the credit of having raised these admirable saddle horses in the greatest numbers, and for a long time large numbers of them were shipped to the West Indies. As roads improved in the United States, and in the West Indies, the demand for them beearhe less and less, and although they have exercised a considerable influence in the formation of the horse stock of New England, as a distinct breed, the Narragansett Pacer is no longer to be found. NASCENT. In the act of being produced or evolved. A chemical phrase given to the evolu- tion of gases from fluids, at which time they are fornia, and the pampas of South America, that they were slaughtered simply for the value of their hides and tallow. The so-called native cattle of America, therefore, are the mixed des- cendants of the various breeds brought hither from time to time. The Spanish type being pre- served in all the country south of Texas, in North America, and in South America; and in the Northern United States the characteristics of the better breeds, as the Devon, Hei-eford, old Durham, Galloway, and Dutch cattle prevailing, according to the locality. In the New England States, resolving themselves into the New Eng- land reds, from the strong infusion of Devon and Sussex blood, producing cattle admirably adapted to the yoke, and for subsisting in that hilly country. In the West and the border States of the South, the strong infusion of the old Durham or Teeswater is as clearly seen, which many years NATIVE CATTLE 669 NEAT CATTLE ago even made this region famous for the superior quality of the native beef. In the Middle States the breeds were more mixed up, and in their descendants may be traced various breeds we have mentioned. And it was not unusual to tind many polled cattle thirty or forty years ago, and which were especially prized for their milk- ing qualities. The history of the introduction of cattle into the New England States shows that the earliest cattle introduced to Plymouth, and the first in New England, were brought in 1624. In 1631 these are mentioned in the old records as having greatly increased. In the meantime a number had been imported for the colonists at Salem. In 1633 and 1633 Captain John Mason, who with Gorges had obtained large tracts of land on the Piscataqua river, made several importations, in his commerce with Denmark, of Danish cattle and horses, which subsequently became largely difEused over the countrj'. These Danish cattle are described in the old records as large, coarse, and of a yellowish color, and it is supposed that they were obtained by Mason as being well able to endure the hardships to which they would be subjected. They were soon spread among the colonists of Massachusetts bay, and have, undoubtedly, left their marks on the stock of New England, and are discernible even to the present day, mixed with a great variety of crosses with the Devons, the black cattle of Wales, the Danes, and Holland, and the various othei' English breeds then unimproved. These New England cattle make excellent working oxen, being hardy, docile, easily broken to the yoke, and having a tendency to fatten when well fed, while the cows are often superior milkers. Sixty years ago one of the most intelligent, earnest, and liberal importers and breeders of stock in this country, wrote of the native cattle of New England as follows: I am not satisfied that the delicate Devons are any better suited to the yoke than the vigorous and spirited bullocks which are found in Massachusetts and Maine. It has been asserted, and by authority which I am always disposed to respect, that the cattle of Massachu- setts are derived from the Devons; but Lanca- shire, Leicester, and Hereford blood can be traced by a practiced eye in many of the best working oxen exhibited at the New England agricultural shows. If color determines the question, it is but fair to state that from 100 yokes of the finest draft cattle of Massachusetts, which were exhibited in 1833 at the Worcester county show, the best were taken to Brighton, where a pair of very light yellow oxen received a premium for docility and speed at the plow. On a former occasion a yoke of black and white bullocks received the award. The most hardy, active cattle had the shape of kyloes, and were brown. In activity, patience, and strength the cattle of Great Britain have never surpassed the cattle of New England. At the present day the native cattle of the North and West (except in the more primitive districts), are made up of crosses of all the better breeds that from time to time have beeii imported from England. ' lu fact, in wide districts, scarcely any inferior cattle can be found, the most of them being good grades, hence mixed breeds would be a better name. The Texans (see cut) are really the only native cattle of the United States, and these only as having bred in a wild, or semi-wild state since their escape from the Spanish adventurers. NATROLITE. A fibrous, yellowish mineral. Silicate of alumina and soda. NATRON. Soda. Impure, native sesqui- carbonate of soda. NATURAL HISTORY. A description of natural objects, as animals, plants, insects, fishes, minerals and fossils. NATURAL ORDER OE PLANTS. Groups of plants having a close similarity in internal organization, and frequently in external charac- ters and properties. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. Physics, me chanical philosophy. The science which inves- tigates the mechanical laws of nature; and the relations of weight, movement, pressure, or of mechanical forces in masses. NAUCA. A seed in which the scar of the hilum occupies a third of the surface. NAUSEA. A feeling similar to that preceding the act of vomiting. NAVK OF A WHEEL. The hub, the block in the center of the spokes, which receives them. NAT KL- WORT. Hydwcotyle nmbellnta. NAVEW. Brasma campestrix. The wild plant is a native of England; in the cultivated form it is known as colza and rape. NAVICULAR. Having the figure of a boat. It is applied to the nut bone of the foot, as well as to the form of seeds, etc. NAVICULAR DISEASE. This disease is known also as contraction of the feet, and pro- duces the peculiar crippled gait known as grog- giness. The intense agony of the suffering ani- mal may be partially imagined by any person, who, from a boot which contracting on the foot, has doubled the edges together on themselves. When the disease has progressed for some time common humanity would seem to dictate that the animal be killed, to end its misery. If taken early in the disea.'ie, care may result in a cure, with only more or less lameness. The disease is most common in horses, driven fast on hard roads, or those used for racing and leaping. It may be sudden in its attacks or be preceded by pointing the toe, and a peculiar tripping gait. Wasting of the muscles of the shoulders is gener- ally present from the fact of disease, and not that there is sweeny there as many igno- rantly suppose. The foot will be found dry, hot, and generally tender at some point. At the first sign of the peculiar lameness, take off the shoe, bleed from the artery above the coro- net, give the foot a cold water bath for a few hours of the day and poultice at night, (bread and milk or linseed meal). If the infiammation does not yield in two weeks, blister the coronet, and if the disease is still obstinate, a seton may be put in the frog, by paring down thin, using a sharp pointed, short, stout, curved seton needle, the point of the needle entering an inch from the toe and brought out midway between the bulbs of the frog and the forward part of the hollow of the heel; taking care not to go so deep as to interfere with the sinew. Tie the ends of the tape with which the needle is armed, and dress it daily for a month with one part of powdered cantharides to eight parts each of oil of turpen- tine and Canada balsam. If this does not cure give the horse rest and quiet until the disease runs its course, when he may be able to do some light work. NEAT CATTLE. The term neat cattle is gen- erally accepted as implying all breeds of the ox NEAT CATTLE 670 NEAT cattle; tribe domesticated by man. They are therefore as diverse in their characteristics as the nations and peoples wlio have bred tliem. In England, the United States and in Canada, they may be said to be bred to the most profitable use as they have been to the highest practical type of excel- lence in the various breeds for beef, labor and milk. The judging of cattle is a fine art only to be acquired by intelligent thought and practice There are judges so acute and critical, that by the touch, and other external signs, will judge of the live weight, dead weight of quarters', and tallow within a very few pounds. Yet, to the average farmer it would be mere guess work, and as liable to error on one side as the other. An acute and critical breeder upon the subject of judging cattle has said, were an ox of fine symmetry and high condition placed before a person not a judge of live stock, his opinion of its excellencies would be derived from a very limited view, and conse- quently from only a few of its qualities. He might observe and admire the beautiful outline of its figure, for that might strike the most casual observer. He might be pleased with the tint of its colors, the plumpness of its body, and the smoothness and glossiness of its skin. He might be even delighted with the gentle and com- placent expression of its countenance. All these properties he might judge of by the eye alone On touching the animal with the hand, he could feel the softness of its body, occasioned by the fatness of the flesh. But no man, not a judge, could rightly criticise the properties of an ox further. He could not possibly discover, with- out tuition, those properties which had chiefly conduced to produce the high condition in which he saw the ox. He would hardly believe that a judge could ascertain, merely by the eye, from Its general aspect, whether the ox were in good or bad health — from the color of its skin, whether it were of a pure or cross breed — from the expres- sion of its countenance, whether it were a quiet feeder — and from the nature of its flesh, whether it had arrived at maturity or not. The discover- ies made by the hand of a judge might even stag- ger his belief. He could scarcely conceive that that hand could feel a hidden property — the touch —which of all tests is the most surely indi- cative of fine quality of flesh, and of disposition to fatten. It can feel whether that flesh is of the most valuable kind ; and with decided accuracy foretell the probable abundance of fat in the interior of the carcase. In short, a judge alone can discriminate between the relative values of the different points, or appreciate the aggregate values of all the properties of an ox. The parts of the ox by which it is judged, let it be remem- bered, are called points. Thus it may be seen that a person even totally ignorant of cattle may judge of some of the most apparent properties, or points, of a fat ox ; but were a lean one placed before him, he would be quite at a loss what opinion to pass on its present, and far more of its future, condition. The outline of its figure would to him appear rugged and angular, and consequently coarse. To him the body would feel as a number of hard bones, covered with a tough sldn and coarse hair. A judge, on the other hand, could at once discover the good or the bad points of a lean as well as of a fat ox; because the properties of the former are the same in kind, though not in degree, as those of the latter; and, in accordance with the qualities of these points, he could anticipate the future condition of the lean ox, save and excepting the effects of accidents and disease. But, it may be asked, if the qualifications of a judge of cattle, may be so easily acquired as is here represented, how is it that the opinion of a judge is always held in deference, and is always referred to in cases of difference of opinion? This question, admits of a very satisfactory answer: Errors in the judging of cattle arise not so frequently from not knowing the points to be judged of, as from judges attributing to one or more of their favorite points too gi'eat an influence over the future increasing condition of the ox; and as- long as there are so many points to be considered, and as most of them may be partially altered by local circumstances, a difference of opinion may exist among judges of lean stock. Now, what are those points of an ox, a thorough knowledge of which is so essential to constitute a perfect judge? Could they be described and illustrated with such precision as that they might be applied at once to every ox, in whatever condition he might be, a great advancement would be made towards establishing fixed rules for the right judging of all the domestic animals. Fortun- ately, nature has herself furnished rules for ascertaining points for judgment, a knowledge of which can nevertheless be only acquired by careful observation and long and constant prac- tice. The first point to be ascertained in exam- ining an ox is the purity of its breed, whatever that breed may be, which may be ascertained from several marks. The color or colors of the skin of a pure breed of cattle, whatever those colors are, are always definite. The color of the bald skin on the nose, and around the eyes, is always definite, and without spots. This last ia an essential point. When horns exist, they should be smooth, small, tapering, and sharp- pointed, long or short, according to the breeds and of a light color throughout in some breeds, and tipped with black in others. The shape of the horn, however, is a less essential point than the color. The second point to be ascertained in an ox is the fonn of its carcase. It is found that the nearer the section of the frame of a fat ox, taken longitudinally vertical, transversely vertical, and horizontally, approaches to the figure of a parallelogram, the greater quantity of flesh will it carry within the same measure- ment. That the carcase may fill up the par- allelogram as well as its rounded form is capable of filling up a right-angled figure, it should possess the following configuration: The back should be straight from the top of the shoulder to the tail. The tail should fall perpendicularly from the line of the back. The buttocks and twist should be well filled out. The brisket should project to a line dropped from the middle of the neck. The belly should be straight longitudinally, and round laterally, and filled at the flanks. The ribs should be round, and should project horizontally, and at right angles to the back. The hooks should be wide and flat ; and the rump, from the tail to the hooks, should also be flat and well filled. The quarter from the aitch-bone to the hook should be long. The loin bones should be long, broad and flat, and well filled ; but the space between the hooks and the short-ribs should be rather short, and well arched over with a thickness of beef between the hooks. A long hollow from the NEAT CATTLE 671 NEAT CATTLE hooks to the short-nbs indicates u, weak con- stitution, and an indifferent tliriver. From the loin to the shoulder-blade should be nearly of one breadth, and thence it should taper a little to the front of the shoulder. The neck-vein should be well filled forward, to complete the line from the neck to the brisket. The covering on the shoulder-blade should be as full out as the buttocks. Thf middle ribs should be well filled, to complete the line from the shoulders to the buttocks along the projection of the outside of the ribs. These constitute all the points which are essential to a fat ox, and which it is the business of the judge to know, and by which he must anticipate what the lean one, when fed, would realize. The remaining points are more applicable in judging of a lean than a fat ox. The firs of the points in judging of a lean ox is the nature of the bone. A round, thick bone indicates both a slow feeder, and an inferior description of flesh. A flat bone, when seen on a side view, and narrow, when viewed either from behind or before the animal, indicates the opposite properties of a round bone. The whole bones of the carcase should bear a small pro- portion in bulk and weight to the flesh, the bones being only required as a support to the flesh. The texture of the bone should be small- grained and hard. The bones of the head should be fine and clean, and only covered with skin and muscle, and not with lumps of fat and flesh, which always give a heavy-headed, dull appearance to an ox. The fore-arm and hock should also be clean and full of muscle, to endure traveling. Large joints indicate bad feeders. The neck of an ox should be, contrary to that of the sheep, small from the back of the head to the middle^of the neck. The reason of the difference, in this respect, between the ox and the sheep is, that the state of the neck of the ox has no effect on the strength of the spine. A full, clear and prominent eye is another point to be considered ; because it is a nice indication of good breeding. It is always attendant on fine bone. The expression of the eye is an excellent index of many properties in the ox. A dull, heavy eye certainly indicates a slow feeder. A rolling eye, showing much white, expresses a restless, capricious disposition, which is incom- patible with quiet feeding. A calm, compla- cent expression of eye and face is strongly indicative of a sweet and patient disposition, and, of course, kindly feeding. The eye is frequently a faithful index to the state of the health. A cheerful, clear eye accompanies good health ; a constantly dull one proves the proba- ble existence of some internal lingering disease. The dullness of eye, arising from the effect of internal disease, is, however, quite different in character from a natural or constitutional phleg- matic dullness. The state of the skin is the next point to be ascertained. The skin affords what is technically and emphatically called the touch — a criterion second to none in judging of the feeding properties of an ox. The touch may be good or bad, fine or harsh, or, as it is often termed, hard or mellow. A thick, firm skin, which is aenerally covered with a thickset, hard, short hair, always touches hard, and indi- cates a bad feeder. A thin, ineagro, papery skin, covered with thin silky hair, being the opposite of that just described, does not, how- ever, afford a good touch. Such a skin is indie ative of weakness of constitution, though of good feeding properties. A perfect touch will be found with a thick, loose skin, floating, as it were, on a layer of soft fat, yielding to the least pressure, and springing back toward the fingers like a piece of soft, thick chamois leather, and covered with thick, glossy, soft hair. Such a collection of hair looks rich and beautiful, and seems warm and comfortable to the animal. It is not unlike a bed of fine, soft moss, and hence such a skin is frequently styled mossy The sensation derived from feeling a fine touch is pleasurable, and even delightful, to an amateur of breeding. Along with it is generally asso- ciated a fine symmetrical form. A knowledge of touch can only be acquired by long practice; but. after it is once acquired, it is of itself a sufficient means of judging of the feeding quali- ties of the ox ; because, when present, the prop- erties of symmetrical form, fine bone, good dis- position, and a purity of blood, are the general accompaniments. These are the essential points of judging lean cattle; but there are other and important considerations which must claim the attention of the judge, in forming a thorough judgment of the ox. The proportion which the extremities bear to the body and to each otlier, is one of these considerations. The head of the ox should be small; and. set on the neck as if it appeared to be easily carried by the animal. This consideration is of great importance in showing cattle to advantage in the market. The face should be long from the eyes to the point of the nose. No face can be handsome without this feature. The skull should be broad across the eyes, and only contract a little above them, but should taper considerably below them to the nose. The muzzle should be fine and small, and the nostrils capacious. The crown of the head should be flat and strong, and the horns should protrude horizontally from both sides of it, though the direction of the growth fi'om the middle to the tip varies in the different breeds. The ears should not be large, but should stand a little erect, and be so thin as to appear translu- cent when exposed to the sun. The neck should be light, tapering from the front of the shoulder and neck-vein, with a gradual rise from the top of the shoulder to the head'. The length of the neck should be in proportion to the other parts of the animal; but this is a non-essential point, though an apparently short neck would be pre- ferred to a long one, because it is generally well covered with the neck-vein. A droop of the neck, from the top of the shoulder to the head, indicates a weakness of constitution, arising fre- quently from breeding too near akin. The legs, below the knee, should be rather short than long, and clean made. They should be placed where they apparently bear the weight of the body most easily, and should stand wide asun- der. The tail should be rather thick than oth- erwise, as thickness indicates a strong spine and a good weigher. It should be provided with a large tuft of long hair. The position of the flesh on the carcase is another great considera- tion in judging of the ox, the flesh on the differ- ent parts being of various qualities. Those parts called the spare-rib, fore and mid- dle ribs, loins, and the rump or hook- bone, are of the finest quality, and are gener- ally used for roasts and steaks. Consequently, the ox which carries the largest quantity of NEAT CATTLE 672 NECK beef on these points is the most valuable. Flesh of fine quality is actually of a finer texture in the fiber than coarse flesh. It also contains fat in the tissue between the fibers. This arrange- ment of the fat and lean- gives a richness and delicacy to the flesli. The other parts, though not all of the same quality, are used for salting and making soups, and do not command so high a price as the parts just described. A full twist, lining the division between the hams, called the closing, with a thick layer of fat, a thick flank, and a full neck-vein, are generally indica- tive of tallow in the interior of the carcase; but it frequently happens that all these symptoms of useless to the consumer. This is the part which frequently misleads inexperienced judges in the true fatness of the ox, because fat may be felt on this part when it is very deficient on most of the other points. The parts, on the other hand, which are generally the last in being covered with flesh, are tlie point of the shoulder joint, and the top of the shoulder. If these parts are, therefore, felt to be well covered, the other and better parts of the animal may be considered ripe. Ripeness of condition, however, can only be rightly ascertained by handling, for there is a great diflierence between the apparent and real fatness of an ox. The flesh of an appar- NECTAEINE. laying on internal fat fail. The disposition to lay on internal fat altogether depends on the nature of the individual constitution; for it is often observed that those animals which exhibit great fattening points on the exterior do not fill with internal fat so well as others which want these points. On the contrary, thin-made oxen, with flat ribs, and large bellies, very frequently produce large quantities of internal fat. The first part which shows the fat in a feeding ox, is the point or top of the rump, which, in high-bred animals, is a prominent point; sometimes it pro- trudes too much, as the mass of fat laid on these is out of proportion to the lean, and therefore ently fat ox to the eye, may, on being handled, by a judge, feel loose and fiabby ; but a truly fat ox always feels hard fat. With such, the, butcljer is seldom deceived, while loose hand- lers give no ass>n-ance of killing well. NEAT'S-FOOT OIL. The fat obtained by boiling feet of cattle. NEBULA. A cluster of small stars appearing like a minute cloud. NECK, COLLAR. In plants, the space be- tween the stem ' and roots, often swollen in size. The neck of a capital is the space above the shaft between the ring (annulet) above, and the, astragal at the top of the shaft. NERVES 673 NEUTRAL SALTS NECROPHAGANS, NECROPHAGA. Afam ily of clavicorn beetles, some of which live on decomposing animal matters. NECROSIS. A disease resembling mortifica- tion of the bony structures. In plants, the term means the rotting of the part. NECTARY, NECTARIUM. The part of a flower which secretes honey. It is usually an appendage of the petals or disk. NECTARINE. Persian Vulgaris (var). The nectarine is a variety of the peach, having a smooth skin. In India its name signifies smooth peach. The history of its origin is not certainly known, but that it is au accidental variety or sport, is made pretty certain from the fact that both peaches and nectarines have frequently been borne on the same branch. Nectarine seeds, however, produce nectarines, though occa- sionally the peach is produced from a nectarine seed, and vice versa. The nectarine is but little cultivated in the United States. It is shy in bear- ing and like all smooth stone fruits, especially liable to the attacks of the curculio. The tree is treated precisely as the peach, and its habits and hardiness are the same. There are both free stone and cling varieties. If the cultivation of this fruit is attempted, the branches should be annu- aMy shortened in and the fruit carefully watched for the curculio, and the insects regularly jarred upon a sheet from the time the fruit is the size of a hazel nut until fully grown. The cut will show the characteristics of fruit and leaf. The following is the list recommended by the United States Pomological Society, as lately revised: 1, Boston; 3, Downton; 3, Early Newington; 4, Early Violet; 5, Elruge; 6, Stanwick. The whole list is marked for New York and Michi- gan. 1 and 3 are of American origin, 1 being the seedling of a peach. 1 and 6 recommended for Maryland; 3 for Tennessee, and as being of superior value there ; 4 and 5 for Indiana, 5 also for Pennsylvania and Missouri. NEGATIVE SIGN. Minus, or — . It is employed to denote quantities or measures below a standard. NEGUNDO. (See Maple.) NELUMBIUM. A marsh or water plant, the seeds of which, of the size of an acorn, are eaten green; or preserved as sweetmeats, and have a nutty flavor. The succulent roots are also eaten raw or boiled. NEMOCERA. A family of diptera, with filiform antennsB. NEMOGLOSSATA. The bee tribe, and those hymenoptera which have a long, thread- like tongue. NEMOROSE, NEMOKOSA. Belonging to the woods. NEPHRITE. A tough, .greenish mineral, used to manufacture ornaments. A silicate of alumina and magnesia with iron. NEPHRITIS. Inflammation of the kidney. ' NEPTUANIAN THEORY. The theory of Werner, that geological formations were due to aqueous causes. NERIUM. A genus of important Eastern plants. N, antidysentericum affords the codaga bark; N. iinctorklm, a beautiful evergreen of India, affords some indigo from its leaves. NEROLI, OIL OF. The distilled essential oils of orange flowers. NERVES. The white, thread-like fibers, which, proceeding from the brain or spinal mar- 43 row, ramify throughout every part of the bodies of the higher animals. They convey impres- sions from and to the brain, preside over the functions of the different organs, and regulate motion and the senses. Nerves can hardly be said to be absent in any animals, although they become extremely rudimentary in many. Chem- ically, ' nervous matter consists of seven parts albumen, five fatty matter, and eighty water. The fat is peculiar, containing phosphorus. Most diseases affecting the whole body are accompanied, or commence in an impaired state of the nervous system, which presides over health. Nerves are said to be cerebral when they proceed directly from the brain; there are nine pairs of these, and they preside over the senses. The nerves arising from the spinal marrow are termed spinal nerves, and divided into cervical, dorsal, lumbar, and sacral. 1 hey preside over motion and ordinary sensation, as well as the functions of the lungs, stomach, liver, and other viscera. The great sympathetic nerve is a series of junctions between the spinal nerves, and is connected with the brain; in its course, small masses of a reddish color occur, called ganglions: it renders the functions of the different organs uniform. A plexus of nerves is a net-work formed by the union of various filaments. Nerves, or Nervures, in plants, are the ramifi- cations of woody tissue and vessels seen upon leaves, flowers, etc. They support the cellular tissue of the leaves. NETTED. Reticulated, marked like the meshes of a net. NETTLE. TTriic-a. A class of plants noted for their stinging hairs, and named from the Latin vro, to burn. The more common species, are U. gracilis, the tall, wild nettle, growing from two to six feet high, and found generally in the North. It has scarcely any stinging hairs except on the petioles, and sparingly on the principal veins. U. dioica, is the great stinging nettle, growing two tothj^eefeet high, naturalized from Europe, very bristling and stinging ; more common East than West, and found growing in waste places, IT. urens is the small stinging net- tle, also of European origin, growing one foot high. U. purpxirascens has a slender stem, one to three feet high, carrying, in common with the leaf stalk, scattered stinging bristles, common in alluvial lands, Kentucky and South. NETTLE-TREE. The genus Oeltis, amenta- ceous trees. The principal American species is the C oceidenialis, the sugar or pompion berry. It is seldom twenty feet in the Middle States, but becomes seventy in the South. It is orna- mental with small, white flowers, and sweet, reddish fruit. NEURALGIA. Pain of the nerves. NEURILEMA. The covering of the nerves. NEUROPTERA. Insects with four netted wings. NEUTERS. Infertile animals or plants, hav- ing neither stamens nor pistils. NEUTRAL, NEUTRALIZATION, NEU- TRALIZED. The combination of an acid with an alkali, or of two active bodies together, by which the properties of either are perfectly destroyed. The addition must be made in the proportion of their equivalents to produce neu- ti'al compounds. NEUTRAL SALTS. Salts which betray neither an acid nor alkaline reaction. NIGHT SOIL 674 NITROGEN NEWEL. In building, the space around which- a flight of steps is turned. NEW JERSEY TEA. Oeanoihus Americana. A common marsh shrub with fragrant bunches of flowers; some used as a substitute for tea. NEW RED SANDSTONE. The series of strata lying immediately above the coal forma- tion. It consists of conglomerates, and contains marl, gypsum, and large quantities of rock salt. NICARAGUA WOOD. The dye-wood of Cwsalpina echinata, a tree of South America. NICHE. A recess in a wall for a statue. NICKEL. A rare white metal, like iron. Its salts are green for the most part. It exists in meteoric stones. NICKING AND DOCKING. Pricking. Cut- ting off part of a horse's tail, and making nicks on the under side, to divide the two cords, which draw down the tail. It is now in disuse. NICOTIANIN. A fatty, volatile, azotized body, insoluble in water, formed during the fer- mentation of tobacco in preparing for the market, and to which its odor is due. It is poisonous, especially to insects and reptiles. NICOTIN, NICOTINA. An acrid, soluble, volatile alkaloid found in tobacco. It combines with acids, and forms salts. It is very poisonous. NICTITATION. Winking. The movem^ent of the membrane covering the eyes of birds and some animals, called the membrana mciitans. NIDUS. A nest. A suitable position or matrix for development. Nichilus and nidulate are derivatives. NIGER. Black. Nigrescent, growing black. Nigricans, blackish, sooty. NIGHT HAWK. An insectivorous bird of the family eaprimiilgidce, so iiamed from their supposed habit of goat sucking. Our night hawk, dwrdeiles popetue, is wholly insectivorous, feeding entirely on insects, especially the coleop- tera ; also moths, caterpillars, crickets and grass- hoppers. It is strictly nocturnal, but is sometimes seen pursuing its prey in dark, cloudy days. The whip-poor-will, Ani/rostomus vociferus, is also noc- turnal, feeding on moths, beetles and other night flying insects ; not, as is generally supposed, upon minute insects, as midges, but on the larger nox- ious insects. In fact its food is pretty much the same as the night-hawk, and both should be sedulously protected. NIGHT SHADE. A common plant. Sola- rium nigrum. An annual plant, low spreading, and much branched; flowers quite small, white, and the berries globular and black. Said to be poisonous. A plant naturalized from Europe, growing in shaded grounds and fields. It should be eradicated wherever found. NIGHT SOIL. The contents of privies, a a mixture of urine and faeces. It was formerly supposed to be the most valuable of manures, and in the neighborhood of cities is largely manu- factured by desiccating with earth into poudrette. More recently it has been found that the urine contained forms the chief constituent of value, this being one of the most powerful of manurial substances; to make poudrette at home all that is necessary, is to have the privy so constructed that the contents may be easily removed. Mix the contents with aii'-dried muck, or strong loam, under cover, using also the chamber lye daily carried out; as the mass becomes dry, it may be used again and again, with the contents of the privy, until it is well saturated with the nitrogen and other salts. In this form it becomes a powerful special manure. Green vitriol may be used in the privy to deodorize and fix the ammo- nia, and gypsum and charcoal dust, will be found valuable with the dry muck, as a desic- cator. NIMBUS. The rain cloud. It is black and near the earth. NIPPERS. The four front teeth of the horse. The permanent ones appear between the second and third years. Pincers, forceps. (See article Horse.) NIPPLE. A conical elevation. The extrem- ities of the udder. Teats. NITIDUS. Shining, polished, smooth. NITRATE OF SILVER. In the fused state this is called lunar caustic, and much used as a caustic. It consists of one equivalent of nitric acid united with one of oxide of silver. A solu- tion is used in the laboratory lo detect the pres- ence of muriatic acid and chlorine in solutions, with both of which it forms a white, curdy precip- itate. It is also a test for organized matter, becoming black in its presence. NITRATES. Salts containing nitric acid combined with a base, as nitrate of potash, soda, lime, ammonia. NITRE. Saltpetre, nitrate of potash. A compound of fifty-four parts (one equivalent) of nitric acid, with one equivalent, or forty-eight parts potash. It crystallizes in six sided prisms, with two faces at the summits ; is solu- ble in seven parts cold, and less than its weight of hot water. NITRE, CUBIC. Nitrate of soda. It con- sists of one equivalent nitric acid, and one soda; is crystallized in rhomboids; is very soluble and deliquescent, requiring but three parts water, at 60° Fahrenheit, for solution, The great part of the salt in commerce is derived from Peru, where immense deposits of it occur. NITRIC ACID. Aquafortis. The pure acid is unknown, that of the shops being a solution in water; the strongest specimens have a speci- fic gravity of 1.5 and contain one atom of acid with two of water; it is of a yellowish tinge, smokes, and is extremely caustic, dissolving most metals. The pure acid consists of one atom of nitrogen with five of oxygen. Nitric acid is extensively employed in the laboratory as a solvent, and, from its active action on many compounds, it readily parts with a portion of its oxygen, oxidizing organic and other bodies pre- sented to it. Its salts are soluble in water, and decrepitate on hot coals. NITRO. A prefix to the name of bodies con- taining nitric acid or nitrogen. NITROGEN. Azote, so called from its fatal effects on life when breathed, in an uncombined state. Hydrogen forms about seventy-nine parts in the one hundred parts of air. In combination with oxygen, it forms nitric acid. Combine^ with hydrogen it forms ammonia. In combina- tion witli oxygen it is the source of nitrogenous compounds in animals and plants ; pure nitrogen is a colorless gas devoid of taste and smell. Thus we see that the air is the source of this necessary ingredient in plants and yet it is locked up, so far as the artificial elimination of it is concerned, at least from an economical point of view. In the state in which nitrogen exists in the air, it can not be assimilated by plants except through its foliage. Its only source to plants NOCTURNAL 675 XURSERY being through the roots either from geine, from ammonia, or from the nitrates, through decom- position by the action of the growing plant. It has indeed been held that plants take up nitro- gen, from the air by their leaves. There is Jiowever, no real proof that such is actually the fact. Nitre consists of an alkali united to an acid composed of one part of nitrogen to five of oxy- gen is in fact nitrate of potash. The nitrates of potash, soda, magnesia and lime are natural pro- ducts. The nitrates of oxides, and of metals are artiticial products. The nitrates undergo decom- position at a high heat, thus they are converted into free nitric acid and the oxidized base, or into oxygen Avhich escapes, and into nitrous acid, which remains in combination with the base forming a nitrite. In the laboratory it is easy to produce nitrogen The air is simply to be deprived of its ■oxygen. It may be done in various ways, either by leaving a piece of phosphorus several days in a bell glass over water, or by burning phosphorus in the glass standing over water, or by pass- ing air through a tube partly filled with copper shavings, heated to a red heat. Nitric acid is the most important product of nitrogen, and the agent from which the other compounds are pro- duced. Nitric acid when pure, occurs in bril- liant transparent crystals, its composition in 100 parts being nitrogen twenty-six, and oxygen seventy-four parts. In commerce it is only found mixed with water, its most concentrated form, that of fuming acid being 85.73 parts of anhydrous acid 13.28 of water. Its most usual form in commerce is sixty percent, of pure acid and forty per cent, of water. It is, however, of "various degrees of strength, often containing two-thirds of water. Nitrous acid is an unstable compound giving off deep red fumes. It is gen- crated by the action of dilute nitric acid upon copper shavings, deutoxide or nitric oxide being first formed which, exposed to the air, absoi-bs more oxygen. The lowest oxide of nitrogen is the protoxide or nitrous oxide. It has a sweet taste but no odor or color. Ammonia, one of the more important compounds of nitrogen is an inflammable gas, very pungent to the smell and acrid to the taste. It is readily and abundantly formed by decaying organic bodies, containing nitrogen, for, in the process of decay, the elements of organic matters form new groupings generally simpler than the original substances. Thus a portion of nitrogen associates with a portion of hydrogen, and ammonia is formed. In the case of heating manure, it is the pungent gas. In the decay and decomposition of human urine, car- bonate of ammonia is formed. So the carbonate of ammonia is formed in the manufacture of bone black. Commercial ammonia is mostly formed by the distillation of bituminous coal, and is a bye product in making illuminating "^^ITRO-MURIATIC ACID. Arjun regia. A mixture of strong nitric and muriatic acid, whereby chlorine is evolved, which dissolves ^old, platinum, and other metals. NITROUS ACID. A pungent, orange-colored, volatile acid, consisting of one equivalent nitro- gen and four oxygen. NITROUS OXIDE. Protoxide of nitrogen, laughing gas. NOCTURNAL. Of the night. Many birds and insects prey only at night, hence are noc- turnal. NODE. A knot or lump. A bony tumor. The swelling on the stems of plants where leaves start; also called nodi. A nodal point, in physics, is a place of rest, where several loroee counterbalance one another. NODOSUS. Knotty. NODULE. Rounded, irregular lumps or masses. NOGGINGr. In building, brick-work carried between uprights of timber scantling. NOMENCLATURE. The language employed in scientific descriptions. NON-CONDUCTOR. A substance incapable of conducting heat or electricity. NONESUCH. Medicago lujmlina. The black medick. NOOTH'S APPARATUS. A series of three glass vessels, placed vertically, for the purpose of impregnating water with carbonic acid gas. The lower vessel contains the marble and muri- atic acid for the evolution of the gas; the central vessel holds the water, under the pressure of the column of water in the third or upper vessel, which is closed by a conical stopper, which serves as a safety-valve. NOPAL. The Opuntia cocMnillifera, a cactus on which the cochineal insect lives ; native of the sandy tracts of Mexico. NORDHAUSEN SULPHURIC ACID. Fum ing strong acid obtained by the distillation of green vitriol. NORFOLK POLLED CATTLE. This is a subfamily of the Galloway, that have long since been bred in Norfolk. They are little known in this country, and according to Youatt while they retain much of the general form of their ancestors, the Galloways, they do not retain all their excellencies. Thej' have been enlarged but not improved by a southern climate and a richer soil. They are usually red; some, how- ever, are black, or either of these colors mixed with white, with a characteristic golden circle about the eye. They are taller than the Gallo- ways, but thinnerin the chine, flatter in the ribs, longer in the legs, somewhat better milkers, of greater weight when fattened, but not fattening so kindly, and the meat not quite equal in quality. NORMAL. Regular, straight, usual. NORMAN HORSE. (See French Horse.) NORWAY MAPLE. (See Maple.) NOSE-BAG". A bag containing corn or oats to be tied to the horse's nose. NOSE-BAND. That part of the headstall of a bridle which comes across the nose. NOTCHED. Crenate. NOTCHED-BOARD. In building, the board which receives the ends of the steps of a stair- NOVACULITE. Home stone. NUCLEUS. The point around which crys- tals or organized structures are developed; the origin. In botauy, the upper, pulpy mass of an ovule; the interior of a seed. The shield of lichens. NUCULA. A fruit like the acorn, or a one- seeded, hard seed-vessel. NUDUS. Naked. NURSERY. In horticulture, a nursery is a field or farm used exclusively for the propaga- tion of trees and plants, and the cultivation thereof until they are of sufficient size for trans- planting where they are to stand permanently. NURSERY 676 NURSERT Until within the last seventy years but little attention was paid to the rearing of nursery stock for sale, as a special industry, in the United States, and it is only within the last forty or fifty years that the great nurseries East and West have had a beginning. A competent authority states that very little attention was paid to the raising of fruits previous to the Revolution, except for the manufacture of cider. The first apples were raised upon Governor's Island, in the harbor of Boston, from which, on the lOtli of October, 1639, ten fair pippins were brought, there being not one apple or pear tree planted in any part of the country but upon that island. The first nursery of young trees in this country was that planted by Governor Endicott on his farm at Salem, now Danvers, in 1640, and it is related that he sold five hundred apple trees for two hundred and fifty acres of land. The systematic cultivation of fruit was not common in this country pre- vious to the Revolution. Orchards were set out upon many farms, but they were designed chiefly for cider. Much greater care, however, was taken to raise good fruits in New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania than in New England, and several noted orchards and nurseries existed there in the latter part of the last century and the early part of the present, but they were the exception to the general rule eVen there. Choice varieties of apples, pears, peaches and cherries were known only \o a few careful cultivators, and the number of varieties of these was quite limited as compared with the present day. Cider was plenty, but its quality was much less regarded than its quantity. It is stated that so late as 1835 there was not a nursery for the sale of apple and pear trees in New England. Trees had to be bought in New York or New Jersey, or imported from abroad. The first horticul- tural society in the country was established in 1839. The orchard products, according to the census of 1870 were $48,000,000, and the general culture of fruit has since rapidly progressed. We have now nurseries established for growing certain given varieties of trees, as forest trees, and even evergreen trees solely. One nursery in Illinois, devoted solely to evergreens, has dis- posed of over 30,000,000 in one year. As a rule however, the nurseryman grows or deals in a variety of trees and plants, and as in the case of one of the great nurseries of Rochester, N. Y., there is hardly a plant of use or ornament, whether native or exotic, hardy or to be cul- tivated only under glass, but thatmay be obtained. The same may be said of one of the great Bloom- ington. 111., nurseries. In preparing the nursery grounds, the most important point to be attended to in the West is thorough drainage by means of tile. One of the most successful nurserymen in the West, located at Springfield, 111., stated to the writer that the measure of his great success was in first thoroughly tiling his land, dry and wet alike, to a depth of three feet. Thus, there are no waste places; there was also no hunt- ing after particular locations for particular plants, no weak places in the rows, and com- paratively few inferior or cull stock, and the subsequent expense of cultivation is lightened and the growth forwarded to fully reimburse the interest on the cost of the permanent investment andl wear of the drainage, this last being in care- fully laid tile hardly to be estimated. It will hardly pay the general farmer to raise his own nursery stock, since he can buy his plants and trees much cheaper than he can grow the seed- lings and graft or bud them. The same may be said of ornamental and forest trees, both decidu- ous and evergreen. In the case, however, where quantities of forest trees, or even where small groves and wind breaks are to be planted, it is. altogether better that the trees be bought, quite young, and planted in nursery rows, to remain there until of a size for final transplanting- where they are to stand. Thus, seedling conifers from four to twelve inches high, and deciduous, trees one or two years old, and nursery stock either recent grafts or of one year's growth, may be ordered and planted out, the evergreens in rows two feet apart and pretty thick in the rows. As they begin to crowd each other in the row,, take out every other one until they stand two by two feet. Then take out every other row, and again every other plant in the remaining rows. Those left will make specimen plants for various ornamental purposes. Deciduous seedlings, should be planted four feet apart, as to the rows, by twelve inches in the row, thinning out as may be necessary, as heretofore directed Eventually,, they may stand sixteen by sixteen feet, and tliese may be allowed to grow up into a grove, or tlie wind break may be planted thickly and thinned out as necessary, leaving enough to stand for permaneut growth. The idea in all this is that, trees and plants while- young can be cultivated^ and taken care of more economically in compact, bodies than when planted out at the distances at which they are finally to stand. One plant will also support and act as a nurse to another if not too much crowded. The pruning, pinching, and training is more easily performed, and they may stand in the home nursery much longer and be- transplanted far more safely than direct from the commercial nursery rooms, and for the reason: that they will not have to be- carried long dis- tances. Thus by buying quite young stock (maiden trees) they may stand until quite of large size, four or five years for apples and pears, tlu-ee to four j'ears for plums and cherries, and be safely transplanted with an abundance of fibrous roots, especially if they have been root- pruned the June previous to being finally trans- planted. This is done by thrusting a sharp spade deeply down to cut the leading roots at a dis- tance of eighteen inches to two feet from the stem of the tree, according to size. Thus, they will be found the succeeding spring to be fur- nished with an abundance of fibrous roots. It would be better that this root pruning be done- two years before the final transplanting,- when the roots may be cut from fifteen to eighteen inches from the stems of the trees. Thus a five- or six year old tree may be transplanted and with ordinary care will scarcely be checked in growth. In relation to the home nursery and training, Dr. Warder, the veteran and venerable- pomologist, says: Trimming should be practiced in the nursery with a definite object in view, and not at random ; much less with any expectation of increasing the height of the trees by trimming them up. The object in pruning nursery trees should be to develop them in every part, to pro- duce a stout, stocky, sturdy little tree, one that may be turned out upon the bleak prairie, and be able to withstand the blasts. To produce this result, the leaves should never be stripped from the shoots to make them extend their ^S'URSERY or? NURSERY growth, for the sake of making more leaves; the nurseryman should know the value of leaves, as constituting the great evaporating surface that plays a most important part in causing the ascent of the crude sap. and also in its elaboration after it has been taken up into the organization of the plant. Leaves should be carefully preserved, and in the trimming, which is necessary, this should be borne in mind. To make vigorous, stocky trees, the side branches should be encour- aged rather tlian pruned off. Tlie tops may sometimes need to be pinched, to force out the laterals, and to encourage their growth ; if two shoots start together as rivals, one of them should be topped or cut back, or twisted and broken, J)ut not cut ofE at its origin, unless there be plenty of lateral branches or twigs to furnish the tree. When these become too long, they may be spurred-in, either in the fall and winter when cutting grafts, or in the summer, during the growing season. Whenever it becomes necessary to trim off any of these laterals, it is best to do it at mid-summer, as the healing of the wounds 3nade at this period is very rapid. Heading off the nursery trees is to force them to branch uni- formly the second year, to form their heads at the light place ; this is to be done toward spring, and is applicable especially to those varieties that are prone to make a single shoot the first year with- out branching, and which have not been pinched in or headed during the previous summer to force out side branches. Cherries, plums, and pears, and some apples, are very apt to make this kind of gi-owth. It should have been pre- mised that all nursery trees ought to be grown to one main stem, or leader, from which all the branches arise, and to which they should all be made to contribute their quota of woody fiber. It has been asserted that the wood of a tree, instead of being a cone, as its stem appears to be and is, it should be a column of nearly equal size from the bottom to the top ; that is, the mass of all the branches taken together, should equal the diameter of the trunk at any point below. A ■well -grown, stocky nursery tree, with its abund- ance of lateral branches approximates this idea; but the main stem of such an one is very percept- ibly a cone, rapidly diminishing in diameter from the collar upwards. The age of trees for planting depends so much upon the^ views of planters, that the nurseryman can not always control the period at which he shall clear a block of trees, feaches should always be removed at one year from the bud. Plums and dwarf pears will be ready to go off at two years from the bud or graft; so with apples and cherries. But many persons, purchasers and sellers, prefer larger trees, and they recommend that the trees should remain one, two, or even three years longer in the nursery. Others, a new school of planters, prefer to set out the maiden tree, in most of the species above named, except some very feebly growing varieties, that will scarcely have attained sufficient size to risk in the orchard. The nur- seryman should beware of keeping his trees too long on his hands ; they may become unprofit- able stock, and are sure to require much more labor in the digging and handling. The pur- chaser is his own master, and his tastes and wishes must be consulted ; if he wants large trees, by all means let him be indulged ; he will have to pay in proportion, he will have more wood for his money, more weight to carry, or more transpor- tation to pay for, more labor in planting, and vastly increased risk of the life of his trees; but, let him be indulged with his five-year-old trees, while his neighbor, for a smaller sum in- vested, with less freight, less wood, less- labor, and infinitely less risk, will plant his maiden trees, and five years after will market more fruit. The nursery orchard, as practiced by A. R. Whitney, of Illinois, one of the largest orchardists of the country, is well worthy of imitation by all those nurserymen, who desire also to become fruit-growers. In laying off the blocks of nursery stock, the varieties that are wanted for the orchard, should be planted in such a manner that they shall be in every fourth row, so that the orchard trees will stand in rows sixteen to twenty feet apart, according as the nursery-rows are four or five feet wide. In cul- tivating and trimming these rows in the nursery, a plant is selected, every twelve or sixteen feet, which is to remain as the orchard tree when the block shall be cleared. A good tree is selected, and special care in the priming is bestowed upon it to secure the desired form, and low branches; if necessary, the tree on either side of it is removed, to give it room. By the time the block is cleared, these orchard trees are often in bear- ing, and while his customers are struggling to save their trees, and nursing them after their transplanting, the nurseryman will have become an orchardist, and is enjoying his fruits. The nursery will have become an orchard — one rather closely planted to be sure — but the trees can be dwarfed by root pnining with the plow, they shelter one another from the prairie blasts, and when too thick, alternate trees may be removed to the wood-pile, and thus cheer the owner on a' winter's day. Winter-killing is a serious evil in the nursery, as by it whole rows and blocks of certain varieties are sometimes destroyed, or very seriously injured. It has been observed to be most marked in its effects upon those sorts of trees that make the most vigorous and sappy growth, as well as that class which continue to grow late in the season. Such varieties have very naturally acquired the epithet of tender, especially as orchard trees of the same kinds, even in a bear- ing state, have been similarly affected ; in some sections of the country, these kinds have been thrown out of cultivation. The bark looks shriveled and withered, the twigs seem dry when cut, and resist the knife ; when thawed by the fire, or on the return of spring weather, the bark seems loose, and the inner bark, instead of being greenish-white, becomes brown, and the whole tree looks as though it was dead. In old trees, large portions of the. bark start from the stem and large limbs, and hang loosely for awhile and then fall off. The buds alone retain their vital- ity, and upon the return of spring they some- times succeed in establishing the necessary con- nection with the soil, and restore the circulation of the sap; the results are the deposit of the usual annular layer of woody matter, which encases the dead portions within, that become like a sequestrum of dead bone in an animal. The best treatment for the trees that have been win- ter-killed, is to cut them back very severely, in the hope of producing a vigorous wood-growth the next season, to repair the injury. A partial winter-killing often affects small nursery trees, especially on low and wet, undrained soils ; the OAK 678 OAK INSECTS plants recover, but for years they have a black place in the heart which embraces all of the wood-growth that was affected — all their wood at the period of the disaster. This is enclosed and surrounded by clear healthy wood; but such trees are not desirable, they are so fragile, as to be easily broken. The best preventive for winter-killing in the nursery, is <;o encourage the early ripening of the wood, and to drain the land, is one of the best means of producing this effect, another is the cessation of culture at mid- summer, and the sowing of oats very thick at the last cultivation, has been practiced, and, it is thought, with excellent effects. The rank growth absorbs the superfluous moisture, rob- bing the trees, and afterward forms a good protective mulch during the winter. The objections to it are, that it encourages the mice, which, by girdling the trees, effectually winter- kills them. Many nursery and orchard trees often present a black discoloration of the bark, which is quite unsightly, and excites alarm for the health of the tree. This is often caused by trimming at unfavorable periods ; in the spring pruning of bearing trees, the large stumps some- times bleed, but in the nursery trees it arises from ciitting them, and especially in the bar- barous trimming up, during severely cold weather, when they are frozen. NUTS. In a botanical sense, a nut is the fruit of a tree or shrub, consisting of a hard shell enclosing the germ and its envelopes, called the kernel. Thus the hickory, wal- nut, hazel, chestnut, beech, and oaks bear nuts. The seed of the peach, plum, cherry, almond, olive, etc., are termed stones or pits,, (drupes,) and those of the apple, pear, orange, lemon, etc., are pips. Thus nuts are kernels- contained directly in a more or less hard shell; drupes, are nuts enveloped in a pulpy pericarp, or fleshy covering without valves; pip fruits are those fleshy fruits containing the seeds either directly in the pulp, or else in scaly compart- ments in the middle of the fruit. In mechanics, a nut is a small block of wood or metal contain- ing a concave or female screw. o OAE. Trees of the genus Quercus, the most valuable of any genus of forest trees, remarkable for their close grain, durability, firmness, and toughness of timber; noted also for their majes- tic size, and handsome appearance. The white oak grows naturally in a rich, moist, loam, or rich sandy soil underlaid with clay, also on any moist, strong, clay soil. The bur oak (upland) grows on rich, rather dry soils called baiTen, and the swamp bur oak, on rich moist bottom lands. The barren scrub oak, and the black oak is found on the provost, sometimes on sands. The classification of American oaks, and including the European introduced species, by Michaux, are divided into two divisions as follows : White oak (Querctis alba), seventy to eighty feet high. Common European oak {Quercus robur), sixty to eighty feet high. European white oak {Quercus robur pedunculata), sixty to eighty feet high. Mossy-cup oak {Quercus olivmformis), seventy to eighty feet high. Over-cup white oak (Quercus macrocarpa), seventy to eighty feet high. Post oak {Quercus obtusiloba), thirty to fifty feet high. Over-cup oak {Quercus lyrata), sixty to seventy feet high. Swamp white oak {Quercus bieolor), sixty to seventy feet high. Chestnut white oak {Quercus prinos), seventy to eighty feet high. Rock chestnut oak {Quercus Montana), thirty to forty feet high, Yellow oak {Quercus acuminata), sixty to seventy feet highr Small chestnut oak {Quercus chinquapin), a shrub of three to four feet high. Live oak {Quercus virem). evergreen, forty to sixty feet high. Cork oak {Quercus auiier), Spanish tree. Willow oak (Quercus phellos), thirty to sixty feet high. Laurel oak (Quercus imbricaria), shingle oak, forty to fifty feet high. Upland willow oak (Quercus cin- erea), evergreen Southern, twenty feet high. Running oak (Quercus pumila), two feet high. Second Section. — Leaves lobed. Bartram oak (Quercus heterophylla), said to be found only on one plantation. Water oak (Quercus aquatica), thirty to forty feet high. Black Jack oak (Quer- cus ferruginea), small, barren oak. Bear oak (Quercus banisteri var. ilicifolia), two to nine feet high. Barren scrub oak (Quercus Catesbmi), fif- teen to thirty feet high. Spanish oak (Quercus falcaia), seventy to eighty feet high. Black oak (Quercus iinctoria), sixty to seventy feet high. Scarlet oak (Quercus coccinea), eighty feet high;, produces brownish ink galls. Gray oak (Quer- cus ambigua), a hybrid, seventy to eighty feet high. Pin oak (Quercus palustris), forty to sixty feet high. Red oak (Quercus rubra), seventy to eighty feet high. To this list may be added the- Southern oak, Q. Michaux. Others have also been added, but the list we have given compose the important species. OAK APPLE. Spongy excrescences on the young branches of various oaks, and produced by insects of the genus Oynips, are called oak apples. When they become hard they are called oak galls, and are used in the manufacture of ink and for other purposes. They contain a large amount of tannin. OAK INSECTS. The oaks are subject to the- attacks of various insects, including the leaves, the young wood, the inner bark, and also boring into the solid wood. Of the latter the borers, especially the water borers, are particularly destructive to the timber. The oak twig pruner, Stenocorus puiator, (Elaphidion mUosum,) dLeposits. an egg in the tender twig, which hatching the- frub subsists upon the pith until fully grown. t then gnaws away the wood, and retiring back- wards, waits until the branch t^Ws to the ground, when it is in due time transformed into the per- fect insect. Sometimes, branches several feet in length and an inch in diameter are thus severed.. Their destruction is easy by collecting and burn- ing the fallen branches. The same means will apply to all the twig pruners. The following is a list of insects the larva of which attack the wood and dead leaves of the oak, which with the succeeding will be of interest to many readers; Chrysobothris femorata, wood; Ghrysdbothris calcarata, white oak wood; Chrysobothns den- tipes, wood; Agrilus, Europe, some, in wood;. Throscus, Europe, some, in wood, wainscoting;. Euenemidm, wood; Fornax, stumps; Alaus ocu- OAT 679 ODERITE latua, wood; Alaus myops, wood; Ptilodactyla elaterina, wood; PHonocyphon discoideus, hollow stumps, in water; Dictyopterus sanguineus, Eu- rope, under bark; TiUus ambidatis, wood; Cis- tela ceramboides, Europe, In oak; Lagriahii-ta, Europe, dead leaves; Pyrochroa cMcinea, rotten wood; Synehroa punctata, rotten wood; Lucanus dama, wood; Platycerus qiterciis. wood; Pmsalus cornutm, wood; Lymexylon tia-cale, Europe, ship timber and wood; Lymexylon serireum, wood; Hyloi-mius Amencanus, wood; PtiUnus pectini- cornis, Europe, wood. Insects attacking the foli- age are as follows: iLicrodaciylus subspinosus, foliage ; Lachiwsterna fuma, foliage; Lachnosterna micnm, foliage; Lcichnosterna hirtucuJa, foliage; Holotrkhm crenulata, foliage; Trichestes iriatis, foliage ; Polyphylla vanolosa, foliage ; Cotalpa lani- gera, foliage; Osmoderma scabra, foliage. The following insects attack the stumps or work under the bark: Centronopua cakaratuK'. stumps of black oak; Xylopinua aaperdoidea,- stumps of black oak; Helops micana, under bark; Paeudo- clerua ichneumoneua, under bark, probably destroying other insects. The oak also suffers from the attack of phylloxera, principally inhabiting the leaf galls, but found generally on the hickory; as the American oak phylloxera, P. Eileyi, which, says Dr. Riley, is found on the under side of the white and post oaks, in the wingless state. Of insects not given in the pre- vious list attacking the oak, Dr. Thomas gives the following : Tremex columba, XylenUa robinue, Pandeletriua hilarw, Lucanua elephua, Phyllo- phaga frncerna, P. piloaicollia, P. fuaca. OxVT. Arena aativn. The native country of the cultivated oats like most of our cultivated grains is uncertain. It was in earlier times, cul- tivated extensively as food for man, and of late years, since improved processes in hulling and preparing the grain have been invented, its use as a most healthy and nutritious food is yearly increasing. The best and heaviest oats are raised in cool and moist climates ; Scotland and Fries- land, having long been noted for the superior weight and quality of the crop. In the United • States, Canada, Wisconsin, and the Red river country of the North are eminently adapted to the cultivation of the crop. Oats are said to have been cultivated in Massachusetts as early as 1603. As in England their great use is as food for horses, than which there is no other grain that alone can take the place, where fast work is demanded. Skinless oats. Arena nana, have from time to time been introduced under various names, but they shell so easily and suffer from so many contingencies that their cultiva- tion is not profitable. Oats like a firm, strong, moderately dry clay or loam, though they may be successfully cultivated on lighter soils, if not too dry, than for most other cereals. Excelsior, White Shonen, Potato oats. New Brunswick, White and Black Swedish, Red, or rust proof oats, (for the South,) Hopetoun, Yellow, (re- markably early,) Wythe, King William, Gooch- land, Wilkes' IJlount, Clark, Sandy, Board of Trade, (probably White Norway,) Tartarian, Poland, White Dutch, Surprise, and Probsteir, are all varieties that have succeeded well. These varieties are not really new as to the list, but new, or comparatively so, to the United States. Among the varieties that have done well gener- ally, maj be mentioned, Potato, Poland, Sur- prise, Wnite Shonen, Tartarian, Somerset, and Probsteir. The average yield of oats for the United States may be stated at thirty to thirty- five bushels. Upon good land, well prepared, and in good seasons, the yield will average forty bushels, and in particular instances the crop will give eighty and even 100 bushels per acre. As an instance of what may be done by manuring on thin soil, at the Massachusetts Agricultural College, on a rocky, drift soil, a plot without manure gave fifteen bushels per acre, with manure the yield was sixty-two bushels per acre. In relation to the value of sowing clean seed, an experiment at the Agricultural College of the University of Wisconsin, made by Prof. Daniels, reports that, repeating an experiment made in 1871, he sowed May 34, 1872, two adjacent plots, each of 113 square rods, with Surprise oats, fifty-four quarts to each plot. The seed on one plot had been well cleaned from chaff and light grain, and the seed on the other plot was sown as taken from the bin; weight of the cleaned seed, sixty-six and three-quarter pounds, and of the uncleaned, sixty-two and one-half. The fol- lowing table summarizes the results for the two years : Preparation of seed. Weight of product per bnehel, pounds. Yield per acre, bufchele. 1871. W2. 1871. 1872. Cleaned ..\ tTncleaned .35.60 33.50 25.00 35.00 48.^ 43.75 17.50 15.30 In the prairie region of the West oats should always be sown on fall plowing, and as early in the spring after wheat sowing, as the soil is dry and in good condition for working. Late sown oats are as a rule light from the heat and drought of the advancing season. Nevertheless oats should not sprout until all danger of extreme frost is over. Yet we have never had oats killed if sown at any time after the frost is out and the ground settled in spring. OBESITY. Extreme or morbid fatness. OBJECT GLASS. The glass, or lens, of the telescope nearest the object. OBLATE. Somewhat spherical, but flat- tened in the perpendicular axis, as an orange, the world. OBSIDIAN. A black, glassy, compact lava, consisting of potash and soda, seven to ten per cent. ; silica 77.50; alumina 11.75; iron 1.25. OBTUNDENTS. Mucilaginous, oily, or bland substances, which reduce the acrimony of other medicines. OCCIPITAL BONE. The bone which forms the back portion of the skull, to which the spi- nal column is attached. OCHRE. Peroxide of iron mixed with clay; the color is very durable. OCHREA. The leaf-stems which clasp or surround the stem, as in the case of some grasses. OCTAG-ON. A superficial figure, with eight sides or angles. _ OCTAHEDRON. A solid, with eight regular sides; it is one of the most common figures of crystals, and may be a derivative from the cube or tetrahedron. OCTANDRIA. The Linneean class, in which the flowers contain eight stamens. ODERITE. A species of black mica. OIL 680 OIL ODOMETER. A wheel, the axis of which turns a graduated scale, so that the distance over which it passes on a road is recorded in feet and miles. It may be attached to a carriage wheel, or to that of any vehicle. ODONTOLOGY. A treatise on the teeth. ODORIN. A very concentrated empyreu matic oil, obtained by rectifiying oil of bones. (EDEMA. Pufflness of a part of the body, produced by a dropsical effusion or collection of watery fluid. CENANTHIC ETHER. A volatile oily body, to which the peculiar vinous flavor of wine is owing; by boiling with potash it becomes con- verted into oenanthic acid and alcohol. (ESOPHAGUS. The gullet or swallow. (ESTRUS. The genus of Gad Flies. (See Bots.) OFFSET. In building, the superior surface left uncovered by the continuation upward of a wall where the thickness diminishes, forming a ledge. OFFSETS. In surveying, short distances from the chain-line, usually measured with a rod, called an offset-staff, the most convenient length for which is six feet 7.3 inches, being equal to ten links of the surveying chain. In gardening, young radical bulbs, when separated or taken off from the parent roots, are so called. One of the chief methods of propagating plants is by offsets. OFFSPRING. (See Breeding, Generation, etc .) OGEE. In molding, is a line resembling the italic/. OGIVE. The pointed arch. OIDIUM. (See Fungus.) OIL. The oils consist principally of carbon and hydrogen, they, however, have a great affinity for oxygen, and if exposed to the air soon absorb oxygen and thus become rancid, since besides oleine they contain more or less of other matter. Hence, the reason why fats so soon become putrid, so oils when oxydized either become rancid or are converted into resins. The fluid fats, oils of vegetables and animals, agree very closely as to their structure, as the following table will show, the constituents being those of a well known vegetable and an animal oil : Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. Olive oil consists of . . . . Spermaceti " — ... 77.2 .. j 78.9 13.3 11.8 9.5 10.2 Oils are divided into expressed or fixed oils, which are also subdivided into drying oils and common oils, and into distilled or essential oils. The common fat oils are like almond and olive, bland, preserving their flavor for a time, but at length becoming rancid; palm oil is solid. The drying oils are like linseed, hemp seed, nut oil ; they attract oxygen readily from the air, evolving heat, and become solid. The essential oils impart to flowers and aromatic bodies their odor; they are very volatile, and are obtained by distilling the leaves or flowers with water. All vegetables contain a proportion of oil of some of these varieties, which may be obtained by digesting them in ether and alcohol ; it is, however, fre- quently below one per cent., while in other cases, as the nut, it is more than sixty per cent. In provender, the fattening quality is closely related to the percentage of common following table shows the per cent. : oil. The Product. Per cen Rice .. 8 Rye 1 8 35 Hard wheat . , 36 Wheat fionr 21 48 Dry clover 4 35 Meadow hay 3 8 Oat straw , - , . 1 1 21 Beans 2 Peas ... 20 25 Mangel-wurzel . . 1 17 Oil-cake 9.0 to 15 M. Pay en found that the oil was everywhere present in the seeds of gramineous plants. The embryo contains much, the husk less, the fari- naceous portion still less; but maize and oil-cake contain about nine per cent. , whence the univer- sally admitted superior fattening power of these two articles, so often practically proved. The plants principally cultivated for oil, are the olive, linseed, castor, bean, rape, bene-plant, pea-nut, sunflower, etc. Corn is also worked for its oil to some extent. The principal animal oils, are procured from the fat of swine, the whale, the cod, and other fish, also from seals and other marine animals. The residue, both fish and animals, after the oil is expressed, makes a most valuable manure, and the residue of many of the oil bearing seeds are valuable for fattening animals, as that of linseed, the pea-nut, while the residue of all are valuable as manure. When the cotton seed of the South comes generally to be used in this way, it will add greatly to the productiveness of the soil. Wax is a substance nearly allied to the oil producing fats. In fats, oils, and wax, from various' countries, now in the Museum of the Depart- ment of Agriculture at Washington, we find the following, which include a number of essential oils : There are about half a dozen samples of vegetable tallow and wax in this series. One specimen of the last named, the product of Myrica jalapensis, is received from Mexico. The vegetable wax of China and Japan is pro- duced from the fruit of several trees belonging to the genus Rhus. The most important of these is Bhus succedanea, and is grown exten- sively. Bhus ■Bernieifera, the lacquer tree, also yields a wax, differing only in a slight degree from that of the wax-tree mentioned above. Bhus sylvesiris, or the wild wax-tree is also worthy of mention. Vegetable tallow is pro- duced in Japan from the Uinnamomum peduncu- latum. Other specimens of vegetable tallow and wax are from the valley of the Amazon. The oils are quite numerous, and, where it has been possible to do so, the vegetable products from whence derived are shown with them. Linseed and the more common oils have been received from various countries. The Russian collections included oils of anise, mustard, hempseed, wal- nuts, sunflower, wild rape, camline seed and poppy, with a few specimens of the refuse or OKRA 681 OLEOMARGARINE oil cake. Oils of Japan are represented by rape-seed oil, which is used for illuminating purposes, together with fish oil in Japanese households. The South American collection is bottles or jars, and a strong brine put over them, made from good alum, or other pure salt. This brine will generally require to be changed seve- ral times, in consequence of becoming ash- colored, after which, the bottles must be sealed air-tight; and, if kept in a cool, dry, dark place, the olives will keep good for years. Olives care- fully cured after this plan, will be found less salt than those pickled in France, which are usually sold in this country, and will retain much of the nutty flavor of pure olive oil. We append a list from a late Spanish work on olives, of varieties, their uses, and adaptation to climates. SPANISH VAKIETIES BABLT MATURING POE. COLDER LOCALITIBS. Var. Prorniformis. — Manzanlllo ; , (French, Ampoul- Zea«.)— Fruit above an inch in diameter, spherical, shin- ing hlack. Var. EegalU. — Sevillano: (French, Pruneau de Catig- nac.)— Fruit about an inch in diameter, ovate-spherical^ blunt, blui(^h-black. Var. Bellotudo or TlUoluda.—VrxaX about an inch long, egg-shaped: pericarp outsiae dark red, inside violet. Var. Redondillo. — Fruit ovate-epherical, nearly an inch long; pericarp outside bluish-black, inside "whitish. A rich yielder. Var. Ovalis. — Lechin; Picholin; Acquillo; (French, iSflMrine.)— Fruit broad-oval, two-thirds of an inch long. A copious yielder. Var. Argentata. — Nevadillo bianco; Doucel; Gorza- lena; Moradillo; Ojiblanco; Olivo lucio.- Fruit- broad- ovate, an inch long, very blunt, not oblique. Quality and quantity of oil excellent. Var. Varal fttonco.— (French, BlangueUe.)—Wrmt ovate, globular, three-fourths of an inch long, neither pointed nor oblique, outside blackish-red. Var. Mmpeltre.—Vrait ovale, an inch long, equable. Rich in oil of excellent quality, also one of'the best for pickles. Outside violet, inside white. Var. JJacimaZ.— (French, Bouteillan, Boutiniene, Mibi- en, Bapugetie.) — Fruit violet-colored, globose-ovate, about an inch lonsr, neilher poinred nor oblique. Bears regularly also on less fertile soil, and is one of the earliest to ripeu. Var. Varal negro; Al&meno; (Fi'ench, Cayon, Nasies.) —Fruit violet -black, spotted, globose-ovate, nearly an inch long, soiuewhat pointed. Bears richly. Var. Colchom/do,—Frait spheric, outside red, inside white, one inch in diametrr,' slightly pointed. Produces a large quantity of good oil. Var. Ogillo de Xwftrc— Fruit nearly spheric, outside violet-black, about one inch Jong, somewhat oblique Var. CaOT!a«ffM«no.— (French, Sedoimn de Cotignal.)— Fruit black-red, almost spherical, slightly oblique, about an inch long Valualile both for oil and preserves. Var. Hi8pale7i8i8.—(ji0TAa.\: Ocal; Olivo real..— Fruit black-gray, oblique, spherical^ measuring fully an inch. Eather a large and quick growing tree. Fruit used in the g: een state lor preserves, not used for table-oil. ONION 686 ONION, INSECTS INFESTING Var. Verdejo.—VercL'ial. (French, Verdal; Yerdan.) — Fruit black-violet, oblique spheric, pointed, about one loch Ion .'. FiirniBhee good on, and reeiBte best of all the cold. SPANISH VARIETIES OF I-ATE MATTJRINO FOR WARMER LOCALITIES. Var. .Vcf'imo.— Madrileno, Olivo morcal.— Fruit over an inch long, curilaieglobose, strongly pointed. Valu- .able for preserves. Var. Hostrata. -Strong and tall plant, very hardy. Frnit hlack-reddiah, over an inch long, oval, much pointed. Good for oil. Var. Ceratocarpa. (French. Odorant; Lug/noise.) — Fruit fully an inch long, oval, pointed. Var. J'a^jaZwfto. -i'ruit black-gray, over aninch~long, ■egg-shaped, t-ouiewhat oblique, gradually pointed. Rich in good oil. var. Picuio.—Feiudilla.— Frnit fully an inch long, «gg-8haped, blunt at the base, pointed at the apex, witn black-grny pnlp. Good I'oth for oil and preserves. Var. Nerahl'o nfgro.—Wcmt egg-shaped, fully an inch Ibng, with tarni'd pointed apex. One of the richest of all varieties in yield, and ripens modemtely early. PRENCH VARIETIES MERGING INTO THE SPANISH KINDS. Var. Angttlosa. — Laurine.— For preserves. Var. Rouget. — Marvailletto.— Produces a fine oil. Var. Atroiu'iens.—'&aXierae. Saveroe — BYuit dusted" "White. Furnishes one of the best of oils. Var. Fa;itf^o?a. —Marbee. Pigale. Pigau. — Purple fruit, with white spots. Var. Le Palma.—0\\ very sweet, sparingly pro- duced. Var. Airovirens, — Pointue. Punchuda. — Fruit large, with good oil. Var. i?aSicons.— Kougette.— Seed small, yield annual And large. Var. ^i6o.— Olive blanche. Blancane. Tierge.— Productive, hut ii.ferior. Var. Caillet jSoffue.— Figanier.— Tree small. Fruit large, red. Oil good and produced in quantity. Var. CaiHe<&a;icA«.— Fruit almost white, produced annually and copiously, yielding a superioroil. Var. Rayrmt. - Frnit "large, reddish. Oil copious and fine. This variety prefers a flat country. Var. Cortyreac— Fruit middle-sized, blunt. Oil obtained in considerable quantity, and of excellent quality. Var. .BermJMaore.-— Vermillion.— Yields good table-oil. Tree very hardy. OLIVILE. An amylaceous body obtained from the gum of the olive tree. OLIVINE. A green, volcanic mineral. A silicate of magnesia and iron. OMBROMETER. A rain gauge. OMENTUM. The membrane or caul that lies over the intestines, and becomes loaded "with fat. OMNIVORES, OMNIVOROUS. Eating ani mal and vegetable food. OMPHALODIUM. The point in the hilum or scar of a seed through "which the nutritious vessels pass. ONIUN. Allium cepa. .The onion is one of the oldest cultivated as it is one of the most celeljrated of ancient vegetables. In Egypt, it attained great excellence and mildness, probably from the steady heat, and constant moisture of irrigation in connection "with the rich alluvial soil of the Nile. The Israelites in their wander- ings in the desert, lamented the, loss of onions a,s one of their privations. Of the Egyptians and their worship of the allium tribe, Juvenal wrote : Now Kgypt, mad with superstition grown, Maltes gods of monsters, but too well is known, 'Tis mortal sin an onion to devour. Each clove of garlic has a sacred power. Religious nation, sure! and blest abodes, "Where ev'ry garden is o'errun with gods! The onion is cultivated extensively in every civilized country, and forms a considerable article of transport from one place to another. Besides the general cultivation, vast quantities are grown along the Mississippi river in Iowa, for transportation South. In the Eastern States, especially in Connecticut, large quantities are grown for export. There are a great many varieties, but the Danvers Yellow and Large Red are principally cultivated for their keeping qualities, and the Silver Skin for pickling. The Yellow Strasburgh is also a valuable variety in general cultivation, but the two first named are preferred for shipping. The crop requires a rich, deep, mellow soil, heavily manured. It is better that they be sown as early in the spring as the ground can be worked on fall plowing. Three to four pounds of fresh seed is the usual quantity sown per acre, in drills eighteen inches apart, and half an inch deep. The cultivation is entirely by hand machines and superficial, working close to the crop. When the plants are three inches high, thin to two inches apart. Keep free from weeds, and as the bulbs begin to form, draw the earth away rather than to the bulbs. Never cultivate deeply, as it will injure the surface roots, As the crop gains size the tops gradually die down, and early sowings generally ripen in the West, in August. When the tops are entirely dry, the onions are collected into thin windrows, with spaces between to dry for a few days. When dry, the tops are pulled off, the bulbs cleaned of the rough skins, when they are ready for market. If the onions are to be stored for winter, they should be kept in a cool airy place, in thin layers, until late in the autumn, they are then carried to a cold dry cellar, and stored on racks, in layers six or eight inches deep. They may also be saved in heaps, out of doors, by piling in a dry place, just before hard frosts set in, covering carefully with hay, and then with earth, just so they will freeze slightly. Thus they should not be touched until the frost draws out of them naturally, when they must be immediately sold. ONION, INSECTS INFESTING". Within the last ten years the onion crop of the United States has been seriously infested with insects, especially with the maggot, the larva of a Fig, 1. ONION THEir. European fly, and also a native species, which seem to have multiplied rapidly from some unknown cause. A minute Thrip, Limothrips tritica has also made its appearance. The cut, ONION, INSECTS INFESTING 08; Fig. 1, shows the insect in its several stages, magnified, the hair lines showing the natural size. The figures d, b, show larva;; a, male; b, female, and the figure at the right shows the antenna very highly magnified, as will he readily understood, when we recollect that the adult is less than an eighth of an inch in diameter; c, per- fect insect. Of the onion fly, there are two species, the Native Onion Fly and maggot, {Ortalis flexa) shown at Fig. 2, enlarged, the hair line natural Fig. 2. NATIVE ONIOS TLT. size. Fig. 3 shows the European Onion Worm, {Anthomyia cepamm), imported into the United States over forty years ago; '(, natural size; b, maggot, and c, the fly magnified, the hair lines giving the natural size. The report on the Rocky Mountain Locust, and other injurious insects, for 1877, describes both species. The fol- lowing is partly taken from the reports of Dr. Fitch, New York. Speaking of the imported fly, we flnd that in June, as soon as the young seed- ling-onions are only an inch or two in height, these insects commence their depredations and continue them through the whole season, getting their growth and coming out in their perfect state one after another, whereby some of the flies are liable to be always present in the garden, in readiness to deposit their eggs ; and maggots of widely different sizes are commonly met with in the same onion. The eggs or fly-blows are Fig. 3. IMPOBTBD ONION FLY. loosely placed upon the onion slightly above the surface of the ground, some heing dropped along the thin edge of the sheath or white membraneous collar, which is formed by the base of the lower leaf clasping around the stalk, and others are crowded into the crevices between the bases of the leaves, slightly above where they issue from this sheath. From two to six or more eggs are usually placed on partic- ular plants here and there through the bed. OPERCULUM They are perceptible to the eye, being white and smooth, four-hundredths of an inch (0.04) long, and a fourth as thick and of an oval form. U hen the minute maggot hatches from the egg, it works its wa}' downward inside of the sheath, its track being marked by a slender discolored streak, till it reaches the root, on which it feeds till it is wholly consumed, only the thin outer skin remaining. After eating the bulb of one plant they attack the next, until sometimes a third or a half of the bed is destroyed. The maggot attains its growth, in summer, in about a fortnight, and changes to a pupa either in the cavity in the onion, or in the wet, slimy earth which is in contact with the onion. It here ceases to move, it becomes contracted and shorter in length, its skin hardens and changes to a tarnished yellow and finally to a chestnut color with a stain of hlack at each end. This is the pupa-case, and the true pupa is inside. In this condition it lies about two weeks before the fiy escapes. As a preventive measure worth trial the seed should be sown two inches deeper than usual, so that the fly can not so readily get to it to lay its eggs. Sow also on ground on which straw has been previously burned Rota- tion of crops is also a most important prevent- ive measure. When the roots are infested pour boiling water along the drills near the roots, or even on the plants, going over the bed four times during one season. The diseased onions should be pulled up and burned. Fitch recommends cultivating the onions in hills, scattered among the other vegetables in the garden. Willi only three or four seedlings in a hill it is evident tliat the young worms could nowhere find a suifi- cient amount of food to nourish them to maturity. Having consumed all the j'oung plants in one hill, they will be unable to work their wa}- through the ground to come at another hill except it be by the merest chance, and will thus perish. The Black Onion Fly was first found to be destructive to onions in Illinois by Dr. Henry Shimer, who writes as follows regarding it . In the latter part of June I first observed the larva or maggot among the onions here ; the top dead, tuber rotten, and the maggots in the decayed sub- stance. From them I bred the fly. They passed about two weeks in the pupa state. At that time I first observed the flies in the garden, and now few are to be found. Their favorite roosting place is in a row of asparagus running along the onion-ground, where they are easily captured and destroyed, from daylight to sunrise, while it is cool and wet. During the day they are scattered over the ground and on the leaves and stalks of the onions, and not easily captured. Their wings point obliquely backward, outwarcj, and upward, with an irregular jerking, fan-like movement; flight not very rapid or prolonged. All that I observed originated in one part of the bed, where they were doubtless deposited by one parent fly. Two broods appear in a season. OOLITE. Roe stone. A limestone of the secondary epoch, the parts of which are rounded so as to resemble a fish roe. Oolitic is a deriva- tive. OPAL. An iridescent, silicious mineral, of a rich brown color, tough consistency, and smooth, uniform texture; its peculiar narcotic smell should be strong and fresh ; its taste bitter, warm and somewhat acrid. OPERCULUM. A lid or covering. The ORANGE ORCHARDING coverings of the theca of mosses. In zoology this term is applied to the apparatus supported by four bones, which protects the gills of fishes; also to the horny or calcareous plate which closes the aperture of univalve shells ; and to the four calcareous pieces which defend the entrance to the tube of Balanites, or bell-barnacles. OPHIDIANS, OPHIDIA. The order of reptiles resembling snakes. OPHTHALMIA. (See Eyes, Inflammation of.) OPIUM. (See Poppy.) OPOBALSaM. BalmofGilead. A fragrant gum resin, from a species of Amyris. OPODELDOC. A liniment of soap and cam- phor. OPOPONAX. A gum resin of a bad odor from the Paatinaca opoponax. OPOSSUM. The genus Didelphys of marsu- pials, peculiar to the American continent. OPTIC NEKVES. The second pair from the brain. They enter the back of the eyes and form the retina. OPTICS. The science which investigates the property of light, and all that relates to vision. ORACH. Atriplex hortensis. A hardy annual plant, the leaves of which have a slightly acid taste, which in some portions of Europe are, with the footstalks, boiled as we do spinach. It should be sown early in spring, in deep, rich, moist soil, in drills two feet apart, and kept free from weeds until the leaves are of size for boil- ing. It is but little cultivated in the United States. OBAN(irE. Citrus aurantium. The orange, originally a native of the warmer portions of Asia, is now generally disseminated and grown in all countries where the winter frosts are not severe enough to kill the trees. In the United States, South Carolina and Georgia, the Gulf States and Southern California comprise the northern limits of cultivation. It is especially cultivated with a view to profit, in Portugal, Spain, Prance, Italy, Greece, Turkey, Syria, Egypt, northern and southern Africa, India, China, Japan, and on many of the islands adja- cent to these countries ; also in the Azores, the West Indies, Brazil, and the warmest portions of the United States. The first distinct notice of the orange on record is that made by Avi- cenna, an Arabian physician, who flourished in the tenth century. It is stated by Gelesio, a modern Italian author, that the Arabs introduced this fruit into Europe by two routes— the sweet oranges through Persia to Syria, and thence to the shores of Italy and the south of Prance, and the bitter ones by Arabia, Egypt, and the north of Africa to Portugal and Spain, It was the opinion of this writer, who described forty of the principal kinds, cultivated in Italy, that they were all derived from the same species— an opinion which appears to be corroborated by the circumstance that the whole citrus family is prone to change, from a difference of soil and climate, as well as from a tendency to sport, when cultivated from seeds, after the manner of most of our orchard fruits. In many parts of the West Indies and South America, for instance, the whole orange tribe is found growing wild, springing up spontaneously from the seeds of the trees originally planted by the Spaniards, vary- ing in size and every gi-adation from the lime to the shaddock. In Florida, it has long been cul- tivated. Bartram mentions a famous orange grove in Florida, which was found in 1781, when the surveyor ran the lines near New Smyrna, north for forty miles along a ridge ; and further stated that extensive gi-oves were found as far north as latitude 28°. Dr. Baldwin, in 1817, men- tions trees thirty feet high, and says : You may eat oranges from morning till night, at every plan- tation along the shores, while the wild trees, bending with their golden fruit over the water, present an enchanting appearance. These were the remains of the trees, or the wildings, from those planted hy the early Spanish settlers. The cultivation of the orange is steadily extending in Florida and California. In other Southern States its cultivation is not extending, although there is no doubt that it might be profitably extended along the coast line of southern Texas. In the planting of orange groves.in Florida, water protection is sought to the northwest. If this can not be had, ridges are selected, since these are less liable to spring frosts than lower situa- tions. The North is now cheaply and amply supplied with oranges from Florida, and in California the cultivation of this noble fruit is steadily increasing Besides blight, and fungus, there are a number of insects attacking the orange. The blight is often very destructive. There are no certain remedies for this disease. The trees die back somewhat, as is the case with pears. It has been recommended to cut below all diseased parts and re-bud. Drainage and careful cultivation would seem to be the most rational course to pursue. One of the most noxious of the insects attacking the orange is the Orange-tree Mussel Shell Louse, (Aspidiotii^ Oloverii). The illustrations show the insect in its various stages of transformation up to the perfect fly. The natural remedies are, as in the case of the Apple-tree Bark Louse, scraping them off, and at the time in summer when the young are active, washing the branches with strong soap suds. ORANGE, WILD, Primus Caroliniana. A kind of cherry evergreen, and growing to the size of a small tree ; the fruit is not edible, but the tree is much esteemed on the Southern sea- board as an ornamental plant. It is a native of Florida. ORBIT. In birds, the skin which surrounds the eye ; the bony cavity in which the eye is set. ORCHARDING. One of the first necessities in settling a new country, is to prepare for and set ORCHARDING 689 ORCHARDING out an orchard. Few, however, either do so systematically, or wheu they do set one, care for it as it should he. Hence the idea of some that fruit will not do well in many portions of the country, even in localities where there are great commercial orchards yielding bountifully. The reason of the failures in making the farm orchard productive is, first, accurate knowledge as to varieties adapted to the soil and climate. This can only be learned by experience, close observa- tion, or inquiry from some responsible and practical man. Fortunately there are such in almost every neighborhood. Another source of failure is the planting of too many varieties. Once the farmer finds the varieties ad- apted to his location, let him select the best of these, and then if he wishes to experiment with special varieties, do it with individual trees, or else by graft- ing a limb with the variety desired. Very often a variety that is a shy bearer will bear abundantly for years If grafted on another variety. The ex- periment will cost but little time and labor. The laying out of the orchard is also important. In commercial orchards particular varieties should be placed in blocks, and also those var- ieties which ripen in succession in the order of ripening. The commercial orchardist, however, understands this, and also the profit in planting but few varieties. With the farm orchard the jsame general rule should be adopted, hut as this is simply to supply the fam- ily's daily use, the earlier varieties of fruit should be placed next the hpuse, and the general supply for winter use farther away. Suppose the fruit garden (that is the proper name) to comprise two acres, and this is not too much, then the first rows may he strawberries, planted three feet apart as to the rows; then currants and gooseber- ries, four feet between rows; next raspberries, five feet between rows; next blackberries, six feet between rows; grapes, eight feet between rows; quinces, eight feet; peaches, twelve feet between rows; cherries, sixteen feet between rows; plums, nectarines, and apricots, the same •distance, if you choose to try them. Next come pears, ten feet should be allowed for dwarfs, and twenty feet for standards; apples, twelve feet for dwarfs, and thirty feet for standards. A single row of strawberries, of raspberries, and of blackberries, of currants, and of gooseberries across a two acre plot will be ample for any family for using fresh, and for canning. A single row of peaches, one row of cherries, and one-third of a row each of plums, nectarines, and apricots, will be sufficient. We do not advise their planting at all, since the labor of destroy- ing the curculio will, probably, amount to more than the worth of the fruit; nevertheless this must be left to the discretion of the planter. One row of dwarf pears, and one row of stand- ards, will be enough. In prolific years you may have some pears to sell. If blight do not attack the trees, they will well pay the investment, in the satisfaction of having the fruit, The rest of the orchard may be planted to apples, perhaps one row of dwarfs, the balance standards, or the row of dwarf apples may be placed next the dwarf 44 pears. We had forgotten the grapes. Allow two rows for these, one full row for Concords, and another row for such varieties as you may wish to experiment with. When plants are wanted by the acre, to find the required number multiply the distance at which they are to be set by itself, or the distance one way by the distance the other, and divide into 43,560, the number of feet in an acre. For instance three multiplied by four gives twelve. This divided into 43,500 gives 3,635. The number of plants contained in an acre. So, we may find the GATHERING APPLES. number of plants required for any distance not given in the table. The following table will show the number of trees in an acre at various distances : Distances apart. No. of Plants. Distances apart. No. of Plants. i by 1 4.3,560 7 by 7 888 l>/a " l'/2 19,360 8 " 8 680 2 " 1 81,780 9 " 9 537 a " 2 10,890 10 " 10 435 2!4 ■" 3/j 6,969 11 " 11 360 3 " 1 14,520 12 " 12 302 3 " 2 7,260 13 " 13 257 3 " 3 4,840 14 " 14 222 3!4 " m 3,.555 16 " 15 193 4 " 1 10,890 16 " 16 170 4 " 8 5,445 17 " 17 150 4 " 3 3,630 18 " IB 134 4 " 4 2,722 19 " 19 120 m " 4% 2,151 20 " 20 108 5 " 1 8,712 24 " 24 75 5 " 2 4,356 25 " 25 69 5 " 3 2,904 27, " 27 59 5 " 4 2,178 30 " 30 48 5 " 5 1,742 40 " 40 27 m " 5'/a 1,417 50 " 60 17 6 " 6 1,210 60 " 60 18 6/2 " 6^4 1,031 66 " 66 10 Strawberries may be set as close as twelve inches in the row; two feet, however, is better, if they OECHARBING 690 ORCHARDING are to be allowed to make runners. Raspberries may be planted three to three and one-half feet, and blackberries three and one-half to four feet in the row. Currants and gooseberries, should have three and one-half to four feet of space in the row. Grapes may be planted as close as six feet in the row. The other fruits may be planted in the rows at half the distance the rows are apart, the supernumerary trees to be removed before they begin to crowd each other. In this plan for a Fig. 1. Mg. 2. home orchard the small fruits, including grapes, will occupy one-ninth of the plot. If you allow a single row to be filled with plums, nectarines and apricots, thus, these with the peaches, cherries and pears, (dwarfs and standards,) will occupy nearly one-quarter of the field, or accurately, five- eighteenths, leaving you about one and a quarter acres fur apples. ' The orchard rows at the same time being long enough to afford every facility for horse cultivation. For small families, and for village gardens this must be modified, yet the same general plan may be adopted. It should hardly be necessary to say that the home orchard must receive good cultivation, that is, it must be kept free of weeds. The cultivation, however, should not be deep, simply deep enough to keep the surface friable, but without disturbing the roots. If weeds appear after the first of July they must be pulled by hand, or taken up with the hoe among the vines and bushes. Among the trees they may be mown if necessary, since late cultivation is injurious to fruit trees, vines and bushes. If an orchard is to be laid out for a given variety of fruit, the sys- tem of squares will be found most practicable. The quincunx form has been widely recom- mended. Practically it has little advantage, except in situations where it becomes necessary to take advantage of every inch of ground. Hence, the true quincunx, where each plant is exactly equidistant from its next neighbor, is scarcely ever practiced. To lay out an orchard in true quincunx form each tree, must be^ sur- rounded by six other trees at equal distances. This will give the greatest possible number of trees upon the ground. Lay out the ground by furrows according to the width of the rows apart, and then run furrows one way, half way between the lines. Thus you will get the correct space for the trees. Now set stakes at every space along the two outside lines and a row of pegs to indicate the first diagonal fui'row, plow this and so continue with each additional one until the whole orchard plot is marked. To lay out an orchard square, all that is necessary is to furrow it out both ways, according to the dis- tance of the trees apart. Where the fur- rows cross will be the points at which the trees are to be set. Now plow two fur- rows apart both ways, and if the orchard has been deeply plowed over the whole ground previously, a very little sighting each way will enable you to get the true position of each tree. It should be unne- cessary to say that this plowing and mark- ing out should be done in the fall previous to planting, and if the field has been in some crop requiring very deep cultivation and manuring for a year or two previous, it will be found to be so much the better. In the case of the home orchard, when a variety of fruit is to be raised, of course the rows will run but one way, and th& subsequent cultivation must be only one way. The remarks on laying out an orch- ard apply solely to those intended for only one kind of fruit, and particularly to the stone and pip fruits When the' ground is level or nearly so it is not difficult to get the tre?s exactly in line. If the ground is uneven or hilly, it will be found very dif- diflScult in practice. That they be in exact line, however, matters but little, since it is quite evident they will not keep in line, from ineqijalities in growth, but if trained to pretty low heads — absolutely necessary in the West — the tops will soon cover any imper- fections. In the home fruit garden, however. Kg. 3. Fig. 4. the trees, bushes and vines should stand in exact lines one way, and be kept so by staking. In the general orchard, the trees should be staked until they get firm root, and thereafter if a tree inclines to get too much out of line, it may be brought back by judicious staking. The best site for an orchard is undoubtedly one facing north or north- ORCHARDING 691 ORCHARDING east, rather than south or southwest. The best soil is a deep, rich, gravelly clay loam, or lime- stone soil. If the subsoil is porous, no drainage will be needed. If the water ever stands for forty-eight hours at a time in holes dug eighteen inches deep, or if there is a hard pan within three feet it sliould be drained. The roots of the apple and pear like to run deep. The pear especially need not be expected to do well unless the sub- soil is drj" and porous enough to admit of the percolation of water. Such a soil will stand both drought and wet. In all the prairie country it has been found advisable to set orchards pretty near the surface of the soil, and . plow to the trees year by year, and both ways until a consid- erable ridge is raised, or rather until a pretty deep dead furrow is formed between each row, leaving the trees at last on elevated squares. Many persons have been deterred from this course from the supposition that the trees would suffer from drought. Gardeners, however, well know that a flat well raised, deeply plowed ridge will stand drought far better than land under level culture. Some of our best gardeners on prairie soil now lay up their laqd to correspond to the width of the rows to be planted, five feet for tomatoes, six feet for cucumbers, and so on up to twelve feet for melons and squashes For directions respect- ing the various orchard fruits, the reader is referred to the articles as they occur relating thereto. The following in relation to orchard trees when received from the nursery, or when propagated on the farm will be useful, and to assist this we give illustrations of various forms of pruning for training in the nursery. Fig. 1 shows a standard tree with stem of trunk three or four feet clear of branches. Fig. 2, Low branched standard, with stems eigh- teen inches to two feet. Apples on Doucin stock, have usually this form. Fig. 3, Dwarf bush, with stems a foot or more high. The dwarf apple on Paradise stock has usually this form. Fig. 4 shows the usual appearance of a well developed nursery tree, well trained and grown. For fruit trees the soil'should be dry, either naturally or made so by thorough drainage, as they will not live or thrive on a soil constantly saturated with stagnant moisture. It should also be well prepared by twice plowing, at least, beforehand, using the subsoil plow after the common one, at the second plowing. On new, fresh lands, manuring will be unnecessary; but on lands exhausted by cropping, fertilizers must be applied, either by turning in heavy crops of clover, or well decomposed manure or compost. To ensure a good growth of fruit trees, land should be in as good condition as for a crop of wheat, corn, or potatoes. In regard to the preparation of the trees. As a general thing, trees are placed in the ground precisely as they are sent from the nursery. In removing a tree, no matter how carefully it may be done, a por- tion of the roots are broken and destroyed, and consequently the balance that existed in the structure of the tree is deranged. This must be restored by a proper pruning, adapted to the size, form and condition of a tree, as follows: Standard orchard trees. These, as sent from the nursery,, vary from five to seven feet in height, with naked stems or trunks, and a num- ber of branches at the top forming a head. These branches should be all cut back to within three or four buds of their base. This lessens the demand upon the roots, and enables the remaining buds to push with vigor. In case of older trees of extra size, the pruning must be in proportion; as a general thing, it will be safe to shorten all the previous years' shoots to three or four buds at their base, and where the branches are very numerous some maj' be cut out entirely. Pyramidal trees, if of two or three years' growth, with a number of side branches, will require to be pruned with a two-fold object in view, viz. : The growth of the tree, and the desired form. The branches must be cut into the form of a pyramid by shortening the lower ones, say one-half, those above them shorter, and the upper ones around the leading shoot to within two or three buds of their base. The leader itself must be shortened back one-half or more. When trees have been dried or injured much by exposure, the pruning must be closer than if in good order. Low-headed standard trees and dwarf bushes must be pruned as recommended for standards, aiming at producing a round, well-proportioned head, with the main branches regularly distributed and far enough aijart to admit air freely to all parts. Yearling trees intended for pyramids. may have a few side branches, the smallest of which should be cut clean away, reserving only the strongest and the best placed. In other respects they will be pruned as directed for trees of two years* growth. Those having no side branches should be cut back so far as to insure the production of a tier of branches within twelve inches of the ground. A strong yearling, four to six feet, may be cut back about half, and the weaker ones more than that. It is better to cut too low than not low enough, for if the first tier of branches be not low enough, the pyramidal form can not afterward be perfected. Planting. Dig holes in the first place, large enough to admit the roots of the tree to spread out in their natural position; then, having the tree pruned as above directed, let one person hold it in an upright position, and the other shovel in the earth, care- fully putting the finest and the best from the surface in among the roots, filling every inter- stice, and bring every root in contact with the soil. When the earth is nearly filled in, a pail of water may be thrown on to settle and wash in the earth around the roots ; then fill in the remainder, and tread gently with the foot. "The use of water is seldom necessary, except in dry weather, early in fall or late in spring. Guard against planting too deep; the trees, after the ground settles, should stand in this respect as they did in the nursery. Trees on dwarf stocks should stand so that all the stock be under the ground, and no more. In very dry, gravelly ground, the holes should be dug twice the usual size and depth, and filled in with good loamj' soil. If trees are tall and much exposed to winds, a stake .should be planted with the tree, to which it should be tied in such a manner as to avoid chafing. A piece of matting or cloth may be put between the tree and the stake. When the tree is planted, throw around it as far as the roots extend, and a foot beyond, five or six inches deep of rough manure or litter. This is par- ticularly necessary in dry ground, and is highly advantageous everywhere, both in spring and fall planting. It prevents the gi-ound from baking or cracking, and maintains an equal temperature about the roots. The grass should not be ORIOLE 693 ORNITHOLOGY allowed to grow around young trees after being planted, as it stunts their growth and utterly ruins them. The ground should be kept clean and loose around them, until, at least, they are of bearing size. The best treatment for trees that have been frozen in the packages, or received during frosty weather, is to place the packages, unopened, in a cellar or some such place, cool, but free from frost, until perfectly thawed, when they can be unpacked, and either planted or placed in a trench, until convenient to plant. Treated thus, they will not be injured by the freezing. Trees procured in the fall for spring planting, should be laid in trenches in a slanting positions, to avoid the winds; the situation should also be sheltered and the soil dry. A mulching on the roots and a few evergreen boughs over the tops will afEord good protection. ORCHIDACE.D. Herbaceous endogens with remarkably irregular and beautiful flowers; they are propagated by seeds, and bear bulbs contain- ing an agreeable farina (salep) for which the Orchis mascula is partially noted. They are natives of calcareous soils. In the tropics the species and genera often become splendid para- sites. ORCHIL, or ARCHIL. Bocella Unotoria. A lichen yielding a purple dye. ORCINE. The coloring matter of the VMa/ria orcina, or Lichen dealbatus. 0R1)I^R. A style of architecture, or column. OREGON ALDER. Alnus Oregona. An alder of from twenty-five to thirty feet. ORES. Minerals containing a large amoimt of some metal. ORGAN. In anatomy, a viscus, or structure of the body. ORUANIC DISEASE. Disease attended with an alteration of the structure of a viscus or organ. ORGANIC REMAINS. Fossils. ORGANIZATIO.V. The processes by which an organized body is formed;' also the totality of the parts which constitute, and of the laws which regulate an organized body. ORGANOGRAPHY. A description of the structure of plants. ORIOLE. Icterus. There are two species, the garden oriole, /. spurius, and the Baltimore oriole, /. Baltimore. The first named is of -a bright chestnut color, the head, neck, back, wings and tail black, bill and legs bluish-black. Mat- ure birds, or after the third year, mottled on the upper parts of back with black and olive; on belly, sides, and breast reddish-gray begins to appear, blended with yellow; generally the two middle tail feathers are black, the others cen- tered with black. The female and young of one year are olive yellow, inclining to brown, yellow beneath; wings and tail, dusky brown. The orchard oriole eats berries and small fi'uits to some extent during their season, but they are so- largely insectivorous that they should be har- bored rather than destroyed. It also eats largely of seeds. In confinement individuals often retain their summer plumage during the winter. They are alert and industrious in the pursuit of insects. The eggs are from four to six in num- ber, bluish-white, sprinkled with brown. The nest is curiously interwoven of grass, and is sup- ported by the sides only. The Baltimore oriole, also called golden robin or hanging bird, is one of the most beautiful of our summer visitors. Brilliant in its color, black and orange, cheerful in its song, an indefatigable hunter after insects, flitting here and there it should be carefully pre- served wherever found. It is much rarer in the North than its relative the orchard oriole, and hence more highly prized. It has the name of hangbird from the peculiar pendant nest which it forms, in the South of the long hanging moss, and in the North of cotton threads or any long, soft filament which it may find. It loves the habitation of man, and is generally found near dwellings, and from the fact that it is seldom disturbed, often becomes tame and fearless of man. Another, Bullock's oriole, is found on the Pacific coast ranging from California to the Columbia river in Oregon ; it is quite similar in appearance and habits to the Baltimore oriole. ORLO. The plinth to the base of a column or pedestal. ORNITHICHNITES. Certain marks in the new red sandstone, supposed, incorrectly, to be 1)1 Tfi trfl.olf s ORNITHOLOGY. The department of science which treats of birds, their characteristics, their form, structure, habits and uses is called ornitho- logy ; from two Greek words signifying, a bird, and discourse. To the farmer, the study is of great importance as enabling him to distinguish between birds useful, those whose benefit is not counterbalanced by the injuiy they accomplish, and those decidedly injurious. Thus the horti- culturist would narrow down his list of beneficial birds to a far greater extent than the grain far- mer. The florist would find very few birds doing him injury, and the grass farmer or grazier almost none, if any. Agricultural ornithology may therefore very properly be considered out- side of ornithology proper, since the rural popu- lation are especially interested in birds useful and injurious. These will be treated of under their proper names — which see — at least those of more special importance. In this connection we present a list of the more common birds of the country ranging from the lakes to Kentucky as the north and south lines. Further south our summer birds are, many of them, there, winter birds. The list was most carefully prepared by E. Michener, M.D., Pennsylvania, for the Depart- ment of Agriculture at Washington, and we believe has never appeared in print outside the Government report. It is the most condensed and complete catalogue of these classes we have found. A system of classification has been adopted with the names of the families, genera, and species. Immediately after will be found the common or familiar names. It is convenient to designate the species as. Constant residents; some portion, at least, of which remain nearly or throughout the year. Summer residents; greater or less numbers of which spend the summer, nest and bi-eed. Winter residents; mostly north- ern species, which spend the whole or part of the winter. Migratory; those birds which pass and repass in spring and autumn. Wan- dering ; birds which migrate irregularly, wherever their food may be most abundant. The reader will no doubt find many seeming exceptions to these divisions; for instance, the turkey vulture mostly migrates further south in winter, yet it has been seen- in midwinter, when the mercury was below zero, striving with a crow for the pos- session of a dead mouse. Birds are also eiUier Carnivorous: flesh-eaters — vultures, hawks, etc. ORNITHOLOGY G93 ORNITHOLOGY Piscivorous: fish-eaters — kingfishers, herons, etc. Insectivorous: insect- eatei"s — woodpeckers, fly- catchei*s, etc. Granivorous : grain-eaters — pigeons, sparrows, etc. Omnivorous: all-eaters — crows, blackbirds, etc. These terms are even more exceptional than the preceding ones. In a vari- able climate, or where the species migrates from warm summer to cold winter regions, or the con- trary, its food must often vary with the season, etc. Hence, both as regards residence and food, the terms are only the expression of a general fact, and have, of course, only a relative applica- tion. Of land birds we have : I. FAMILY VUIiTUKID^, (THE VULTURES). GenuB Cathartes^ turkeyvulture. Resident, commoii in summer; rare in winter; carnivorous; with us its chief food is carrion; feeds on all sorts of food, and sucks the e^s, and devours the young of other birds. The turkey hnzzard, rendered so repulsive by its habits, is neverthe- less a most useful scavenger for the speedy removal of every form of putrescent animal matter, so offensive to our olfactories, so prejudicial to our health. It well deserves the protection with us that both it and its cousin the black vulture receive in southern climates where they are almost domesticated. n. FAMILY FALCONID^, (THE HAWK.) Among hawks, genus Falco, we have; Duck Hs.wk. Winter resident, very rare ; carnivorous; feeds on ducks, pigeons, blackbirds, etc. — Pigeon hawk. Wandering, very rare"; carnivorous; feeds on pigeons and smaller birds, field mice, etc. —Sparrow hawk. Resident, common ; l^s so in winter; carnivorous. As its name implies, it feeds on sparrows and other small birds, field mice, shrews, and small reptiles. •- Genus Astur. Goshawk. Winter resident, not com- mon; carnivorous; preys on parti-idges, birds, field mice, etc- Genus Xccipi^er. Cooper's hawk. Winter resident, rare; carnivorous. Its principal food consists of birds and small quadrupeds: when hungry, will not refuse a chicken for its dessert.— Sharp-ehinned hawk. Resident, or nearly so; never abundant; carnivorous; feeds on small birds, mice, etc. The smaller members of this family mostly resort to the woods, fields, and meadows in quest of food, and seldom visit the poultry yard, unless pressed by hun- ger. The farmer can well afford them this small pittance for their service in destroying mice, shrews, moles, etc , in his fields. Genus Buteo. Red-tailed hawk. Resident, common; carnivorous. The predatory habits of this powerful bird have rendered him the terror of the poultry yard. Partridges, larks, and other birds, rabbits, squirrels, mice, and even reptiles, form his less dainty fare. I must leave the farmer to balance the account as he best can.— Red-sbouldered bawk. Winter resident, frequent in season; carnivorous; habits somewhat similar to the preceding species with which it is often confounded; but IS much less troaulesome u» the farmer. — Broad-winged hawk. Resident, and quite rare; carnivorous; feeds on birds, mice, reptiles; rarely on chickens. QcQmxB Arclvibateo. Rough-legged hawk. Winter resi- dent. It is not common ; carnivorous ; affects meadows and the marshy borders of streams, where it feeds on such birds, mice, and reptiles as are found in those places. The number of meadow mice which this species destroys, ought, one would think, to insure it the protection of every husbandman. — Black hawk. Winter resident, rare; car- nivorous; habits similar to those of the last-named spe- cies Audubon considers this the same as the rough- .le^ed hawk in more mature plumage. (feuus Circus. Marsh hawk. Wandering, mostly seen in winter; carnivorous; affects meadows and marshy grounds, hence it-* name; feeds on small birds, but more especially on mice and other small quadrupeds, and when in season, on frogs, unakes. etc. Genus Aquila. Golden eade. Wandering, but very seldom seen; carnivorous. With courage equal to his strength, he fearlessly pounces on a swan or a goose, a kid or a lamb, and, when instigated by extreme hunger, has been known to seize on little children and bear them off to his mountain aerie. Young fawns, raccoons, hares, wild turkeys, and other large birds constitute a portion of his bill of fare. Genus Halicetus. White-headed eagle. Wandering, not common : piscivorous The principal food of the bald. eagle is fish, and this is mostly plundered from the fish- bawk; sometimes preys on ducks and other water birds; when these fail, he will even feed on carrion, and, like his older brother, attack lambs, fawns, pigs, etc. Instances are related of his seizing small children and carrying them away to his nest. Genus Fandion. Fishhawk. Wandering, frequent along the larger streams; piscivorous; affects our rivers and bays, and passes from one to another as the occur- rence of ice, etc , may require. Feeds almost wholly on fish, which it catches with wonderful dexterity; too often, as has been noticed, to be robbed of its prize by the white-headed eagle. in. FAMILY STRIGID.E, (THE OWLS). Genus 5im;, Owls. Barn owl. Winter resident, rare; carnivorous. "I am satisfied that ourbird feeds entirely on the smaller species of quadrupeds '' (And.) This, of course, refers to mice and other nocturnal animals. Genus 5w&o. Great horned owl Resident, frequent: carnivorous. "Its food consists of half grown turkeys, pheasants, and domestic poultry of every kind; also hares, young opossums, and squirrels.'" (Aud.) This is our most noteworthy robber of the hen-roost. Genus Scops. Red owl Resident, common; Carni- vorous; preys on mice, small sparrows, etc., and very oftt-n catches nocturnalbeetlesandotherinsi cts. It thus destroys a large number of field mice, and the large cock- chafer, BO injurious to our fruit trees. In winter it famil- iarly enters our barns and outhouses, where it becomes an expert and industrious mouser. Mottled owl. Resi- dent, common; carnivorous; habits similar to the last. Most ornithologists consider the red and gray screech-owls identical. This may be so. Bonaparte, Audubon, and others say the red is the young and the mottled the mature bird; others just reverse it. Audubon says the feathers change their colors as the pairing season advan- ces, and in the first spring the bird is in its perfect dress; consequently the young or red bird could not be expected to breed, yet I have found red parents with a red brood, and also mottled parents with a mottled brood. Although pre- senting an anomaly perhaps unknown id any other spe- cies of bird, I have therefore reseparated them for the present. Genus Otus. Lone-eared owl. Resident, rare, or sel- dom seen; carnivorous. It preys chiefiy on quadru- peds of the genus ^rmco/a, (meadow mice,) and in sum- mer destroys many beetles. Genus Brachyotus. Short-eared owl. Resident, fre- quent in winter, rare in summer; carnivorous; habits and food similar to those of the preceding species, which it somewhat resembles, exceptthat it is more diurnal, and consequently feeds more on day food. When hungry, it: will approach the farm-house in quest of garbage ejected from tbe kitchen. Genus Syrnium. Barred owl. Resident, frequent; most so in winter; carnivorous A great destroyer of poultry, particularly of chickens when half grown ; it also secures mice, rabbits, and small birds, and like other gourmands, is especial^ fond of a kind of frog common in the woods of Louisiana. Genus Nyctale. Little owl. Resident, not common, or rarely seen; carnivorous; feeds on mice, beetles, moths, and grasshoppers, (Nutt.,) small quadrupeds and birds. — Snowy owl, Nytea. Winter resident, very rare; carnivorous; rather diurnal or crepuscular than noctur- nal. Its usual food while it remains with us consists of hares, squirrels, rats and fishes. It also catches the pheas- ant and other kindred birds. rv. FAMILY CTJCtJLID.^, (THE CTJCKOOS). Of the genus Coccygus, or cuckoos, we have the yellow- billed cuckoo. Summer resident, common ; insectivorous They seem to prefer insect food, but suck the eggs of other birds, and also feed on berries, etc. It should, however, serve as a special plea on their behalf, that they not only devour but even feed their young on tbe hairy caterpillars of our orchards, which are rejected by most other insectivorous birds. — Black-billed cuckoo. Summer resident, frequent; insectivorous. This and the preced- ing species very closely resemble each other, both In appearance and habits. V. FAMILY PICLDE, (THE WOODPECKER). Genus Ficus. . Hairy woodpecker. Resident, common; insectivorous; feeds on the larvie of insects and on the insect-j themselves; although in autumn it seeks berries, etc. Downy woodpecker. Resident, common: insectivo- rous; habitsandfoodsimilar. Red-cockaded woodpecker. Accidental; very rare; insectivorous; habits similar. These are highly useful birds in destroying worms and insects which lodee under dead bark and in rotten wood. Some of these birds have a siugulir habit, the purpose of which is not well understood, "of punctnringthe smooth, thin bark of orchard trees in regular circles, so near to each other that eight or ten of them may be covered by a dollar. This has obtained for them the common name of sap-suckers. They even puncture resinous trees in the same manner. ORNITHOLOGY 694 ORNITHOLOGY Genus Sphyropicus. Yellow-bellied woodpecker. Resi- dent, rarely seen during summer; insectivoious; secluded in the forest. Its food conslets of wood- worms and beetles, , to which it adds email grapes and berries. Genus Hylotomus. Pifeated woodpecker. Resident, but now almost extinct; iusectivorout*. This shy bird feeds, like its congeners, on the beetles, and their larvae, which always abound among dead and decaying timber. If tbie*e fail, he resorts to acorns, nuts, and berries. Genus Cenf.urns. Red-bellied woodpecker. Resident, frequent; rare in summer; insectivorous; feeds on various kinds of insects and larvae, and on berries, etc., in the manner of its yellow-bellied cousin. Genus Melanerpes. Red-headed woodpecker. Resident, very common; insectivorous. This elegant and familiar species is extremely expert in finding and catching the insects which conceal themselves benenth the bark of trees. He also eats juicy fruits and berries, as well as the ripening com. The farmer often thinks that he takes more in cherries and garden fraits than his services are worth. Genus Colapies. Golden-winged woodpecker. Resi- dent, common; rare in winter; insectivorous; feeds on insects, wood-lice, ant.«, etc., with cherries, various berries, and even corn. The farmer, forgetting his p^ist services, and only remembering his present faults, closes his career with the gun, and unthinkingly does to himself and the public an essential injury. (Nutt.) VI. FAMILY TROCHIIilD^, (THE HUMMING BIRDS). Genus TrocMlus^ is represented by the Ruby-throated humming bird. Summer resident, common; insecti- vorous. This beautiful little bird has so long been con- sidered mellivoroas (honey-eater) that the reader will hardly admit its claim to be in-^ectivorous; hut it is essentially an insect hunter, and not a honey-sucker. Its long, delicrtte bill enters the cup of the'flower, and the protruded, double-tubed tongue, delicately sensible, and imbedded with a glutinous saliva, touches each insect in succession, and draws it from its larking place to be instantly swallowed. Their food consists principally of insects, generally of the coleopterous order, with some equally diminutive flies. Vn. FAMILY CYPSELID^, (THE SWIFTS). Genus Ohcetura. We have Chimney swift. Summer resident, abundant: insectivorous, if the reader will reflect on the myriads of insects which fill the air on the approach of eventide, and watch these birds, as they wing their rapid fiight in ceaseless circles, gathering their even- ing repast, he will not grudgingly endure the little annoy- ance which they may occasion in his chimney. The chimney swallows incline to be gregarious, especially in their roosting places. Audubon tells of a hollow tree in which he estimated that over nine thousand had collected, and were in the habit of collecting nightly to roost. VIIL FAMILY CAPRIMULGID^, (THE GOAT- SUCKERS). Genus anthrosfomus. Whip-poor-will. Summer resi- dent, common; insectivorous; habits nocturnal; feeds on moths and other night-flying insects. Genus ChordeiUs. Night hawk. Summer resident, very common; insectivorous; habits much like the pre- ceding, but more crepuscular or diurnal; often seen out in cloudy weather. Its food consists entirely of in-ects, especially coleoptera ; it also seizes on moths and cater- giflars, and is verjr expert at catching crickets and grass- oppert*, with which it sometimes gorges itself. IX. FAMILY ALCEDINID^, (THE KINGFISHERS). Genus Ceryle. Belted kingfisher. Resident, frequent along streams ; piscivorous; feeds on fish and a few water insects. X. FAMILY COLOFLBKIDiB, (THE FLY-CATCHERS). Genus Tyrannus. Kingbird fly-catcher. Summer resi- dent, common ; insectivorous. Beetles, grasshoppers, crickets, and winged insects of all descriptions form his Eirincipal summer food; in autumn berries constitute a avorite repast. Reader, see him. perched on an old muUen stalk, watching all around, and capturing every insect that comes in his sight, and, say whether he does not pay for the few bees he inay destroy. Genus Myiarckus. Great-crested fly catcher. Summer resident, frequent; insectivorous; dwells mostly in forests and feeds on such insects as are found there Genus Sayomis. Pewee fly-catcher. Summer resident, common; insectivorous. This familiar and industrious , destroyer of insects needs no introduction, and is capable of telling its own story. Genus Cordopus. Olive-si led fly-catcher. Summer resident, not frequent; im^ectivorous; feeds on others of the genus.-— Wood pewee fly-catcher. Summer resident, common; insectivorous. These two species are very similar and among the most active and industrious fly- catchers. Genus Empidonax. Trail's fly-catcher. Summer resi- dent, frequent;insectivorous.— Least fly-catcher. Summer resident, frequent; insectivorous.— Small green-crested fly-catcher. Summer resident, common; insectivorous. — Yellow-bellied fly-catcher. Summer resident, frequent; insectivorous. All the species of this eenus, indeed all the family, possess similar habits. We can hardly walk outona summer day without seeing someof themperched on a fence stake or dead bough intently watching for their prey, and woe betide the insect, whether beetle, moth, or fly, which may dare to show itself either on the ground or wing. The feat accomplished, they return to the same perch to await the appearance of other prey. Surely no observer can be so obtuse as not to appreciate the service thus rendered. XI. FAMILY TURDIN^, (THE THRUSHES). Genus Turdus. Woodthrush. Summer resident, com- mon; omnivorous. Beetles, caterpillars, various insects, and, in autumn, berries, constitute its principal food. —Hermit thrush. Summer resident, frequent; omnivor- ous; feeds on various insects, and small berries. Wil- son's thrush. Summer resident, frequent; omnivorous. Like the preceding, its food is principally coleopterous insects and autumnal berries. — Olive-backed thrush. Summer resident, frequent; omnivorous; food and habits similar. —Gray-cheeked thrush. Summer resident, very rare; doubtful; omnivorous; unknown, except from analogy.— Robin. Resident, frequent; rare in winter; omnivorous. -In early summer they feed much on the ground, picking up the various worms and insects of the season. In autumn they often resort to small fruits and berries. When winter arrives many ol them Bast retire to the tide marshes of rivers, where seed and insect food are still found. When these have been long covered with snow the robins are said to return to orchards and find subsistence in i he rotten apples still hanging on the trees. Genus Sialia. Bluebird. Resident, very common; rare in winter; insectivorous. This favorite of every house- hold, the lovely and confiding bluebird, seekn its food on the ground among grass. It seems to prefer coleopterous beeiles, but also devours other insects, caterpillars, spidfrs, etc., and sometimes ripe berries. It well repays the use of the box, so often provided for its habitation. Genus Eegulus. Ruby-crowned wren. Migratory, fre- quent in season; insectivorous.- Golden-cresied wren. Migratory, frequent in season; Insecrivorous. These species, very nearly identified by appearance and habits, are wholly insect feeders. Ever vigilant, they may be seen closely scanning the bark aud leaves of trees' and shrubi«, in the orchard or garden, in quest of small insects or larvse, spiders, etc. Sometimes they pursue and cap- ture them on the wing. Their scrutinizing habits have obtained for them the name of wrens. XII. FAMILY SYLVICOLID^, (THE WOOD WAR- BLERS). Genus Anthua. Titlark. Winter resident, frequent* gregarious; insectivorous; mostly affects plowed and hare fields on the margin of waters where it seeks varioiis insects, seeds, etc. Genus Mrdotilta. Black and white creeper. Migratory, frequent; insectivorous. It lives principally on small ants and their larvse, which it mostly gleans from the rough bark of orchard and forest trees. Genus Parula. Blue yellow-backed warbler. Migra- tory, frequent; insectivorous; somewhat of a creeper; very active and useful in destroying small insects during the opening bloom of spring. Genus Protonotaria. Prothouotary warbler. Summer resident, extremely rare; insectivorous; feeds on smaU insects, worms, caterpillars, etc. Genus GeothXyois. Maryland yellow throat. Summer resident, frequent; insectivorous. Lives secluded in thickets and course tangled grass near streams where it feeds on small insects. Caterpillars and spiders form its principal food. — Mourning warbler. Summer resident, extremely rare ; insectivorons; habits resemble the former. Genus Oporornis. Connecticut warbler. Migratory, very rare; insectivorous. Audubon saw them chasing a species of spider which runs nimbly over the water, and which they caught by gliding over "it.— Michener's war- bler. Migratory, very rare; insectivorous; affect" mar- gins of woods, thickets, and old fences; keeps near the ground when seeking insects. — Kentucky warbler. Migratory, very rare north of Maryland; insectivorous. This species destroy great numbers of spiders. All the species are active insect hunters, and affect the woods and neighboring fields, orchards, aud gardens, Genne Icteria. Yellow-breasted chat. Summerresident, frequent; Insectivorous; affects thickets, near water, andT feeds on shelly-winged beetles, sometimes on berries and seeds. ORNITHOLOGY 695 ORNITHOLOGY GerxuB Helmitkerus. Worm-eating warbler. Migratory, or very rare in summer; insectivorous. They are very active and indefatigable insect hunters. Genus tielminthophaga. Blue-winged yellow warbler. Summer resident, rtire, and very secluded; insectivorous. They feed on tl-e eggs and larvae of various insects, as well as flies, caterpillars, ante, and coleoptera.— Gulden-winged warbler. Migratory, quite rare; insectivorous. This scarce bird is only seen in spring, when it frequi-nts the tops of forest trees, and collects its food amongihe leaves and branches.- Nashville warbler. Summer resident, very rare; insectivorous. Its food consists of insects and larvte, which it procures by searching actively and dili- gently among theleavesandbudsof low trees. — Tennessee warbler. Migratory, very rare; insectivorous; an expert catcher of flies. Genus Seiurus. Golden-crowned thrush. Summer resident, common in woods; insectivorous. Feeds wholly on insects and their larvse, particularly small coleopterous kinds, aud ants collected on the ground. — Water thrush. Migratory, frequent in marshy thickets; insectivorous. Feeiis on such insects and thi-ir larvae as inhabit marshy localities. — Large-billed water thrush. Migratory, more rare than the last; innectivorous. Very closely resembles the preceding species in appearance and habits. Genns Dendroica. Black-throated green warbler. Mi- gratoiy, rather rare; insectivorous. Maybe occasionally seen for an hour at a time carefully and actively searching lor small caterpillars and winged insects amidst the white "blossoms of tue shady apple tree.— Black-throated blue warbler. Migratory, rare; insectivorous. An expert catcher of flies.— Yellow-ramped wurbler. Migratory, abundant; insectivorous. Feeds on insects, etc.; is €xpert in catching flies, and ia a great devourer of cater- pillars.— Blackbumian warbler. Migratory, rather rare; msectivorous. An exceedingly nimble insect-hunter, keeping toward the tops of trees.— Bay-breasted warbler. Mitjratory, quite rare; insectivorous. Sometimes seeii searching for insects along fences, etc.— Chestnut-sided warbler. Migratory, frequent; insectivorous. In the spring they are generally restless, and intently engaged in tne cha-e of insects amidst 'the blossoms and tender leaves. — Blue warbler. Migratory, quite rare ; insectiv- orous. Feeds principally on insects and their larvae. — Black-i)oll warbler. Minatory, frequent; insectivorous. An active fly-catcher.— Yellow warbler. Summer resi- ident, frequent; insectivorous. Feeds on the smaller insects, and a variety of small larvpe and caterpillars. — Nuttall remarks : It is amusing to observe the sagacity of ■this little bird in disposing of the egg of the vacjrant cow troopial (genus cassicus). The egg being deposited before the laying of the rightful tenant, and too large for eject- ment, it is ingeniously incarcerated in the bottom of the nest, and a uew lining placed above it, so that it is never hatched, to prove the dragon of the brood.— Black and yellow wurbler. Migratory, common; insectivorous. Very aciive in searching for their insect and larvae food. — Cape May warbler. Migratory, extremely rare; insectiv- orous. Feeiis on insect food, but its habits are little iinown. —Yellow red-poll warbler. Moratory, rare in swampy thickets; insectivorous. Industrious insect- ■eater, — I 'rairie warbler. Migratory, rare: found in open woods; insectivorous. Feeds i>n catt-rpilJars and flies. Genus Myio-iioctes. Hooded warbler. Summer resi- dent; very rare so far north, insectivorous. It flies swiftly after its insect prey, securing the greater part of it on the wing, — Green Black-capped warbler. Summer resident, very rare ; insectivorous. It has all the habits of a true fly-catcher, feerling on small insects, which it ■catches entirely on the wing.— Canada warbler. Migra- tory, or summer r.sident, frequent; insectivorous. Atriily insect catchii'g!?pecieB. Audubon eays; I found it breed- ing in the pine forest. Genus Selophaga. American redstart. Migratory, common in dense woods; insectivorous. He is no pen- sioner on the bounty of man. He does not wait the acci- ■dentai approach of his insect prey, but, carrying tiie war among them, he is seen flittingfrom bough, to bough, or at times pursuing the flying troop of insects from the top of the tallest tree, in a zig-zag, hawk-like manner to the ground. Genus Pyranga. Scarlet tanager. Summer resident, frequent in woods; omnivorous. Its food consists chiefly •of winded insects, wasps, hornets, and wild bee«>, as well as smaller kinds of beetles, and other shelly tribes. He rarely visits the o: chard and tastes the early and inviting, thouah forbidden cherries,- Summer redbird. Summer resident, rare; omnivorous. Habits very similar. Both species become more fructivorous in autumn. XIII, FAMILY HIBUNDINID^, (THE SWALLOWS). Genus Hlnindo. Bam swallow. Summer resident, verv abundant; insectivorous. Its food consists entirely of insects, Kome being small coleoptera. The swallows, like the swifts, feed entirely on the wing, and thns devour vast numbers of flying insects, wMcn otherwise might annoy us.— Cliff swallows. Summer resident, now become frequent; gregarious: insectivorous. Its feeding proclivities are, as a general rule, similar to the barn swallow. Its curious, botlle-shaped mud tenements may now be seen beneath the eaves of buildings in several localities.— White-bellied swallow. Summer resident, frequent; insectivorous. Like all other swal- lows, it feeds on the wing, unceasingly pursuing insects of various kinds. Once the tenant of the forest, it is fast changing its habits, and in some parts has taken posses- sion of martin-boxes in preference to hollow trees. Genus Gotijle. Bank swallow. Summer resident, abun- dant, gregarious, insectivorous. The bank swallow builds in holes excavated in the sandy, steep banks of creeks, etc.; hence is more frequent near watercourses, and, con- sequently, feeds on such insects as inbabit them. Its food which consists of small insects, principally of the hymenopterous kind, is taken on the wing.— Rough- winged swallow. Summer resident, frequent; insectivo- rous. Closely resembling the preceding species, and often associated with it in the same commu'.ity, until recently the two appear to have been confounded. Genus Progne. Purple martin. Summer resident, abundant, gregarious and insectivorous. Familiarly domiciled in the martin-box, our bird seems specially commiseii.ned to rid the neighboring premises of nox- ious insects. The food of the martin is usually the larger winged insects, as wasps, bees, large beetles, snch as the common Cetonias or goldsmiths, which are swallowed whole. They seldom seize the honey bee. XIV. FAMILY BOMBYCILLID^, (tHB WAX-WINGS). Genus Ampelis. Cedar bird, cherry bird. Resident, common, rare in winter; granivorous; an eminently fruc- tivorous species, as its common name implies. Too well known to fruit growers as the cherr\ bird, yet, as an amende honorable he feeds in spring on small cateipillara, beetles, and small Insects. For hours together he may he seen feeding on the all-despoiling canker worm, which infesls our apple and elm trees. XV. FAMILY LANIID^, (THE SHRIKES). Genus CoUyrio. Butcherbird. Winter resident, rare; insectivorous. Fond of crickets, grasshoppers, and vari- ous insects. In winter, when these become scarce, he grows more predacious, seizing small birds, mice, etc., with the vigor and dexterity of a hawk; to which its robustform and hooked bill give it some resemblance. Genus Vireo. Red-eyed vireo. Summer resident, fre- quent: insectivorous. Its food consists of insects and their larvEe, especially caterpillars. He is an animated and melodious songster. Wantonly to destroy these de- lightful aids to sentimental happiness, ought tn be viewed not only as an act of barbarity, but almost as a sacrilege.— Warbling vireo. Summer resid-nt, frequent; insectivo- rous. The principal food of this species consists of small black caterpillars ofl' the poplars. The most familiar of the vireos, it approaches the orchard and garden, where it carefully searches for insects among the leaves and branches of the trees. — White-eyed vireo. Summer resi- dent, not common; insectivorous. Like its kindred, its food in spring consists of insects; in autumn, berries are added to its bill of fare. — Blue-headed vireo. Summer resident, rather scarce; insectivorous. Its food consists of insects and berries. — Yellow-throated vireo. Sumnser resident, not cimmon; inpectivorons. Habits similar to those of the preceding species. XVI. FAMILY LIOTRICHID^. Genus Mimus. Mocking bird. Summer resident, rare ; omnivorous. Jnsects, worms, grasshoppers, and larvae are the food on which they principally subsist; in win- ter, on the berries of the red cedar, wax myrtle, holly, etc. They are eminently vocal. — Cat bird. Summer resident, abundant; omnivorous. This songster, which rivals even the mocking bird itself, and feeds during a large part of the season on the very insect races which are injuring the crops of the cultivator, is often greatly perse- cuted. The vulgar name which it bears has served to brine it into contempt with persons not the best judges of the beneflts it conf'Ts on the husbandman in eaily spring, when with industrious care it cleanses his fruit trees of thousands of larvae and insects, which in a single day would destroy, while yet in the bud, far more of Bis fruit than the cat bird would eat in a whole season. But alas ! selfishness, the usual attendant of ifjnorance, not only heaps maledictions < n the harmless bird, but dooms it to destruction. The hoys pelt it with stones and destroy its nest whenever an opportunity presents; the farmer shoots it to save a pear, the gardener to save a raspberry; and some hate it not knowing why. In a word, excepting the poor crow, there is no bird more generally despised and tormented than this charming songster. Genus Harporhynchus. Brown thrush. Summer resi- dent, common ; omnivorous. This is another mimic rival ORNITHOLOGY 696 ORNITHOLOGY of the mocking bird. Its food consifts of worms and insects generally; also caterpillars, beetles, and other coleopterons tribes, as well as various kinds of berries. He may scratch a few hills of corn or plunder a few cher- ries, but rest assured that his services have already paid for these ; and his music, while it is sweeter, will coat less than that of the flute or the piano. Genus Thryothorus. Carolina wren. Resident, fre- quent; insectivorous. This has much the habit of the common housu wren, exploring dark nooks and corners, and piles of wood, brush, etc., where it finds spiders, moths, and other insects in abundance. Its powers of song and mimicry are excelled by few birds.— Bewick's wren. Rt-sident; insectivorous; neorly related to the foregoing, its habits are very similar, feeding on spiders, motbs, and other insects. Genus Gistothorus. Long-billed marsh wren. Summer resident, frequent about marshes; insectivorous. Feeds on aquatic insects and others which frequent wet places. — Short-billed marsh wren. Summer resident, frequent; Insectivorous. Habits similar to the preceding. Secluded among the brushwood and rank grass of their favorite Bwamps, they elude observation. Genus Troglodytes. House wren. Summer resident, common: Insectivorous. Our bird keeps up frequent squabbles with his neighbors, like other buaybodies that are never happy but in mischief. He is still, upon the whole, a real friend to the farmer and horticultarist, by the number of injurious insects and their destructive larvje, on which he and his numerous family subsist.— Wood wren. This is perhaps too near the preceding species to warrant a separate notice. —Winter wren. Winter resident, frequent; insectivorous. Its habits are much like those of the house wien; but is distinguished by ceason, the length of the tail, and the food which season may afford. XVn. FAMILY CERTHIIDiE, (THE CREEPERS). Genus Gerthia. American creeper. Resident, frequent, but eludes observation ; insectivorous. Its food consists chiefly of ants, larvte, and small insects, and small parti- cles of lichens ; and if one be placed near the noae, it is generally found to emit an odor like that of ants. Genus Sitta. White-bellied nuthatch. Resident, fre- to & ** ♦* ** ** ** ** ** o D 1 * ** +* ** * * ** ** * * ♦* * ** 1 a * ** ** ** ** * # *• ** ** ** ** * ** ** * ** *. if ** 'o a * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** ** * * * * O * P O * * * * * * * * * * * * * ■ ■ * t si 1 * * •■ ■■ :: * * ** * ** * ** * ** * ** 1 It O o O ■■ i •■ * * * * * * 4 t (3 (S o ■i ** ** * *• * * * ** ** V ** * * P 1 1 ** * * ** ** ■)fif ** * ** ** ** ** ** * * * ** *if ** * * ** ** ** * 1 ** * ** * * * * * >|: ** * * ** ** ** * ** * ** ** d c3 JO ** ** ** ** v. ** ** ** ** * ** ** ** * ** si o o a a '2 01 n * ** * ** ** -- * * ** * * * * ** ** * * * * * * * Br 1 i * * * * * * * * * * * *» ** ** ** ** 1 * * * * ** * * * ** ** * ** * 1 ;; * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * d a; OJ § 66 Resembles Heath Cling, but later. PEACH 710 PEACH NAMBS. DESCRIPTION, I— 1-i M a s SB 3 3 '■3 S & •0 1 9 to a ■a i i s B "s a 5 s" X. 1 72 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. m. 1. m. 1. m. F. C. C. F. F. F. F. F. F. C. F. F. F. C. F. F. C. g- w. w. w. y- w. w. w. w. r. s.J,h. m.j.r. in.j. m.j.v. s.j. m.J.r. m.j. m.j.v. m.j. g- g- r. r. r. g- r.' g- s. M. M. L. L. M. M. M.( M.' M. Am. Am. F. Am. Am. Am. F. F. Am. 73 Old Mixon CliDg . ... 74 76 Picqnett^B Late .....' 77 President . . 78 Prince of Wales 71 Princess of Wales Rn 81 Raymond Cling 82 Red Cheek Melocotqn ... y- y. r. w. w. w. y.r. y- j-v. m.j. m.j. J. V. m.J.r. m.j. g- g- r. r. s. r. M. M. M. L. E. M. V.L. Am. Am. Am. Am. F. Am. as 84 85 Rodman's Cling m 87 88 Salway Scott's October 89 Shockley's Earl}- m 1. m. m. 1. m. m. 1. 1. m F. F. F. 1: F. P. C. F. y- w. y- w. I;. y- y- w. U: m.j. s.J.h. s.j.b. m.j. s.j.v. il r. r. 1: g- r. g. r. g- L. M. M. L. M. M. M. L. E. Am. Am Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. ;; 91 9-? Snow 93 94 Sturtevant 95 96 97 Tippecanoe 98 99 Tuskena Cling 10 1 m. 1. m. s. m, m. 1. 1. F. F. C. F. P. F. F. F. w. w. y.r. w. r. w. y- y- y- m.j. m.j. m.J.r. s.j. J- V- s.j. g- r. r. g- g- g- g- M. L. L. Y.E. E. E. E. V.E. Am. Am. Am. Am. Am. F. Am. Am. 101 Ward's Late Free 102 103 104 105 Yellow Alberge 106 107 The peach began to be generally cultivated in England about the middle of the sixteenth cen- tury, and was brought from hence to America about 1680. In England, peaches can not be raised without the protection of a wall, the trees being trained along the south side. Even in France their cultivation is not entirely success- ful without the aid of protection, except in the southern portions. China and the United ^tates are the only temperate climates where the peach arrives at full perfection. In Michigan, the northern line of cultivation is Grand Traverse bay, near the foot of lake Michigan. West of lake Michigan they can not be grown north of central Illinois and southern Iowa. Yet if it were not for winter killing, the summers would ripen them up to the latitude of St. Paul, Minn. There are none of our fruit trees so easily prop- agated as the peach. If the stones are placed in a thick layer in a shallow trench, in the autumn, and covered with eight inches of earth, and then planted in April, they will be ready for budding in September. Tliis should be done quite near the ground. The following spring the top should be cut back near the bud. The growth will often reach six feet the first season, and the third year they will bear. In the North they are sometimes budded on the plum, since this stock is hardier than the peach, and the trees are dwarfed thereby. Budded upon the Mirabelle plum stock they become quite dwarf, and thus are suitable for orchard houses. Th& soil best adapted to the peach is a rich, deep,, dry, sandy loam ; but they grow well on a strong, mellow loam, or even in light sand. In fact, any dry, good soil, except a heavy clay, does well for the peach. On very light soils the trees are quite subject to the yellows. (See Yellows in Peach. > So severe has this disease become within the last few years in Michigan, that most stringent laws- have been passed for its eradication. In some- otherwise good peach growing districts, the blossoms are killed by late spring frosts. Where this is the case, the trees should be planted on northern slopes, or on high, airy situations, or along the banks of deep streams, lakes, or bluffs. The most noted peach region in the West is the- Michigan lake shore region, in Michigan ; next, the bluffs about Alton, 111. , and then the whole- timbered region south of Centralia. South of the Ohio river, and in Missouri and Kansas, and south, the peach is everywhere at home. The peach orchard should have good cultivation early in the season, and the pruning should consist simply in shortening in the branches, to keep the- head as dense as possible. The peach is so easily grown that it seems strange that Western farmers- should not plant them more for home use. They will, with care, bear two, or three years in five,, up to the northern limits of Illinois, and whea PEA-NUT 711 PEA-NUT NORTHERN DIVISION. Between 42° and 49°. II.-CENTRAL DIVISION. Between 35" and 42°. III.-SOUTH. DIVISION. Between 38° and 35°. a =3 72 73 74 75 7B 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 9b 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 a > ■■ i 1 1 =3 * * * * * i •a o ♦ * * * s w a a o ** o >* ** * * * * * * * * * 6 2 O * * -■ C ai tt !c y i * * » * * * * * * * * 1 s o s ii a o as 1 O a 1 o c O n O f 5 S 'S a "^ q a ** * * * a; £ * * * * * * * ** * * * * * ID C' as ** * * * * * * * s ** * * * * * * * C3 1 * * * * * * * * * * * d * * t ** * * * *♦ * * at n a * * * * * OS "5 *# ** ** ** * >. O B 1 ** * ** * ** ** i a ** ** * * ** o a ** *♦ ** * * *# * ♦ ♦ o •• o * * * s * 6 1 3 " i 5 # * * # o ^ "3 ■■3 o ** * ** * ** * a 5 cc ♦* ** # * * * * ** '1 s 'J « ♦* ** * * ** !! ** * ** ■g v ** * * ** d O 1 '■5 1 a a < * * * ■- * * * ** 'p. ft 1 ii ** ** * * * * ** i "3 o ►J * * * * * * CO S3 1 If * ** * ** * ♦ C 'i 03 § ■s ro.itis PERICARP. The outer portion of the fruit surrounding the carpels. PERSIMMON 721 PEWEE PERICRANIUM. The membrane wliich is jittaclied to the bones of the skull. PERIGYNIUM. The case formed in carices by the union of two bracts. The dislt. PERI6YN0US. Stamens which are attached to the sides of the calyx. PERIOSTEUM. The fibrous membrane attached to the surface of all the bones. PERIPHKRY. The circumference. PERIODIC OPHTHALMIA. (See Eyes, Inflammation of.) PERISPERM. The testa or covering of a seed. PERISTALTIC. A worm-like motion of the intestines, produced by a contraction and dilation of their circular fibers, whereby their contents are pushed forward into the colon and rectum. PERISTOMIUM. The fringed membrane surrounding the capsule of mosses. PERITONEUM. The membrane which en- velopes the organs of the abdomen ; it is serous : its inflammation is called peritonitis. PERMEABLE. Permitting the passage of fluids or gases. PERRY. The cider of pears. PERSIAN aOAT. (See Goat.) PERSIMMON. Diospyros. The American persimmon, D. Yirginiana, is a small tree, though sometimes it is found from forty to fifty feet high. It is common south of forty degrees and rare North, seldom being found as high as forty-two degrees. Grown if there is plenty of room, the tree is round topped or conical, rather open, and with the branches more or less twisted. The fruit varies from the size of a small plum to that of a medium sized peach, and when green is very astringent. When ripe or when mel- lowed with the frost, it is sweet and luscious, and generally liked. It is very much prone to sport, and hence it is supposed that it may be •capable of wide improvement. In fact, in Japan there are exceedinglyfine varieties in cultivation. Those imported have not proved hardy in the North. It is the Diospyros kaki, of the nurseries. The Japanese, by a course of cross fertilization and selection, it is said, have brought this fruit to great perfection. It is there a regular com- mercial fruit, and those not consumed at home are dried like figs which they resemble, and are exported. In the Indian Territory, where the persimmon i.s at home, and grows abundantly, the Indians use large quantities, and also pre- serve the fruit, making of it a preparation, after the manner of making apple butter. It is to be hoped that horticulturists, at the North, will select hardy varieties, and improve this frait, so we may have it fresh in our markets. In fact the trade in shipping this fruit from southern Indiana and Illinois, during its season, to Chi- caigo, has been considerable in former years, and is still continued; much of it, however, was unripe, and this prevented its use. To introduce any new fruit, especial care should be taken to have it prime. The wood of the persimmon is fine, hard grained, elastic and heavy, and is valu- able for turning and other purposes. As an ornamental tree it is fine, and should be found in every collection up to the latitude of forty- two degrees, where it can have some protection in winter. The seed should be sown in the fall and transplanted at one year old. It is a tap rooted plant and therefore does not transplant ■well when older. 46 PERSONATE FLOWERS. Irregular, mono- petalous flowers like the snapdragon, (Aniir- rliiiium,) with an upper and lower lobe, but with the faux or throat closed; in this respect it dif- fers from the labiate corolla. PERSPIRATION. The function of the skin whereby a saline fluid with a little gaseous mat- ter is thrown out of the body. It is increased by taking much fluid in summer; and the state of this excretion is closely connected with health. PERUVIAN BARK. The bark of several varieties of cinchona trees of Central and South America; they furnish the alkaloid, quinine. PETALS. The divisions of the flower; the leaves of the flower, usually of bright colors. Petaloid is a derivative. PETIOLE. The leaf stalk. PETROLEUM. Mineral or rock oil from which kerosene is distilled, giving rise to many by-products. PETROSILEX. Hornstone, sometimes com- pact feldspar. PETUNIA. This is one of the most valuable of garden plants, for planting in masses. It comes into bloom early, and continues to give a profusion of bloom until killed by frost in the autumn. The seeds are very minute, and hence require care in germinating. The best way is to sow them in a finely prepared bed, made pretty compact and simply press the seeds into the earth, keeping the surface moist until they ger- minate. When large enough, they may be transplanted where they are to bloom, at a dis- tance of twelve inches apart each way. Some varieties show handsome striped single flowers ; others are quite double. The plant should not be allowed to run. This may be accomplished by pinching back, and then training to stakes or a trellis, but for rich masses of bloom, they are most brilliant when allowed to run together. If the seeds be planted in July, and the plants potted and kept dwarfed by pinching back, they make handsome plants for pots or hanging baskets, giving a profusion of bloom all winter, but they should have a warm, sunny aspect and plenty of water, but with good drainage below to ensure the best success. PETUNTZE. Porcelain clay and decayed feldspar. PEWEE. Phebe-bird. Sayomis fuscus. A common and useful bird all over the North, arriving among the earliest in the spring. It is quite domestic and innocent of mischief, its food being seeds and insects. The nest is built under the eaves, or other projections where it m^y be dry, fine roots, moss, hair, and grass are used, being plastered together and also fastened to the support with mud. The eggs are five in num- ber, white, with a delicate cream tint, and usu- ally one or two are found in the nest with a few spots of reddish-brown thinly scattered on the larger end. Incubation lasts thirteen days, and usually two broods are reared in a season. The Wood Pewee {Ooniopus virens) makes its appear- ance later and prefers the solitude of the forest. It is, therefore, seldom seen. The nest is built on a horizontal limb composed of lichens, pine leaves, and mosses, the body of the nest being of- wiry grasses or root fibers, bound together, says Nuttall, by cobwebs and caterpillar's silk, moist- ened with saliva; externally it is so coated over with bluish, crustaceous lichens as scarcely to be distinguished from the limb on which it is fixed. PHEASANT 733 PIGEON" The bird comes North rather late and leaves early. One brood only is reared in a season, incubation lasting fourteen days. The eggs are about the size of the Pewee, about three-quarters of an inch long by one-half inch broad, of a delicate cream color, spotted with two shades of lilac, one brown and the other lavender. Its food is insects and seeds. PHAGEDENIC. Corroding ulcers. PHALANGES. The small, long bones of the fingers and toes. PHANEROGAMIA, PHANEROGAMOUS. Plants bearing flowers. PHARYNGITIS. (See Sore Throat.) PHEASANT. In some sections of the Middle States and in the South the ruffed grouse (Tetrao wmbeUua) is improperly called pheasant, just as it is called partridge in New England and some other sections of the North and West. The true pheasant (Phasinmis) is not a native of the United States, but is kept in a semi-domesticated state in parks in England and on the continent of Europe, and occasionally in the United States. An observer, at the French exposition, writing to the Department of Agriculture, describes some of the varieties seen, as«follows: The com- mon pheasant {Phamnus colch cus) found in the wild state in the Caucasus and near the Caspian sea, is the most common species in Europe. It is a most beautiful bird, and has for a very long time been kept in a semi-domesticated state in the parks, woods, and pleasure grounds of wealthy persons, where it breeds almost as well as domesticated fowls. It roosts at night on elevated trees, and, like our domesticated Guinea fowls, loves to wander about the woods and fields. These birds ought by all means to be introduced into our ornamental parks and pleas- ure grounds, being at the same time useful as an article of food, as well as highly ornamental. There are five varieties here, viz : the common, the ring-necked, ash color, white, and parti- colored. Tlie ring-necked pheasant is said to be originally from China. The male of the silver pheasant {Phasianus nycthermrus) originally from the north of China, is a most beautiful bird, of a silver white color, with regular, slender, lace- like black markings on the feathers of the back, while the under parts are of a black color; the long, drooping tail is also silver white, barred with black. This bird is said to be completely domesticated in Prance, whei'e it is bred and reared with perfect ease. The female is by no means as beautiful as the male, being of a dull reddish color, and of a smaller size. The golden pheasant [PhaaiantLa, thnumalea, pictus) is one of the most beau tif ul and bizarre birds, bred in a state of half-domestication, and is much smaller than either of the pheasants before mentioned. The under part of the male is of a red color, the head is ornamented with a splendid golden yellow crest, the neck is hidden or overhung by a some- what projecting ruff of feathers of a bright yel- low color, striped or barred with black. The wings are of a dull blue, the hind parts of the body are of a golden color, set off with red, and the tail is long and brown, barred with black. The female of this species is also very incon- spicuous in c^or. These birds have bred well in some forests in Europe, and in a state of domestication have produced three varieties, viz: the ordinary golden and red color, the black, and the Isabella or fawn. PHEBE-BIRD. (See Pewee.) PHOSPHATE. A salt formed by a combi- nation of phosphoric acid and a salifiable base, as lime, for instance. It is one of the most val- uable of the mineral manures, since it is abso- lutely necessary in the formation of bone. Hence soils deficient in phosphate, plants cannot take it up, and hence again, grazing animals suffer for the want of this necessary constituent of bony matter. Phosphite is known as a salt formed by phosphorus and a salifiable base. Phosphorus is a yellowish transparent substance like wax, whicli in common air burns with great rapidity and vehemence. At ordinary tempera- tures it naturally attracts the oxygen of the air and burns spontaneously, emitting a luminous vapor originally obtained from wine. It is now chiefly obtained from bones, those of sheep being the richest. The principal sources of the phos- phates of commerce are the minerals and rocks containing them and the bones of animals daily slaughtered, and also fossil bones. There are numerous phosphatic rocks and beds of fossil bones. The beds of fossil bones and rocks near Charleston, S. C, have of late years become celebrated, being principally the remains of fossil marine animals. They are extensive, easily worked, containing from twenty-four to thirty per cent, of phosphoric acid, ten to fifteen per cent, of which is available, being crushed and ground to powder in powerful mills, and then subjected to treatment by sulphuric acid. PHOSPHITE. (See Phosphate.) PHOSPHORUS. (See Phosphate.) PHOTOMETER. An instrument to measure the. intensity of light. PHRENITIS. Inflammation of the brain. PHBYGANID.E. Tricopterous insects, case- worm flies. PHYCOMETER. The gelatinous matter in which the sporules of the lowest plants germi- nate. PHYLLODIA. Leaves in which the petiole is very much expanded and the lamina absent. PHYLLOXERA. (See Grape Insect.) PHYSICS. Mechanical philosophy. The study of the properties of objects and their motions. PHYSIOLOGY. The investigation of the properties and functions of plants and animals. PHYTOGRAPHY. Descriptive botany. PIA MATER. The delicate membrane cover- ing the brain. PIAZZA. An arcade. PICAMAR. A bitter substance found in tar. PICIDJE. Pice. The family of woodpeckers. PICK. A pickaxe. PICKLING. The preservation of vegetables; or meats in vinegar or brine. PICROMEL. Sugar of bile; bile changed by the action of acetic acid. The characteristic prin- ciple of bile. PICROTOXIA. A poisonous alkaloid in Oocculus Indicus. PIER. In architecture, the solid between the openings of a building, or that from which an arch springs. An abutment pier, in a bridge, is- that next the shore. PIG. (See Swine.) PIGEON. The pigeon is bred in a domesti- cated state in every civilized country in the world, and is now broken up by breeding into an almost infinite variety of forms and characteristics. PIGEON 723 PILE Their powers of flight are most astonishing, the carrier pigeon having been linown to traverse 800 miles vpithout food or rest. The wild pigeon (Ectopistes migratoria). is remarkable for its sym- metry of form, the extreme rapi- dity and elegance of its flight, as well as for the incredible num- bers which at times pass over different portions of our land, affording, seem- ingly with but little diminution in their crowded ranks, the mil- lions killed dur- ing their flight. It propels itself by repeated flappings of the wings, bringing these at times clo.sely to the body with firm strokes, and, before aligliting, breaks the force of its flight by several rapid beats, as though fearing injury from coming too suddenly into contact with the object upon which it may desire to rest. It is supposed to be capable of moving through the air at the rate of a mile a minute; and it has been killed in New York with its crop yet filled with the rice collected in the fields of Georgia and South Carolina., which it must have left only five or six hours before meet- ing its death, because, as they digest their food rapidly, they must necessarily have traveled the distance within the time allowed, in order to have arrived with the rice still in its perfect state. The shape of their body is oval, with a sharp-pointed tail, admirably constructed for rapid evolutions, and also furnished with a pair of long wings, moved by large and powerful muscles. Tlie rapidity with which tlii's bird will pass through a wood is perfectly astonishing, threading its way amid the closely gl'o wn branches with unerring course, it flashes upon the sight like a meteor, and is gone. A pigeon-roost is a curiosity well worth a visit from any one who has the slightest fancy for the strange things in nature. No language can give a perfect idea of the appearance of one of these places, when occupied by its millions of tenants. Instances are known where these birds have covered the trees for a distance of forty to fifty miles in length, by three to five in breadth, every limb of every tree within that spacious extent loaded and gi'oaning with the weight of the numberless pigeons clustered on it. When approaching these roosts their advance is heralded by a sound like the gale when it sweeps over the ocean in uncon- trolled fury, the sky is darkened by their incon- ceivable numbers, and the noise of their flapping wings, as they stay the rapidity of their course, is like the sound of many waters. They come by thousands in a flock, and settle on the trees around, while frequently the confusion reigning everywhere is increased by great limbs breaking from the weight of the birds upon them, and falling with a crash, carrying death and destruc- tion among those which have alighted beneath. Some of these places are resorted to annually by the birds, and the farmers, just before the time the pigeons usually appear, will assemble for the purpose of obtaining them. Sometimes the hogs are' driven to the roost to be fattened on the birds which are slain. Guns are used to kill them, but often long poles are equally effective, for the pigeons make little orno effort to escape. They' continue to arrive often until the night has far advanced, and the uproar is continued until day- break, when they begin to move off, and when the sun rises the majority have departed. The flesh of the wild pigeon is dark, and by some is much liked. The young, or squabs, as they are termed, are very tender and delicate, and much more esteemed as food than the adult bird. The pigeon generally selects the tallest and largest trees to breed in, and as many as fifty nests may be counted upon a single tree. They lay only two eggs, elliptical in form, and of a pure white. When the young are about half grown, their enemies of every kind come to these places, and disturb the peaceful birds by endeav- oring to get possession of them in all manner of ways. The quickest is to cut the trees down, and as one falls, by coming in contact with another, it shakes all the squabs out of the nests, which maj' be on it, and soon the ground is covered with the little helpless things, and immense numbers are thus destroyed. The wild pigeon never rests at any great distance from water, to which it resorts several times during the day, and when it drinks immerses its bill up to the eyes, and so remains until its thirst is satisfied. Immense flocks of these birds are not so often seen now as formerly; the diminution of their number may be attributed equally to the destruction of our forests as to the birds them- selves, and it is a rare thing in these days to witness, near the cultivated districts, any very great flight of pigeons. The skin is very tender and easily torn, while the feathers fall off at the least touch — characters peculiar to this family. The male of this species has the throat, breast, and sides brownish red, sometimes with a purp- lish tint, rest of under parts bluish white. Head blue; hind part and sides of neck changing to gold, green, and bright crimson. Upper part of body blue; wing coverts marked with black spots ; quills blackish, tipped with white. Inside tail feathers dark brown, rest blue on the outer web, white on the inner. Bill black; feet red. The female has a similar distribution of colors, but very much duller than the male. These are olivaceous above and beneath pale blue instead of red; a slight tinge on the neck and the throat of a whitish color. PIGEON BEKRT. Poke. Poke-weed. Gar- get. Phytolacca decandra. A plant found gi'ow- ing in fence corners and other waste places. The root actively emetic; the stalk stout, smooth, and generally purple; leaves, ovate-oblong, bearing bunches of berries containing a dark purple juice, used sometimes as a substitute for red ink. The quite young shoots are sometimes used like asparagus, and a tincture of the ripe berries have been used as a remedy for chronic rheumatism. The root is also used in decoction as a local rem- edy for garget in cows. It is generally regarded and should be treated as a weed. PIGGERY. (See Hog House.) PILASTER. A square pillar situated in a wall, usually projecting not more than one fifth or one-sixth of its width. PilastSs are subject to the same rules of proportion as columns. PILCHARD. A small kind of herring. PILE. The hair on furs. PINE 724 PINNATE PILES. Timbers driven into a marshy soil to afford a better foundation. In surgery, en- largement of tlie veins of the rectum. PILEUS. The cap of a mushroom. PILOSE. Hairy, set with hairs. PIMENTO. Myrtuspimenla. Allspice. The aromatic berries of an evergreen tree of Jamaica and the tropics of America. PIMPERNEL. Anagallis anensis. A pretty, indigenous annual. PINDAKS. Araehis hypogcm. The ground pea. (See Peanut.) PINE. Pinus. The pine is perhaps the most valuable of any single genus of trees to man. It embraces a great number of species, including those from which tar, pitch, and turpentine are manufactured, others furnishing masts, and deck timber for ships, and the white pine, P. strobus, furnishing the soft, easily worked, and valuable lumber for dwellings, and a great variety of uses in carpentry and joiner work. So again, many pines grow on the most blowing sands, and the two leaved pines do well as a rule on rather a stiff soil. PINEAL GLAND. A gland of the brain. PINE APPLE. Bromelia ananas. A refresh- ing fruit of tropical America, with dry, spiny, leaves. It is an annual growing from the crown of the fruit. From the leaves, by maceration, a delicate filament is obtained,from which exceed- ingly fine fabrics are made. PINION. A small wheel playing in the teeth of a larger one. It is only a spindle or arbor. PINKS. Bianthus. A class of highly orna- mental plants, biennials and perennials, all, how- ever, requiring protection in the winter in the North, and some like the carnation, requiring to be kept in the house in winter. The character- istics of excellence in pinks are that the flowers should be circular in outline when viewe'd in front, semi-globular in profile, and uniform in size on the same plant. The petals should have CHINA PINKS. of the species are highly ornamental, and are used extensively in planting. Some of the finest of these are natives of the Rocky mountains. Among foreign trees the Austrian pine and Scotch pine are well known. Of our native species, one from the Pacific coast, the ponder- ous pine, {Pinus pondsrosa) is hardy and of rapid growth, see illustration, page 726. The wood is very heavy, as its name indicates, and is of rapid growth. The white pine a native of the entire North and Canada, is, however, one of the best of trees for prairie planting, being quite hardy, doing well on a variety of soils, and it also bears the shears or cutting well. The pines have been divided as follows : 1. White pine, five leaves in a sheath, which includes the Cembran pine and the Bhotan pine. 3. Pitch pine, three leaves in a sl^path, which includes Loblolly and ponderous pine. 3. Two leaves in a sheath, as Scotch pine, Austrian pine, red pine, gray pine, scrub pine, yellow pine, etc. The white pine species like a rather moist, rich soil. The pitch good substance whether the edges be cut or smooth each row smaller than that preceding it. Self colors, should be uniform in tint, variegated colors should have the gi-ound white, lacing, whatever the tint, should be unbroken and have a border of white beyond it, and the color of the lower limb of the petal extending so as to be seen above the white edge of the petals above. (See Floriculture.) PINK KOOT. Spigelia Marilandica. Caro- lina pink. A handsome perennial, growing about the borders of woods in the South ; the roots are used in infusion as a powerlul vermifuge; the dose for children of three years is ten grains of the powder; in very large doses it proves a danger- ous narcotic. PINNACLE. A square or polygonal pillar rising above a building, and terminating in an ornamental pyramid. PINNATE. Leaves with separate leaflets ar- ranged along the midrib, or petiole; some are doubly pinnate. PITUITARY GLAND 725 PLANTATION PINNATIFID. Imperfectly pinnate. In this case tlie leaflets are not distinct, but a portion of the lamina runs along the central petiole. Cut- leafed. PINT. The eighth part of a gallon; half a quart. PIP. The seeds of apples, pears and similar fruits. (See Nuts.) In poultry, a disease or rather the result of disease. The formation of a diy, horny scale on the tongue of the fowl ; the beak grows yellow at the base, the plumage ruffled, and untidy, the bird is moping, and eats but little and very soon refuses food altogether, and at length dies of fever. A remedy is to give the bird two or three grains of black pepper, twice or three times a day, in fresh butter for a week. The treatment, however, should vary with the cause, and the disease treated as for any malignant disease, as catarrh, gapes or roup, which close the nostrils, obliging the fowl to breathe through its mouth will -cause the occurrence of this dry horny scale. PIPE. A wine measure, 105 imperial, or 126 wine gallons. PIPECLAY. White clay, disintegrated feld- spar, with which the white smoking pipe and coarse pottery are made. PIPE DRAIN. (See Draining,) PIPERIN. A white, crystalline, inactive alkaloid, obtained from black pepper. PIP FRUITS. (See Nuts.) PISCICULTURE. (See Fish Breeding.) PISE. In building, a wall constructed of stiff earth or clay, carried up in moulds, and rammed down as the work is carried up. The expression, building «n. pise, is common. PISOLITE. Native limestone moulded into grains, like peas. PISTACHIO NUTS. Pisiachia vera. A tur- pentine tree, a native of Syria; the nuts are the size of small filberts, of a sweet taste and pleasant flavor resembling almonds. There are edible nut- bearing pines in the Bocky mountains, and in the Sierra Nevada mountains, in the United States. PISTIL, PISTILLUM. The central organ of flowers, it is divided into an ovarium, or low- est part, a style, and stigma, which last is the uppermost surface, and receives the fertilizing pollen. It is called the female organ, because flowers in which It is absent are barren. Pistils are made of one or more carpels, the styles of which unite. Flowers with pistils only are termed pistillate. PISTON. A short cylinder of wood or metal, which fits exactly the cavity of a pump or barrel, and is worked up and down in it alternately. Two sorts of pistons are vised in pumps: one hol- low, with a valve, used in the sucking pump ; and the other solid, which is employed in the forcing pump. PITCH. The substance that remains after boiling or distilling tar. PITCH OF A ROOF. Its inclination to a level plane. PITHING. The operation of killing animals suddenly and without loss of blood, by driving a knife into the spinal marrow ; this is done by directing the knife to the space between the first and second vertebra, next the head. PITTACALL. A blue substance obtained from oil of tar. PITUITARY GLAND. The pineal gland, situated in the base of the brain. PITUITARY MEMBRANE, SCHNEIDER- IAN MEMBRANE. The mucous membrane of the nostrils. PITYRIASIS, DANDRUFF. A scurfy dis ease of the skin. PIVOT. The extremity of an axle which revolves in a socket or hole. PLACENTA. The afterbirth. A large spongy organ which receives the blood of the mother, and supplies, by the umbilical artery, the foetus. In botany, cellular tissue developed within a car- pel, to which the ovules are attached sometimes by an umbilical cord. PLAITED, PLICATE. In botany, folded like a fan. PLAGUE. A name locally applied to various malignant diseases of live stock, as Rinderpest, Pleuro-pueuraonia, Texas, or Spanish Fever, Mur- rain, and various diseases. (See articles on these various subjects.) PLANARIA. A genus of flat entozoic ani- mals, which do not, however, inhabit the bodies of other animals. PLANE. A flat surface. PLANE TABLE. A square board, furnished with a compass, and with lines drawn on its upper side, used in taking angles and in measur- ing land. PLANE-TREE. The button-wood. PLANER-TREE. Planera ulmifoUa {aqna- tica.) A tree of twenty-three to thirty feet height, growing in swampy places, in the South and Southwest, and resembling the elm. The wood is hard and strong, but there is only a small amount of it. PLANIPENNATES. Neuropterous insects with flat wings, the lower pair of which ' equal the upper. PLANKS. Boards of nine inches or more in width, and two or more inches thick. PLANO-CONCAVE. A thin disk, having one surface flat and the other curved inward. PLANT. An organized vegetable body, adher- ing to another body, and drawing nourishment therefrom, or which grows in water without any fixed hold. Thus the term includes any vege- table substance which has life, including trees, shrubs, bushes, herbs, grasses, vines, orchids — which fasten to trees — fungus mosses, lichen, algse, vegetables and flowering plants. The term however is generally applied to the smaller herbaceous vegetables, and flowering plants. PLANTAIN. Plantago. The common plan- tain of roadsides, door-yards and waste places, has been called by the Indians the white man's foot, from its being an attendant on emigration ; the seeds being found carried in a variety of ways. It is a worthless weed, though its leaves are con- venient and excellent for dressing blisters and sores. It is an introduced biennial weed from Europe. Rib grass, or English Plantain (P. lanceolata), has a perennial root, and is found in meadows and pastures, seeding in midsummer and again in the autumn. Stock eat the plant freely. It is difficult to eradicate once in the land, since the seeds are of the size and weight of red clover. PLANTATION. A term used: 1. To denote a large farm, devoted to special crops as sugar, cotton, rice, tobacco, etc. ; 3, Anynursery orplot of trees of a given kind. In the North it is used in the latter sense chiefly, and in the South, to denote the farm or estate of the owner. PLANT LIFE IN WINTER 736 PLANT LIFE IN WINTER PLANTER. 1. In the South, the owner of a farm or estate devoted to special crops. In the North, one who plants by dibbling, or otherwise transplants any plant. 3. Any machine for plant- ing special seeds, iu hills; or machines for plant- ing a variety of seeds in contradistinction to a drill which sows coaseoutively in a continuous line. PLANT LIFE IN WINTER. It would seem that the freezing point of the sap — the blood in a sense — of a tree or plant may not be really frozen without destroying the life, or at least severely injuring its vitality. So different plants have different freezing points, that is, the degree of cold that will destroy one class of PINUS PONDEKOSA. plants, will not injure others. For instance, a white frost will kill sweet potato, egg plant, and various other tender natives of the tropics, while corn — a semi-tropical plant — resists a greater degree of cold. Celery will survive until the thermometer sinks to fifteen degrees Fahren- heit. Cabbage and other plants of the brassica tribe have their freezing point still lower, while many of our conifera remain active during our severest winters. It is more than probable that the active principle in the sap may not be frozen without killing the tree, and that notwithstand- ing the fact that the sap of our deciduous trees seems frozen in the winter, the circulation goes on to a greater or less extent. Certainly it does in our cone-bearing trees, or evergreens, as they are generally termed. A very popular error is the belief that evergreens hold their leaves per- sistently. This, however, is not the case. The so-called evergreens of the North — we are now speaking of true leaved plants — as the hollj', ivy, laurel, etc. , change their leaves as do the strictly deciduous trees, that is, the mature leaves drop off. and are replaced with others, but this change is made gradually, and the replacement goes on as the mature leaves are lost. So the tree is never without leaves. The conifera, on the hand, hold their leaves persistently, some 3m for two or more years. Once they fall ire never replaced by foliage in the place 1 lost. In these plants leaf buds do not Bxcept from the exti'emity of the branches, quently if the leading branch of such a i destroyed, it never thereafter increases in t unless some branch turns upward and forms the leader. Some of our forest ripen their seeds in the winter. This is ly true of some of the cone-bearing trees. These trees are positively act- ive with the thermometer far below the freezing point. A half active circulation goes for- ward at all times, just as it does with hybeinating ani- mals. During mild spells in winter, this circulation be- ; comes easily apparent, as may be shown by chipping the wood. The sap will immedi- ately exude, and this is by no means confined to the ever- green species. It is known to take place with many of our deciduous varieties, the ma- ples being notable examples of this kind. This circulation is in fact necessary to support and mature the buds. If. the buds are killed, then indeed active circulation ceases, and the plant dies. All perennial plants, therefore, have a sum- mer medium and a winter medium of activity. Exhala- tion is going on to a greater or less extent, constantly through the buds, and the green sur- faces of the bark, and this activity is entirely governed by the degree of heat. Thus a season of mild weather in winter will cause such activity in the sap, that the buds will sometimes break into leaf. If we carefully dis- sect and examine one of these, even when appar- ently dormant and inactive, we shall find it to be composed either of the blossom or blossoms, or else of a cluster of true leaves, exactly folded and compressed together — and in the smallest possible space — and air and water tight, so far as outward influences are concerned ; the outer layers being covered either by a system of hairs, or else with a resinous or glutinous secretion, which resists the direct action of water, All PLANTS, EFFECT OP AIR ON 727 PLANTS, EFFECT OF AIR ON living trees, therefore, have their summer and their winter foliage. The buds that are now maturing to develop into full foliage next spring -and summer, were started early last spring, and have been the growth of the whole summer and autumn. During the season of active growth of the tree, or in late spring and summer, but little sap is needed for their growth. The demands of the leaves and the other portions of the plants are then almost supreme. They, however, come on slowly, and as the summer wanes and autumn comes on, and as the leaves become mature, the sap is diverted more strongly to the buds, until at last they are perfected. These germs contain the future glory and beauty of blossom, foliage, growth and fruit of the coming year. Thus when we speak of trees or plants being bare of foliage during winter, we mean only relatively. Growth is constantly going on while the tree lives, though to the superficial observer it may not be apparent. The winter foliage requires but little nutrition, it is true. It requires protection during the inclement Reason; this the envelopes afford, holding life intact until the advancing sun of the succeeding spring again calls the full pow- ers of the tree or plant into renewed activity, PLANTS, EFFECT OP AIR AND LIGHT ON. White is said to be no color at all. It is, however, tangible enough to our sense of sight. It would seem to be the primary color, because the so-called decolorization of a substance results in white. Air and water, in a fluid state, are colorless, but they reflect any color that may be placed against them. Frozen water — pounded ice and snow — ^however, becomes white from its power of reflecting that color. One of the effects •of air and light upon plants, is to cause them to change color. The embryo plant, as formed within its integuments, is usually white or nearly so, and a plant, colored by contact with light and air, may usually be blanched by shutting •out the light, the blanching being perfect or •otherwise, according to the thoroughness with which the light is excluded from the plant. Thus, in blanching celery, it is covered with earth to sucli a dei»th as to entirely shut out the light when it becomes thoroughly white, and also crisp. Lettuce or endive, however, is blanched by tying the leaves together, and is only partially blanched and crisped, for, it is blanched only in proportion to the quantity of light excluded. But some plants — such as Thubarb — develop color although grown in the dark, but this is from the pre-existence of color in the root from whence the stalk sprang. Or the deposition of coloring matter may take place -as in some varieties of potatoes, beets, carrots, •etc., being first formed by parts developed in the light. Flavor, as well as color and nutritive matter, is dependent also upon light for its pre- sence, because flavor is produced by chemical alterations, caused by the exposure of the plant to the light. A very curious fact connected with this, is that the portion of a fruit, as a water- melon, shielded from the light, will not be as sweet as that portion receiving the full effect of light. It will also be remarkably retarded in the -development of saccharine matter, from the absence of light and heat. Hence gardeners sometimes place slates or some other conductor' beneath such fruits as they wish to be very fine and well developed. On the other hand, the sugar-beet is remarkably deficient in saccharine development in that portion growing above ground, and contains instead certain salts, which neutralize, partially in the manufacture of them, the saccharine contained in the portion below. It is a curious fact, and well worthy the inves- tigation of agricultural scientists, from the pos- sibilities which may be wrought out from its study. Light is also indispensable to the develop- ment of the nutritive matter which is formed by the exposure of the leaves lo the light. Thus the potato, when forced in the dark, is said to contain no more farinaceous matter than was contained in the original tuber, and it is also a well known fact that fruits grown in illy-lighted and unventilated houses, are innutritions and flavorless. Light being so powerful a stimulus in vegetative economy, its energy in exciting the vital action of plants is in direct proportion to its intensity,- hence the superior quality of fruits grown in asunny ard equable climate like Califor- nia over those cultivated in less favored zones. So also the intensity of color in the leaves of a plant is in proportion to the light and heat which they receive, being paler in a more diffused light than when they are exposed to the more direct solar rays. During the prevalence of light, the leaves of plants absorb carbonic acid, Jind part with oxygen, and thus purify the atmosphere for the use of man and animals, and this process again, goes on just in proportion to the intensity of the sun's rays to which the leaves are exposed. The decomposition of carbonic acid, and the acquisi- tion of carbon in a solid state by the plant, is hastened or retarded in proportion to the amount of light received. So also the intensity of color and quantity of secretions are in proportion to their exposure to the light and air, as is shown by the deeper color of the upper portion of the leaves of plants. This is further proved by the fact that plants grown in a medium from which light is excluded, form neither color nor secre- tions — as in the blanching of celery, previously noticed. As plants derive an essential portion of their food from the air by the action of light, therefore those greenhouses and conservatories that admit most light are best adapted to the forcing and cultivation of plants. It has been found by experiment that light passes more freely through a curvilinear than through a plain roof, and through glass forming an acute angle with the horizon than through glass placed per- pendicularly. Consequently a plane roof, with perpendicular glass sides, is the worst possible form for greenhouse purposes. As light passes more freely through clear, thin, colored glass, the former should only be used. Poisonous gases, in very minute quantity, act with great energy upon vegetation. A ten thousandth part of sulphuric acid gas is quickly fatal to the health of plants. Hence the sickly appearance of many forms of vegetation, especially ever- greens in cities. The trouble with gases from the old-fashioned flue, has pretty generally led to their abolition in greenhouses, and to the introduction, instead, of heating by means of hot water. The process has now become so sim- plified, and so easily worked, that a man who should put up a permanent greenhouse or a conservatory to be heated by the old-fashioned flue, would be laughed at by practical men. They are only admissible, at best, in temporary structures. It is only within a comparatively PLEURISY 728 PLEUROPNEUMONIA few years that scientific men have given their attention to the practical investigation of the phenomena connected with agriculture. The conclusions of mere book theorists have done much to retard the progress of real agricultural science. Governments have walced up to the importance of scientific agricultural investiga- tions. When the mere tlieorizing stage shall have passed away with us, as it is passing away in Germany and some otlier European countries, then and not till then shall we begin to make true progress in the right direction. PLASHING. A mode of repairing or mak- ing a hedge by bending down a portion of the shoots, cutting them half through near the ground, to render them more pliable, and twisting them among the upright stems, so as to render the whole effective as a fence, and, at the same time, preserve all the branches alive. For this pur- pose, the branches to be plashed or bent down must not be cut more than half through, in order that a sufficient portion of sap may rise, to keep alive the upper part of the branches. (See Fences.) PLASTER. (See Gypsum.) PLASTIC. Capable of being moulded, adhe- sive. PLATBAND. A square moulding, projecting from the wall less than its width. PLATE. In building, a timber lying horizon- tally on a wall to receive the ends of girders, joists, rafters, etc. PLATFORM. A level structure of any mate- rials, to receive a superincumbent building. PLATINUM, PLATINA. A metal, of the appearance of silver, but very infusible, and of specific gravity 31.5. It resists most chemical reagents, and is xised in chemistry for crucibles, and in foil and wire for numerous purposes. PLATYPHYLLUM. The Katydid, which see. PLATYSOMES, PLATYSOMA. A family of coleoptera with wide and flat bodies, living under the bark of trees PLEASURE GROUNDS. Grounds laid out in shrubberies, groups of trees, winding walks, and lawns. (See Landscape Gardening.) PLESIOMORPHISM. A term used to denote a similarity between different crystals in their angles, but not an identity. PLETHORA. An unnatural condition from rich food, and little exercise, and especially impure air in the stable. There will be a vari- able appetite, a dull eye, sometimes more or less bloodshot, languor, and loss of glossiness in the coat. In extreme cases, in connection witli gen- tle exercise and pure air, two or three ounce doses of aloes may be given twice a week, and an ounce of saltpetre given in the water as often. Generally, a few bran mashes, in connection with gentle daily exercise and good ventilation, will set all right. PLEURA. The serous membrane surround- ing the cavity of the chest, lungs, and heart; it consists of two parts, which are united along the middle, and forms the mediastinum. Its inflam- mation is called pfeanft's, or pleurisy. PLEURISY. This is an inflammation of the membrane lining the chest and lungs, followed by waterj"^ exudation pressing on the lungs, and may occur on one or both sides. It is occasioned by a variety of causes, direct violence, colds, or it may follow pleuro-pneumonia and bronchitis. The attack is characterized by a chill, coldness of the skin, and great pain, followed by stiff- ness, soreness, rapid and incomplete breathing, hard, quick pulse, and a short, hard dry cough. At the first symptoms, give at a dose three ounces of laudanum in half a pint of linseed oil, and repeat in a few hours if it do not check the disease. Clothe the animal warmly, foment the sides over the pain faithfully with hot water, and give plenty of water to drink, with an ounce of saltpetre to the bucket, once or twice a day. If the attack be followed by weakness, scanty urine, and a pulse of seventy or eighty beats a minute, apply a mustard liniment to the chest sufficient to produce considerable heat, but not to blister. In connection with this give twice daily half an ounce of chloride of iron in a. bucket of water. If effusion of water take* place in the chest, it must be drawn off by a trochar. Divide the skin with a lancet between the eighth and ninth rib; stretch the opening so that when it returns it will cover the place punctured by the trochar; plunge it into the sac, and allow the water to flow. Sometimes a second tapping is necessary. PLEUkO-PNEUMONIA. Simple pneu- monia is one of the most common of the danger- ous inflammations attacking, either the human family or animals. It is the name given to an inflammation of the parenchyma, (the spongy substance contained in the interstices between the blood vessels of the viscera). In acute pneu- monia, the first stage is engorgement; the second stage is hepatization, (the red softening of Andral, or converting the lung into a substance resembling the liver) ; the third and fatal stage is purulent infiltration of the lung. In the first stage the lung is externally of a dark or livid red color, sometimes accompanied with 'a violet hue, from a slight whitish opacity of the pleura. (The membrane which covers the inside of the thorax, and also invests the lungs.) On cutting into the lung during this stage, a bloody serum flows from it more or less clear, and containing numerous air bubbles. The substance cut into will be red, of various shades of crimson, dark red, brown red, chocolate red, or of a livid puce color approaching to black; and the progi'ess of the inflammation may be known by the defect of air in the tissue, and consequent crepitation - (crackling sound) upon pressure or tapping; the more crepitation the less the inflammation. The progress toward the second stage being marked by a paler color, a diminished quantity of both serum and air, and an increasing solidity. In another variety of inflammatory engorgment, the lung is extremely lived, and being cut, exudes more or less slowly a dark grumous (clotted) blood. This especially occurs in cases of pneumonia complicated with other acute affections, as fevers. It is supposed also to have relation to the state of the blood, more than to the degree of inflammation present. In the second stage the lung is solid, elastic to the touch, of the consistence and weight of liver, and portions of it sink in water. There is no longer crepitation. Neither when cut does it yield bubbles of air, but when pressed a bloody fluid exudes sparingly from it. Its friability is- increased, the fingers readily rupturing its sub- stance, and if a portion of it be pressed between 'the fingers, it becomes a homogeneous pulp. It is apparently larger than natural, and when taken out it retains its full size, while a PLEURO-PNEUMONIA 739 PLEURO-PNEUMONIA huallhy lung, when cut from the body, collapses. Its color Is seldom so deep as in the first stage ; cut into, it is also lighter, the shade varying from a blood or livid red, to a light pinkish purple, or the color of muscle, these colors will mottle the lungs, as is seen in some speci- mens of marble, and scattered through the hepatized portion, lines are visible, of a lighter color, and specks almost white. Generally when cut and examined with a lens, a number of points can be distinguished, like grains of a somewhat lighter color than the intervening spaces; if the surface be wiped or lightly scraped, these grains appear slightly elevated, as though they were of a more solid nature. If the hepatized lung be torn these granules will be little ovoid bodies, and may be detached from the tissue. Generally these grains are pressed closely together so as to form the chief portion of the lung; sometimes there are interstices of a darker ' color, and sometimes the granular appearance is altogether absent; the granular appearance, however, is one of the evi- dences of hepatization, but there is a variety of hepatization. Thus sometimes a lung in a state of red hepatization will weigh ten times that of a healthy lung. The advance of a hepatized lung toward the third stage is marked by its becom- ing lighter in color and less humid, supposed to be produced by a substitution of more of the yellowish-white semi-solid albumen of the red particles in its substance, by which the deep red or dull red of hepatization passes into a salmon- color or a dingy pink, variously marbled in the degree of its progress, as well as by the mixture of black piilmonary matter. At this time the hepatized lung attains its greatest solidity, and, when pressed slightly, exudes a turbid red liquid; greater pressure reduces the substance to a thick- pulp. Minute yellowish-white specks can be discerned, the first development of pus (matter,) then the third stage, or rather the third eilect of inflammation, is purulent infiltration. The red tinge assumes a yellowish hue or stone cMor, varied with red in parts less advanced, and with gray, blue, or bluish-green, from the admixture of black pulmonary matter. On cutting into it during this early stage of suppuration, no mat- ter exudes ; the cohesion of the texture is still suflScient to retain it, but slight pressure reduces it to a state in which pus forms the principal part. At first yellow, as the stage progresses the color changes to a straw or sulphur yellow, beginning in patches and spreading through the mass; cutting into the lung shows no granular texture, but a greater or less oozing of a yellowish, opaque purulent will take place, according to the progress of the suppuration, the solid mat- ter diminishing, as the pus is secreted, and squeez- ing this out nothing remains but the debris of pulmonary tissue, except so far as granulation may remain in which suppurations have not advanced. The softness of the lung in this state is so great that a slight pressure of the finger will make a cavity which is immediately filled with pus. In a more advanced stage of purulent infiltration, a lens will sometimes enable us to detect that only a remnant of texture is left, consisting of an irregular network, composed chiefly of vessels, bronchi, and the septa (par- titions) of lobules (lobes). Pneumonia may be lobar, lobular, or vesicular, according as it aft'ects whole or continuous parts of lobes or certain polygonal subdivisions of these, or single bunches of vesicles. Lobar inflammation is the most common, and inflammation of the upper lobes is the most fatal in the human subject. Inflam- mation often attacks single, or a few isolated lobules, being abruptly limited by the interlobu- lar cellular tissue, so that lozenge shaped or polygonal patches of red, engorged or hepatized tissues are found in the midst of healthy struc- tures. The inflammation in lobular pneumonia seems to originate in several points at once, and not to be sufficiently intense to traverse the bar- rier of the interlobular membrane. This form sometimes occurs subsequent lo injuries, and to the young. Vesicular pneumonia presents itself in the form of little red spots, from the size of a pin's head to that of a hemp seed, and showing upon dissection blood red or livid red, more fragile than the rest of the tissue, which is some- times quite healthy. In ordinary cases of pneu- monia the pleuritic afllection is slight, scarcely modifying the disease, and like the inflammation of the bronchi, which is as usual an accompani- ment of ijneumonia, is to be viewed as incidental rather than essential to the disease'. The pleu- ritic inflammation will be modified by the seat and extent of the pulmonary di.^ease. When partial that portion of tlie pleura which covers it has upon it an albuminous deposit, which is generally thin, and the disease being of sufficient duration will show signs of organization. When the pulmonary inflammation is of small extent, there is commonly a small sero-purulent efl'usion into the pleural sac; extensive hepatization pre- vents this by filling the pleural cavity with its own unyielding substance, and the lung is then partially covered with a thin, false membrane, thicker along the edges, in the interlobular fis- sure, and occasionally at some points when the infiammation was first extended to the pleura. We have thus stated the appearance and condi- tions as seen by the anatomist in various stages of pneumonia in the human subject. The same disease will present nearly similar conditions in farm animals. Inflammation of the lungs, or pneumonia, may be produced by causes produc- ing other acute diseases of the cliesl. Prom over exertion, acute congestion. Or the result of para- sites in the lungs. The first stage of pneumonia may be acute congestion of the Jungs. The nos- trils will be dilated; the' breathing will be quick, wheezy, labored and convulsive; the head will be extended, the eye staring, blood shot, and indicating intense pain: the nasal mem- branes will be deep red or blue, and the pulse feeble, and often scarcely indicated at the jaw. By feeling behind the left elbow, the heart will be found beating tumultuously, perspiration will break out on different parts of the body, but the limbs will be cold. Auscultation, listening with the ear to tlie chest, will show a loud murmur of respiration, and a slight crepitation or crackling. If the case is extreme, blood letting from the jugular vein will be indicated. It will be dark or tarry in appearance. Remove all that may interfere with easy breathing and comfort. Keep the head of the animal to the wind and give immediately a strong stimulant, five or six ounces of whisky for the horse, and double this dose for the ox; or, liquid ammonia, one-half ounce for the horse, and double this for the ox or, ginger, or pepper tea, if these he not at hand. Cover the animal with thick blankets PLEURO-PNEUMONIA 730 PLEUROPNEUMONIA wrung out of hot water, and cover over all with dry ones. Give friction by rubbing to the limbs and all parts not enveloped by tlie blankets. If the animal get better, feed on light but nourish- ing food, including grass, if possible, and give rest, warmth, and good care until entirely recovered. If the animal does not soon show signs of recovery, the attack will probably end in pneumonia. There will be shivering if the attack be not preceded by congestion of the lungs, and, usually, a dry cough. There will be quick, labored breathing, hot skin, the pulse full and rolling, but oppressed. The membranes of the eyes, nostrils, and mouth will be red; the cough deep, but, perhaps, not especially hard or painful. If the legs be held apart, it denotes a severe case. There will be crepitation, by auscultation, over the affected part of the lung, which will show the extent of the inflam- mation. Percussion (striking) over the affected part will cause extreme pain. Thus, when there is no sound by auscultation, percussion will show a dull, solid sound, while the rest of the chest retains a healthy, drum-like resonance. Thus, by listening and tapping (percussion) the hepatization (solidification) of thie lung may be followed, and the increase or diminution of the disease followed from time to time. As the disease becomes worse a yellowish or whitish discharge may come from the nose. In cattle, as the breath is expired, there will be a moan ; the horns and ears will be hot, the muzzle dry, the skin tight, the dung hard, if any, and the urine scant and high colored. Give tlie animal a dry, airy, but warm stall, if the weather is cold, avoid all drafts, clothe the animal warmly, rub the limbs with ammonia liniment (ammonia and oil), and bandage with flannel, and apply a mus- tard poultice to the sides of the chest, also to the sides. If cattle or hogs, mix turpentine with the mustard poultice, or cover with blankets wrung out of hot water, and when taken off, let it be a little at a time, and rub thoroughly dry, and clothe warm, following with the mustard plasters, if necessary. Give injections of warm water, and warm gruel to drink. A laxa- tive will be good if there is not a low fever and depression. If there is much depression, give tincture of aconite, twenty to thirty drops for a horse, and thirty to, forty drops for an ox. For swine, give tartar emetic, five grains. If there is great prostration after the fever has subsided, give sweet spirits of nitre, one ounce three or lour times a day, and for the ox, two to three ounces. As the animal recovers, give light, nourishing food, with rest, and often moderate exercise, avoiding drafts. Pleuro-pneumonia contagiosa, the dreaded cattle plague of Eng- land, contagious pleuro-pneumonia, or con- tagious lung fever of the United States, is the most to be dreaded, as it is the most insidious of all our animal scourges, and one, once it gets a general foothold in a country, has never yet been known to be radically stamped out. In 1839, this dread disease was communicated to stock in Ireland from some Dutch cattle taken there. It appeared in England in 1843, in various parts of Europe, the Cape of Good Hope and Australia, since that time. It was first brought to Brooklyn in 1843, and again in 1850, to New Jersey in 1847, to Massachusetts in 1859, and again it made its appearance in New York a few years since, and spread throughout the adjacent States, even reaching Virginia in the South. The most energetic measures were taken by the several States, the cattle of which were infected, for the purpose of stamping it out. Whether this will really be accomplished suc- cessfully, remains to be seen. If not it must eventually overrun the whole country. So far as we have been able to learn, no well authenti- cated case has yet been found, or at least it has not spread, west of the AUeghanies. There have been reports of cases from time to time, and one during, the summer of 1880, that it had made its appearance in Kansas. Upon following the matter closely there was found no good foundar tion for the report, and like the rest, the report was probably started by persons who sought to make money by passing cattle through Canada for exportation. In view of the necessity of accurate information in relation to this disease, and its characteristic symptoms, we append sufficient information in relation thereto, for if once it gets a firm foothold among the great herds of the West, it will remain indefi- nitely, and cost millions of dollars annually in the attempt to keep it in check. No successful remedy has yet been found for treating this dread disease. Isolation, and good nursing may save some cattle, but generally at a cost greater than their value for beef. Its period of incuba- tion is from ten days to three months, by a low fever, the occurrence of inflammation in the air passages, lungs and their coverings, followed by exudation into the lungs and pleura. Infection may be by contact with animals infected; by inoculation, through contact with the remains of diseased animals or their excretions, or by inoculation of the virus of an infected animal. It is fairly well authenticated, that the infection may be carried in the air for considerable dis- tances, and very certainly the vitality of the virus may remain indefinitely in infected situa- tions, as fields and especially in stables, if they be not most thoroughly disinfected. It is more thaif probable that in the majority of cases the infection is taken into the lungs by breathing, since the disease begins when the inspired air may lodge the germs. The lesions are concen- trated there, beginning with cloudiness and swelling of the smaller air tubes and the sur- rounding connecting tissues. However taken the poison is multiplied, and in an immeasurably greater degree when taken into the lungs, than by other means. When the fever has run its course, if the animal become apparently well to the ordinary observer, the ox maj' have a good appetite and gain flesh, the cow may give milk freely, and seem in perfect health, yet from three, even to fifteen months after, it is claimed the disease may be transmitted. How? The circulation in the most severely infected portion of the lungs is interrupted; the exudation is developed into a tough fibrous envelope, which shuts off the dead mass from the adjacent lung, and from communication with the adjacent air. This dead mass now undergoes a process of breaking down, liquefaction, and absorption commencing at the surface and advancing slowly toward the center. Thus as it undergoes no change, except that of liquefaction, and exhales at no time a putrid odor, it remains infectious so long as it retains the solid form. Therefore when- ever there are indications of the existence of these encysted masses, the animal must be PLEUROPNEUMONIA 731 PLEUROPNEUMONIA infectious, and kept from contact with others precisely as in the acute stages of this dread dis- ease. Hence we say that once an animal is found infected it is cheaper for the owner to kill it at once, slash the hide — to make it worthless to ghouls who might dig up the body — and bury it -deeply in the earth, covering it, if possible, with quicklime. The following is the diagnosis of the disease as seen by a committee appointed to investigate this disease in New York. They say : The first symptoms of pleuro-pneumonia seldom attract much attention, and the disease com- monly steals on without manifesting any great violence; the animal appears dejected, and, when in the field, separates itself from its fellows, often getting behind a wall, hedge or other shelter to keep out of the wind. As the disease progresses, it becomes uneasy, loses its appetite, and stops chewing the cud; the eyes appear dull, the head is lowered, the nose stuck forward, the nostrils expanded, and the horns and skin are warmer than common. "With failure of the appetite, thirst may continue and increase. In cows, the milk falls off, either gradually or altogether. It is seldom that the first progress of the disease attracts much notice until the animal stops eat- ing. Cough, although often accompanying the •disease, is by no means a constant symptom. When, however, the pleura or lining membrane of the windpipe or the bronchial tubes become inflamed, loud and harsh coughing is a never- failing symptom. Pressure between the ribs and along the spine cbiUses the animal to wince. The breath grows warmer and often fetid, the danger I'apidly increasing, of course. The animal will often press her muzzle very hard against the par- tition, as if for support, will breathe with great •difficulty, and soon dies. The progressive symptom varies greatly, however, in different animals, but the cough is the key-note of the disease, and appears in all. There can be no longer room to doubt that the disease is conta- gious or infectious. It seems to be communi- cated by animal poison in the air, proceeding Jrom the lungs and breath or respiratory surfaces of a diseased animal, and any animal of the same species coming in contact or within the influence ■of this vitiated air, is very liable to be infected. In relation to the treatment of the disease, we have fully stated our opinion that killing and burying infected animals is the only safe plan, and isolating the herd containing it or them, and continuing to kill and bury all that give evidence of the disease. The better way would be to immediately kill all that were fat, and not affected with the disease, bury the viscera and sell the meat. Of course no person would sell the meat or hide of a diseased animal. To be a common highwayman or murderer, would be innocence as against such a fiend. If the infected ones are to be killed and the rest isolated. Prof. Oamgee advises in the first stage of the disease, to an ox, daily doses of sulphate of iron, linseed, and aniseed, of each from one-half to one drachm, the whole to be well mixed and given in bran. The food throughout the disease should be light and nutritious In the second stage give copious warm water injections, and, as a stimulant two or three times a day, one-half ounce carbonate of ammonia, and one quart linseed oil. For the cough and debility during convalescence the fol- lowing tonic to be given daily is advised : Oxide of magnesia, one-quarter ounce; iron filings, very fine, one-half ounce ; tincture of gentian one and a half ounces; rain-water, one pint. Yet we again advise the cheapest as well as the most humane way, to kill every animal infected. All authorities agree that both lungs being affected there is no hope of recovery, and we may add, the infection from an animal with one lung, or one lobe of a lung infected is as deadly as though both of them were completely rotten. The latest report to the United States Govern- ment, 1879, gives much matter that will be of special interest everywhere among all classes of farmers, the gist of which we give : The viru- lence and infectious nature of the disease does not seem to have been lessened by its transplan- tation to this country. Many instances are given which show conclusively that it is equally as fatal to-day in those localities in the United States, in which it exists, as it is in its home in the far East, or in those nations of Europe which it has invaded. Speaking of the conta- gious and infectious nature of the malady. Dr. Law says : No one who has studied the plague in Europe can truthfully claim that it is less infec- tious here than in the Old World. What mis- leads many is. that during the cooler season many of the cases assume a subacute type, and others subside into a chronic form with a mass of infecting material (dead lung) encysted in the chest, but unattended by acute symptoms. But this feature of the disease renders it incompara- bly more insidious and dangerous than in coun- tries where the symptoms are so much more severe, that even the owners are roused at once to measures of prevention. In moderating the violence of its action, the disease does not part with its infecting qualities, but only diffuses them the more subtilely in proportion as its true nature is liable to be overlooked. A main rea- son why unobservant people fail at first sight to see that the lung fever is contagious is, that the seeds lie so long dormant in the system. A beast purchased in October passes a bad winter, and dies in February ; after having infected sev- eral others. She has had a long period of incu- bation, and when the, disease supervenes activelj', she has passed through a chronic form of illness, so that when others sicken, people fail to connect the new cases with the infected purchase. Then, again, in an ordinary herd of ti'U or twenty head the deaths do not follow in rapid succession, but at intervals of a fortnight, a month, or even more, and those unacquainted with the nature of the disease suppose that it can not be infectious, or all would be prostrated at once. The disease may be communicated by immediate contact, through the atmosphere for some considerable distance, by the inhalation of pulmonary exudation when placed in the nos- trils, from impregnated clothing of attendants, through infected buildings, infected manure, infected pastures, infected fodder, etc. Healthy cattle have been contaminated after being lodged in stables that were occupied by diseased ones three or four months previously. Hay spoiled by sick cattle has induced the disease after a long period, and pastures grazed upon three months before have infected healthy stock. The flesh of diseased animals has also conveyed the malady; and it is recorded by Fleming that the contagion from cattle buried in the ground infec- ted others fifty or sixty feet distant. There seems to be much diflference of opinion with PLEUROPNEUMONIA 732 PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. regard to the power of the virus to resist ordi- nary destructive influences. Under ordinary circumstances, it -will be preserved longest where it has been dried up and covered from the free access of the air. In close stables and buildings having rotten wood-work, or deep dust-filled cracks in the masonry, and in those with a closed space beneath a wooden floor, it clings with the greatest tenacity. Again, in buildings which contain piles of lumber, litter, hay, fod- der, or clothing, the virus is covered up, secreted, and preserved for a much longer period than if left quite empty. In such cases it is preserved as it is in woolen or other textile fabrics, when carried from place to place in the clothing of human beings. As cariied through the air, the distance at which the virus retains its infecting properties varies much with varying conditions. Dr. Law states that he has seen a sick herd sep- arated from a healthy one by not more than fifteen yards and a moderately close board fence of seven feet high, and in the absence of all intercommunication of attendants, the exposed herd kept perfectly sound for six months in suc- cession. At other times infection will take place at much greater distances without any known means of conveyance on solid objects. Roll quotes fifty to one hundred feet, while others claim to have known infection transmitted a distance of from two hundred to three hundred feet. But the author questions whether, in such cases, the virus had not been dried up on light objects, like feathers, paper, straw, or hay, which could be borne on the wind. Because the lesions are concentrated in thelungs, and begin with cloudiness and swelling of the smaller air tubes and surrounding connective tissues, the presumption is favored that the virus is usually taken in with the air breathed. Its progress and the results of all attempts at inocu- lation would seem to confirm this. The exuda- tion into the interlobular tissue, the congestion of the lung tissue itself, and the implication of the lung covering, are regarded as secondary phenomena, or, in other words, the disease begins where the inspired air must lodge the germs. The inoculation of the virulent lung products on distant parts of the body transfers the seat of the disease to the point inoculated, and in such cases the lesions of the Inngs are not observed, or at least are not gi'eatly marked. A diseased animal is more likely to infect a healthy one at that period when the fever runs highest and the lung is being loaded with the morbid exudation. Proof appears to be want- ing as to the infecting nature of the affection during the incubation stage, but it must not be inferred that with the subsidence of the fever the danger is removed. It is a matter of fre- quent observation that animals which have passed through the fever, and are again thriving well and giving a free supply of milk, and to ordinary observers appear in perfect health, retain the power of transmitting the disease to others. This may continue for three, six, nine, twelve, or, according to some, even fifteen months after all signs of acute illness have dis- appeared. The number of animals infected by contact or exposure to the contagion is some- what irregular, as is also the virulence and fatal- ity of the disease. The French commission of 1849 found that of twenty healthy animals exposed to infection sixteen contracted the dis- ease, ten of them severely. Dr. Lindley gives, examples, from his South African experience, in which whole herds of eighty, one hundred arid thirty, and even of several hundred died without exception, showing that in warm cli- mates the mortality is greatest. Dr. Law found the disease much more virulent and fatal during the hot summer months in New York, and says that during the winter season it is far less vio- lent in its manifestations, and a great number of animals resist it. Lung plague confines its rav- ages entirely to the bovine genus, and no race, breed, or age is exempt from its attacks. Sex gives no immunity; bulls suffer as much as cows;, and oxen and calves, if equally exposed, furnish no fewer victims than bulls and cows. As in rinderpest, measles, scarlatina, and the different forms of variola, an animal once afilicted with lung plague is usually exempt or impervious to a second attack. Only occasional instances are given where an animal has suffered from a sec- ond attack. The losses caused by the plague ranges all the way from two to sixty-three per cent; of all the animals in the country or locality in which it prevails, the losses varying according to climate, surroundings, condition of stock, etc. The period of latency, that is, the time that elapses between the receiving of the germs into the system and the manifestation of the first symptoms of the disease, varies greatly. Veterina- rians differ as to their experience and statements, and set this period at from five days to three months. Dr. Law has seen cases in which cattle have passed three or four months after the pur- chase in poor health, yet without cough or any other diagnostic symptom, and at the end of that time have shown all the symptoms of the lung plague. It is this long period of latency that renders the disease so dangerous. An infected animal may be carried half way around the world before the symptoms of the malady be- come sufficiently violent to attract attention, and yet all this time it may have been scattering the seeds of the disease far and wide. The average period in inoculated cases is nine days, though it may appear as early as the fifth, or it may not till the thirtieth or fortieth day. In the experi- mental transmission of the disease by cohabitation,, under the French commission, a cough, the earli- est symptom, appeared from the sixth to the thirty- second day, and sometimes continued for months, though no acute disease supervened. Hot cli- mates and seasons abridge the period of latency, as the disease has been found to develop more rapidly in summer than in winter, and in the South than in the North. A febrile condition of the system also favors its rapid development. Of the symptoms of the disease. Dr. Law says: These vary in different countries, latitudes, sea- sons, altitudes, races of animals, and individuals. They are, acBteris paribus, more severe in hot lati- tudes, countries, and seasons, than in the cold;. in the higher altitudes they are milder than on the plains; in certain small or dwarfed animals, with a spare habit of body, like Brittanies, they appear to be less violent than in the large, phleg- matic, heavy-milking, or obese short-horn Ayr- shires and Dutch. A newly-infected race of cattle in a newly-infected country, suffer much more severely than those of a land where the plague has prevailed for ages; and finally certain individuals, without any appreciable cause, have the disease in a much more violent form than PLEUROPNEUMONIA 7:33 PLEQRO-PNEUMONIA others which stand by them in precisely the same conditions. Sometimes the disease shows itself abruptly with great violence and without any appreciable premonitory symptoms, resembling in this the most acute type of ordinary broncho- pneumonia. This, however, is mostly in connec- tion with some actively exciting cause, such as exposure to inclement weather, parturition, over- stocking with milk, heat, etc. Far more com- monly the symptoms come on most insidiously, and tor a time are the opposite of alarming. For some days, and quite frequently for a fortnight, a month or more, a slight cough is heard at rare intervals. It may be heard only when the animal first rises, when it leaves the stable, or when it ■drinks cold water, and hence attracts little or no attention. The cough is usually small, weak, short and husky, but somewhat painful and attended by some arching of the back, an extension of the head upon the neck, and protrusion of the tongue. This may continue for weeks without any noticeable deviation from the natural temperature, pulse, or breathing, and without any impairment of appetite, rumination or coat. The lungs are as resonant to percussion as in health, and auscul- tation detects slight changes only, perhaps an unduly loud blowing sound behind the middle of the shoulder, or an occasional slight mucous rat- tle, or a transient wheeze. In some cases the dis- ease never advances further, audits true nature is to be recognized only by the fact that it is shown in an infected herd or on infected premises, and that the victim proves dangerously infecting to healthy animals in uninfected localities. It may be likened to those mild cases of scarlatina which are represented by sore throat only, or to the modified variola linown as chicken-pox. In the majority of cases, however, the disease advances a step further. The animal becomes somewhat dull, more sluggish than natural, does not keep constantly with the Jierd, but may be found lying alone; breathes more quickly, twenty to thirty times per minute in place of ten to fifteen; retracts the margins of the nostrils more than for- merly ; the hair, especially along the neck, should- ers, and back, stands erect and dry; the muzzle has intervals of dryness, and the milk is dimin- ished. The eye loses somewhat of its prominence and luster; the eyelids and ears droop slightly, and the roots of the horns and ears and the limbs are hot or alternately hot and cold. By this time the temperature is usually raised from 103° F., in the slightest or most tardy cases, to 105° and upward to 108° in the more acute and severe. Auscultation and percussion also now reveal de- cided changes in the lung tissue. The earapplied over the diseased portions detects in some cases a diminution of the natural soft-breathing murmur, or it may be a fine crepitation, which has been likened to the noise {)roduced by rubbing a tuft of hair beween finger and thumb close to the ear. Where this exists it is usually only at the margin of the diseased area, while in the center the nat- ural soft murmur is entirely lost. In other cases a loud blowing sound is heard over the diseased lung, which, though itself impervious to air and producing no respiratory murmur, is in its firm, solid condition a better conductor of sound and conveys to the ear the noise produced in the larger air-tubes. Percussion is effected by a series of taps of varying force delivered with the tips of the fingers of the riglit hand on the back of the middle finger of the left firmly pressed on the side of the chest. Over all parts of the healthy lung this draws out a clear resonance, but over the diseased portions the sound elicited is dull, as if the percussion were made over the solid muscles of the neck or thigh. All gradations are met with as the lung is more or less consoli- dated, and conclusions are to be drawn accord- ingly. In other cases we hear on auscultation the loud, harsh, rasping sound of bronchitis, with dry, thickened, and rigid membranes of the air-tubes, or the soft, coarse, mucus rattle of the same disease when there is abundant liquid exu- dation, and Uie bursting of 'bubbles in the air passages. Iirothers there is a low, soft, rubbing sound, usually in jerks, when the chest is being filled or emptied. This is the friction between the dry, inflamed membrane covering the lungs and that covering the side of the chest, and is heard at an early stage of the disease, but neither at its earliest nor its latest stage. Later there may be dullness on percussion up to a given level on one or both sides of the chest, implying accu- mulations of liquid in the cavit}', or there is a superficial dullness on percussion, and muffling of the natural breathing sound with a very slight, sometimes almost inaudible, creaking, due to the existence of false membranes (solidified exuda- tions) on the surface of the lung or connecting it to the inner side of the ribs. This is often mistaken for a mucous rattle that can no longer take place in a consolidated lung in which there can be no movement of air nor bursting of bub- bles in breathing. The mucous rattle is only possible with considerable liquid exudation into the bronchial tubes, and a healthy, dilatable con- dition of the portion of the lung to which these lead. In rare cases there will be splashing sounds in the chest, or when the patient has just risen to his feet a succession of clear ringing sounds, becoming less numerous and with longer intervals until they die away altogether. These are due to the falling of drops of liquid from shreds of false membrane in the upper part of the chest through an accumulation of gas into a collection of liquid below. It has been likened to the noise of drops falling from the bung-hole into a cask half filled with liquid. Peculiar sounds are sometimes heard, as wheezing, in con- nection with the supervention of emphysema, and others which it is needless to mention here. In lean patients pressure of the tips of the fingers in the intervals between the ribs will detect less move- ment over the diseased and consolidated lung than on the opposite side of the chest where the lung is still sound. As seen in America, in win- ter, the great majority of cases fail to show the violence described in books. The patients fall off rapidly in condition, show a high fever for a few days, lie always on the same side (the dis- eased one) or on the breast, and have a great por- tion of one lung consolidated by exudation and encysted as a dead mass, and yet the muzzle is rarely devoid of moisture, the milk is never entirely suspended, and may be yielded in only a slightly lessened amount as soon as the first few days of active fever have passed. During the extreme heats of summer, on the other hand, the plague manifests all its European violence. The breathing becomes short, rapid, and labored, and each expiration is accompanied by a deep moan or grunt, audible at some distance from the animals. The nostrils, and even the corners of the mouth are strongly retracted. The patient PLEURO-PNEUMONIA 734 PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. stands most of its time, and in some cases with- out intermission, its fore legs set apart, its elbows turned out, and its slioulder-blades and arm- bones rapidly losing their covering of flesh, standing out from the sides of the chest so that their outlines can be plainly seen. The head is extended on the neck, the eyes prominent and glassy, the muzzle dry, a clear or frothy liquid distils from the nose and mouth, the back is slightly raised, and this, together with the spaces between the ribs and the region of the breast- bone, are very sensitive to pinching; the secre- tion of milk is entirely arrested, the skin becomes harsh, tightly adheren#to the parts beneath, and covered with scurf, and the arrest of digestion is shown by the entire want of appe- tite and rumination, the severe or fatal tympanies (bloating,) and later by a profuse watery diar- rhoea in which the food is passed in an undi- gested condition. If the effusion into the lungs or chest is very extensive, the pallojr of the mouth, eyelids, vulva, and skin betrays the weak, bloodless condition. The tongue is furred, and the breath of a heavy, feverish, mawkish odor, but rarely fetid. Abortion is a common result in pregnant cows. During the summer the disease shows its greatest violence, and it is then that its mortality is not only high but early. The great prostration attendant on the enormous effusion into the organs of the chest, the impairment of breathing, and the impairment or suspension of the vital functions in general, causes death in a very few days. In other cases the animals die early from distension of the paunch with gas, while in still others the profuse scouring helps to speedily wear out the vital powers. In certain severe cases the rapid loss of flesh is surprising. Dr. Law says that in such cases a loss of one third of the weight in a single week is by no means uncommon, and even one-half may be parted with in the same length of time in extreme cases. In fatal cases all symp- toms become more intense for several weeks, the pulse gradually becomes small, weak, and accelerated, and finally imperceptible; the breathing becomes rapid and diflicult, the mucous membranes of the mouth, eyes, etc., become pale and bloodless, emaciation goes on with active strides, and death ensues in from two to six weeks. Sometimes, in cold and dry weather, a portion of dead lung may remain encysted in the chest, submitting to slow lique- faction and removal, and such animals will go on for months, at last to sink into such a state of debility that death ensues from exhaustion and weakness. In still other cases the retention of such diseased masses, and the consequent debil- ity, determines the appearance of tuberculosis, from which the animal dies. Purulent infection and rupture of abscesses into the chest are also causes of death, but the author states that no such cases have come under his observation. Dr. Law gives the following description of the ■post mortem, appearances, which we give for the information of those somewhat versed in physi- ology. If the disease is seen in its earliest stages, the changes are altogether confined to the tissue of the lung. Prom the examination of the lungs of several hundred diseased animals, I can confi- dently afflrm that the implication of the serous covering of the lung (pleura) is a secondary result. In all the most recent cases we find the lung substance involved and the pleura sound, while in no one instance has the pleura been found diseased to the exclusion of the lung tissue, or without an amount and character of lung disease which implied priority of occurrence for that. Yet, in all violent attacks the disease will have proceeded far enough to secure implication of the pleura as well, and hence we may describe the changes in the order in which they are usu- ally seen when the chest is opened. The cavity of the chest usually contains a quantity of liquid varying from one or two pints to several gallons,, sometimes yellowish, clear, and transparent, at others slightly greenish, brownish-white, and opaque, or even exceptionally slightly colored with blood. This effusion contains cell-forms and granules, and gelatinizes more or less per- fectly when exposed to the air. On the surface- of the diseased lung, and, to a less extent, on the inner side of the ribs, is a fibrinous deposit (false membrane) varying from the merest rough pelli- cle to a mass of half an inch in thickness, and, in the worst cases, firmly binding the entire lung to the inside of the chest and to the diaphragm. These false membranes are usually of an opaque white, though sometimes tinged with yellow, and, in the deeper layers, even blood-stained, especially over an infarcted lung. A feature of these false membranes, and one that serves to dis- tinguish them from those of ordinary pleurisy, is that they are commonly limited to the surface of the diseased portion of lung, or, if more extensive, that portion which covers sound lung tissue is much more recent, and has probably been determined by infection from the liquid thrown out into the chest. In the lung itself the most varied conditions are seen in different cases and at different stages of the disease. The dis- eased lung is solid, firm, and resistant, seems to be greatly enlarged, because it fails to collapse like the healthy portion when the chest is opened ; is greatly increased in weight, and sinks in water. When cut across it shows a peculiar linear marking (marbling) due to excessive exuda- tion into the loose and abundant connective tissue which separates the different lobules of the ox's lung from each other. This exudation is either clear, and therefore dark, as seen by reflected light, or it is of a yellowish-white, and when filled with it the interlobular tissue appears as a network, the meshes of which vary from a line to an inch across, and hold in its interspaces the pinkish-gray, brownish-red, or black lung tissue. When only recently attacked the lung may pre- sent two essentially different appearances. Most frequently the changes are most marked in the interlobular connective tissue, which is the seat of an abundant infiltration of clear liquid, a sort of dropsy, while the lung tissue, sur- rounded by this, retains its normal pinkish-gray color, and is often even paler, and contains less blood than in health. It has, in short, become compressed by the surrounding exudation, and air and blood have been alike in great part expressed from its substance. This extreme change in the tissue surrounding the lobules and the comparatively healthy appearapce of the lobules themselves, have led many observers to the conclusion that the disease commenced in the connective tissue beneath the pleura and extended to the proper tissue of the lung. There Is, however, as pointed out by Prof. Teo, a coex- istent disease of the smaller air-tubes correspond- ing to the lobules that are circumscribed by this PLEUROPNEUMONIA 735 PLEURO-PNEUMONIA infiltration, and tliere is every reason to believe that the infiltration in question is the result of antecedent changes in the air-tubes. Less fre- quently we find the lobules of the lung tissue presenting the first indications of change. The lobules aiiected are of a deep red, and more or less shining, yet tough and elastic. They do not crepitate on pressure, yet they are n6t depressed beneath the level of the adja- cent healthy lung-tissue, as they ^vould be if collapsed. The interlobular connective tissue, devoid of all unhealthy exudation, has no more than its natural thickness, and reflects a bluish tint by reason of the subjacent dark substance of the lung. Here the lung tissue itself is mani- festly the seat of the earliest change — congestion — and the interlobular exudation has not yet supervened. Specimens of this kind may be rare, but a number have come under the writer's obser- vation, and in lungs, too, that presented at other points of their substance the excessive interlo- bular exudation. Both of these forms show a tendency to confine themselves to particular lobules and groups of lobules of the lung. They con-espond, in short, to the distribution of par- ticular air-tubes and blood vessels. The fact, however, is noteworthy as characteristic of the disease, that it attacks entire lobules, and the limits of the diseased lung tissue are usually sharply marked by the line of connective tissue between two lobules, so that one lobule will be found consolidated throughout, and the next in a perfectly natural condition. The two forms just described differ also in cohesion and power of resistance. The lung saturated with the liquid exudation has its intimate elements torn apart, and is mure friable, giving way readily under pressure, w liile that in which there is red conges- tion, but no extensive exudation, retains its natural elaslicity, toughness, and power of resistance. Another condition of the diseased lung-tissue, more advanced than either of those just described, is the granular consolidation or hepatization. In this condition the affected regions of lung are as much enlarged as in the dropsical condition, but they are, firmer and more friable, and on their cut surface present the appearance of little round granules. These granules are not peculiar to the lung tissue proper, though most marked on this; they char- acterize the interlobular connective tissue as well. They consist mainly of lymphatic cell growths, filling up the air cells, the smaller air- tubes, the lymph spaces, and the meshes of the connective tissue. The color of these portions varies from a bright reddish-brown to a deep red, according to the compression to which the lung tissue has been subjected by the exudation in the early stages. Another form of lung con- solidation is of a very dark red or black, and always implies the death of the portion affected. The dark aspect of the diseased lobules forms a strong contrast with the yellowish-white inter- lobular tissue, except where that also becomes blood-stained, when the whole presents a uni- form dark mass. This form has the granular appearance of that last described, and on microscopic examination its blood-vessels are found fully distended with accumulated blood globules. This black consolidation is always sharply limited by the borders of certain lobules or groups of lobules, which are connected with a particular air-tube and its accompanying blood-vessels, and the artery leading to such lobules is as constantly blocked by a firm clot of blood. The mode of causation is this-, the artery, being in the center of a diseased mass, becomes itself inflamed. As soon as the inflam- mation reaches its inner coat, the contained blood coagulates; the vein is usually blocked in the same way. The blood formerly supplied by the artery to certain lobules is now arrested ; that in the capillary vessels of those lobules stagnates; nutrition of the walls of the capillaries ceases, and these, losing their natural powers of selec- tion, allow the liquid parts to pass freely out of the vessels, leaving the globules only in their interior. More blood continues to enter them slowly from adjacent capillaries supplied from other sources, and as this is filtered in the same way by the walls of the vessels, these soon come to be filled to repletion by the globules only; and hence the intensely dark color assumed. The color is often heightened by the escape of blood from the now friable vessels into the sur- rounding tissue, and it is by this means that the interlobular tissue is usually stained. This black hepatization, or, as it is technically called, infarction, is an almost constant occurrence in the disease as seen in New York, and the death and encysting of large portions of lung is, therefore, the rule. If too extensive, of course, the patient perishes, but not unfrequently a mass of lung measuring four or six inches by twelve is thus separated without killing the animal. If at a later stage we open an animal which has passed through the above condition, the following may be met with: A hard, resisting mass is felt at some portion of the lung, usuallj' the lower and back portion, and on laying it open it is found to consist of dead lung tissue, in which the hepa- tized lobules and interlobular tissues, the air- tubes, and blood-vessels are still clear and dis- tinct, but the whole is separated from the still living lung by a layer of white pus-like liquid, outside which is a dense, fibrous sac or envelope, formed by the development of the surrounding interlobular exudation. From the inner surface of this dense cyst, the firm, thick bronchial tubes and attending vascular systems project in a branching manner like dirty white stalactites, and these, with the interlobular tissue thickened by its now firmly organized exudation, may form bands extending from side to side of the cavity. At a still more advanced stage the dead and encysted lung tissue is found to have been entirely softened, and the sac contains nothing but a mass of white liquid debris, or, still later, a caseous mass of its dried, solid matters, upon which the fibrous covering has steadily con- tracted, so as to inclose but a mere fraction of its original area. In hundreds of pout mortems we have only once seen the dead and encysted lung the seat of putrid decomposition, and never found the cavity opening into a previous air- tube. There remains to be noticed the condition of the air-tubes and accompanying vessels in the diseased lungs. In all cases where we see the starting point of the disease we find iathe small tubes leading to the affected lobules a loss of the natural brilliancy of the mucous membrane, which has become clouded and opaque, and the tissue beneath it infiltrated and thickened. In more advanced cases, and above all in those show- ing the dropsical condition of the interlobular tissue, we find a similar infiltration into the con- PLEUEO-PNEUMONIA 736 PLEUROPNEUMONIA nective tissue around the air-tubes and their accompanying vessels, and in tlie hepatized lung "tliis is always seen as a thick, firm, resistant, white material, having the compressed and con- tracted and often plugged air-tubes and vessels in the center. These thickened masses have already beea referred to as standing out in stalact- ite form from the inner wall of the sac in which the duad (necrosed) lung is undergoing solution. As to the nature of the plague, Dr. Law states that there can be no doubt but it is determined by an infecting material conveyed in some man- ner from one beast to another. The intimate nature of this material has never been determined. No special anatomical element, no specific organ- ism of animal or vegetable origin, has been detected as constant in the diseased organ and peculiar to it, j'et the presence of a specitic con- tagium has been fully demcmstrated in all the experience of the disease by the author and others. This infecting material, as shown by the records of inoculation, rarely affects the lungs when first lodged on a raw siu-face of some other part of the body, differing in this essentially from most other specific disease poisons, which have a definite seat of election in which their morbid processes aie always established, no mat- ter by what channel communicated. Since tids contagium does not usually affect the lungs when introduced by some other channel, it follows of necessity that when it does attack the lungs it must have been introduced directly into them. If inhaled in the air breathed, it will fall upon one of two points — the air-tubes or the air-cells — and there begin its baleful and destructive course. This is exactly in accordance with the early lesions of the disease as found by Dr. Law in his post-mortem examinations. Following is given a brief summary of the work of the New York comniisson in its efforts to stamp out the disease in that State; but as the department has later advices from the author in regard to the work actually accomplished by this commission, extracts from Dr. Law's letter are given in pre- ference to quotations from this monograph work. The letler bears date of New York city, Decem- ber 9, 1879, and contains, among other things, the followuig: To place our work in a nutshell, I would say that in the past ten months the inspectors of New York have examined 40,000 head of catlle, many of them several times; tbat we have slau,L;Iitered and indemnified the owners for 500 head of diseased cattle, and that we have all but exterminated the plague from seven of the counties in which we found it. At present the main center of the plague is in King's county and the adjacent border of Queen's county. In all country districts, where the cattle are kept on enclosed farms, and where the people heartily co-operated, the work has been easy, and in every case speedily crowned with success. In the cities and suburbs, on the other hand, where cattle liad buen accustomed to graze on open lots where intercliange between different herds was frequent, and where the facilities for secret slaugbter easily favored the covering up of the disease, the greatest difficulties had to be overcome. In New York city we secured the hearty co-operation of the police, and effectually arrested all movement between city stables, allowed only sound animals from healthy coun- ties to enier these slables, and none lo leave save to immediate slaughter, and, finally, promptly slaughtered all acute and chronic cases of the disease and saw to the disinfection of the premises and the most gratifying success crowned our efforts. In Brooklyn, on the other hand, where our work was systematically opposed, where the aldermen defied the State law by passing an ordinance authorizing the pasturage of cattle on open commons and unfenced lots, and some of them signed special permits for the movement of cattle in defiance of General Patrick's authority, and where magistrates dismissed offenders who were brought before them and reprimanded the policemen who had made the arrests, we soon lost the assistance of the police, which was at first all we could wish, and we naturally failed to meet with the splendid success seen in New York. It became evident early in the work that unless we could establish special inspection yards under our own control, and abolish the system of dis- tributing cows and other store cattle from dealers' stables, our success would be very partial and slow. In New York we were enabled to do this thraugh the liberality of the Union Stock Yard Company, who built new yards for this purpose, which we opened July 1. In Brooklyn no' such favor awaited us, and as the appropriation made by the legislature would not meet the needful outlay and enable us to hold what we had gained until the legislature should again meet, we had to be content with a system which was confess- edly ineffective. By the end of August the approaching exhaustion of the appropriation compelled the dissmissal of one-half of our vet-, erinary force, and soon after we had to stop nearly all indemnities and consequently nearly all killing. Fortunately, New York City was now so nearly sound that we could continue the work there with but one inspector in addition to the one in attendance at the Union Stock Yard, and we could still kill and indemnify for all sick cattle in the city. Brooklyn, still widely infected, and with authorities still somewhat inimical, could only have her infected herds quarantined, and in her the scourge is but very partially abated. In certain outlying districts most grati- fying result^ have been secured. In May we learned that animals from an infected herd had been turned on the Montauk pasture on the east end of Long Island. The range was visited and eighteen animals killed to save the 1,100 that remained. Later, two other cases developed in animals that had been in infected herds and had been overlooked at the first visit. Fortunately, for some months at first the cattle turned on this immense range kept apart from each other in small groups, composed of such only as had herded together prior to their coming on the range, and this most fortunate condition, coupled with the prompt disposal of each animal as it sickened, secured the escape of 1,100 animals. Had the occurrence been later in the season, when the cattle had learned to come together into one great herd, the results must have been most disastrous. A second case is that of Putnam county in which the plague had been smoulder- ing since 1878. The State appropriation would not warrant us to offer indemnities, but the county authorities promptly assumed the respon- sibility, and every herd in which infection was found to exist was at once exterminated. In this way six herds have been disposed of, where sickness has existed for months. A? regards the future, it is strongly urged that the National PLEUROPNEUMONIA 737 PLEURO-PNEUMONIA Government assume not only the direction, but the execution of tlie work of stamping out the plague. The following among other reasons for this are given : The disease is an exotic, and if once suppressed could only reappear in America as the result of importation. It is gradually extending, and if neglected must laj' the entire continent under contribution. If it reached our unfenced ranges in the West it would be ineradi- cable, as it has proved in the European Steppes, in Australia, and in South Africa. As the seeds remain latent in the system for three months, infected cattle may be moved all over the conti- ■ neut, from ocean to ocean and from lakes to gulf, and live for a length of time in a new herd before they are suspected. Old cases with encysted masses of infecting matter in the lungs may show no obvious signs of illness, and may be bought and sold as sound and mingle with many herds in succession, conveying infection wherever they go. There is, therefore, the strongest temptation for the owner to seek to secure a salvage by the sale of apparently sound but really infected ani- mals. There is further the strongest probability that in a new locality these cattle would not be suspected until one or more herds had been irre- trievably ruined. The infection of the South and West would inevitably spread the infection over the whole Middle and Eastern States, as infec- tion would pour in continuously through the enor- mous cattle traffic, and all rolling stock, yards, etc., of railways would become infected. The live stock bears a larger proportion to the State wealth West and South than in the East, hence the West has most at stake in this matter, and should bear its share in the work of extermina- tion. The plague is more violent in proportion to the heat of the climate, so that it will prove far more destructive in the semi-tropical summers of the South and West than on the Atlantic sea- board. No State can be rendered secure unless all States are cleared of the pestilence One remaining center of infection on the continent is likely to prove as injurious, as the one infected cow landed in Brooklyn in 1843, the sad fountain of all our present trouble. It has been decided by a United States Supreme Court in Illinois, that a State law forbidding the introduction of cattle from a neighboring State, because it is feared they may introduce disease, is unconstitutional. Therefore each State must keep a guard along its whole frontier, with quarantine buildings, atten- dants, and inspectors, and must quarantine all cattle as soon as they shall have crossed. Smug- gling is inevitable so long as there are distinct authorities in two adjacent States. Rascally dealers have repeatedly run cattle into New York from New Jersey, sold them, and returned with their money before the matter could be dis- covered and the law officers of New York put on their track. Were the law and execution one for all the States, such men could be apprehen- ded and punished wherever found. In Europe if is foimd that an armed guard with intervals of 300 yards patroling the whole frontier day and night is not always sufficient; how much less, therefore, with us a law that can be evaded with such impunity. Finally, there is little hope of Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia stamping out the plague at their own expense, so that unless the United States takes the matter up, the work of New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania will be but money thrown away. This is a mat- 47 ter which threatens with dire disaster the inter- State live-stock trade of the future, and the National Government is called upon to stamp out the scourge with the view of protecting the trade between States. As respects the organiza- tion that should be charged with the work, it certainly ought to have a responsible head, and while the live-stock interests should be represen- ted, it should not be made too unwieldy to act at a moment's notice in any emergency. The con- ditions of success are well enough understood, and while special adaptations would be demanded in many localities, yet the work should be car- ried out actively without the necessity of calling together a large and unwieldy committee, before anything can be done. Another point of vital importance is that a sufficient sum of money should be appropriated for this exclusive pur- pose, to obviate the necessity of stopping the work or giving it a material check before success shall have been accomplished. Any material arrest or any entire cessation of the work and a renewed spread of the disease will bring the question of veterinary sanitary work into disre- pute, and may be the means of indefinitely and fatally postponing further action. While a large sum should be appropriated, its expenditure may be sufficiently guarded, but above all, it should not be a common fund to be devoted to this and other objects. Aside from the moral question, this is of far more immediate importance than even yellow fever, the germs of which are destroyed by frost, and the neglect of which tor one year places the sanitarian in no greater diffi- culty for the next. With a disease like the lung plague, which is favorably affected by no change of climate nor season, and the germs of which survive all extremes of heat and cold, the loss of a year, a month, or even a day, may make the difference between an easy success and a disas- trous and irremediable failure— a live-stock interest which can supply the world with sound beef, and a general infection of the continent, and continuous embargo on the foreign trade. Repressive measures adopted in Pennsylvania are as follows : Mr. Thomas J. Edge, Secretary of the Pennsylvania State Board of Agricul- ture, after citing the history of the disease in Europe and in this country, and alluding to its long presence in Pennsylvania in a malignant and destructive form, states that finally, but not until after the farmers of the State had sustained heavy losses, a meeting of the dairymen of Delaware, Montgomery, and adjoining counties was called. This meeting was held in Philadel- phia soon after and before its adjournment a committee was appointed to wait upon the secretary of the board of agriculture and urge the importance of legislative action. The vet- erinary surgeon of the board, in company witii this committee visited herds supposed to be infected. Surgeons who had had years of experience with the disease in Europe and else- where were also called in ; post moi-tem exami- nations were made, and the existence of the malady established beyond a doubt. The legis- lature being in session, the secretary of the board laid all the evidence before the joint committee of agriculture, and, after discussion and mature consideration, it was decided that the State should adopt a line of precautionary and preven- tive action, not only for the benefit of its own citizens, but also out of respect to the action of PLEUROPNEUMONIA 738 PLEURO-PNEUMONIA adjoining States. A sub-committee was, there- fore appointed to consult with the governor and, if deemed expedient, they were instructed to draft an act providing for the suppression of the disease. After consultation, the following reso- lution was offered and adopted by both branches of the legislature : Whereas, The States of New York and New Jersey, hy recently enacted laws to prevent the dissemination among live stocls of the disease Isnown as pleur -pneumonia, now invite this State, by a concert of action, to assist them to eradicate this contagion; Therefore, Resolved by the Senate (if the House of Eepresentatives concur), that the governor be, and he is hereby, authorized to take such preliminary action as may be necessary to prevent its further spread. This resolution was approved by the governor March 27, 1879. At the same time, an act pre- viously adopted by the committee was intro- duced, which, after amendment, passed both branches of the legislature. The law of New York, approved by Gov. Hoyt, May 1, 1879, and entitled, an act to prevent the spread of conta- gious or infectious pleuro-pneumonia among the cattle in this State, is as follows : Sec. 1. Beit enacted, etc., That whenever it shall be brought to the notice of the governor of tois State tbat the disease known as contagious or infectious pleuro- pneumonia exists among the cattle in any of the counties in this State, it shall be his duty to take measures to promptly suppress the disease and prevent it from spread- ing. Sec. 2. That for such purpose the governor shall have power, and he is hereby authorized, to issue his proclama- tion, stating that the said infectious or contagious disease exists in any county or counties of the State, and warning all pers ms to seclude all animals in their possession that are affected with such disease, or have been exposed to the infection or contagion thereof, and orderini; all persons to take such precautions ai^ainst the spreading of such disease as the nature thereof may, in his judgment, render necessary or expedient; to order that any premises, farm, or farms where such disease exists or has existed be put in quarantine, so that no domestic animal be removed from said places so quarantined, and to prescribe such regulations as he may judge necessary or expedient to prevent infection or contagion being communicated in any way from the places so quarantined; to call upon all sheriffs and deputy sheriffs to carry out and enforce the provisions of such proclamations, orders, and regulations, and it shall be the duty of all the sheriffs and deputy sherifl's to obey and observe all orders and instructions which they may receive from the governor in the premises ; to employ such and so many medical and veterinary practitioners and such other persons as he may, from time to rime, deem necessary to assist him in performing his duty as set forth in the first section of this act, and to fix their compensation ; to order all or any animals coming into the State to be detained at any place or places for the purpose of inspection and examination; to prescribe regulations for the destruction of animals affected with the said infectious or contagions disease, and for the proper disposition of their hides and carcases, and of all objects which might convey infection or contagi"n (pro- vided that no animals shall be destroyed unless first examined by a medical or veterinary practitioner in the employ of the governor aforesaid) ; to prescribe regula- tions fi>r the disinfection of all premises, buildings, and railway-cars, and of objects from or by which infec- tion or contagion may take place or be conveyed; to alter and modify, n'om time to time, as he may deem expedient, the terms of all such proclamations, orders and regula- tions, and to cancel or withdraw the same at any time. Sec. 3. That all the necessary expenses incurred under the direction, or by authority, of the govermir in carrying out the provisions of thi s act shall be paid by the treasurer, upon the warrant of the auditor-general, on being certified as correct by the governor: Provided, that animals coming from a neighboring State that have passed a veterinary examination in said State, and have been quarantined and discharged, shall not be subject to the provisions of this act. Under authority of the act before quoted, and based upon the report of the commission, his excellency Governor Hoyt appointed a special agent to take charge of the matter, under a special commission, as follows: It having been ascertained that an infectious and contagious disease of neat cattle, known as pleuro-pneu- monia, has been brought into and exists in certain counties of this State, I hereby appoint you as my assistant to carry out the provisions of the acts of 1866 ahd 1879, for the prevention of the spread of this disease. As such assistant you are hereby authorized — To prohibit the movement of cattle within the infected districts, except on license from yourself, after skilled veterinary examination under your direction. To order all owners of cattle, their agents, employes, or servants, and all veterinary sur- geons, to report forthwith to you all cases of disease by them suspected to be contagious ; and when such notification is received you are directed to have the case examined, and to cause such animals as are found to be infected with said disease to be quarantined, as also all cattle which have been exposed to the infection or contagion of said disease, or are located in any infected district, but you may, in your discre- tion, permit such animals to be slaughtered on the premises and the carcases to be disposed of as meat if, upon examination, they shall be found fit for such use. You may prohibit and prevent all persons not employed in the care of cattle therein keptfrom entering any infected premises. You may likewise prevent all persons so em- ployed in the care of animals from going into stables, yards, or premises where cattle are kept, other than those in which they are employed. You may cause all clothing of persons engaged in the care, slaughtering, or rendering of diseased or exposed animals or in any employment which brings them in contact with such diseased animals, to be disinfected before they leave the premises where such animals are kept. You may prevent the manure, forage, and litter upon infected premises from being removed there- from; and you may cause such disposition to be made thereof as will, in your judgment, best prevent the spread of the disease. You may cause the buildings, yards, and premises in which the disease exists, or has existed, to be thoroughly disinfected. You are further direc- ted, whenever the slaughter of diseased animals is found necessary, to certify the value of the animal or animals so slaughtered, at the time of slaughter, taking into account their condition and circumstances, and to deliver to their owner or owners, when requested, a duplicate of such certificate. Whenever any owner of such cattle, or his agent or servant, has willfully or know- ingly withheld, or allowed to be withheld, notice of the existence of said disease upon his premises, or among his cattle, you will not make such certificate. You are also dii'ected to take such measures as you may deem necessary to disinfect all cars or vehicles or movable articles by which contagion is likely to be transmitted. You will also take such measures as shall insure the registry of cattle introduced into any pre mises on which said disease has existed, and to keep such cattle under supervision for a period of three months after the removal of the diseased animal and the subsequent disinfection of said premises. You are further authorized and empowered to incur such expenses in carrying out the provisions of the foregoing orders as may, in your judgment, appear necessary, and see to it that all bills for such expenses be trans- mitted to this department only through yourself, PLOTTING 739 PLOW •after you have approved the same in writing. [The editor considers it proper to state, in tliis -connection, that the importance of repressive measures for the stamping out of the disease (and the impossibility of doing this, once it is dis- tributed in the West), has caused him to collate largely on the subject of Pleuro-pneumonia]. In relation to preventive treatment, and for dis- infection. Dr. Law, in his Veterinary Adviser, recommends the following, as instructions for the stables, etc. For stables instructions may ■embrace what follows: 1. Remove all litter, manure, feed and fodder, from the stables; scrape the walls and floor; wash them if necessary, remove all rotten wood. — 3. For buildings take chloride of lime one-half lb. , crude carbolic acid four oz., and water one gallon; add freshly- burned quicklime till thick enough to make a ^ood whitewash; whitewash with this the whole roof, walls, floors, posts, mangers, drains, and other fixtures in the cow stables. — 3. Wash so as to thoroughly cleanse all pails, buckets, stools, forks, shovels, brooms, and other movable arti- cles used in the buildings, then wet them all over with a solution of carbolic acid one-half lb., water one gallon. — 4. When the empty building las been cleansed and disinfected as above, close the doors and windows, place in the center of the building a metallic dish holding one lb flowers of sulphur; set fire to this and let the cow shed stand closed and filled with the fumes for at least two hours. The above should suffice for a close stable capable of holding twelve cows. For larger or very open buildings more will be required. — ■5. The manure from a stable where sick cattle have been kept must be turned over and mixed with quicklime, two bushels to every load; then hauled by horses to fields to which no cattle have access, and at once plowed under by horses. — 6. The pits, where the manure has been, must be ■cleansed and washed with the disinfectant fluid as for buildings, (see 2). — 7. The surviving herd .should be shut up in a close building for half an hour once or twice a day, and made to breathe the fumes of burning sulphur. Close doors and windows, place a piece of paper on a clean shovel, lay a few pinches of flowers of sulphur upon it, and set it on fire, adding more sulphur, pinch bj' pinch, as long as the cattle can stand it without coughing. Continue for a month. — 8. Grive two drachms powdered copperas, green vit- riol, daily to each cow in meal or grains; or, ■divide one pound copperas into fifty powders, and give one daily to each adult animal. — 9. Do not use for the surviving cattle any feed, fodder nor litter that has been in the same stable with the sick. They may safely be used for horses and sheep. In certain cases further measures are needed, as removal of the flooring and soil be- neath, or even the burning of the entire struc- ture. Drains must also be cleansed. PLICIPENNATES, PLICIPENNES. Neu ropterous insects, the inferior wings of many of which are larger than the upper pair, and are folded lengthwise, as the caddis flies. PLINTH. The lowest form or member of the base of a column, of a square figure and small height. PLIOCENE. The uppermost portion of the tertiary formation, containing recent fossils, for the most part. PLOTTING. In surveying, laying down on paper the angles and lines measured to calculate the contents of a given tract ; it is done with a protracter or plotting scale. PLOW. That the plow is the most important implement of tillage, is beyond question. Not- withstanding that we have historical evidence in the Book of Job (probably the most ancient of biblical writings) that the plow was used in his day, and through successive generations and centuries, evidence of its use until we come down to the time of the enlightened Grecian and Roman periods, the crude implement of Abraham, undoubtedly of Egyptian, if not of Chinese origin, was but little improved. An implement originally a fire hardened, pointed share, with a handle and beam for draft. In the article Agriculture will be found cuts of these most ancient implements. Notwithstanding the great antiquity of the plow, but little real impi-ove- ment was made over the form of the Roman plow until within the last two hundred years, and like the history of all great inventions, the last forty years liave witnessed the greatest practical improvement, in ease of draft, certainty in turning correct furrows, according to the nature of the soil ; in deep tillage and the various conditions desired in culture, and, most iniport- ant of all, the certainty of a surface to the metallic parts that shall scour and retain their polish even in the most adhesive soils, some of which; in the West, long baffled the practical science of our best inventors East and West. To show something of the state of plows and plow- ing in England in the last century, Adam Dick- son, in his voluminous work on agriculture, in the early part of the century, speaking of the plows of the ancients, says: It is probable that I shall be considered as very partial to the ancients, if I dp not allow the moderns to excel them in the construction of their plows. We are not, indeed, so well acquainted with the ancient plows as to make a just comparison. I shall only observe, that from the few passages in the rustic authors concerning them, it appears that the ancients had all the different kinds of plows that we have now in Europe, though not perhaps so exactly constructed. They had plows with- out mold-boards and plows with mold-boards; they had plows with coulters and plows without coulters; they had plows with wheels and plows without wheels; they had broad -pointed shares and narrow-pointed shares; they even had what I have not yet seen among the moderns, shares not only with sharp sides and points, but also with high raised cutting tops. Were we well acquainted with the construction of all these, perhaps it would be found that the improvements made by the moderns in this implement are not great as many persons are apt to imagine. While Mr. Dickson probably estimated the skill of the ancient plowmakers from the classical stand point of a scholar, he was certainly correct in a sense as compared with the plows in common use, just as we to-day, while every neighborhood contains plows adapted to every variety of work, nevertheless see the majority of small farmers using one plow for all work, and that perhaps not of the best pattern. Yet in England in Mr. Dickson's time, there were, it is probable, plows far superior to any the ancients ever used ; for it is not to be supposed they would depict their inferior implements and leave unpictured the superior ones. So far as we of the present da}' are informed the plows of the ancients, and also PLOW 740 PLOW" of the moderns, for the first thousand years after Christ, and indeed up to nearly the eighteenth century, were of the rudest description, hardly two alike. The beams cumbrous, and, as were the handles, hewed from the branches of trees, the mold-boards and landsides and the shares even of wood, simply strapped and pointed with iron at the principal wearing points. Indeed we have ourselves seen within the last forty years, and have used for breaking prairie in Cook county, 111., a plow but little better than this. The cele- brated Daniel Webster plow, exhibitid at our Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia, and which he helped to make and used, was mostly of wood, an uncouth, cumbrous implement requiring the force of several yokes of oxen to move. This plow might as well have left the impression of the improved plow of that day. It was made for a special purpose, to work among grubs and stones, and undoubtedly per- formed its work tolerably well. To-day, we have plows that with three horses will do more and bet- ter work than did this Leviathan of plows drawn by five or six yokes of oxen. As showing the improvements in progress in England, during the latter part of the eighteenth century, and the development of the draft rod. Small's chain plow was a notable improvement. The plow, as improved by Small, has since become cele- brated by subsequent improvements, as the East Lothian plow. Taking up now the history of plows in America, Mr. A. B. Allen, In the Report of the New York State Agricultural Society for 1856, describes the plowmaker's art, in the early part of the century, in the United States, as follows : A winding tree was cut down, and a mold-board hewed from it, with the grain of the timber running so nearly along its shape as it could well be obtained. On to this mold- board, to prevent its wearing out too rapidly, were nailed the blade of an old hoe, thin straps of iron, or worn-out horse shoes. The laud side was of wood, its base and sides shod with thin plates of iron. The share was of iron, with a hardened steel point. The coulter was tolerably well made of Iron, steel edged, and locked into the share nearly as It does in the improved lock coulter plow of the present day. The beam was usually a straight stick. The handles, like the mold-board, split from the crooked trunk of a tree, or as often cut from its branches; the crooked roots of the white ash were the most favorite timber for plow handles in the Northern States. The beam was set at any pitch that fancy might dictate, with the handles fastened on almost at right angles witli it, leaving the plowman little control over his implement, which did its work in a very slow and imperfect manner. Curious, is is not, that the same idea prevailed among the primitive American husbandmen, in the year 1800, that instigated the primitive hus- bandmen of 3,000years previous, a crotelied limb, natural crooks, roughly hewed, and the addition of bits of iron roughly fastened to tlie wearing points. To the scientific mind of Jefferson are we indebted for the first demonstration of the true principles upon which the plow should be constructed. Traveling in France and Ger- many in the year 1788, his spirit of observation led him frequently to alight and examine the working implements of the farmers there. Sur- prised at the uncouth forms of their plows and harness, at Nancy, the capital of ancient Lor- raine, he made the following entiy in his jour- nal: Oxen plow here with collars and hames. The awkward figure of their mold-boards leads; one to consider what should be its form. The- offices of the mold-board are to receive the sod- after the share has cut under it, to raise it gradu- ally and to reverse it. The fore end of it should, therefore, be horizontal, to enter under- the sod, and the hind end perpendicular, to- throw it over; the intermediate surface changing- gradually from the horizontal to the perpendi- cular. It should be as wide as the furrow, and. of a length suited to the construction of the plow. Returning home, when secretary of state, under Washington's Administration, he- consulted the celebrated David RittenhouSe, as to whether his plan was founded upon correct mathematical principles. After a careful exami- nation it was decided to be demonstrated. IrL 1793, this theory of Jefferson's was reduced to. practice. Some years after, the discovery of Jefferson was contested by William Amas. This- was in 1808. Mr. Jefferson pi'esented his ideas, to the French Academy, and to the English Board of Agriculture, who having ample means, of testing any imposture, acknowledged the invention of Jefferson, and he was subsequently elected an honorary member of the board.. Jefferson, who experimented with the mold- board of the plow only, states his conclusions to be that the mold-board of the plow ought not only to- be the continuation of the shield of the share begin- ning at its posterior edge, but it must also be in the same plane. Its first function is to receive- horizontally from the sock the earth, to raise it to the height proper for being turned over; to present, in its passage, the least possible resis- tance, and consequently to require the minimum of moving power. Were its function confined to this, the wedge would present, no douljt, the- most proper form for practice ; but the object is also to turn over the sod of earth. One of the edges of the mold-board ought then to have no. elevation, to avoid a useless wasting of force; the other edge ought, on the contrary, to go on ascending until it has passed the perpendicular, in order that the sod miy be inverted by its own weight; and the inclination of the mold-board must increase gradually from the moment that it has received the sod. In this second function the mold-board then acts like a wedge situated in an oblique direction, or ascending, the point of which recedes horizontally on the earth, while- the other end continues to rise till it passes the perpendicular. Or, to consider it under another point of view, let us place on the ground a wedge, the breadth of which is equal to that of the share of the plow, and which in length is equal to the share from the wing to the posterior extremity, and the height of the heel is equal to the height of the- rear of the share above the sole ; draw a diagonal on the upper surface from the left angle of the- point to the angle on the right of the upper part, of the heel; elope the face by making it bevel from the diagonal to the right edge which touches the earth; this half will be the most proper form for discharging the required functions, namely, to remove and turn over gradually the sod, and with the least force possible. If the left of the diagonal be sloped in the same manner, that is to say, if we suppose a straight line, the length of which is equal at least to that of the wedge, applied on the face already sloped, and TLOW 741 PLOW jnoving backwards parallel to itself and to the two ends of the wedge, at the same time that its lower end keeps itself alwajs along the lower ■end of the right face, the result will be a curved -surface, the essential character of which is, that it will be a combination of the principle of the wedge, considered according to two directions, which cross each other, and will give what we require, a mold-board presenting the least pos- sible resistance. This mold-board, besides, is attended with the valuable advantage that it can be made by any common workman by a process so exact that its form will not vary the thickness of a hair. One of the great faults of this essen- tial part of the plow is tlie want of precision, because workmen having no other guide than the eye, scarcely two of them were constructed alike. Following Jefferson, Charles Newbold, of New Jersey, obtained a patent in 1797, said to be the first cast plow ever made in America. The idea of Newbold, as stated in his specifit;atious, was to cast the plow, except the handles and beam, in one piece, consisting of a bar, sheath, and mold-plate, the sheath serving also for a coulter, and the mold-board serving also for the share. Previous to this cast-iron plow shares were used. Col. John Smith, of St. George's Manor, Suffolk •county, N. Y., had made and used cast-iron plow shares as early as 1794, and furnished with a false edge, to which might be attached a cut- ting edge of iron or steel. Following Charles Newbold, Hezekiah Newbold, of Kentucky, patented a plow in February, 1804. In June of the same, year, John Denver patented an- other. In 1807 a pat- ent was granted to David Peacock for a plow, and this ended in a lawsuit, as an infringement on the Newbold patent. The ■special new feature was the lock coulter. The patents as rec- orded, succeeding are as follows, so far as is known: Hezekiah Harris, Ky. , patent in 1808, and in the same year a patent to Rich- ard B. Chenoweth, of Maryland. Then follows John Klay, of the same State, January 11, 1813. On the same day a patent was granted to Eos- well Tousley, subsequently a partner of Jethro Wood, who took out his first patent in 1814, but to which he seems not to have attached much value. Then follows Mathew Patrick, New York, patent January 3, 1813; John Seltz, Feb- ruary 8, 1813; Horace Pease, New York, August 28, 1813. In 1814, besides the patent to Jethro Wood, there were patents granted to John Swaa, New York, J. Morgan and J. B. Harris; and to David Peacock, of New York, in 1817. In 1818, Gideon Davis is recorded as taking a patent for the first plow built on mathematical principles since the days of Jefferson. This plow was really a step ahead, as will be seen by the following extract from his specifications, in which he says: The great desideratum to be attained in the box sliare or shallow plow, is that it be so shaped and constructed as to detach the furrow slice from the solid ground, raise it «p and turn it oyer, in the neatest and most uni- form and effectual manner, with the least possi- ble labor, both to the plowman and the team, combining at the same time the advantages of being simple in its structure, strong and durable, easy to keep in repair, and cheap. The mode of using, it is desirable, should be such as will cause the least trouble and inconvenience to the plowman. With a vie^v to combine, as far as practicable, these various objects, he began bj- making the mold-board, land side, and stand- ard, (or width for the beam to rest on,) all of cast-iron, and in a solid piece; this is done in the manner that Charles Newbold, of New Jer- sey, made his improved plow, patented in the year 1797, but with several altei-ations and improvements hereinafter particularly specified. Of the shape of tlie molding part, or what is commonly called the face of the mold-board, the general principle heretofore concurred in by all scientific men who have turned their atten- tion to this subject, is that the furrow slice is detached from the solid ground, at a straight line, parallel to the surface, at such depth as maj' be required, tliat it should be raised up and turned over, so as to retain, as far as possible, the same flat shape. In order to accommodate the face of the mold-board to this idea of rais- DEEr TILLEU, STEEL BEAM, ing the furrow slice up and turning it over, it has been so constructed as to form straight lines lengthwise, either horizontal or a little inclined, and also to correspond with another set of straight lines at right angles with the land side, or nearly so, commencing at the point touching the edge of the share and lower edge of the mold-board- These last mentioned straight lines, as they recede from the point of the com- mencement, gradually change from a horizontal or a perpendicular direction, and even pass beyond the perpendicular so far as to give the proper over-jet behind. It had been thought that mold-boards so constructed would fit and embrace every part of the furrow slice in the operation of turning it over, not observing that the furrow slice must necessarily assume a con- vex form on the under side during the operation by which it is raised up and turned over. The truth is, however, that in raising and turning over the furrow slice it always acquires a con- vex form on the under side, or else it is broken into pieces and thrown over ; as might therefore be anticipated, it will be found that all those PLOW 743 PLOW mold-boards which are constructed on this principle wear through, in the operation of plowing, about midway, whilst the upper and lower edges are scarcely rubbed. It also neces- sarily results that plows of this description work hard and also are of heavy draft, because the mold-board, not being adapted to the convex form which the furrow slice is disposed to assume, lifts the furrow slice at a single point, and that in the middle, instead of being equally applied througliout the entire operation. In order to meet and remedy the inconveniences arising from this form of structure, the mold- board was formed into a different shape, and instead of working the molding part or face of the mold-board to straight lines, the improve- ment was to work it to circular or sphere lines. Pickering, Hitchcock, Nourse, McCormick, and Knox were also careful laborers subsequently in the same field of invention, and extending the time to the year 1850. About the time of the Knox patent, Joshua Gibbs, of Canton, O., while plowing, observed the unequal wear on the plow- share. Selecting a block of wood, he fashioned it as nearly as possible to his idea of a correct mold-board, attached it to a beaml and handles, plowed with it stopping now and then to hew away with his adze that part of the mold-board which he found scoured most by the soil. By successive trials, he obtained a wooden mold- board all parts of which presented equal resist- ance to the soil in its forward movement. August loth, 1854, he obtained a patent for his mold- board. He thus describes it in his specifications: The working surface of the mold-board consists of about one-fourth of the interior surface of a lioUow cylinder. If the plow is intended to turn a surface six inches wide, a mold-board made from a cylinder with about a twelve-inch bore is desirable; but if it is intended to turn a furrow twelve inches wide, the mold-board should be made from a cylinder with a bore of about twenty-four inches; as these plows have been BBEAKISB, BOLLISG COHLTEB. found to work best when they turn a furrow about as wide as the radius of the bore of the cylinder from which the mold-board was made. It has been found from experience that these plows work best when the lengtli of the mold- board is from one and a lialf to twice the diame- ter of the bore of the cylinder from which the mold-board is made. The advantages claimed were: 1. The plow draws easier. 2. It raises the furrow from the point and share more gener- ally, naturally, and easily, turns and lays the fur- row more uniform, smooth, and even, than any other mold-board, and leaves the trench wider in proportion to the width of the plow, and conse- quently the rear of the plow need not be set so wide as when a different mold-board is used. 8. It breaks the sward or furrow far less than any other. 4. The mold board, being more archeti is stiffer and stronger than others of the same- size and weight ; and, making the working sur- face of the mold-board in the torm of a section of a hollow cylinder; the center or axis of the cylinder being parallel or nearly parallel horizon- tally to the base of the mold-board,substantially as described. We now return to Jethro Wood, whose name will always be remembered for his improvements in the manner of casting and fitting the working parts of plows. In 1819, his- ideas were matured on the subject of plows, and from the views then set forth in his specifications for the patent then issued to him, he never devi- ated. The illustration we give, an accurate copy THE FIRST CAST-IHON PLOW. deposited by him in the Patent Office, will' explain itself by means of the lines. The figure- of the mold-board being, he says, as observed from the furrow side, a sort of irregular penta- gon, or fine sided plane, though curved and inclined in a peculiar manner. While Mr. Wood did not add materially to the working value of the plow, he did perform this inestimable service. Before he perfected his inventions, plows were- huge, uncouth, and clumsy, costly in therepairs- / needed, and did not perform good work. Mr. Wood did lighten the weight of the plow, and- made a better plow, that cost less money than the others. Coming to the year 1840, the Messrs. Ruggles, Nourse, and Mason, commenced improv- ing the cast plow, through the patient experi- ments of Mr. Nourse. In 1842, the Eagle plow No. 3, was produced. In 1845, Gov. Hoi- brook, of Vermont, interested himself with. Mr. Nourse, devising a system by which the- lines of the mold-board, if tlie longitudinal ones are carefully laid on the pattern, the- vertical ones will be certain to be correct. Since 1850, the great point in improving- plows has been rather in the matter of detail, in adapting them to every variety of soil, and every purpose imaginable, and also to the- invention of plow fixtures of various kinds. It is said that plows of over 1,200 different patterns are now made and adapted to every conceivable work, including trench plowing, subsoiling, ditching, road making, and excava- ting great ditches and canals, by means of attach- ments to plows of peculiar shapes. (See article Road-making.) The East, years ago, had their plows well adapted to tlie work required of them. In the average soil there the cast-iron plow would scour perfectly. The Nourse, the Hol- brook, the Colins, cast cast-steel and other steel plows, were quite satisfactory in more adhesive soils. With the settlement of the great West, and the failure of Eastern plows to scour in. peculiar humus prairie soils, wonderfully light and porous, and yet with scarcely any apparent grit, great difficulty was experienced. This early led many inventive minds, even forty years ago, toward devising a mold-board that would cast • MICHIGAN DOUBLE PLOW. DEEP TILLEB, WOODEN BEAM. PKAIEIE BREAKER, KNIFE COULTER. ( 743 ) PLOW 744 PLOWING off the peculiar and sticky mack of many West- ern prairie soils, Mr. John Deere, the elder, of Mollne, experimented with steel saw plates and realized a fair measure of success, which later resulted in the building of plows entirely of fine or what is now known as plow steel, at least so far as the surfaces which come in contact with the earth is concerned. Now these highly materially lightening the draft, enables the cut of the plow to be widened, as it certainly does cut a more equable furrow, than the swing plow, or in lieu of this, allows two plows to be ganged together, either plowing two furrows along side the other, or throwing one furrow directly on the other. The idea will readily be caught from the engraving of a three-horse plow turning a six- CHAIN FOR COVERING UNDER WEEDS. polished steel plows are made for every variety of soil, and for every variety of work, leaving only one thing more to be desired, an implement that shall perform the labor, at a less expendi- ture of draft, and pulverize the soil in a better manner than the plow. This has been success- fully accomplished, by means of rotary imple- ments, when simply the stirring of the soil is necessary. What the future has in store in this direction remains for future inventors to solve. BIDING FLOW. As illustrating the various forms of plows we have interspersed a series of cuts of plows as designed for various tillage, and which will suffi- ciently explain themselves. Within the last few years an important modification of the handling of plows has been inaugurated, which while not teen inch furrow. This class of plows are increasing in popularity year by year, the only objection to them being the increased cost over that of the ordinary swing plow. In the article Plowing will be given much additional matter in reference to plows and plowing, with cuts illustrating, both horse and steam plowing. (See also articles Cultivators and Stirring the Soil.) PLOWING. In plowing, the object sought is to turn the soil in such manner as may adapt it to be mgst easily brought to that state best required for a crop, under the various conditions of prairie sod, second sod, green sward, grubby timber land, weedy fields, stubble; or, land, fallow or otherwise, but which may be covered with a green crop more or less heavy, and which is re- quired to be turned under in such a way as to completely cover the trash, thus causing it to be freely brought into a state of decomposi- tion. These states may now be all fully and perfectly accom- plished by some one of the many plows made East and West, and specifically adapted to the end in view. Eastern made plows doing fully as well in Eastern soils as do Western made plows in the peculiar soils of our prairie States. Some years since the State Agri- cultural Society of New York offered handsome premiums for plows doing the best work in a variety of soils, and combinations, including turf, stubble, deep, trench, subsoil and other plowing. The Hon. J. Stanton Gould was chairman of the committee on plows and plowing, which committee in- cluded others of the most eminent practical men in the State. The most able, exhaustive, and elaborate report of this committee covers PLOV^'ING 745 PLOWING the whole ground of plows and plowing, and from the interest and importance of the subject, we extract portions pertinent to this article, which will be well worth the study of all, not excepting that large class who call themselves good plowmen; for it must be confessed that very few wlio consider themselves entitled !o the bifst farm wages going, not only have never studied tlie rationale of plowing, but have really given but little attention as to whether the plow v/as only doing medium or strictly good work. Another class, never keep their furrows straight, and in fact can not drive a somewhat wild team straight across a forty-acre field, and ■of course can not make their furrows come out •equal at the close of the land. In the extracts we ^ive we shall exclude everything pertaining to the scientific elucidntion of the subject, for. at deep furrows being lapped one on another, as in plowing clover, and other meadow sward. Again, the curvt' of the mold- board must be different, when one strip of sod is to fit in closely along another, furi-o\V for furrow. So again in trench plowing with the Michigan double plow, the thin skim furrow is often rolled up forming a scroll, or spiral of sod under the soil thrown on top. (See article Plowforillustratiousof plows.) In plowing under tra'-li various devices are used, called weed hooks, coulter cleaner,s. etc. The most common plan is to hitch a chain to the plow the loop to drag in the furrow as shown on page 744. Difficulty is sometimes experienced in getting the chain to work properly, this, however, can readily be arranged to suit the paiticular cir- cumstances. Xeither the chain nor weed hook, however, will work unless the crop to be turned DOUBLE OR TREXCH PLOW. this day plows are made for every variety of work so that all that the individual has to do is to state to the plow-making firm just what is expected to be performed and, the proper plow will be selected and sent out of the variety of materials in store. That is it should be stated whether flat or lap furrows are to be laid in sod, or whether the plow is intended for stirring the soil, turning under trash, for shallow plowing or deep tillage, and also, whether for skim and trench plowing, one plow following another. To illustrate : The plow for prairie sod, when the slice turned is to be as thin as possible is of an entirely different form from that where a deep furrow is to be turned ; under is of considerable length po the implement can guide the tops in the proper direction to be covered under. In trench plowing especially where it is deep, the lower slice, which oncers the skim furrow, must alwa}'s be more or less crowded or pushed up, so the work will be a.'i shown in the cut on next page; D, showing the position of the under slice,, E, the covering fur- row slice and F, F, the furrows ; the curve of the furrow slices are shown between B, E, and D, D, D. The Michigan double plow is now but little used, since riding plows have come into use. The two plows are now attached to one beam as shown in the cut, double or trench plow. PLOWING 746 PLOWING- These are now made of a draft so light that four horses work them easily. With the Michigan double plow the draft is very much more severe. Plowing by steam has never been economically accomijlished in the United States. It is not by any means that the plowing is not superior of its kind, especially when extra deep plowing is required, as has been attested in the sugar fields of Louisiana, and in various trials in the West, by the various traction engines that have been invented. The difficulty with all traction engines has been, that on soft soil, they would mire themselves, or else the sticky nature of the soil would at times clog them. Another diffi- culty is the trouble in obtaining skilled engineers in the country, and the expense of hauling fuel and water to feed the engines. Again if they get out of repair, ordinary country blacksmiths can TKENCH PLOWING. not repair them. On the other hand our two-fur- row gang plows do operate successfully and evenly, and are much employed on large farms and upon the great wheat fields of the far North- west. As illustrating steam gang-plowing as against horse gang-plowing, we give two illus- trations, showing the English system of steam plowing, and the American system of horse plowing. The reader will readily see why, in ordinary plowing, the American system is the cheap3st. The writer has superintended the working of twenty single swing plows, turn- ing twenty furrows, with twenty men and sixty horses, or three horses to each plow, the plows cutting fourteen inches each. The daily average work of the gang, on lands running across a section, of 640 acres, was one-third of an acre per hour, or three acres per team per day, or an aggregate of sixty acres a day. Pew plowmen undcivstand the necc'.'.sity of a nice adjustment of the plow to the work in hand ; bolts are lost, nuts get loose, and the plow is still driven, they being content with such work as it will do. If it be a plow in which a coulter is used, feeble attempts are made to remedy the evil by giving the coulter a twist out of line, or altering the set of the clevis, when the real fault lies in a proper adjustment of the beam. A plow, when prop- erly adjusted, in a soil free from roots and stones, will swim along almost without the aid of the plowman. The same plow not properly adjusted, can scarcely be made to work at all. Again, the good plowman will feel at once the slightest deviation in a plow from the true course, and a slight change keeps the plow in its- proper course. So we see that lightness and delicacy of touch is by no means a useless accomplishment in the plowman. It is of as much consequence as that he have a correct eye, that the fuiTow slices be straight, and of uniform width and thickness, and turned so the plowed surface shall be disintegrated and level, or left rough as occasion may require. Yet, how many plowmen really pay attention to these details? How many, in fact, know really good plowing- from indifferent plowing. It is to be regretted that competitive trials by expert plowmen should have gone out of fashion. They were of great value as object lessons to the masses who attended. At least the master of the farm might here compare results and get many valu- able lessons to be communicated to the farm hands, and knowing just what good work con- sisted in, it might be insisted that the work shoiild be so done. For the object in all matches of this kind should be to award the pre- mium to the plowman leaving the best surface finish, with proper pulverization, according to- the width and depth of furrow. As an aid in estimating the work to be done by a plow we give an elaborate and highly valuable table on page 749, showing the distance traveled by the team in plowing an acre, in connection with the width of furrow slice in inches and the extent plowed per day, the team traveling respectively eighteen and sixteen miles, working- nine hours per day. The rationale of plowing may be stated as follows: A soil in a finely pul- verized state holds more moisture — hydroscopic water — than when in a solid state. A single experiment will show this. A field plowed in the fall will retain a larger amount of moisture in the spring than if it were left unplowed. Finely pulverized soil when in a dry state takes- up moisture equally from the air, and with it large quantities of nitrogen compounds. Thus porous soils, because cool, are constantly conden- sing water during droughts, and hold the consti- tuents it contains to be taken up by the rootlets, and assimilated by plants. Soils thoroughly underdrained, when allowed to rest, become honey-combed by insects to the water line occu- pied by the drains, and hence these serve as channels to quickly conduct the rain which falls immediately away. This, however, is not what is wanted, for thus the fertilizing properties in rain water do not come intimately in contact with the soil, and are lost; thus the error into which certain superficial experimenters have been led, in supposing that drained lands would not stand drought. If the surface soil were pul- verized to a depth of from six to ten inches or more, the case -would be very different. It would then act as a filter, passing the water off more slowly, but still fast enough, and in addi- tion, the elements of fertility would be retained and the whole area of the soil uniformly moist- ened. Again, underdrained soils liable to become water soaked, become hard and impacted. Insects do not penetrate to any considerable depth, and the soil holds water like a dish, to be slowly evaporated by the sun, rendering it, by this very process, cold, sour, and unfertile. So also tilth and drainage prevents the washing away of fertilizing properties during continued rains; C747) ii'iV" "I l» if m (748) PLOWING 749 PLUM the moisture is absorbed, and passed down tlirough the soil instead of running along the surface, and thence into the nearest stream. V1 -4 a o O . 3 . 3 ta 5lp Exteut plowed per day, at the rate of V ^ o-^ 02 ^ (- " Zt--^*^ S3 rj « ■s *^-s Inchee. Miles. 18 miles. Acres. 16 miles. Acres. 7 14's IJi I'a 8 1^« 1!4 IV, 9 11 13-3 I'/i 10 9 9-10 14-5 135 11 9 2 'K 12 8'.i 2 1-5 1 9-10 13 7!4 2% 21-10 14 7 2>f a>i 15 e% 2% 22-5 16 6 1-6 2 9-10 2 3-5 17 55i 3 1-10 2K 18 5!4 SH. 2 9-:o 19 5!4 3% 3 1-.0 SO 4 9-10 3 3-5 3H 21 4 7-10 3 4-5 3M 22 4'4 4 3'/4 23 f^ V 4 1-5 3 7-10 24 4K 3 9-10 25 4 4V4 4 26 3 4-5 4Si 41-5 27 3 3-5 4 9-10 454 28 3'/^ 5',i 4y, 29 3(4 53i 43-5 30 3M 5% 445 31 31-5 5 5 32 31-10 5 4-5 5K 33 3 6 5M 34 2 9-10 61-5 6'/2 35 2 4-D 6M 5 3-5 36 2?.i 6'/2 5 4-5 37 2K 6ii 6 38 ii3-5 6 9-10 6'^ 39 2'/2 7'/8 6« 40 2V4 7« 6>4 41 2 2-5 7% 6Ji 42 2}^ 7 6« 43 2 3-10 7 4-5 7 44 2 8 71-10 45 21-5 81-6 7J4 46 21-6 S% 7 2-5 47 21-10 8 7 3-5 48 2 1-1-i 8K 7K 49 2 8 9-10 7 9-10 50 2 8 9-10 8 1-10 51 19-10 91-5 85i 52 1 9-10 9V4 8 2-5 S3 19-10 9K 8/, 54 14-5 9 4-5 8 9-10 55 14-5 10 8 56 IJi lOJi 9 57 )3i 10 2-5 91-5 58 17-10 10 3-5 9M 59 17- 109i 9^4 60 13-5 10 9-10 9 7-10 61 13-5 11 1-5 94 5 62 1 3-5 IIH 10 63 13-5 11 '/s 101-5 64 l'/4 11 7-10 lOM 63 l'/4 114-5 10'/, 66 IH 12 10 3-5 67 1V4 liX 10 4-5 68 1^ 12 2-5 11 69 12-5 13 3-5 ll!s 70 12-5 12K IIM 71 12-5 U 9-10 HS4 Ti 12-5 1313 113-5 73' IM I3I/S 114-5 74 I'/j ]3'/4 13 75 IM 13 3-5 12H le 13-10 13 4-5 12K 77 13-10 14 12'/j 78 I'i U}4 12 3-5 79 IX 14 2 5 123i 8U I'/i 143-5 12 9-10 81 1 1-5 )4Ji 13 1-10 82 115 15 13!4 83 11-3 I5U 13 2-5 84 11-B i5;ii 13 3-5 PLOWING THREE ABREAST. The using^ of four horses in heavy plowing, by attaching one pair before the other, is going out of general use, for the reason that it has been found in practice that three horses or mules working abreast or beside each other, accomplish about as much work, and do it more easily for the team and driver, than can be done by the old-fash- ioned way of hitching them before each other. Very many farmera, however, do not receive this modern innovation with favor, because they have not learned the proper manner of making the whiiHetrees, and adjusting the driving-lines, and the draft of the plow. In plowing with four horses, two abreast, the forward horses, drawing in a nearly horizontal line, exert a large portion of their strength at a disadvantage not only to themselves, but also to the team immedi- ately behind them. The disadvantage in plow- ing three abreast is that the middle horse is apt to be sweated unduly in hot weather by contact with the outside horses, but the evil is more than. counterbalanced by the gain in power. The most simple attachment and the one in most common use is a draw-bar, having its clevis or draft-clip one-third of the way from the end to which the double-trees are to be attached. To the other end a single-tree is attached by a chain long enough to bring it in line with the single- trees attached to the double trees at the other end. The whole should be of such a length as will bring the middle horse immediately in front of the plow-beam. Various patented three-horse trees are before the public, all more or less com- plicated, but the one here described is simple and within the reach of all. Mules work admi- rably three abreast, and in their case the draw- bars and the whilfle-trees may be very much shortened, since they will work much closer than Jiorses without danger of overheating. The most simple way of driving them is by means of a single line attached to the outside bits of the near and off horse, tying their heads together at suitable intervals by the bits. This will do if the team and driver are both steady and reliable. But perhaps a better plan is to hitch the team drawing upon the double tree, as. is commonly done for two horses. Then pass a check-line from the outside bit of the third horse through the hame-ring, and attach it to the main or driving line of the middle horse. It should be about eight inches longer than the ordinary check or cross rein. Another method is to- attach two single lines to the middle horse, hav- ing shorter reins from the near and the off horse passing to the same bit, so that each shall bear alike. The near check-lines of the outside horses should then be attached to the near main line of the center horse, and the off or right-hand check of the outside horses should be fastened to the oft-side main line of the center horse. Of course, in plowing with three horses or mules abreast, the plow must be so adjusted that the line of draft will be immediately behind the middle horse. PLUM. The plum delights in a rather com- pact, well drained, rich, loamy soil. It is one of the most hardy of trees, quite as much so as the apple, and would be generally cultivated were it not for the ravages of the curoulio. There has never yet been found any successful means of preventing the ravages of this pest, except jarring the trees, from the time the fruit is the PLUM 750 PLYMOUTH ROCK FOWLS ■size of a small hazel nut, until it is fully grown, matching the insects on a sheet and killing them. Unfortunately this takes so much time at a very busy season that none but special orehardists will take the trouble. The varieties as recom- mended by the American Pomological Society, include many. The following do well generally : ■Coe's Golden Drop; Damson; Lombard Imperial Gage ; Jefferson ; Smith's Orleans and Washington. Besides those mentioned the following are con- siderably planted in the Eastern States : Bavay's Green Gage, also known as Reine Claude de Bavay; Duane's Purple; Lawrence's Favorite; McLaughlin ; Prince's Yellow Gage ; Washington and Yellow Egg, or White Magnum Bonum. In the Western States the Wild Goose is almost .universally planted, in every collection. The history of the plum gained from a variety of -sources is as follows: 'The most generally distrib- uted, and longest known species of plum, is the common plum (Pninus domestica), coming origi- Jially from the Caucasus, and the mountains of Talysch. It is cultivated extensively in Syria, "where it has passed into numerous varieties. It reached Italy about the time of Cato, and Pliny speaks of ingens turha prunorum, by which he ■designated the numerous varieties. At the pres- ent day the different varieties may be referred to the following kinds: 1. The little cherry-plum, (PrumLs ceraMna). 3. The genuine plum (Prunus pnunana), of a little larger size; here belong the damsons.^ 3. The spilling or egg-plum {Prunus Armniaca), which includes the mirabellas and reine claude, or green-gage plums. 4. The almond plum, {Pruiiusamygdalina). And, finally, 5. the Prunu « Pergicaria. Although the plum has been distributed over the whole of Europe, and ex- tended far to the north, it is little known in eastern Asia, and it is doubtful whether it occurs in northern China. The buUace plum (Prunus iimtitia), which is closely allied to the common plum, is of slight importance. It is found wild on the Caucasus. It is difficult to decide whether it occurs wild, ,or only run wild in Greece and Southern Europe. This tree has certainly not been derived from the sloe bush. Here also belongs the Bear plum {Prunus ursina,) a thorny tree-like shrub, which grows wild everywhere about Mt. Lebanon, the sweet, pleasant fruit of which, the size of our damson, is eaten not only by the bears, but serves as food to the inhabi- tants of the mountain regions. Among the plums, in the most extended sense, may be men- tioned the cultivated cherry {Prunus cerasus), and the wild black cherry {Prunus avium). The former, growing wild in the mountain forests of Southern Caucasus, was brought to Italy from Cerasunt, in Pontus, succeeding the conquest -of Mithridates, seventy-four years before Christ. Another fruit, the size and shape of our plum, the ibametara, or Spanish plum, is obtained from a tree, {Spondias myrobalanus,) which grows wild in the forests of Jamaica, and is cultivated in the northern regions of the tropi- cal parts of Brazil. The natives eat the sweetish acid flesh, prepare a sauce, and manufacture drink from it. Another species of the same genus, [Spondias dulcis,)\% found on the Friendly Islands. The tree is fifty feet high, with a straight trunk, the thickness of a man, and bears clusters of large, oval, golden yellow, stone fruit, like pomegranates, the fleshy puta- men of which is sweet and palatable, and reminds one of the pineapple. The Spondiai tuberosa and Spondias lutea in the West Indies, also furnish edible fruit. The Icaco plum {Ohrysobalanus icaco, L.) is also worthy of men- tion. This tree-like shrub, with its fruit similar to the damson, grows wild as well as cultivated in the forests along the shores of South Amer- ica, and on the wet coasts of Carolina. It has been introduced from Africa, where it occurs from Senegal to Congo. The fruit is made into preserves and brought to Europe. PLUMBAGO. 'Native carburet of iron; black lead. PLUMULA. The leaf-like portion of the embryo. PLUS. More : marked by the sign +. PLUTONIC ROCKS. Unstratified crystal- line rocks, like granite, porphyry, basalt. PIUVIAMETER. The rain gauge. PLYMOUTH ROCK FOWLS. Of late years this breed has come distinctively into notice, and has had many admirers. The original fowls are claimed to have been bred by Dr. J. C. Bennett from a cross of a Cochin-China cockerel with a hen, a cross between a fawn-colored Dorking, the great Malay and the wild Indian fowl, and were first exhibited in Boston in 1849. As might have been expected, as the breeds multi- plied, they varied much in form and color, from the blood of the various fowls with which they were imbued, and it was found difficult to fix a uniform character, nevertheless they were lai'ge fine birds, the cocks weighing eight to ten pounds, and the pullets six to seven pounds at a year old, and the plumage rich and variegated. At length as the breed became more constant in their characteristics, and ten years ago they were described by Lewis in his Poultry Book as fol- lows: The cocks are usually of a beautiful red or speckled color, and the hens of a darkish brown. Some of the colors thrown by this breed, are not dissimilar to the Dominique fowl. They have very fine flesh, and are fit for the table at an early age. The legs are quite large, and usually blue or green, but occasionally yellow or even white, and frequently have five toes upon eabh foot. Some of the varieties have the legs occa- sionally slightly feathered. They have large single rose-colored or red combs and wattles; cheeks are rather large ; tails stout and short, and very small wings in proportion to their bodies. The chicks are quite hardy and have the same uniformity in size and appearance as those of the pure bloods of primary races. The hens make good mothers and close setters. Accom- panying this we give a cut of a pair of Plymouth Rock fowls, cock and hen. Mr. F. H. Corbin who has written a pamphlet on the Improved Plymouth Rocks, upon mating and breeding these fowls from a fancier's standpoint, has some good suggestions, and which will apply to all parti-colored fowls where the penciling and markings are of importance, and also as applic- able to breeding generally. We extract as follows : It is a flxed natural law that the best and fittest survive. It makes no difference, in the applica- tion of this law, whether you are treating of an analytical truth or the propagation of life; it still remains the central point around and toward which all researches must be directed. It is in direct proportion to the observance of this law by fanciers that they are enabled to perpetuate and improve all classes of fowls. The first PLYMOUTH ROCK FOWLS jl PLYMOUTH ROCK FOWLS requisite in mating fowls for any purpose, is to secure birds possessing strength, vigor, and «tamina. Select stock famed for these require- ments, and you will be very sure of obtaining ■strong, hardy chicks. Let the parent stock con- sist of birds standing head and shoulders above •ordinary stock, and you will be little troubled with roup and its kindred diseases. Breeders disagree as to the age of breeding-birds; but we have found that cockerels nearly or quite a year •old, mated to two-year-old hens, usually give the Isest results. A cock two years of age, mated to «arly pullets, will also be found satisfactory. The best authorities agree that the ages of the males and females should vary, and for this reason cockerels and pullets should seldom be mated together, unless it is particularly desirable to secure or render permanent some peculiar characteristic or point In that way, and then they the other. For Instance, if the cock's comb be defective in any way, as lop combed, the hen's comb should stand perfectly erect, and be fine in other respects, in order to breed out the defect arising from the comb of the cock. Of course, no deifective bird should be bred from unless it is absolutely necessary, and under no circum- stances should a male and female both having the same defect be bred from. No over-fattened birds should be used in the breeding-pen, as non- fertile eggs will abound if they are. In a perfect mating, the sire should possess beautiful plum- age, perfectlymarked, fine symmetry, and as large size as is compatible with full vigor. The con- stitutional requirements, which apply with equal force to the hen, have already been spoken of, and need not be repeated here. The dam should excel in productiveness and size, while the shape and plumage must not oe lost sight of. This PLYMOUTH ROCK FOWLS. should be at least a year old. If the cocks and hens have been entirely separated during the several months preceding the mating, so much the better, as the added amount of vigor is very beneficial. Most breeders find it advantageous to pursue this plan. In the breeding of no other •choice stock is It considered beneficial, or allow- able, even, to permit the male to roam at will with the females during the entire year, and •choice fowls will be found to be no exception to the rule. In breeding for fancy points, one should understand exactly the object sought, and have a clear idea of the means to be employed in obtaining that object. The different elements, about to be brought together and harmonized, must be carefully studied, and if there is neces- .sarily a defect in either cock or hen, it should be •counterbalanced by perfection on this point in union is the most desirable one for any purpose. Symmetry is especially important in breeding for points, as, in the show-pen, it is marked higher than any other single qualification, and by many judges is again marked in estimating breast and body. The standard of excellence requires that the breast of a Plymouth Rock be broad, deep, and full, and the body large, square, and compact. This necessitates birds for breed- ing that are both of large size and the improved shape ; as no other is or can be square in shape. In breeding Plymouth Rocks to feather, it should be remembered that they are parti-colored, and, therefore, more diiflcult to breed exactly true to a particular shade than the solid-colored breeds. Moreover, being a somewhat recent cross, the tendency to revert in color is stronger and the result more perceptible. That there has been no PNEUMO-THORAX 753 POISONS AND ANTIDOTES well-settled rule in regard to mating with a view to breeding true to feather is well known, and each breeder, be he experienced or a beginner, has been left to his own devices. The result has been a whole or partial failure in a majority of yards. Five difEerent matings have been advo- cated and practiced as follows : A male light in color mated to daiji females; a male dark in color mated to light females; a male dark in color mated to dark females; birds matching in the show-pen; a female medium in color mated with a male about two points or shades lighter in color. PNEUMATICS. The science which treats of the mechanical characters of gases and vapors. PNEUMATIC TROUGH. A chemical uten- sil used for the collection of gases over water or fluids. It consists of a vessel of tin or wood containing water, in which is placed one or more ledges, within two inches of the surface. On the ledges the jars which are to receive the gases rest, and they are at first filled with the fluid of the trough, but the gas passing up into them from conductors, the fluid is displaced. PNEUMONIA. This is lung fever in horses, or an inflammation of the substance of the lungs, followed by secretion and effusion of lymph, which solidifies the lungs, at length causing death by suffocation, or recovering by the grad- ual absorption of the matter. It is brought about by various causes, as standing in drafts when heated, bad ventilation in the stables, or from anything causing inflammation, or which may run into it. There will be a chill, cold ears and legs, a dry dull cough, sometimes a semi- bloody mucus will issue from the nose, the pulse will be rapid, and the heat of the body often 103° or 104°, or even more. If, in addition, upon striking with the knuckles over the lungs, at the chest, there is a dull sound, (when in the well animal it is resonant), the disease is pos- itive. If the animal is young and full of blood, it may not be amiss to bleed at the very outset, but blistering and purging must be avoided, and bleeding except as stated. A counter-irritant may be had by means of mustard poultices to the chest. For the fever, give every two hours until the fever is abated, one ounce sweet spirits of nitre, and six ounces solution of acetate of ammonia, in six ounces of water. To reduce the pulse, give alternately with the above, once in two hours, twenty or thirty drops of tincture of aconite, in a little water. This will also relieve the pressure on the lungs, but these doses must be watched ; and upon the first appear- ance of depression of the system, as failing pulse, sweating or trembling, the doses must bt intermitted or discontinued. The animal must be well clothed, comfortably sheltered, and the bow- els loosened, if necessary, by injections of warm water. If there is much weakness, give two drachms each of carbonate of ammonia and camphor, twice a day, and in the form of a ball, and in case of great exhaustion, a gill of whisky occasionally. Good nursing, and simple, cool- ing, laxative and nutritious food, will accom- plish more than any heroic treatment, and the animal must be watched until fully recovered, giving gentle exercise, but not real work, and plenty of grass if possible. PNEUMO-ENTERITIS. (See Cholera, Hog.) PNEUMO-THORAX. A collection of air in the cavity of the pleura. POA. An extensive genus of valuable natural grasses, to which the meadow grass, blue grass, and many important species belong. The botan- ical characters of this genus are, panicle loose;, spikeiets three or more flowered, or even two- flowered, with the pedicels of a greater number of florets; florets articulated with the rachis; palece two, nearly equal, awnless, scales oval, acute, gibbous at the base. (See Grasses.) POACHING. The treading of cattle in wet meadows, in which they leave their hoof marks. POA COMPRESSA. (See Blue Grass.) POA 'I'RIVIALIS. (See Blue Grass.) P01>. Those of the pea and bean are called legumes; those of the radish, mustard, and cru- cif erse are siliques. PODENTIA. The stalk which supports the fructification of some lichens, as the reindeer moss. PODICEPS. A genus of palmipcdine birds, in which the web of the foot is not perfect. POIKILITIC. Variegated. In geology, the- new red sandstone formation. POISON OAK. Rhvs radicans and B. tox- icodendron, the former being also called poison vine : it is a climb.er, the stem throwing out an abundance of black roots. The milky juice is. poisonous, and, to some persons, the volatile particles thrown off from the plant. They pro- duce inflammation and swelling, resembling ery- sipelas. Light diet, laxatives, and a lotion of sugar of lead and water to the part are best. POISONS. Bodies which disturb or destroy the natural functions of the body. They are narcotic, acrid, or septic. Many are to be met by antidotes; but with animals the stomach pump is to be looked to as the chief means of relief. POISONS AND ANTIDOTES. As a rule the lower animals are seldom poisoned, if left to themsleves. Poisoning is oftener the result of carelessness or the stupidity of stablemen, giving quack nostrums to improve the coat or courage of the horse. If the cause is not known, give at once, a quart of linseed oil, to be fol- lowed by an injection of twenty to thirty drops- of croton oil, three or four ounces of spirits of turpentine, and one pint of linseed oil, to be thrown into the bowels with considerable force;, supplement this with injections of lukewarm milk and water, or simply warm water. If there is considerable exhaustion and drowsi- ness, administer whisky freely. If, however, a stomach pump is at hand, use this flrst in preference to all other means. For special cases of poisoning, the following are antidotes u Aloes ; giv^ as an antidote, two ounces of lauda- num in a quart of linseed tea, repeat in two hours if necessary. Inject also the same dose into the bowels. The same antidote will also- apply to poisoning by castor seeds and croton seeds. For fungus poisoning, as smut, toad stools, bad fodder, etc., give full doses of pur- gatives, both by the mouth and by injection, and afterward support the strength with stimulants- and nourishing food. Indian poke, or white hellebore poisoning is relieved by means of whisky in full doses or a tumbler full at a time. In poisoning by laurel, give purgatives and injec- tions, and also stimulate with whisky. Stra- monium poisoning is to be met by quart doses of linseed oil, to which two ounces of laudanum is. POISONS AFFECTING PLANTS 753 POISONS AFFECTING PLANTS added; injections, and stimulants, as whisky, to keep >ip tiie strength. So tar as mineral poisons are concerned, they must not be allowed about, and especially must arsenic be kept out of the hands of stablemen. As a medicine, in intelli- gent hands, it is valuable; as a condiment, to give fictitious fire and spiiit, it is vicious. POI.SONS AFFECTING PLANTS. These are few in number, and principally mineral. Of gases, the common illuminating gas is the only one to be feared, acting fatally, when from leakage of the underground pipes, it is taken up by the roots. Plants quickly suffer if kept in rooms lighted with gas, and hence the reason why florists refuse to leave rare plants long on exhibition at public places lighted with gas. It has been generally credited that Paris Green acts injuriously to plants when used for destroying insects, and many think that it may be taken up to such a degree as to become poisonous to persons eating the fruit. This, however, is groundless, except when the poison may have been applied, and lodging on the fruit or vege- table to be eaten, and taken into the stomach. Hence poisonous compounds should never be used on plants, the fruit of which is designed for eating after the season of inflorescence. This ■will not apply to underground tubers, like potatoes; upon cabbage, cauliflower and other plants which may retain the poison, it should not be used at all. Among the mineral poisons fatal to vegetable life, the compounds of boracic acid have been found to be a veritable plant poison. M. Peligot has discovered that the free acid, and its compounds, when present in the soil in moderate quantities may cause the death of plants in a short time. A remarkable excep- tion to the rule for the influence of aluminium salts is said to have been observed by Bergstrand, in a locality near Westerbotten, in Sweden, Mubus iirticus was found in a flourishing condi- dition upon a sandy soil containing as high as three per cent, of alum. The dry plants yield 4.68 per cent, of ash, containing 13.60 per cent, sulphuric acid and five per cent, alumina; but these figures are very much reduced when the percentage of alum in the soil is sufficiently low to admit of the growth of grass and grain. In eucli case the sulphuric acid of the ash amounts to only five per cent. In relation to the influ- ence ol' arsenical compounds, when present in the soil, the chemist of the Department of Agri- culture, in a late report, gives the results of interesting and conclusive experiments of much value, showing that there is but little to fear. The investigation was made to determine: 1 If applied to the soil, can arsenic or arsenious acid be absorbed and assimilated in the economy of plant-growth? 3. If absorbed and assimi- lated, can it be taken up in suflicient quantity to become prejudicial or injurious to the health of consumers? 3. If not taken up by the plant during growth, does it by its presence in the soil exert a poisonous influence upon the plantitself ? 4. If it exerts a poisonous influence' upon the plant, to what extent may it exist in the soil before it becomes injurious? The experiments were conducted as follows: Fifteen common flower-pots, of as nearly uniform size as possible, were selected, and each one filled with a meas- ured quantity of good garden-soil. With the soil of each pot were then thoroughly intermixed ouantities of Paris Green, ranging from 100 48 milligrams to one gram. Thus one pot contained 100 milligrams; that next to it contained 300 milligrams; the next 300; and this quantity was increased until it finally reached one gram. In the other pots, the increase was made more rapid, and the other pots contained two, three, four, and five grams respectively. After the soil had thus been carefully prepared, a given num- ber of peas, all of which were carefully selected, so as to secure as nearly as possible those of the same size and appearance, were planted in each pot. At this time, the question arose. What would be the effect of arsenic in combination, as arsenite of potassa and arseniate of potassa? For the purpose of determining this, two other series of pots were prepared in the same manner as before, placed alongside the former. In these experiments, for the sake of comparison, one pot of toil was prepared without addition of any poisonous compound. It is evident from results that the arsenical compounds in the soil did pro- duce an injurious effect, and in some instances, in fact in the majority of them, it was decidedly marked. In case of the Paris Green, it is not noticed until the quantity present in the soil reaches 500 milligrams, and that in the other pots the size of the plants decreases regularly as the quantity of arsenical compound present increases. In case of the arsenite of potassa, the effect seems to be mere immediate. This may be due either to the greater solubility of the compound or to a possibly larger quantity of arsenious acid. The potash compound seemed nearly pure, being crys'allized, and the purity of the copper com- pound was not estimated. Yet in this case the effect does not seem decidedly marked until the quantity present reached 300 milligrams. To the influence of arseniate of potassa the plants seemed to be more sensitive still; for those in the pot containing but 100 milligrams seem to be affected. Yet even when 300 milligi-ams are present, the plants seem .to thrive tolerably well. What, then, are the quantities of these com- pounds which may be applied to the soil for the various purposes in practical agriculture before effecting any injurious results? The amount of soil in each of the pots employed in these experi- ments was 91.5 cubic inches. In case of the Paris Green, the limit is 500 milligrams for this quantity of soil, which is equivalent to 145.6 grams per cubic foot, or 906.4 pounds per acre, calculating lor a depth of oue foot. The limit for arsenite of potassa, being 300 milligrams per 91.5 cubic inches, is alsout 540 pounds per acre. Though the plants seem to be affected by even a small quantity of arseniate of potash in the soil, the chemist was nevertheless inclined to the opinion that this compound may be applied at the rate of 150 pounds per acre witliout any great injury to the crop. For practical pur- poses, however, it is never necessary to apply in any case so large an amount. These results' are confirmed by the waterculture experiments of Prof Freytag in his investigations upon the influence of the sulphurous and metallic fumes of the Freiberg Metallurgical AVorks upon the vegetation of the surrounding fields. He found that plants were killed when placed in solutions containing one-eightieth per cent, arsenious acidj one-tiftieth percent, sulphate of zjnc, one-fortieth per cent, sulphate of copper, one'-twentyfifth per cent, sulphate of cobalt, one-fifteenth per cent, sulphate of nickel, and one-fifth per cent, sulph- POISONS AFFECTING PLANTS 754 POISONS AFFECTING PLANTS ate of iron. Mons. E. Heckel states that twenty- five milligrams of arsenious acid, or the soluble arseniates in ninety grams of water, prevents germination and destroys the embryos of seeds. It is difficult, however, to agree with Prof. Freytag in the statement that the arsenious acid and the oxides of zinc and lead can not be injurious to vegetation on account of their prop- erty of forming insoluble compounds in the soil, since in some of my preliminary experiments presence of such insoluble compounds as the arseniates of barium, strontium, and magnesium was sufficient to prevent germination. Again, in reports upon the composition of certain mineral waters of Germany, we notice statements of the presence of such insoluble compounds as arsenite of iron in solution. These facts argue against the possibility of accumulation of sufficient arsenic in the soil by regular applications of Paris Green in the quantities recommended for the destruction of the Colorado potato beetle. When rotation of crops is observed, and application of the poison can not therefore take place upon the same plot more than once in three or four years, it is probable that each application, being acted upon by the natural solvents in the soil, will be removed by drainage before another is made. And yet, even when annual applications have been made, so much time must elapse before the limit could he attained that no injury need be feared from this cause. Now, can arsenic be absorbed and assimilated by the plant in the economy of growth? Investigations, the chem- ist says, give a negative reply. All of the plants grown, from the largest to the smallest, were examined by careful application of Marsh's test; yet he failed in any case to detect the presence of arsenic. Before making the test, the organic matter of the plant was destroyed by boiling it in hydrochloric acid with addition of potassic chlorate, and the solution filtered. He also care- fully examined potatoes which had been sub- jected to applications of Paris Green, and which were furnished from Delaware and Sandusky, O., and Chambersburgh, Pa., and failed in any case to detect the presence of arsenic. With these facts before us, and without considering what might be the result of a series of experi- ments continued through a number of years, we must conclude that plants have not the power to absorb and assimilate from the soil compounds of arsenic, and that though arsenical compounds exert an injurious influence upon vegetation, yet this is without effect until the quantity present reaches; for Paris Green, about 900 pounds per acre; for arsenite of potassa, about 400 pounds per acre; for arseuiate of potassa, about 150 pounds per acre. The influence of illuminating gas upon the aerial portions of plants, is shown to be as follows: The subject of the influence of illuminating gas upon vegetation has, until within a short time, been neglected. In 1873, observatidns made in Berlin determined the fact that gas escaping from the pipes exerted an injurious influence upon the surrounding vegetation, with the roots of which it came in contact, and careful experiment showed that this efEect could be observed when so small a quantity as twenty-five cubic feet per diem was distributed through 144 square feet of soil to a depth of four feet. In fact, the plants whose roots permeated this quantity of soil, 576 cubic feet, were by such treatment killed in a short time, and it appeared that less tirrie was'required to produce this effect when the surface of the ground was closed and more compact During the same year, J. Boehm made experiments by passing coal-gas through the soil of pots contain- ing fuchsia and salvia; of the ten plants experi- mented upon seven died in four months. Further experiments convinced him of the fact that the plants were killed, not by the direct action of the fas upon the roots, but by poisoning the soil, t seems, therefore, pretty well established that when coal-gas permeates through the soil it has- an injurious action upon the vegetation with which it may come in contact. My attention has, however, been attracted to a somewhat dif- ferent action of the gas, which seems equally a& destructive as that just described. Boehm found, in the course of his investigation, when cuttings, of willow were placed in bottles containing a small quantity of water, and otherwise filled with illuminating-gas, as the buds developed, and the leaves began to appear the latter rapidly withered and died before reaching complete development. Now, this is the direction taken in my investigation. In Boehm's paper, he does not state the percentage of gas in the atmosphere necessary to produce the efllect described, and my object was therefore, if possible, to estimate the approximate quantity of gas required to bring about such results. The question arose out of a dispute concerning the destruction of an extensive stock of camellias in Philadelphia, in which it was alleged that the loss was due to the escape of gas from the street-mains. It was shown that the main was broken ; that during the winter, the ground being frozen, there was no means of escape of the gas other than to work its- way through the subsoil., and into the atmos- phere through the ground of the interior of the greenhouse. The distance between the main and the greenhouse is not stated, but it appears that trees growing between the former and the latter were completely killed. It was to determine whether the result in dispute could be effected by the action of the gas. The plants were grow- ing in pots placed upon stands and it was there- fore impossible that they should be injured through the medium of their roots. It was then to determine what might be the infiuence of the gas in question upon the aerial portions of plants that the investigation about to be described was instituted. In order to secure such condition* that the plants might be confined in an atmos- phere containing a given quantity of gas, and yet be provided with the requisite degree of light, heat, and moisture, the plants were placed in closed boxes, provided with glass sides, the joints of which were cemented with white lead. When all was secured, a tube of glass was introduced through the side of the box and connected with the stop-cock of a gasometer. The stop-cock of the gasometer was then opened, and the ga& allowed -to flow into the box, until the entire contents of the former were transferred to the lat- ter. The whole was then allowed to stand until the following day, when the gasometer was again filled with gas taken from the pipes supplying the laboratory, and one-half the contents trans- ferred to the isox. On the next day, press of other duties called my attention away from this work entirely, and the box therefore received no gas. On the fourth day, however, one-half the contents of the gasometer were introdueed, and POLAND CHINA SWINE 755 POLARITY another day allowed to intervene before another application. Gas was then introduced into the hox on four occasions, so that the amounts trans- ferred, allowing ten gallons for the capacity of the gasometer, were: February 34, about ton gallons; 25th, about five gallons; 27th, about five gallons; ^larch 1, about five gallons. During this time, an occasional leaf, as well as one of the buds, fell from the plant, and on Jlarch 2, on opening the box to apply water to the plant, a slight jar caused a number of the leaves to fall. The plant was then carefully removed from the box, when a sharp shock caused nearly all the leaves to fall. The leaves which had fallen were then gathered about the base of the plant, and the whole placed in a convenient position, together with the other plant, which had been submitted to the same conditions excepting the treatment with gas, and which remained perfectly sound and healthy. Now, what was the rela- tive amount employed ? The dimensions of the box were: horizontal cross-section, two feet square; height, four feet. Calculating from the data at hand, we find that the amount first introduced was equivalent to about 7.7 per cent, of the entire vol- ume of the box, and that the quantity subsequently introduced, being one-half this amount, was but 3 35 per cent. Without making any allowances for escape of the gas by diffusion, which probably took place, reasoning from the fact that when the box was opened no odor of gas was percep- tible within the box, we find that after the first day the amount of gas did not exceed four per cent, of the volume of the box. It is, however, probable that the average quantity was much less than three per cent. , and I am inclined to the opinion that if camellias or other plants be confined in an atmosphere containing continually one to two per cent, of illuminating-gas, they must suffer and ultimately be killed. POLAND-CHINA SWINE. This breed is famous all over the West, and also is locally known in Ohio as the Magie hog, from the name of one of its successful breeders there. It is described by the committee on Poland-Chinas at a convention of the National Swine Breed- ers' Association. In a number of articles on swine we have freely used these reports as they have appeared at this convention, since the pecu- liarities of the various breeds were then pretty fully discussed. There were two reports, a majority report and a minority report; the latter being finally adopted. It is as follows: In the early history of swine-breeding in the Miami Valley, in Ohio, it is clear, from the best written authorities available, and from oral testimony, that there were two breeds which, to a great extent, had been profitably crossed with the common bristled breed of the country. These were the Russia and Byfield breeds. The Bed- ford breed is also named in connection with the other two. To what extent it was used can not now be readily determined. In 1816, we have positive proof from an unquestioned source that the Shakers of Union Village, situate in Warren county, O., and being four miles from Mon- roe, in Butler county, purchased at Philadelphia one boar and three sows, of what was, at the time, believed to be pure China. They were represented to be either imported or the imme- diate descendants of imported stock. They were called Big China hogs. These animals were the first China hogs ever brought into southwestern Ohio. Subsequently other China hogs were introduced and extensively used. The shakers and other judicious breeders in Warren and Butler counties continued to use the breeds at command, and produced, by repeated crosses, a hog of exceedingly fine qualities for that period, which was generally known as the Warren County hog. These hogs, continually increasing in good qualities, were bred in both counties, and the very best specimens were carefully and interchangably used, so as to make the best crosses. Such was the progress that had been made in forming the grouud-work of a good specimen of a hog. This condition of the breed remained measurably constant until about the year 1835 or 1836, when Mr. Mun- son Beach, of Warren county, first introduced the Berkshires, which were obtained from C. M Bement, of the State of New York . Other lots of Berkshires continued to flow into the Miami Valley, until about 1841. The Berkshire blood was liberally infused into the stock exist- ing not only in southwestern Ohio, but in Ken- tucky also. Crossing with the Berkshires was almost exclusively done until about 1838 or 1839, when Mr. William Neff, of Cincinnati, imported some choice specimens of the Irish Grazier. This breed soon grew into high favor, and, as a con- sequence, was liberally used in making crosses with the best specimens of the crosses previously made. This intermingling of blood — this cross- ing of breeds — continued for some time. In a few years, however, the use of the pure-blooded Berkshire was entirely discontinued, and there were no further importations made of the Irish Grazier. The breeders of swine in the Miami Valley settled down to the conviction that the basis of a good breed of hogs had been estab- lished, and that in the future, judicious and dis- criminating breeders could use, and, if necessary, modify the material furnished so as to meet the highest demands of the public. For more than thirty years no new blood has been introduced into our breed, and no effort made to obtain a new supply of the blood of either breed previously used. While this is true, our breeders have not been indifferent to the further improvement of our breed. Stimulated by their success, they have perseveringly aimed to improve what they had been so successful in forming. The best points or qualities have been preserved, and, when practicable, have been made even more excel- lent. All defective points or undesirable quali- ties have been corrected or improved by the care, skill and judgment of our experienced breeders. Thus we have a breed thoroughly established — of fixed characteristics, of fine style, and of unquestioned good qualities, which can be relied upon for the production of a progeny of like qualities and character. The f oUowmg is pre- sented as the characteristics of the foregoing breed: The best specimens have good length, short legs, broad, straight backs, deep sides, flanking well down the legs, very broad, full, square hams and shoulders, drooping ears, short heads, wide between the eyes, of spotted or dark color; are hardy, vigorous, and prolific, and when fat are perfect models all over, pre-emi- nently combining the excellencies of both large and small breeds. POLARITY. The quaUty in the particles of bodies adjusting themselves in given directions, as north and south, in the magnet. (756) POLLEN 757 POLLEN POLE. A rod. Sixteen and one-half feet. POLLARD. A tree cut or lopped to form a low brushy top. POLLED. Hornless. POLLED CATTLE. Of the polled breeds of cattle there are several in England. Among the polled breeds that have acquired reputation are the Angus Polled, the Suffolk, and the Galloway. The latter have been, of late years, brought to the United States, bred and exhibited at our fairs. Those specimens we have seen have proved to be most admirable cattle, thick meated, deep flanked short legged, line boned animals. That they were considered most valuable cattle, and worthy of being brought here in the early settlement of the country, is evidenced from the fact that forty years ago these hornless, (or Muley) cattle as they were termed, were not extremely rare often breed- ing back by reversion, entirely hornless or with but the rudiments of horns, and were classed as gentle and good milking cattle. Gentleness is a characteristic of the pure Galloway. Even the bulls are noted for their docility and quiet tem- pers. For the reason that this breed of cattle have of late years been growing in favor in the West, as grazing and milking cattle, (see article Galloway cattle), and, for the further reason that it is thought that crossing the Galloway on the half wild Texan will be most valuable, it has been advocated that they be carefully experi- mented with. While it is undoubtedly true of all pure or thorough-bred stock that, they will improve permanently the character of any native stock upon which they may be crossed, it seems especially so of the Galloways to-day. It has been held by some that pure breeds can not improve the mixed stock of a country. This is a fallacy. They must and do as the magnifi- cent Short Horn Hereford and Devon grades amply testify in all our great markets. That the Galloways have many valuable points can not be denied. One of these is their absence of horns, another is their extreme docility. If by crossing Galloway bulls with Texan cows their horns could be toned down, their wildness tamed, their frames thickened with superior flesh, their milk- ing qualities improved, and the whole animal ameliorated, it would seem as possible with the Galloway as by any other means we know. It is certainly well worthy of trial. POLLEN. The pollen of plants is the fecun- dating dust or minute grains of organized ferti- lizing matter which, falling upon the pistil of the flower, throws out hair-like tubes, which pene- trate through the whole extent of the vascular tissue of the pistil, and reaching the ovules, fertilize them, thus rendering them capable of perfecting the seed, and reproducing plants of their own kind. The pollen, therefore, repre- sents the male element in plant life. The male and female organs (stamens and pistils) arc some- times in the same flower, as in the apple. These are called perfect flowers. When the stamens and pistils are on difl^erent flowers and on tlie same plant, as in the white oak, they are called monwoious. When in different flowers and on different plants, as on hemp, they are called dicB- cious. How the fertilization in different plants is accomplished, Mr. Horace Piper, of Maine, relates as follows, taking perfect .flowering plants, monffiCii9MS and dtcecious plants, to illustrate the three classes: In the first class the pollen is conveyed from the anthers to the pistils in some cases by actual contact of the two organs, as in the potato (Solanum tuberosum) ; in others, by the elasticity or spring of the stamens at the time the anthers emit the pollen, by which action it is scattered on the pistils, as in the mountain laurel (Kalmialati folia); and still in others by the posi- tion or length of the stamens, being above or hanging over the pistils, and, therefore, requir- ing no accidental means to fertilize the plant. In the second class the staminate flowers are generally situated above the pistillate, and over them on the same stalk, so that the pollen falls upon the pistils by the mere force of gravity, as in Indian corn, in which the part commonly called the spindle contains the staminate flow- ers, and the ears the pistillate. In the third class the staminate flowers are on one plant, and the pistillate on another; therefore, the pollen must be conveyed by some artificial means from the stamens to the pistils. This is readily accomplished by the wind or insects. The grains being light and very numerous, are easily wafted by the breezes and severe winds in sufficient numbers, and to the necessary distances, to accomplish the desired object. But, lest this mode of conveyance should prove inadequate, nature has provided another security just referred to, namely, the transmis- sion by insects when in search of honey for their food. Passing from the flowers of one plant to those of another, often to great distances, they carry the pollen which has adhered to their legs and bodies, and deposit it on the pistils of the flower of another plant, which is thus rendered fertile, and is as certain of producing fruit as if the pollen actually fell upon the pistils from the anthers of the same flower. In this way we may account for the fact that some trees of this class though thrifty and producing an abundance of flowers, do not bear any fruit It is simply because there is no staminate plant sufficiently near from which pollen may be conveyed by any of the means above to the insulated plant. And, again, the plant may be so far distant as not. to admit the pollen to reach it at all, or only on some extraordinary, occasion, and, therefore, it would produce fruit only when such accident should happen to occur, which might never be. We have a very curious instance of the manner in which fertilization is sometimes effected in this class of plants in the case of the Vallisneria spiralis, in which the flower of the staminate plant detaches itself from its stalk and swims to its mate, attaches itself to it, and remains until it becomes fertilized, when both flowers wither and sink beneath the surface of the water in which they grew, the one to perish, and the other to mature seeds, and sow them on the muddy bottom below. As illustrating the action of pollen, Broigniart and others think that when the hair-like tube of the pollen-grain passes through the orifice in the coatings of the ovule, and reaches the nucleus, or embryo sac, it emits a spermatic or plantlet germ, which passes through the wall of the embryo sac and enters the ger- minal vesicle contained in it. The vesicle cor- responds to the germinal spot, or vesicle, in the egg of birds, and the ovum of mammiferous animals. The germ remains in the vesicle, and finally becomes the embryo fully developed into a plantlet, as may be seen in the bean and other seeds. These tubes sometimes grow to great length, and are many days in penetrating the PONIES 758 PORES whole length of the pistil. Indian corn will fur- nish a good illustration. The pistils of this plant, which are commonly called the silk, grow to the length of ten or twelve inches, apd yet these slender pollen-tubes penetrate the whole distance from the point where they come in con- tact with the pistils to the nucleus of each rudi- mentary seed, POLL EVIL. (See Fistula.) POLY. A prefix of many words, as polygon, polypetalous. POLYttASTRIC INFUSOBIALS. The class of animalcules with many stomachs inhabiting infusions. POLYGON ACE.H. Herbaceous, apetalousexo- gens, with triangular, scaly fruit, and an ochrea. The rhubarbs, sorrels, docks, and buckwheat belong to this family. POLYPES, POLYPI. The name of an extensive group of radiate animals in the sys- tem of Cuvier, associated together by the com- mon character of a fleshy body, of a conical or cylindrical form, commonly fixed by one extremity, and with the mouth situated at the opposite end, and sun-ounded by more or less numerous arms or tentacles. POLYPODY. Polypodium. Having numer- ous root-like feet. This is an extensive genus of ornamental ferns. The hardy kinds are well adapted for ornamenting rock-work, or they may be grown in pots, in light loamy soil. All the species may be readily increased by dividing the roots, or by seeds. POLYPUS. A fleshy tumor of the nostrils or womb. It is ovi\y removed by the knife in the hands of a competent surgeon. POMACE, POMAGE. Refuse of fruits, after pressing for cider. POMACEjE. Rosaceous plants, with an infe- rior ovary, as the apple, pear, etc. POMEGRANATE. A tropical fruit. A beautiful, hardy, deciduous shrub, growing twelve or more feet high. Punica granatnm, and its varieties, produce their splendid flowers and fruit very plentifully from July to September. They all grow well in a light, rich loam, and strike root freely from cuttings or layers; tlie rarer varieties are sometimes increased by graft- ing on the common kinds. Tlie pulp of the fruit is of an agreeable acid, and the rind is highly astringent. POMMEL. The front prominence of the saddle. POMOLOGY. (See Horticulture.) PONE, PONES OF BREAD. Small loaves, usually applied to a particular form of corn-meal PONIES. Of ponies, the Shetland, the Can- adian, the Indian pony, and the Mustang are the principal breeds worthy of notice. The Shetland ponies are the smallest of all the breeds of ponies, though there are ponies having some of the characteristics of the Shetlands in northern Sweden, Iceland, Wales, and also on the southwest coast of Enuland; in fact wherever civilization has extended, in Alpine regions and in high northern latitudes, there will be found ponies, rough and often shaggy in their coats, dwarfed, and hardy little horses, undoubtedly the descendants of more powerful ancestors, that being taken to those inhospitable regions have, in the course of many generations of exposure and hardship, been dwarfed to their present size, until the more diminutive of them are scarcely larger than some of the improved breeds of mutton and long-wooled sheep, (See Canadian, Indian, Mustang, Narragansett pacer, and Shetland ponies.) PONS VAROLII. An eminence of the me- dulla oblongata, at the top of the spinal marrow. PONTIA. The genus of insects to which the cabbage butterfly belongs. POPLAR. Populus. The genera contains the aspens, the downy -leaved poplar, the cotton- woods, and the balsam poplars. Also, as intro- duced trees in the United States, the Lombardy poplar, and the Abela or Silver-leaved poplar. Both of these latter are undesirable trees, from the fact that the Lombardy poplar, populus dilatata dies young, and the abele, P. Alba, spreads by suckers so as to become a nuisance. The aspens are, the American aspen, P. tremu- loides, or quaking aspen, a small tree, with smooth greenish bark; the larged-toothed aspen, P. grandidentata, larger than the preceding, with smoothish gray bark. The downy-leaved poplar, P. heierophylla, found in swamps from New England to Illinois, and southward; the Cottonwood poplars, P. Moniltftra, or necklace poplar; and P. Angiilata, or angled Cottonwood The balsam poplars, P. balsamifera, or tacama- hac, and the variety carididana, or balm of Gil- ead poplar, and the black poplar, P. nigra, found sparingly East, and supposed to be an introduced form of the European black poplar. The poplars belong to the Salicacece, or willow family. The cottonwoods are extensively planted in the West by early settlers, on account of their quick growth, and fair quality for fire- wood and other uses, but to give place to better trees when they can be grown. POPLITKAL. Relating to the space behind the knee joint. POPPY. Papamr. The common poppy, P. somnifera, furnishes the opium of commerce, obtained by the exudation of the milky sap, upon being cut. P. duMum,^ is the smooth fruited corn poppy. Argemany, or prickly" poppy, A. Mexicana; Stylophamm, or celandine poppy, S. diphyllum, is found in the Missis- sippi valley, east of the Mississippi, from the lakes to Kentucky. Chelidonium, or celandine, 0. mcijus, is a perennial weed growing in waste places. Glancium, or horn poppy, G. luteum, is an introduced plant from Europe, runs wild in Maryland and Virginia. Sanguinaria, or blood root, S. Oan-adensia, belongs to the poppy family, as also does Eschscliolilaia Californica, and Doug- latii. These are handsome flowering plants, the juice colorless, and curious, from the fact that they have the odor of muriatic acid. POP CLIN. A crystalline substance obtained from the bark of the aspen. PORCATE. In entomology, divided into ridges; a surface on which there are several ele- vated and parallel grooves. PORCELAIN CAPSULES. Evaporating basins of porcelain; this material resists a great heat, and is not readily acted on except by potash or soda, PORCH. An arched or flat-ceiled vestibule to a door or building. POKES. Small spaces existing between the atoms of bodies ; also distinct apertures through leaves or membranes, from which perspiration and vapors pass. PORK 759 POROSITY PORK. The flesh of swine, after being cut for use, is called pork. In cutting it should be •done with reference to the use for which it is intended. In the great pork packing establish- ments the cutting and curing has special refer- ence to the particular markets to which it is to be sent, aud even including the particular form of the hams, shoulders, bacon, and pickled pork. Thus in hams, sometimes the hip bone is removed at the socket, or left entire. The shank is left long, to the hock joint, or cut well up to the ham. So with the shoulder, it may be cut square, back of the shoulder blade, and the neck, or trimmed rounding. The bacon pieces may embrace the entire side from ham to shoulder, or the flank piece may be separated from the back piece. Sometimes the tips of the ribs are left in, but generally the whole of the ribs are taken out and the backbone always. In making pickled pork, whole hog pork contains two hams, two shoulders, the side meat, chops and feet. Mess pork is the side meat containing the bone, clear pork is the side meat containing no bone. Another grade of clear pork is made by taking the flank, or lower half of the side for bacon, and the upper half or back for barreling, after being divested of the bone. In putting up pork for home ■consumption, the chops, shoulders, hams and flank pieces of the side meat should be used for smo- king, and the back pieces of the side meat bar- reled. The shoulders and hams should be trim- med close, and the hip bone removed from the ham at the socket joint. All the bone should be removed from the bacon and pickling pieces, since these, as well as the scrap pieces from the hams and shoulders, are more economically used fresh than otherwise; the lean and fat scraps, may be used for sausage, and the bones with the meat adhering, in whatever way may suit the taste. With the backbone the large loin muscle should be removed, since this lean strip is not good salted, from the excess of salt it takes up. Fat pork will not become over salt. Prom forty to fifty pounds of salt will cure a barrel, but if ■double this quantitj- is used no harm will ensue, but the undissolved salt will remain good in the barrel. The layers should be placed in regu- larly, the skin side next the barrel, the whole packed as firm as possible, with plenty of the best coarse salt between each layer. Then fill the barrel with pure water, soft water preferably, the meat to be kept entirely covered with the hrine, kept cool and there is no danger of spoil- ing. The bony and other pieces that remain for eating fresh may be kept for a long time by packing in a barrel with snow, or even by hang- ing on the north side of a building, where they may be kept frozen. Hams, shoulders and bacon must be so cured that they will be only seasoned enough for use, without freshening, (a part of the preservative process being smoking). This may be done by making a pickle of salt, salt- petre and sugar or molasses, and immersing the meat therein for two or three weeks, the pieces having been previously rubbed with salt and allowed to drain for two or three days. The proper proportion for a pickle of beef and hams should be as follows: Make a brine that will bear up an egg so it will show a section the size of a ten cent piece. Then to each 100 pounds of hams or shoulders to be cured, add six ounces saltpetre, and two pounds of sugar. In this immerse the meat after it has been rubbed with salt and laid to drain two days. The hams will be fit for smoking in from two to three weeks, according to size, though they may lie a month without injury. Before smoking, drain dry,' and rub the whole thoroughly with black pep- per. Hams intended for boiling, may be pre- pared by this recipe. For broiling the follow- ing recipe is one of the best we have ever used, since by this process the fat as well as the lean will be found superior: The hams are to be laid regularly on a platform and rubbed with salt, and allowed to drain for two days, being careful not to place one on another. Each fif- teen or sixteen pounds of ham will require one pound of New Orleans brown sugar, two ounces of pulverized saltpetre, and half a pound of coarse salt pulverized. Rub the flesh and end of shank with one-third of the saltpetre and cover with sugar about one-quarter of an inch thick. In five days rub the skin briskly with sugar, and the flesh side with another third of the saltpetre mixed with three parts of sugar and one of salt, on the seventh day repeat the process. In three days more rub again with half sugar and half salt and repeat in seven days. Let the ham lie for five or six days, clean the flesh side and rub with New Orleans molasses as long as the meat will absorb it, the idea being to saturate the ham with sugar and molasses, using only salt enough to flavor it; when cured through, rub with black pepper. Hang the hams in the smoke house and dry with gentle heat for a week, and then smoke with a green hickory fire smothered with sawdust of the same, or of bur oak ; clean corn cobs also make an excellent smoke. If the smoke house is so constructed that the smoke can be admitted at the top so much the better. The temperature of the house should never be above eighty or eighty-five degrees, and the meat should not freeze either before or after smoking. The smoking, or drying (for the meat should be dried rather than smoked), may continue until the skin assumes a light chestnut hue, and when fully cured and dried, put them in mus- lin bags well sewed and whitewashed to guard against flies. Beef may be cured in the same manner, and mutton hams as well, but in this case little or no smoke should be used, but simply a heat of about eighty degrees. It may be objected that this is an expensive method. Very true, but the pleasure of eating the deli- cious broiled slices will fully warrant the cost. A common plan of dry salting is to use salt and saltpetre in the proportion of one pound of the former to one ounce of the latter. Rub with salt and drain for three days, then warm the mixture just so it can be borne by the hand, and rub every three days until the meat is cured to the bone, packing in a hogshead, box, or other con- venient place, each time the rubbing is per- formed, placing the under pieces on top. When cured, clean and rub with ground black pepper, and dry, smoke, and preserve as before directed. If wanted very nice, add half a pound of sugar to each pound of salt, rubbing in the sugar at the second handling before using the salt. In dry salting it is quite essential that the salt used be rubbed on hot. PORK, CLEAR. Side pork for barreling, free from lean. POROSITY. The property of bodies, where- by they transmit fluids or gases, and which depends on their pores. POTASH 760 POTASSIUM PORPHYRY. A hard red or gray stone of the nature of granite, and consisting of feldspar, with quartz or hornblende. It occurs in the 61dest dikes. PORRECT. Extending. When a part ex- tends horizontally. PORRKilO. Scald head, ring-worm, tetter. Tar ointment, or dilute carbolic acid is a remedy. Cleanliness and attention to the general health, are essential. . PORTAL. The lesser of two gates. PORTAL CIRCULATION. The circulation of tlie venous blood from the abdominal viscera through the liver to the right auricle of the heart. PORTER. A beer colored with dark malt or molasses. PORTICO. A projection from a building, supported by arches or pillars. POSITIVE ELECTRICITY. A surplus of electricity. (See Electricity.) POST ABDOMEN. Tlie five posterior seg- ments of the abdomen of insects, or the tails of some crustaceans. POTASH. Alkali. Protoxide of potassium Tha substance popularly known under the name of potash is a combination of oxygen and of a metal called potassium. This metal was first separated from the alkali in 1807, by Sir Hum- phi-ey Davy, and is interesting on account of its properties, and as having been the fii-st of its class obtained by means of the galvanic pile. It is of a bluish color, is soft, and may be worked by the fingers as wax. Its luster is eminently metallic, and can not be retained in contact with the air. This metal must be kept under oil of naphtha, (which contains no oxygen,) because, if loft in contact with the atmosphere, it will absorb oxygen, and again become potash, or oxide of potassium. It is lighter than water, its specific gravity being 0.865. At the temperature of freezing water it is brittle; as the temperature rises it first becomes soft, and then liquifies long before the thermometer reaches the boiling point; and, finally, is volatilized at a red heat, giving out vapors of a beautiful green color. When a piece of potassium is thrown upon water its alfinity for oxygen is so great that the water is decomposed, tlie oxygen of the water uniting with the metal with such rapidity that the hydrogen is ignited, and continues to burn until the metal is completely oxydized. If the remaining water be then examined it will be found alkaline, and capable of turning reddened litmus blue. Potash, as known in commerce, is an impure compound of all the soluble salts extracted from wood ashes by lixiviation and evaporation to dryness. Pearl-ash contains fewer impurities, being prepared by a more perfect calcination in contact witli the air, promoted by constant stirring, by which means the carbon- aceous matter, as well as the sulphur, is dissi- pated. Resolution and evaporation, toward the close of the process, produce a white granular appeai'iince. Pure potash, (vegetable alkali, caustic p 'tash, etc.,) is solid, white, and fusi- ble, and does not undergo decomposition at any degree of heat to which it may be subjected ; but it is deliquescent, and, when exposed to the air, absorbs the carbonic acid of the atmosphere, and will consequently effervesce by the application of any of the stronger acids, such as sulphuric, nitric, or chloroliydric. It is one of the most powerful bases, and so caustic as to alter all organic substances with which it comes in con- tact, and it is hence used as an escharotic in surgery. Not only does it dissolve many animal substances, but also changes the nature of vege- table products, particularly when its action is- aided by heat. Potash is never found pure in nature, being always combined with acids, such as carbonic, sulphuric, chloroliydric, nitric, tar- taric, oxalic, etc. That which is extracted from the ashes of vegetables is mixed with divers other salts, varying according to the vegetables from which the ashes have been procured, the nature of the soil, and the kinds of manure used in their production. In preparing caustic potash, regard must be had to the substance used for the carbonate. That produced by reducing to ashes the tartrate of potash is the most pure. By suc- cessive crystallizations any degree of purity may be gradually attained. The carbonate of potash is decarbonized by the application of caustic lime to a solution of the carbonate in boiling water, the boiling being continued for a time. The car- bonate of lime, formed by the absorption of the carbonic acid from potash, precipitates, and may hence be easily separated by decantation or by filtration. To ascertain when all the carbonic acid has been removed, it is only necessary to add a few drops of acid to an equal quantity of the clear solution, when any effervescence will indicate the incompleteness of the operation. The decomposition being effected, the solution is allowed to settle, the clear liquid is decanted, and the residuum is thrown upon a filter, which may be of straw, clean sand, cloth, or paper. The evaporation should be rapid until the water is dissipated, when the product may be run into moulds, as may be desired, or allowed to cool on the sides of the evaporating pan. It should then be broken into fragments and secured in glass vases with emery stoppers. Potash thus obtained is known in commerce as potash prepared with lime. It is not absolutely pure, but contains- salts, such as chlorides, sulphates, silicates, and aluminates of potash. By dissolving this potash in alcohol, and evaporating fii'st in a still, to econ- omize the alcohol, and finally in a silver vase, a product is obtained known as potash a I'alcohol, which is used in analyses, and may be con- sidered the purest found in commerce. Pot- ash, if not the strongest, is at least one of the strongest of the bases, and forpas salts that are very permanent — all of which are soluble in water; such as are but slightly so being rare- exceptions. In agriculture it is never used alone, but in combination with substances produced in the arts or found in certain localities, as geologi- cal formations, such as green sand, occurring along our eastern littoral, (sea shore between high and low water), varieties of feldspar, lavas, etc. Potashis widely diffused throughout nature. It enters into the composition of animals- and plants, and of all the soils which support vegetation ; and it forms one of the constituents of the predominant rocks of which the earth is composed, such as granites, mica-schists, the sienites, lavas, basalts, etc. Where the soil is formed from a rock in which there is no potash, it would be useless to seek it, or to anticipate- fertility without supplying this element. (See Manures.) POTASSIUM. The metallic basis of potash; it is white and brilliant, but soft as wax, lighter POTATO 761 POTATO than water, specific gravity 86, and spontaneously inflammable on water. Its compound with one equivalent oxygen, potash, isrone of the most important chemical agents; a powerful base and an alkali. POTATO. Solanum tuberosum. The potato is one of the most important of field crops, as food for man, ranking next to wheat, its limits of cultivation being carried further north than .that of spring wheat and extending south to the equator. One of the singular circumstances in connection with the common name of the potato is that it should be called Irish. This was undoubtedly caused from the fact that early in this century it became the principal sustenance of the Irish peasantiy. According to the younger Hooker, the wild species has passed into several varieties. The cultivated species are innumer- able, and each year adds a host of new varieties as candidates for popular favor. In its wild state, the tubers never exceed two inches in length, and the flavor is insipid but not bitter. In Chili and Peru, it is peculiar to hilly or rocky soils, and found near the coast. The cultivated potato is a native of America, but tuberous solanums are found in the East and >^ est Indies, having the ends of the stolons thickened into tubers, as S. rommersonii, 8. Maglia, and 8. immite. In Mexico, there are also tuberous solanums, as 8. demissum, 8. cardlopJiySum, and S. veiTUcoxum. This latter variety produces small, but well flavored tubers. In the Argen- tine Kepublic, in some of the mountain regions, a species of solanum grows wild, and is also cultivated for its tubers. The natural history of the potato leaves us in some doubt as to its original nativity. It was carried to England, in 15651 by Sir John Wamkins, from Santa Fe de Bogota, where it was found growing wild, at an elevation of from 8,000 to 13,000 feet above the ocean, in elevated valleys surrounded by high mountains, and above the range of Indian corn. The climate is dry and cool, and, being near the equator, is not subject to great extremes of heat and cold. An attention to this fact will be of advantage to cultivators of this crop in climates not so well suited to it. It is said to have been known, at that early day, in various parts of North America; and after its introduction into England, from Virginia, by Sir Walter Raleigh, in 1586, it began to attract more and more notice, until, at this day, the potato, as one of the root crops, and maize among cereals, have been among the most valuable food-producing plants ever bestowed upon man. Prom a history of the potato, by Bonjean, published in 1836, we find that it came originally from the intertropical parts of the American continent; that it grows spontaneously from Carolina to Valparaiso, in Chili. The celebrated Joseph Pavon, one of the authors of the Peruvian Flora, found it growing wild in the vicinity of Lima, Peru, where the Indians cultivated it abundantly for their sub- sistence. Lopez de Tomera, a Spanish priest, in his general history of the Indies, published in 1553, mentions the Papas, the name by which it was known to the Indians. Joseph Acosta saj's that the Peruvians employed it in lieu of bread roots, which they called Gliunao, or they ate them fresh and boiled. Before its introduction into England it had already been very exten- sively diffused throughout the south of Europe. The botanist, Charles L'Ecluses (Clusius), about the year 1588, is said to have been the first European writer who mentions the potato. In 1631 he published a description of the root, and says that it was' then so common in some parts of Italy that it was eaten by men and fed to hogs. He doubts whether it was known to ancients; thinks that it may have been the Arachidna of Theophrastus. Cortusus, another botanist, sup- poses that it was the Pycnucoma of Dioscorides. In 1590 Gaspard Bonhin received frera Scholtz a colored drawing of the potato, and recognized it as a solanum. Mathiola afterwards described it in his commentaries upon Dioscorides. It was in Italy that potatoes were first cultivated to any extent, and from thence it began to be spread over Europe, about the year 1550. The Italians called them Tartoffoli, or ground truffles, and from this is said to have come the German name, Kartoffie. Parmentier, in 1783, succeeded in introducing the potato into general cultivation in France, and spent much time and research in demonstrating, by chemical experiments, that the potato was both a healthful and nutritious food. The following is a summing up of an analysis of the potato, by the author first quoted, Bonjean: Starch, peculiar animal matter, bitter aromatic resin. Parenchyma (fibrous matter), Solauin, Asparagine, colored Albumen, a sugar principle, a gum principle, citrate of lime, citrate of potash, phosphate of potash, phosphate of lime, free citric acid, Silica, Alumine, Magnesia, Manga- nese, oxide of iron, lode, Brome and water of vegetation. An analysis of the Mercer potato, by Charles T. Jackson, M. D., of Boston, Mass., gives in 100 parts by weight : Constituents. Per cent. 75.80 12.54 Cellulose 3.62 8.04 lOO.OO In an analysis of the ash of the potato, accord- ing to Prof. Norton, it contains : Chemical Elements. Carbonic acid Sulphuric acid Photfi>horic acid Ciilorine Lime Magnesia Potash , Sod^i Silica Iron Charcoal in ash, and loss Per cent. 10.04 7.01 10.03 2.07 1.08 5.04 56.55 trace. 8.06 0.05 10.07 100. CO After its introduction into England, by Sir Walter Raleigh, it was cultivated in Ii'cland in 1610, in Alsace in 1720, in Scotland in 1728, in Switzerland in 1730. Since this time its cultiva- tion has been extended to every civilized country, and many barbarous ones, from the equator to the 64th parallel of north latitude, has added millions to the population of the earth, and has rendered almost unknown those famines which POTATO 763 POTATO so often desolated the civilized world. Indeed, it has been said that if the sanguinary wars of the French Eevolution had occurred before the introduction of the potato, that Eui'ope would have been decimated by famine. Very many theories have been, from time to time, promul- gated relating to the deterioration of the potato, principal among which are degeneration, or a wearing out of its vital forces, which nature herself has disproved by recuperating, in a measure, this valuable esculent. Another theory is that the disease is produced by excessive culti- vation and high manuring, thereby inducing an extremely succulent and watery growth, and consequently a greater liability to be affected by atmospheric and other changes which are con- stantly taking place. That it is due to this cause, measurably, is more than probable, from the fact that the potato, when given its true, or normal conditioa, i.e. a cool and equable temper- ature, allowing it to make its growth without subjecting it to violent atmospheric changes, it uniformly produces fair crops, as, for instance, if we plant early varieties early in the spring In the Northern States, upon new or fibrous soil, however well manured, we may confidently ex- pect to harvest a good crop about the first of August; and also, if we plant in June, we may expect to gather a crop in September or October, if the season is proper, that is, not wet and hot ; these are conditions that are not suitable to a healthful growth of the potato. In fact, a sea- son that produces good wheat is apt to produce good potatoes, but a season that is subjected to violent extremes of heat and cold, especially upon highly manured soils, is sure to deteriorate and reduce the potato crop The effect of high cul- tivation, and strong and especially green manures, is such as to induce an extremely succulent growth of vines, and while in this condition, if such weather occurs as would cause rust in the wheat plant or rot in fruit, the cells, being gorged with sap, are ruptured, and decomposition taking place, it is immediately seized upon by micro- scopic fungi, and unless seasonable weather succeed the poisonous matter is communicated to every part of the plant, and a total destruction of the plant ensues. That it is due to atmos- pheric causes, in a great measure, there is no doubt, and it is also as true that a hot murky atmosphere is the superinducing cause. Indeed, the disease has not been confined exclusively to the potato, for about the same time, we have accounts of similarly affected bulbs and i-oots, as tulips, hyacinths, the sweet potato, various vege- tables and fruits, as tomatoes, the yam, the cocoa, apples, peaches, pears and other fruits. That it is due to engorgement, or something analogous, is probable — the rupture of the plant cells pre- senting a proper nidus for microscopic insects and fungi, the vitality of the plant is more and more impaired, until finally, as in the case of annuals, they are completely destroyed; but perennials may linger from year to year, until they finally succumb, or, during more favorable seasons, eventually recover. This is a pi'incipal reason that we find certain plants growing within certain isothermal lines, or where the temperature is natural to them, and it is not strange that the potato, requiring as it does such peculiar con- ditions for its normal development, being trans- planted to such a variety of climates, should become diseased, and the seeds of that disease be carried, perhaps, to every country where it is cultivated. The potato requires a cool, equable climate. Michigan and Wisconsin are celebrated for their fine crops of potatoes, so are Maine and Nova Scotia. Now it is known that the climate of Michigan, nearly surrounded as it is by ex- tremely deep water, and protected besides by dense forests, has a comparatively equal climate; it is warmer in winter and cooler in summer, not subject to so violent alternations of heat and cold as are the more open countries in the same lati- tude lying west of lake Michigan. In fact the delicate Carter potato was, for many years after it ceased to be profitable elsewhere, successfully grown on the Eastern shore of lake Michigan, 200 miles north of Chicago, upon the clearings of the dense forests, for the reason that their sum- mers, although short, are marked by a steady degree of heat and moisture, sufficient to mature the crop; so of Maine and Nova Scotia. Wis- consin is subject to greater atmospheric varia- tions, lies nearer the great treeless prairies, but is at the same time sufficiently protected to be exempt from the more violent extremes. Indian corn requires a much gi-eater average heat to mature its crop than the potato, but at the same time it will stand greater extremes of heat and cold. The least frost blackens the potato vine, but the corn simply turns yellow, subse- quently recovers, and under favorable conditions as to moisture and heat matures its crop. The theory of degeneration as producing the potato rot, is essentially this, that reproduction, by exten- sion as by layering, by cuttings and by eyes, tends so to impoverish the vital energy of the plant from generation to generation, that it con- tinually becomes more and more weakened, until finally it dies. Now plants, as well as aniriials, may be called both viviparous and oviparous, not scientifically, but, as a condensed illustration; and some plants, as the potato, dahlia, artichoke, etc. , are both oviparous and viviparous — ovipar- ous as reproducing themselves from seeds or ovules, and viviparous, reproducing themselves by tubers, or offsets or buds. Now the seed, in order to reproduce the living organism, must first undergo certain changes, must be placed in its nest and be hatched ; but in reproduction from the bud, it is fed by the sap itself until it has put forth its roots and leaves and is enabled to draw from the earth its proper nourishment. It seems to be a law of nature that the higher we breed either the animal or plant, the more susceptible it becomes to climatic and other changes; that the more we refine the more delicate becomes the tissue; that the higher we feed the more liable are we to engorge, and with engorgement comes rupture, disease and death. We have forced the potato, by high feeding and extreme culture, into excessive growth ; under certain atmospheric or other conditions, engorgement ensues, the cel- lular tissue is ruptured, the vitiated sap decom- poses, fungi attack it, and unless assisted by other conditions favorable to the normal condition of the plant, finally ends in its complete destruc- tion, or partial disorganization, leaves it in so feeble a condition that it is not able to fully elaborate its starch, and instead of the dry, mealy potato, we have the soggy, waxy and watery one. It is no argument, for it is only a theory, against the theory that reproduction from seed does not bring it back to a healthful condition, for the seed being but a minute part of ..he whole POTATO r63 POTTER'S CLAY plant, may necessarily be diseased from the parent, and might, perhaps, continue so for gen- erations, until it wears out just as fever and ague ■wears out upon the human patient. But under fortuitous circumstances, it may at last regain its original health and vigor. The history of potato culture in the West shows plenty of failures, resulting from plantings in the month of May and early in June, for the reason before stated that the hot sun and dry atmosphere of July and August ; or else the sudden alternations of wet and dry, hot and cold, are not conducive to the steady growth which the potato requires. But even under these circumstances, we may measurably succeed, by mulching, when the conditions are such that early planted ones do not perfect their growth before the heat of summer ensues. Upon •clay or heavy loams, we advise planting as early in the spring as possible, upon deep fall plowing, by marking the land three feet apart, making a deep narrow furrow, which will of course be left filled with the fine earth. If you plant in hills, toark the other way, two feet apart, and put two strong single eyes in each hill. If in drills, plant the eyes about ten or twelve inches apart, step- ping upon each piece in order to press it firmly into the earth, or if two rows are planted at -once, this must of course be omitted, in which case a roller may be passed over the laud before covering by the cultivator or hiller. Notwith- standing the assertion that it makes no difference whether the eye lies uppermost or not, it is bad practice to allow some eyes to lie up and some down, since they do not appear above ground at one time. Have them lie in the furrow as they are to grow, the Bye up; cover about four inches deep. As the weeds start, or from rain, a crust forms, harrow thoroughly with u light drag, and continue to do so as often as necessary, until the rows can plainly be seen, then with any suitable implement, turn a light furrow away from the potatoes, and within four or five days turn it to them again, and continue to earth them from time to time, until at the time of "blossoming the vines will be supported by a moderately broad and high hill. If the vines now grow so as to cover the ground and shade tlie ridges or hills, you may confidently expect to harvest a crop, unless the season is unfavorable, that is, wet and hot, or witli alternations of heat and cold. We have gathered fine crops by fill- ing between the hills with litter or fine manure, to obviate the effects of heat and drought. Wlial the potato most craves is a moist, equable tem- perature of the earth, which can only be obtained, in variable seasons, by having tlie ground cov- ered with the vines or mulch. If these condi- tions are secured you will hot be much troubled by weeds, but if so you must get tliem out by hand •or otherwise. Neither potatoes nor any other crop will thrive among weeds. In case blight attacks them severely cut the tops, but if slight leave them alone — they may recuperate; and in no case when attacked by disease should you dig them to save them, they are safer in the ground than out, unless the land is very wet, in which case, if they are dug, they should be spread thinly, and some absorbent, as lime, powdered charcoal, or dry muck, mixed with them. Wlien thoroughly ripe they may be dug and placed in naiTOW piles to sweat and dry, after wliich they may be stored where they are to remain through the winter. More attention should be used in the storing of potatoes than is generally allowed. Those intended for eating should be kept as much as possible from the light and air, and all potatoes should be kept at such a temper- ature as to prevent germination; but potatoes intended for planting certainly sprout more kindly and more quickly if they are exposed to the air sufficiently in the fall to become even greened before storing, on the .'fame principle, perhaps, that the roots of trees dug in the autumn and healed in, get calloused and ready for growth in the spring. The planting of small potatoes can not be too much deprecated, and why otherwise intelligent farmers will practice planting inferior and small potatoes, and at the same time be so careful in saving seed of corn and other cereals, is something wonderful. A crop may be reduced one-half in four years by the experiment. A single strong eye, with a liberal quantity of tuber attached, is as good as more. In planting whole potatoes none but the strongest eyes grow, while if all the apparent eyes are cut out there will still be latent eyes, which, under favorable circumstances will ger- minate. The small potatoes, liowever, in this day of high prices, may be utilized thus: Select a certain ]iortion of the best potatoes, sufficient for the seed of the next year to be saved from, and if you continue this practice from year to year, you may plant the small potatoes for the market crop ; but in no case must seed be saved from the produce of these small potatoes. It is not necessary that we send long distances for change of seed. We have proved, from our own experience, that plants will not degenerate if care is taken to save seed from the best specimens, but will, on the otlier hand, improve yearly. The potato is liable to the attacks of a number of insects. Those doing the most damage are cut worms eating the young shoots, the white grub which eats the roots to some extent, but whose principal mischief is in eating holes in the tubers. The most destructive insect, how- ever, is the Colorado Potato Beetle. The cut above at 1, 1, shows the beetle and larva of Colorado potato beetle; 3, 3, D. junda, of the South which feeds on the horse nettle : 3 shows an apparent cross between the two, in which the thick heavy line of the juncta is supple- mented with a yellowish line running partly through it longitudinally. POTATO FLY. Cuntharides. There are many V3iri6tiGS. POTATO STARCH. The farma of the potato. POTTER'S CLAY. Plastic clay either of a white or red color. POTTING PLANTS 764 POUDRETTE POTTING. The placing of young plants in pots. The chief end attained by potting is the Eower, says Lindley, of moving plants about I'om place to place without injury; greenliouse plants from the open air to the house, and the reverse ; hardy species, difHoult to transplant, to their final stations in the open ground without disturbing their roots; annuals raised in heat to the open borders and so on; and when tliis power of moving plants is wanted, pots afford the only means of doing so. It also cramps the roots, diminishes the tendency to form leaves, and increases the disposition to flower. Another object is to effect a secure and constant drainage from roots of water; a third is, to expose the roots to the most favorable amount of bottom heat, which can not be readily accom- plished when plants of large size are made to grow in the gi'ound, even of a hot-house; and finally, it is a convenient process for the nourish- ment of delicate seedlings. Unless some one of these ends is to be answered, and can not be effected in a more natural manner, potting is better dispensed with. POTTING PLANTS. The successful florist knows that the best soil for plants is a normal one, or one in which it naturally grew, and naturally seeks to give it those conditions as near as he can. All this requires a pretty extensive knowledge, not only of the habits of the plants themselves, but of soils also. But the normal conditioh of a plant is not to have its roots cramped in a pot. So, the cultivation of plants in pots must be entirely artificial in practice. One natural supposition of the amateur is, there- fore, theiucher I can get the earth in my pot, the better, and to this end he makes it fat with strong manure, or the larger the pot the better for the plant. Yet both these natural propositions are wrong in practice. A soil exceedingly fat tends to disease in plants, in artificial culture. A large pot tends to increase growth at the expense of bloom. A six inch pot is amply large for ordin- ary house plants. The soil should be pure, what is known as a sandy loam, enriched with none but the most thoroughly digested compost — that is, manure and soil so thoroughly seasoned, tem- pered and worked that rankness no longer exists. Again, the florist depends largely upon liquid manure to stimulate the plant when it needs it. For this there is nothing better in the West than blood or offal manure. To use this dissolve from one-quarter to one-half pound in a gallon of water. Give this on the surface, once a week or ten days, as the plants seem to need it, and in quantities only sufficient to moisten the soil of the pot, allowing so much soft, clear, tepid water from time to time as the plants may need. When guano is substituted, from one to two ounces will be sufficient, beginning with the smallest quantities and noting the results. If the fertilizers named are not easily procured, prepare a tight barrel with sticks and straw at the bottom, to form a receptacle for the liquid at the bottom, as in setting up a leach tub, set it where it will not freeze. Mix a peck of hen or pigeon manure, with suflioient barnyard scrapings to fill the barrel, well packed down, pour on rain water until it stand.s in the hollow at the top, and draw from the bottom from a plug as wanted, adding more water from time to time as needed. As you draw from the bottom, dilute properly and apply as before directed. In shifting from one pot to anothel' use only a size larger than the plant had befoi'e. An easy way to proceed is to select the pot, cover the bottom with bits of crock or broken flower pots, cover this with sharp sand and rich compost, half and half. Put into the larger pot, one a size less than the one containing the plant, filling about it good compost earth well packed down. Lift out the pot and fill with earth, sa the ball of earth with the plant to be placed thereon will reach to within a half inch of the rim of the pot. Set in the plant, press in the earth about it, and fill up with more soil if neces- sary, jar slightly to settle all firmly together, water, and the whole is as well done as possible, and in far less time than we have written it. If the plant has no ball of earth, the pot must have drainage as before directed, and filled with earth pretty firmly packed, so the neck of the plant — when the roots are spread — will just reach within half an inch of the top of the pot. Sift fine earth about tlie roots, pressing the soil well about them, filling only so full that when well settled it will be even with the neck of the plant or that portion at the old surface of the earth. Water and shade for a day or two and the plant should do nicely. To remove a plant from tlie pot in which it has been growing, turn the pot upside down upon the hand so tlie stem of the plant will come between the first and second fingers, covering the earth with the tJmmh and fingers. Strike on the bottom with the other hand, or jar the rim gently on some hard substance, and the ball entire will, as a rule, slip easily and intact from tlie pot. If the plant have a mass of roots next the side of the pot,, trim them with a sharp knife as desired, and the whole is ready for re-potting. One thing should be remembered; liquid manure should not be given after re-potting until the plant is growing well, and the roots have filled the pots or nearly so. Thus a little observation and practical experience will soon enable the novice in flori- culture to become expert. POUDRETTE. Poudrettes consist of blood, fish and animal matters, and night-soil, dried and combined with substances capable of deo- dorizing them and absorbing their ammonia, phosphuretted hydrogen, and other gases and moisture, and reduced to powder. A species of poudrette, flsh manure, is prepared by steaming and pressing the fish, for the purpose primarily of obtaining their oil. The flsh are steamed and subjected to strong pressure, by which the oil is forced out, and the residuum is left almost as dry as so much seasoned wood. It is then ground and packed in barrels for the market. All th& poudrettes are paclced in barrels or bags, and can be readily transported by land or water. When properly manufactured the poudrettes are very valuable manures. When applied to the roots of plants, in a soil well supplied with coarser manures, they give a vigorous start to young plants, and a larger development and a deeper tint to the petals of flowers. When applied in the hill they give to young plants a fine and early growth. They are rapidly decom- posed in the soil, and should always be so deeply covered that their evolving gases may be retained by it. Poudrette should be used over a surface of ten or twelve inches square, rather than thrown in a mass around the seeds or roots of young plants. If the soil is cold, or the season backward, the good effect is soon manifest.. POULTRY 765 POULTRY It is with poudrettes as with other commercial manures; without a well attested affidavit of the constituent parts, they should never be pur- chased. This should show the nitrogen and phosphorus contained, especially since these are the valuable elements. Poudrette prepared from Bight soil has especially given dissatisfaction in many cases, it not being found as valuable as good barnyard manure. If the poudrette is made from fish, flesh, blood, and the tank stuff of rendering establishments, and thoroughly con- densed, from 300 to 400 pounds per acre will be sufficient in connection with barnyard manure. POULTICE. An external application em- ployed for promoting the suppuration of tumors, or abating painful inflammation. The chief intention of the poultice is to retain the heat on ■the tumor for a sufficient length of time ; conse- quently, corn meal and linseed meal are the best ^fitted for poultices. The fatty matter usually added is to give softness to the poultice, which is otherwise apt to harden as the moisture evapor- ates. Few farmers are aware of the value of these simple applications in abating inflamma- tion, relieving pain, cleansing wounds, and dis- posing them to heal. The poultice may be ren dered more soothing by opium, or in cases of foul ulcers powdered charcoal may be added. As an emollient poultice for grease and cracked heels, and especially if accompanied by much unpleasant smell, there is nothing preferable to a poultice of mashed carrots with charcoal. It is always best to enclose poultices in bags. Hot poultices are made with enough boiling water to tring them to a proper consistency. Hot poul- tices favor suppuration and should not be applied to fresh wounds. Cold poultices are made pre- cisely as hot ones are, but allowed to get cold hefore using. A cold poultice of ripe cran- "berries is almost a specific in the earlier stages of erysipelas. POULTRY. The term poultry is, strictly speaking, applied to the gallinaceous tribe. The French poule signifies a hen, and poulet a chicken. Tlie Italian poUa a chicken, and piiUa7ne poultry. In Latin pulluK is a chicken, or other allied young animal. In its broad sense it is now used to designate all barnyard fowls, including ducks, geese, Guinea fowls, turkeys and pea- fpwls. Since the days of improved breeds of poultry the industry has been vastly augmented, and various schemes have been devised for keep- ing them on a, large scale, few of which have proved to be paying investments, and principally from the fact that the gallinaceous tribe, espe- •cially, require a wide range and plenty of exer- cise and pure air to keep them in health. An- other class, who buy up young birds and fatten them for market, have succeeded better, and this would seem to be the true policy, since more than from 100 to 300 birds can not be profitably kept on the same range unless so divided up that they do not come in contact with each other. Even then they must be allowed to range partly at will, in which event they will be found to be great exterminators of insects, especially the young chicks. Particular care, however, must be taken with the young birds. They must be fully fed and the weaker ones protected from the stronger, else no after amount of stuffing will increase their frames. In relation to profits and increase two committees of the Massachusetts Agricultural Society, some years since, reported as follows: The Middlesex South committee give the following statements: Fifteen hens, mostly Leghorns and Black Hamburgs, laid in ten months 191 dozen eggs. Profits on eggs sold, chickens raised and sold, etc., $89.81; expen- ses, twenty bushels of corn, $24; net profit, $65.81. Fowls were al- lowed to run at large, and were fed well three times a day, Another lot of fifteen hens and one cock, mixture of Leg- horn and native breed, laid 181 dozen eggs, which, with sixteen chickens, brought $66. 78; expenses nme bushels of corn and six bushels of barley, $18.75; net profit, $58.03. Fowls run at large, fed twice a day in winter and once in sum- mer. A flock of 113 Brahmas, in September, 1866, increased to 163 in one year, besides sup- plying eggs to the amount of $232.80; fowls sold, $75.28, making, with the fifty increase in flock, $408.08; expenses, $145.03; net profit $263.05, taking no account of the droppings of the chickens. The Bristol Central Committee recommend the Brahmas and Dorkings for the table; the Leghorns and Hamburgs fou eggs; the BROWN LEGHORN HEN. HOUDAKS. Games and Dorkings, where all qualities are required of a high degree of excellence ; and if pure breeds are not wanted, at least a game cock to improve the stock of every yard. When laige numbers of fowls are to be kept, at least an acre must be allowed to each 100 hens, and if this is covered partially with brush so much the better. Constant care and vigilance are required, when keeping poultry in large numbers is followed. Tegetmeier, upon the subject of keepingpoultry says: Fowls are either kept for the table or for eggs In the former case, the object is to pre- pare the young birds so as to be fit for market at the earliest possible period. It is evident that they are not only better in quality, but that they realize a larger sum, if they are well fed; and as young birds have consumed a smaller amount of food, on account of their shorter lives, they must of necessity return a larger profit than older ones. Eggs, again, can only be produced by the hens out of the materials furnished by their food. A scanty supply of the former is therefore the inev- POULTRY 766 POULTRY itaWe result of a short supply of the latter. In ■winter, when eggs are most valuable, this is par- ticularly shown ; for as there is then no insect or other food to be obtaiued by scratching, the pro- duction of eggs diminishes remarkably, unless WHITE LEGUOBN. the fowls are very well fed. As regards the number of times the stock fowls should be fed, we believe the most economical mode, when fowls have a free range, is to feed twice a day. any practical value, so much depends on the size of the birds; it is obvious that a Dorking of ten pounds weight, and a Game fowl of five pounds, would require very diflEerent quantities of food. Again, tlie quantity must vary with the season of the year, much more being required to keep up tlie due amount of animal heat in winter than in summer. The work going on in the farmyard, and the number of birds that are laying, will alsO' influence the amount required to be given ; for wlien a hen is producing eggs, she will eat nearly twice the amount of food that she requires at another time. The best rule, both as to quantity and time, is to give the fowls a full meal in the morning, and a second shortly before going to foost. Many persons feed their fowls only once a day, usually in the morning; the conse- quence is that they go to roost with empty crops, and as the nutriment they have collected during the dayis required to keep up the animal warmth, particularly during the long cold nights of win- ter, it can not be employed in the production of eggs ; thus feeding hens once a day is not favor- able to their fertility. It is necessary, therefore, to feed liberally twice a day, if any large amount of profit be desired from fowls. There is one great advantage dependent on having fixed houra of feeding, namely, tliRt the birds soon become accustomed to them, and do not hang about the PARTRIDGE COCtllNS. The fowls should be let out early in the morn- ing; in fact, if there is no fear of foxes or other thieves, the hen-house had better be left open, so that the birds can come out at will. This they will do at daybreak, and, by wander- ing over the fields, secure a large amount of worms and insect food. They should receive their morn- ing meal at a fixed hour: immediately after breakfast is usually a convenient time. It may be asked, how much corn should be given per head? We believe it to be quite impossible to give to that question an answer that would be of house door all daylong, as they do if irregularly and frequently fed. They consequently obtain a greater amount of food for themselves, and are less troublesome than they otherwise would be. If fowls have not a free range where they can obtain green vegetable food, a supply is indis- pensable to health, and it is as well to vary it if possible. In winter, a swede thrnip may be cut across, and thrown down for them to peck at. In summer, cabbages should be supplied daily; or, what is still better, lettuces, especially those running to seed. The avidity with which these POWER 767 PREDACEOUS BEETLE are devoured by fowls and turkeys is remarkable. Vegetable food may be advantageously cooked and mixed with meal, as a change. Small waste potatoes, boiled or steamed till soft, form a cheap and useful occasional food; but the fowls soon become tired of them, and they should only be used at intervals. In addition to wliolesome and abundant food, a supply of clean water is indis- pensable. Some kind of fountain is often more convenient than an open vessel, in which the water is apt to become dirtied by the fowls. A very cheap and convenient contrivance of this kind may be made out of an earthenware jar and an ordinary glazed flower-pot saucer, by boring a small hole in the jar an inch and a half from the edge. When required for use, the jar is to be filled with water, and the saucer placed bottom upwards on the top. Both together are then to be turned quickly over, when the water will be found to flow into the saucer to the same height as the hole In the side of the jar. Some of the most successful rearers of chickens and pheas- ants are in the habit of administering to the young birds a chalybeate tonic in the water given them to drink; and they speak very highly of its good effects in those cases where broods are weakly, or where the young fowls are inclined to outgrow their strength. For this purpose an ounce of sulphate of iron (green vitriol) may be dissolved in a quart bottle of water, and two or three spoonfuls of this solution added to the water in the drinking-fountain, sufficient being supplied to give it a slight inky taste. The effect of this chalybeate on the health and vigor of the birds is very marked; their combs brighten in color, their appetite increases, and their general stamina is much improved. This mixture is prac- tically identical with many of the poultry nos- trums extensively ad vertised. Waterfowl, ducks geese, etc., do not require large bodies of water as has generally been supposed. A small pond that may be kept clean in which they may bathe is all that is required, and even when there is no water save for drinking they do fairly well, when only a few are kept. Turkeys require and must have a considerable range, and they must also be allowed full libertj- with their young after they begin to feather, else they will surely not be kept in good health. The same may be said of pea, and Guinea fowl. (For respective breeds, see articles under the respective names.) POUND, LB. The avoirdupois contains six- teen ounces, and 7,000 troy grains. The troy pound twelve ounces and 5,760 grains. Also, an enclosure for cattle. In England a penal enclosure for trespassing cattle. POr PART'S LIGAMENT. A tendinous expansion, running from the top, or cristn, of the ilium to the os pubis, under which hernias protrude. POVERTY GRVSS. Aristida dichotoma. A grass growing on sterile plages. POWER. In mechanics, denoting a force which, being applied to a machine, tends to produce motion. A mechanical power denotes one of the six simple machines, viz : the lever, the inclined plane, the screw, the wheel and axle, the wedge, and the pulley. The mechani- cal horse power is estimated as being a force sulHcient to raise 33,000 pounds to a height of one foot in a minute. This is the unit or stand- ard by which steam engiries and other prime motive force is measured, and is now in uni- versal use for such measurements of applied force as relate to machinery. POZZUOLANA. Volcanic ashes, used in making hydraulic cements. PR JICORDIA. The fore part of the chest. PRjEMORSE, BITTEN. Short thick roots which appear to have been bitten. PRAIRIE. This name is given to the im- mense tracts of grass land occurring throughout the West, They are usually gently rolling or undulating lands, the grass of which is thickly matted, and from a few Inches to three or four feet high, being most luxuriant in wet, swampy places. The prairie is often adorned with iDcautiful flowers in spring, and throughout summer and fall. The grass is of various kinds, some being of gi'eat value ; the whole is, how- ever, nutritious, and sustains cattle, horses, and sheep remarkably well. PRECIPITATE. A solid matter thrown down in a clear fluid by chemical action. PREDACEOUS BEETLE. The predaceous beetles are among the most beneficial in agricul- ture, since they prey exclusively upon insects, and principally on noxious ones. There are two principal classes of these, the predaceous ground beetles, the most useful, and the soft- GROUND BEETLE ANB LARVA. winged predaceous beetles. In the first class we have the Cioinelidce or Tiger beetles, and the Varahidx or Ground beetles ; the latter divi- ded into a number of subfamilies. Calosn'ma calkhim, (see cut), is one of the most useful of these, the beetle and larva of which is given above. The beetle is an inch in length, with OHAL^NIUS. three rows of golden dots on each wing cover, and is predaceous both in the larval and perfect state. This division of the subfamily Carabides embraces the genera Carabus, Calosoma, and PREDISPOSING AFFINITY 768 PRESERVING WINTER FRUIT Cyclinis. The preceding cut shows CJinlmnms Pe'inii/lvnnirux, of the suhfamily Chalsenides; a, male beetle; b, larva; c, d, e. front tarsus of male and o. female magnified. Harpa- lus Pennsylvanious is !i nei.rjy related species, as also Is H.c ■liffinoms. The family Hnrpalidcs embrace a very ex- tensive group of beetles little infe- rior to all the other subfamilies noticed. They are black or dark me- tallic in color as a rule, and their size is limited in its range from a quarter of an inch to a little more than an inch in length. Their distinctive characters are difl3- cult 10 determine except by an entomologist, and are omitted. lu JIarpalus Pennsyhan ens, how- ever, we have shown the under side of the anterior tarsus of the male magnified, showing the two rows of scale-like papillae, and near the end is the notch so characteristic of the anterior tibia of the tibisB spurs at its upper angle as HAKPALTTS PBNNSTLTASICD'3. vRPVLUS CALIGINOSCS. VIKGINIA TIGER BBBTLH. delineated by Dr. Hiley. The Virginia Tiger beetle {Tet aha Virni'ica) also belongs to the predaceous ground beetles, and the name well expresses their fierce voracity in their attacks on other insects. It is one of the insects attacking the I olorado Potato Beetle, and tlie larva also feeds upon insects, and indeed the larva of its own kind, if it find them. Another insect often mistaken for the Squash Bug, and thus destroyed, is the Spined Soldier Beetle, one of the most persistent in its at- tacks on the Colorado Potato Beetle, but feeding on various insects. The Plant Bug is squarer than the Soldier Beetle, and its beak is ■ sliarper and larger. The cut at a, shows the liL'ak of the Sol- dier BL-etle, b, the beetle, c, the beak of the Dutled-legi;cd Plant \\ug (Eii htstus punct pes). The Plant Bugs should be destroyed and the Soldier Beetles protected wherever found for their services as exterminators of noxious insects. PREDISPOSlNtl AFFINITV. Chemical affinity arising in the presence of three bodies, whereby a union is accomplished between two, SPINBD SOLDIER BEETLE. which, witliout coming in contact with a third, would not readily unite. PREGNANCY, (See Gestation.) PRESERVING MEAT. (See Curing Meat.) PKICKINW OCT. Setting smaU plants in drills, etc. PRICKLE. A sharp thorn, produced by a thickening of the bark or skin of the plant. PRm.E \IM. The passage through the bowels. PRIMARY ROCKS. The unstratified, crys- talline rocks, as granites. Sometimes the transi- tion slates and stratified rocks are included in this term. PRIMINE, The outermost covering of the ovule ; afterward it becomes the skin, or testa, of tli6 seed PRIMROSE. Flowering perennials of the genus frimula. PRISM. A solid contained by planes, of which two that are opposite are equal, similar, and parallel, and all the rest parallelograms. Prisms take particular names from the figures of their ends, or opposite, equal, and parallel sides When the ends are triangles, they are called triangular prisms; when the ends are square, square prisms; when the ends are pentagonal, pentagonal prisms; and so on. A right prism has its sides perpendicular to its ends ; an oblique prism is that of which the sides are oblique to the ends. The solid contents of a prism is f oimd by multiplying the area of the base into the perpendicular altitude; hence all prisms are to one another in the ratio compounded of their bases and altitudes. The optical prism is of three similar sides. PRISMATIC COLORS. Light passing through a prism is divided into seven colors, called the prismatic spectrum; these colors are, in their order, red, orange, yellow, gi-een, blue, indigo, and violet. They have each peculiar properties. PRESERVING WINTER FRUIT. The result of long and diversified experience in keep- ing fruit may be summed up in a single sentence: keep them dry, cool, and as nearly as possible from contact with external air. How to do this under ordinary circumstances, and with the facil- ities at command, is the question. For winter keeping they should be allowed to hang on the tree as long as possible, or, until there is really danger of their freezing, leaving those least affected by early frosts and most tenacious in their habit of hanging late, to the last. When ihe fruit is perfectly dry and free from dew, and, on a cool day if possible, pick them by hand, placing them, a basketful at a time, into clean, sweet, dry, tight barrels, using the greatest care that they be not bruised; or, better, use a pouch or sack for picking in. Invert this in the barrel and turn them carefully out. Thus there is no possible chance of bruising the fruit. In this condition if they are entirely dry, cool, and sound, they may be immediately headed up, pressing in the head so there is no possibility of the fruit being shaken about — and wheeled to a cool, airy place in the barn, a shed or outhouse, where they may remain until hard weather. Above all things, avoid placing them where the sun will shine on the barrels, or where they may be subjected to considerable changes of temper- ature. When cold weather comes, they may be removed to a dry cellar, or, better, a fruit room. PRESERVING SMOKED MEATS 769 PROPAGATION if such be had. Here the temperature should be kept as low and uniform as possible. Leave the cellar windows or ventilators open in winter, unless the temperature is such as to freeze the fruit; then, if warm spells intervene, close the ventilator at such times to keep out the heat. In spring close the windows during the day, and leave them open at night. In other words, when the weather is warmer out side than in the fruit room, keep the whole close, and mce versa. Fruit when confined in tight barrels, retains the carbonic acid given ofE by the fruit in the spaces between themselves. If the barrels are open, and especially if there be an excessive draft of air, the carbonic acid is forced out and the spaces supplied with air. This is what causes the apples to rot. The principal thing therefore to be avoided is, contact with air, undue heat and consequent sweating in the bar- rel. This last is not likely to occur if care has been taken in picking the fruit when cool and dry, and in packing and keeping the packages cool thereafter. We have seen it stated thalt if apples are packed in entirely dry barrels in which salt has been packed, they will be found sounder in the spring than in ordinary barrels. However this may be, salt barrels are not avail- able except in isolated cases. Salt in a state of perfect dryness will take up a large amount of water, and hence such barrels may be of advan- tage when excessive sweating ensues. So, abso- lutely dry barrels will be indicated. The advan- tage of tight barrels, as previously stated, is that they retain the carbonic acid and exclude the air. PRESERYINa SMOKED MEATS. We do not consider the smoke house, as ordinarily built, to be the best place to preserve cured meats. Our July and August suns are generally so hot as to cause the fat parts to melt more or less, and this destroys the integrity of the whole. The very best way we know is to wrap the meat in thick brown paper, and enclose each piece sep- arately in sacks made to fit. Sew tight; dip them in a preparation of slacked lime, of the consistency of ordinary paint. Then the pieces may be packed in barrels, with plenty of ashes, or better, pounded charcoal, and kept in a cool, well ventilated cellar, or in the coolest place in the barn. Another plan is to wrap in paper as before directed, then in an outer layer, and pack in barrels with some good absorbent. Still another plan is, after wrapping in thick brown paper, to pack in barrels with plenty of dry cut straw, examining them occasion aly to see they do not mold, if the weather is damp for any con- siderable length of time. By this plan, how- ever, it is difficult to keep the meat from con- tracting mold if entirely excluded from lig:ht and air, and where light and air may enter insects and mold are pretty sure to follow. A smoke house built so as to prevent the admission of light, and at the same time insure ventilation and a degree of coolness so that the meat will not mold, may be had by placing it under the shade of a spreading tree. It should be built of brick, with an ample flue on top protected with blinds at the sides, and a wire gauze at the bot- tom to prevent the admission of insects, the gauze to be removed when smoking the meat. Another flue at the bottom protected with gauze allows the admission of air. Thus the house may be kept cool and well ventilated, and by throwing it entirely open occasionally at night, 49 when dry, meat may be kept perfectly for a long time. This smoke house maj' be used for a variety of purposes, as for the keeping of ashes in districts where wood is used for fuel. PRIVET. Licjustrum milgare. A plant intro- duced from Europe, for the purpose of hedging, but now only used for ornamental hedges. It is hardy in the latitude of Chicago and is completely naturalized in the Eastern and Middle States and South. In the North, its leaves are killed after hard freezing weather sets in, but they remain attached to the branches sometimes nearly all winter. For ornamental hedging it is one of the prettiest of plants, its small glossy leaves pro- ducing a, most pleasing eifect. It stands the shears well, is of dwarf habit, and should be planted more than it is, in dry situations. PROBANG. (See Choke.) PROBE. A wire of silver, with a blunt or sharp point, used to ascertain the depth of wounds, sinuses, etc. PROiSOSCIS. A trunk, or nasal projection. PROCESS. In descriptions, a tumor or emi- nence on a bone or part. A projection. PROCUMBENT. Laying on the ground. PROGNOSIS. A conclusion respecting the termination of a disease. PROLAPSUS. A falling out or protrusion of any part of the body; as of the intestines, womb, etc. PROLEGS. The imperfect legs of caterpil- lars; a wart-like tubercle. PROMUSCIS. The suctional organ of the hemiptera. PROPAGATING HOUSE OR PIT. (See Conservatory.) PROPAGATION. Seeds are the most general means of propagation, but they do not perpetuate improved varieties, especially of fruits; buds do, however. Buds are propagated by budding, grafting, setting slips, cuttings, layers, offshoots, suckers, and in some plants, as the strawberry, by natural runners. The bulb is a peculiar bud, which propagates by offsets or buds. Tubers, or rhizomes, are underground stems, as in the potato, dahlia, flag, and they propagate the varieties also. Cuttings are portions of shoots, either of ligneous or herbaceous plants ; and they are made of the young shoots with the leaves on, or of the ripened wood either with or without its leaves ; and after they have, either in an herba- ceous state with the leaves on, or with the wood mature, and with or without leaves, been prop- erly prepared and planted, they form roots at their lower extremity, each cutting becoming a perfect plant. In general, cuttings should be taken from those shoots of a plant which are nearest the soil ; because, from the moisture and shade there, such shoots are more predisposed to emit roots than those on the upper part of the plant. The young, or last-formed shoots, are to be taken in preference to such as are older, as containing more perfect buds in an undeveloped state, and a bark more easily permeable by roots ; and the cutting is to be prepared by cutting its lower extremity across at a joint, the lenticels, or root- buds, being there most abundant. When the cutting is planted, the principal part of the art consists in packing the earth firm at the lower extremity, so as completely to exclude the air from the wounded section. Cuttings emit roots at this section, either in consequence of the action of the accumulated sap in the cutting, as PULSE IN ANIMALS 770 PUNCHEON in the case of the ripened wood in deciduous trees and shrubs; or in consequence of the joint action of the accumulated sap and of the leaves, as in the case of cuttings of soft wood with the leaves on, and in a living state. A few plants are propagated hy cuttings of the leaves, the petiole of the leaf being slipped off from the par- ent plant, and probably containing the latent embryos of buds. Grafting and budding are processes which have been already explained. Inarching may be described as a species of graft- ing, in which the scion is not separated from the parent plant till it has become united with the stock. (See Grafting, Budding, etc.) PKOPEDS. The same as prolegs. PROPHYLACTIC. Preventing disease. PROPORTIONS, CHEMICAL. (See Equiv alents and Atom.) PR0SENCHYM4. Elongated cellular tis- sue, as that of woody structures. PROTEIN. The pure basis of the animal principles; it is separated from albumen, or fibrin, by dissolving them in caustic potash, and precipitating by acetic acid. It is gelatinous; gray; when dry, semi-transparent, and insoluble. It is a body of great interest, since 'in its combi- nations with sulphur, phosphorus, ammonia, etc., most animal tissues are formed. PROTOTHORAX. The first segment of the thorax in insects. PROTO-SALTS. Oxides; compounds, the bases of which are combined with but one equiv- alent of oxygen. PROTOZOA. The lowest animalcules. PROTUSILE. Capable of being protruded and withdrawn, PROTENDER. Dry food. (See Fodder.) PROXIMATE ANALYSIS. The separation of a compound organic body into its several complex parts, as the flour of wheat into starch, sugar, gum, fibrin, gluten, albumen. These are also called proximate principles. This kind of analysis is made by means of solvents, as alco- hol, ether, water, potash, and acids; it is coarse and unsatisfactory. PSEUDO. A common prefix, meaning false. PTYALISM. Increased salivation. PUBESCENT, PUBESCENCE. Covered with soft hairs. PUCCOON. American alkanet. LMliosphur- mum can'^cens. A perennial -rooted plant of the borage tribe, the root of which yields a red pig- ment, with which the Indians color themselves. PUDDINGSTONE. A conglomerate. PUDDLING. Ramming clay with sand and water until it is converted into an impervious mortar. PUERPERAL. Relating to parturition. PUFF-BALL. The genus Lyeoperdon j'ields numerous puif- balls. The dust was at one time used to stop bleeding from wounds, as a styptic. PUGGING. The stuff laid between floors to deaden sound. PUGIL. A pinch of any stuff. PULMONARIES. A kind of spider. PULMONARY. Relating to the lungs. PULQUE. The fermented juice of the Mex- ican aloe, (Agwce Americana). PULSE. Leguminous crops. PULSE IN ANIMALS. The pulse of ani- mals maybe felt wherever a considerable artery passes over a bone. In cattle the pulse is soft and rolling, and in the horse full and rather tense, and when the pulse differs from this con- dition we may expect disease, or, if it be much slower or faster. If. the pulse is rapid, full and hard, it denotes high fever, or acute inflamma- tion; if it be rapid, but small and feeble, there is low fever, or loss of blood, or weakness. In brain diseases it is very slow, and in disease of the heart it is irregular, or at one time fast and again slow. In swine the pulse is felt by placing the hand at the left side next the heart : in sheep the same, or else when the femor&l artery passes obliquely over the bone, about the middle of the inside of the thigh. In cattle it may be felt over the middle of the fii-st rib, or beneath the tail. In the horse, it may be felt on the bony ridge extending upward from the eye, or on the lower jaw, just forward of the curved portion, and inside the elbow. The rapidity of the pulse of the adult healthy sheep is sev- enty or eighty beats a minute, or about that of man ; in the "ox from fifty to sixty, and in the horse about forty beats per minute, a state of rest being always implied. Hot, close stables, forced feeding, and when with young, always increases the pulse, and that of calves and colts will be about twice the rapidity of the adult animal, and the same is true of animals well advanced in old age. So, in determining the pulse, all these circumstances must be taken into consideration. PULVILLI. The hairs, or a membrane, which covers the feet of some insects, enabling them to walk on the ceiling of rooms against gravity. PUMICE. Porous lava. It consists of silica, 77.5; alumina, 17. .5; potash and soda, 3.0; oxide of ii-on, 1.75. PUMICED FOOT. In farriery, a wide- spread hoof, the sole of which is flat with the ground. PUMPKIN Oucurbita pepo. Formerly the pumpkin was extensively cultivated for culinary use. Since the imj)rovement in squashes they have been supplanted, and are now planted ' almost solely a.s food for farm stock, and usually among corn, often giving two or three good loads per acre in addition to the corn. The usual manner of planting is to drop a seed at every third or fourth hill, and every third or fourth row, at the first hoeing of the corn. Sometimes, however, the plants grow so vigorously as seriously to interfere with the late cultivation of the corn, and for this reason they are seldom cultivated in the West, except in localities where the corn i.s hoed by hand. The varieties usually planted are the Cheese Pumpkin, a variety strong and vigorous in its growth; the fruit much flattened, deeply and regularly ribbed, broadly dished about the stem ; large, thick meated, and of good quality. The Connecticut Field Pumpkin is pro- lific, large, round, earlier than the Cheese Pumpkin, and is an excellent stock pumpkin. The Sugar Pumpkin is round, bright orange yellow, small, with a hard rind, prolific, and superior for pies, and always matures its crop, even in untoward seasons. The Canada Pump- kin is a sub-variety of the common field pump- kin. It is a hardy sort, adapts itself to a variety of soils, and ripens with surety. PUNCHEON. A measure of eighty-four gallons. PUTREFACTION 771 PYROLIGNEOUS ACID PUPA. A nymph, grub, or chrysalis. PUPIPAKES, PUPIPARA. Those insects are said to he pupiparous whicli produce their young in tlie condition of a pupa or nymph, as the forest fly (Hippobosca equiiui). PUPIVORES, PUPIVORA. The name of a tribe of hymenopterous insects, comprehending those of which tlie larvas live parasitically in the interior or the larvae and pupas of other insects. PURGATIVES. In farriery, such medicines as tend to evacuate the bowels by stool, and which are sometimes called cathartics. The purgatives most frequentlj' employed for horses and cows are sulphur, jalap, aloes, gamboge, Mhamiiua eatharticus, and calomel. Saline pur- gatives are not often required; but when they are, Epsom salts (the sulphate of magnesia), is adequate for every purpose. Purgatives are less used now than formerly. Aloes is the best form ■of physic ; but Epsom salts, linseed and olive oil, are sometimes used on certain occasions as laxa- tives with great propriety and benefit, and in gross, full horses, in some disorders of the stomach, liver, etc., but it should always be ■directed with caution. Violent purging' or scouring, attended with inflammation, will some- times arise when a horse is worked hard upon green food. The remedy is change of diet or less labor. Astringents should be used with much caution. It is probable an effort of nature to get rid of something that offends. A few doses of gi-uel will assist in effecting this pur- pose, and the purging will cease, without astrin- gent medicine. PURIFORM. Like pus. PURLINE. In building, a piece of timber lying on the principal rafters to support them in the middle. PURPURIC ACID. A red compound pro- duced by the action of nitric acid on uric acid. PURSIVENESS, PURSINESS. Shortness of breath. PURSLANE. Pursley, pusley. Portulacca ohracea. A well known creeping plant said to be indigenous in the West, and universal as a weed, especially on warm, dry, sandy soils. It. does not make its appearance until warm weather sets in, and is killed by the first general frost, ■springing readily the next season from seed. Once it gets a lodgment it usually i-etains it, since its growth is made chiefly after the cultiva- tion of crops is over. It is much relished by swine, but should be exterminated so far as possible wherever found. Some of the cultivated varieties have beautiful flowers, white, pink, yellow and striped, both single and double, and .once introduced spring annually from seed. PUS, MATTER. A yellow, cream-like fluid formed in abscesses and from wounds. It con- tains globules, and is blood modified by inflam- matory action. Healthy matter is that formed when a wound is healing kindly; vmhealthy, is when the wound assumes a malignant form. PUT AMEN. The shell of a fruit. Theendo- Short timbers used in scaffold- carp. PUT LOGS. ing. PUTREFACTION. The spontaneous decom- position of animal and vegetable substances, attended by the evolution of fetid gases. The putrefactive fermentation of animal substances is usually attended by more fetid and noxious exhalations than those arising from vegetable products. This appears principally referable to the more abundant presence of nitrogen in the former; and hence, those vegetables which abound in nitrous principles, such a.s most (if not all) of the cruciform plants, exhale peculiarly nauseous effluvia; hence, also, such animal pro- ducts as are destitute of nitrogen,- are cither unsusceptible of what is commonly called putre- faction, or suffer it slowly and imperfectly. The formation of ammonia or of ammoniacal com- pounds is a characteristic of most cases of ani- mal i^utrefaction ; while other combinations of hydrogen are also formed, especiall}^ carburetted hydrogen, and sulphuretted hydrogen, together with complicated and often "highly infectious vapors or gases, in which sulphur and phos- phorus are frequently discerned. These putre- factive efiiuvia are, for the most part,, easily decomposed, and resolved into new and com- paratively innocuous compounds bj' the agency of chlorine; hence the importance of that body as a powerful and rapidly acting disinfectant. Tlie rapidity of putrefaction and the nature of its products are, to a great extent, influenced by temperature, moisture, and access of air; they do not ensue below the freezing point, nor in dry substances, nor under the entire exclusion of oxygen; and hence, various means suggest themselves of retarding or preventing putrefac- tion, as well as of modifying its results. A tem- perature between 60° and 80°, a due degree of humidity, and free access of air, are the circum- stances under whicli it proceeds most rapidly. The most effective antiputrefactives, or antisep- tics, are substances which either absorb or re- move a portion of the water or moisture, and enter into new combinations with the organic matter. The astringent or tannic principle of vegetables is also a powerful preserver of most organic tissues; it enters into chemical combina- tion with the albuminous and gelatinous mem- branes and fibers ; and the resulting compound, of which leather furnishes a characteristic exam- ple, is comparativel}- little prone to change, although the tanning material itself, as well as the animal principles with which it unites, are sepa- rately liable to decay. Among saline substances, the antiputrefactive powers of salt are commonly known ; when a piece of flesh is salted, brine runs from it, in consequence of the energy with which the salt abstracts the component water of the muscular fiber : the flesh becomes indurated, and its susceptibility' to putrefactive changes is greatly diminished ; but it becomes at the same time less easy of digestion as an article of food. PUTTY. In building, a fine cement of lime only. In glazing, a compound of linseed oil, and whiting. PYLORUS. The passage or valve of the stomach into the intestines. PYRITES. Native sulphurets of iron or copper. PYRO. A common chemical prefix, indi- , eating compounds modified by the action of heat, as pyrophosphoric, pyrotartaric acids. PYROACETIC SPIRIT. A volatile, inflam- mable, and limpid fluid, formed by the distilla- tion of acetate of lead. It is also called acetone. PYROLIGNEOUS ACID. Acetic acid, pro- cured by distilling wood. It contains creosote and other tarry compounds, but is extensively used to form solution of iron or red liquor for dyers. Its compounds are called pyiolignites. QUERCITRON BARK 773 QUINCE PYROLIGNEOUS SPIRIT, PYROXYLIC SPIRIT. Hydrate of methylene, wood naphtha, a very volatile, inflammable fluid, from distilled wood. It is one of the most powerful antisep- tics, but of unpleasant odor. PYROMETER. An instrument for measur- ing degrees of heat above 600° B"ahr. Acidity of the stomach, with ai^ hot fluid into the throat and- PYROSIS discharge of mouth. PYROXENE. Augite. PYXIDIUM. A fruit which splits into an. upper and lower half, as that of the pimpernel. Pimpernel means two-winged. Q QUADRICORNES. A family of wingless insects, with four antennae. QUADRIFID. Fourcleft. QUADRILATERAL. Foursided. qUADRIPENNATES. A tribe of insects provided with four membranous wings. QUAGtGA. a quadruped allied to the zebra. QUAGMIRE. A muddy, soft bog or marsh. QUAIL. (See Partridge.) QUAKING GRASS. The genus Briza. QUART. The fourth of a gallon. QUARTAN. An intermittent fever, appear- ing every fourth day. QUARTER. Eight bushels, a fourth part. QUARTER AIL. (See Murrain.) A FLO'WERS OF JAPAN QUINCE. QUARRY.- Any rock formation excavated, or from which the material is taken by blasting or otherwise. QUARTZ. Silicic acid crystallized, rock crystal. QUASSIA. A bitter wood (Q. excelsa), of South America. A strong decoction, sweetened with sugar, is a safe poison for flies. QUEEN POST. In building, an upright post in a roof for suspending the beam when the principal rafters do not meet in the ridge. QUERCITRON BARE. The inner bark of the Black oak. QUICKLIME. Caustic, fresh-burned lime. QUICKSILVER. Mercury. QUICKS. Young white thorns. QUICKSET HEDGE. A hedge of white- thorn. QUIDDING IN HORSES. The throwing- out of the mouth of half chewed food is termed quidding. It is occasioned by some disease of the mouth, as sore gums, decayed teeth, swell- ing caused by obstructions of the ducts of the salivary glands, or by chronic enlargement of the glands of the lower jaw. The remedy is evident. In sore gums the remains of foul food, should be cleaned from between the teeth, and the gums washed with a solution of chloride of lime, an ounce to a pint of water, and. rubbing with tincture- of myrrh until . well. Swelling of the ducts should be met bj' cut- ting with a knife, or be- touched every day with. a pencil of nitrate of ^^ silver, 'and soft food be- ^TjSjMf. given until cured. If ^^d^S^ the trouble is in the ^^ ^ glands of the lower jaw,. ^ they may be painted ^ with tincture of iodine, K^ ' or ointment of binio- - dide of mercury, one drachm to an ounce of lard, well rubbed to- \ gether. If decayed. ' teeth are the cause they A *ST should be removed. A __^J0^ QUINCE. Oydoniar I ^fmF^ vulgaris. This fruit is E N JF^ a native of Asia, prob- l Mf ~f , ably Northern India;. \ f was carried to Greece- * by way of Ispahan and^ Syria, and has been known in Greece from the earliest period, its fruit was there ded- icated to the Goddessi of Love. It found its way into Italy from Kydron, a city in the island of Crete. Both the pear-shaped and apple-shaped varieties were- known to the Greeks. The trees must have- been larger than are now generally found in the- United States, since it is related in Grecian mythology how Melus, a priest of Aphrodite, hung himself, from grief at the death of Adonis, to ii quince tree, into which he was then trans- formed. There are but few varieties of the quince, those principally cultivated being the Apple or Orange quince, the Angers and the Portugal. There is also the Chinese and Japaa IIABBIT 773 RABBIT FOOT ■quince, the latter an elegant flowering sort and a "fair hedging plant. The cut shows the flower of the Japan quince natural size. They are deep ■crimson, and appear before or at the time of the first leaves. The quince delights in a cool, moist but well drained soil, and rather humid atmos- phere-, hence it is but little cultivated in the prairie regions of the West, or in other dry inter- continental climates. There are, however, ■special localities near the great laltes, congenial to it, and in these situations the crop is very profitable, since the scarcity of the fruit causes it to sell at high prices. Tlie quince is largely used as a stock upon which to bud the pear to dwarf it for cultivation in gardens and other small places. But when this is done, they should be worked so low that they may be planted below the junction -of the bud or graft, else they are short lived. QUINCE CCRCULIO. ConotracMns cratmgi. The insect resembles the plum cureulio, and belongs to the same genus, but differs remark- ably in its habits from either the apple or plum cureulio. It makes a direct puncture as a nidus for the egg and the larva, feeds near the sur- face of the fruit, and does not approach the ■core. It passes the winter in the larva state, and ji to ;* p O CQ eO C (Jl^rHT-H-trHOi-KNl-fOOCOO c«&a -I CO CO CD OS -^O ■V«0*C0-H.Hr-li-lT-lrHOOOr-iO ■*rHQ0t-^OC0 ■4 CO ■^ O ri O ^ i-< CO M r-l iH O T-t O OOlwOcCOOJ Hcot-ooiicoifioosooscot- j>coE-Mmeoocowo(NTPi-i OCOMtNTfOOcdeOfio'cOMN'r^WOMi-^T-HOi-IoOT-lT-JdrHO 03 tm oi CO CO in c OCTcO'^ODoSi-coiosiioinoo CO'*«COOCOCO.OlCOOOiM«i-ioOOe«T-tOi?lr-iOOOT' CJcOWiQOSOQQ-— « CDi-"^iOtHO>OOOS -*COO»'*l£5'^COCo'cO Tjnir5o>.-'Osmw*- 3J M Q •jocoOi-i'3'Otpco ^«"!rOr-^ioeoT-4CO ■*'^C0t-0D0:0Jt-rHi-' "Si MmSg o cd o -3 HAIN BAIN once established, it becomes permanent so long as the surface continues favorable, increasing the humidity of the local atmosphere and the cultivable capacity of the soil. Applying this analogy to the plains, a quantity of twenty inches now found falling on the dry surface, and of ■which seventy to ninety per cent, is immediately thrown off in the streams and rivers, may, by covering the surface with forests in part, and by breaking up the hardened turf in cultivation, diminish the waste from eighty to sixty, or even fifty per cent., retaining, say, six or eight inches of this quantity in some form, and at least pre- venting the immediate waste from which no secondary benefits can now be derived. The practical value of the primary water-deposit can not fail under such change of surface to be equiv- alent to an addition of ten per cent, to such original quantity; sufficient in many cases to secure important results, and to obviate deficien- cies that are now decisively adverse to whole classes of crops. A further measure may be sug- gested here, in the construction of what may be called temporary reservoirs, in which the surplus of the profuse showers falling in spring and early summer may be retained to be distributed by channels of irrigation, or to secure general bene- fits by simple retention. The cost of such works need not be great, nor need they be more than such temporary obstruction of the smaller drain- age-channels as is within the power of a few set- tlers at any locality to construct at any time. For these, as for all preliminary works of the kind, the agency and means of the railroad com- panies may be easily and effectively employed. "Whatever may be found practicable in this respect, it is clear that eight to ten inches of rain- fall in the three or four months of most rapid growth can be utilized to a much greater extent than to permit eighty per cent, of the quantity to run off at the moment it falls, affording no useful result, and only flooding the valleys of great rivers and their tributaries just at a time when no surplus is wanted in such valleys. It is a common mistake to suppose that the rain- fall of England is greater than that of the United States. Recent observations in this country enable us to make the comparisons between the fall of rain in the two countries with considerable accuracy, not only as to the amount which descends annually, but, what is more important, as to the amount in each particular season of the year. The average rainfall of England is, in general, much less than that of the United States. In the eastern portion of England the annual fall of rain is estimated at twenty inches; in the middle portion, at twenty-two inches; in the southern and western, at thirty ; in the extreme southwestern, at forty-five inches. In Wales it is estimated at fifty inches ; in the eastern portion of Ireland, at twenty-five inches, and in the westeru at forty inches. The rainfall in the United States, as shown by Blodgett's rain chart, is in the basin of the great lakes, thirty inches; on Lake Erie and Lake Champlain, thirty-two inches; in the valley of the Hudson, on the headwaters of the Ohio, through the middle portions of Pennsylvania and Virginia, and western part of North Carolina, thirty -six inches; in the extreme eastern and the nortliern portions of Maine, northern portions of New Hampshire and Yermont, southeastern counties of Massa- chusetts, central New York, northeast portion of Pennsylvania, southeast portions of New Jersey and Delaware, also on a narrow belt running down from the western portion of Maryland, through Virginia and North Carolina to the northwestern portion of South Carolina, thence up through the western portion of Vir- ginia, northeast portions of Ohio, northern Indi ana and Illinois, to Prairie du Chien, forty inches; on the east coast of Maine, eastern Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut, and middle portion of Maryland, thence on a narrow belt to South Carolina, thence up through eastern Tennessee, central Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, to Iowa, forty-two inches, and the same down through western Missouri and Texas to the Gulf of Mexico ; from Concord, N. H., through Worcester, Mass. , western Connecticut and the city of New York, to the Susquehanna river, also at Richmond, Va., Raleigh, N. C, Augusta, 6a., Kuoxville, Tenn., Indianapolis, Ind., Springfield, 111., St. Louis, Mo. , thence through westei'n Arkan- sas, across Red river to the Gulf of Mobile, forty- five inches; from the belt just described, the rain fall increases inland and southward until at Mobile it is sixty -three inches; the same amount also falls in the extreme southern portion of Florida. The rainfall of New England, it is perceived, is about double that of the eastern and middle por- tions of England. Observations at London, by Dal ton, for forty years gave an average fall of 20. 69 inches, while observations for forty-three years at New Bedford, Mass., gave 41.03. The most striking difference as to the fall of rain in the two countries is found in the quantities which fall in single days. While we have vastly more rain in our country, we have far less rainy days. In the United States we have either decided rain, or bright, fair weather; while in England, though it seldoms rains hard, there is much of the time a fog, a mist or a drizzling rain. The records at all points of observation are unfortunately too brief to afford any proper means of detennining whether the quantity of rain is greater now than it was ten years since; though great force attaches to the almost univer- sal belief in such increase on the part of the more intelligent residents and observers in the interior. The range of non-periodic variation is very great in all parts of the temperate latitudes, and it is possible that our earliest practical experience on the plains was in a period charac- terized by a succession of dry seasons. In Utah it is quite clear that practically t)ie warmer sea- sons have become far more profuse in rainfall than they were fifteen years ago; and at the east- ern foot of the mountains, the settled localities, as Denver, and the districts both south and north of the original center of settlements, afford marked evidence of improvement. But there are no statistics of measurement which afford any positive evidence ; the periods observed at the militarjr posts being quite irregular, and not sufficiently extended to establish any law of increase. On no point of practical results are both writers and observers more thoroughly agreed than in affirming the value of forests, as agents of at least local" amelioration of climate. An essential condition of the growth or improve- ment of a soil by chemical decomposition of its elements and by the deposit in or on it of vege- table mold, is the constant permeation of its strata by tlie water of rains and snows. These waters bear more or less ammonia always with RAIK 778 RAIN them, which is the chief agent of rocli decompo- sition, and in practical experience the forest-soils of the Central States are found deeply decom- posed and fertilized. They are also free in absorbing water, holding it long, and yielding it slowly by subsequent evaporation and by drain- age through the surface strata in permanent springs. The first result of too great and gen- eral clearings of the forests is to drj- up the springs, and next to harden the surface-soil, forming a stiff mass which sheds the water of ordinary rains, and can only be permeated by water and by the roots of plants when thoroughly broken up and fertilized by artificial means. After long periods of exposure the surface becomes so hard and refractory as to bear little or no resemblance to the soft, moist, deep soil of the original woodland. The denudation of the hills and upland plains of any one of the Cen- tral States will show a marked decline in produc- tive capacity, from that belonging to the origi- nal or first occupancy. At that time the wealth of the soil had not been wasted, nor had the gen- eral exposure of the surface deprived the crops of the shelter of adjacent woods, preventing the dry and caustic winds from exhausting the vitality of every plant exposed to them. The ordinary condition of the atmosphere, as it sweeps in general progress eastward, is that of an absorbent of moisture. When rain is not actually falling the air is taking up moisture, and if nothing is offered to it by ordinary evap- oration from the surface the condition soon becomes arid, or deficient in the quantity neces- sary for favorable action on vegetable growths. Though a desert surface intensifies the aridity, yet an ordinary dry and denuded surface yielding no moisture by evaporation soon renders the sur- face atmosphere unduly dry and caustic. The summer winds may even approach a sirocco in quality, and those of winter are piercing and destructive. The water surface of any one of the great lakes is quite sufficient to neutralize either extreme for the countries lying on the line of atmospheric circulation across those lakes ; and while the actual rainfall of Buffalo, Niagara, and Lockport is but small, the air is rarely or never biting in its aridity, as when it reaches the eastern and cultivated border of the plains after traversing htindreds of miles of sur- face destitute of watei', forests, or other moisture- yielding conditions. The practical question is, whether, with a general climate of constant rain- fall, the smaller quantity of such rainfall can be diffused and distributed so as to sustain the con- stant vegetation of the Central and Eastern States. .What may be accomplished by replacing that which we are accustomed to regard as the natural covering of the soil in the forests? And what fur- ther by cultivation, by special irrigation, and by shelter from the present unrestricted sweep of surface winds ? In answer, it may at least be assumed that important ameliorations of the local and surface conditions are certainly within control. And the whole field of action is in a climate especially mild as compared with the north of Europe. The denuded uplands of Germany, the exposed mountain districts of Scotland, and other localities of the Eastern con- tinent where cultivation struggles to reclaim every inch of surface that may lie made to yield the smallest product for human support, present examples of deterioration. The entire area of the plains, and all the plateaux, mesas, and basins of the interior need nothing but water to make them productive in valuable staples. Every- where within the United States it is warm enough, and the natural soil is rich enough. So great is this natural capacity that every observer and writer who has visited these districts believes that irrigation would be profitable in every case where it would be possible ; the general presump- tion being that many of the valleys and river bottoms near the mountains will continue to be deficient in rain, and can only be cultivated by the aid of irrigation. The concentration of set- tlements in the basin districts of Utah and Idaho has fortunately tested this capacity for profit- able cultivation by irrigation very thoroughly, and it is pronounced successful in all cases. The mountain streams are abundant and permanent, showing a profusion of summer as well as win- ter rains on their summits. The rain which would be sufficient, probably, if equally dis- tributed over valleys as well as mountains, is condensed by attraction on the higher ranges, and therefore is not constant in the valleys. In short, it is not the general average supply that is so much at fault as the local distribution. But the districts on the eastern slope of the greater mountain-plateaux are probably the most (flfflcult to deal with. The great ranges have exhausted most of the moisture of the aerial volumes from which the summer rains fall, and until their dis- turbing influence has been wholly exhausted the deficiency of rain continues. Probably a belt at Denver and near the eastern foot of the mountains has the quite insufficient quantity of fifteen inches of rain annually, and another, stretching two hundred to three hundred miles, eastward, has but twenty to twenty-four inches. This is not of itself decidedly adverse, and cul- tivation might here succeed without irrigation, if adequate shelter and local amelioration could be introduced, at least for the cereal crops, and many others not requiring much moisture. Saussure the celebrated Swiss meteorologist states that, in ascending the sides of a mountain into the region of the clouds, he has seen globules of water as large as small peas floating in the air, which, from their levity, were evidently hollow spheres, similar to small soap bubbles. From this observation the idea became preva- lent that the water of a cloud was in a vesicular condition, or, in other words, that cloud con- sists of minute hollow spheres of liquid water, filled with air, which is rendered more buoyant by the rarefaction due to the heat of the sun; and this opinion was strengthened by the fact that clouds do not give a decomposition of the rays of light sufficient to exhibit the phenomena of the rainbow. In what manner such a condi. tion of water can be produced, and how it can be retained by any principle of science, has not, so far as we are informed, been explained. A soap bubble soon becomes too thin to retain its globular form, and is resolved into the condi- tion of soap water. Ordinary water is still more unstable, and can not be retained for an instant in a hollow spherical form. We shall therefore be on the safe side if we adopt an hypothesis apparently more in accordance with known and established principles, and, if this does not furnish a logical account of all the phenomena, we must wait until further research, or light from collateral branches of science dis- RAIN 779 RAMIE pels the obscurity with -nhich this point may be involved. The suspension of tlie clouds can be explained b}- taking into account the extreme minuteness of the particles of which they are composed. In the case of mists, which are sometimes formed at the surface of the earth, and afterwards become clouds in being elevated into the atmosphere by a wind blowing between them and the earth, tlie particles are of such extreme tenuity as to be invisible to tlie nalied eye, and their presence is only rendered evident by looking through a stratum of considerable thickness. The simplest method of measuring the rain, which any one may practice for him- self, is to catch the water in a cylindrical vessel, a straignt-sided tin pail, and to measure the depth m inches and tenths of an inch after each shower. It is liardly necessary to remark that the vessel should be so placed that it may not be screened by trees, buildings, and other obstacles from the wind whicli bears along the falling drops. The object of the investigation is to ascertain the number of inches of water which fall from the clouds on a given space, in a given time — for example, a year or a season. In relation to signs foretelling rain, much has been said and written. The Signal Service of the United States now predicts storms with toler- able accuracy forty-eight hours in advan,ce. It is probable that in the near future the science of meteorology will have been so far perfected that the peculiarity of seasons ma_y be foretold with a considerable approximation to reality. Certain phenomena in the air and peculiarities of birds ha ve long been known to indicate a change in tlie weather. Many years ago the learned Dr. Jenner embodied these in verse, in reply to an invitation from a friend witii whom he had planned an excursion the following day. It embodies about all that is known to-day upon that branch of the subject, and we reproduce it as being reasonably correct : The hollow winds bea:in to blow, The clouds look black, the glass is low; The soot falls down, the spaniels sleep, And sniders Irom toeir cobwebs peep. Last night the snn went pale to bed. The moon in balos hid her head; The boding shepherd heaves a sigh, Fur, -ee, a riinbow spans the sky: The walls are damp, the ditches smell, Cio-^ed is The pink -eyed pimpernel. Hark! liow the chairs and t:ibles crack. Old Betty's joints are on the rack: Loud quack the ducks, the peacocks cry: The distant hills are looking nigh. How rfstl-s aie the snorting swine, The bu-y flie^ disturb the kine; Low o'er the grass ihe swallow wings; The cricket, too, how sharp he singe; Puss, on the he;r th. with ^ elvet paws. Sits, wiping o'er her whisker'd jaws. Through the clear stream the fishes rise, And nimbly catch th^ incautious flies; The glow-worms, numerous and bright, IllumM the dewy dell last night. At dusk the squalid toad was seen, Koppin_^ and crawling o'er the green; The whirling wind the du«' obeys, And in the rapid eddy plavs ; The frog has chang'd his yellow vest. And in a russet coatis dressed. Though June, the air is cold and still ; The Dlack-bird's mellow voice is shrill. My dog, soalter'd is his taste. Qui's mutton bones, on grass to feast; And see, yon rooks, hnw'odd iheir flight, They imitate the gliding kite. And seem precipitate to fall — As if they felt the piercing ball. 'Twill surely rain, 1 see with sorrow. Our jaunt must be put oil to-morrow. RAINBOW. A display of the prismatic colors in the air, produced by the action of par- ticles of water on the sun's rays. RAIN GALXtE. An instrument to measure the amount of rainfall. (See article Rain.) RAISING PLATE. The timber to which, the upper ends of the rafters are nailed. RAISINS. Grapes allowed to dry on the vine. As soon as they are ripe, the leaves are pruned off, and none but sound fruit left. The stalk is also half cut through. When dry they are plucked, dipped in a solution of lye, and dried on frames. RAKE. There are so manj' uses to which hand rakes may be put that, notwithstanding- the almost universal use of horse rakes in gather- ing crops, the industry connected with the manu- facture of wooden, iron and steel rakes is. immense. Since the introduction of the lawn mo-sver, the lawn rake '\vitli its sharp edged teeth has almost disappeared and has been superseded by one similar to the old time hay rake, but with teeth as close again. In gardening six and eight inch rakes, in connection with wheel hoes, have nearly in like manner displaced the common. In buying a garden rake many persons select goose-neck hoe and the Sutcli or Scuffle hoe, cast iron implements on account of their cheap- ness. It is poor economy. It is far better to- pay the difference and get the lighter and stronger steel implement. Two sizes are all that are required, one of ei.ffht inches and another of twelve inches in 'width. The latter to be used only in fining the soil. In buying a rake see that the handle is long, tough and flex- ible, since in working the soil fine, the backward movement is of more consequence than the for- ward movement. Thus with a tough flexible handle, the gardener may do double the work, antl in a better manner than with a rigid one. So in buying a wooden rake, see that the handle, and especially the teeth, are of tough, second growth wood if possible. Then as fast as a tooth brealis out put in another, and when not in use, whatever the implement, see that it is put away clean, dry, and in a dry place. RAM. The male of sheep, as distinguished from the ewe. Sometimes the word buck Is used, and the word doe for the female. It is- manifestly incorrect and should not be persisted in. (See article Sheep. ) , RAMENTA. Thin, brown scales seen on ferns and young shoots. RAMIE. This fiber plant has attracted much attention in the South within the last twenty years, and especially so within the last ten years, as also has the other coarser fiber plant of the East Indies, jute, which see. The chief diffi- culties in the way of the manufacture of both, these articles has been in economically separat- ing the fiber. So important has this matter long- been felt that the British government has offered immense rewards in cash to the inventor of a properly and economically working machine. Until this is accomplished the cultivation of ramie cannot be successfully engaged in, in the United States, on account of the high price of manual labor. In India and China, with their wonderfully cheap labor, the cost of separating the fiber is $150 per ton. Its value when pre- pared is about 1375 per ton in England. In 1875, a machine was exhibited which it was claimed would separate the fiber at a co.st of $30 per BAMIE 780 RAMIE ton. Yet but little seemed to come of it, from the fact that like machine-manufactured flax, the quality of the article for fine dress goods was worthless. Later, however, by the combination of chemical means and improved machines, it seems that inventive talent is in a fair way to accomplish the object sought. When so, the •cultivation both of ramie and jute will be im- mensely profitable in the Gulf States, and in Cal- ifornia where the climate is adapted to the growth of these plants. In relation to the ramie plant and its preparation, the following article, prepared for the United States government, by an «xpert, Emile Lefranc, will be interesting. The ' writer is enthusiastic and sanguine, nevertheless, there are facts of interest aside from this to those in the South who wish to engage in this new indus- try. We quote from the writer as follows : In- troduced into Louisiana toward the fall of 1867, the ramie has had ample time to prove its vital- ity and toughness as a perennial growth. With little or no care it has thriven alone since then, and whenever attention has been given to it, its propagation has been considerable. In some rich and elevated soils the plant has stood and propagated without the least cultivation for the last six years. The stems die in winter, and multitudes of others shoot forth every spring. Where the bushes are regularly cut three or four times a year, the more vigorous and luxuri- ant is the growth. All these facts sufficiently prove the perennial and hai-dy vitality of the plant, as also its adaptabilitj^ to our soil, and the ■congeniality of our climate. Therefore the agri- cultural problems and the questions of acclima- tion are also solved and settled. If the ramie industry did not unfold sooner the advantage of the plant. It was solely on account of the unprof- itable or inefficient methods of extracting the fiber. When first introduced on this continent, the treatment of the ramie-plant was errone- ously assimilated to that of the nettle family. The universal opinion was that it should be treated like jute, flax, hemp, and other textiles •of the cannabis variety, which are disintegrated lengthwise from the stems by the simple process •of water fermentation. The error was soon dis- covered. Ramie fiber admits of no rotting action on the stalks. Steeped and fermented in water or exposed to the air, it is decomposed and reduced to a short and weak fiber, saturated with tannic acid and spotted with tan-bark. Moreover the process is tedious and anti-econom- ical. It has been found that the envelope of the ramie-fiber contains some sulphuric and carbonic elements, which dissolve the joints of the cellu- lose when the stem is subjected to the acetic degree of fermentation or rotting. Tlien, some cliemists resorted to the process of neutralizing those dissolving elements by means of an acidu- lated bath for the plants. But those different systems were of no avail, because they required the additional intervention of machinery to break and hackle the filament, which was other- wise more or less injured in its quality by the •unnatural treatment to which it was subjected. In face of the despotic exigencies of economy in labor, and the absolute necessity of a large pro- duction, none of those methods were practicable. What is the process of the Chinese, who for centuries have monopolized the trade? Their process consists in stripping the ramie-plant and scraping the bark containing the filament. The contrivance that cleans ramie, and furnishes a product similar to that of China, is founded on that true principle, as follows: Revolving cleaners, provided with a peculiar sort of knives, receive gradually, by means of a circular canier, bunches of stems, which are doubled down and hooked in the middle. The carrier withdraws them from the rotary action of the cleaners, and delivers them in the form of clear ribbons, of a light yellow color, as fine as the imported China- grass. English manufacturers have monopolized the ramie or China-grass trade in Europe and America, and kept somewhat secret the process of finishing and weaving the fiber. Almost all the dress-goods, mixed with brilliant materials and imitating silk fabrics, are made in part of ramie. Leeds and Bradford are the principal manufacturing centers that use that staple as a substitute for silk in many sorts of goods. It is a common error to consider ramie as a substitute for cotton. The observation of the following rules will be absolutely necessary for the cultiva- tion of ramie, and for drawing from the rich plant all it can yield : For nursery purposes or for cultivation, the land must be sufficiently ele- vated to receive the benefit of natural drainage, because the roots will not live long in a watery bottom. The soil must be deep, rich, light and moist as the sandy alluvia of Louisiana. Manure supplies the defects in some lands in these res- pects. The field must be thoroughly cleai'ed of- weeds, plowed twice to the depth of eight or ten inches if possible, harrowed as much as a thor- ough pulverizing requires, and carefully drained by discriminate lines of ditches. Water must not be allowed to stand in the rows of the plant. The land being thus prepared, planting becomes easy and promising. December, January, and February are the best months in which to plant. Roots, rattoons, and rooted layers are the only available seed. They are generally four or five inches long, carefully cut, not torn, from the mother-plant. The dusty seed produced by the ramie stalks in the fall can be sown, but it is so delicate and requires so much care during the period of germination and growth that it seldom succeeds in open land. The regular germinating power of that seed is also questionable. The Department of Agriculture vainly tried, a few years ago, to difl'use this seminal cultivation by distributing imported seed, which never germin- ated. In the presence of these difficulties, and of the sure propagation obtained from fractional roots, sowing has been abandoned and replanting adopted as follows : Furrows five or six inches deep and five feet apart are opened with the plow. The roots are laid lengthwise in the middle, close in succession if a thick stand of crop is desired, but placed at intervals if nursery propagation is the object in view. The first mode will absorb 3,000 roots per acre, but will save the labor of often filling the stand by propagation. The sec- ond mode will spare three-fourths of that amount of roots, but will impose the obligation of multi- plying by layers. Being placed in the furrow closely, or at intervals, the roots are carefully covered with the hoe. Pulverized earth and manure spread over the roots insure an early and luxuriant growth in the spring. When the shoots have attained a foot in height they are hilled up like potatoes, corn, and all other plants that require good footing and protection from the fer- menting effect of stagnant water. The intervals RAMIE 781 RAPE between the rows being deepened by the hilling have also a draining influence, which can be ren- dered still more effective by ditches dug across from distance to distance, say fifteen feet. Good crops are obtained by thickening the stands. The stems are then abundant, fine, straight, and rich in fiber. Close planting is then necessary, inasmuch as it prevents the objectionable branch- ing of the stalks. Crooked and branchy ramie is unfit for mechanical decortication ; it causes waste and yields an inferior quality of fiber. The period at which the plant is ripe for cut ting is indicated by a brownish tinge at the foot of the stems. At that early stage the plant, though greenish, yields a fine and abundant filament; it also produces three or four crops according to soil and climate. The first cutting may be unprofitable on account of the irregularity and sparseness of the growth; but if the stand is well razeed and manured over the stubbles the ensuing cuttings will be productive. For that purpose the field must be kept clear of grass until the growth be sufficiently dense to expel the parasites by its shade. That necessary density is obtained by means of the important laying process. This consists in bending down, right and left along the growing stand, the highest switches, and in covering them with earth up to the tender tip, which must not be smothered. One of the causes of the perennity and of the vigor of the plant •is the nourishment it draws from the agencies of the atmosphere. Consequently the leaves of the layers should never be buried under ground. When properly performed, laying is very profit- able; it creates an abundance of new roots, and fills up rapidly the voids of the stand. After two years the plants may be so thick as to spread out in the rows. Then the plow or the stubble-cut- ter has to chop in a line, on one side, the pro- jecting rattoons. If well executed this operation leads to notable advantages : It extracts roots or fractional plants suitable for the extension of the cultivation elsewhere. It maintains, as a prun- ing, a vigorous life and develops a luxuriant growth in the stand. If always applied on the same side of the row, this sort of stubble-cutting has the remarkable advantage of removing grad- ually the growth toward the unoccupied land in the intervals, and of pushing it into a new posi- tion without disturbance. That slow rotation preserves the soil from rapid exhaustion, and the ramie from decay, through the accumulation of roots underground. Of course this lateral plow- ing will not prevent the opposite row from receiv- ing the benefit of hoeing after each crop. Experi- ments made in Louisiana have demonstrated the efficiency of that method ; to which are due the preservation and propagation of the plant In that State, while it has been destroyed in other sec- tions for want of similar care. It is through such judicious methods that the old land of China has preserved sufficient fertility to produce con- stantly the ramie for many centuries. After each cutting Chinese planters plow on one side and make cleanly the stand ; then they cover it with a thick coat of manure. That maintains the moisture and fertility of the soil, and, at the same time, preserves the plant from excessive heat or extreme cold. That protective system permits in winter ramie cultivation in latitudes corresponding to those of Maryland and Virginia. It could even be undertaken farther north by another Chinese application. In some cold re- gions of the northwestern parts of the Celestial Empire, China-grass is cultivated like potatoes. Planters dig up the stand every fall, after the last cutting, and store the roots in cellars to replant them in the spring ; yet they generally obtain two crops by such an unfavorable process. We have given this subject prominence for the reason that when cheap means for successfully reducing the fiber is invented and perfected, it may take as prominent a stand as one of the principal productions in the Gulf States, as hemp once did in Kentucky; such means have not yet been found, and the fiber must be sepa- rated in a gi'eat measure, as is still done in China and India, where labor costs but a few cents a day. Hence, there can be no competition here as against such labor until machinery comes to our aid. That this will at length be done, there is no doubt, and in this light those who are ready to avail themselves of cheap means of reduction, when it comes, will reap pi-olits equal to that on cotton, following the invention of the cotton gin. The British government, years ago, offered a reward equal to |200,000 for machinery that would successfully reduce fibers like that of ramie, for use in India, yet, we believe, it has never yet been awarded. RAMOSE. Branched. RAMPION. Campanula ranunculus. This is cultivated to a limited extent, for its roots. It is cultivated like radishes, and is fit for use in September and the fall. The soil should be rather moist. The roots are eaten raw, in salads, sliced with the leaves, or they may be boiled and treated as asparagus. KANID J). The reptiles resembling the frog Irana). RANUNCULUS. Plants resembling the but- ter-cup and crowsfoot. They are had weeds in meadows, many of them being acrid and poison- ous. Some of the improved varieties are culti- vated in gardens for tlieir blossoms. RAPE. Brassica rapa. The cultivation of rape for its seed, from which an oil is expressed, formerly used for its superior illuminating power, and for its other uses in the arts, has, of late years, considerably declined even in Europe. The best varieties for oil are the biennial species, notably B. campesti-is olifer. None of the biennials are hardy in the North. Hence in the cultivation of this plant, chiefly in Wisconsin, an inferior annual variety, the German smoothed-leaved, with upright pods, B. Prcecox, is sown. The seed may either be sow n broadcast or in drills, three pounds drilled or six pounds broadcast. The most economical way, however, is to sow in drills. It is harvested by reaping, and di'ied and threshed similarto flax. It is comparatively little cultivated now, though at one time there were mills at Fond du Lac, Wis. , capable of working 100, 000 bushels of seed in a season. Land under fair culture will yield ten to eighteen bushels of rape per acre, though thirty-five bushels per acre have been obtained. The seeds yield about two gallons of oil per bushel. The crop leaves the soil in excel- lent condition, and the chaff, when mixed with roots, makes an excellent cattle food. The rape- seed cake is highly valued in Europe for feeding dairy cows. In case a crop of grain gives indica- tions of failure, it can he turned under in season for raising a crop of rape in its place, which is subject to no disease or insect enemy. Its broad leaves shade the soil and stifle any weeds that HASPBERRY 782 REAPERS may spring up after it gets fully established, and it prepares ihe soil admirably for winter wheat ; It requires no labor during its growth, and may be cut with a cradle scythe or mower, and har- vested at a most convenieni time, in the first half of September, after the summer harvests are out of the way, and before the corn and potato har- vest begins. One bushel yields about two gal- lons of oil, superior to the best lard or sperm as an illuminating oil, besides being a good lubri- cator, and enduring an intense degree of cold before solidifying. The only conditions unfavor- able to the entire success of rape as a general farm crop are, that it will not succeed on foul land, where it would be choked out by weeds in its early growth, and that it must be harvested just as the pods are turning from green to yellow or much of the seed will be lost. RAPHE. A suture. Parts which appear as though they had been united. In botany, the thread passing from the ovule to the placenta. B4PHIDES. Crystals of oxalate of potash and other salts found in the juice of rhubarbs, ■docks, and other plants. EAPTOKES, ACCIPITRES. Birds of prey, as the hawk, owl, eagle, etc. RAREFACTION. The act of diminishing the density of air or other bodies; it is done by the air-pump in the case of air. RASORES. Scratchers; gallinaceous birds, such as the fowl, turkey, pheasant, etc. RASPBERRY. Eubua. Our native raspber- ries are the Thimble Berry or Black Cap, {Bubus ■oociclentalis), and the Red raspberry {B. s'.rigosus). The raspberry is common in some of its forms in nearly every part of Europe and the United States. The variety from which the principal European sorts have their origin, is Bnhus Idceus, said originally to have been introduced into the gardens of the south of Europe from Mount Ida, iience its name. The five varieties most exten- sively cultivated throughout the United States are the Mammoth Cluster, the Orange, the Phila- delphia, Pui^ple Cane, and American Black. In the West, the Turner is now the favorite for hardiness and prolific bearing, added to fairly good quality. The cultivation of the raspberry is simple. Plant in rows five feet apart by three and one-half feet in the row, in rich, rather moist (not wet) soil. When the plants are three feet high pinch out the tip to make them more stocky. Give clean cultivation, eradicat- ing all suckers, and do not allow those sorts which propagate from the tips to take root. Where the climate is very cold the more tender varieties will need protection, and the more slender sorts must be tied to stakes. It is, prob- ably, its sturdy nature and hardy character that makes it a favorite, since in quality it is below the Mammoth Cluster, and far inferior to such delicate sorts as Knevet's Giant, Imperial Red, and Orange. On page 783 we have illus- trated one of the old and, for market, still largely cultivated varieties, Doolittle's Black Cap. It is of small size, but quite hardy, endur- ing the winters well North, and firm enough to carry long distances. On page 784 is shown the Herstine, a berry of the largest size, obtuse in form, a red berry of excellent qualit)-, but not sufficiently firm for carrying by railway. It is also tender, as, indeed, are all first-class berries. Where protected, however, and the proper con- ditions for growth and health are present, it is valuable as a fine-flavored, prolific, and large berry. Nevertheless, neither of these cuts are given as showing the best sorts of either black or red raspberries, but as types of each. Soil, climate and situation have so much to do with success and failure in small fruits that the farmer had betier take the advice of some respectable nurseryman (not a mere tree jDedlar), as to varieties that will probably do well in his locality. RASPBERRY WINE. (See Gallizing.) RAT. MuHBattiis. The rat now usually found, is an importation said to be originally from Nor- way. The}' are on account of their fecundity and voracity, the most destructive of verminous animals, calling for every possible means for their desti'uction. In large cities rat-catching is made a regular business, and it has been said that when business became dull, the sagacious rat catcher would turn loose those caught in one place upon another. The most successful means of destroying rats is by ferrets, kept for the purpose. (See Ferret), Yet this means will not soon come into general use, since ferrets require to be kept and fed, and it requires some skill to work them in hunting rats. Terrier dogs, with the aid of traps, baiting and poisoning the rats, will gener- ally keep the farm buildings measurably clear. When poisoning, however, is followed care must be taken that farm animals, and especially chil- dren, do not get near it. RATCHET. A small lever which plays into the teeth of a ratchet-wheel, and allows it to turn freely only in one direction. RAT'STAIL. A disease in horses, in which the hair of the tail is permanently lost. RATTLESNAKE. Snakes of the genus Cro- talus. Their bite is extremely venomous. The wound should be cut out and scarified, and the patient sustained by brandy and ammonia. REAPERS. Reaping by machinery is men- tioned so long ago as the time of Pliny, the elder, or more than 2,000 years ago. This gi-aphic writer says : In the extensive fields of the low- lands of Gaul, vans of large size, with project- ing teeth on the forward edge, are driven on two wheels through the standing corn (grain) by an ox j'oked in a reversed position with the machine forward of the ox. In this manner the heads or ears are lorn off and fall into the van. Coming from Pliny's time, and through the dark ages, to about a centur}- ago, a machine was worked in England, driven forward by a horse hitched in the rear, which, as it passed f ornard, clipped the heads which fell into a box in the rear. When full this was hauled to the granary and deposited, and w^s the germ perhaps of the modern header. The great statesman of England, Gladstone, is credited with having taken out a patent in Eng- land for a reaper which cut the grain and delivered the straw in gavels, to be bound ))y hand. Curi- ous, is it not, that it should have taken over two thousand years to bring so useful and necessary a machine to its present perfection, and yet not more singular than the parallel history "of the perfection of the plow, that has been in use in some crude form since the days of the ancient Egyptians, if indeed they did not get their idea, probably, from the more remote civilization of the Chinese. To come down to the present time. To 3Ir. Obed Hussey and to Mr. McCormick, are due the merit of first elaborating ideas that have made reaping and mowing machines practi- DOOLITTLE'S BLACK CAP RASPBERRY. (783) -'~'-:?S RASPBERRY — VARIETY HERSTINE. (784) REAPERS 785 REAPERS cable. Successive inventors have, Tvith them, carried the improvements forward until, in 1878, machines cut, bound, and delivered the grain ready for shocking far cleaner and better than it could be done by hand. In California, headers are still much used, that dry climate allowing the grain to stand until so ripe that the heads may be safely ricked, or threshed, directly from the machine. In self-bindiug reapers, their per- fection by human means may be said to have been about reached. The histor}' of reaping,and the laurels added from time to tin.j to American machines, have been thus tersely stated. The sickle, which was in almost universal use till within a veiy recent date, is undoubtedly one of the most ancient of all our farming implements. Reaping by the use of it was always slow and laborious, while from the fact that many of our grains would ripen at the same time, there was a liability to loss before they could be gathered, and practically there was a vastly greater loss from this cause than there is at the present time. It is not, therefore, too much to say that the successful introduction of the reaper into the grain-fields of this country has added many millions of dollars to the value of our annual harvests, by enabling us to secure the whole product, and by making it possible for the farmer to increase the area of his wheat-fields, with a certainty of being able to gather the crop. Nothing was more surprising to the mercantile community of Europe than the fact that we could continue to export such vast quantities of wheat and other breadstuffs through the midst ■of the late civil war, with a million or two of able-bodied men in arms. The secret of it was the general use of farm-machinery. The num- ber of two-horse reapers in operation throughout the country, in the harvest of 1861, performed an amount of work equal to about a million of men. The result was that our capacity for farm production was not materially disturbed. The •credit of the practical application of the prin- ciples involved in this class of machines undoubtedly belongs to our own ingenious mechanics; for though somewhat similar Tnachines were invented in England and Scot- land many years ago, they had never been proved to be efficient in the field, and had never gained the confidence of the farmers, even in their neighborUood; while the patent issued to Obed Hussey, of Cincinnati, in 1833, and another issued to McCorraick, of Virginia, in 1834, not only succeeded in the trials to which they were subjected, but in the face of diflSculties gained a wide and pennanent reputation. Many patents had been issued in this country pre- viously, the first .having been as early as 1803, but they had not proved successful. Hussey's machine was introduced into New York and Illinois in 1834, into Missouri in 1835, into Penn- sylvania in 1837, and in the next year the inventor established himself in Baltimore McCormick's machine had been worked as early as 1831, but it was afterwards greatly improved, and became a source of an immense fortune to the inventor. He took out a .second patent in 1845, fifteen other machines having been pat- ented after the date of his first papers, including that of the Ketchum, in 1844, which gained a wide reputation. The first trial of reapers, par- taking of a national character, was held under the auspices of the Ohio State Board of Agri- 50 culture in 1852, when twelve different machines and several different mowers were entered for competition. There was no striking superiority, according to the report of the judges, in any of the machines. A trial had been held at the show of the New York State Agricultural pociety, at Buffalo, in 1848, but the large body of farmers who had witnessed it were not pre- pared to admit that the work of the machines was good enough to be tolerated in comparison with the hand-scythe. Some thought they might possibly work in straight, coarse graps, but in finer grasses they were sure to clog. The same society instituted a trial of reapers and mowers at Geneva in 1852, when nine machines com- peted as reapers and seven as mowers. Only two or three of the latter were capable of equal- ing the common scythe in the quality of work they did, and not one of them all, when brought to a stand in the grass, could start again without backing to get up speed. All the machines had a heavy side-draft, some of thi m to such an extent as to wear seriously on the team. None of them could turn about read- ily within a reasonable space, and all were liable to tear up the sward in the opeiation. The old Manning, patented in 1831, and. the Ketchum machines were the only ones that were capable of doing work that was at allsatisfaotory. One or two of the reapers in this trial did fair work, and the judges decided that, in comparison with the hand-cradle, they showSd a saving of eighty- eight and three-fourths cents per acre. Here was some gain certainly, a little positive advance, but still most of the reapers, as well as ^he mowers, did very inferior work. The draft in them all was very heavy, while some of the best of them had a side-draft that was destruc- tive to the team. The inventive genius of the country was stimulated by these trials to an extraordinary degree of activity. Patents began to multiply rapidly. Local trials took place every year, in various parts of the country, to test the merits of the several machines. The great International Exposition at Pai'is, in 1855, was an occasion not to be overlooked by an enterprising inventor, and the . American machines, imperfect as they were at that time, were brought to trial there in competition with the world. The scene of this trial was on a field of oats about forty miles from I'aris, each machine having about an acre to cut. Three machines were entered for the first trial, one American, one English, and a third from Algiers, all at the same time raking as well as cutting. The American machine did its work in twenty- two minutes, the English in sixty-six, and the Algerian in seventy-two. At a subsequent trial on the same piece, three other machines wore entered, of American, English, and French man- ufacture, when the American machine did its work in twenty-two minutes, while the two oth- ers failed. The successful competitor on this occasion, says a French journal, did its work in a most exquisite manner, not leaving a single stalk ungathered, and it discharged the grain in the most perfect shape, as if placed by hand, for the binders. It finished its piece most excellently. The contest was finally narrowed down to three machines, all American. Two machines were afterwards converted from reapers into mowers, one making the change in one minute, the other in twenty. Both performed their task to the REAPERS 786 REAPERS astonisliment and satisfaction of a large con- course of spectators, and the judges could hardly restrain their enthusiasm, but cried out, good, good! well done! wliile the excitable peo- ple who looked on hurrahed for the American reaper, crying out, that's the machine! that's the machine ! The report of a French agricultural journal said: All the laurels, we are free to confess, have been gloriously won by Ameri- cans, and this achievement can not be looked upon with indifference, as it plainly foreshad- ows the ultimate destiny of the New World. Five years after the Geneva trial there was a general desire to have another on a scale of magnificence that should bring out all the prom- inent reapers and mowers of the country. The United States Agricultural Society accordingly instituted a national trial at Syracuse, N. Y., in 1857. More than forty mowers and reapers entered, and were brought to test on the field. It was soon apparent that striking improvements had been made since the meeting at Geneva. The draft had been very mate- rially lessened in nearly all the machines, though the side-draft was still too great in some of them. Most of the machines could now cut fine and thick grass.without clogging, and there was a manifest progress in them, but of the nineteen that competed as mowers, only three could start in fine grass without backing to get up speed. The well known Buckeye, patented only the year before, won itsefirst great triumph here, and carried off the first prize. Every year now added to the list of new inventions and improve- ments. In 1859 the Wood mower was invented, and soon gained a high reputation. By the year 1864 there were no less than a hundred and eighty-seven establishments in the country devoted to the manufacture of reapers and mow- ers, many of them very extensive, and com- pletely furnished with abundant power, machinery and tools of the most perfect descrip- tion while the work had become wisely and thoroughly systematized. The people directly sustained by these factories exceeded sixty thou- sand, while the value of their annual product exceeded $15,000,000, the number of machines amounting to one hundred thousand. Nine years after the Syracuse trial, another exhibi- tion of mowers and reapers, national in its char- acter, was held at Auburn, N. Y., under the auspices of the New York State Society, in July, 1866. The number of mowers that entered, single and combined, was forty-four; the number of reapers, thirty; or seventy-four in all. It was plain, at a glance, that a decided improvement had taken place in workmanship and mechanical finish. The mowers were more compact, simpler in construction, lighter, and yet equally strong ; they ran with less friction ; the draft was easier, and the machines gen- erally were less noisy; they cut the grass better, and were capable of working over uneven sur- faces. The committee say in their report: Those who had been present at former trials were astonished at the general perfection which had been attained by manufacturers of mowing machines. Every machine, with two excep- tions, did good work, which would be accept- able to any farmer; and the appearance of the whole meadow, after it had been raked over, was vastly better than the average mowing of the best farmer in the State, notwithstanding the great difiiculties that had to be encountered. At previous trials, very few machines could stop in the grass and start without backing for a fresh start. At the present trial every machine stopped in the grass and started again without, backing, without any diflBculty and without leaving any perceptible ridge to mark the place- where it occurred, thus leaving a clean cut. We may here note the rapid progress of these- most valuable labor-saving machines, for while, in the earlier trials, only one or two mowers met with any success whatever, no one doing what practical farmers could call good work, in this trial forty-two of the forty-four machines entered did their work well. In the early contests even a. partial success was the rare exception; in the^ late, failure was the equally rare exception. In 1850 less than five thousand machines had been made and put to use, and few, if any of them, gave satis.'action. Now there is scarcely a farm of any size in the country but has its mowing machine. It is one of the grandest agricultural inventions of modern times, and yet we see that it is less than twenty years since doubts were freely entertained as to whether it would ever become practically useful, whether the numerous mechanical obstacles would be entirely overcome. Its triumph has been complete. We have now many mowers that have not only a national but a world-wide reputation. The suc- cessful introduction of these machines was an immeasurable step in advance upon the old methods of cutting grass. They come in at a. season when the work .of a farm is peculiarly laborious, when labor is held at higher than the usual high rate of wages, when the weather is often fickle, either oppressively hot and trying: to the physical system, or catchy and lowering,, and they relieve the severest strain upon the- muscles at the time of harvest. Our reapers are at the same time self -rakers. We can reap and gather from fifteen to twenty acres a day in the most satisfactory manner. This brings us up to 1870, about wliich time inventive talent was earnestly directed to self -binding machines. The first successful attempt in this direction was th& Marsh harvester, which cut the grain and carried, it to tables from which two expert binders would tie the bands as fast as delivered, working from eight to twelve acres per day according to th& heft and standing of the grain. It will not be necessary to follow inventive talent lurther in the perfection of reaping machines, suflade it to say, the ideas of the earlier inventors have been improved on and elaborated. Lightness of draft- combined with great strength; the avoidance of undue friction, and last, motion; the power of starting with a clean cut in heavy, and, indeed, green and tangled bottom; automatic raking, and more later automatic binding, and th&, delivery of the bound sheaves in piles ready for shocking — all these points have been successfully elaborated within the last decade. Besides this, machines do not now easily got out of order, so- that from the perfectness of the working parts, twenty or more machines may be put to work in a harvest, working one after the other on con- secutive cuts, as illustrated in Landed Estates and Farms, and with almost as much certainty of retaining their respective places in line as may a string of gang plows, as illustrated in the arti- cle Plowing. In fact they can be kept as well under control, almost, as stationary appliances. REAR HORSE 787 RECLAMATION OP LAND REAR HORSE. MantiUm. True orthopter- ous insects wliich have their legs peculiarly- adapted for walliing, and known under various expressive names, as Rear-horse. Camel-crickets, or Praying mantids ; all, as well as the specters or walking-sl icks, are beneficial to agriculture, since tbey destroy all such insects as they can catch and overcome. They are all insects belonging to the South rather than the North, being seldom found much above the latitude of St. Louis. Mantis Carolina is common in Southern Illinois and South. They are of a greenish or grayish- brown color, their heads horizontal, their eyes large and globular, antennae thread-like, and the body long, linear, and oval, with the abdomen much wider than the thorax or front part of tlie body, and of a depressed form. The upper wings of the male are long, and have numerous veins. The under wings are thin and net-veined with long parallel veins. The wing-covers of the females are considerably shoner than those of the male, and do not reach the end of the abdomen. When disturbed, this singular insect elevates or rears the fore part of its body almost perpendicularly, fixes its large staring eyes full upon the disturber, and turns its head sideways in a peculiarly human, yet ludicrous manner, so as to follow every movement of its tormentor with at least one eye. If a small object, such as a blade of grass, be then presented, It will either strike out vigorously with its saber-like fore feet, or else retreat to what it considers a safe distance. These insects are especially remark- able in the formation of their fore feet, which are much longer than the others, and are formed particularly for catching and holding their prey, which consists of other insects. The thighs are robust, and armed with a double row of spines, the shanks are short, spiny, and curved so as to fit into the under side of the thighs, when closed, like a clasp-knife. When in pursuit of its prey the insect moves almost imperceptibly along, and steals toward its victim like a cat approaching a mouse, and, when sufficiently near, the fore leg is extended at its full length, the insect immedi- ately caught and impaled by the spines between the thigh and shank, carried to the mouth, and deliberately eaten piecemeal while yet alive and struggling to escape. If gently treated and daily accustomed to the sight of its feeder, this insect may readily be tamed so as to take flies from the hand, and from the oddity of its actions and apparent intelligence makes a most interesting pet. The eggs are clustered together in an irregular brownish mass or case, about an inch long, and fastened to the branches or trunks of trees, on palings, or walls, and even on the under side of window-sills, in Washington, where the insects are very common. Wherever such cases are found, they should be protected and not destroyed, as is generally the case, (being mis- taken for the eggs of leaf-destroying caterpillars), as the insects produced from them do no injury ■whatsoever to vegetation, but, on the contrary, are very beneficial as destroying injurious insects, from their earliest infancy, as when young they feed upon plant-lice and other min- ute insects. These young rear-horses are so carnivorous that almost as soon as they are hatched and their skins a little hardened by exposure to the atmosphere they will devour their younger and softer-bodied brethren, and we have seen frequently a young mantis of a day old mercilessly devour the young of its own kind when just emerged from the egg-case. AVhen older, these insects disperse and feed at first on very small insects, such as plant-lice and simi- lar small game, until they acquire size and strength sufficient to master small caterpillars and flies. When fully grown, the females, being much larger, stronger, and more rapa- cious than their mates, the males, will fre- quently sieze and kill them, and aftei'ward make a good meal from their quivering bodie.'i. Allied to these are the specter or walking-stick insects, Phasmidw. These insects in this country do very little, if any, injury, to the farmers, as they generally live on the shoots and foliage of wild shrubs or trees in the woods. The most common species is the common walking-stick insect, {Dlapherome.ra frnwrata), so named from the close resemblance the insect bears to a dead twig or stick. The egg-sac is said to be flattened, elliptic, with a lid in front, which can be pushed open by the imago when about to hatch. These eggs are deposited in autumn. The young insects resemble the old ones in form and habits, differing only in size. The species never acquire wings, and merely crawl from limb to limb; they are of very sluggish habits, and the males are considerably smaller than the females. When stretched out motionless on a twig, with fore feet and antennae extended, they can scarcely b& distinguished from the twigs themselves, and city visitors, who see them for the first time, can scarcely be persuaded that they are not real twigs, gifted in some mysterious ma ner with life and motion. These insects are said to be able to reproduce some of their limbs when accidentally broken off. They feed upon the buds, shoots, and foliage of various trees and shrubs, but are not sufficiently numerous to cau.'se much injury. RECEPTACLE. In botany it has four differ- ent significations: That part of a flower upon which the carpella are situated; or, in other words the extremity of the fruit stalk. The axis of the theca of Trichomanei and Hymino- phyllum, among ferns. That part of the ovarium from which the ovula arise, and which is com- monly called the placenta. That part of the axis of a plalit which bears the flowers when it is depressed in its development; so that, instead of being elongated into a stem, it forms a flat- tened area, upon which the flowers are arranged, as in compositae. RECLAMATION OF LAND- The history of the reclamation of swamps and marsh lands, more especially by shutting out the water of floods, is as old as civilization itself. Its con- densed history is given both as showing Its antiq- uity and the importance always attached to such reclamation, from the great fertility of such soils. The periodical overflow of the Nile to uncertain limits necessitated the controlling of the waters within defined boundaries, and this control was most undoubtedly exercised by means of embank- ments. The Phoenicians — the people of Tyre and the ancient sea-ports of the East, the Greeks and the Romans, erected extensive works on their sea-coasts to protect their cities and ships from oc an storms and foreign enemies, and no doubt they enclosed low-lying lands in many instances for the purpose. The Romans, during their occupation of Britain, raised immense lines of embankments at several points along the KECLAMATION OP LAND 788 RECLAMATION OF LAND coast, tbe remains of which are still in existence. In fact, all nations, as they advanced in civiliza- tion seem to have recognized in reclamation a means of extending the area of land to be distri- buted among the people without necessitating an emigration of surplus inhabitants. This has been the case in India and China, where the dense population manages to accommodate itself to the limits of those countries, and it is only within the last few years that we have seen any signs of a movement by these people to other countries. The original settlers of the Netherlands were the descendants of those wan- dering tribes whose emergence from their homes in the North heralded tlie downfall of the Roman empire, and laid the foundation of the nation- alities which at present checker ihe map of Europe. The first steps toward erecting barriers against the tidal overflow in Holland are stated to have been taken in or about the second cen- tury of the Christian era. It is probable that vanguards of the great army of invasion which in later times overran Europe from the north had begun to move forward and occupy in small bodies the country lying along the northern coast. As the population increased, and the groups of mud huts grew into large towns and cities, the necessity for placing under cultivation more extensive areas of land became imperative. The more valuable these settlements grew to the people,, the more desirous were they to guard them against destruction by the sea, and the attention of the government and people was directed to the general and permanent embank- ing of the whole coast. How they have suc- ceeded we all know. The country which was once a desolate marsh is now a garden. Visitors passing through it acknowledge that in no part of the world is scientific agriculture better understood or applied, although the fields and dwellings are in many places twenty feet below the level of the sea. It was not alone necessary to embank against the sea, but also against the waters of some of the great rivers whose sources are to be found in the very heart of Europe, and which would overflow all the low lands they, traverse had not the precaution of confining them to their natural channels been taken by the Hollanders. Many works have been written which give detailed descriptions of the manner in which the diking of the Netherlands was carried on. The foundation of the work was laid -by nature. The superstructure was the work of man. Along the coast exposed to the great ocean storms a bank of sand was washed up by the action of the waves, and a natural barrier was erected against the incursion of the tidal waves. A belt of wood which grew along the coast, and against which the sand was heaped, assisted the early toilers in their labors by afford- ing both shelter and material. This wood has since disappeared to a great extent in the con- stant repairs rendered necessary by the action of the waves in stormy weather. Beyond strength- ening and connecting lliese mounds or banks of sand, and securing the lands in the immediate neighborhood of tbe ocean from tidal overflow, little was done in the beginning on the main embankment along the coast, while the river banks were left wholly exposed. The great work once initiated, however, it has progressed steadily to the present day, and we find that after a strug- gle lasting many centuries, the energy and per- severance of man have wrested a kingdom from the sea. Writers on the subject of the early condition of Holland tell us that the country was covered with lakes, varying in size, which have been drained and converted into fruitful farms. The most important operation lately and successfully completed is the draining of the Harlem lake, which covered an area of about 45,000 acres. A description of this work was given in the report of the Department of Agri- culture for 1866. Extensive tracts on the west- ern coast of England, called the Pen country, have been embanked and drained, and added to tlic cultivable land in that section. As many as 680,000 acres of fen have been reclaimed, and the works rival those of Holland in extent. The Encyclopaedia Britannicasays: This fen country has for centuries been the scene of drainage operations on a stupendous scale. The whole surface of tHe great basin of the fens is lower than the sea, the level varying from four to six- teen feet below high-water mark in the German Ocean. The difficulty in draining this flat tract is increased from tbe circumstance that the ground is highest near the shore and falls inward toward tbe foot of the slope. These inland and lower grounds consist of a spongy peat, which has a natural tendency to retain water. The rivers and streams which flow from the higher inlands discharge upon these level grounds, and originally found their way into the broad and shallow estuary of the wash, obstructed in all directions by bars and sand-banks. These upland waters, being now caught at their point of entrance on the fens are confined within strong artificial banks, and so guided straight seaward, and are thus restrained from flooding the low grounds, and by their concentration and momen- tum assist in scouring out the silt from the narrow channel to which they are confined. The tidal waters are at the same time fenced out by sea- banks, which are provided at certain intervals with sluice-doors by which the waters escape at ebb tide. "When this does not provide such a drainage as to admit of cultivation, the water ia lifted mechanically by wind or steam mills into the main aqueducts. In the district called Marsh, in Norfolk, extending between the Ouse and the New, in that called South Holland, in Lincoln- shire, stretcljing between the New and Welland, northward of Spalding, and also northeast of Boston, there are considerable tracts of marine clay soil. In Marshland this is chiefly arable land, producing large crops of wheat and beans; but in Lincolnshire it forms exceedingly fine grazing land. This tract lies within the old Roman embankment, by which the district was first defended from the ocean. Outside this barrier are the proper marah lands, which have been leclaimed in portions at successive periods, and are still intersected in all directions by ranges 01 banks. The extraordinary feature in this tract is that tbe surface outside the Roman bank is three or four feet higher than on the inside, and the level of each new inclosure is more elevated than the previous one. The land rises step by step as the coast is approached, so that the most recently reclaimed lantl is often twelve and some- times eighteen feet higher than the lowest fen land in the interior, the drainage from which must, nevertheless, be conveyed through these more elevated marshes to the sea. These extensive works are represented by many hundreds of miles RECLAMATION OF LAND 789 RECLAMATION OF LAND of river embankments, and the sea-coast line embanked exceeds one hundred and thirty in length. This fen land, once, like that ot Hol- land, a wild, marshy tract, impassable to man or beast, is now a fertile farm, rich in agricultural products, and inhabited by a healthy and wealthy population. Another instance of successful reclamation is to be found in England; the Bed- ford level, called after the Earl of Bedford, who in the year 1634 expended over £100,000 to reclaim these lands, and whose son completed the work at an additional cost of £300, 000. These lands have since that time been kept perfectly free of water by means of windmills and other pumping engines. Extensive drainage opera- tions have been carried on in many parts of Europe, particularly in France and Italy. The celebrated Pontine marshes, near Rome, are mentioned by early historians as a source of great danger to the public health, and several unsuc- cessful attempts were made to reclaim them. The popes at different periods renewed these efforts, and their success, though partial, proved that the drainage could be effected with sufficient capital. In Ireland, immense tracts of peat-bog have been drained and converted into arable land. The bog of Allen is an extensive area of peaty soil, extending into several counties, and covering many thousand acres. In the southern part of Ireland, along the rivers and shores of the main estuaries, large areas of alluvial deposits have been inclosed by embankments, and a rich soil made available for cultivation. The cotton lands in the valley of the Mississippi are exceed- ingly fertile when properly protected by levees from the periodical overflow of the river. The construction and maintenance of these levees are often the subject of discussion in Congress, and it would seem proper that the nation's represen- tatives should interest themselves in what forms so important a protection to the agricultural interests of several of the States of the Union. In Canada the question of reclaiming the marsh lands is receiving considerable attention from both the government and the people. Extensive works are about to be commenced, with a view to these reclamations; and vast aieas of fertile soil will be added to the lands of the New Do- minion. In the United States the question of utilizing marshes has not attained the importance it deserves. In the neighborhood of New York, a considerable tract of land, known as the New- ark Meadows, lying between the Newark and Paterson range of hills, on the west side, and the Palisade ridge of Bergen hill on the east side, has been embanked and otherwise drained and reclaimed within the past fifteen years. Mr. Jerome J. Collins, a civil engineer of New Jersey, who has had large experience in reclaim- ing the tide water lands between New York, Newark, and Hackensack, originally unproduc- tive salt marshes, but now most valuable and high priced gardening soil, gives the general principles of reclamation as follows: In effect- ing the reclamation of a tract of marsh land, three distinct objects must be attained before the work can be considered complete. First, the exclusion of all waters, having their sources of supply or operating from the outside of the limits of the marsh land reclaimed. Second, the collection and expulsion, by means of drains, ditches, sluices, and pumps, of all waters lodged on the marsh or having their sources inside Its limits. Third, the control of all waters that may afterward acccuraulate on the marsh from springs, rains or other causes, so that the danger of drowning the land may be avoided and the cultivation f)f the soil be uninterrupted. Each of these conditions must exist to insure the harmonious working of the other two; the absence of one is fatal to the usefulness of the others. In case of the first condition, when we undertake to exclude waters having their sources outside the limits of the marsh to be reclaimed, it is necessary to erect a dike; but tlie shape, size, and mode of construction will be governed by the locality, material, and the amount of resistance the dike must offer to the return of the excluded water. The collection and expulsion of waters accumulated on the marsh from rains, or the interception of that deriving its source from springs within the marsh limits, will depend considerably on area, location, and out- fall, as well as on the power and capacity of pumps and other water-engines. The control of the water in the soil and its removal for agricul- tural purposes will depend on the excellence and completeness of the other works, but will also be affected by climate and the character and treatment of the crops raised. The location of the marsh with respect to liigli lands is of the utmost importance, as, when adjoining upland, it receives the rainfall of the hills in addition to its own, and unless precautions are taken to control this irregular addition to its own waters, so that the land shall not suffer from it, the third condition for a complete reclamation can not be said to be complied with. Embankments are necessar}' for the exclusion of water from an area where the source of that water is above the level of the surface to be kept dry. For instance, the embankment of a reseryoir must of necessity be above the level ot the river, spring, or other reservoir from which the first receives its supply, unless, indeed, the discharge from the latter be equal to that which it unifoi-mly receives, and its embankments lose their retain- ing character, and become simple diverters of the stream. In lilie manner, any space enclosed by an embankment for the purpose of excluding water must have that embankment higher than the highest level of the encroaching water, if an inland stream, or the highest known range of the tide, if on a tidal river bank, or the sea-coast, unless, in the case of the inland stream, the water becomes simply guided in its course, and not confined. As our principal marshes requir- ing embankments are located along the shores of the large bays and inlets, or on the banks of tidal streams, remarks will be confined to such marshes and their requirements. In erecting a dike to resist the pressure of the tide, the shape, the size, and the mode of construction of the dike must vary with the location and the range of the tide. Location affects it because the bank may at one point be sheltered from the eroding action of the waves, while at another point it may be exposed to their full force. It is there- fore evident that some dissimilarity must exist between the work to be done by the two sections of the bank, and a consequent difference becomes necessary in their shape, strength, and mode of construction. Many plans have been projected for the erection of dikes, sea-walls, and embank- ments, each possessing some peculiar merit, while failing to fulfill equally important require- BECLAMATION OF LAND 790 . RECLAMATION OF LAND ments. No particular form of dike can be recommended for all cases, as tlie necessity of each case demands special treatment. The Dutch engineers favor long slopes for sea-banks, constructed of sand or other light material, but the length of the exterior slope can be safely diminished, where a durable material, like stone, can be procured, with the additional security of piles and other protection; it is also certain that where the material is not adhesive and durable, long slopes, especially facing the waves, are advantageous when not exposed to the face of the ocean waves, as on the coast of Holland. A base of about five to one, divided between the internal and external slopes, in addition to the width of the bank on top, would afford ample base for an embankment. Thus, if we require an embankment six feet high to resist the .encroachment of the tide, we can not with abso- lute safety construct it with a base of less than thirty-five feet to resist effectually the wash of the waves. This width of base would admit of, in the first place, a width on the top of the embank- ment of five feet and external slope of three feet and a half to one, and an internal slope of one and a half to one. The bank with a thirty-five foot base is suited to exposed situations, where wind and wave act directly but moderately. Where the bank is subiect to a heavy blow from the waves, the slope will be so graduated as to receive and gradually deaden the effort of the wave as it traverses its surface. The shape of the bank is of as much importance as its con- struction and dimensions, because, if by unsuit- able proportions we subject the very best mate- rial and workmanship to extreme and unneces- sary strains, it can not be expected that the work of resistance will be performed as effectually as if due consideration were given to the relations which should always exist between the shape, material, and amount of resistance the bank is expected to offer to the water. Durable mate- rial is not always to be had where wanted for embankments, but in the case of salt marshes, with very few exceptions the soil excavated forms a superior material for their construction. This is generally the case along the shoros of large rivers and estuaries, where the silt from the river is continually being washed against the bank, and during high tides carried over and deposited on the surface of the marsh along the river-banks, forming a compact soil, whicli, when used, in the construction of a bank and dried, becomes hard, durable, and water-tight— the three most important requirements for an embankment. The fitness of these marsh soils for embankments has been tested, and where used not the least trouble has been experienced with them either by a set- tlement or breach, but the shape of the bank has been preserved unchanged after severe winters and heavy rain storms. When banks are erected to exclude water, they must be made perfectly impermeable to that element. The least leakage is but the forerunner of a burst, unless quickly attended to. These leaks are frequently caused by the imperfect construction of the bank itself, ■where the material is not packed close, or some of the joints between the sods of soil have not been thoroughly closed by the workmen. Another cause may be the shrinkage of the material when drying in the bank, joints that were close while the moisture swelled the material of the bank being opened by the shrinkage of the soil, and admitting tiny streams, which soon become seri- ous leaks, and finally the cause of the destruc- tion of the bank. Of the two causes, either may be guarded against by proper care in construct- ing the bank. There is still another cause of leakage and the failure of a bank — the penetra- tion of the bank by muskrats and other boring animals, whose attacks must be steadily resisted by constant vigilance and the adoption of some plan of construction which will defeat their operations. Several attempts which have been made at reclamation in this country owe their failure to the muskrats. These animals are not to be despised as enemies to marsh reclamation. As workers they are unrivaled in perseverance, for they will return again and again to the attack on the same point of an embankment, until they succeed in boring it to their satisfaction, or are killed by a lucky shot. On the Newark mea- dows. New Jersey, they were defeated effectually by means of the iron plate inserted in the embank- ment, and covering the space between the range of high and low water. The rats penetrated the bank in many places, but were stopped by the plate, and they either gave up their excavation or cut their way over the plate at a level above that of high water, and the consequent injury to the bank was slight and easily repaired. A core composed of a less expensive material than iron would answer the same purposes, and a well- constructed dike core of wood, hemlock for instance, will probably be found fully equal to all requirements. There are conditions, how- ever, "under which tlie iron core might be prefer- able. To accomplish the second important con- dition, the collection and removal of all waters lying stagnant or otherwise, and having their source of supply within the limits of the marsh, a series of main and intermediate ditches or drains must be cut through the marsh, for the collection and conveyance of these waters to points on the line of the main embankments, from which it can be forced or drained out. In the case of tide marshes, where the range of the tide brings the low-water level sufficiently below that of the marsh surface to admit of the drainage of the soil to a proper depth, and a fair outfall for the water collected in the ditches, a number of well-placed and properly-constructed sluice-gates will assist considerably in draining the land, as the volume of water drained into the river or bay will be in proportion to the fall and capacity of the sluice to discharge it. Although many advantages are derived from the use of sluices on marsh lands, they are not to be com- pared in efficiency with a well-constructed pump, worked by steam-power. No matter how well constructed a sluice may be, or of what material, there is always a weakness about it and a liabil- ity to accident that must impress itself upon the observer. The connection made between the embankment and the wood-work or masonry of a sluice is, in nine cases out of ten, the site of numerous leaks, which are continuously enlarg- ing and are the more dangerous on account of their apparently trifling character. The material of a sluice may be iron ; it corrodes and gets easily clogged by slight obstructions, such as small branches of trees or tufts of grass. If made of wood, it is liable to rot away under water, and be unexpectedly destroyed by a violent storm or other cause. The stone-work setting- of a sluice, on account of the alternate BECLAMATION OF LAND 791 RECLAMATION OF LAND "wetting and drying process that goes on, par- ticularly during tlie winter frosts, will work out all the mortar or cement from the joints, and the whole sluice is liable to be undermined by the action of the current passing through the sluice twice in every twenty -four hours. If the sluice is self-acting, it is a source of danger, as it is liable to be obstructed by floating wood, gi-ass, weeds, etc., and is certain to be frozen up in winter time, and in case it should be so pre- vented from working properly, the sluice being set to low water, the obstruction to the free flow of the water or to the closing of the gate against the rising tide will not be discovered until, in the latter case, the tide begins to flow in through the sluice, when the obstruction is placed out of reach. In this way considerable damage may be done to young crops by an over- flow of salt or brackish water. • If the sluice is worked by hand, it is equally dangerous, as neglect will result in a general overflow of the reclaimed land and a probable destruction of valuable property. The best provision that can be made against an overflow from a neglected or defective sluice-gate is the use of pumps exclu- sively for the drainage of tidal marshes. A con- siderable saving is also effected by using a pump, as fuel can be economically used and only when required, while the cost of pumping from one station will be much less than sluicing from a dozen points, when a larger staff of workmen is required. The general plan of the ditches and drains is regulated as much by the location of the outfall as by the actual wants of the land. The object being to remove the water as quickly as possible from the place where it accumulates; and by that means to save every inch of the fall, the ditches should be laid out with that object, and every part of the tract to be drained should be connected with the outfall as directly as pos- sible. It is also desirable to keep a current flow- ing through the ditches to the outfall as uni- formly constant as possible, so that no deposit can occur in the drain to obstruct the passage of the water. This uniformity of motion and direc- tion can not be obtained by the use of sluices, or rather can be obtained by no other means than by pumping-power, which has no cause for stop- page by reason of the ebb and flow of a tide, the effect of prevailing winds, or any other obstacle to the free and constant flow of water througli a sluice-way. By the use of pumps a uniform and unbroken line of embankment is presented to the outside water, having no weak places to cause a fear for its stability, no wood-work to rot away, iron-work to corrode, or masonry to be destroyed. Complete control is obtained over all accumulations of water that may occur after rain storms; a deeper drainage of the land is pos- sible, as the level of low water outside does not aifect the operation; and in the case of heavy rains due preparation can be made by the engi- neer to deal with the water, for when the barome- ter indicates a change of weather or the approach ■of a storm he can pump his ditches dry if neces- sary, and keep the water very low during the heaviest rains; on the other hand, the pump need not be worked more than one day in the week during dry weather. When certain condi- tions favor the adoption of the sluice in prefer- ence to the pump, it is wise to adopt that system; there are some cases where no choice can be exercised. Where springs are found on these marshes, either isolated or in groups, it is proper to connect them with a main drain through a lateral ditch ; and when found in groups to sur- round them with a ditch by which their waters^ may be removed as fast as discharged, and not permitted to saturate the soil for any distance around. The removal of water from the soil for agricultural purposes is the last and most impor- tant condition to be fulfilled in the work of recla- mation. The fitting of soil such as is found on our marsh lands for the reception of suitable crops calls for the exercise of considerable skill on the part of the agriculturist. He finds a vir- gin soil in the formation of which almost every fertilizing element is employed. His experience of upland farming may be very extensive ; but here he has land that requires peculiar treatment, but no manure, no invigoration, to call forth its productiveness; in fact, nothing except the ditching tool and the plow, and the farmer's personal care and management, is required t6 achieve success equal to the highest expectations. An excess of moisture in a soil hurts vegetation by keeping the temperature of the subsoil low, and weakening the effect on the plants of the various chemical constituents that assist in the development and support of vegetable life. The remedy for this evil must necessarily be drainage. The absence of a proper moisture is equally damaging to vegetation, as many of these chem- ical constituents of soils are brought into active operation by the water in the soil and the vitality of the plant iS thereby sustained. Water is the principal constituent of the sap of plants, and its absence in proper quantity must cause an exhaustion to the vegetable similar to that pro- duced in the animal life by loss of blood. The want of natural moisture is usually supplied artificially by what is known as irrigation. We must seek a mean between the two conditions of excess and total absence of moisture, in order to arrive at that in which a soil is best fitted for the production of a healthy vegetation. Some soils, owing to their formation, will retain moisture more readily than others, and, therefore, require a different style of cultivation. Sandy soils are dry and represent the opposite extreme to the marsh in point of humidity. This is due to the composition of the soil. Sand, being purely granicular, permits water to pass easily through it until it sinks to the level of some denser sub- stratum. Marsh soil, especially alluvial or vege- table deposit, IS absorbent; its particles are so minute as to form a closer and more compact combination not easily penetrated by any foreign matter moved by the force of gravity alone, insoluble, and possessing in a high degree the property of inducing capillary attraction. Noth- ing but deep incisions into the surface of this soil creates that positive disconnection of the mass which is necessary for the liberation of the water held in the soil by the sponge-like sub- stance which enters so largely into its compo- sition. The low situation of marshes and bogs is not a reason for the presence in excess of moisture in their soils. In many instances these bogs are found on high lands or the tops of high mountains. Tracts of peat bog in various parts of Ireland and England, where the surface is soft and shaking, are as high as eight feet above the level of the adjoining dry and arable land, and the water of these bogs rarely interferes with the dry land in the immediate vicinity, as RECLAMATION OF LAND 793 RECLAMATION OF LAND it is lield by the soil of the peat bog by capillary attraction stronger than gravity itself, which lat- ter force asserts itself wherever the particles of soil are incapable of losing their identity by being blended in a general mass. The action of this capillary force on the water in the subsoil and the result in favor of vegetation has already been stated in this article and needs no further explanation. When an outfall is secured, and a regular system of main drains established, the freeing of the excess of moisture for the purposes of cultivation is accomplished by the smaller drains, which intersect the areas not immedi- ately affected by the main drains. The size and capacity of these sub-drains will of course be suited to the area affected and the degree of humidity of the soil. In some parts of the same marsh tract the soil differs so considerably in its nature as to necessitate a variation in the plan of drainage. The proximity of high lands, woods, springs, or other causes of excessive moisture in the soil, must be taken into conside- ration and provision be made accordingly, but the general principles by which the detail drain- age of the land is affected must be observed. A general inclination or fall of all minor drains to a main drain is as necessary as the fall of the main drain to the outlet, sluice-way, or pumping station. Where tile drains are laid, a fall of one foot in two hundred is sufficient to carry off the water, but as there are many cases in which drain pipes can not be employed, it is desirable that, while affecting as much ground as possible by a drain, every advantage should be taken of a good fall on the line of each drain, whether a main or an intermediate drain. Various plans for intermediate drains have been suggested and adopted from time to time. Among them may be mentioned one that is formed by a simple trench, cut with a shoulder to support a cover- ing sod, laid grass down, and covered to the surface with the excavated soil. This drain does not last long, but is an economical form. Another kind of drain is made by leaning the flat tiles bridgewise against one another on top, the apex of the triangle so formed being cov- ered with a thick sod, and the remaining part of the trench filled with broken stone and excavated soil. The tile-and-shoe drain has been used extensively in many parts of England. It is a horse-shoe tile, resting on a flat lile, thereby forming a kind of arched drain, from one to four inches in diameter. This style of drain is not now used so much as the simple circular drain pipes, with collared joints, where such a precaution is necessary to preserve the efficiency of the drain. These drain pipes are of burnt clay, about fourteen inches in length and from one to fourteen inches in diameter. In very humid soils it is necessary to provide a sufficient number of drains to carry off the water after heavy rains as fast as it soaks into the ground. Experiments will soon establish the pi'oper positions and distances apart for these drains. As it is necessary to the productiveness of a soil that the warm rainwater should penetrate below the line of vegetation, the drains should be laid at such a depth as to be clear of the plow and spade, and the frost and the tap roots of larger plants. As soils are very rarely broken below eighteen inches fi-om the surface, and roots are known to reach down as far as the soil is rich, while the frost penetrates to an average depth of three feet, it would be safe in districts affected by frost to lay drains four feet under the surface, and in warmer cli- mates at a depth of one foot below the line of cultivation. With a suitable connection between the main and the drains, no soil, no matter how wet it may be, can fail to be reduced to a condition tit for cultivation. As localities differ widely in their physical features, and various circumstances compel special treatment in almost every case, it is not practicable to designate, beyond the general principles that should govern the construction and arrangement of reclamation works, any form of embankment, drain, sluice, or pump to be adhered to under all circumstances. Locality, prevailing winds, cli- mate, range of tide, strength and velocity of local currents, the nature of the soil and vegeta- tion, all combine to alter the character of the works, and a common standard would be impos- sible. It may be said of all these that locality is- the one on which all the others depend for their importance. We find as we traverse the Atlantic coast of this continent a great many varieties of soil in the marshes. This is owing to the differ- ent kinds ol' vegetation produced on these marshes, or which composed their soil originally, and the rapidity of decomposition of this vege- table material in the soil. With locality, climate varies considerably, and climate regulates the character and growth of plants, their develop- ment, their lime of maturity and of decay. A natural result of all this influence must be that in localities possessing warm climates the vege- tation is more varied, more luxuriant, and con- sequently enters more largely into the composi- tion of the soil than in places where the climate is less favorable for the development of vegeta- tion. The rapid growth and quick succession of crops must tend to a large annual deposit of vegetable matter on the surface, which, before it becomes thoroughly decayed, is itself a soil, from which other plants spring, and the deposit becoming in this way more rapid than the decay which should convert it into vegetable mold, a soil is formed many degrees less dense in its- structure than that of a place where the climate is colder and the growth of vegetation is slower and less luxuriant. It has been remarked that spongy, vegetable soils will retain water, when sandy and porous soils will not, and the work of drainage will be increased in proportion to the quantity of vegetable matter found in the soil. It also occurs that this rapidly formed soil is less fitted for the construction of water- tight embankments than that of a more gradual deposit, on account of its being more permeable to water, and it is often found necessary, there fore, to reject the soil we propose to reclaim, as a material for the embankment, and use that from another place. While locality and cli- mate materially affect the manner of reclama- tion, prevailing winds also exercise an influence by their action on the tidal wave. In exposed situations, the winds exercise this influence to- such a degree as to necessitate a complete change in the plan of reclamation, especially on the tidal marshes along the coast ^nd the shores of our rivers. According to the course of the river, against the overflow of which embank- ments are erected-; as well as the direction of the opening by which the waters reach the sea, the wind at certain seasons, causes a raising of the RECLAMATION OP LAND 793 RECLAMATION OF LAND tide wave above its ordinary level, and of course necessitates higher and stronger embankments to resist it. Reference is not made to the semi- monthly occurrence of spring tides, but to the powerful effect of strong winds on the surface of water, forcing it in the direction in which it blows. When a strong wind and a spring tide occur at the same time, the tide will be raised over the level of spring tide in proportion to the strength of the wind; and when both meet a heavy freshet after a rain storm, the increased volume of the stream is not unliliely to overflow the banks, and Inundate the surrounding coun- try for many miles, doing much damage to property, and sometimes causing loss of life. In level countries the wind blows in a, downward direction at an angle of something over 18° with the horizon. The pressure of the wind is in proportion to its velocity — the former increases as the square of the latter. The following table of velocities and pressures of the wind is taken from Burnell's Hydraulic Engineering: Character of wind. Light breeze, hardly perceptible GfDtlebriieze Li^ht wind Raiher 8 rong wind, best for sailing Sti'OU'/: wind Very si rong wind Temui 8t or storm Great storm Hurricane Hurricane able to tear up trees, etc., etc Ft. In. 3 b I 18 33 6S 70 90 8 118 4 150 8 as Ponnds. 0.0498il 0.19756 0.79180 6.06998 80.06690 80.26760 101.6^90 146.34480 360.05670 406. 51 ISO An instance of the effect of strong wind on water is mentioned by Franklin. A pond, nine miles wide, and of an average depth of three feet, was acted on by a strong wind, which forced the water from one side so that it was laid bare, and the depth of water on the other side was increased to six feet. Next to the influ- ence of winds and waves on reclamation works, is the action of currents. Where the shore is concave, it would be imprudent to erect embankments close to the water-line, unless some protection in the shape of masonry or pil- ing be placed against the wearing action of the current; while, on the other hand, when the shore is convex, the embankment may be placed even at the water's edge, as the fore-shore will continue to gain in the latter case as it loses in the former. In like manner, on sea-coast embankments, where the bank is likely to be washed by any of the numerous currents cre- ated by the movement of the tides, the greatest caution should be exercised in protecting the works from injury, and the exterior slopes should be strengthened in the best manner to resist the action of the water. To preserve the embankment against the damaging effects of frost, it is well to cover the face of the exte- rior and interior slopes with thick sods, by which a protection is afforded to the bank by the cover- ing of grass, and the frost is not permitted to penetrate so deep into the soil composing it. In California it is estimated that there are 3,000,000 acres of swamp lands, which when drained will be the most valuable in the State. Since 1870 this work has been prosecuted with energy, one companv alone having a nominal capital of $12,000,000, and owning, in 1872, 120,000 acres of land in the delta of the Sacra- mento and San Joaquin rivers, and embracing we believe, both salt water and fresh water tide land. In the West there are large areas of what are known as low prairie, not marshes, but lands suffering from excess of water in the spring and interspersed through with ponds seldom dry. In Iroquois county, 141., vast areas have been reclaimed by a careful system of drainage, ren- dering them among the most valuable lands in the State. In Iowa there are large tracts of the same nature requiring comparatively little expense to fit them for the plow, also many river bottoms of large extent, subject to overflow in floods occur- ring both in spring and summer. A good begin- ning has also been made in that State in the reclamation of these lands by surface drainage- and by embankments. In the West there has been so much unoccupied land requiring no drainage, that until within a few years, but little attention has been paid to systematic drainage. It is now found that these lands are the richest in the several States, and that they may be re- claimed at a comparatively light cost. Hence, capital and energy have sought these channels of industry, and have acquired large tracts worth many millions of dollars in the aggregate, and adding a large yearly surplus of agricultural pro- ducts for export, or for consumption at home, through being fed to fattening cattle and swine. There is another class of soils, the richest in the world, lying along the great rivers of the Missis- sippi valley, especially those vast areas near the Mississippi and Missouri rivers, subject to over- flow in great freshets, because lying below the high water line, that if protected at all must be so by expensive systems of levees, requiring large outlays of capital. This system has been in operation in the South many years, and yet only imperfectly accomplished, since with streams carrying a large amount of sediment, the natural consequence of diking the banks, is to cause a deposit of sediment at the bottom of the stream, so that the bed of the river may come to be ultimately higher than the land Itself. This is found to be the case in some of the streams of Europe, that have been diked for many centu- ries. The same effect seems to be going on in the lower Mississippi, the result being that the levee must be raised constantlj' higher and higher. Natural reasoning will show that there is a limit beyond which human art may not strive, and already, a number of schemes have been advo- cated to take the pressure from the banks. The recurrence of destructive inundations like those in the last decade, (1876 and 1881), in the upper Mississippi, and in 1881 along the Missouri as well, would seem to point to the fact that some means must be taken to ease the pressure of water, in very high floods, by straightening the channel, and causing a freer flow, with increased velocity, in connection witli higher and more substantial embankments. The floods of 1881 would seem to teach this plainly. Another fact seems plain. The lauds lying along the Missis- sippi are of sufficient value to bear a large outlay in perfecting the embankments. For whatever the cost, it must be done thoroughly. The dam- age by the flood of 1881 would undoubtedly Qover the entire cost of the system of embank- REFRACTION 794 RELATIVE GROWTH OF TREES ments or levees, or at least the recurrence of another such a one certainly would. It would seem to be a wise course that such disasters to property be prevented, if possible, in future. RECTinCATION. A second distillation. RECTRICES. The tail feathers of a bird. RECTUM. The lowest intestine, euding iu the anus. RHCUMBENT. Leaning down. RED BIRU. The cardinal grosbeak is a southern species, sometimes called the Virginia nightingale. They have been accused of muti- lating orchard fruits, for the seeds, and also of catching bees. Tliat they are destructive to a con- siderable extent there is little doubt. Yet the stomachs of those shot, have been found to con- tain principally the seeds of wild plants. RED BUI) or JUDAS TREE. CercU G ma- densis. Is one of our prettiest early spring flower- ing ornamental trees, growing from fifteen to thirty -five feet high. The flowers appear before the leaves, small, numerous, covering the branches, bright red in color, fading to a pale pink. The tree is common along the banks of streams, in the latitude of central Illinois and south. A European species, C siliquastrum is similar, but not so handsome as the American species. RED CLOVER. (See Clover.) RED LEAD. A mixture of tlie protoxide and peroxide of lead, used as a paint, RED SPIDER, PLANT MITE. Acarus teliirius. A small red insect which spins a net, and lives on the juices of many plants and trees, attaching itself to the lower side of the leaf. It is especially injurious in hot-houses. They are destroyed by frequent syringing with cold water, by fumigations and washes of whale-oil soap and RED-TAILED BUZZARD. (See Buzzard.) RED TOP. A name sometimes given to herd's grass, and also to a dry perennial grass of the Middle States {Trtcuspis) of little or no value. RED WATER. (See Black water of Cattle.) RED-WINGED BLACKBIRD. (SeeBlack bird.) RED WORM. An old name for the wire- worm. REED. The genus Arundo, tall, aquatic, and boggy grasses. They may be destroyed by drain- ing the soil, by liming and ashes. REED BIRD. Icterus figripewiix. This sprightly summer visitor is known by a variety of names in different parts of the country. In Louisiana as meadow bird, in the Carolinas, the rice-bunting. As the reed bird in Pennsylvania, and as the bob-o-link in New York and East. In the West, it is known both by the names of reed bird, bob-o-link and skunk blackbird. Its song is a sprightly chatter familiar to all, and once commenced by one will be answered by each other male bird within hearing. Its food is principally seeds, but it is also very destruc- tive to the cereal grains when in the milk. In the South, it is the execration of the rice planter, and yet who can help loving the gay, familiar, and chattering skunk blackbird. REED GRASS. Canary grass. REFLECTION. The throwing back of the rays of heat or light by a polished surface or mirror. BE FLEXED. Bent back, turned back, REFRACTION. The action exerted by water, glass, and all transparent bodies of chang- ing the direction of rays of light, so as to make them appear bent. REMIGES. The quill feathers of birds. REMIPES. An order of coleopterous insects which are capable of swimming. REMITTENT FEVERS. Fevers which are subject to periodical paroxysms, as the ague, bilious fever, etc. RENAL. Relating to the kidneys. RENIFORM. Kidney-shaped, of the shape of a kidney bean. RELATIVE GROWTH OF TREES. It is not generally known how fast trees will grow and make timber in a fertile soil. It is not necessary in this article to go into an argument to prove the value of tree planting in treeless regions. It is an accepted fact. As showing the growth of timber in twenty years, we give a table as prepared, some years since, by the late H. H. McAfee, a well known cultivator. It is as follows: Species. Cottonwood monl'ifera) Cottonwi-od {quajrangalata) . Loinbartly Popla- Elm (America/>a) Kim (,Ful a) Maple {iiosycarpum) Maple{m^eri ■ Walnut (cinerea) Wa'nut {niger) Honuy L icust German Pine - a^ Sag 24 !.'8 33 17 18 18 11 20 14 4 14 50 50 60 44 39 39 37 38 37 40 6 4!4 314 3 3« 1 3^ ^% Thus, actual test shows that cottonwood will make three-fourths of a cord; that even the slow growing black maple will make one-eighth of a cord, while the ash-leaved maple (negundo) will make five-eighths of a cord to the tree in twenty years' growth. The same trees if grown In groves thickly, would probably not make more than half the quantities named, which would in time come nearer to the figures as given above. The following will, we think, be a safe estimate for groves or broad belts, in twenty years, planted, say, four by four feet, and thinned out as their good deserves, to a maximum distance of sixteen by sixteen feet for the fast growing varieties, and eight by sixteen feet for the slower ones: Species. Cottonwood Ash-leaved Maple While Walnut tBmternut) WliileMaple Elm Honey Lociiet Wliite Pine ISla* Walnut B. aclt Sugar Maple Cords. 70 60 50 44 43 35 A very simple and easy way to plant and culti- vate, either for wind-breaks or groves, is to bring the ground into. a good deep tilth by plowing and harrowing, and then plant the trees of two, three, or four years' growth, in straight REMOVING TREES 795 RENISTET lines, and at a distance of four feet apart. Cul- tivate with an ordinary two-horse cultivator so long as you can stride the rows, if the trees be small enough when set, or with double-shovel plow if larger. Continue this until it is no longer easy to get between them with a horse. All the willows will grow readily from cuttings, so will the cottonwoods, and Lombardy poplar; but, do not plant Lombardy poplar, it is good neither for shade, timber nor fuel. Walnut, either white or blaclt, does not transplant unless raised in the nursery, root pruned and moved at two yeais old. It is better that you raise them from roots yourself. The same is true of hickory and all the oaks. They seldom succeed trans- planted; never under ordinary circumstances. All the other trees named in the list transplant kindly — especially when small. Other trees that will be found valuable for timber are, white, lalack, green, blue, and, on moist soils, red ash. Of evergreens. White Pine and Norway Spruce do well generally in the West. Of deciduous coniferous trees, European larch should not be omitted. When it attains a fair size — ^and I have seen it grow to a diameter of twelve inches in thirteen years — it is valuable for all purposes «xcept burning. This it is said to be almost impossible to do. Uasswood or Linden is also valuable. As a shade tree it is unexcelled. The cultivation of timber is not the terrible task it has been represented to be ; certainly not when undertaken systematically, as one would a crop of corn. Too many of the failures are made in consequence of planting trees too large. Ever- greens two years old may be bought by the thousand at very light cost. These should be placed in a nursery bed, at a distance of six by twelve inches, and protected by a scaffold, high enough to work under, and over which enough boughs should be placed to keep off the direct rays of the sun. At the end of two years they may safely be planted where they are to stand, and at a distance of four by four leet. Other trees should be planted at an age of from one to three years from seed, according to the habit of growth. Plant wind-breaks of a width as direc- ted; not necessarily along roads, but where they will afford shelter to orchards, farm buildings, pastures and field crops. We repeat — what we have heretofore frequently said — there is no safer investment for money, nor a better heritage for children in a prairie cimntry, than wind-breaks and plantations of valuable timber. If the plan- tation is strictly for timber uses, many waste places unfit for cultivation, such as the tops of knolls, steep hill sides, along ravines, etc. For soft wooded trees, as willow, cottonwood, etc., the edges of ponds are admirable; whitewood grows admirably on sandy ridges sufficiently out of water so they are never wet. Hickory, black walnut, butternut, maple, beech, and elms do well on any prairie soil that is dry, and the two latter on soils somewhat moist. Thus we think you may be able to decide not only -whether it will pay you to plant, but also what to plant, for in this respect every man must be the iudge of his own action. REMOVING FRUIT AND OTHER TREES. Unless much care is taken, the greater part of the small or fibrous roots of fruit trees are ■destroyed in digging; or if not thus destroyed, they are allowed to get dry, and consequently become worthless for the purpose for whicli nature intended them — that of supplying sap to the tree. This is especially the case with the evergreen tribe. Once dry, they can not be soaked into life again . The small roots are some- times, though incorrectly called spongioles. The true spongioles — or root-liairs, as they have sometimes been called — are of annual growth, and are said to die with the fall of the leaf. They are supposed to extract plant-food from the earth, to be conveyed by the roots proper to the stems, branches, and leaves of the plant. The leaves have been called the lungs of the plant. They, however, decompose the air — consuming the carbon and nitrogen, and lib- erating the oxygen. So, also, in the decompo- sition of water; they hold the hydrogen only. Animals are said to liberate heat, vegetables to imprison it, and tlierefore it is by antithesis, and not by harmony that the relation exists. Science is gradually throwing more and more light upon the economy of plant life, but the road seems as yet dark and wearisome to traveL But to return to the tree. If, when carefully dug, the roots being kept from the air and quite moist, they are honestly planted and thoroughly mulched, but little loss will ever ensue, even should the entire tops be left upon the tree. In fact, we have always had better success where we have left the top intact — cutting out only the irregular and superfluous branches — than we have ever had by the old method of excessive trimming. There is no doubt but that foliation stimulates activity in the root. The roots should be spread naturally, and fine soil packed carefully about them. If the ground is dry, a little water may be added and the earth leveled and mulched. If the tree is likely to be blown about, it should be staked. Trees so planted never fail to reward their owners. RENNET. The membrane of the stomachs of the suckling young grass-feeding animals, including swine, furnish the secretion called rennet, as used for coagulating milk in the man- ufacture of euro and cheese. Rennet skins, as these membranes are called, are better at one year old, or when thoroughly cui'ed, than when green, or fresh, and that of the suckling calf is superior to all others. Rennet, in its broad sense, may therefore be called an infusion of animal membrane. This infusion, as prepared, is slightly acid, yet it is not the acid that cur- dles the milk, since if the rennet be made slightly alkaline by the addition of potash, and milk rendered alkaline, even so the whey will show an alkaline reaction, it will be curdled by rennet. The presence of lactic acid, however, from the conversion of milk sugar, does facili- tate coagulation. Rennets should not be saved from calves less than a week old, since before this time the stomach is not normal and those of the age of from three to four weeks furnish the best rennets. The stomach of no animal out of health should ever be used. The rennets should be taken out immediately after the animal is killed, turned inside out without washing, thor- oughly cured with dairy salt, perfectlj' dried, and then kept in strong paper sacks until wanted for use. For use the rennets should be soaked in clean whey, saturated with salt for twenty-four hours before using, frequentlj' squeezing tliem with the hand, that they may become thoroughly macerated. After being soaked, the liquor should be kept as cold as possible, and in tight RHEUMATISM 796 RHUBARB covered vessels until used. In regular dairies the rennet is prepared to a given strength and tljis strength ascertained, a definite quantity may then be relied on to produce the coagula- tion in a given time. Another point, in pre- paring rennets, is that the liquor may be smelt of and tasted without experiencing anything disagreeable. A very good old recipe, omitting the spices or not according to taste, is as follows: Rennet never should be taken from the calf till the excrement shows the animal to be in perfect heallh. It should be emptied of its contents, salted and dried, without scraping or rinsing, and kept dry for one year, when it will be fit for use. It should not be allowed to gather dampness, or its strength will evaporate. To prepare it for use, into ton gallons of water (blood warm) put ten rennets, churn or rub them often for twenty-four hours, then rub and press them to get the strength, stretch, salt and dry them as before. They will gain strength for a second use, and may be used when the weather will admit of soaking them to get the full strength. Make the liquor as salt as can be made, strain and settle it, separate it from sedi- ment, (if any,) and it is fit for use. Six lemons, two ounces of cloves, two ounces of cinnamon, and two ounces of common sage are sometimes added to the liquor to preserve its flavor and quicken its action. If kept cool in a stone jar, it will keep sweet any length of time desired, and a uniforin strength can be secured while it lasts. Stir it before dipping off to set milk, take enough of it to curdle milk firm in forty min- utes. (See also article Cheese.) REPENT. Running on the ground. REPTILIA. Cold-blooded vertebrate ani- mals, as snakes, tortoises, frogs, lizards, etc. RESIN. An inflammable product of the vegetable kingdom, rich in carbon and hydrogen, soluble in alcohol, but insoluble in waier There are a great number of species, some of which are used in varnishes. RE>ERVOIR. A tank or artiflcial excava- tion to hold water. (See Irrigation and Water- ing Stock.) RESOLUTION. In farriery, the discussion or dispersion of inflammatory gatherings or abscesses, by applying leeches, poultices, and fomentations. RESPIRATION. The act of breathing. It is accomplished by the movements of the dia- phragm and muscles of the chest. Atmospheric air passing into the lungs is changed, oxygen being separated from it and absorbed into the blood, and four per cent, of carbonic acid thrown out. Water also jDasses off from the lungs. By these changes heat is produced. The effect of respiration is to alter the color of the blood from dark to bright red ; it begins at the commence- ment of life, and any interruption of the func- tion is rapidly fatal. RETICULATE. Like a net. RETICULUM. The honeycomb stomach of ruminants. RETINA. The nervous layer at the back of the eye which receives the image of objects. REVO LU I' E. Rolled backward. RHAPONTICIN AND RHEIM. Substan ces obtained from the roots of rhubarb. RHEUMATISM. Horses, cattle, and swine aresubject to rheumatism, a disease often con- founded with founder or stiff disease, as it is called by many persons. Rheumatism is aa inflammation of the joints, tendons, ligaments, and muscles, accompanied with stiffness and lameness, and changing from one part to another. It would seem to be hereditary in some cases, but if not, is generally found in old animals, or those weak, and is generally brought on succeeding colds, or else accompanies catarrh, influenza, and other disorders of a like nature. It may be acute or chronic. Acute rheumatism is known as rheumatic fever. There is sudden lameness, with or without swelling, of a joint or joints. There is fever, with quickened pulse, sweats, thirst, scanty urine and constipated bowels. The treatment is to keep the body well clothed, the stable warm, using slings, if neces- sary, to support the animal. If the constipation is strong, move the bowels. Good nursing and care is the strongest point in this disease. In addition to this, give three or four times a day, mixed in a pint of water or gruel, one ounce each of salicylic acid and bicarbonate of soda. RHIPIPTERANS. An order of insects, the Stnpsipiera; having wings which fold like a fan. RHIZANTHS, RHIZANTHjE. A small order of plants resembling fungi, but having sexes. RHIZOMA. A root stock like that of the flag. RHODIUM. A rare metal, of great hardness, found in some of the platina ores. RHODODENDRON. It is to be regretted that these noble flowering plants should be s» little cultivated in the grounds of our wealthy citizens, who could give them the conditions of moisture and partial shade they so much desire. Those who saw the admirable and extensive collection from an English propagator, as shown at Philadelphia, at the Centennial, will not soon forget the magnificent display. Unfortunately, those varieties that are hardy East, even as far north as Long Island, require protection — removal to a light cellar preferable — in the win- ter. With this care they may be grown about any fai'm homestead, and well repay the labor devoted to them. Thus treated, even the so- called half hardy ones may be grown. There are nearly thirty species, and many varieties, some of the newer ones, and also the hybrids with azalia, a close relation, are magnificent when in bloom, as well as attractive in their foliage. RHUBARB. Pie-Plant. B/teum. Rheum Rhap(inUoum,is the medicinal rhubarb, a native of the interior of Asia, introduced into England, and now broken up into many garden varieties, and within the last fifty years universally used in spring for tarts, pie? and sauce. It.s cultiva- tion is exceedingly easy, requiring only plenty of water and plenty of manure, the more of the latter in the shape of strong compost the better. The eyes should be planted three feet apart each way, and covered about four inches deep. In the- autumn cover the crowns with litter, removing it early in the spring. They will furnish plenty of stalks, and the plants will get larger and larger until five years old, when they should be separa- ted and removed to new soil. Many persons get inferior stalks for want of attention. The only secret is to dig in plenty of manure every year, and to keep the soil about the plants deeply and frequently stirred. The stalks are separated from the attachment, by a quick, sharp, sidelong jerk. The stalks are sometimes partly blanched by put- RICE 797 RICE ting a headless barrel over each plant and allow- ing the stalks to grow up through it. Thus they are tender and succulent. If the old stools, not less than three years old, are lifted with earth About the roots in the fall, set thickly over the cellar bottom, they will produce tender blanched shoots .sometimes by midwinter, and give a suc- •cession for some time. A better way is to force them in a gentle hot bed, or under the staging of a greenhouse. RIBAND GRASS. Canary grass, and the striped leafed Phularis; grown as an ornament in gardens. RIB GR .VSS. A name for the plantain {Plan- tago major.) KIBS. The curved bones attached to the vertebrse behind, those which meet at the chest and are articulated to the sternum are called true ribs; those whose extremities are only furnished with cartilage are the false ribs. In building, curved timbers for roofing. RICE. Oryza. Oriza sativa, and its varieties have been cultivated from time immemorial in Oriental countries as human food. It ranks next to wheat, as a sustenance for the human family as a constant food, however, it is only used by the nations of hot climates, containing a dense population. Asia, Africa, and sub-tropical North and South America are its principal areas of cul- tivation, though it has been grown in the United States as far north as Virginia on the coast, and in the west as far north as Illinois. Alluvial bot- toms that may be flooded at will, or tide lands above brackish water are the best lands for the cultivation of the varieties of aquatic rice. The leaves of rice are broad and leek like, the seed atems of the plant from four to six feet high, terminating in a panicle, not altogether unlike a panicle of oats. A species, adapted to dry land, O. MuUea, has occasionally been cultivated in the United States, even as far north as Virginia and Illinois, but its cultivation was unprofit- able, the product being Inferior; in some Oriental countries this species is extensively cultivated. Indian rice, Zizania, or water oats, of several species, Z. aquatica, Miliada. and fluitans, is common in all suitable waters in the West as far north as Minnesota, in ponds,shalIow still streams, and ditches of gently and constant running water. It is not cultivated, but was an important article of sustenance to the Indians, who would tie the heads together in bundles just before ripening and when the seed was mature, beat it upon blan- kets laid in their canoes. The green plants are eaten greedily by all kinds of farm stock, who will wade into water up to their backs in order to get the last blade. It also makes the best of fodder when it may be obtained without too much labor. (See illustration, Wild Rice.) Since the late war the cultivation of rice has declined in the Southern States, and other crops have taken the place of this once important industry there, perhaps, from the well known unhealthy nature of the industry. Within the last year or two, however, attention has again been directed to this crop. Therefore the means used in irrigation on the coast, and also in the delta of the Mississippi, these two systems will be suflicient to designate the proper means, in connection with different water systems. On the Savannah river tide water, the plan is as fol- lows: Main canals, having sluices on their mouths, are dug from the river to the interior, about twentj' feet in width; ana, as they very frequently extend across the whole breadth of the swamp, they are more than three miles in length. The rice plantations are subdivided into fields of about twenty acres each. The fields have embankments raised around them, with sluices communicating with tlie main canal, that they may be laid dry or under water separately, according as it maybe required. Numbers of open ditches are also dug over the grounds for the purpose of allowing the water to be more easily put on or drawn off. In all cases the water is admitted to the fields as soon as the seed is sown, and when the young shoot appears above ground, the water is drawn off In the course of a week the crop usually receives another watering, which lasts from ten to thirty days, according to the progress the vegetation makes. This watering is chiefly useful in killing the land weeds that make their appearance as soon as the ground becomes dry But, on the other hand, when the field is under water, aquatic weeds, in their turn, grow up rapidly, and to check tlieir growth the field is once more laid dry, and the crop is then twice hand-hoed. By the 1st of July the rice is well advanced, and water is again admitted and allowed to remain on the fields until the crop is ripe. Tliis usu- ally takes place from the 1st to the 10th of Sep- tember. The water is drawn off the day previous to the commencing of reaping. It will be seen that large capitals are necessary in the culture of rice on the tidal swamps. A great expenditure of labor is constantly required to maintain the banks in good order, and to clear out the drain aud canals, as well as to keep the sluices and valves in repair. The fact, however, of the rice grounds being higher than any land devoted to any other crop, is quite sufficient to attest the profitableness of rice culture. On rice grounds of the delta of the Mississippi, the culture is carried, on di^erenlly from that followed in the tidal swamps of Carolina. The Mississippi usually begins to fwell in the delta about the end of February, and continues to rise till the 1st of June, from which time it again gradually subsides, It is thus in flood during the hot season. A ditch having a sluice on its mouth, is dug fi om the river toward the swamp. The land immediately behind the levee being the highest, is cropped with Indian corn and potatoes; but at a little distance from the river, where the land is lower and can be flooded, it is laid out in narrow rice fields, parallel to the river, inclining off from the river's edge. The narrow strips are banked all around, so that they can be laid under water after the rice is sown. The land is plowed in March, and shortly afterward it is sowed and harrowed. As soon as the young plants appear above ground, the water is admitted for the purpose of keeping the weeds in check. The crop grows rapidl}^ and the depth of the water is gradually increased, so as to keep the tops of the plants just above it. There is a constant current of water flowing from the river into the fields and over the swamp, so that there is no stagnation, and the fields are not laid dry till the crop is ready to cut. The only labor that is bestowed in the cul- ture of the crop is to pull up by hand the weeds, which are mostly grasses; and this operation is effected, by men going to the fields knee-deep in water. The produce varies from thirty to sixty WILD KICE-ZIZANIA AQUATIC A. (798) RICE 799 KICE bushels of rice in the husk. The quality, how- ever, is not equal to that of Carolina rice. The lands adapted to rice, the preparation of the swamps,the cultivation, harvesting.and cleaniug, from a paper on the subject written for the United States Government, is as follows: In this article we will confine our attention chiefly to what is known as golden or Carolina rice. There is a species of bearded wliite rice, known as High- land rice, but as it is unknown to commerce, of very limited culture and inferior quality, and not suited to the system of cultivation herein to be described, it will not command our attention. The best lands adapted to growing rice are those swamps and rush lands lying immediately adja- cent to tide-water rivers, between twenty- nine degrees and thirty-five degrees north lati- tude. For the purpose of economical and successful irrigation they must be perfectly level. They are always alluvial, and consist of blue clay, yellow mottled clay, or black bay lands. The former two contain a large per cent, of isinglass, highly important to their value. Tliere is another class of lands adapted to rice culture, known as inland swamps. These .are large basins or lakes, surrounded by high- lands, having water leads running into them, by which they are inundated. These basins, being drained, ai-e easily reclaimed, and a portion is usually set aside as a reservoir for holding a sufficiency of water for irrigating purposes. These lands, though not usually so prolific as the river swamps or tide-water lands, generally, under good management, produce a heavier grain, which is much sought after for seed. As a general rule they have heavier soils, are harder to cultivate and not so remunerative as the river swamps. Tide river plantations are usually located a little above the junction of salt and fresh water, and extend up the banks of the rivers so far as the rise and fall of the I ides are sufBcieni for flooding and draining. This rise and fall should not be less than three or four feet, and six or eight feet is to be preferred, on account o ' the more perfect drainage these latter figures afford. Rice plantations are located above the junction of salt and fresh water, from the fact that rice, being an aquatic plant, requires a vast amount of fresh water during its growth; salt water being fatal to it at all stages. These swamps are usually reclaimed by means ot embankments or levees, which are made high and strong enough to effectually bar out the river. Smaller embankments, called check banks, subdivide that portion of the plantation lying between the main river embankment and the highland, into squares or fields, generally from fifteen to twenty acres in area. These squares are all subdivided again into beds or lands, of twenty-five or thirty feet width, by a system of main ditches and quarter drains. Canals from twelve to thirty feet wide and four or five feet deep, are sometimes out from the river embankment, through the center of the plantation, to the high land, for the purpose of introducing or draining off the water to or from those fields situated far back from the river. These canals also form a very conspicuous fea- ture in the harvest scene, as they serve as a medium of navigation for the large flat-boats which convey the rice to the stack-yard In quan- tities of eight or ten acres at a load; and as rice usually yields from two to three tons of straw per acre, the value of this immense water car- riage can be easily conceived. Flood-gates or trunks having doors at both ends are buried in the embankments on the river, as well as in the canal embankments and the check b inks, those at the outlet of canals being so constructed as to permit the flat-boats to pass into the river. By means of these flood-gates or trunks the whole system ol irrigation is carried on under the com- plete control of the planter, and the lands are flooded or drained at will. The canals and ditches being all carefully cleaned out, down to the hard bottom — the banks neatly trimmed and free of leaks — the flood-gates and trunks all water-tight, either to hold out or hold in water — the planter commences his operations, as early in the winter as possible, by plowing. These lands, being yearly enriched by alluvial deposits from the river, do not require deep plowing, four or five inches being generally sufficient to furnish a good seed bed, and on account of the numerous ditches subdividing the fields, a single mule plow is always preferable. When lands are plowed early in the winter and nicely shingled, it is of very great advantage to put in a shallow flow of water, and suddenly draw it oS, in severe weather, for the benefit of freezing the furrow slices. But it is not a good practice to flood deep, as the weight of water packs the land, which becomes run together by the action of the waves, and renders good harrowing after- ward an impossibility. Harrowing is usually begun only a few days previous to planting, in order that the seed-bed may be as fresh as possi- ble, to encourage germination and, b_v its pliancy, permit the young roots to expand rapidly and take good hold on the soil, in order that the plant may resist the birds and a tendency to float. The operation of harrowing is perhaps one of the most important to the crop, and no consideration must induce the planter to slight it, as this is the golden opportunity afforded him for killing his potent and pernicious enemy — i. e., grass — his dread all the summer time. By breaking up every clod now, and exposing its roots and seeds to the action ot the sun, half the battle IS won. Immediately after the harrow comes the crusher, which implement is not abandoned until the field is reduced to garden order. About the 10th or 15th of March, up to the 10th or 15th of May, the process of drilling is carried on — seeding from two and a half to three bushels of clean seed per acre. At this juncture two antagonistic systems are encount- ered, one known as covered rice and the other as open trench rice. Both have their advocates. The first system, or covered rice, is where the grain is covered up in the soil two or three inches deep, as fast as it is drilled in, which thus protects it from birds, floating away, etc. The other, open trench, consists in leaving the rice entirely uncovered in the drill, and taking the risks alluded to, in order to save time and labor, the grain being soaked in thick clay water before seeding, to hold it to the ground. The seed being deposited, the flood-gates are immediately opened, and, if it be covered rice, and the ground pretty moist, the water is taken in as rapidly as the capacity of the gates may afford ; and when it has attained a depth of twelve or eighteen inches, or deeper, if the check banks can bear it, the water from the river is then shut off, and the inside gate is closed, to hold in what RICE 800 RICE water is on the field. The trash now rapidly rises and floats toward the banks, and it must be immediately hauled up with rakes, before it settles down on the rice. In the course of a few days the seed is carefully examined, and as soon as the germ or pip appears the water is drawn off the field to the bottom of the ditches, and kept out until the rice has two leaves. If the grain is planted open trench, as soon as the seed- ing is done, the water is leaked into the field gradually, until the land sobs and the rice sticks, tlien it is Hooded slowly until the above-men- tioned depth is attained; the water is then held until the rice has good roots, or begins to float, and is then drawn ofl! carefully. Here all differ- ence in the culture ceases. The rice having two leaves — or earlier, if the field is inclined to be grassy— the water is again let in to the same depth as before, completely submerging the plants, and is held to this gauge from seven to ten days, the planter being governed by the weather. If warm, seven; if cool, ten da3'S. Tlien a leat is put in the gate and the water let off gradually, until a general verdure is seen floating all over the field At this point the water i.s stopped and a mark set upon the gate as a gauge mark. To this gauge the water is rigidly held for sixty or sixty-five days from the day it first came on the field. This flow, when properly managed, effectually de- stroys all tendency to grass, and promotes a vigorous growth of rice It sometimes happens that, during this flow, the crop takes a check and stops growing. In this event to take off the water is fatal, as it will produce foxed rice, it nuist be lield firmly to the gauge, and in a few days the plant will throw out new roots and go on growing. If the maggot attack it in this flow the water is drawn off for a day or two and replaced. And where water is abundant and easily handled, the maggot can generally be avoided by beginning, about the thirtieth day, to change the water once a week. To do so skil- fully, botli gates must be simultaneously opened at the j'oung flood. The stale water will thus rush out and fresh water come immediately back with the rising tide to float the rice leaves and prevent them sticking to the ground in their fall. If the maggot gets serious the field has to be dried immediately and thoroughly. The maggot is a tiny wliite worm, which is generated by stale watei', and attacks the roots of the plant, causing serious injury to the crop. The presence of the maggot may always be suspected by the stiff and untlirifty appearance of the field. If the land is fertile at the end of the sixty-day flow, it will be found, on drawing off the water, that the rice has iittained a vigorous growth of about tliree feet, and is well stocked, with tillers, while also, if the field is level, and the harrowing and pul- verizing wa.s thoroughly attended to before plant- ing, no grass will be seen, nothing but rice and the clean soil beneath. The field is kept dry- now for about fifteen or twenty days, or until the land dries off nicely and the rice takes on its second growth. And if there be no graiss it ougiit not to be disturbed with the hoe, as the hands, at this stage, often do more liarm than good. This, however, does not apply to cat- tails and volunteers, which should, of course, be carefully pulled up by the roots, and sheafed and carried to the banks, to be disposed of by the hot sun. At the end of fifteen or twenty days, as above mentioned, the water is returned to the field as deep as the rice and banks can bear, never, however, topping the fork of the former. This water, where circumstances per- mit, is changed every week or two, by letting it off on one tide and taking it back on the next, and increasing the gauge with the growth of the rice. When the heads of the rice are well filled and the last few grains at the bottom are in the dough, it is fit to cut, and as little delay is per- mitted as possible, as the rice now over-ripens very rapidly, and shatters in proportion during the harvest. The water may be drawn ofl the field from three to five days before cutting the grain, and the land will be in better condition for harvesting. The rice is cut from twelve to eigh- teen inches from the ground, depending on its growth, usually from four to six feet high, and the gavels laid evenly and thinly upon the stub- ble, for the purpose of curing and permitting the air to circulate beneath it. Twenty-four hours in good weather is usually required to cure the straw, and the binding does not commence before this period, and never while the dew is on the straw. It is safer always to cut from sunrise to twelve o'clock, and bind the previous day's cut- ting from that hour to sunset. As soon as bound the rice is shocked up in wind-cocks, and at the end of a week taken to the barnyard and stacked up in ricks, thirty feet ItShg, eight feet wide, and ten feet high. A stake, four feet long, is put into the rick at each end for daily examination, and as long as the stake does not become too hot at its point to be held by the hand, when sud- denly drawn out, the rick is not to be interfered with, otherwise it is to be pulled down, aired, and re-stacked. So soon as the temporary heat is over the grain is fit for the thresher. As soon as the rice is taken from the field attention is immediately given to sprouting volunteer and shattered rice, providing the crop has not been allowed to remain in the field for an indefinite period beyond the week alluded to above. This is best accomplished by instantly flooding the field quite shallow, so as to promote fermenta- tion, and drying it again every twelve or fifteen days, for a day or two at a time. This process is continued until freezing weather sets in, and if the season has not been remarkably cool it will be found that most of this grain is destroyed. Threshing as performed by steam power is gen- erally done with great neatness and despatch. The main building is commonly built on a brick foundation, about sixty feet long by forty feet wide, having two stories and an attic ; the first story being fourteen and the second twelve feet high, with what is called by workmen a square roof. At the side of this building is the engine house and boiler room; and in front of the main building, a little distance off, is the feeding room, which is connected with the second story of the same by a covered way which protects the feeding cloth. In the second story is placed the thresher, which, for a first-class machine, con- sists of a cylinder forty-two inches in diameter and thirty-six inches wide, armed with 1,000 teeth. In the rear of the cylinder follow six revolving raUes with spring teeth, all of a diame- ter and width corresponding to the cylinder. Under the rakes is a hopper which conveys the frain down to two large lans in the first story ; rom tliese the grain is taken by elevators and car- ried to the third, or screening fan, on the second RICE 801 RICINU8 story, whence by elevators and spouts it is deposited into large bins ready for shipment. The feeding cloth consists of an endless canvas, bound with band leather and having slats riveted on it. It extends from the cylinder down to the feed room in the stack-yard. The rice is brought in sheaves from the ricks to the feed room, where several hands are stationed for the pur- pose of placing it on the feed cloth in cldse suc- cession. The revolutions of the cloth thus keep a continuous stream of grain flowing into the cylinder, which in turn is relieved by the rakes seizing the straw, and after tossing out the grain they throw it out of a window in the rear into straw wagons below, kept ready to receive and carry it away. A good engine, with machinery of this description, will thresh and clean, ready for market, 1,000 bushels of rice per day. Now the grain is called rough rice ; and is generally shipped to market from the plantation in cargoes of from 3,000 to 5,000 bushels at a time. On arriving there, if rough rice is in demand, it is immediately sold in that condition either to European buyers or city millers. The former export it to the European mills, and the latter pound it in their own, and again bring it into market as clean rice, in tierces averaging 600 pounds net. Good, well-cleaned rough rice, weighing forty- five pounds to the bushel,-will take about twenty bushels to make a tierce of 600 pounds clean rice. As rice pounding mills are very costly affairs, they are seldom erected by the planters themselves. The building is a much larger one than that mentioned for threshing, and the capacity of the engine and boilers very much greater. The rough rice is first ground between very heavy stones, running at a high speed, which partially removes the rough integument, or hull chaff. This chaff is passed out of the building by spouts, and the grain by similar means conveyed into the mortars, where it is beat or pounded for a certain length of time by the alternate rising and falling of very heavy pestles, shod with iron. These are operated by a revolving cylinder of huge dimensions, armed with powerful levers, which, passing into a long opening in the pestle, about fifteen feet in length, raise it and let it fall suddenly into the great mor- tars below. From the mortars elevators take the rice to the fans, which separate the grain from the debris. From thence it goes through other fans that divide it into three qualities, known as whole rice, middling rice, and small rice. The grain is finally passed through a polishing screen, lined with gauze wire and sheep-skins, which, revolving vertically at the greatest possible velo- city, embellishes it with that pearly whiteness in wmch it appears in commerce. From the screen it falls immediately below into a tierce, which is kept slowly rotating, and struck on two sides with heavy hammers, all the time it is being filled, for the purpose of obtaining its greatest capacity. The tierce, as soon as full, is removed and coopered ready for market. The cost of such a mill was $1,000 per pestle — fifty pestles being considered a good market mill. Good strong land, at a fair pitch of the tides, well managed and worked with labor that can be 51 depended upon at all times, will average from forty to fifty bushels of clean rough rice per acre, valued at about one dollar per bushel. And ten acres to the hand, with good animal force, and only corn enough for provisions, is easily handled by a good planter, making an aggregate of from $400 to $500 per hand, gross. With the provisions alluded to above, the rice is one of the most agreeable and profitable to cul- tivate; but, on the other hand, if they are want- ing, disappointment and failure are the natural rpsiilts KICE BIKD. (See Reed Bird.) RICE; PERUVIAN. QUINOA. Cheno- podium quinoa. A plant of the Andes, similar to the goose foot, the leaves of which are used as spinach. The seeds are very nutritious, and are eaten boiled in soups. In Chili and Peru, the seeds are eaten in porridge or gruel, and made into cakes. RICE WEEVIL. GaUand/raoryzm. An insect very similar to the grain weevil, and which pro- duces much destruction in crops of rice and wheat at the South ; it is destroyed by kiln-drying the grain. RICINIC ACID. An oily acid, produced by distilling castor oil at a high temperature. RICINUS. As a decorative plant, some of the varieties of the castor oil plant are highly ornamental. Their great stature, and magnifi- cent leaves presenting a fine picture of tropical luxuriance. To produce the best effect, how- ever, the seeds must be planted in pots in a hot- bed, about the first of March, and repotted as they need it, being transferred to a warm, sheltered place about the first of June. If dry weather intervenes, the plants should be watered RINDERPEST 802 RINDERPEST to thoroughly soak the soil, about once in ten days. But one plant should be allowed to grow in a place, and this is better tied to a strong stake if the situation is at all windy. Thus it ■ will throw up its great flower and seed spike the last part of September, and give full satisfaction for the care and trouble. Among the best sorts for garden cultivation are R. sanguinarius, though B. communis is sometimes used where •the 'Season is too short to ensure maturity. The cut will show the form of the leaves and flower spike. (For field cultivation, and for the seed, see Castor Oil Bean. , RICK. A long stack. RIDDLE. A coarse sieve to separate grain •or other substances from trash, etc. ' RIDiirE. The upper timber in a roof, against which the rafters pitch. RIDGINGr. Laying up the soil in narrow ridges. RIDGrLINGr. A male animal imperfectly castrated. RIGGrlL. An imperfect sheep. RIME. White, or hoar frost. RIMOSE. Resembling the broken appearance of the bark of old trees. RINDERPEST. Fortunately this terrible scourge of cattle beyond the Atlantic has never been introduced into America. Probably it is only a question of time, until our country will be desolated with this scourge of horned cattle, for if the equally dreaded, and as contagious Pleuro-Pneumonia could be twice introduced, why not this. For this reason we give an abstract of the report to the United States government in 1879, of this disease as it is known in Europe, introducing the subject with something of its history. The rinderpest (cattle plague, pestia bomUa) appears to have been carried from central Asia to Europe as early as the fourth century, but the first exact descrip- tion of this disease dates from the year 1711, two years after an extensive epizootic outbreak of the same in most European countries. It is estimated that in the course of the eighteenth century, not less than two hundred million head of cattle were carried. oflE by the cattle plague. In the beginning of the present century, Prussia, Schleswig-Holstein, Saxony, and France, were visited by the plague, which was observed to have followed the movements of armies during the wars of the first Napoleon. In 1838, 1839, and 1830, during the Russo-Turkish and the Russo-Polish wars, the rinderpest was carried from Russia into Poland, Prussia, and Austria. In 1865 the plague appeared in Holland, and was carried thence to England. In both coun- tries the disease carried off one hundred thousand head 61 cattle in the course of a few months. In 1867, jQei-many was again visited by the plague, which, however, was prevented by ^timely measures from' spreading beyond the eastern provinces of ; Prussia. In 1870, soon after the outbreak of the Franco-German war, the rinderpest appeared in Germany in con- sequence of importations of cattle from Russia, and spread' over Germany and France, following the movements of the armies. In the beginning -of the year 1877, the disease was again carried .into Germany by Russian cattle, and made rapid .progress, because the imported animals, appar- ently [healthy, but already infected, were allowed !to reach the markets of Breslau, Berlin, and Hamburg, from which cities the infection was gradually communicated to other places. In Dresden the disease spread at once through the whole market. Towards the end of August, 1877, the rinderpest was reported by our con- sular officers as extinguished in thfe German Empire ; but the danger of its reappearance in consequence of possible movements of cattle from the steppes of southern Russia to the ' borders of Germany, though much lessened by the stringent sanitary regulations adopted by the Russian Government, is not regarded as entirely obviated. Fleming, in his work on Veterinary Sanitary Science, says that, in recent years, several of the most competent veteri- narians have endeavored to ascertain the. home of the cattle plague, but without much success. Unterberger throws much doubt upon Russia and its steppes being the source of the malady, and he asserts that it is a purely contagious disease in Russia-in-Europe, and also, -perhaps, in the whole Russian Empire. It has b^en seen in southern Russia, the Asiatic' Steppes, in different parts' of India; in Mongolia, China (south and west). Cochin China, Burmah, Hin- dostan, Persia, Thibet, and Ceylon. It is as yet unknown in the United States, Australia, and New Zealand. So far as Europe is concerned the geographical limits of the disease may be given as follows: Beyond the Russian frontiers, and even in every part of that empire, the steppes excepted, the cattle plague is evidently a purely contagious malady. It is never devel- oped primarily in Europe, either in indigenous cattle or in those originally from the steppes, and it has not yet been positively demonstrated that it maybe primarily developed in the Russian Steppes; .the most recent observations even tend to prove that in the European portions of these regions the affection is only present through the transmission of a contagium. Consequently, the plague is a malady which is perhaps pri- marily developed in the Russo- Asiatic Steppes — perhaps elsewhere^but is neVer seen in Europe except by the importation of its contagious pria- ciple. Nothing- certain or definite as to the causes which develop the cattle plague are known. In Western Europe it relies solely for its introduction and diffusion to the presence of a contagium', carried either by animals suffering with the disease, thofee which have been in con- tact -with them, or media of different kinds which are contaminated with the virus. Once « introduced, it spreads from its ^oint of intro- duction as from a center; each newlyinfefcted animal beconles a focus whence the disease may radiate in every direction, and it usually attacks those animals which are nearest the. foci. It spreads with more or less rapidity as the animals or vehicles charged with thfe contagium are moved about; even the air may, within a cer- ' tain distance, be credited as an active agent in the diffusion of the deadly malady. The nature of the contagious matter (contagium), has also '80 far baffled all- the efforts of investigators. Neither microscopic examinations nor chemical analysis of the tissues, blood, and mucous dis- charges of the infected animals, have led to the discovery of the principle of contagion. It is known, however, that from the very beginning of the disease a contagious matter is formed, which attaches itself to every part of the diseased animal. It is principally contained in the secre- RINDERPEST 803 RINDERPEST tions of the mucous membranes, but, being Tolatile, attaclies itself also to tlie urine, the ■dung, the blood, the skin, and the breath. It may be communicated to the atmosphere by exhalations from any part of the sick animal, or its carcase. Experience has shown that healthy cattle may be infected by coming near the sick animals, or near anything contaminated by their excrements or exhalations, without actual con- tact with them. The contagious matter has no ■effect in open air at a distance of twenty to thirty paces, because the air either dilutes or modifies it so as to deprive it of its power. But in cases where a current of air comes directly from an accumulation of infected matter, and also in inclosed spaces the contagion may be ■carried to greater distances. Therefore, the ■disease may be communicated in a large stable to a healthy animal quite a long distance from the diseased one, or may be carried from one stable to another as far as a hundred feet apart. This happens only when the exhalations are carried over directly from one stable to the •other, by a current of air so rapid as not to .allow time for the air to dilute or modify the •contagious matter. Where one stable is sep- arated from another by a partition which is not air-tight, the contagion is veiy easily transmitted. 3esides these direct means of infection, the •disease may be carried to healthy animals indi- Tectly, In many ways. For instance, objects which have come in contact with infected matter, may be carried to a distant place and there spread the disease. Porous substances, :such as woolen clothing, wool, hay, straw, etc., are particularly liable to absorb the contagious jnatter, which may diffuse itself after some time in a distant place. Thus butchers, drovers, and other persons who visit infected stables, may carry the disease from yard to yard, and from village to village. In railroad trucks, the woodwork absorbs a considerable amount of the ■contagious matter, and, if not thoroughly disin- fected, may communicate the disease to animals subsequently placed therein. The dung of ■diseased animals may spread the contagion to distant places by being carried away on the "wheels of vehicles or the shoes of persons. Dogs and cats may carry it in their fur and birds in their plumage. A small quantity of blood or dung on the sole of a shoe or on the tip of a walking-stick has sometimes been sufficient to <;arry the disease to a great distance. The modes of possible transmission are, in fact, so numerous And involved as to render it, in many instances, a matter of extreme difficulty to account for the •cause of an outbreak of the plague. The vitality ■of the contagious matter is variable, according to <;ircumstances. Air is its most potent and reli- able destroyer. Hay and straw which have lain above the stables of sick animals have been often used as fodder with impunity after an airing of twenty-four hours. Wool, impregnated with the mucus from the nostrils of sick animals, was found to be innocuous when thoroughly aired for five or six days. Stables and pasture-grounds will be thoroughly disinfected in a few weeks by the action of the atmosphere. In the same way <;lothing and other porous substances become entirely disinfected by airing. The stronger the cuiTent of air the more prompt its disinfecting action. On the contrary, if infected porous sub- .stances are not exposed to currents of air, the contagious matter is preserved for a long time. Closely-packed hay and straw, the woodwork and floors of closed stables, manure-heaps, packed-up clothing, etc., may remain infected for several months. A case is recorded of the rinderpest breaking out anew in a stable which had stood empty for four months, but had not been disinfected after a previous outbreak. The flesh and hides of carcases which had been buried for over three months were found to be capable of infecting healthy animals. Very high temperature has the same effect in destroying the power of the contagious matter as currents of air, but summer heat is effective only in so far as it promotes the drying up of the contagious parti- cles, and renders them more volatile and more easily diluted by the air. The contagious matter is not destroyed by cold, not even by frost; on the contrary, its power is preserved, as the dry- ing up of the substances containing it is thereby hindered. Dung frozen through the winter spreads the contagion upon thawing in the spring. All ruminating animals are liable to the rinderpest, but goats and sheep are less com- monly and less severely affected by it than neat cattle. The disease does not affect non-ruminat- ing animals, nor is it in any way dangerous to man. The rinderpest breaks out generally on the fifth or sixth day from the time of infection, sometimes as early as the fourth, and frequently as late as the eighth or even ninth day. Accord- ing to some observations, the period of incuba- tion may extend to two or three weeks, but the instances of so protracted an incubation are to be considered as entirely exceptional. The spread of the disease in a herd of cattle is usually slow in the beginning. Often when the contagion is introduced only a single animal is infected. This one, after the few days required for the incubation, becomes sick and commences to evolve the contagious matter, which infects one or more of the animals in the same stable or herd. Then, again, an interval of time elapses before the disease is developed in the new victims. As soon as several animals are diseased, the con- tagion spreads more rapidly, and many are attacked at the same time. Want of proper caution on the part of stable-men and other attendants is often the cause of an exceedingly rapid progi'ess of the contagion, which is carried in their clothing from one end of the stable to another. Dr. J. Burdou Sanderson, one of the commissioners appointed by the English Govern- ment to investigate this disease during its last invasion of Western Europe (1865), in speaking of the phenomena of cattle plague and the gen- eral character and progress of the malady during the life of the affected animal, says that it is an essential or general fever, and that it can be shown, more clearly than in any human disease of the same class, that the disturbance of the system which is understood by the term fever may exist independently of local changes occur- ring in particular organs; and in this respect a fact new to pathology has been discovered, i. e. , that the increase of the temperature of the body, which is the one and only symptom which all fevers have in common, exists for several days before any other derangement of health can be observed. Although constitutional or general in its origin, the disease is attended with local alterations of structure, some of which are so constant and invariable that no definition of the RINDERPEST 804 RINDERPEST malady can be complete which fails to recognize and include them. One or two days before any other change occurs in the condition of the infected animal there appears an increase of tem- perature, which is most readily detected by means of a thermometer introduced into the rectum. The temperature is found to have risen by 2° to 4° Fahr., from the normal temperature of 102°. At the same time symptoms of fever are observed, such as shivering, muscular twitch- ings, dryness of the skin, a staring coat of hair, an unequal distribution of temperature through- out the body, and changes of temperature, which are particularly noticeable at the base of the horns. A very important and characteristic symptom at an early stage of the disease is a peculiar alteration of the mucous membranes. This alteration is very soon noticeable in the vagina of cows, which becomes spotted or striped with red. The next day small yellowish- white or gray specks are clearly seen on the red spots and stripes. These specks are formed by the loosening of the cuticle, which can be rubbed off or detached by the finger, leaving in its place a dark-red depression. The same red spots and stripes and yellowish or gray specks appear in the mouth and nose of the sick animals of either sex. The next day after the appearance of the pecu- liar eruption upon the mucous membranes, there is a disinclination to eat and ruminate, and with cows a diminution and soon a total absence of milk. Two days after the manifestation of the above described symptoms, marked changes in the general appearance of the diseased animal are apparent. It lies down very frequently ; when standing it draws the hind legs forward as if suf- fering from colic. The look is distressed, the head drooping, the ears hanging, the breathing oppressed; the pulse becomes rapid and weak, the discharges from the eyes, the nose, and the mouth become thick and purulent, the breath fetid. The iris, which at the commeucement of the fever is generally inflamed and cherry red, resumes its natural color with the increase of secretions from the lachrymal duct. Cows far advanced in pregnancy generally calve in this stage of the disease. On the second or third day diarrhcea sets in. The feces, at first thin and watery, then thick and slimy, are filled with detached masses from the mucous surface very fetid and more or less tinged with blood. When the diarrhoea has lasted two or three days the disease advances with rapid strides. The animal is so weak as not to be able to rise, the evacuations of excrements are invol- untary, the breathing is uneven and rapid, the beatings of the heart are no longer perceptible, the pulse becomes very feeble and the tempera- ture rapidly falls. Death usually occurs on the fifth day from the first visible signs of the disease. Sometimes the course of the disease is so rapid as to reach its culmination within two days. On the average seventy to seventy-five per cent, of the diseased animals die. Those that survive have not had the disease in its most malignant form. Once convalescent the animals recover very fast; but the diarrhoea continues for several days after the disappearance of all other symptoms. In summer, when the cattle are grazing, the disease is less severe than in winter, when they get dry fodder and are kept in close stables. The symptoms and progress of the disease are the same with goats and sheep as with neat cattle, but the percentage of fatal cases; is somewhat less. Many of the symptoms of rinderpest occur in the lung disease (plturo- piienmonia), the malignant catarrhal fever, and the mouth-and-foot disease. The lung disease is distinguished from the rinderpest by the absence- of the characteristic eruptions upon the mucous- membranes; the malignant catarrhal fgver, by the dimness of the transparent cornea, which in the rinderpest remains clear; the mouth-and-foot disease by the ulceration of the foot, the less degree of fever; and its peculiarly rapid spread- ing from one animal to entire herds. Among- the lesions observed after death there are several, though no more constant than several of the- prominent symptoms, that materially assist in establishing a proper diagnosis. The age and, general condition, the state in which the animals- were kept before they were affected, their breed, the character and intensity of the disease, all' appear to have some influence on the seat and seriousness of the lesions. These vary according to the period at which death takes place. Flem- ing says that if the animal is. killed at the commencement of the malady,- and the symp- toms have been comparatively mild, there will nevertheless be found, on examination after death, such alterations in the mucous membranes ■as congestion and ecchymoses. The latter are more particularly observable on the free border of the mucous folds in the fourth compartment of the stomach (true stomach) and around the pylorus, although they also exist to a less degree- in the small intestine, and often in the vagina. When, however, an animal has died from the disease, or been killed when it had attained a certain degree of intensity, the changes are more marked, the body becomes quickly inflated after death, and sometimes even before death occurs. The rectum is elevated and its lining membrane is tumefied and of a deep red color; the tail and hinder extremities are more or less paralyzed during life, and are therefore usually soiled by the feces. The skin exhibits the characteristic^ eruption, and in those places where there are neither glands nor hair, as on the teats, it is injected in irregular patches of variable dimen- sions, the epithelium is thickened, soft or friable,, and the integument is often cracked. On: removing the skin the vessels which are cut are- generally filled with a dark colored fluid blood, and the flesh is red, blue, or violet-tinted. Th& peritoneum in some cases may be slightly injected or ecchymosed in patches. The whole of the intestines are generally greatly distended with gas, and in some cases the small intestine may be reddened. In the interior of the digestive canal are found the most marked evidences of the disease, though they are not always constant and equally intense in every portion of the mucous, membrane. In the mouth, pharynx, true stom- ach, small intestine, and rectum, they are most, frequently present. They are least conspicuous, and often absent in the OBSopliagus, the tlii-ee first compartments of the stomach, and in the caecum and colon. They may be so trifling as to resemble the lesions of a slight catarrh, while in other instances they are unmistalcable and path- ognomonic: In the mouth and pJiarynx are observed the alterations in the lining membrane and the epithelial changes. It is chiefly where there has been much friction or local irritation that they are most exaggerated, and deep ero- HINDERPEST 805 RINDERPEST sions, with loss of texture of the derm of the mucous membrane, may be noted. The oesopha- gus is rarely affected, though it is not always -exempt. In the rumen the quantity of food may he found a little larger than usual. The epithe- lium on the mucous membrane lining it and the next compartment may be more easily detached than in a healthy state, and a microscopical •examination of the cells prove them to have undergone a similar change to those of the mouth. The mucous membrane in these com- partments is also frequently injected in a general manner, though more deeply in some places than in others. It is not rare to find on this mem- brane round, oval, or irregular-shaped eschars, disposed separately or in groups, varying in •color from a dark brown to a greenish hue. The elimination of these eschars, takes place gradu- -ally from around their borders, and cicatrization •occurs, even in cases which have a fatal termina- tion. Submucous extravasation is probably the cause of these gangrenous patches. Around them the tissues are infiltrated, and more or less injected, while beneath the texture is injected or •ecchymosed, and red or green In color. The third compartment sometimes contains food, which is hard, dry, and friable; at other times it 3s soft and pulpy. In the first case, the epithe- lium of the leaves is readily detached, and adheres to the cakes of aliment removed from between them. This epithelium also exhibits granulo-adipose degeneration. The leaves them- -selves are injected wholly or partially, and ecchj'- moses and eschars may be present in them ; they are also easily torn. In the fourth compartment and ■ismall intestines the contents are at first normal ; but they soon change, and there is found a small quantity of thick, yellow, brown, or even blood- •colored fluid. The mucous membrane is covered by a viscid, grayish-yellow, or reddish mucus. The caecum and colon at this period contain a Jrothy mass of a brownish, sometimes sanguino- lent fluid. The rectum has a thick viscid mucus adhering to its inner surface. If the disease pursues its course, the debris detached from the intestine is mixed with exudations and extravasa- .tions to form a viscid, albuminoid, whitish- yellow, brown, or red fluid, in which are shreds and the detritus from the membrane. When an animal has been killed in the early stages of the -disease, and the mucus has been carefully removed from the mucous membrane of the stomach, it is found that the surface of the lat- ter is irregular, and that its tissue is infiltrated .and injected to a degree coiTesponding with the seriousness of the attack and the stage the malady has reached. The abnormal color, vary- ing from a brick-red to a reddish brown, is gen- erally diffuse, but is most marked at the pyloric portion, attaining its maximum of intensity towards the free borders of the folds. Sub- mucous extravasation are also frequently met with in this, part, differing in size from a fine ■point to a large patch. In the small and large intestines there also exist, at this period, analo- gous alterations; but, while the redness of the -abomasum is usually diffuse, in the small intes- tine it generally appears in tlie form of transverse striae, which are crossed by lighter colored longi- tudinal streaks, this intercrossing forming a somewhat regular pattern. These extravasations Are common in the small intestine, but the infil- trations and exudations are not so frequent in the abomasum. In the duodenum the altera- tions are usually more intense than in the remain- der of the. intestine, and it is not rare to find in it a very marked diffused redness and much san- guine effusion. The congestion is often greatest around the solitary glands and Peyer's patches, whose volume is more or less increased. Fre- quently the areolated aspect of these patches is most conspicuous at the termination of the first period. The same lesions are found, but in a less degree, in the large intestines. In these the most salient portions, such as the border.3 of the valvulae, are the parts which are the most deeply colored and most extensively ecchymosed. The infiltration is greatest if diarrhosa has not been present. In cases where the disease has made considerable progress, the lesions are still more characteristic. The mucous membrane of the abomasum and intestine is deeper colored, often blue or black, and in the duodenum of animals which have succumbed, it may even be uniformly black, while the petecchiae and ecchymoses are more numerous. In the abomasum, but of tenest in the intestine, toward the fifth day of the disease, there appears a pigmentation, varying from a bright gray to a slate color, or even darker, and which takes the place of the abnormal color due to the blood. This appearance is first noticed in the rectum, and in the intestines gen- erally its tints seem to be related to the intensity of the blood coloration, of which these parts have been the seat. It is therefore in the duode- ' num, and especially near the pylorus, that it is deepest-tinted and most extensive. In the duode- num it is diffuse, but in the remainder of the small intestine it is limited, as a rule, to a double series of perpendicular zones more or less incom- plete, and in the rectum is usually in the form of longitudinal lines. This coloring matter is deposited in the most superficial layer of the mucous membrane, and is constituted by minute irregular granules, which, according as they are disposed separately or in clusters, give rise to the different shades. Around the orifices of Brunner's glands, and in the texture of the villi, this deposit appears to be most localized. The epithelium of the fourth compartment of the stomach rapidly undergoes changes analogous to those observed in the mouth. Theii: intensity depends upon the part examined, as well as the gravity of the attack and its stage. In the first and last portions of the small intestine, in the caecum, in the first section of the large colon, and in the rectum, they are generally more developed than elsewhere. In mild cases the epithelium, though not yet detached, is always less adherent to the derm than in health. In more serious cases this layer is found completely detached over a considerable surface, and espec- ially in the small intestine. The excoriations thus produced vary both as to extent and num- ber, and are generally covered by a gray, red, or dark colored viscid mucus. The matter is tena- cious, and adheres firmly in flakes to the mem- brane. The extent of these flakes is generally from a quarter to two inches in length. The color is gray, yellow, red, brown, or black; their free surface is smooth, and more or less convex; their variable consistenc_y is less at the border than the center ; the membrane beneath them is injected and spotted with small extravasations, and their margin, in consequence of the retrac- tion of the flake, is separated for a short space RINDERPEST 806 RINDERPEST from the border of the erosion. The mortifica- tion which may invade the intestinal wall does not usually go beyond the mucous membrane. In rare and very severe cases it extends to the submucous connective tissue, or even to the mus- cular layer. The liquefaction of the mortified patches causes a loss of substance in the mem- brane, and these places are designated excoria- tions or erosions, according as the derm remains intact or not. Their number is as variable as are the patches. The viscid masses covering the surface of the intestine, as well as the flakes, are produced by the utricular glands of the , gastric and intestinal mucous membrane, which are greatly altered and tumefied. Peyer's glands Undergo alterations of a particular character. They lose their epithelial covering, and, in the ihajority of epizootics, undergo changes analo- gous to those of the solitary glaiids ; though in other epizootics they are rarely affected, and when they are the lesions are not always equally marked. Sometimes they are merely covered with a mucus layer, like the other parts of the intestine, and are injected; at other times they are more salient thai? usual from tumefaction; and they then may contain contents like that of the solitary glands; again, they may be covered by a croupal exudation or false membrane, sev- eral lines in thickness, and gray, yellow, red, or blue in color, adhering by its central part to the mucous membrane. The presence of these patches is not a constant feature in the pathological ana- tomy of the disease; in certain epizootics it is almost always present, while in others it is excep- tional. Among the conditions which appear to have an influence in its production only one is known, and that is the condition of the animal before infection; if it has been well nourished these deposits are most likely to be present. The prominent alterations in the glands of the mucous membrane appear to consist in an exag- gerated proliferation of their cell elements, accompanied by a prompt granulo-adipose destruction of the newly formed cells. The liver is seldom much altered, but the gall-blad- der is very often distended with bile, and its mucous membrane is in somewhat the same condition as that of the intestines. The mucous membrane of the air-passages is greatly altered. That lining the larynx, the trachea, and also the bronchia is injected and marked by exitravasa- tions which, particularly in the trachea, appear in the form of longitudinal striae. The lungs are frequently emphysematous (interlobular) to a degree corresponding to the intensity of the malady. This condition is chiefly noticed about the borders of the lungs anddn the mediastinum, and, passing along the large blood-vessels-toward the lumbar region, it may reach the loins. The lungs are also occasionally oedematous. The pleura, like the peritoneum, is occasionally con- gested in places, and even ecchymosed. The heart is usually flabby, dark or clay colored, and friable, and at times there are subendocardial extravasation towards its base; the blood is darker colored than in health, and coagulates imperfectly; or not at all. The kidneys may be tumefied, congested, and' more friable than usual. The bladder is rarely empty, but gen- erally contains a quantity of urine, which may be pale, dark ^colored, or niuddy, and have sus- pended in it' shreds of epithelium. Its mucous meSnbrane may also be congested and ecchymosed and Covered with viscid mucus. The- vulvo- , vaginal mucous membrane presents a very marked redness, which generally extends to the- cervix of the uterus. As in the mouth, there are little elevations of altered epithelium on this, membrane, with erosions covered by viscid mat- ter. The udder, frequently congested, some- times contains a small quantity of thicl^ milk. According to Reynal, the latest observations on the pathological anatomy of cattle plague are those of Damaschino, who has made a complete study of the histological alterations occurring in .the disease. This investigator states th^t the ulceration of the mucous membrane is due to a- unique process, which presents a great resem- blance to that of pharyngeal diphtheria of man. At the commencement, the lesion consists in an exaggerated production of epithelial ceUs, which, are infiltrated with an amorphous substance,, become deformed, throw out multiple prolonga- tions, and acquire an abnormal adhesion, which finally gives them a pseudo-membranous aspect. But beneath these false membranes the young epithelial cells do not submit to the same altera- tions. . Instead of the prolongations adhering to- each other, and becoming matted together, they are the seat of a purulent transformation, whence results less adhesiveness, and soon the? casting off of the pseudo membrane. At this, moment ulceration commences, and as these tis- sues ai'e softened it happens that there is found- implanted on this surface fragments of hairs» wWch are recognized by the microscope. The loss of substance is not always superficial. On. the tongue, sometimes, the lesion ceases at a portion only of the thickness of the papillae, but in other cases it extends throughout their tex- ture. In the stomach it is often deeper, com- prising a portion of the substance of the glan- dula, and even the entire thickness of the mucous membrane to such a degree that, without the: presence of a thick layer of adipose tissue at these points, the stomach would frequently be- found perforated. On the surface of these- ulcerations the adipose tissue exhibits all the- characters of inflammation proper (nuclear pro- liferation in the conjunctival parietes). In twO' cases there was foimd a lesion of the venal and. hepatic parenchyma, consisting in a granular degeneration of the glandular elements. In the liver, the lesion, as is usual, showed a predilec- tion for the periphery of the lobules in the vicin- ity of the vena portae; there the cells were found in a very advanced stage of granular degenera- tion. The epithelium of the kidneys, more- especially, showed the peculiar tumefied troubled appearance already indicated, though the gran- ular condition was less marked. The muscular alterations consisted in the presence of numerous elongated bodies, very abundant in the right side of the heart, and incontestably situated iu. the substance of the muscular fiber. These bodies are blunt at one end, pointed at the other, and are composed of a regular mass of cylindri^ cal cells lying together in such a manner that at. the pointed extremity there is only a single cell, at the obtuse end two cells, and in the other part sometimes two, sometimes three cells, clustered, on a given segment. It is surmised that these- minute bodies are entozoa in their primary stage: of development. There being no remedy known for this disease, human intervention in dealings with it has thus far been necessarily restricted RINGING FRUIT TREES 8or ROAD HORSES to measures for its prevention and extinction. Most European governments have passed laws and prescribed regulations for the purpose of protecting their respective countries from the invasionsof the plague, and for its speedy extir- pation on the occurrence of an outbreak. Of all these enactments the regulations now in force in the German Empire are considered as the most complete embodiment of the results of experience and scientific investigation in regard to this subject. RING-BONE. Splint and ring-bone in the pathology of the disease are the same, produced by the same causes, and preceded by the same stages of morbid action. From the relation of the parts, however, ring-bone at its forming stage shows earlier and greater lameness, while splint may perhaps go forward and escape attention except from a critical eye, unless the bony tumor be felt in pressing the hand over the part. Ring bone shows itself in lameness, with the first inflammation, and the earliest effusion calls the attention of the horseman. In all diseases resulting in exostosis, or the formation of bone matter, it is essential to take it in the inflamma- tory stage. Rest is essential ; use a high-heeled shoe if the animal inclines to walk on the toe, and a shoe thin at the heel when the animal walks on the heel. Absolute rest from labor is necessary sometimes for months. If the inflam- mation is active, reduce it with a persistent appli- cation of cold water, or with warm embrocations. Then apply the following blister : twenty grains corrosive sublimate, twenty grains camphor, ten drops muriatic acid, one ounce oil of turpentine. The blister must be carefully watched and when sufficiently raised the mixture should be washed off to prevent chance of blemish. Firing should not be resorted to except by a veterinary sur- geon. If so the iron should burn in spots, rather than over the whole surface. If the first blister does not suffice apply again when the old one is healed. It is better to keep the blister running as long as possible, by means of simple cerate or plantain leaves. RINGENT. A name given to the personate corolla, as in the genus Antirrhinum. RINGING FRUIT TREES. This operation has long been known as a means of inducing fruitfulness and increasing the size of the fruit on the particular branch operated on. At one time it was extensively practiced on the grape- vine. The fruit sometimes under this system will attain great size, but lacks in flavor, the texture of the fruit is coarse and the skin thick, and as formerly practiced it resulted usually in the subsequent death of the branch. The opera- tion consisted in cutting out a ring of bark, more or less wide up to a quarter of an inch, down to the wood but not into it, since this will certainly kill. This arrests the flow of sap, checks too active inflorescence, and favors the setting and subsequent growth of the fruit. Roots are sometimes so acted upon, to induce the formation of fibrous roots. The modern application of this system of increasing fruit- fulness, under expert hands has been found to be very successful, and not injurious to the tree. The system is advocated by such practical men as Messrs. Turner, Spalding, and Weir, of Illi- nois. We have operated successfully on shy bearers, like yellow bell-flower, and without final injury to the tree. Trees of any bearing size are girdled just before the season of inflor- escence, especially those varieties that blossom and yet are inclined to shed the fruit. In some cases a fine saw is driven carefully just through the bark, but not so as to injure the wood. Gen- erally a ring of bark is carefully excised with a sharp knife, varying in width from an eighth to a quarter of an inch in width, and sometimes the wound is protected- from the air by wrapping. In other cases strips of bark are left to connect the upper and lower portions of the bark. Some; times a section is taken half round the tree oii one side and a little above, another half round on the other side. Again a simple incision is made aboiit the tree with a sharp knife, down to the wood, and again another, or not, as the case may be, a little above, allowing the upper cut to run to nothing when it meets the first incision next the wood. If the ringing is done in June, or when the tree is in its full elabora^ tion of sap, the wood will invariably heal. In fact there are numerous instances of the bark being maliciously stripped from trees at this sea- son even up to the branches and without subse- quent injury. The practice, however, is dan- gerous, and will kill if the succeeding weather is hot and dry; even ringing is not to be com- mended except under the direction of one expe- rienced in the performance, and sufficiently well versed in horticulture not to err. RINGS, FAIRY. Rings of green grass, en- closing a less fertile spot; they are produced by the growth and decay of fungi, the green grass appearing where the fungi have just died. RIPPIiE GRASS. The smaller plantain. RIPPLING FLAX. Separating the seeds by beating the plants against a board or other contrivance. RIVOSE. A surface marked with irregular furrows. ROAD HORSES. The possession of wealth in the Northern States, both East and West, almost invariably shows itself in the desire to possess horses for driving single or double, and that may combine handsome form, style and docility, with a high and continued rate of speed. The wants of business men require horses posses- sing all these characteristics, but in a lesser degree ; still another class, the sons of well-to- do farmers, and those of other producing classes, require horses that will be either above or below the business man's horse, according to the state of their respective purses. This has created a demand for horses sufficiently well bred to unite speed, stoutness and style, and many intelligent farmers have of late years turned their efforts, and with profit, to the breeding of such horses; these are now called road horses, in contradis- tinction to the trotting horse, which, if he can go fast enough, is a fortune to his pos- sessor, even without the added qualification of style and beauty of form. The roadster, like the trotting horse, is essentially an American invention. American horsemen have taken the initiative in the breeding of these horses ; and in no other country in the world will be found either roadsters or trotters capable of doing what these American bred horses will do, either on the trotting course, the road, or on the pleasure drives of our parks. The passion for driving upon the road is undoubtedly one of the means through which our trotting horses were developed, and it seems more than probable that ROAD HORSES 808 ROAD HORSES thus were developed some of the best traits that have descended to many of the best trotting horses. Thus a horse of the style of Edward Everett, (see cut), combined with bottom and speed, would be far preferable to a faster horse, Tbut not so handsome. The faculty of fast and natural trotting has been called the trotting instinct. To om- mind the trotting instinct is more due to generations of horses, trained to trotting, and which through heredity becomes a fixed characteristic, than anything else. This, with high breeding, careful training, and a cool temper, both in horse and horseman is what has produced the wonderful speed and endurance, both in the American trotting horse and in the American roadster. For light driving, the des- cendants of Hill's Black-hawk, and many others of the Morgans, may be regarded as almost the perfection of this class of horses. Where greater range of stoutness, and faster work is required, we must look to the descendants of Messenger, Bellfounder, Duroc, etc. Hamble- tonian, for instance, stands for all that is excellent as a trotter (See Trotting Horses), but his head, if perpetuated in a descendant, would be against him as a stylish road horse. In relation to breed- ing trotters from roadsters, or rather the develop- ment of the trotting, stock of our country, Mr. Helm, a practical horse breeder, and author of American Roadsters and Trotting Horses says: It is important to note the fact that, while we recognize the blood of Messenger as the great trotting blood of our country,- this trotting quality has come to us mainly, if not altogether, from the sons and daughters of Messenger that were either part bred or kept and bred from in localities where the horse was used as a road- ster; and that, of his thoroughbred sons and daughters used for racing purposes, for which they were also distinguished, a much smaller percentage of trotting qualities has been dissem- inated. Carrying out ,the supposed teachings of experience in this same matter, it is also claimed that to produce great trotters with certainty and success, the parents must both be trained and developed in the way that our great trotters are trained, and that as a sequence of this doctrine such animals alone can be relied upon for the highest degree of success as breeding animals. Whether it is true that this high degree of devel- opment in sire and dam is beneficial or can be relied on with increased confidence, is a matter of uncertainty, and also one of some difficulty to determine with any degree of satisfaction. Whether the pi'ocess of training and fitting which we call the grand preparation for the great struggles of the race-course, do tend to give the nervous and physical organism the same degree of fixed character and constitute such traits into the permanent elements of the animal nature and being as the regular and con- stant use as a roadster and fast trotter in daily road work, we can hardly decide. Theory and practice might not agree — the doctrine started with, may not correspond to the results of expe- rience. There may be many reasons why a fair test can not be expected. It takes so many years to develop the trotters, and bring them to the highest degree of excellence, that before they are ready to be transferred from the department of performance to that of reproduc- tion, their age unfits them for the greatest excel- lence in the latter. Thus far but a small num- ber of great trotters have produced stallions that approach the front rank. Princess enjoyed a short career on the trotting turf after several years use as a roadster, in both of which depart- ments she was distinguished, and then produced the stallion Happy Medium, who undoubtedly displays much of the trotting quality for which she was noted. Sally Miller, the dam of Long Island Black Hawk, was a trotter and road mare of distinction in her day, her claims to that rank being founded both in her performances at one and two-mile heats, and in her being either a granddaughter or a great-granddaughter of Messenger. Flora Temple has also left a son that has some claims to trotting excellence, but is yet not known to rank as a distinguished stallion. Lady Thorn has left a son yet too young to settle the question whether her high degi-ee of perfection as a trotter was in her favor as the dam of a great stallion, and the same observation will apply to the son of Lucy, her distinguished companion and old-time compet- itor. It is certainly true that the renown of Lady Thorn as a trotter, and her brother Mam- brino Patchen as the sire of trotters, in large part originated in the fact that their dam was a highly bred and fully developed road mare, in constant service and of great reputed excellence. Amazonia, the dam of Abdallah, was the most noted road mare of her day; bred from the most noted road stock, but without any of the so-called development in any way, except hard and con- stant use on the road, where she had no peer. In her blood constituents, and in her acquired and steadily maintained excellence, she was the worthy maternity of the greatest trotting family of our country, but not less distinguished, in each of the above respects, was the Charles Kent mare, the dam of Hambletonian. She was deeply in-bred in the best trotting blood — herself a daughter of one of the best natural trotters our country then had, and for many years was as much famed on the road as the distinguished dam of Abdallah. Prom such parentage it is no strange phenomenon, in breeding, that there came the founder or progenitor of a trotting race or family the greatest the world has yet seen. The dam of Alexander's Abdallah, the most suc- cessful of the sons of Hambletonian, for his short existence, was a developed road mai'e, but not entitled to be classed as anything beyond. So was the granddam of Volunteer, the dam of George Wilkes, the dam of Ericsson and grand- dam of Clark Chief, the dam of Trustee, who trotted the twenty-mile race, and the dam and franddam of Knickerbocker. The dam of Gov. Prague, in addition to the qualities of a fiist road-mare fully developed, had the additional element of being a daughter of Hambletonian. The dam of Mambrino Chief, by her good qual- ities as a roadster, first proved herself to be worthy to produce so great a stallion, and in later years, by the qualities of her descendants, also fully established her claim to the double distinction of possessing as good blood as was on the calendar. From her Abdallah would have produced the peer of Hambletonian, and, perhaps, a more generally successful stallion. The dams of Aberdeen, Cuyler, Middletown, Mambrmo Star, Argonaut, and many other dis- tinguished stallions, came from superior road- mares — the first on the above list, from a trotter of considerable distinction. It is rare indeed JSasSJiliK:':' h h W w > Ui Q Q H fiikiiUfiili IIOADS AND ROAD MAKING 809 ROADS AND ROAD MAKING that a truly great road-mare of good breeding has failed, when bred to a good sire, to produce something worthy of her own excellence, and stiil more rare, that a really great stallion can be shown whose dam was an unused and idle mare, ■whose blood qualities had never been called into exercise and proved by actual use and the ■capacity for hard work. Many mares in the breeding farms of this country have no other claim to superiority than a pedigree showing the blood of distinguished families. That many such fail may be owing to the fact that they never wore a collar or performed a day's work in their lives. It might be that many of these longjpedigree mares would acquire the harmony ToPnerve organism and blood traits which they «eem to lack, if they were put into actual service on the road for a long and uninterrupted period. Nothing else, perhaps, would call out the dor- mant qualities of nerve and muscle which they ■carry hidden and unseen. It seems to be a law of animal existence, not confined to the human race, that without labor there is no great excel- lence, and that it is the trials and contests of life that call out and develop the capabilities of a race. The reader will find elegant photo-illus- trations of Lakeland Abdallah, and also of Edward Everett. These horses will serve as object lessons of first-class horses, either for the course or the road. ROADS AND ROAD MAKING. The ques tion of good roads is one of the most important of any outside the farm proper, for without roads upon which fair loads may be hauled, the pro- duce of the farm can not be carried to market, nor can the general trafiic of the country be car- ried on. In the settlement of a new country the ridges and dryer portions of the country are used for roadways, often causing deviations from the shortest lines, and very often these roadways remain after the settlement of the country, to the great inconvenience of the traveling public and the owners of farms, near villages these detours are gradually shortened, and straight roads are laid out, properly graded and, at length, ballasted with suitable material. In alluvial countries such as the prairie regions of the West, the greatest ■difliculty is experienced in making roads that shall be solid and constant in their nature during wet and dry weather. Fortunately, the soil is of auch a nature, that during the dry months of the year, or from June to November, the earth when kept properly graded forms smooth and toler- ably firm roadways. And in winter, also, when frozen, they are soon worn smooth. In older gttle d countries engineering' talent is brought ~ juiaitiou in the making of roads and varioiis m^SSials,"' gravel, cinders, broken stone, slag from furnaces, blocks of wood or stone, and planking are used. In England, in some places, burned clay has been successfully used in the ballasting of roads, it having the pecu- liarity once thoroughly burned that it does not again come into a plastic state but acts on plastic .soils, in the nature of sand and gravel, forming under the pressure of travel a tolerably firm road- way. It would require a large volume to treat the important subject of roadways and road making exhaustively. It is more thie study of the civil engineer than the private individual. Neverthe- less, the subject is so important tofarmei's espec- ially, that we append the chief points relating to earth road, and road making, as originally sug- gested by Mr. W. J. Edwards, who was emi- nently fitted to understand the whole subject, both as inventor of road-making machinery and a practical road-maker. Without good roads there can be no material development, be3^ond that mediocrity which mere civilization gives. Even the most degraded savages have well de- fined trails; and the knowledge of the conserva- tion of manual force, which it would almost seem that they possess intuitively, leads them, from point to point, over the easiest grades con- sistent with a direct route. So, the early settler finding soon the necessity of roads, first blazes a bridle path through the timber, or else, follows the trail of the Indian across the plain. Speedily, however, the wagon or cart must be used for the transportation of crops and other goods, and these usually follow the ridges or higher lands, until, with the further settlement of the country, water courses are bridged, sloughs are ditched, and at last continuous tracks, and next roads, crude and imperfect, it is true, but yet distinctly defined, are made from point to point. Nature knows no roads; and savages, like some species of animals, wear tracks only. Therefore, it may be set down as an axiom, that one of the first indications of increasing civilization in man, is the steps he takes to improve the roadways over which he must travel; and therefore the com- pleteness of the roads are as landmarks, which show the degree of enlightenment which a nation has reached. Not only this, but the higher civ- ilization, the nearer approach to true utility in designing and forming the road beds of a coun- try — if we except mere pleasure roads, as seen in private grounds and also in landscape gardening. However pleasing curved lines may be, or how- ever delightful the views caught here and there, however charming the vistas that now and again appear in the driveways of the wealthy man's estate, yet, in the formation of public roads, all this must be sacrificed to the tyrant, utility. They may not be employed in purely ornamental driveways, even without some apparent cause, artificial though it be, for the curvature of the road. A change of level in the ground, a pond, a tree, a group of shrubbery, or some similar natural or artificial obstruction, must be present to afford an opportunity to demand a change of line. Thus, in landscape gardening, where the ground is irregular, the deviations from a straight line necessary to follow an easy grade and at the same time adhere as closely to the natural surface of the ground as possible, will generally develop graceful curves. And in no case should any but the easiest curves in long sweeps of roadway be attempted on a level surface ; for they would be just as incongruous as would be a Gothic cottage, with its acute angles, standing in the middle of a marsh, or a fine mansion in a wilderness. Granted, then, the necessity for roads, both use- ful and ornamental, let us explain how roads develop a country. First, they render traffic practicable. Even the mere bridle path to the nearest mill docs this, but in a country where no other roads are asked for, the inhabitants will too often be found carrying a stone in one end of the sack to counterbalance the peck of corn in the other, if, indeed, they do not pound their grist between two stones. Their village will be irregular ; their implements of the crudest kind ; education among them will be wholly wanting. The men will be barbarians: the women slaves; EOADS AND ROAD MAKING 810 ROADS AND ROAD MAKING while the land itself will he divided between wild beasts and savage tribes. But soon the inventive faculty of the settler devises a rude vehicle, for he finds that the log may be rolled far easier, than it can be drawn lengthwise. The inventor, from his superior intelligence, acquires wealth more rapidly than his fellows, and with wealth comes the desire for luxuries. His com- peers are stimulated to like efforts. Fields are opened, improved implements are devised, vil- lages are built, and so roads must be made to them, and, lo ! the problem of civilization is at l^st solved. In the formation of roads for the qarriage of loads, or those of utility, they should go as directly from point to point as the nature of the ground will permit. This portion of the work is the first duty of the engineer. He must survey the country, and the various obstacles; figure upon the relative economy of passing over, through, or around them, and so form his grades as to present the least possible obstacle to the passage of teams. In this direction, and in spanning chasms; passing around or through mountains; bridging great rivers, or tunneling under them, some of the greatest engineering feats in the history of the world have been per- formed. It is obvious, that, as a rule, the roads of a country should be built of the material found in the vicinity, and that will combine in the greatest degree, cheapness, indestructibility and smoothness of surface, with the requisite degree of firmness. And whatever kind of roads are made, they must present a slightly convex surface, be of easy grade, and also be thoroughly drained, else the labor of their con- struction is expended in vain. In localities where sharp gravel is obtainable, there is no doubt but that a covering of from ten to fifteen inches upon a perfectly graded and well drained road is one of the best and most economical; at the same time it is easier to keep in repair for country roads, for the reason that it costs merely the digging and hauling. Washed and rounded gravel should not be used, for it will never cement together to form an even surface. It may, indeed, in time become so incorporated with the soil as to increase the solidity of the roadway, but it can never become a really etS.- cient medium over which loaded vehicles can pass at all seasons of the year. In California,, which is well known for the miry nature of its soil, during the rainy season, even in the moun- tains, a covering of sharp gravel, twelve to eighteen inches thick, over carefully graded road beds, has proved entirely satisfactory, and it is quite well known that, for ordinary travel, there are no roads more agreeable to travel on, than carriage ways, carefully drained, graded, and then ballasted with sharp, strong gravel.' Some years since plank roads were all the rage. It is scarcely necessary to notice them here, since they are expensive to build, annoying and costly to keep in repair, quickly wear out, are abso- lutely torturing to animals driven fast over them, rack vehicles severely, and are little less than horrifying to those travelers who are com- pelled to ride over them. These two classes of roads, if we except the poor make-shifts usually found, patched here and there, by throwing irregularly to the center of a roadway a ridge of earth scooped from the sides, with no definite idea of the first principles of road making, have been made to do duty as roads. The first is found only at long intervals; the second is, happily^ pow a thing of the past. The third, or earth roads, if properly made and kept in repair, would, at a comparatively light cost, add infini- teljr to the average value of the farm lands of the entire prairie region of the West. The proper- construction of roads adapted to continuous and heavy traflSc by loaded teams at all seasons of the year, must depend measurably upon local circumstances; for their perfection and durability will be in direct ratio to the materials used, other circumstances being equal. In large cities, and near great marts of trade and commerce, the first cost of such roads is only a secondary [Con- sideration. They must perforce be perfect at any reasonable expense. Fortunately timber is- cheap, and had plank roads served no other pur- pose, they should be respected as being the initial movement toward the Nicholson pavement that is now held in such justly high repute in the great cities of the West. The next in point of endurance and easy travel is, undoubtedly the^ Telford pavement ; next, the MacAdam roadways ^ next, gravel roads; and last, but not least, will be the roads of loam, clay, or other materials- which form the natural soil of the prairie region. To briefly describe the more artificial roadways that can only be made under the direction of competent engineers and trained workmen, would seem desirable, but before proceeding to- this, there are some questions that suggest them- selves, which may well be considered here. The first requisite in any road, as has been before stated, is drainage. The second is the sub-road or foundation, but since this must always be of the soil natural to the country, it may safely be left until that class of roads is considered. Drainage must be absolutely perfect. For any road, if water soaked, however great the expense incurred in its construction, will not stand. This drainage may be made by open ditches or gutters at the side, if the water be carried away from the vicinity of the road bed at every avail- able point. Whenever practicable the fall should be made both ways from a point as nearly cen- tral as may be, and each water way should be extended to a point of discharge lower than the plane; but if the distance between such points of discharge be so great as to lead to the fear of the washing of the road bed, the proper means must be taken to prevent this, no matter what the cost. Where gradients are so steep that the water wiU flow along the road in spite of the rounded sur- face, then catch or water bars, transverse gut- ters must be provided to carry the water into the proper channels at the sides of the roadway. The transverse grades of roads is a ingst import- ant consideration. On perfectly hard roads, such as the Nicholson, Telford, MacAdam, or others with so hard and uniform a surface, that they will not under any circumstances wash, a. very slight decline only from the center to tte sides should be given, for much lateral slope is 6ne of the most objectionable features in hard roads, and is permissible at all, simply to carry off moisture ; therefore, in every case this should be reduced to a minimum on the last slope con- sistent with the perfect drawing of the water of rains into the gutters at the sides of the road. Consequently, it is scarcely practicable to give any rule that will meet even a moiety of the con- stantly changing conditions, or that will meet even approximately the cost of the various ROADS AND ROAD MAKING 811 ROADS AND ROAD MAKING materials of which roads are made. Some ancient nations carried road making to a high state of perfection. Tliey were made of as various materials as they are at the present time, including gravel, asphalt, and numerous concretes. On these it will be useless to expa- tiate, since the civilization that called those roadways into existence has passed away, and nothing remains save the traditions. There are, however, two systems of roadways of nations that lived and bound together ancient and modern times — the Chinese and the Roman — whose roads were of the most solid and enduring nature. Those have been the basis from which our system arose. The Chinese roads are perfect to-day, because that nation still exists to keep them in repair. The remains of some of the Roman roads still stand in a state of good pre- servation, although centuries have elapsed since the nation which made them as perfect as they were enduring, became a thing of the past. The system which the Chinese adopted in build- ing their roads was to grade the roadway and then cover the whole with hewn blocks of stone, carefully jointed and cemented together so that the entire surface presented a perfectly smooth plane. They are immensely costly to build, and indestructible by time. The block pavements of modern days are of this type. They would not, however, be tolerated now, since teams have but little traction power on these roads, owing to the hard, smooth surface of the exterior, and horses are liable to slip, fall and injure themselves. The Roman. roads were built by laying a con- crete foundation of proper thickness and then cementing therein blocks of stone or other ma- terial. The knowledge of engineering was superior and the sums of money they expended prodigious. We are all conversant with the feats of Hannibal in his passage of the Alps. His engineers forced a passage over rocky promontories by heating the surface and then disintegrating it by means of acids (vinegar). Modern science, in road making, is as far supe- rior to the ancient as is gunpowder, nitro-glycer- ine and dynamite to the old method of blasting by heat and the application of acids. The Nicholson pavement undoubtedly combines more excellencies than any other form of pavement fpr vehicles. It is easily laid, durable, and also easy of repair, is pleasant for travel, compara- tively noiseless, and not especially injurious to the hoofs of horses. In constructing these pavements the first step is to grade the roadway ; a layer of sand or fine gravel is laid smoothly and evenly over; inch to inch and a quarter boards are then placed over the sand so as to break joints; this is now thoroughly swabbed with boiling gas tar. Four inch timbers are then accurately sawed to a length of eight inches, and laid either directly or diagonally across the roadway, and securely nailed to the planking beneath, or to the narrow strips used to divide the lines of block, thus leaving a space of an inch between the upper half of the row of blocks. These interstices are filled with fine gravel of uniform size, gas tar at nearly a boil- ing point is then poured in, and the whole ram- med compactly with suitable implements. A layer of gravel of a quarter to a half inch size is then thinly strewn over the pavement. The whole is swept so as completely to fill the inter- stices, and then we have a type of the best road- way ever devised by man. Many variations have been made from this plan, as laying the blocks directly on the bed of sand or gravel beneath, doing away with the narrow strips, etc., etc. They have some advantages, but the real improvements on the original plan more than counterbalance them. It would appear, however, that if the foundation could be made on the Telford plan, and this be covered with sufficient fine gravel to thoroughly cement the whole and the wooden pavement laid directly overall, it would leave little to be desired either in point of solidity, permanence or facility for repairs. The expense of such pavements, how- ever, preclude their adoption except in cities and their vicinity where the travel is heavyand con- stant, for the interest on the cost and wear and tear of any road can only be fixed on a just percentage of the traffic thereon. In making- MacAdam roads, in tenacious soils the "surface on which to place the broken stone should be at least one foot above the bottom of the waterways. The margins and slopes must be of such a nature that they will not wash or abrade, and if an under- drain be placed at each side of the rock cover- ing, so much the better. Indeed, the value of under-drains beneath any road, with lateral drains at suitable intervals, into the waterways at the sides of the road, are not appreciated as they should be by many otherwise good engi- neers. The stone with which the road is bal- lasted should be broken so that the most of it would pass through a two-inch ring, this being^ found by experiments made both in England and other countries to be the largest size allowable. Indeed, MacAdam himself declares that cubes of one and one-quarter inch are better than a larger size; but in speaking of cubes of a certain size it is neither understood that absolutely square pieces are meant, nor that the sections of rock shall be of uniform size. In fact, a con- siderable irregularity of size and shape is more conducive to a perfect cementing of the whole, so that when settled by rolling and travel it shall form a continuous, even surface, over which vehicles may be easily propelled. Years ago the laborious process of breaking the stone by hand formed an item of considerable expense in the formation of these roads. Later, ma- chines were invented which perform this work most perfectly. In the application of the broken stone to the road-bed care should be taken that the earth's surface has not been worn into ruts, for if this be the case it will inevitably cause the road to settle unevenly, and such depressions can not be mended save by picking- up, remetaling and again ramming. In this case the stone should be rather smaller than that used in the building of the road. The same rule will also apply to all the repairs of the road. Whenever depressions or ruts are worn, the sur- face must be picked to sufficient depth to per- mit the packing used to thoroughly cement with the metal below. To cover or metal a mile of road twenty feet wide to a depth of twelve inches, will require something more than 90Ji cords of stone or other material, so that, given the cost of the rock, and knowing the value of labor, it will be easy to figure the cost of the superstructure. So the rule will also apply to any portion of the labor required to form any road. The conditions are so varying, that even an approximation can not be reached; and these ROADS AND ROAD MAKING 812 ROADS AND ROAD MAKING always mislead. The exact conditions must be .studied by the commissioners as they always are by contractors. If this be done, there will sel- ■dom be much difference between the contracting parties. For ballasting or metaling roads, as it is called, limestone is most generally used, prob- ■ably for the reason that it is the most evenly dis- tributed, and when available, being of easy and even fracture, it is cheaply prepared for the road-bed. Nevertheless, it ia not the best mate- rial. Granite, from its extreme hardness, is much superior;. but this. rock, being one of the primary formations, is comparatively rare at the surface of the earth. As it will not pay to convey the metaling long distances, the most avail- able rock near by must, perforce, be used. 'The surface of the road having been properly ballasted, a dressing of clay, from one to two inches, should be laid over all, and the whole :surf ace thoroughly and continuously rolled with a heavy roller, until the superstructure is alike even and compact, and the angularities of the metal have been thoroughly interlocked and rendered solid, before vehicles are allowed to pass over it. Many object to this surfacing, but without this or some other binding covering, the top will be a long time in coming into a smooth surface, and is far more likely to be worn into ruts, especially if it be a country road, where there is comparatively little turning out from the ■center to avoid teams going in a contrary direc- tion. Another advantage of the clay surfacing, besides its binding action, is that it prohibits passing wheels from destroying the angularity of the broken rock, and thus preventing cohesion, by reducing them to the shape of water-worn pebbles ; for it is well known that stones once worn round never after cohere and bind together to form a perfect surface. Another advantage of this clay surfacing is, that it at once renders the road comparatively water-proof, and, gradu- ally working down, does not in the least add resistance to the draft of teams, as has been claimed, but, on the contrary, does render the draft much easier, at first, than if the rock sur- face were on top. A width of twenty feet of rock is ample for any travel, except in isolated -cases, where a road is thronged with teams con- ■stantly passing and re-passing, as is the case in large cities or contiguous to them. On all roads there should be side tracks corresponding with and forming an unbroken grade with the mac- adamized portion of the roadway. This metaled surface may be diminished, both in width and thickness, down to a width of eight feet and a thickness of six inches, to meet cost to be expended on the requirements of travel. The great cost of hauling material of any kind to form the superstructure of a road, renders it imperative that the most careful calculation be made as to the amount of traffic thereon. If, for instance, the heavy travel be nearly all one way, as in country places, ten feet of ballasted portion will be ample ; fourteen feet will easily allow for turning out, and for the passage of loaded teams ; ■eighteen to twenty feet will allow teams to go in contrary directions continuously; and twenty- four to thirty-two feet will admit of the road being thronged in both directions, and yet leave auflBcient room for turning out and the passing and repassing of light vehicles, swiftly driven. When the earth of the roadway consists of gravel of proper size, and clay in due proportion. or if there be an admixture of cementing mate- rial, as combinations of iron, etc. , as is sometimes found, the work of making the road is compara- tively easy. It has merely to be graded by the proper machines, (and these should be employed in every town, whether metaled or natural roads are to be used,) and then the material, by repeated rollings, cemented firmly together. Of course, in making any road, it is understood that the proper engineering must first be employed, the gradients established, sharp hills leveled or passed around, valleys filled, natural obstacles cut away and removed, so that, whatever grade be established as the maximum, the surface may be made to correspond. This is the work of the surve3'or. This done, the proper slope of the road adjusted, the drainage provided for, the culverts established, and other minutia attended to, all the contractor then has to do is to carry out the plan according to the specifications. Unfortunately for the constructing of perfect roadways in alluvial countries, this variety of soils rarely exists; but if unfortunate in this respect, the disability is amply compensated for by the exceeding richness of the soil. A coun- try composed of material suitable for superior roads, is never worth much for anything else — certainly not for agricultural purposes. But, as before stated, we propose to show here how the whole prairie portion of the West, may have roads good enough, during the seasons of princi- pal travel, to allow the carrying of 4,000 pounds per team of two horses ; and this can be done at an exceedingly light cost for labor. While its soil is one of the richest on the face of the earth, there are few counti-ies where the material can be made into as good roadways as there. They have only to be properly drained, graded and com- pacted to form most admirable roadways, that will rarely become bad for travel, except, it may be, a short season in the early winter and spring. In the construction of gravel roads, as in all others, the sub-stratum must be, of course, the natural soil of the locality. The drainage must be as well attended to, and the engineering must be the same as for other roads. The lower por- tion of the road-bed may be of any material that will make a solid foundation for the upper strata, or the whole may be composed of gravel of different sizes, the larger being placed and kept at the bottom. For light traffic and easy travel, both for teams and individuals, there is no ques- tion of the superiority of well made and well kept gravel roads over all others. A combination of the Telford foundation with a gravel surface, when the cost may warrant it, will, undoubtedly form the perfection of a roadway for ordinary travel. At the bottom, on a propeny graded sub-way, may be placed the rough foundation of the road-bed, consisting of irregular stone, or small boulders, from the size of a man's fist to a two-quart measure, or larger, according to the amount of travel expected. Over this the top work of smaller gravel should be laid, still keep- ing the larger gravel at the bottom and evening up with the smallest. Great care should be taken to secure the foundation properly. The large pieces of rock forming this should not be laid in at random, or in rows, and never on their flat side; but should be placed so as to break joints, as it were, and yet be left sufiiciently even on top to receive the covering of gravel. This is done by breaking away those projections of ROADS AND ROAD MAKING 8U ROADS AND ROAD MAKING rock which rise much above the general surface; or ■when square, they may be embedded in the soil beneath. There is one fact which should never be lost sight of; and that is, the founda- ation must ever remair pervious to . water, so that whatever moisture finds its way through the surface, may immediately pass to the soil below, and thence easily percolate to drains which should always be provided, unless the nature of the soil and subsoil be such that the drainage is naturally thorough. It is essential that the foundation of any road be rolled when laid. It is absolutely imperative that the surface covering be soroUedf, until the whole is entirely compacted into one cohesive mass. The very best roads are made thus, whether with a cover- ing of gravel, or macadam, or any other coher- ing material; the larger in the bottom, and the finer on top, while no material the size of a hen's egg should ever be allowed within four inches ot the top ; and the harder the rock material the smaller the cubes or fragments of rock or gravel may be, for a complete cementing of the whole. Now, as the perfection of a road made of broken stone is, to have a foundation of coarse, angular fragments, followed by a covering of two-inch cubes, surfaced with cubes of one inch, or smaller. sure to the elements, make it valuable when it is readily obtainable. In Paris, France, and its vicinity, asphalt is extensively used, but the dust arising from it is obnoxious in the extreme. Concrete roads are made under several patents, and are composed of a great variety of mate- rials, gas tar, and gravel, and cements of several kinds, with gravel; often with some form of lime as the base, or entirely of lime or plaster. As mere pleasure walks or lawn drives, to be cov- ered with gravel, they may answer for a make- shift, where nothing better can be obtained. Concrete, of which lime is the base, made upon the road, and laid to the depth of six inches, and then covered with gravel, pressed into it before it sets, is excellent as a foundation, where stone- can not be procured. There are remains of old Roman roads so made, that are sound to-day. We have so far carried the reader through some of the more expensive kinds of roads in use in various countries. We now proceed to give tables and other data from actual experiments made by celebrated engineers in Europe. These might be multiplied indefinitely, and quotations- made from such authorities as Law Morin, Mac- Neill, Sir H. Parnell, Bevan, Edgeworth, Flachet, Gerstner, Kassak, Minard, Navier, Chabacteb of Eoad. Character of the vehicle. Carts. Trucks, four horses. Stage coaches. Two-horse carriages. Firm soil covered with gravel, four to six inches deep Firm emhanlcment covered with gravel 1}4 to 1% inches deep, Barth embankment in very good condition Bridge flooring of thick oak plank Broken Stone Boad. In very good condition, very dry, compact and even A little moist or a little dusty Firm, bat with ruts and mud Very bad, ruts 4 to m inches deep, thick mud Good pavement ] g^^eredwith mud". '. '. '. ■.■.'.:;:::::■.■.:::::::::: 1-12 1-16 1-70 1-7S 1-53 1-33 1-19 1-90 l-«9 1-9 1-11 1-29 1-46 1-54 1-38 1-24 1-14 1-65 1-50 1-8 1-10 1-26 1^1 1-8, 1-10 1-26 1-J2 Walk. 1^8 1-34 1-21 1-12 1-57 1-44 Trot. 1-41 1-27 1-18 1-10 1-38 1-33 Walk. 1-49 1-34 1-22 1-12 1-59 1-48 Trot. 1-42 1-27 1-19 1-10 1-39 1-34 according to the hardness of the material, so the most complete gravel roadway is made by plac ing the larger stones at the bottom, over which the smaller are laid; the whole to be finished with that of less and less size, until the surfacing shall be the smallest sharp gravel obtainable. It will not be necessary to speak of the various concrete and cement roads, except in the way of mere mention, since they are valueless for heavy and steady travel, unless we except the so-called cinder roads, or those composed of the scoria from blast furnaces. These do make excellent mediums for ordinary travel. The material, when obtainable, cements most perfectly, and is pleasant to travel over, if kept free from dust; but, from the soft and porous nature of the material, under heavy work, they soon wear out. P'or the foundation of road-beds this scoria is most valuable, and is extensively used in the vicinity of Chicago and other places where smelting ,f.urnaces, rolling mills, or other works for the melting of iron are in operation. Asphalt is used in many combinations in the formation of roads. Its cementing qualities and the inde- structible nature of the materials, through expo- Perdonnet, Poncelet and others. The four first named, however, must suffice. They establish important facts that should be known to all who have anything to do with the making or the man- agement of roads. The experiments of Morin, made in 1838-41, appear to have been made with a painstaking degree of care and accu- racy, thus leaving nothing more to be desired, and the table, as given, an extract from his results, will be found valuable as showing that fraction of the weight of the vehicle and load, which is required to move them on a level road. As an example, suppose a truck weighed, with its load, 9,000 pounds, how many pounds traction will be required to move the same? On firm soil, gravel four to six inches deep, that is a newly repaired road as we often find it, (one-ninth by table) 1,000 pounds; on best kind of embankment (one-twenty-ninth by table), 310.3 pounds; on broken stone roads in good condition (one-flfty-fourth by table), 166.6 pounds: on broken stone roads, deep ruts and mud (one-fourteenth by table), 643 pounds; on a good pavement (one-sixty -fifth by table), 138.5 pounds. Or since the trSiCtive force of a medium KOADS AND ROAD MAKING 814 ROADS AND ROAD MAKINO horse, when working all day, is said to be about 135 pounds, we need in the first case, eight horses; dn the second case, two and a half horses ;',in the third case, about one and a quar- ter horses; in the fourth case, about five horses; and'in the fifth case, only one good horse to move the same entire load all day with ease. The following are the general results of the experiments made by M. Morin, at the expense of the French government, on traction: The traction is directly proportional to the load, and inversely proportional to the diameter of the wheel. Upon a paved or hard macada- mized road the resistance is independent of the width of the tire, when it exceeds from three to four inches. At a walking pace the traction is the same, under the same circumstances, for car- riages with springs or without them. Upon hard miacadamized and upon paved roads, the traction increases with the velocity; the increments Of traction being directly proportional to the incre- ments of velocity, above the velocity of 3.28 feet per second, or about two and a quarter miles per hour. The equal increment of traction thus due to each equal increment of velocity is less, as the road is more smooth, and the carriage less rigid or better hung. Upon soft roads of earth; or sand,^or turf, or roads fresh and thickly graveled, the traction is independent of the velocity. Upon a well maide and compact pavement of hewn stones, the traction at a walking pace is not more than three-fourths of that upon the best macada- mized road under similar circumstances; at a trotting pace it is equal to it. The destruction of the road is in all cases greater, as the diameter of the wheels are less, and it is greater in carri- ages without than with springs. Experiments made by Sir John MacNeill, with an instrument , invented by him for the purpose of measuring the tractive force required on difEerent descrip- tions of road, under various circumstances, will be of value. The general results which he ob- tained are given in the following table, the num- bers in which exhibit the tractive force in pounds requisite to move a weight of a ton, under ordi- nary circumstances, at a very low velocity upon the several kinds of road mentioned : Description of Road. On a well made pavement On a road made with six inches of hroken stone, of great hardness, laid either on a foundation of large stones, uet in the form of a pavement, or upon a bottoming of concrete On an old flint road, or a road made with a thick coating of broken stone laid on earth On a road made with a thick coating of gravel, laid on earth Mr. H.- Law, C.E., in the work^Oonstruction of Roads, edited by Rob't Mallet, C. E., etc. — gives the tabid, on next page, which is of importance, as sho^fring the comparative disadvantages of ■hilly roads, with light and heavy travel. It is also valuable as showing the resistance upon various grades, and also the angle which these grades will present to the horizon. It shows, with sufficient exactness for most practical pur- poses,' the force required to draw carriages over inclined roads, and the comparative advantage of such roads and those which are perfectly level. The first-column expresses the rate of inclination. and the second the equivalent angle; the two next columns contain the force requisite to draw a common stage wagon weighing, with its load, six tons, at a velocity of 4.4 feet per second (or three miles per hour), along a macadamized road in its usual state, both when the hill ascends and when it descends; the fifth and sixth columns contain the length of level road which would be equivalent to a mile in length of the inclined road, that is, the length' which would require the same mechanical force to be expen- ded in drawing the wagon over as would be necessary to draw it over a mile of the inclined road; the four next columns contain the same information as the four last destribed, only with reference to a stage coach weighing with its load, three tons, and to travel at the rate of 8.8 feet per second, or six miles per hour. The following table will show the force required to move a ton, the limiting angle of resistance, and the greatest inclination which should be given to the roads named. The values of the resistances on which the table is calculated, are those quoted previously: So;. ^H B^ ta 9 s 4) a " ^ o.d Description of road. as ^g H" o .gs g^M fR a o 33 1 in 68 Broken stone surface on a bot- tom of rough pavement or con- crete 46 1 11 1 " 49 Broken stone surface laid on an 65 147 1 40 3 45 t " 34 Gravel road 1 " 15 As indicating something of the cost of the con- struction of roads, as also their repairs, the following condensed account will be interesting and valuable for reference: According to all the -returns from different States, the average construction of gravel roads is $2,241 per mile, and the average annual cost per mile for repairs is $103. It appears, from the reports, that only a very few of the roads are improved by a gravel bed, and neither the width of the beds so improved, nor the quantity of material applied, is given. We may reasonably infer, however, that neither is greater than is absolutely required, and yet we find the cost of construc- tion, per mile, to range from $700 to $4,000, and to average $2,241. The annual outlay per mile varies from |4 to $200, the average being, as above stated, $103. By reference to the table, showing the cost of repairs to common roads per mile, throughout the country, we find it to vary from $1 to $59, and the general aver- age is $18.11 per mile. The returns show that the average cost of construction of macadamized roads per mile is $3,290, and it varies in the different States from $500 to $336. The aver- age annual cost per mile for repairs of macada- mized roads, as reported, is $40 — varying from $10 to $100 per mile. The average cost of con- struction of plank roads per mile is reported to be $3,000, and the average annual cost of repairs per mile is $550. The table, page 816, compiled HOADS AND ROAD MAKING 815 ROADS AND ROAD MAKING Bats op Incusation. lliieoo '1 "575. 1 " 550. .1 " 525. 1 " 500. 1 " 475. 1 " 450. 1 " 425. 1 " 400. 1 " S75. 1 " 350. 1 " 325. 1 " 300., 1 "290. 1 "880. 1 " 370. . 1 " 860., 1 "250. 1 "840., 1 " 230.. 1 " 820.. 1 " 210. . 1 "200.. 1 " 190. . 1 " 180.. 1 " 170.. t " IBO.. 1 " KO. 1 " 140. 1 " 130. 1 " 120. 1 " 110. 1 " 100. 1 ' 1 1 ' ■1,' .1 ' 1 ' 11 ' ,1 ' 1 ' 1 ' 1 ' ■ 1 ' 1 ' 1 ' 1 ' 1 ' 1 ' 1 ' 1 ' 1 ' 1 ' 1 ' 1 ' 1 ' 1 ' 1 ' 1 " 1 ' 1 " 1 " 1 " 1 " 1 " 1 " 1 " 1 " 1 " 1 " 1 " 1 " • 1 " 95 90 85 80 75 70 .'.:... m v..,„. . 60 .,..: 55.... ■ 50 45......... 40 -. 35 34 33 v.. S! L.. 81 30 :..: 29 ■./.. 27. 26. 25. 24. 23. 22. 21.: 19.,..,.. 18....... 17 16 15.;.... 14 18'...... 12....... 11 10 9 8 7 a 0' 11 8 36 9 10 9 49 10 35 28 51 11 12 n 12 44 18 13 13 45 14 19 14 57 15 37 16 22 17 11 18 6 19 6 20 13 21 55 23 24 33 26 27 28 39 31 15 34 23 36 11 45 51 49 40 27 42 58 1 1 1 1 1 38 14 1 41 52 54 67 18 2 30 8 6 16 24 23 57 44 12 47 27 50 55 64 37 58 34 2 5 7 12 2 33 2 17 26 10 36 10 43 35 51 21 46 10 47 21 69 34 35 3 48 51 5 14 56 45 49 11 40 42 58 20 25 7 30 8 7 48 For a Stage Wagon. ?g2 lbs. 286 387 291 292 294 295 297 300 302 305 309 310 312 314 315 317 326 323 381 334 388 843 3t8 363 360 367 376 386 393 405 413 422 4.^2 443 451) 470 488 508 533 562 600 648 659 671 684 697 '?12 . 727- 744 762- 781 801 833 847 874 903 938 970 1009 1053 1102 1157 1221 1294 1379 1480 1600 1747 1929 2162 *^ o aj 03 ? % Ibe. 240 239 238 237 2:35 234 2:J2 2:j0 228 225 222 219 217 216 214 212 210 208 205 203 200 197 193 189 185 180 1T4 168 160 •i52 142 129 122 114 106 96 85 72 57 40 19 a p.3 PI Miles. 1.085 1.088 1.093 1.097 1.108 1.107 1.113 1.120 1.128 1.136 1.146 1.157 1.170 1.176 1.182 1.1S9 1.196 1.204 1.212 1.222 1.232 1.248 1.225 1.268 1 2a3 1.800 1.819 ,1.341 1.364 1.392 1.425 1 451 1.510 1.637 1.666 1.600 1.687 1.680 1.728 1.784 1.850 1.926 2.019 2.133 2.274 2.456 2.499 2.644 2.593 2.644 2.699 2-.758 2.820 2.888 2.360 3.038 8.120 3.213 3.313 3.423 3.638 3.677 3 826 3.991 4.178 4.388 4.629 4.906 5.259 5.611 6.067 6.623 7.315 8.199 5=3 = e 5 §> g g.S t- OJ ^ Z o a'r^ to P4 Miles. .9150 .9116 .9074 .9029 .8979 .8926 .8869 .8801 .8726 .8643 .8343 .8413 .8301 .8245 .8179 .8111 .8039 .7963 .7876 .7785 .7683 .7573 .7461 .7319 .7171 .7004 .7814 .6587 .63.59 .6079 .5752 .5491 .4903 .4634 .4338 .4004 .8629 .3204 .2719 .2161 .1505 .0736 For a Stage Coach. lbs. 373 373 374 874 375 376 377 377' 878 880 881 882 384 887 388 390 391 392 394 395 397 899 401 404 406 410 418 418 428 429 432 486 441 446 461 457 465 474 484 496 511 530 5.t4 539 565 572 578 586 593 602 610 620 680 641 668 666 681 696 714 734 756 780 807 839 875 918 968 1028 1101 1192 1308 25-0 lbs. 8i0 349 349 848 347 847 846 846 344 388 338 837 336 335 884 832 831 830 828 326 324 322 320 317 314 310 306 800 294 291 287 262 278 272 266 268 250 239 227 212 194 170 164 158 153 145 188 130 122 113 108 56 42 1.030 1.032 1.033 1.085 1.0.7 1.0.39 1.041 1 043 1.046 1.049 1.0.i3 1.056 l.OHl 1.064 1.066 1.068 1.071 1.074 r.077 1.080 1.084 1.088 1.092 1.097 1.103 1.109 1.116 1.123 1.132 1.142 1.154 1.169 1.185 1.195 1.206 1.219 1.232 1.247 1 265 1.285 1.309 1.337 1.371 1.412 1.464 1.580 1.546 1..662 1..580 1.599 1.619 1.640 1.668 1.688 1.714 1.743 1.774 1.808 1.844 1.881 1.926 1.977 2.032 2.093 2.160 2.234 2.323 2.4i;3 2 540 2.679 2.846 3.048 3.300 3.621 ROADS AND BOAD MAKING 816 ROADS AND ROAD MAKING from replies to circular issued by the Depart- ment of Agriculture, United States, shows the average annual cost per mile of repairs of com- mon roads in the respective States : New York New Jersey Massachusetts . . Bbode Island Michigan Wisconsin Pennsylvania . . . Maine Connecticut New Hampshii'e Vermont Maryland Delaware Virginia North Carolina. South Carolina.. Georgia Florida Alabama Mississippi Louisiana Texas . . Arkansas Tennessee West Virginia . . Kentucky Missouri Illinois Indiana Ohio... Minnesota Iowa Kansas Nebraska Utah Colorado California Nevada Oregon Cost per mile. $31 82 37 BO 59 16 33 75 23 60 34 70 18 28 40 00 9 00 16 00 36 00 11 00 14 50 6 00 6 50 1 00 7 53 18 00 4 84 800 2 00 7 95 6 43 17 00 840 15 57 10 59 10 31 38 3j 33 60 20 00 20 00 800 5 00 43 00 23 00 10 00 25 00 It has often been asserted that the West could never have a good system of roads, for the rea- son that, except in widely scattered localities, good gravel could not be found, and that it was still more rare to obtain rock suitable for the formation of roads. This very scarcity of what has heretofore been deemed indispensable, to road-making, has led to the perfection of imple- ments for casting up from the sides of the road-bed a continuous ridge of earth, leaving the gi'ade perfect, the slopes of the roadway light or heavy at will, the sides gradually descending to the ditches or gutters, so that the whole sur- face, and even the water ways, when not wet, may be made use of as a roadway. Indeed, the making of earth roads by machinery may be said to have been reduced almost to a science ; since, given the miles of clear surface to be graded, the cost of making the road may be estimated to within a fraction of the cost. We think it will be admitted to be beyond con- tradiction that the prairies, composed as they are of a strong loam, that, when dry and under pressure, will compact, will make a smooth, even surface, upon which the wheels of loaded vehicles scarcely make an impression, and this fact "ought to have suggested their admirable nature for this purpose long ago. Certain it is that during the droughts of summer, and when frozen and worn smooth in winter, they are among the best of any natural causeways in the world. Upon any of our well drained, care- fully graded, and tolerably well traveled prairie roads, there is but a small portion of the year — say a short time in the spring, when the frost is just coming out, and another equally short time, when it is freezing and thawing in the fall — that a good team can not haul 3,000 pounds with ease. Therefore, given good drainage, an even grade as to the slopes of the sides, and a soil that will pack solid, the question of good roads is solved. It has also been objected to by those who have studied works on drainage, where certain gradi- ents being determined on by the engineer, every slope of the various undulations must be cut away, and the materials used to fill the slight hollows, so that the road when completed shall present a continuous line of equal rise and fall, like a railroad. Indeed, railroad engineers are beginning to find out that it is cheaper to run over rather light grades than always to cut through them; and hence raUroads have become practicable where once it was believed it would not pay to build them, i It has furthermore been found, in practice, that the ordinary undulating surface of our prairies offer no obstacle to the- continuous running of roads, and that the grades may follow the surface, unless, in exceptional cases, where a sharp, high rid^e may intervene. These may require some cutting, but far less- than has generally been supposed. As a rule the grading may be made continuous over hill and dale, and seldom will it be found necessary to deviate from a straight line in order to avoid serious obstructions. Therefore no engineering is required ; nothing but good implements, a set of flags by which to drive, sufficient team and men to operate the machine, and the work may go on continuously at the rate of a mile to a mile and a half per week of road completed, perfect in its slopes and drainage, through valleys and over the gentle slopes that are found everywhere- on our grand prairies. The superior drainage which this system of roads would give to prairie farms is itself one of the most eloquent pleas possible for its general adoption. But valuable as this one point really is, it is but an integer of its final value to the entire West, and really almost insignificant in comparison with the development that would follow. The wealth that a system of building first-class earth roads would create, is simply enormous. How to do this to the best advantage, is the question. One- of the mistakes, but still a. very pardonable one, where the work is done with old fashioned imple- ments, is that the road-beds are commenced to6- narrow. When it becomes necessary to widen them, as it inevitably does, in order to accom- modate increased travel, not only the original labor is lost, but where the ditch once was it can with difficulty be made solid, since here must be placed a thick layer of comparatively soft earth, and adjoining on each side the ridge of compact earth that formed the original road-bed. It is, therefore, advisable that the road-bed be made at least twenty-five feet wide, with the ditches not less than seven feet wide, and nine feet is preferable. This extreme width for road- beds and water-ways will leave twelve and one- half feet on each side for the planting of such shade trees as may be needed, and yet give ample space for the passage of pedestrians. The ditches should commence at nothing, running gradually back until the extreme depth, eighteen inches to two feet, is reached. This should be at a point only so far from the extreme width as- ROADS AND ROAD MAKING 817 ROADS AXD ROAD MAKING to correspond witli the height of the bank, so that the r se to the bank may be as one to one, or an angle of forty-five degrees. In making a road by means of a macliine, it must be arranged so it will carry the earth directly to the center of the road and drop the material excavated con- tinuously as the machine passes forward, to cor- respondwith the width of the ditches; so con- tinue until you have the ditches or water-ways of sufficient depth and regularity, and the whole is ready for spreading or tinishing. This finish- ing is done by taking an eight by ten inch square timber, twenty-four feet long, and drawing it diagonally, the rear end in the water-way, up and back. This will spread and grade the earth evenly over the required space for the road-bed, leaving the surface crowning to the middle just as may be required. It is not necessary in every case that it be cast all over the roadway, so that if only a narrow track is required the bermes next the ditches may be left of any widtli desired, and still preserve the integrity of the transverse grades. Start a road and run it clear through a township, if possible. "Why not? A machine with eight horses and two men should gracle a first-class road six m les in thirty working days, and at an expense lor labor of not more than fifteen cents per rod. Plenty of cases might be cited where an average of a mile in four days Las been easily accomplished, and this with green teams. The impression wished to be conveyed is, that the time has come when perfected machines are doing this work in the very best manner, and at a cost of about twenty-five cents on the dollar for what it would cost with the plow and old fasliioaed scraper; that roads made with modern implements stand more and rougher usage than the old stj'le of roads, and with fiir 1 SI ex- pense fo.' repairs; that the dn inage supplied to the ad- jacent farms by a good system of roadways on every section line, necessarily will add materially to the productiveness of the soil, and the increased facilities for travel will diminish the cost of transportation fully one-half . In fact, it is the want of good drainage, and the difficulty in transporting produce to market, that is doing more to reduce the profits of farming than any other two causes combined. Tlierefore, what the low value of the land years ago would not allow to be done may now be accomplished at so light a cost per capita as to form iio objec- tion to the making of earth roads, at least, over the wliole prairie region of the West. Let us now examine for a moment the advantages of carrying the grades of roads over the undula- tions of the surface. One of the difficulties over the old system of simply grading the hollows is, that on the declivities and acclivities where there are no lateral slopes to the roadway, the water seeks the ruts, if there be such, or if the road- way be smooth, then the middle of the roadway; since, being without grade, these must soon become the lowest portions of the road. Gullies sa are formed which wear larger and larger, until the road becomes impassable, and a new track has to be sought. So the process goes on and on, until the whole width of the roadway is ruined. The grade being carried continuously up and down the slopes, and over the summits of the undulations as well as in the valleys, the crowning surface of the road conveys the water naturally to the water-ways at the side. If the soil be of a sufficiently yielding nature to be abraded easily, protection against this may be readily applied. If the slopes are so steep as to require cutting down, to render the gradient more easy, when this is done the road grade to the ditches may then be established as on an ordinary surface, remembering always, as a rule, that the steeper the grade the more rounding the roadway should be, and this for very obvious reasons. The following figure will show a cutting through a sharp ridge, and the grade of the road. Again, suppose it be easier to go round a hill than through it; then the figure of the road will be as given in the following cut; a ditch being needed only on the side next the hill. These, however, are only isolated cases, and will never be required in a gently undulating prairie region, except, perhaps, in the descent to and ascent from a river, ravine, etc. In the hilly portions these Cuts will often be found necessary, and in rare cases in other sec- tions. The illustrations are given so that witha little study of the tables previously given, and a simple level and plumb, the gradients can be at once established and the cuttings made by any S3 Feet BOAB THRODGH A BtDGE BOAD ON SIDE HILL. intelligent man. Again, if from the nature of the country the grades must be made so steep that the water will not run easily to the gutters on the sides, catchways may be provided as pre- viously shown to arrest and convey the water to the ditches. These must be formed of some firm and unyielding materials. This course will be necessary in isolated cases, where the character of the country is exceedingly difficult. One of the most common errors in road making is, that the ditches are left deepest in the middle and rise alike towards the road and the bank. This is entirely wrong. They should slope gradually to a point next the bank, and corresponding to the height from the bottom of the ditch to the bank as heretofore stated. From thence they should rise sharply to the bank. The reason is plain: If the lowest point of the gutter be half way between the bank and the road-bed (the out- side of it), and there is enough water carried to wash at all, there will be danger that the road- ways may become abraded or eaten into by the flowing water; but if near the bank, then the H O K P-. (818) ROADS AND ROAD MxVKING 819 ROADS AND ROAD MAKING water will wear away from rather than toward the roadway, and all the danger of washing will be avoided. Thus the whole, when completed, should present an appearance as shown in full page cut. When it is necessary to carry the water of the ditches through slight rises of ground the additional work of excavating states. Maine. New Hampshire Maseachusette . . . Vermont New York New Jersey Pennsylvania Delaware Marji^land Virginia.. _ South Carolina . . Georgia Alabama Tennessee Kentucky Ohio Indiana . Illinois . . . Michigan . Iowa . , Texas . , Time of sowing or planting. May 15 to June April to May 20 April 10 to 25 May 1 to September. . . May 10 to September 1 . Sept. 1 to October 15.. Sept. 1 to October 15.. October Sept 15 to Nov. 30.... October and Nov September 15 to Nov, . September to Dec October 12 September and Oct. . . Sept. 1 to Oct. 25 September to October. August to Sept. 30 — Sept. 3 to Oct. 1 August 20 to Sept. 15 . October 1 to Dec. 15. . Average bushels or pounds of seed Time of harvest, per acre. Best soil. 114 bush lYa to 2 bush... IM. to 2 bush... 2 to 2^ bush... IM to a bush... IM to2bnsh... m to 2 bush . . . 1 1-6 to 2 bush. lJ4bush 1 to 2 bush softs ^ to 1 bush % to 2 bush.... 1 tolJi bush... 75 lbs 1 to 114 bush... 1 to 2 bush. 1 to 114 bush.... IM tolJibueh.. 90 ttts. to 1)4 bu. % bush August i:0 to 30 August 1 to 20 June 25 to Aug. 10., Last Aug. to Sept. 1. July 2 to Aug. 10 June 28 to July 7 . . . June 15 to July 15 . . June June 15 to July 15 . June 1 June 1 June to July June 15 July June 28 to July 20 . June 15 to July 20. . May to July 1 . . . June to July 30.. July 5 to 20 May 1 to June 10. Sward com stubble; high ridges; dry pasture. Clay loam; new upland; diluvial:. black loam. Loam clay; clay loam Sandy loam ; clay loam; loam mix- ed vpith gravel. Friable loam; loam; clay loam;^ sandy loam, rather stiff. Light sandy; claysoil; eandyloam; limestone; do. clay, mixed with gravel; clay; do.; clay andgraveU Kich loam ; clay. Clay; do. do. ; clay and lime. Clay. Red mulatto. Loam: oak and hickory. Dark loam ; all kinds. Clay. Oak and maple land; clay; do.;: very warm; limestone; clay loam;. yellow clay; clay; sandy. Sand and loam; clay loam; clay; improved clay; loam do.; clay; sandy loam. Sandy loam; clay; oat or clover stubble; clover; rich loam. Marl Clay; clay and sand; oak; clay loam. Lime soil. BARLEY. Maine New Hampshire. Massachusetts . . Vermont New York Pennsylvania . . . South Carolina. . Tennessee Ohio Indiana Michigan Iowa Last of May April; May.. May Julyl April 10 to May 10... March 15 , September , March 1 April 1 to May 1 April to September April 15 to May 1. .. March to April 1 — 2 bushels Sy^to 4 bush... 2^ to 3 bush... 2 bushels 2 to 3 bush IH to2bu8h... 2 bushels 1 bushel l>/2to2 bush... iH to 2^ bush. Yi to 2 bush.... 1)4 bushel August July 30 August 1 July 1 to August. June and July. May Julyl...., Julyl to 25 Jane 25 to August. . July 7 to August 1 . July 1 Black loam. High, warm land. Dry. Loam- warm loam ; loam and muckf. sandy loam; black sandy loam. Heavy clay; sandy loam. Clay. Clay, mixed with saud; clay loam;. loose do. Clay; do. loam; dry, sandy loam. Sandy loam; rich loam. OATS. April to May April and May April 10 to May 10 April to May 15 March I5to May 25.... 2'/i to 3 bush.... 3 to 4 bush 2!4 to3bush.... 3 bushels Wi to 3 bush.... 2to2J4 bush.... 1 to 3 bush August 10 to 30 Dry; gravellv- Clay; sandy; free. High, warm land. Light; sandy. Loam and muck; loam; deep, black muck ; rich, sandy loam. Sandy loam ; clay. Sandy loam; light; sandy; sandy loam; limestone; do. Rich; moist. New Hampshire. Massachusetts ... July 15 to August 20. August New York New Jersey Pennsylvania July 10 to August 15. July 20 to August 1. July 10 to August 1. MSrchl5 toAprillS... Maryland Virginia 2 bnshels ly, to2l^bush.. 1 bushel ItolYi bush.... 51^ to 1 bush Ibushel IVi bushels 48 pounds 2bushel8 1J4 to 2 bush.... lYi to 2 bush.... 2to3busb 2 to 4 bush 1 bushel July Dry loam; clay and lime; sandy- loam; do.; do. February to April 1 . . . Dec. to February '] anuary to March 1 . . . November to April .... October to February. . Feb. 15 to March March and April ; March and April March to May 1 March 20 to April 4... April 10 to 30 July 10 to August 10. June 1 to last June. June to July 1 May and June July South Carolina.. Moist; sandy. Alabama Mississippi Sandy loam. Light do.; clay. July 10 Kentucky Ohio Indiana July June to August 1 July 1 to August June to August 1 ... . July 7 to August 1 . . July 15 to August... Loose loam; do. do.; clay loam;. sandy loam; oak and hickory loam. Sandy loam; loam; clay; do.; do.;. do.; sandy. Sandy loam; light loam; sandy do. Clay or sand: rich loam; sandy. Illinois Michigan Texas February May SEED 844 RYE. SEED States. 1 Time of sowing or planting. Average bushels or pounds of seed per acre. Time of harvest. Beat soil. Maine . . Fall and Spring September and April. . August to September . September September 1 to Nov. . . 1% bush . New Hampshire 1 to 2 bush 1 to 114 bush July and August Sandy; silicious; newly cleared land. High, waim, light land. I^ight. Sandy and slate; sand; sandy loam, or gravel ; gravelly loam. Light, sandy loam. Gravel; serpentine: stubble. Light. Gray land. Mulatto Vermont New York New Jersey ..'.... Pennsylvania 114 to lyj bush.. 1 to 2 bush Last July to August July 10 to 26 July 1 Last June to July. .. September 1 to 15 . . . . Itol'^bush.... 1 bushel %bushel 5i bushel 1/2 bushel !4 bushel 1 bushel Itol'/ibush.... 1 tol^ibush.... 2 to 2>tf bush .... 154 bush 2 bushels 'South Carolina . . October June -Georgia July May Light. Rich loam. Mississippi September May and June June 15 to July ■Ohio September and Oct. . . . September to Oct October and Nov October 10 Clay; clay, light; sandy and warm oak and hickory clay. Dry; just cleared. Clay; or sandy loam. Clav or loam Indiana . .... . June 20 to July June 20 to July July 15th Michigan Iowa BUCKWHEAT. Maine New Hampshire. Vermont New York New Jersey.. . Pennsylvania. 'Tennessee .... Kentucky Ohio Indiana Illinois . Michigan . Iowa Middle of June June July 1 June 10 to July 20..., July ] 3 to 1 ast of Jun ( June 1 to last July..., May 20 Middle June to July 1 , July 1 to August 1 June to July 1 June 15 to July 5., June 20 H bush Yz bushel ^toYz bush. ^ to 1 bush. . J4 to 1 bush . . H to 1 bush . . 1 bushel j^ to 1 bush . Va to 1 bush . 15 to 25 ms.. % to2bush.... % tol^buah. August* September. September September 15 to Nov. September 15 Sept. 1 to Oct. 15.. October 15 Sept. 20 to Oct. 1 . . . . September to Oct. 1 , September Aug. 10 to Oct. 10.. , September 20 Silicious. Kicb, sandy loam; sand and loam; deep black muck; light sandy. Sandy. Slate; sandy loam; gravel or slate. Mountain. Loose loam; sandy; black, thin and compact loam. Clay; black loam. Sandy loam; wheat stubble; black muck. Light loam ; light sandy do. INDIAN CORN. Maine , New Hampshire, Massachusetts . . . Vermont New York . New Jersey.. . Pennsylvania . ■■Delaware Virginia South Carolina. "Georgia Alabama . . . Mississippi. . Tennessee . , Kentucky . ■Ohio Indiana. Illinois.. Hicbigan . Iowa Texas May20 to June6., May 20 Last April to May 20. May 10 to 20 May 1 to June 10. May 2 to 10 April 15 to May 15 . March 35 to May 15. . March ard April March 15 to May 1.... February to May 1 . February to May . . . March to April April and May April and May April 1 to May 1 . . March to May 25. Ma>^ 1 to 20 April and May February and March. 1,1 bushel . 6 to 8 quarts . . 4 to 12 quarts. 4 to 6 quarts % to J^bush..., % to }>4 bush.. 1-10 bushel % bushel 1-10 to 1 peck. 1-10 bushel . . . i-9 to i4'bush..! 5>^qts. tolJibu, 6tol0ft.s 4 to 5 quarts . . . '4 qtB. to Yz bush, 1-10 bushel September September and Oct. Last of Sept. to Oct. September and Oct. September to Nov.. Sept. 20 to Oct. 15. Sept. 15 to Nov. .. September and Nov. October October , September and Oct. , October October and Nov . . Octooer and Nov ... October and Nov . . Oct. 1 to Nov. 30. October to Dec... Sept. 20 to Oct. 15. . . Suplember t»» Nov , . Earlyin Aug.toSept. Dry, warm, deep, clay loam; gravelly. Warm, ricb, silicious; any except clay. Sandy loam ; dry loam ; black slate. Gravelly loam; sand and loam; clay loam; black, gravelly; warm loam; gravelly; eandy loam; gravelly loam: do. with sand Sandy loam; do. Sandy loam; sand and slate; lime- stone; sandy: do.; do.; loam: light: sandy; shale. Low bottom and sandy loam; sandy loam; do. Clay sub-soil grouncls and bottom lands. Red Hickory land; red, black loam. Alluvial; light. Rich bottom. Black loam; best. Alluvium; do.; bottom land; do.; black ground; loam; sandy; black loam ; loose land. Rich, black loam; black loam; sandy bottom. Sandyloams; do.; alluvial bottoms; bottoms. Warm, sandy; intervale loam. SEED 845 POTATOES. SEED* States. Maine New Hampshire. Massachusetts... Connecticut Vermont New York New Jersey Pennsylvania Maryland. Virginia Sonth Carolina... Georgia Alabama Mississippi . Tennessee . . Kentucky . . . Ohio Indiana . Illinois . . Michigan . Iowa Texas Time of sowing or planting. April to June M^jiy to J une 1 . . . April and iliy... Apiil and May... April 16 to June 3 April 15 to June. . 7 Last week in March to June 10 April and May May February to June 30. February to April. February to May . . Sweet, April Sweet, April;common, January April and May April and June April to June 1 May 1 to June 20. . March and June. . May 1 to June April and May February 1 to 20. Average bushels or pounds of seed per acre. 10 bush 10 to 15 bush... 10 to 20 bush... 10 bush 10 to 23 bush... 8 to 15 bush 2!^ to 10 bilsh . . . 2y2 to 10 bush... 10 hush 2 to 10 bush. 3 to 5 bush . 3 to 5 bush . Sweet, 10 to 15; common, 4hu 3 to 4 bush 8 to 20 bush. 3 to 20 bush. Common, 8 to 12; sweet, iitoYs bushel 5 bushels Time of harvest. September September and Oct. , September and Oct.. September and Oct., September Last May to Nov. 1. , July 1 to Oct. 30 August to October. , September July to November . September to Dec. . . Sweet, Oct. 15; com- mon, October October November October 15 .. Sept. 15 to Oct. 30.. July 1 to last Sept . July and October.. . October 10 Sept. toNov. 1-. Best Soil. Dry. Gravelly; old pasture land, withotit manure. Dry. Lotmy, if manured; sandy, with plaster; marl. Black, gravelly; sandy loam; loam; dry, sandy loam and muck. Sand; loose sandy loam; loam. Sandy loam ; do. ; light loam ; light;, common; sandy; do. Sand and loam; do.; calcareous- loam. Fresh light ; grey moist. Sandy; grey. Light. Sandy loam. Clay; sandy; rich. Bottom; loam; sandy; stiff; rich; alluvial. Eich, dry, sandy loam; sandy; black. loam; lightj sandy; black loam. Wet clay; new and alluvial; sandy.- Intervals; muck or loam. HAY. Maine New Hampshire. Massachusetts... Vermont. . . New York . New Jersey.. Pennsylvania Mar3[land . Virginia . . Tennessee . Kentucky. Ohio Indiana. Illinois . . . Michigan . Iowa April and May . In the fall. August 10. September or March . September to Feb. 1. . February J4 bushel 10 lbs. clover ; 1 peck timothy . % bushel . }^ bushel.. % bushel . 6 lbs. clover; 4 B)8. timothy, 1 bushel 1-10 to % bush. 4 to 10 quarts . . 10 quarts 6 S)B.. July 15 to Aug. 15.. July and August... July and August. . . July and August . . . June25to Aug. 20.. June and July June and August . . July June to August 15. June and July Last June to Aug. 1 . June to August 1 . . . June and August July 1 to October 10. June 1 to July 1 Diluvial and moist; clay; moist. Cultivated meadows. Wet. Deep, black muck; clay loam;. moist alluvial. Meadow; sandy loam. Limestone; light loam; sandy loam; clay for timothy; luam for clover. Sandy loam for timothy: clay for- clover; sand and 1 oam ; limestone. Low swamp for herds grass; rich, clay for clover. Loose land; bottom: black swamp; clay loam; clay; do.; limestone. Sandy; stiff table land; clay; damj)- clay* clay; do Wet clay; sandy. Clay; do. HEMP OR FLAX. Vermont... New York. Tennessee. Ohio Indiana Michigan . . May Apiil April 4 April to May 1 April 1 April 15 to May 23 . % bushel 3^ to 1 bush. 2 bushels . .. 1 to 2 bush.. ^ to 1 bush. July July and August May 20 Last July to August. Julyl September 1 Clay sand; alluvial. Sandy Loam; clay. TOBACCO. Maryland.. , Virginia... Tennessee . . Ohio Indiana Illinois May to August. May to June February 20 April , June February September . August 1 to Sept. 20. August September September Sandy loam. Rich. Hickory and white oak. Loam. Manured lots. SEED 840 COTTON. SEED States. Virginia Soutli Carolina, ■Georgia Alabama Mississippi . . . . Tennessee Texas Timeof sowingor planting. Mayl April April 1 March and April . . . . March 15 to April 15 April 20 to May 1 . . . March and April Average busheli or pounds of seed per acre. 2huBhelB ■75 pounds 2^ bushels...:. 1 to 4 bush 3 bushels 2 bushels — Not material, if plenty Time of harvest. October '1 to Dec. 15. Sept 1 to end Dec. . . Fall Fall and winter August till March. . . October August 1. Best soil. Dry and light. Sandy; do. Grey. Black loam . Clay, light. RICE. 'South. Carolina . Alabama Tennessee March . . April 20 100 pounds . % bushel . . . 2 bushels. . . September; . September . August Branch lands. Swamp. •One of the mistakes in sending seeds long dis- tances, except it be in tlie case of regular seeds- men, who understand their business, is, they are paclied nearly air tight, and often in a damp state. The same is often true of seeds kept for sowing or planting. The consequence is they mold and even rot. The proper rule to be kept in view in the saving of all seeds for great lengths of time is, first, perfect dryness, at a temperature of not less than 100°, nor more than 130°, then packed in paper bags, enclosed in ■canvas sacks, and kept as near the freezing point as possible, and at the same time in a dry atmos- phere. Hermetically sealing, and other methods of excluding the air, are not only useless but positively injurious. The following table of weights per bushel, time of sowing in the North, and quantity per acre, will be found valuable, and <;orrect. The letter a signifies the months when they may be sown : is Seed. a a a a a a s a a a a a a a a n 3 -s a a a a a 11 a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a 1 & a a a a a a O Quantity per acre. 60 45 14 Hed clover Timothy 8 to 10 pounds. }4 to V4 bushel. % to 1 ■ " 14 'in Ky. blue grass . . l'/!t0 2>/2 " 54 to v% " •in Millet... 45 56 Sorghum seed . . a a a a I 2 quarts. 1 to 3 bushels. a a a a 4 to 6 quarts. 1 to 2 bushels. lto2 " 66 SHEARLING). A sheep once shorn. SHEEP. The antiquity of sheep, as kept for their flesh and wool, is coeval with the first dawn of civilization of mankind. The original wild type is lost in obscurity, and naturalists have conjectured in vain as to when the original race was indigenous, and from what race or races- domestic sheep have sprung; some asserting the mufflon {Oi>is musmon) of Barbary, Crete, Cor- sica, Sardinia, and the islands of the Grecian Archipelago to be its origin ; others, the argali {Omsammon) of Siberia; while others again, con- sider it likely that more than one wild species have commingled to form the numerous domestic breeds. Whatever may have been the type of our common sheep, there can be no doubt that they are naturally mountainous animals. For, if left to themselves, it is always observed that they prefer hill-sides and rockj' mountains to valleys and low plains; and, in the former situa- tions, they thrive better, although they acquire less flesh than on more luxuriant soils. The domesticated sheep is pre-eminently a wool- bearing animal ; yet many races seem to be desti- tute of this covering, particularly in tropical climates, and to be clothed with wool, so- closely resembling hair as not to be distinguish- able from it unless by means of a powerful lens. The mufflons and argali, that is, the wild species, are covered with a harsh kind of hair, having beneath it, at its roots, a short, spiral wool, which, in winter, becomes longer and more full. Mr. Bell, an English writer, considered the harsh hair as essentially wool in its structure, present- ing the imbrications which the microscope shows to be the characteristic of wool, and on which its felting property depends; and he regards the short undercoat as composed of hair, a,nd not of wool. Mr. Youatt makes the contrary statement, and, notwithstanding the appearances nbticed by Mr. Bell, one might be inclined to the opinion of the former ; for, as is well known, in the Cash- mere and Angora goats, the long outer covering is hair; the under-coat exquisitely fine down, or wool. In other down or wool-bearing ani- mals, as the beaver and otter, a similar arrange- ment prevails; and we know, moreover, that, in SHEEP 849 SHEEP some neglected breeds of the domesticated sheep, the w:)ol becomes mixed with long, coarse haiis, by which it is more or less obscured. Both in its nMtur.il and domesticated state, the sheep is a grefc.uious animal, collecting in flocks of greater or fewer uunibers, according to the nature of the district it frequents, and the almndance of pas- ture. The more tlie sheep is neglected, and the loss its range of pasture is circumscribed, the moiKi will it acquire habits of independence, and tlie more will its instincts be drawn forth and put into e.xercise. In wild and mountainous dis- trietts, it has been remarked that sheep unite in self-defense, and form themselves into a phalanx in opposilion to a strange dog, or a prowling fox, the rams heading the array, and presentmg a formidable front to the foe, while the ewes and lambs crowd together in the rear. Should the iuLruder venture within a. certain distance, they rusli upon him and commence a violent assault. On the mountains, they display considerable bolduessand agility in leaping from crag to crag, and frequently climbing about the whole surface of the almost perpendicular sides of the precipit- ous rocks, by treading upon the narrow ledges and projections, which scarcely afford them room to stand. In these apparently dangerous situa- tions, sometimes at a height of several hundred feet, and with the billows of the ocean roaring beneatli them, they show that they are not such cowardly and stupid beings as they have been desciibtd. They exhibit great intrepidity, and a full confidence in their skill, vieing with the goat in sureness of step and strength of spring, when they are ascending to the summit by repeated bounds. With regard to the courage of sheep may be instanced the boldness with which the ewe not unfrequently defends her offspring from danger, and the desperate combats often occur- ring between the rams, actuated by a feeling of mutual jealousy; for, as soon as they come together, they rush headlong at each other with immense force, the concussion of their heads being audible at a, very considerable distance. The skin of sheep is composed of three textures. Externntly is tlie cuticle or scarf-skin, which is thill, tough, devoid of feeling, and pierced by innumerable minute holes, through which pass the libers of the wool and the insensible perspira- tion. It seems to be of a scaly texture. Tliis is plain to bj seen when the slicep have the scab. Below this is the rrU niticosum, a soft structure, its libers having scarcely more consistence than mueil.ige, and being with great difficulty sep- arated from the skin beneath. This seems to be placed as a defense to the terminations of the blood-vessels and nerves of the sliin. and these are in a manner enveloped and covered by it. Beneath is the cutis or true skin, composed of innumerable minute fibers crossing each other in every direction, highly elastic, in order to tit closely to the parts beneath, and to yield to the various motions of the body. Judging from the mixture of wool and hair in the coat of most animals, it is thought by some that the primi- tive sheep had a hairy covering. It is said that there are, at the present day, varieties of sheep that are clothed outwardly with hair of differ- ent degrees of tiueness. and underneath the external coat is a softer, shorter, and closer one that answers to the description of fur, but which really possesses all the characteriatics of wool. It is, therefore, highly improbable that the 54 sheep, which has now become, by cultivation, the wool-bearing animal, should, in any coun- tiy, have ever been entirely destitute of wool. Sheep of almost every variety have at times been in the gardens of the Zoological Society of London, but there has not been one on which a portion of crisped wool, although exceedingly small, has not been found at the bottom of the hair The filament of the wool has scarcely pushed itself through the pores of tlie skin, when it has to penetrate through another and singular substance, which, from its adhesiveness and color, is called the yolk. It is found in greatest quantity about the breast and shoulders, the very parts that produce the best and most abundant wool, and in proportion as it extends to any considerable degree over other parts, the wool is then improved. It differs in quantity in different breeds; it is very abundant in the Merino. The yolk being a true soap, soluble in water, accounts for the comparative ease with which t!ie sheep, that have the natural propor- tipn of it, are washed in a running stream. The fiber of the wool having penetrated the skin and escaped from the yolk, is of a circular form, generally larger toward the extremity and also toward to root, and in some instances very con- siderably so. When the. animal is in good con- dition, and the fleece healthy, the appearance of the fiber is brilliant, but when the state of the constitution is bad the fiber has a dujl appear- ance, and either a wan, pale light, or sometimes scarcely any, is reflected. The age of the sheep is generally determined by their teeth. When they are about one year and a half old, they shed their two center teeth of the incisors, and two widfe ones grow out and take their place. . The next jear the next two are shed, and when the sheep is three years old the four central teeth are fully grown. At four years they have six teeth, and at five years the teeth are perfectly devel- oped. This is one year before the horse or ox can be said to be fully mouthed. This rule for the age of sheep will hardly ever fail in ewes, but sometimes will in the case of rams. If not too old, their age may be determined by the growth of their horns each year. The differ- ence caused in the shedding of their teeth may be by the manner in which the sheep are cared for. If well fed and kept in a thriving condi- tion, they will shed them faster, and mce nersa. Some sheep with the full mouth will hold their teeth mucli longer than others. The natural age of sheep is about ten years, to which time they will thrive and breed well if in good health. Sheep husbandry was early undertaken in the United States, but has been subjected to great vicissitudes. Sheep were imported into the colony of Virginia as earlj' as 1609, and they increased by 1648 to three thousand. The Dutch West India Company introduced them about the year 1625, but they proved to be too much of a temptation for dogs and wolves, for it is recorded thai in 1643 there were but sixteen in that whole colony. They were kept upon the islands in Boston Harbor as early as 1683, and two years after there were ninety-two in the vicinity of Portsmouth, N. H. It became tlie universal practice in tiie good old days of homespun for the farmer to keep a number sufficient to clothe his family. The old native sheep was a coarse, long-legged, and unprofitable animal, and there was no improvement made in SHEEP 850 SHEEP the breeding till toward the close of the last century, when, in 1793, the first merinoes, or flne-wooled sheep, were imijorted by William Foster, of Boston. They were wholly unap- preciated, were given to a gentleman to keep, and he, knowing nothing of their value, simply ate them, and a few years after was buying the same class of sheep at $1,000 per head. The embargo of 1808 induced many to turn their attention to flne-wooled sheep, and soon very large numbers of merino sheep were imported and distributed throughout the United States, and our modern sheep-husbandry, now grown up to its proportional importance, may be said to date from these importations. The finest wooled sheep are now most extensively produced in the United States and in Australia. Next comes Prance, and then Spain. Mutton sheep have been carried to great perfection in England, and of late years, this industry has been a con- stantly increasing one through the importation of the best representatives of the middle and long-wooled breeds. Of the English breeds, the report to the Government of the United States, following the Vienna Exhibition, states the characteristics of prominent English breeds as follows : The British breeds are most naturally divided according to altitudes and fertility ot their habitat. The large breeds, white, hornless, and bearing long wool with small felting pro- perty, occupy the rich alluvial districts, the lands reclaimed from the sea, and the highly cul- tivated and very productive farm-areas. These are the Leicester, Lincoln, liomney-Marsh, Cots- wold, the few remaining of the Devonshire Notts, the Roscommon, and similar Irish sheep. Next should be classed the sheep of the chalk- downs, the commons, and forests, suited to a dry and temperate climate. There are the Downs of several families, perhaps now to be taken as breeds, the Dorsets and their congeners, the pink-nosed Somersets. They produce a short, felting-wool, suited to inferior grades of goods. The Ryeland, formerly found in the western counties, and esteemed for producing the finest cloth-wool of England, is now almost extinct. The third general division comprises the moun- tain breeds, first the Cheviots of the hills of the North of England and borders of Scotland ; the Black-face oi the central chain of mountains and moors northward from Derbyshire to the mountains of Scotland; and two varieties of Welsh mountain-sheep, and the Kerry and other mountain-breeds of Ireland. There are many local remnants of the ancient stock allied to the above, but there are none worthy of special mention. The weight of fleece of British sheep averages about five pounds. The Lincolns may be placed at eight pounds, the Cotswolds nearly the same, the Leicesters at seven, the Downs at four, the Cheviots at three, the Black-faces at two and one-half, and the Welsh at two. The Leicesters are most numerous, exceeding one- third of all; the Downs one-sixth, the Black- faces nearly as many. Cheviots one-eighth, leaving about one-fifth for other breeds. The heavy breeds of eighty years ago, modified mainly by the Leicester, now furnish lighter fleeces. For instance, the Lincoln, as reported by Hon. Robert R. Livingston, then yielded eleven pounds; the Teeswater and Cotswold, nine pounds. These are, of course, average weights, as rams as well as pampered ewes and wethers, greatly exceed the average. The weight of carcase exceeds by twenty per cent, the weight of imported mutton, and averages sixty pounds; by some estimates, sixty-five pounds. A brief reference to this improvement, with the characteristic points and present status of the principal breeds, will indicate more fully the progress of the century in sheep-husbandry. Leicesters. — The Leicestershire sheep, in the beginning of the Bakewell era of improvement, were known by their names, the old Leicesters, the new Leicesters, or Dishleys, (the latter from Bakewell's place of residence,) and the forest- sheep. The Dishley experiment commenced in 1755, and was continued so successfully that the rams of this famous flock, ultimately com- manded $15,000 as hire for the season, giving an imjaetus to the improvement which was per- petuated by the permanence and desirability of the results achieved, until the breed assumed a position which has been maintained to the pre- sent time. The original Leicester upon which Bakewell commenced his experiment was an animal of large frame, with heavy bone and course-grained meat, a flat-sided carcase, and legs large and rough. It was a slow feeder and necessarily late in reaching maturity, weighing at two or three years old 100 to 130 pounds. Seeing the necessity of obtaining, in addition to the fleece, the largest possible increase of flesh in proportion to the food consumed, in the shortest period of time, he bred by selection most persistently and skillfully for these objects. With these aims always in view, he chose with rare judgment, yet with a broad latitude as to breed or family, such animals as would approxi- mate his ideal of compactness and symmetry, refinement of bone, a reduction of the proportion of unprofitable parts, and higher capacity for rapid conversion of food tO' flesh. After secur- ing this result by animals of characteristics so widely differing from those of the original stock, he found necessary a rigid adhesion to the practice of in and in breeding to keep the advantage gained, until a fixedness of type had been secured which should impress itself surely and indelibly upon any race which might be selected for improvement. In accomplishing results of such practical value, with all possible care to retain the sound constitution and great hardiness of the old stock, there was perhaps inevitably induced a comparative delicacy, a reduction in size, a decrease in prolificness and excellence as nurses. These defects have indeed demanded the wisest judgment in the infusion of fresh strains of blood, by which the stamina of the race has been fortified, and its popularity maintained until the present day, to such a degree that the Leicester blood is far more widely diffused than that of any other breed, even modifying essentially all the long-wool races, and to some extent the mountain breeds, and some families of the short-wool Downs. The true type of this breed, as understood by Youatt, is thus described: The head should be hornless, long, small, tapering toward the muz- zle, and projecting horizontally forward. The eyes prominent, but with a quiet expression. The ears thin, rather long, and directed back- ward. The neck full and broad at its base, whei'e it proceeds from the chest, so that there is, with the slightest possible elevation, one continued horizontal line from the rump to the % CD t— ( W Is) O o CO (851) SHEEP 852 SHEEP poll. The breast broad and round, and no uneven or angular forraation where the should- era join either neck or the back; particularly no risiug of the withers or hollow beiiind the situa- tion of tliese bones. The arm fleshy through its whole extent, and even down to tlie knee. 'J'he bones of the leg small, standing wide apart; no looseness oE skin about tliem, and comparatively bare of wool. The chest and barrel at once deep and round, the ribs forming a considerable arch from the spine, so as in some cases, and especially when the animal is in good condition, to make the apparent width of tlie chest even greater than the depth. The barrel ribbed well home; no irregularity of line on the bacls or belly, but on the sides; the carcase very gradually dimin- isliing in widtli toward the rump. The quar- ters long and full, anil, as with the fore legs, the muscles extending down to the hock; tlie thighs also wide and full. The legs of a moderate lengtli ; the pelt also moderately thin, but soft and elastic, and covered witli a good quan- tity of white wool. Tlie Leicester requires less food in proportion to weiglit than any other race. They are mostly sold early in the summer or early autumn after their first year, many wethers at twelve to tifteen months weighing twenty to twenty-five pounds per quarter; and at two years they attain the weight of thirty to thirty seven pounds. The fleeces are valuable as fine combing- wobl, and, if well grown, weigh from seven to eight pounds each. The earliest record of this breed in the United States is a mention by Custis of the Bakewell ewes on the estate of Washington, from which, through a cross by a Persian ram, was derived the somewhat famous Arlington long-wooled sheep. The influence of this and other long-wool flocks of Virginia gave a popu- larity to the English races which has continued to the present day, though the preference at pre- sent appears to be given to the Merinoes, espec- ially since the war and its accompanying desti- tution and lack of thrift. Kentucky also gives a preference to the Leicester, as a fit companion to the short-horn bullock upon the blue-grass pastures. They are to b3 found in small num- bers in the. Middle and O.iio Valley States, gen- eriilly in a semi-degenerate state, not bred up to the modern standard of the perfect Leicester in his Englisli liome. The mutton of Leicesters is too fat to suit American taste, yet that of grades is quite palatable, thoun'h coarse-grained, with too much outside fat. Even in England meat of animals two years old is less valuable than that of lambs or shearings; and the price is always materially lower than mutton of Southdowns and the mountain races. Border Leicesters. — More than a century ago sorne of the sheep-folds of the border were reinforced by Leicestershire sheep of established repute. Early in the pre- sent century representatives of the Dishley stud began a contribution to the improvement, which has been continued until they have won a distinct position in the show-yard and in popular esteem. The characteristics of this breed, as given by Mr. John Wilson, are extraordinary aptitude to fallen and early maturity. He says: The most marked feature in their structure is thesmallness of t'leir heads and of their bones generally, as con risted with their weight of carcase. Tliey are clean in the jaws, with a full eye, thin ears, and placid countenance. Their backs are straight, broad, and flat; the ribs arched, the belly earned very light, so that they present nearly as straight a line below as above ; the chest is wide, the skin very mellow, and covered with a beautiful fleece of long, soft wool, which weighs, on the average, from six to seven pounds. On good soils, and under careful treatment, these sheep are currently brought to weigh from eigh- teen to twenty pounds a quarter at fourteen months old, at which age they are now gener- ally slaughtered. At this age their flesh is ten- der and juicy, but when carried on until they are older and heavier, fat accumulates so unduly in proportion to the lean meat as to detract from its palatableness and market value. C'otswolds. —This is one of the largest English breeds, though the improved race is fmaller than the originals, on account of the influence of the Lei- cester element in its amclioi'ation. As a breed it is of great antiquity. It has gained in fleece and form, and comes to maturity earlier; is more pro- lific than the Leicester, and has greater strength of constitution; is often fattened at fourteen months, yielding fifteen to twenty pounds per quarter, and twenty to thirty if kept till two j'ears old. The fieece is six to eight inches in length, and sometimes much longer; is strong, somewhat coarse, of good color, and yields a heavy fleece. Tlie mutton is superior to that of the Leicester, with a smaller proportion of fat, and the sheep are also superior to that popular breed in weight of wool, size, hardiness, and vitality. They are possessed of good figure, have a large head, well set on, a broad chest, a well-rounded barrel, and a straight back. They are often used for crossing upon other breeds, and for obtainina; earlier market-lambs, both in this country and in Europe. They are more widely disseminated in this country than any other long-wool, and preserve well the popularity which they have attained here. Some imported sheep of this breed have borne fleeces in this country of eighteen pounds. Lincolns. — The old Lincolns, of the fertile meadows of Lower Lin- colnshire, were remarkable beyond any contem- porary breed foi' coarse and heavy lorms and length of wool, the fleeces weighing ten to twelve pounds. They were hornless, witli large limbs, hollow flanks, and flat sides. 'I hey shared with the Romney-Maish sheep the alluvial and fen districts, consumed largely their rank pasturage and fattened slowly. When the fame of Bake- well at Dishley was rising to its zenith, recourse was had to his improved Leicesters for improve- ment in the flesh-taking property, and this course of crossing was pursued to the close of the eigh- teenth century, and indeed to the present time, as found necessary, for the ]iurpose of securing a better form and earlier malurily without los- ing wholly their peculiarities of size and length of fiber. For at least a quarter of a century a sharp contest was waged between the supporters of the old and the new, the former fearing the loss of hardiness and local adaptation, as well as Its unrivaled peculiarities of fleece, while the lat- ter were quite willing to risk any or all of these results in the belief that more mutton and wool and money could be realized upon each acre of area than with the modified Lincolns, And the latter ultimately prevailed, and verified the cor- rectness of their theory. 'I he effect of this change upon the wool has been to make it shorter and finer, and to diminish somewhat its softness of fiber. It is a question whether the peculiar SHEEP 853 SHEEP quality of the wool could have been retained in larger degree without essential injury to its mut- ton producing quality. This district of country still continues to produce the largtst sheep of Great Britain, with fleeces superior in weight and value to any other. They are not equal in earliness of matnrity to the Leiceslcrs, but they are profitable, and suitable to the rich lands they occupy, wethers frequently attaining the enor- mous wei,ght of fifty to sixty pounds per quarter. Romncy-Mareh — There is another breed of Eng- lish sheep inhabiting the rich alluvial soil of Kent, known as the Romney- Marsh sheep, which pertinaciously retains its distinctive features, though modified and injprovcd bv recent breed- ing. It is !i large sheep, not very sj'mnietrical in form, having narrow lorequarters and flat sides, and coarse bone and muscle. It has a white face, a long and thick head, and a tuft of wool on the forehead. The wool is of more value than the mutton, perhaps, (but would not be profitable without it,) being long, fine and lustrous, and in denand at good prices for export to Flanders and to France, for the manufacture of cloth of gold and similar fabrics. Other breeds have been introduced upon the marshes, but can not maintain themselves in competition with the Eoiiineys. The country is flat, open to the east, and very bleak, yet these sheep live through the winter in the open fields, and have little protec- tion or supplied food. The ewes are compara- tively prolific, about thirty per cent, of doubles being expected in reproduction. The lambs come late, after the severity of the winter is over. With a good course of turnip feeding after the first wintering they can be brouglit to seventeen pounds, sometimes to eighteen pounds, per quar- ter, j'et they are more frequently kept over a second winter. They are not very early in ma- turing, and grass is the main reliance for growth if not for fattening. There are cattle on the farms, but sheep greatly predominate and furnish the principal profits. I'he pasture lands of the marsh ditfer gieatly in productiveness. There are feeding lands, keeping two or three ewes in winter and twice as many in summer; and the fattening lands keep four or five sheep per acre. The original Sussex or Southdowns have proba- bly the purest blood, free from admixture durin.g the long period which covers the rise and devel- opment of the British wool-manufacture and the increase of meat production, of any race of British sheep. Their improvement has been long-continued and is still continuing, apparently without the necessity of recurrence to any foreign blood for amelioration of a single objectionable point. While they have been greatly improved, progress has invariably been in the direction in- dicated in the distant past, and not by radical and violent changes. It has been carried on, there is little reason to doubt, solely by selection, there being little, if any positive evidence that the Leicester or other blood has aided in the amelioration. In the production of Hampshire and Shropshire and other breeds bearing the Down name, it is well known that other blood has been effectively used; but it should be re- membered that these families, or rather breeds, are not really improved Downs, but have come from selected individuals of other hardy, primi- tive breeds, molded into a modification of the Southdown type by large and repeated infu- sion of that blood, with occasional dashes of Leicester to .srive greater size and aptitude for fattening. The changes effected in the true South (or Sussex) Downs have been mainly these: Speckled faces have been changed to a unifoira tint of brown or fawn color, sometimes almost a gray; the forehead and checks have been par- tially covered with wool; a greater symmetry of form has been obtained; a larger size and greater fattening aptitude. The flock of Lord \\ alsing- ham exhibits some deviation from the Sussex type, having somewhat greater length and a de- cided development of the forequartcr, givmg grealer weight at the expense of somewhat re- duced value to the butcher. They are splendid animals, and have been largely sought by conti- nental purchasers, though dii-apjiroved by many breeders of pure Southdowns. By reason of its purity the Southdown, perhaps, has stamped its peculiarities upon its cross-bred offspring more certainly and strongly than any other of the English breeds; and for this reason, together with its hardiness and the unsurpassed quality of its nmtton, it is deemed of greater practical value in its crosses than in its pure-bred flocks. But for the fact that quantity and quickness in lamb production are of m:>re pecuniary value than superior quality, it would far .surpass the Leicester in its prevalent use for cross-bred early lambs. It is now considerablj' more than one hundred years since Mr. EUman, of Glynde, Sussex, eou.ght a more symmetrical and profit- able form, and a superior flesh and fat producing habit, without injury to constitution or fecun- dity; and he pursued his object slowly, cautious- ly, with a judgment, patience, zeal, and intelli- gent liberality that insured success. The light forequarters, narrow chests, and long necks and limbs were totally changed This is the descrip- tion given by Mr. Ellman, himself, to his im- proved sheep: The head small and hornless; the face speckled or gray and neither too long nor too short; the lips thin, and the space between the nose and the eyes narrow ; the under jaw, or chop, fine and thin; the ears tolerably wide and well covered with wool, and the forehead also, and the whole space between the ears well protected by it as a defense against the fl}': the eye full and bright, but not prominent; the neck of me- dium length, thin toward the head, but enlarging toward the shoulders, where it should be broad and high, and straight in its whole course above and below. The breast should be wide, deep, and projecting forward between the fore legs, indicating a good constitution, and a disposition to thrive. Corresponding with this, the shoulders should be on a level with the back, and not too wide above; they should bow outward fiom the top to the breast, indicating a i-pringing rib be- neath and leaving room for it, the ribs coming out horizontally from the spine, and extending far backward, and the last rib projecting more than the others; the back flat from the shoulders to the setting on of the tail; the loin broad and flat; the rump long and broad, and the tail set on high, and nearly on a level with the spine; the hips wide, and the space between them and the last rib on eilher side as narrow as possible, and the ribs, generally speaking, presenting a circular form like a barrel; the belly as straight as the back; the legs neither too long nor too short; the forelegs straight from the breast to the foot, not bending inward at the knee, and stand- ing far apart both before and behind; the hocks SHEEP 854 SHEEP having a direction rather outward, and the twist, or the meeting of tlie thiglis beliind, being partic ularly full; the bones tine, yet having no appear- ance of weakness, and of a speckled or dark color. The belly well defended with wool, and the wool coming down before and behind to the knee and to the hock; the wool short, close, curled, and fine, and free from spiry projecting fibers. The Dorsets. — A very ancient race of sheep is found in the county of Dorset, whicli formerly included a large tract of country. It has some resemblance to the Merino in form, but none in other respects. In 1749 they were described by Ellis as having white fleeces, wliite and short legs, broad loins, and fine curled wool. They still have white legs and faces, and show some increase in length of limb and in weight of fleece, which averages about four pounds of fine wool ■without sufficient softness for goods of first qual- ity. Its great distinguishing peculiarities, which prevent its extinction as a breed, are its early breeding and fecundity, rendering it popular for early lambs, dropped in October, and fit for table at Christmas. There is a paying demand for them raised as house-lambs for the London mar- ket. Either Leicester or Southdown rams, pre- ferably the latter, are generally employed, mak- ing the lambs a Dorset cross. Some have attri- buted their peculiarities to an origin in a warm climate; others to the comparative mildness of climate, a calcareous soil, and to the abundance of thyme and aromatic plants in the herbage. These sheep are hardy, fold well, subsist on scanty pasturage, and wethers at three years old furnish mutton weighing eighteen pounds per quarter. While their range has been reduced by the predominance of the modern Leicesters and Southdowns, they maintain a better footing in the county of Somerset than in Dorset itself, exhibiting here slight difference in type, especi- ally showing a pink-colored nose like the Merino, and often called the pink-nosed Somerset. They have also somewhat greater length of wool, larger lambs, and mutton heavier per quarter. Other varieties of the Dorset group, inhabiting the older commons of the south and west of England, are nearly extinct, though traces of them may still be found. One variety, inhabit- ing the isle of Portland, still exists in a state of purity. They are small, gentle, of good form, with a tinge of dun on the face and legs. Their wool is of medium fineness, weighing two pounds per fleece. The wethers often produce mutton weighing ten pounds per quarter. Welsh moun- tain-sheep. — The Welsh is another mountain- breed, indigenous, and still unmodified in the higher elevations, while they are the basis of the more cultivated flocks inhabiting the more pro- ductive valleys. They are small, weighing as store-sheep about seven pounds per quarter. The head is small and well set up, the poll clean, except sometimes a tuft upon the forehead; the females generally hornless; the faces unusually white, with occasional instances of gray, spec- kled, or rusty brown. They are narrow-chested, low-shouldered, high-rumped, long-tailed, active in movement, having little regard for fences or hedges, hardy and thrifty on scanty herbage. The wool is fine, though not very even in quality ; fleeces weighing about two pounds. They are not proliflc, as one lamb is enough for a mother to care for in mountain pastures, but are good nurses, and are sought for on that account for breeding fat lambs from Leicester or Down crosses. In the winter, just before the lambing- season, the ewes are brought down from the mountain-wilds and supplied with small quanti- ties of hay or oats; if the latter, sheaf -oats are used, as the little Welsh sheep would not know what to do with clear grain. Lambs kept in the flock are shorn in July oj' August; and after weaning, the mothers are milked for a month or two, and butter is made, or the milk is used to improve skim-cheese. They are too wild for ordinary farm economy of the lowlands, a new lot brought home disappeai'ing in all directions if allowed the opportunity to scatter, and some- times found on the roofs of neighboring cottages. Cheviots or other breeds do not thrive in their mountain-home, rendering it probable that they will not be superseded, though they may be modi- fied. Cheviots. — As the Black-faces monopolize the higher mountain-lands, the Cheviots occupy the lower elevations, the hills of the border coun- ties between England and Scotland. They have been systematically improved by the use of care- fully selected rams of Lincolnshire, before the day of the improved Lincoln race. It has been claimed that the Leicester blood produced the improvement, but the hardiness of the breed and the testimony of the breeders tend to invalidate the opinion. They were formerly light in bone and wool, of scraggy frame, but with a constitu- tion wonderfully hardy. Draining of lands, pro- vision of shelter, and a greater abundance, both of summer and winter food, have aided the efforts of the breeder, and the result has been one of the most useful and profitable of known breeds of sheep. No animal has contributed so much to the prosperity of the Scottish border and hill farms as the Cheviot sheep. Their mut- ton ranks very high in Smithfleld market, and some people give it a preference over the game- flavored mutton of the Black-face. These sheep obtain their name from a range of hills running through the border counties of England and Scot- land. The original improver of greatest repute is William Robson, of Bilford, who commenced his operations a century ago, and his flock became the nucleus of the ram-supply of all that region for many years. They are considered very useful for crossing with border Leicesters. Roscommons. — Connaught has been for a long period the principal sheep-breeding section of Ireland, and the source of supplies furnished to the great Ballinasloe fair for the graziers of all other parts of the green isle. Culley described the original stock of Connaught as the most awk- ward and ungainly sheep to be found in the king- dom, with nothing to recommend them but their size. These sheep are supported by very long, thick, crooked, gray legs ; their heads long and ugly, with large, flagging cars, gray faces, and sunken eyes ; necks long, and set on below the shoulders; breasts narrow and short, hollow before and behind the shoulders; flat-sided, with high, narrow, herring-backs, hind quarters drooping, and tail set low; in short they are almost in every respect contrary to what he apprehended a well-formed sheep should be ; and it is to be lamented that more attention has not been paid to the breeding of useful stock in an island so fruitful in pasturage as Ireland. The spirit of improvement reached this district; the smuggling of English animals, the importation of which was strictly prohibited, begat a desire for SHEEP 855 SHEEP superior style and more satisfactory returns. At length the restriction was removed, and their improvement was veiy vigorously conducted, the first means employed being a Leicester cross, by ■which the form was improved and the wool lost much of its coarseness. When it assumed the •distinctive and fixed peculiarities of a new breed, at took the name of the Roscommon sheep. The breeders manifested much judgment in perfect- ing its points and skill in select- ing the individuals by which it was accomplished. For the past generation the progress made has been remarkable, compelling the Royal Agricultural Society and the Royal Dublin Society, which ■for a long time admitted them in a mixed class to their shows, to recognize them as a distinct breed of long-wools. The fol- lowing statement of their pres- ent status is given by the editor -of the Irish Farmer's Gazette: The old Con naught breed of sheep were never fattened until they were three or four years -old, when they made great weights, but the mutton was coarse. In consequence of the improvement which has been made in the breed, shearling- "wedders, are now often sold fat to the butcher, making from twenty-five pounds to over thirty pounds per quarter; but, as a general rule, the Roscommon •graziers hold them over until they are thirty months old, at ■which age they are generally sold in Ballinasloe fair, at prices varying from three to four guineas each, to Leinster gra- ziers, by whom the sheep are kept until they are about three years old, when, they make from thirty-six pounds and upward per quarter. Draft ewes, , fed after being cast for breeding, -weigh from tliirty-four pounds to forty pounds per quarter, and the quality of the mutton is unex- -ceptionable. It must be under- stood that the Roscommon sheep are, in general, reared entirely "upon gi'ass, with the help of some hay during winter. Tur- nip-feeding does not, as in Great Britain, form a material point in sheep-farming as conducted in Roscommon, there being only •one acre of turnips grown in that c-ountry to each 109 acres •of area. The.se sheep, from first to last, are for the most part reared and fattened without see- ing a turnip. In all cases where turnip-feeding is i pursued, the Roscommon sheep prove that early ( maturity, along with heavy weights, has become | one of their characteristics; so that if turnip- growing were extended in the west of Ireland, it •is only reasonable to believe that Connaught would produce much larger supplies of sheep. A. breed of sheep has long been known with enlarged and very fat tails, and were at one time regarded with considerable favor. They are now extremely rare, being unprofitable in both flesh and wool. Tlic American Merino is acknowledged to be the best fine-wooled sheep in America, if indeed it now has a superior in Ihc world. It has been disseminated into every State aud Territory of the United States and Canada, and has been largely exported to every country in the world, where the raising of fine wool is made a leading industry. The intro- duction of tine wooled sheep into the United States, and the establishment of the American Merino was principally brought about by the introduction of Spanish blood. The history of their introduction is as follows: Wm. Foster, of Boston, Mass., imported three Merino sheep SHEEP 856 SHEEP from Spain into that city in 1793. They were given to a friend, who liilled them for mutton! In 1801 M., Dupont de Nemours, and a French banker named Delessprt, sent four ram lambs to the United States. All perished on the passage but one, which was used for several years in New York, and subsequently founded some excellent grade flocks for liis owner, E. I. Dupont, near Wilmington Del. The same year, Seth Adams, of Zaaesville, O., imported into Boston a> pair of Spanish sheep which had been brought from Spain into France. In 1808, Mr. Livingston, American Minister in France, sent home two pairs of French Merinos, purchased from the Government flock at Chalons. In 1809 and 1810, Mr. Jarvis, American Consul at Lisbon, bought and shipped to the Unit d States about 3,850 sheep. Of these, 300 were Aqueirres, 200 Escuriels, and 200 Montarcos, the rest Paulars and Negrettis. French Merinos, and also Saxon Merinos, were also introduced. These Crosses, however, worked damage wherever introduced. The incomparable American Merinos that liave shown themselves so well adapted to a gi'eat range of climate and conditions, have been the result of careful crossing of selected animals with reference to weiglit and fineness of wool, per- petuated for the last fifty years by careful selec- tion. Thus, as at present constituted, they would suffer by crossing upon any other breed, and they will hold their own with the best flocks of any country, all things considered. In rela- tion to the general management of sheep, the following extracts from a carefully written arti- cle by Mr. T. M. Younglove to the Department of Agriculture will be found to carefully cover all the essential points. He says: I know of no more definite way of arriving at the profits of wool-growing than to refer to the common custom of letting sheep. Occasionally a flock of ewes are let to double in three years. This is an annual interest of thirty-three and one-third per cent. The more common practice is to let them for two pounds of wool per head annually, returning the original number. Assuming the ewe to be worth three dollars per head, and the wool an average of forty cents per pound, it gives eighty cents for the use of one sheep, or twenty-six and two- thirds per cent. This is certainly a very good interest for the owner of the sheep. Now let us see what the taker has for his care and trouble. With reasonable care he can count upon raising three lambs from every four ewes, or seventy-five per cent, increase; which, if they be worth $1,50 per head, would be over |1.12 cents per head for the increase of each ewe. This, added to the wool left after paying the two pounds to the owner, (assuming that they would shear four pounds,) is eighty cents — making one dollar and ninety-two ami one-half cents for his portion. The cost of keeping a single sheep for the entire year is variously estimated at from one dollar to one dollar and fifty cents per head. Taking the highest figure, it still leaves over forty cents clear profit, after paying the owner over twenty- six per cent, a, nual interest. But this is only upon a flock of breeding ewes, which may be set down as about two-fifths of each flock. The other three-fifths will only a little more than pay for their keeping. Allowing them to shear four pounds, at f ortj' cents, gives one dollar and sixty cents. Biit this portion of the flock will shear more in proportion to their weight of carcase, and require much less care and attention than the breeding ewes. Upon this branch of wool- growing very much depends. Upon the form of the carcase depend not only the powers of endurance, but the capability to produce the greatest possible amount of wool to the least weight of carcase. It is quite as impossible to- put a strong and healthy constitution as it is to put a heavy fleece upon a sheep with long, slen- der legs and necli, and a thin, lathy, loose body. In order to secure the many desirable good qualities which go to make up a first-class flock of sheep, great care is taken in the selection of a buck with reference to the particular flocli of ewes witli which he is to be put. As one buck is sufficient to serve from one to two hundred ewes, very much depends upon liim, as he is to impart, in a great measure, his qualities to the entire flock. Some bucks, although possessing all the desired qualities of form and fleece, yet fail to infuse into their stock their many good qualities, and are. therefore, rejected as not good stock bucks. But when one is found that seems to impart all the valuable qualities of the sire to the entire stock, he is very properly termed a decided slock-getter, and is prized accordingly. One hundred dollars is not deemed an excessive price for a good stock buck. In some cases fancy prices even beyond this have 'been paid. It is not uncommon for a buck in prime of life, weighing from one hundred and twenty-five to- one hundred and fifty pounds, to shear twenty pounds annually of unwashed wool. Bucks that are valued highly are not rislied the expo- sure of a cold bath for the purpose of washing^ tlie wool upon the sheep. Constitutional defect* of body or fleece in a flock of ewes can easily be corrected by using a buck that shows strength wliere the other is weak. A common custom i& to turn the buck loose with the flock of ewes which he is desired to serve, and to give them, no further attention. This will do very well where only a few ewes are to be served by one buck; but when it is desired to have one buck serve a large number, it may be done much- more effectually by keeping the buck up, and ewes only taken to him when in heat, such being selected from the flock, by the aid of a buck, with an apron called a teaser. Some allow the buck to run with the flock during the daytime, and keep hiiu up through tlie night. From observation of the different modes, I think the better way is to allow tlie buck to run with the ewes from the time the flock is brought to the yard at night until they are turned away in the morning, and so keep the buck in the stable^ during the day. This gives the buck an oppor- tunity to go through the flock before they lie down at night and again in the morning, and not only the buck, but the whole flock of ewes^ are allowed to feed at their leisure through the day. There are few males in the whole of the- animal race more cruel or abusive to the female than the buck, for he will follow and butt or hook until both are worried down. From tlii& practice an observing breeder will readily see that extraordinary exertion of the ewe brings her readily to the wants of the buck. In case it is desired to have the ewe ready for the buck when put together, it can easily be effected by driving the liock of ewes briskly for a half or a whole mile before being brought to the yard. They will then be found in a particularly pleas- SHEEP 857 SHEEP ant mood. If the buck is stabled, and the ewes brought to him in this manner, he is si'.veil mucli labor, and will consequently serve more ewes in a given time, without fatigue or exhaustion of the sj'stem, than If allowed to run with the flock. A buck treated in this manner will serve one hundred ewes without materially impah'ing his condition or the offspring, and will be as strong and healthy at the close of lambing as at the beginning. Lambs should be dropped at tlie particular season when the ewe first obtains a scanty supply of grass, and conse- quently must be varied in different localities. If allowed to drop earlier, the ewe gives but a poor supply of milk, many of the young ones, and those in low condition, none at all. In this case many of the ewes that have no milk will refuse to own the lamb, and many of the lambs get a stunt, of which they recover, if at all, but slowly, and the flock will be of all sizes. If allowed to drop later in the season, when the ewe has obtained sufficient grass to enable her to give a flow of milk, and the whole system becomes invigorated by it,, the offspring too often attains an over growth, so that even the services of tlie most skillful midwife are not suflicieut, and frequently both mother and lamb die from this cause. Another serious difficulty of late lambing is, that unless the lamb draws both teats soon after its birth, the ewe suffers from an over abundance of miik, and frequently inflammation follows. The lamb should be cas- trated at from one to three days old. The lamb should be held by an assistant, who should set the lamb upon his back just back of the hips, taking the fore and hind legs of each in each hand, putting the fore legs outside of the hind, and hold them firmly just above the knee joints. The operator takes hold of the pouch and puils it gently, so as to get as much as possible of it, and then with a sharp knife at a single stroke takes off the pouch pretty close to the testicle. Then take a firm hold of each testicle separately between the fore finger and thumb of the right hand, and pull it out with all the cord that adheres to it. This completes the operation. The reason for cutting off all the pouch that can be easily pulled beyond the testicle is, that it leaves a much evener surface for shearing than if only a little is taken off. This operation should be performed in the morning, and the lambs then turned out to move about, which will, in a great measure, prevent any disposition of swelling or stiffening of the parts, which is frequently the case if they are allowed to lie still for a time afterward. Docking should be done as soon as they are well of the castration, generally about three days afterward. This operation should be performed with a single stroke of a sharp knife, and in the evening, allowing the flock to lie down and keep quiet and still, so that they may lose the least possible amount of blood. By morning the wound will be sutEciently dried that no fear of bleeding need be entertained, unless by accident. In no case should they be driven or put to any extra exertion immediately after being docked, for if so, many will bleed to death. If these hints, which are simple and easily put in practice, are carefully heeded, not one lamb in a hundred need be lost by both operations. At from ten to fifteen days old he should be entirely well of both, and will go on thriving. At about three months old the lamb should be taken from the ewe. The flock should be brought to the yard in the forepart of the day and turned away ]ust at evening, while they are hungry. Much anxiety of both is avoided by this simple prac- tice, for both flocks will go quietly to feeding, and finally lie down satisfied, which they would not otherwise do. The lambs should be picked from amongst the ewes and allowed the libertj'^ of a larger yard, while the ewes are kept more closely confined during the latter part of the day, the two flocks separated by a sheep rack, or open fence. The lambs' yard should be fur- nished with a feeding trough, supplied with a mixture of salt and bran. This is very palata- ble, and they will Icaru to eat from a trough the same day their supply of milk is taken from them. This yard and trough should be con- venient for the flock of lambs to run to, and should, as often as twice a week be supplied with something palatable, which learns them to eat from a trough, and goes far towards taming and attaching them to the shepherd. If the yard is not contiguous to the pasture, the trough may and should be moved to the pasture where the lambs are to make their future home. As the season advances and the nights become frostj"^, or during heavy storms, the flock of lambs should be herded, and the yards supplied with racks and troughs sufficient for them to feed without crowding too much. Occasionally a little hay, or oats in the sheaf, should be put in the racks. This teaches them to use the yard and and rack ere it is needed; and when the firet severe storm of winter covers the ground, as only a cold winter storm can do, Ihej' will take hold with a keen relish. If they are -left in the field until the winter sets in and makes it necessary to fodder, they are brought to the yard strangers alike to the arrangements and the food they are to use. Many will become dis- couraged and stand with drooping head and ears, and will only eat when reduced to a reeling skeleton. They thus begin the winter under serious disadvantages and frequently never regain it, but drag along a miserable winter, toppling over every obstacle, to be lifted to their legs, and finally die, as the first warm days of spring take from them the miserable remnant of appe- titie which idly lingered about them. Tliis neg- ligence in the early education of the sheep is like neglecting the education untU the tender and pliant 3'ears of childhood are past. When the fully -matured man acquires a business that must be done, he sets about learning to do it. There is however, this difference ; the man can get a competent person to do it for him, but the unlearned sheep can get none to eat for him that will supply the wants of nature. M hen the lambs are fairly in their winter quarters, their education may be considered complete, as their treatment in the a'^ter part of the winter may be in every respect like older sheep only a little more care and attention; and like older ones grain is not lost upon them, although too high feeding is not recommended. During the winter, care should be taken not to allow too many to run in o' e flock, for the stronger continually over- run the weaker, picking out the most delicate portions of the food, and leaving that less palat- able and of inferior quality to those which should have the best. The usual mode is to allow from one hundred to one hundred and SHEEP 8 fifty in a flock. While some keep tliem in close yards and water and feed them, others allow them to roam over the fields during the day and bring them to the yard at night. Such as are allowed a free range usually pick quite a portion of their winter living, but it is of an inferior qual- ity, and a flock allowed to roam will not usually keep in as good condition as when they are care- fully yarded, housed, and properly fed. If sheep are divided into small flocks of about twenty-five, and are selected with reference to size and .Strength, and kept in close confinement through ^ SHEEP the winter, giving them only room enough to move about, they will require less food than if allowed more liberty, and allowed to run in larger flocks; but whether the increased amount of labor will offset against the diiference in the supply of food can only be determined by the circumstances and conveniences of the grower. Before the sheep are changed from hay to grass in the spring they should be carefully looked over, and all horns and hoofs that threaten to be troublesome carefully removed. The hoofs can be taken off with pruning shears, but a fine saw is needed for horns. The sheep is then laid upon his back in a kind of saw-buck, with a board nailed to each side, forming an easy place for the sheep to lie, and convenient for the operator. It should be high enough for the sheep to run under without oversetting it. A basket is then placed at the end to receive the tag locks as they are taken off. A portion of the wool should then be taken from the stern of each sheep in such a manner as to allow the manure to drop free without finding any stray locks or loose raw edges of wool to obstruct it in its passage. The wethers should have a small por- tion of wool removed from the belly, to allow the urine a free passage. This is quite as important as any part of the tagging, and yet is neglected by many. When the entire fiock have received this aitention, they are ready to be changed from the yard to the pasture. A ewe should not be required to move about much for a few hours after lambing. If her teats are closed against the efforts of the lamb, squeeze them out with the wetted fingers. If they have been cut off in shearing and are grown up, reopen them with a delicate blade, inserting it no further than is neces- sary. The sucking of the lamb will generally keep them open; but if they become inflamed, the ewe must be held for the lamb to suck, and some cooling lotion applied to the part. If the udder is hard and hot, it should be fomented by frequently and continuously applying to it a cloth dipped in hot water. Repeated washings with cold water produce the same effect, but more slowly, and with a greater tendency to dry up the milk. If the lamb is dead, and there are indurated tumors in the udder, apply iodine ointment. A ewe which disowns her lamb, or one which is required to adopt another should be confined alone with it in a dark place, and out of hearing of other sheep, and she should be held several times a day for it to suck. Frightening a ewe when with her lamb, by showing her a strange dog, or a child wearing a bright colored mantle, sometimes arouses her dormant maternal instincts. If a ewe's dead lamb is skinned, and the skm tied on a living lamb, she will generally SHELTERING STOCK 859 SHELTERING STOCK Teadily adopt it. If she hesitates, rubbing some -odor on her nose and also on the lamb will facili- tate the process. Docking and castration should be performed when the lamb is not more than two or three weeks old, and before warm weather comes on; and it is an excellent plan to smear the wounds with a compound of tar, butter, and turpentine. The tail should be cut off so that no part of the bone is left uncovered. Castration is an operation sufficiently familiar to most farmers. It is generally held by those who have tried it that early shearing is preferable for ^heep, if they can be subsequently housed in ■case of severe storms or unusually cold nights. As early washing is improper in cold climates, it is urged that sheep should be shorn unwashed. This is a question on which the wool-grower should be allowed to exercise his own judgment; nor should any buyer attempt to compel wash- ing, or to take advantage of its omission by insisting on a particular and fixed rate t)f shrinkage on unwashed wools. The shrinkage •on every lot should be proportioned to its actual condition, as deduction is made on wheat, other products, or foreign wools which contain impu- rities. The mode of washing sheep does not require to be here described. Jlerino sheep generally require to havei their feet trimmed at least once a year. Some do this at washing, when the feet are clean and soaked soft ; others immediately after shearing. SHEEP DIPPING. Dipping is a term used for immersing sheep, after shearing, to free them from vermin, and used also as a means of curing them from the scab or mange insect. When but few sheep are kept, the cure is accomplished gen- ■erally by anointing them with any of the prepara- tions in common use for this purpose. For those who prefer ointments, the following will be found good: One pound mercurial ointment, one-half pint oil of turpentine, one pound resin, and six pounds of lard. Dissolve the resin in the tur- pentine; dissolve the lard by gentle heat, mix the mercurial ointment thoroughly with it, and when cold rub both preparations well to gather. In applying this, the wool must be parted well down to the skin from between the ears to the tail. Prom this similar partings should be made along the shoulders and thighs to the legs and also parallel ones along the sides. 'These furrows must have the ointment lightly rubbed into the skin as made. On the great "Western plains, and in Australia, vast herds of sheep are kept, often with but little in the way of buildings to show the wealth of the proprietor. On page 858 is an illustration of Such an establish- ment, the sod-house, yards and sheep dipping -apparatus comprising the sole outlay. ' In the article Scab will be found popular recipes for sheep dipping. SHELL LIME. Lime procured from burn- ing shells. If it is well made, it is excellent for agiicultural purposes, as it contains nearly two per cent, of bone earth, and is free from caustic magnesia. SHELL MARL. This is very rich in the re- mains of shells ; when especially so it may often he profitably burned for lime. SHELTERING STOCK. We provide our- ^selves with comfortable clothing in winter to ward off the effects of cold. We eat fat meats for the same reason. The more northern and «older the climate, the more of fatty substances are consumed. The Esquitnaux drink train oil. These substances contain much carbon, and car- bon produces heat. . Farm stock in the winter crave oily grains, as corn, for the reason that they assist in keeping up the animal heat. Is it not poor economy, in view of these facts, to let your cattle, colts and sheep winter at the lee side of some bleak hill, or in the fence corners, when a little time and money expended at odd fhnes would provide them with comfortable stables, or at least, with warm sheds ? The money paid for this will pay for itself each season, to say nothing of the satisfaction of knowing that you have done all in your power to make your farm stock as comfortable as possible. The farmer knows full well that a plant once Stinted while young can never after recover to fully develop itself. It is the same with live stock, only in a greater degree. If allowed to stop growing and get thoroughly poor while young, they never, how- ever well fed thereafter, fully recover. Our most successful and most money-making feeders continue to feed liberally from younglings to maturity. It will make a pig as heavy at ten months old as he woi^d become, under ordinary feeding, in eighteen, and the full fed steer will be as heavy at three years, as the lighter fed one will be at five. It takes a certain amount of waste to supply the animal economy, and the waste is in proportion to the length of life. It costs just twice as much to prolong this waste two years as it does one, and more goes to waste in cold Weather than in wann, hence the econo- my of providing warm shelter and plenty of food. Animals so provided will be sleek and healthy, while the others will be gaunt and shivering, and their coats staring. Stablemen understand the economy of keeping fine horses warml}' clothed in winter. It is only another name for preventing waste. Too many ordinary farmers fail to see it. Try sheltering your stock one winter and see how j'ou and they like it. We know of no experiments having been under- taken in the West with a view of determining this question accurately; that is, under different given ranges of the thermometer. ^Ve do know, however, that animals kept in stables when the temperature is at fifty degrees, have their coats soft and sleek, and that as the temperature falls below forty degrees, their coats begin to get rough and staring. A rough coat, however, .is not always indicative of ill health; for an animal may be kept in good health out of doors in the winter, if it be provided with shelter where it may be protected from the direct force of the wind, and against storms of rain and sleet. Nev- ertheless it is always at the expense of an extra quantity of food, and this in just proportion to the temperature, force of the wind, or the effect of rain on'the animal; for the escape of animal heat is in just proportion to the effects of the conditions mentioned above, and this wasted heat must be kept up by an extra supply of car- bonaceous food. Hence the well-known maxiin, stock can not be wintered in the West on hay and straw, when exposed to the inclemencies of the weather. On the other hand, John Johns- ston, the well-known farmer of New York State, long since asserted — and this is well known to practical men — that he could keep his cows in milk during the winter, on good sweet hay, by attending to the warmth of the stable. A cer- tain portion of the food eaten by animals is con- SHETLAND PONIES 860 SHOEING HORSES sumed in keeping up the vital warmth; another portion in supplying the natural waste of tissue, etc., the rest goes to make flesh and fat. So, food is consumed in due proportion to the waste of heat, from low temperature or exposure. Ex- periments made some years ago in the corapai'a- tively mild, or rather equable, clmiate of Eng- land, is thus stated: One hundred sheep were fed in a shed twenty pounds each of Swedish turnip'^ per day; another hundred in the open air or field were fed twenty-five pounds each per day; and yet the former on one-fifth less food had gained at the end of n few weeks three pounds each of flesh more than the others. Five sheep were fed in the open air between the twenty-first of November and the first of Decem- ber, consuming ninety pounds ■ f food per day, the temperature being at forty-four degrees At the end of this time they weiglied two pounds less than when first exposed. Five sheep were then placed under a shed in a temperature of forty-nine degrees. At first they consumed eighty-two pounds of food per day; then seven- ty pounds; and at the end of the same time as the others, they had gained twenty-three pounds Again, five sheep were placed in a shed as before, and not allowed to take exerci-e Thi^ ate at first sixty-lour pounds a day, then fifty-eight pounds, and increased in weiglit thirty pounds. Thus it will be seen that the first lot on the largest amount of food lost flesh, and that additional warmth not only decreased the amount of fooil eaten, but they increased largely in flesh. Our experience is that animals for fattening will thrive best in warm and modei-ately iiark stables. And liowever cheap or abundant the forage, it pays to provide warm shelter, whether for stock or fattening animals. Tliis fact is more notice- able with milcli cows than with other stock. Wo have known them to shrink fully one-half in their mess from being inadvertently exposetl to a cold storm of rain; and they diil not regain their full flow of milk again for several days after being again placed in the stable. SHERIIS.' Fragments of garden pots, used to under-drain the soil of boxes, pots, etc. SHETLAND PONIES. The Shetlands, the smallest of the pony breeds, are round, closely ribbed up, with heads bony and well shaped, but wide at the brow, and often with the basin- shaped face of the true Arab. The ears are small, erect, well shaped and placed, eyes large, bright and intelligent; the neck short, strong, and with long, coarse, thick manes; the shoul- ders thick, but sloping; the withers low; back slightly hollowed, loin strong and wide, tail exceedingly long and thick like the mane; the quarters are strong, with particularly good legs and hoofs. Their endurance is wonderful, and for such animals their speed is considqi-able, they being capable of performing journeys of forty miles a day upon the rocky, hilly pathways of their native country. When petted and treated kindly they become much attached to their mastei's, are gentle, sagacious, easily trained, but like the mule, will resent abuse sometimes with their heels. In color they are generally dark sorrel, brown and black. Yet many are now found parti-colored, with considerable white. When reared in a semi-wild state they are often reduced to extreme straits, for want of food, even subsisting on kelp and sea weed along the sea shore, but quickly respond to better care and treatment. The Shetlands of th& smallest size combined with the most perfect form are said to be found in the extreme north- ern islands of Unst and Tell. Many of them are not more than seven to eight hands in height, the average being not more than nine or ten hands, or thirty-six to forty inches. In fact it is- held that no true Shetland ever reached the height of eleven hands. . SHIELDS. In botany, little colored cups or lines with a liard disk, surrounded by a rim, and containing the sporules, or seeds of lichens. SHOCKS. Assemblages of sheaves, from^six to twelve or more. Shocks of corn are composed of from eight to twelve hills square, oi' from sixty-four to one hundred and forty-f(nir hills. SHOEING HORSES. The proper shoeing of horses, when employed on city pavements or hard roads, is one demanding the most earnest attention of every horse owner. Nevertheless, not one in a hundred ever take the pains to inform themselves as to the correct manner of doing this, but trust to horse-shoers, many of them as ignorant of the varying necessities of the case^ according to the shape and quality of the hoof,, as is the owner. On soft roads, and on all work in soft ground, the hoofs are undoubtedly better without shoes, and hence many good farmers properly refuse to allow the horses worked on the farm to be shod in summer, except those that are to be driven on stony or other hard roads. Some years since, Mr. George Fleming, Veterinary Surgeon Royal Engineers, England, prepared a paper on Hoi'se Shoes and Horse- shoeing, that has been accepted as one of the best monographs on the subject extant. We therefore give It nearly entire as well worthy of study: It would take us rather beyond the limits of our subject if we attempted to point out the very important part the horse plays in the world and in the progress of civilization, and to what an extent mankind has to rely on him for most essential services, rendered in peace or in war. Neither need we dwell on the share this creature- has taken in the development of civilization, and in the great events which have marked tlie his- tory of our sijecies. Suffice it, therefore, to- stale, that on no other animal has devolved, or could be imposed, the same onerous duties, and to no other creature is man indebted for so many services and benefits. These could never have been rendered but for the fact, discovered at a very early period in the history of man, that the horse was gifted with a special conformation, which adapted him for the most varied uses. under the most diverse circumstances, and that the chief point in this conformation was the presence of a solid foot cased in tough, elastic- horn. The varied uses to which the horse has been subjected since he was taken fiom a wild condition, and the willing and cheerful manner with which he has imdergone fatigue and per- formed duties which are, one would think, quite foreign to his nature, have certainly all been owing to his combined and unequal qual- ities of strength, courage, speed, fidelity, and obedience, as well as docility; and though his great value has mainly depended upon a just disposition of these, yet it cannot be doubted that to the presence of a wonderfully contrived foot the horse lai'gely owes his exalted posi- tion above all those creatures which have submitted themselves to domestication and toil SHOEma HORSES 861 SHOEING HORSES for the benefit of the human species. The his.- tory of mankind abundantly testifies that every possible use and application of this animal, ■wlietlier in war. commerce, or pleasure, seems to have been anticipated by the most ancient peoples; and old-world nations which, a,!i'es ago, most largely employed the liorse, were tlie great cent ere of antique civilization. Indeed, it may safely be asserted that but for the horse the human race could not have reached its present state of progress or refinement, or have been able to contend against the numerous obstacles to advancement and material happiness which surrounded it; and it lias been well said that, next to the want of iron, the want of horses would have been one of the greatest physical barriers to the perfecting of the arts of civilized life. And but for the horse being endowed with a, c;)utiQually growing hoof, which covers the most beautiful and delicate strnctures. and which, beina: solid, and a slow conductor of heat and cold, eminently fits him for traveling in snow and ice during the winter of northern ■regions, and in the burning sands of tropical ■climates, he would scarcely have proved him- self worth the trouble of domesticating. For, notwithstanding his other grand qualities, no invention or device of man could have compen- sated for the absence of his solid, hoof-cased foot. Therefore it has happened that, from the earliest ages,, the attention of horsemen Itiis been largely centered on the feet of the horse; and no matter how perfect the other points of his conformation may have been, if tliese organs were defective all was bad, as none of his good qualities could then be made efi:ective. And from these ages to the present lime, when the uses to which the horse can be put have become 80 multiplied, and so much more necessary for our business or pleasure, this truth has been daily receiving further confirmation, until the aphorism, no foot, no horse, has become a pain- ful reality in modern days; though it is but a re-echo of what was, no doubt, enunciated •centuries beyond two thousand years a.go. For the manifestation of his strength and the due development of his other good qualities tlie horse must rely upon the soundness of his feet, as in them are concentrated the efforts created elsewhere, and on them depend, to a great extent, the solidity and just equilibriuni of the whole animal fabric. So thut it is wisely con- sidered that the foot of the horse is one of the most, if not the most, important part of the body, and that all the splendid qualities pos- sessed by the noble creatiu'e may be diminished in value, or hopelessly lost, if through di.'.eiise or accident, natural or acquired defects, or other causes, this organ fails to perform its allotted task. Seeing, then, the great interest ar.d importance which attach to this animal, in its being of all creatures most concerned witli man in promoting a progressive and long-contimied civilization, and to the means and appli.-uices wiiich have from time to time been brought to bear in increasing the utility of tliis devoted servant, it cannot but be a malter of public interest to inquire into an art which, how- ever insignificant it may generally appear, yet increases a himdred-fold the usefulness of the horse. I refer to the art of shoeing, throuLdi which, in arming that portion of the iioof which comes in contact with the ground and sustains the wliole weight and propelling power of the animal, injiny is not only averted, but the power of the horse is greatly developed. An art which has indirectly exercised much influ- ence on the destiny of mankind, and lent its aid to the restless wave of human action, surely deserves some notice; and if it be looked upon as a modest and obscure art, it nevertheless merits the attention of the humane no less than that of the utilitarian, in consequence of its being so closely related to the comfort and the preservation of this animal, whose value is every day becoming more appreciated and exagger- ated. It may be said that with the horse in a state of nature the hoof requires uo protection. The solidity and toughness of the nnnerial of which it is composed; the absence of arlilicial roads; nothing but the weight of the body to be supported; and the horn never being sub- jected to any other influences than those it is naturally adapted to resist, maintain it in health and uninjured. But, in connection with climate, domestication alters more or less the conditions on which the horse depends for the horn's integrity as an efficient protection to the living and extremely sensitive parts it encloses. In several regions of the world, which have a dry climate and a soft soil, and where the Imofs are firm in texture, shoeing is seldom, if ever required. When the journeys are long, how- ever, and the labor severe, some kind of arti- ficial piotedion is needed, or the animal's feet become denuded of horn, and lameness results. Among tlie Mongols this accident is repaired by the lior.stnian exchanging his pony for one whose lioofs are not worn; or, if he has a num- ber, he rides another until the cripple has had time to grow a new supply for wear. In some regions, as with the Norlli Amtrican Indians and the Tartars, raw, hide is used on such occa- sions, and even the horns of other creatures; and in Japan, when a liaveler is about to start on a long journey, a bundle of rice-straw slippeis for his steed, is tied to his sa