CORNELL 
 UNIVERSITY 
 LIBRARY \ 
 
 FROM 
 
 Miss Jean Mc Dermott 
 
PC 2271.A89"l9ir'"' '""'"^ 
 iimilfMiiimi'iJ.'Jg, French verb 
 
 3 1924 026 521 843 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of tliis book is in 
 tlie Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924026521843 
 
SYNTAX OF 
 THE FRENCH VERB 
 
 BY 
 
 EDWARD C. ARMSTRONG 
 
 SECOND EDITION, REVISED 
 
 
 NEW YORK 
 HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 
 
Copyright, 1909, 191S. 
 
 BY 
 
 HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 
 
PREFACE 
 
 _ The present work, while by no means a complete treatment of the 
 syntax of the French verb, is intended to be sufficiently comprehensive 
 <o serve students of French as a reference book. At the same time, an 
 effort has been made to arrange the material in such a way that it 
 can be used to advantage in class, especially in connection with exer- 
 cises in French composition. 
 
 The aim of the book is to record contemporary French usage; 
 that is, to include only such statements as can be verified for good 
 written or spoken French of the last fifty years. Any one familiar 
 with grammatical treatises will know how rarely such a purpose is 
 attained, and it is probable that, in spite of the care exercised, some 
 archaic constructions still remain. Since the book should serve the 
 double purpose of an explanation of literary construction and of an 
 aid in using colloquial French, material of both classes is included; 
 but, for the most important cases of deviation in the two styles, there 
 exists the intention of indicating to which style a given statement 
 applies. When practicable, illustrative sentences have been chosen 
 which are good in either style. 
 
 No effort has been made to limit the illustrative examples to cita- 
 tions from French authors. The governing principle has been to 
 make the sentence structure and the vocabulary as simple as possible 
 and to court rather than to taboo repetition, the aim being to distract 
 the student's attention as little as possible from the principle illus- 
 trated. Where practicable, this is further sought for by spacing the 
 letters of the French word or phrase that illustrates the rule. 
 
 To increase the practical utility of the book, material has some- 
 times been included that, strictly speaking, is not S3mtactical; and, 
 for the same reason, the classification of material is not always rigor- 
 ously accurate; for example, participial forms of the verb with purely 
 adjectival ftmctions are treated here instead of being relegated to a 
 work on the adjective. 
 
 In using the book in class, some teachers will desire to assign for 
 study only the most important material, reserving the remainder for 
 
 m 
 
IV PREFACE 
 
 reading and reference. To facilitate this, two sizes of type are em- 
 ployed. Attention is directed to the fact that this is the sole method 
 used to indicate the importance of the material. The paragraphs 
 introduced by letters are to be considered as equal in importance to 
 those introduced by munbers, unless they are set in the smaller size 
 of type. 
 
 In renewing my thanks to those who lent their aid in the prepara- 
 tion of the first edition, I desire once more to make especial acknowl- 
 edgment of the invaluable coSperation of Professor Albert F. Kuer- 
 steiner, to whom I also owe a number of modifications in the present 
 edition. 
 
 I count myself fortunate to have been able to draw upon the review 
 by Professor Lucien Foulet in Modern Language Notes of November, 
 igio, and have almost without exception incorporated the alterations 
 of detail there suggested. By reason of the exceptional kindness of 
 Professor L. Jamet of Tours, who examined the first edition sentence 
 by sentence and placed at my disposal his extended notes and com- 
 ments, it has been possible to make numerous deletions and additions 
 which are a tribute to his keen grammatical feeling. Finally, Dr. G. 
 Gruenbaum has suggested valuable modifications in form and typog- 
 raphy. A new set of exercises to accompany this edition has been 
 prepared by Dr. C. J. Cipriani. 
 
 E. C. A. 
 
 The Johns Hopkins University, September, 1915. 
 
TABLE OF. CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 PERIPHRASTIC FORMS i 
 
 TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS n 
 
 § 2. Direct Object. § 3. Indirect Object. § 4. Adverbial Object. 
 § 6. Absolute Construction. § 6. Verbs used either Transitively or 
 Intransitively. §7. French Transitives = English Intransitives, and 
 vice versa. § 8. Object Complement. § 9. Compound Object. 
 § 10. Object of Jaire, laisser, entendre, voir, when followed by an In- 
 finitive. 
 
 AVOIR AND ETRE IN COMPOUND TENSES ip 
 
 § 11. General Rules. § 12. Intransitive Verbs taking lire, i 13. 
 Intransitive Verbs with a Past Participle used as an Adjective. 
 
 QUASI-AUXILIARY VERBS 14 
 
 § 14. Devoir, falloir, pouvoir, vouloir. 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE 16 
 
 § 15. Infrequency of the Passive. § 16. Agent with a Passive Verb. 
 
 REFLEXIVE VERBS 17 
 
 § 17. Definition. § 18. Accidental Reflexives. § 19. Essential 
 Reflexives. 
 
 IMPERSONAL VERBS 20 
 
 § 20. Real Impersonal Verbs. § 21. Verbs with U as Anticipatory 
 Subject. 
 
 AGREEMENT OF VERB WITH ITS SUBJECT 23 
 
 § 22. Simple Subject. § 23. Compound Subject. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD 26 
 
 Tenses of the Indicative 26 
 
 V 
 
VI TABLE or CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Present 26 
 
 § 25. Ordinary Use. § 26. Special Required Uses. § 27. Special 
 Permissible Uses. 
 
 Future 29 
 
 § 28. Ordinary Use. § 29. Special Permissible Uses. 
 
 Future Perfect 31 
 
 § 30. Ordinary Use. 
 Imperfect 32 
 
 § 31. Ordinary Use. § 32. Special Required Use. § 33. Special 
 
 Permissible Use. 
 
 Past iNBEFnsriTE . 36- 
 
 § 34. Ordinary Use. § 36. Special Required Use. 
 Past Definite 38 
 
 § 36. Ordinary Use. § 37. Various Values of the Past Definite. 
 
 § 38. Remarks on the Past Definite. § 39. Disappearance of the 
 
 Past Definite. § 40. Illustrative Example. 
 
 Pluperfect Tenses 44 
 
 § 41. Classification. § 42. Pluperfect and Past Anterior. § 43. Dou- 
 ble Compound Pluperfect. 
 
 Conditional 46 
 
 § 44. Simple and Perfect Conditional. § 45. The Conditional both 
 a Mood and a Tense. § 46. Conditional Tense. § 47. Conditional 
 
 Mood. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD 50 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 51 
 
 Subjunctive in Principal Clauses 52 
 
 Subjunctive m Subordinate Clauses 53 
 
 A. Noun Clauses 53 
 
 § 51. Tendency toward Subjunctive. § 52. Subjunctive in Noun 
 Clauses. § 63. Infinitive in Place of a Noun Clause. § 54. Indirect 
 Questions. 
 
 B. Adjective Clauses . . 66 
 
 § 65. Subjunctive in Adjective Clauses. 
 
 C. Adverb Clauses 72 
 
 § 66. Subjunctive in Adverb Clauses. § 67. Infinitive in Place of 
 
 an Adverb Clause. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS VU 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Tenses of the Subjunctive . 79 
 
 § 58. Sequence of Tense in the Subjunctive. § 59. Avoidance of 
 tfie Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive. § 60. Substitutes for the 
 Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive. 
 
 CLAUSES OF CONDITION AND CONCESSION WITH 5/ ... 86 
 
 § 61. The Conjunction si. § 62. Types of Conditional Sentences. 
 § 63. Substitutes for si Clauses. 
 
 INFINITIVE . ■ • 93 
 
 § 64. Nature of the In6nitive. § 65. Pure and PrepositionaJ In- 
 finitive. § 66. Pure Infinitive. § 67. Pure Infinitive: Verb List. 
 § 68. Infinitive with d. § 69. Infinitive with d: Verb List. § 70. 
 Infinitive with de. § 71. Directions for using the Infinitive with de. 
 § 72. Infinitive after Phrases formed with d or de. § 73. Infinitive 
 with Other Prepositions. 
 
 PRESENT PARTICIPLE, GERUND, AND VERBAL ADJECTIVE no 
 § 74. Classification. § 75. Verbal Adjective. § 76. Participle and 
 Gerund. § 77. Remarks on the Participle and the Gerund. 
 
 PAST PARTICIPLE liS 
 
 § 78. Agreement of Past Participle: General Rule. § 79. Agreement 
 of Past Participle in Compound Tenses formed with avoir, or with 
 lire and the Reflexive Pronoun. § 80. Agreement of Past Participle 
 in Compound Tenses: Special Cases. 
 
 INDEX 121 
 
SYNTAX OF THE FRENCH VERB 
 
 PERIPHRASTIC FORMS 
 
 1. The English periphrases formed by the verb to he and 
 the present participle do not occur in French, where they are 
 rendered by the equivalent tense. 
 
 He is listening II ecoute 
 
 He has been listening, but he II a ecoute, mais il n'a pas repondu 
 
 has not answered 
 Since it is not raining, why do Puisqu'il ne pleut pas, pourquoi 
 
 you say that it is ? dites-vous qu'U pleut ? 
 
 The same is true of the negative and interrogative conjuga- 
 tions with auxiliary do and the infinitive. 
 
 I do not wish it Je ne le veux pas 
 
 I did not wish it Je ne le voulais pas, or Je ne I'ai 
 
 pas voulu, or Je ne le voulus pas, 
 according to the context 
 Why do you love them ? Pourquoi les aimez-vous? 
 
 Do, used to form an emphatic conjugation, is rendered by the 
 equivalent tense, sometimes with a strengthening word added, 
 but is never rendered by faire. 
 
 I do believe you Je vous crois, or Oui, je vous crois 
 
 parfaitement, or Ah! mais je 
 vous crois 
 
 Do tell me Dites-le-moi done 
 
 The French can employ faire as a substitute-verb, but its 
 use is much less general than that of English do. The nearer 
 do approaches a simple auxiliary value, the less frequently is it to 
 be rendered by faire. 
 
 I shall treat him as I have Je le traiterai comme j'ai fait les 
 
 done the others autres 
 
 He will come when I do H viendra en meme temps que moi 
 
 TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS 
 
 3. Direct Object. Transitive verbs are those which take a 
 direct object; intransitive verbs are those which do not. Many 
 
2 TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS [2-3 
 
 verbs, including both transitives and intransitives, can take an 
 indirect object. 
 
 An object is direct if the action of the verb affects or modifies 
 the condition or position of that object, or its relation to some- 
 thing or some one. 
 
 lis ont detniit le pont They have destroyed the bridge 
 
 Henri, fermez done la porte Close the door, Henry 
 
 J'acheterai una maison I shall buy a house 
 
 Nous aimons nos amis We love our friends 
 
 a. Nearly all transitive verbs can be turned into the passive voice with 
 the object as subject. This can also be done with the indirect object of the 
 intransitive verbs obeir and pardoiiner. 
 
 Je lui obeirai I shall obey him 
 
 II sera obei He wiU be obeyed 
 
 b. The object of a transitive verb is not always expressed. 
 
 II lisait He was reading 
 
 Faites! Do so (= Certainly, or Go right 
 
 ahead) 
 
 3. indirect Object. The indirect or dative object is used 
 when the noun refers to a person (or persons),* and represents 
 this person as having an interest or a concern in the action ex- 
 pressed by the verb. If the indirect object is expressed by a con- 
 junctive personal pronoun, it has the dative form; if not, it is 
 preceded by a- 
 
 Je donne una lattra au - I give the postman a letter 
 
 facteur 
 Ja lui donne une lettre I give him a letter 
 
 Not all nouns referring to persons and joined to the verb by 
 a are indirect objects. They are so considered only if they can 
 be replaced, when in conjunctive position, by the dative pronoun. 
 A noun referring to a person is the indirect object after dire a, 
 repondre a, parler a, obeir a, pardonner a, plaire a, cfc., etc. (cf. je 
 le lui dis, je lui parle, je lui obeis, etc., etc.); it is not the indirect 
 " Also- often when the noun refers to animals or to personified objects. 
 
3-5l TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS 3 
 
 object after penser a, aller a* venir a* courir a, etc., etc. (cf. je 
 pense a lui, je vais a lui, etc., etc.). 
 
 4. Adverbial Object. In some cases, transitive or intransitive 
 verbs are accompanied by an object that is neither the direct nor 
 the indirect object, but is an adverbial modifier of the verb and 
 expresses time, place, distance, weight, price, value, or, in a few 
 instances, manner. 
 
 Commencer trois fois To begin tHree times 
 
 Se reposer un instant To rest an instant 
 
 Partir le matin To start in the morning 
 
 Travailler deux jours To work two days 
 
 Demeurer Boulevard To live on the Boulevard Mont- 
 
 Montparnasse parnasse 
 
 Avancer deuxpas To advance two steps 
 
 Aller son chemin To go his way 
 
 Peser cinq livres To weigh five pounds 
 
 D vient de vendre ce cheval He has just sold this horse for five 
 
 cinq cents francs hundred francs 
 
 Cela cof^te dix sous That costs ten cents 
 
 Cetanneauvautvingt francs This ring is worth twenty francs 
 
 Aliens bon train Let us go at a good rate (= fast) 
 
 Je paierai ces livres argent I shall pay for these books in cash 
 
 comptant 
 
 5. Absolute Construction. The French often employs as an 
 adverbial qualifier of the-verb a noun or pronoun followed by an 
 adjective, a participle, or a phrase. 
 
 Cela fait, j'aurais pu me That done, I could have rested 
 
 reposer 
 
 To express an attendant circumstance, this construction is 
 much more frequent in French than in English. 
 
 EUe part, les larmes aux ' She sets out with tears in her eyes 
 yeux 
 * After aller a, the noun can be indirect object when aller is used in transferred 
 meanings. Ce chapeau ne lui va pas, Thai hat does not become her. Similarly, after 
 venir k, the noun is indirect object if venir indicates figurative instead of physical mo- 
 tion. II lui viendra une fievre, A fever will attack him. Cette idee leur vient trop tard, 
 This idea comes to them too late. (But lis viendront k nous. They will come to us.) 
 
4 TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS [6 
 
 6. Verbs used either Transitively or Intransitively. A great 
 many verbs have two meanings: one transitive, the other intransi- 
 tive. Briiler, to bum, means either to consume by fire or to be 
 consumed by fire. 
 
 lis ont bridle la maison They have burned the house 
 
 La maison brdle The house is burning 
 
 Among these verbs are a number which, with the change of 
 meaning, take a prepositional phrase instead of a direct object; * 
 for example: 
 
 abuser, tr., impose upon Ike credulity abuser de, make bad use of, trespass 
 of, mislead, upon. 
 
 atteindre, tr., reach, hit, affect. atteindre i, attain to; generally re- 
 
 ferring to something difiScult to 
 attain. 
 
 cheiaget,tr.,1[ change = exchange, alter. changer de, | change = change from 
 
 one member to another of the class 
 named by the word used with de. 
 If this word requires in the French 
 any modifying .word or phrase, 
 changer de can not be used.f 
 
 croire, tr., believe. croire k, || believe in. 
 
 goftter, tr., taste = i,st by tasting; \k K^^^^^ ^^^^ ^ ^^^^^ ^^ 
 
 also enjoy, enjoy the taste of. { de, J 
 
 , , , , V f jouer a, i/ay (a game). 
 
 jouer, tr., stake (money, etc.). \. . J , ■ \ » 
 
 I jouer de, /»toy (an mstrument). 
 
 ♦These distinctions in meaning are not usually given in a French-English 
 dictionary; and it is best to consult a French dictionary, such as the Dictionnaire 
 g6niral of Hatzfeld, Darmesteter, and Thomas, or the Dictionnaire of Littrfi. 
 
 t U a change (or echange) ses tableaux centre des meubles, He has ex- 
 changed his pictures for furniture. Cela change mes soupfons en certitude. That 
 changes my suspicions into certainly. II a chang€ sa maniSre de vivre, He has 
 changed his way of living. 
 
 til change de linge. He is changing his linen (i. e., from one set of linen to 
 another). Changer de visage {change countenance), de couleur {change color), de 
 religion {change religion), de nom {change name), de mains {change hands; from one 
 set of hands to another), de place {change places). 
 
 1 1 Croire en is used with proper names = have faith in: croire en Dieu. 
 
6-8] 
 
 TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS 
 
 manquer, tr., miss = ia.il to reach, 
 fail to utilize. 
 
 servir, tr., serve. 
 
 tenir, tr., hold. 
 
 manquer de, lack = be in want of. 
 manquer k, fall short in, fall short 
 
 in one's duly to* 
 servir k (quelque chose), serve for. 
 servir de (quelque chose k quel- 
 
 qu'un), serve as. 
 se servir de, make use of. 
 f tenir k,hold to,resultfrom,depend on. 
 1 tenir de, take after. 
 
 7. French Transitives = English Intransitives, and vice versa. 
 A number of verbs can be used transitively in French with mean- 
 ings in which the corresponding English verbs are intransitive, 
 and vice versa. Among these verbs are : 
 
 Transitive in French: 
 avoisiner, border on. entretenir, talk with, 
 
 taix, flee from. 
 regarder, look at. 
 
 bouder, pout at. 
 chercher, look for. 
 ecouter, listen to. 
 
 Transitive in English: 
 couper court k, cut short, jouir de, enjoy. 
 divorcer d'avec {or avec), nuire k, injure, 
 divorce. plaire k, please. 
 
 se douter de, suspect. obeir I, obey. 
 entrer dans, enter. , remedier k, remedy, 
 
 sentir, smell o/.f 
 sonner, ring for.X 
 siffler, whistle for. \\ 
 
 resister k, resist. 
 ressembler k, resemble. 
 survivre a, survive. 
 
 8. Object Complement. Many verbs of choosing, making, 
 regarding, naming, and the like may be followed by two objects, 
 the second being the complement of the first. 
 
 My name is Henry 
 They have made him the arbiter 
 of their quarrel 
 
 Je m'appelle Henri 
 
 Us I'dnt constitue arbitre 
 
 de leur querelle 
 II s'est montre le principal 
 
 ami de notre ville 
 
 He has shown himself the chief 
 friend of our city 
 
 * In the case of to break one's word (manquer a sa parole), there is an alterna- 
 tive manquer de parole. 
 
 t Sentir le tabac, smell of tobacco, etc. 
 
 X Sonner un domestique, ring for a servant, etc. 
 
 II Siffler un chien, whistle for a dog, etc. 
 
6 TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS [8-9 
 
 a. Among the verbs which may be followed by this construction are: 
 appeler, baptiser, constituer, croire, declarer, (se) dire, estimer, etablir, faire, 
 intituler, juger, montrer, nommer, ordonner, penser, rendre, sacrer, savoir, 
 sentir, supposer, voir. 
 
 b. This construction occurs much more frequently with an adjective 
 complement than with a noun complement. 
 
 n s'est fait riche i mes de- He has enriched himself at.my ex- 
 
 pens pense 
 
 Je le crois capable I believe him capable 
 
 When the complement would be a noun, with many of these verbs some 
 other construction is generally substituted; e. g., 
 
 Je sais qu'il est honnite I know that he is an upright man 
 homme 
 
 which is much more frequent than 
 
 Je le sais honnSte homme Iknowhim[to be] an upright man 
 
 c. Some verbs of similar character, while they may take an object com- 
 plement, are apt instead to be followed by a phrase introduced by pour or 
 by comme, especially if the complement is a noun; e. g., s'annoncer (comme) ; 
 comiaitre, €lire, laisser, reconn^tre, reputer, tenir, vouloir (pour). 
 
 lis I'ont recomiu pour roi They have acknowledged him as 
 
 king 
 
 Some other verbs take only the complement with pour or comme; e. g., 
 considerer, envisager, regarder (comme) ; choisir (pour) ; accepter, compter, 
 designer (pour or cotnme). 
 
 Pour secretaire il vou- He wished to choose an Italian as 
 lait choisir un Italien his secretary 
 
 9. Compound Object. The object of a verb may be a com- 
 pound, made up of several members connected by conjunctions. 
 
 Q enseigne le latin et le He teaches Latin and Greek 
 grec 
 
 Apart from this, and from the verbs given in § 8, no verb in 
 French can take more than one direct object. 
 
 To teach a child history Enseigner I'histoire d. un 
 
 enfant 
 
lo] TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS 7 
 
 10. Object of faire, laisser, entendre, voir* when followed by 
 an Infinitive. The verb in these combinations unites so closely 
 with the infinitive that certain peculiarities of construction result. 
 
 I. Object with Principal Verb 
 
 Tljpse verbs may take a direct object which is at the same 
 
 time subject of the infinitive. 
 
 Je vois tomber I'avocat, or] _ , , 
 
 r ... i i t i f I see the lawyer fall 
 
 Je vois I'avocat tombeiyj 
 
 Je fais tomber I'avocat I make the lawyer fall 
 
 Je le vois tomber:]: I see him fall 
 
 Je le fais tomber I make him fall 
 
 Laissez-le tomber Let him fall 
 
 Use laisse tomber He lets himself fall 
 
 2. Object with Infinitive 
 
 The infinitive after these verbs may be transitive. In this 
 case it is often convenient, if no subject for the infinitive is 
 expressed, to translate the infinitive by a passive form. 
 
 J'entends inteiroger le te- I hear [some one] examining the 
 
 mo in witness; I hear the witness ex- 
 
 amined 
 Je I ' entends inteiroger I hear him examined 
 
 Je le fais interroger I make [some one] examine him; I 
 
 have him examined 
 n s e laisse interroger He lets himself be examined 
 
 a. In such sentences, the English frequently translates the 
 infinitive by a past participle. In French, when the past participle 
 happens to occur with a noim after these verbs, it is simply an 
 adjective modifying the noun. 
 
 J'ai vu casser la table I saw the table broken 
 
 * Ouir is treated like entendre, but is omitted from the list because it is an 
 obsolete verb. 
 
 t Either position is good, except after faire, the noun object of which must 
 follow the infinitive. 
 
 X Whenever the English can use the form in -ing after these verbs, the French 
 can, and generally does, use a relative clause. Je le vois qui tombe, I see him falling. 
 
TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS 
 J'ai vu la table cassee 
 
 [10 
 
 J'ai souvent entendu chan- 
 ter cette chanson 
 
 J'ai souvent entendu cette 
 chanson, chant ee chaque 
 fois sur un nouvel air 
 
 I saw the table which had been 
 
 broken, the broken table 
 I have often heard this song sung 
 
 I have often heard this song, sung 
 each time to a new tune 
 
 3. Object with Principal Verb and with Infinitive 
 When both the principal verb and the infinitive have a direct 
 object, you would expect: 
 
 _ fvois 1 ,, 
 
 Je I, . f I'avocat exa- 
 miner les documents 
 
 J'entends I'avocat inter- 
 roger le temoin 
 fvois 
 
 l{[^«^^)the lawyer p""'"^'"'^^ 
 
 the 
 
 Je le 
 
 examiner les 
 
 examine 
 documents 
 I hear the lawyer examining the 
 witness 
 
 examining Ij^^ docu- 
 examme 
 ments 
 I hear him examining the witness 
 
 [Ifflhim 
 llet J 
 
 i laisse 
 documents 
 Je I'entends interroger le 
 temoin 
 This is the usual construction with laisser, entendre, voir. 
 
 4. Object with Principal Verb and with Infinitive: Alternative 
 Construction 
 
 When both the principal verb and the infinitive have a direct 
 object, there is a second construction which in all cases may 
 and in some cases must be used instead of the one just given: 
 the object of the principal verb is made the indirect object, the 
 object of the infinitive remaining direct. Both objects, if noims, 
 must be placed after the infinitive, but the direct object may 
 either precede or follow the indirect. 
 This construction is required: 
 (i) When both objects are personal pronouns. 
 
 _ , , . fvois 1 
 
 Je les lui j . fexammer 
 
 Je le lui entends interroger 
 
 seelj^^jexamininglj^^^ 
 let J I examine J 
 I hear him examine him 
 
lo] TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS 9 
 
 (2) In all cases with faire, except when the object of faire is 
 a personal pronoun and the object of the infinitive is not; even 
 in that case it is the more frequent construction, especially in 
 literary style. 
 
 Je fais examiner lesdocu- I make the lawyer examine the 
 
 ments a I'avocat docmnents 
 
 Je les lui fais examiner I make him examine them 
 
 Je lui {or le) fais examiner I make him examine the docu- 
 
 les documents ments 
 
 a. In addition to the cases where it is required, this construction is 
 permissible in most of the cases described in section 3 of this paragraph. 
 
 Je laisse examiner les documents i I'avocat. 
 J'entends interroger le temoin a I'avocat. 
 
 Je lui j. . [examiner les documents. 
 
 Je lui entends interroger le temoin. 
 
 b. If the infinitive is one which can govern an indirect object, the con- 
 struction is liable to become ambiguous, since an indirect object can then 
 be interpreted as belonging to the principal verb or to the infinitive. In 
 such a case, unless the context makes the meaning clear, some other construc- 
 tion should be substituted. 
 
 Je fais ecrire les lettres a I'avocat may mean I cause the 
 letters to he written to the lawyer. It may also mean / make the lawyer write the 
 letters, but to bring out this meaning clearly, use Je fais ecrire les lettres par 
 I'avocat. Similarly, instead of expressing I make him write them by Je les 
 lui fais ecrire, say Je I'oblige i les ecrire. 
 
 c. As may be seen above, both objects, if pronouns, are placed before 
 the principal verb. Where there would result a forbidden pronoun com- 
 bination, the object of the infinitive is placed before the infinitive, and the 
 object of the principal verb remains direct (Je le laisserai vous interroger, 
 / shall let him examine you), or else a differently constructed sentence is 
 used (Je vous laisserai interroger par lui). 
 
 5. Reflexive Object of Infinitive 
 
 When the object of the infinitive is a reflexive pronoun which 
 refers to the object of the principal verb, it is joined to the in- 
 finitive, and the object of the principal verb remains direct ob- 
 
lO AVOIR AND &TRE [lo-ll 
 
 ject. If the principal verb is faire, the reflexive pronoun belong- 
 ing to the infinitive is nearly always omitted,* unless its omission 
 would produce ambiguity. 
 
 Je I'entends s'accuser I hear him accusing himself 
 
 Je 1' avals vu s e blesser I had seen him hurt himself 
 
 Vous 1 e s laissez s e moquer You let them make fun of you 
 
 de vous 
 Je 1 e f erai taire I will make him hush 
 
 Vous 1 e f erez (s') ezpliquer You will make him explain f 
 a. A similar omission of the reflexive pronoun after laisser can occur, 
 but is less frequent than after faire. 
 
 Ne laissez pas eteindre le feu Do not let the fire go out 
 
 (or Ne laissez pas le feu 
 
 s'€teindre) 
 
 AVOIR AND BTRB IN COMPOUND TENSES 
 11. General Rules. The compound tenses of the active 
 voice are formed by the auxiliaries avoir and etre and the past 
 participle of the verb 4 To form the corresponding tenses, the 
 English uses have. The usage with the different kinds of verbs 
 is as follows: 
 
 I. Transitive Verbs 
 Transitive verbs all take avoir. 
 Je vous al, monsieur, gcrit I have written you two letters, 
 deux lettres. Est-ce que Have you not received them? 
 
 vous ne les avez pas 
 resues? 
 
 a. This applies also to verbs that as intransitives take Stre 
 (see § 12) , if they are used with a transitive meaning. 
 
 lis out rentrg les foins They have put the hay under cover 
 
 n a descendu la colline He has gone down the hill 
 
 D a descendu la malle He has carried the trunk down 
 
 * Not, however, when the reflexive pronoun is used in a reciprocal sense. II 
 les fait s'entre-hair, He makes them hale each other. 
 
 t The se is omitted if the context suffices to show that the meaning is not 
 You will have it explained. 
 
 X On the rules governing the inflection of this participle, see §§ 78-80. 
 
II-I2] AVOIR AND ETRE II 
 
 2. Reflexive Verbs 
 
 Reflexive verbs (see § 17) all take etre. 
 
 lis se sont blesses They have hurt themselves 
 
 Nous nouslesommes dit We have said it to ourselves 
 
 Elles se seront parle Theywill have spoken to each other 
 
 Ella s'etait evanouie She had fainted 
 
 3. Intransitive Verbs 
 Intransitive verbs generally take avoir, but some can take Stre. 
 J'ai parle I have spoken 
 
 ns ont dor mi They have slept 
 
 J'ai ete I have been 
 
 J'etais alle I had gone 
 
 ns y sont rest6s They have remained there 
 
 J'etais devenu fort I had become strong 
 
 13. Intransitive Verbs taking etre* Some of the intransitive 
 verbs which can have etre as auxiliary take only etre; others take 
 also avoir. 
 
 I. Intransitive Verbs taking only etre 
 The following verbs, when used intransitively, always form 
 their compound tenses with etre, 
 
 aUer echoir ^ naitre r6sulter 
 
 arriver eclore partir ' retourner 
 
 deceder entrer rentrer ' sortir * 
 
 devenir mourir rester tomber ^ 
 
 venir • 
 ' So also choir. DSchoir takes avoir. ' So also repartir, meaning set out again. 
 ' Rentrer meaning shrink (of cloth) takes avoir. * So also ressortir, go out again, 
 and ressortir de, result from, take 6tre. Ressortir k, be under the jurisdiction of, 
 is conjugated like finir (il ressortit, il ressortissait, etc.) and takes avoir. ' So also 
 retomber. ' So also all compounds of venir when used intransitively, except con- 
 trevenir, subvenir. For convenir, see next list. 
 
 2. Intransitive Verbs taking etre or avoir 
 The following verbs" at times take avoir and at times etre. 
 
 When avoir is used, the speaker is thinking rather of the action 
 * Notice that most of these verbs denote either literal or metaphorical change 
 
 of position. 
 
;I2 AVOIR AND ETRE [I2-I3 
 
 named by the verb; when etre, of the state resulting from that 
 action, 
 accourir > debarquer ' disparaitre ' monter '<' sauter ' 
 
 apparaitre ^ demeurer ^ echapper paraitre ' 
 
 convenir * descendre ''' echouer ^ passer " 
 
 ' Generally avoir. ^ Generally etre. Monter, which in the meaning go upstairs al- 
 ways takes avoir, is then the transitive monter (I'escalier). ' So also redescendre, 
 remonter, repasser. '' Convenir meaning agree, admit, or harmonize, and discon- 
 venir, deny, generally take Stre. In all other meanings they take avoir. ' De- 
 meurer— habiter takes avoir; demeurer =rester takes Stre. 
 
 Ce mot lui a Schappe This word escaped his notice, or 
 
 else This word slipped out (in 
 spite of his effort to retain it) 
 Ce mot lui est echappe This word slipped out (without 
 
 his thinking about it) 
 Comme le navire ne peut pas As the ship cannot enter the port, 
 entrer dans le port, ils ont they have been landed in boats 
 
 d€barque dans des canots 
 lis sont debarqufis k Bou- They landed at Boulogne this week 
 logne cette semaine 
 
 13. Intransitive Verbs with a Past Participle used as an Ad- 
 jective. A number of intransitive verbs have a past participle 
 that can be used as an adjective. Such a participle is often joined 
 to the verb as a predicate adjective. This results in the same 
 forms as compound tenses with §tre, and the meaning also 
 is often similar. 
 
 I. Adjectival Past Participle of Verbs taking 6tre 
 
 With verbs that take §tre as their auxihary in the compoimd 
 tenses, it is of no practical importance to distinguish whether 
 the past participle is part of a compound tense or is a predicate 
 adjective, for the construction will be the same in either case. 
 
 EUe est sortie deux fois aujourd'hui, She has been out twice to-day; est 
 sortie here asserts past action, and is a compound tense. Elle n'est pas ici- 
 elle est sortie, She is not here; she is out; sortie here represents her present 
 state, and is an adjective. Similarly, Elle est morte can mean either She 
 has died or She is dead; lis sont descendus, They have come down oi 
 They are down. 
 
I3l AVOIR AND ETRE 13 
 
 2. Adjectival Past Participle of Verbs taking avoir 
 
 Many verbs that form their compound tenses with avoir can 
 also have such a past participle used as an adjective. Here it is' 
 important to be able to distinguish the adjective from the real 
 compound tense, since in the latter case 6tre must not be used. 
 It is permissible to translate Tliey have moved by lis ont 
 demenagS or by lis sent d§menag6s; the former stresses 
 the action, the second its present result: They are in their new 
 residence. The translation, however, of They have moved this 
 morning will be Us ont d§m6nag6 ce matin, for here the 
 stress is on the past action, as is shown by the words this 
 morning. Similarly, He had aged = 11 avait vieilli {He had 
 grown old) or II 6tait vieilli {He showed age); but Little by 
 little he had aged = Pen h pen il avait vieilli. So also Les 
 temps sont changes. Times are different 'now; but II a changS 
 de nom, He has changed his name. 
 
 The past indefinite when = the past definitfe (conversa- 
 tional style; see § 36) will in this set of verbs of course have 
 avoir. 
 
 A number of reflexive verbs also have a past participle used 
 as an adjective. 
 
 Elle s'est fivanouie She has fainted 
 
 Elle est gvanouie She is in a faint 
 
 Lesoiseaux se sont envol€s The birds have flown away 
 
 Les oiseaux sont en voles The birds are flown 
 
 a. List of the principal intransitive verbs that take avoir in 
 the compound tenses, but whose past participle can be used as 
 an adjective with etre: 
 
 aborder dechoir embellir grandir 
 
 blanchir deg^nerer fimigrer pS.lir 
 
 changer d6m6nager empirer pousser 
 
 coucher diminuer enlaidir tarir 
 
 d6border divorcer expirer vieillir 
 
 etc. 
 
14 
 
 QUASI-AUXILIAEY VERBS [=^3-14 
 
 b. Most verbs of this class can also be used transitively. The past par- 
 ticiple in Trois heures sont sonnees, // m past three; Midi 6tait sonn^, It 
 was past twelve, etc., is an adjective connected with the transitive meaning 
 (compare L'horloge a sonne trois heures, The clock has struck three), though 
 Trois heures ont sonne, /^ Aos striick three, etc., is also used. 
 
 QUASI-AUXILIARY VERBS 
 
 14. Devoir, falloir, pouvoir, vouloir join closely with a fol- 
 lowing infinitive, and often have almost the value of auxiliary 
 verbs. The English may use the perfect infinitive after some 
 similar verbs, but the French nearly always retains the present 
 infinitive and varies the first verb to express the tense desired. 
 
 Je peux vous I'expliquer I can explain it to- you 
 
 Ds ont dfl I'oublier They must have forgotten it 
 
 J'aurais dfl le dire I ought to have said it 
 
 II aurait fallu le dire You (or I, or we, according to 
 
 the context) ought to have said it 
 
 Vous auriezpule persuader You could have persuaded him 
 
 Nous aurions voulu raster We should have liked to stay '' 
 
 a. Devoir has various shades of meaning. It implies (i) duty, obliga- 
 tion; (2) necessity; (3) advisability, desirability, propriety (whether from a 
 moral or some other standpoint) ; * (4) unavoidable inference;! (s) justifiable 
 expectation; (6) intention; (7) futurity.f 
 
 Les forts do i vent respecter The strong ought to {or should) 
 \ les droits des faibles respect the rights of the weak 
 
 On doit toujours tenir sa We ought always to keep oiir 
 parole word 
 
 * The conditional mood (see § 47, 2) is employed in thissuaver form of express- 
 ing duty or obligation. It is the customary construction for indicating duty or 
 obligation. The indicative mood gives a much more imperative tone to the as- 
 sertion of duty or obligation, and so, in the meaning (i), is mainly reserved for the 
 enunciation of laws or precepts. 
 
 t For an alternative construction, see §§ 29, 2; 30, b. 
 
 tSee§§28,d;29,3. 
 
14] 
 
 QUASI-AUXILIARY VERBS 
 
 IS 
 
 I 
 
 Je do is vous avouer que 
 
 j'avais peur 
 Vous devrez repondre 
 Nous avons dii partir sans 
 
 vous 
 
 I must (or am forced to) confess 
 to you that I was afraid 
 
 You will have to answer 
 
 We were obliged to start without 
 you 
 
 Je devrais me lever 
 Vous ne devriez pas etre 
 
 si bSte! 
 n aurait dfi le dire 
 
 I ought to (or should) get up 
 You ought to know better! 
 
 He ought to have said it 
 
 Ce doit etre lui 
 
 Vous devez etre fatigue 
 
 Elle a dfi perdre son chemin 
 
 It must be he 
 
 You must be tired 
 
 She must have lost her way 
 
 Si je me depSche, je dois le If I hurry, I ought to catch up 
 
 rattraper with him 
 
 Ds doivent Stre dgji ici They ought to (or should) be here 
 
 by now 
 n aurait dfi arriver hier He should have arrived yesterday 
 
 Je dois y aller demais 
 Je devais y aller hier 
 
 I am to go there tomorrow 
 I was to go there yesterday 
 
 La perte est dejk grande, mais 
 elle n'est pas encore ce 
 qu'elle doit devenir 
 
 Ainsi commen; ait une vie dont 
 les suites devaient etre 
 si glorieuses 
 
 The loss is already great, but it is 
 not yet what it wiU come to be 
 
 Thus began a Kfe the subsequent 
 course of which was destined to 
 be so glorious 
 
 b. Falloir indicates necessity. Note that devoir also can indicate neces- 
 sity. This necessity is at times distinguished from that indicated by falloir 
 by being the result of duty or obligation. There is frequently, however, no 
 difference in meaning, devoir being used in certain cases because it is a per- 
 sonal verb and makes the statement clearer or simpler than the impersonal 
 verb falloir. Thus Je devrai (ortu devras, etc.) lui parler, I shall (or you 
 will) have to speak to him, can replace n faudra Im parler, It will he nec- 
 essary to speak to him* So Nous avons dii I'arreter, We had to stop him, 
 can replace H a fallu I'arrfiter, It was necessary to stop him.\ You must 
 
 * n me faudra lui parler is rarely used; see § 53, la. 
 t n a fallu que nous I'arrgtassions is not used; see § 69. 
 
1 6 PASSIVE VOICE [14-15 
 
 have got up early is either Vous avez dii vous lever de bonne heure or II f aut 
 que vous vous soyez leve de bonne heure. 
 
 c. In the place of the present of pouvoir in negative statements, the 
 conditional of savoir, know how, may be used. 
 
 Je ne saurais faire ce que I can not do what you ask of 
 
 vous me demandez me 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE 
 
 15. Infrequency of the Passive. The passive voice occurs 
 far less frequently in French than in English, other constructions 
 usually taking its place. The following are examples of its use: 
 
 II a gte tue par im voleur He was killed by a thief 
 
 Tous les soirs en rentrant 11 Every evening, when he comes home, 
 
 est battu par son p6re he is beaten by his father 
 
 II fut proclam€ vainqueur He was proclaimed victor 
 
 II fut d€cld€ qu'il partirait It was decided that he should start 
 
 C'est ainsi que fut fond€ ce It is thus that this vast empire was 
 
 vaste empire founded 
 
 a. In most of the cases where 6tre + a past participle occurs, the participle 
 is a mere adjective, and the combination does not form a passive. In II €tait 
 enchante de nous voir. He was charmed to see us, fitait is the verb and enchantfi 
 is a predicate adjective meaning trfes heureux. Le vin est vers6 does not mean 
 The wine is being poured out, but The wine is poured, is in the glass. 
 
 b. In place of the passive the French nearly always uses the active. When 
 no definite subject is named, on is used as subject. In translating into Eng- 
 lish, the passive should as a rule be used. 
 
 Un voleur I'a tug, or ) -- , ■„ , , , . r 
 
 _, . , . ,. X. <; f * He was killed by a thief 
 
 C'est un voleur qui I'a tue ) ■' 
 
 Tous les soirs, quand il rentre, Every evening, when he comes home, 
 
 son p6re le bat his father beats him 
 
 On le proclama vainqueur He was proclaimed victor 
 
 On dScida qu'il partirait It was decided that he should start 
 
 * The first slightly stresses 'killed' and the second 'thief.' The passive may have 
 either stress. 
 
IS-I7] REFLEXIVE VERBS ' 1 7 
 
 On chante cette chanson par- This song is sung everywhere 
 
 tout 
 Cast ainsi que se fonda (see It is thus that this vast empire was 
 
 § 18, c; or qu'on fonda) ce founded 
 
 vaste empire 
 La langue fran$aise se parle 
 
 en Belgique, or French is spoken in Belgium 
 
 On parle fran^ais en Belgique 
 
 16. Agent with a Passive Verb. The noun naming the person 
 who is the actor is accompanied by par or de. 
 
 Par is usually employed when the verb indicates a physical 
 activity, de when it indicates an emotion. 
 
 II a 6te frappg par son fils He has been struck by his son 
 
 n est respectg d e tout le monde He is respected by everyone 
 
 Par is also usually employed when the verb refers to a specific 
 occurrence, de when it represents a condition or state. 
 
 Pour cette action il fut long He was praised by his father for this 
 
 par son p6re deed 
 
 Faisant toujours son devoir, il Since he always did his duty, he 
 
 etait loue de tout le monde was praised by everyone 
 
 11 fut accompagne par un He was accompanied by a friend 
 
 ami 
 
 Le roi est accompagn€ de sa The king is accompanied by his 
 
 suite suite* 
 
 a. It should be noted that the cases where de is employed are usually of 
 the kind in which the verb is not really passive (see § 15, a). 
 
 REFLEXIVE VERBS 
 
 17. Definition. Reflexive verbs are those having as direct 
 or indirect object a reflexive pronoun; that is, a pronoun which 
 designates the same person or thing as the subject. 
 
 II se blessera He will hurt himself 
 
 Nous nous le disions We kept saying it to ourselves 
 
 * It is the normal condition of a king to be accompanied by a suite. 
 
l8 REFLEXIVE VERBS lI7-i8 
 
 a. The pronoun is me, te, nous, vous, or se. The auxiliary 
 in the compound tenses is always 6tre, and a following past parti- 
 ciple agrees with the reflexive pronoun if it is direct object (see 
 §§ 79 and 80, 5). 
 
 lis se sont bless€s They have hurt themselves 
 
 Nous nous le sommes dit We have said it to ourselves 
 
 18. Accidental Reflexives. In most cases, reflexive verbs are 
 simply ordinary verbs with a reflexive pronoun as direct or in- 
 direct object. These are similar to English verbs used reflex- 
 ively; e.g., 
 
 aimer, love; s'aimer, love one's self. 
 
 appeler, caU; s'appeler, call one's self, he named. 
 
 arreter, {cause to) stop; s'arrfeter, {cause one's self to) stop. 
 
 coucher, put to bed; se coucher, put one's self to bed, go to bed. 
 
 tromper, deceive; se tromper, deceive one's self, make a mistake. 
 
 user, {cause to) wear out; s'user, {cause one's self to) wear out. 
 
 nuire k, do harm to; se nuire, do harm to one's self. 
 parler k, speak to; se parler, speak to one's self. 
 plaire k, please; se plaire, please one's self, take pleasure. 
 rappeler quelque chose k, recall something to; se rappeler quelque 
 chose, recall something {to one's self). 
 
 a. Reflexive pronouns may have a reciprocal meaning. 
 
 lis s'aiment They love themselves, or They love 
 
 each other 
 lis se parlent They are talking to themselves, or 
 
 They are talking to one another 
 
 When there is need to make it clear that the reciprocal mean- 
 ing is intended, several methods may be used: 
 
 (i) Tun I'autre, I'un a I'autre, etc., may be added. 
 
 Us s'aiment I'un I'autre (les They love each other 
 
 uns les autres) 
 EUes se parlent I'une k I'autre They are talking to one another 
 
 (les unes aux autres) 
 
iS-igJ REFLEXIVE VERBS I9 
 
 (2) A number of verbs may have entre prefixed. 
 
 lis s'entr'aiment They love each other 
 
 lis s'entre-nuisent They harm each other 
 
 (3) A qualifying expression may be added, 
 lis s'aiment rgciproquement They love each other 
 
 b. Some verbs have a special meaning in the reflexive construction; e.g., 
 
 attendre, wait for; s'attendre k, expect. 
 
 battre, beat; se battre, fight. 
 
 mettre, put; se mettre 4, begin. 
 
 sauver, save; se sauver, get away, run away. 
 
 c. The reflexive is often used where in English a passive would be re- 
 quired (see § 15). 
 
 La langue fran;aise s'e parle French is spoken in Belgiiun 
 
 en Belgijue 
 Le charbon se vend au poids Coal is sold by weight 
 Ils'ytrouvede belles choses Some fine articles are to be found 
 
 there 
 
 19. Essential Reflexives. A number of verbs are always 
 accompanied by a reflexive pronoun. This pronoun is the direct 
 object.* 
 
 Elle s'est moqu€e de vous She made fun of you 
 • lis s'en sent all6s They have gone away 
 
 Among the essential reflexive verbs are: 
 
 s'absenter, absent on^s s'emparer de, take posses- s'Svanoxm, faint, vanish. 
 
 self. sion of. se mSfler de, distrust. 
 
 s'agenouiller, kneel. s'enf uir, take to flight. se moquer de, make fun 
 
 s'en aller, go away.X s'ensuivre, follow, residt. of. 
 
 s'ecrier, exclaim. s'envoler, fly away. se repentir, repent. 
 
 a. When the past participle of a reflexive verb is used as 
 an adjective, the reflexive pronoun is omitted. (For the omis- 
 
 * Except in s'arroger, arrogate. Us se sent arroge ce privilege, They have ar- 
 rogated this privilege to themselves. 
 
 % Popular speech often makes the' en of this verb into an inseparable prefix, 
 as it is in s'enfuir, etc., and employs Us se sont enalles. 
 
20 IMPERSONAL VERBS [19-2O 
 
 sion of the reflexive pronoun with an infinitive after faire, see 
 
 § 10, S-) 
 
 TJne femme evanouie A woman in a faint 
 
 Les oiseaux sont en voles The birds are flown, ^'. e., gone * 
 
 b. The EngUsh also has a few essential reflexive verbs, such as to absent, 
 to betake, to bestir, to demean. 
 
 IMPERSONAL VERBS 
 
 30. Real Impersonal Verbs. When the speaker does not 
 wish to attempt to name the subject, he uses the neuter il, it, and 
 the verb is termed impersonal. The failure to give the subject 
 is due to its being difficult or else unimportant to specify for this 
 type of verbs just what the subject is. 
 
 I. The most frequent occurrence of the impersonal construc- 
 tion is with verbs asserting the state of the weather. 
 
 D pleut It is raining 
 
 H tonae It is thundering 
 
 H gelait II was freezing 
 
 H degelera It will thaw 
 
 H a neige It has snowed 
 
 a. Faire, referring to weather and time,t and etre, referring 
 to the time of the day or to the time suitable for some purpose, 
 are used impersonally. 
 
 II fait beau, or 1 It is fine weather (literally, Some- 
 
 II fait beau temps J thing is causing fine weather) 
 
 II fera froid It wiU be cold 
 
 II faisait bon It was pleasant 
 
 II a fait du vent It has been windy 
 
 II faisait nuit It was dark 
 
 Quel temps fait-il? What is the weather? 
 
 II se fait tard It is getting late 
 
 II se fait nuit Night is coming on 
 
 II est tard It is late 
 
 * Envoles is here an adjective. The birds have flown away is Les oiseaux s e 
 sont envoles (see § 13, 2). 
 
 t For impersonal faire + adjective + infinitive (II fait cher vivre, etc.), see § 66, 
 4(4)C. 
 
20] 
 
 IMPERSONAL VERBS 
 
 21 
 
 II etait sixheures 
 II est temps de rentrer 
 II est temps que nous por- 
 tions 
 
 It was six o'clock 
 It is time to go home 
 It is time that we start 
 
 2. Chief among other impersonal verbs are: il y a, there is, 
 there are (literally, it has there); 11 s'agit de, and il y va de, it is 
 a question; il faut, it is necessary, [I, etc.] must, [I, etc.] need. 
 
 II y a beaucoup d'habitants 
 dans cette ville 
 
 11 y avait un monsieur k 
 la porte 
 
 II n'y aura pas de danger 
 
 Qu'est-ce qu'il y a de nou- 
 veau, mesdames? 
 
 Combien y a-t-il d'ici k votre 
 maison? 
 
 II doit y avoir une expli- 
 cation de ce fait 
 
 II s'agit de votre bonheur 
 
 II me faut dix francs 
 
 II me faudra dix francs 
 
 II lui faut partir 
 
 II faut qu'il parte 
 
 II ne faut pas qu'il parte 
 
 II faut partir 
 
 II faut dire que . . . 
 
 Donnez-moi ces livres; il me 
 
 les fautt 
 Resistez; il le fautf 
 J'ai tout ce qu'il me fautf 
 
 There are a great many inhabit- 
 ants in this city 
 There was a gentleman at the door 
 
 There will be no danger 
 What news is there? 
 
 How far is it from here to your 
 
 house ? 
 There ought to be an explanation 
 
 of this fact 
 It is a question of your happiness; 
 
 Your happiness is involved 
 I must have {or I need) ten francs 
 I shall have to have ten francs 
 It is necessary for him to start {or 
 
 that he start) ; He must start- 
 He must not start 
 I {or we, you, one) must start * 
 It must be said that . . . 
 Give me these books; I must have 
 
 them 
 Resist; it is necessary 
 I have everything I need 
 
 * With falloir, when no person is mentioned, it is usually implied that the 
 speaker or the person addressed is meant. 
 
 t There is ground to hesitate as to whether il faut is a real impersonal verb, with 
 the thing-required as object, or whether the il is anticipatory subject (see § 21), 
 but the object pronoun used in the above cases supports the classification here 
 made. 
 
22 
 
 IMPERSONAL VERBS 
 
 [20-21 
 
 a. There is, there are can be translated by U y a only when no emphasis 
 rests on the word there. When there is emphasized, that is, when it means 
 at that place, the phrase there is, there are is rendered by voiia. 
 
 There is his carriage 
 
 Voili sa voiture 
 
 b. n y a is often used in expressions for measuring time. 11 y a . . . que 
 gives the length of time an activity has been going on. (For the tense, see 
 § 26, i; § 32, I.) n y a, without que, gives the time that has elapsed since 
 the activity occurred. 
 
 II y a un mois que je le 
 
 connais 
 II y aura un mois demain 
 
 que je suis malade 
 Je I'ai vu il y a quelques 
 
 heures 
 
 I have known him for a month 
 
 To-morrow I shall have been sick 
 
 a month 
 I saw him a few hours ago 
 
 c. Instead of il y a, il est is sometimes used for there is, there are. This 
 is literary rather than conv.ersational. 
 
 II est des vSrites qu'on ne 
 doit pas dire 
 
 There are some truths that ought 
 not to be told 
 
 21. Verbs with // as Anticipatory Subject. Except in the 
 cases described in the last paragraph, if neuter il is used as sub- 
 ject, the construction is not really impersonal, and the il merely 
 serves to prepare the way for a subject that follows the verb.* 
 
 II vaut mieux partir 
 
 II est impossible de vous com- 
 
 prendre 
 II importe que vous le sa- 
 
 chiez, mon ami 
 II se peut qu'elles soient ar- 
 
 rivees 
 II est evident que vous reus- 
 
 sirez 
 II s'y trouve de belles choses 
 
 It is better to start (To start is 
 
 better) 
 It is impossible to understand you 
 
 It is important that you know it 
 
 It may be that they have arrived 
 
 It is evident that you will succeed 
 
 Some fine things are to be found 
 there (see § 22, 1) 
 * On the mood to be used when the subject is a clause, see § 52, 5. 
 
21-m] agreement of verb 23 
 
 a. Anticipatory U is sometimes omitted. 
 
 Mieux vaut partir It is better to set out 
 
 N'importe ce qu'il en pense It makes no difference what he 
 
 thinks of it 
 
 AGREEMENT OF VERB WITH ITS SUBJECT 
 23. Simple Subject. 
 
 1. When il is subject, the verb is always singular, even if the 
 logical subject is plural. 
 
 n est arrive deux voy- There have arrived two travelers 
 
 ageurs 
 n n'existe pas de reve- There is no such thing as ghosts 
 
 nants 
 
 2. When ce is subject, the verb is put by attraction in the 
 plural if a predicate nominative in the third person plural fol- 
 lows it. 
 
 Ce sent mes livres These are my books 
 
 Sont-ce leurs enfants? Are these their children? 
 
 Ce sent eux It is they 
 
 C'€taient elles It was they 
 
 But C'est nous It is we 
 
 C'estvous It is you 
 
 a. This rule is not infrequently neglected and the verb left singular, espe- 
 cially when the ce follows the verb. 
 
 b. The verb in the phrase si ce n'est always remains singular. 
 
 Qui poiura le sauver, si ce Who can save him, if not his friends ? 
 n'est ses amis? 
 
 c. The verb after ce is not made plural if the predicate noun gives a 
 ■measure of time, quantity, or price. 
 
 Quelle heure est-ce que j'en- What is the hour I hear striking? 
 
 tends sonner? — C'est dix — It is ten 
 
 heures 
 
 Combien ces gants coiitent- How much do these gloves cost? 
 
 lis? — C'est dix francs — They are ten francs 
 
24 
 
 AGREEMENT OF VERB 
 
 [22-23 
 
 3. When a collective noun in the singular is subject, the verb 
 is put in the singular. 
 
 Le peuple le comprend The common people understand 
 
 him 
 Tout le monde y va Everybody goes there 
 
 TTne foule est accourue A crowd gathered 
 
 a. When a collective subject in the singular, such as foule, partie, grand 
 nombre, moitie, etc., is followed by de + a noun in the plural which indicates 
 the class of which the subject forms a part, the verb is put in the plural, 
 unless the speaker is thinking of the collective subject rather than of the 
 separate individuals that compose it. 
 
 La moitie de leurs munitions 
 
 avaient ete prises 
 Une foule d'enfants le sui- 
 
 vaient 
 Una foule d'enfants, composes 
 
 de ses eleves, le suivait 
 
 Half of their munitions had been 
 
 captured 
 A crowd of children were following 
 
 him 
 A crowd of children, composed of 
 
 his pupils, was following him 
 
 b. AVhen an adverb of quantity that ordinarily takes a singular verb, 
 such as beaucoup, peu, combien, or que= combien, is used as subject and 
 followed by de + plural noun, the verb is plural. After la plupart, the pred- 
 icate agrees with the qualifying word which is always either expressed or 
 understood. 
 
 Beaucoup de gens pen sent 
 
 ainsi 
 Ces femmes, dont la plupart 
 
 sont jeunes 
 La plupart du monde ignore 
 
 ses veritables interets 
 
 Many people think this way 
 
 These women, most of whom are 
 
 young 
 Most people are ignorant of their 
 
 true interests 
 
 c. The verb after plus d'un, more than one, is put in the singular. 
 
 Plus d'un danger nous a me- More than one danger has threat- 
 
 naces ened us 
 
 33. Compound Subject. When two or more subjects occur, 
 they usually form a plural idea and take a plural verb. If the 
 subjects are of different persons, the first person takes precedence 
 over the second, and the second over the third. 
 
23] AGREEMENT OF VERB 25 
 
 Vous et lui vous ' i r e z You and he will go 
 
 Nitoinimoi nous* n' a von s Neither you nor I could protect 
 
 pu le proteger him 
 
 Le vent et la neige sont ar- The wind and the snow have come 
 
 rives 
 
 a. When the subjects are joined by ou or by ni , . . ni, the plural is 
 usually employed unless one subject excludes the other. Even then the 
 plural should be used if the subjects are of different persons, but in this 
 case the thought is usually expressed some other way. 
 
 Le pire ou le fils sont tou- The father or the son is always 
 
 jours malades sick 
 
 Ni I'un ni I'autre ne sont Neither one is very strong 
 
 tr^s forts 
 
 Lui ou son frere {and Ni lui He or his brother (Neither he nor 
 
 ni son frSre ne) sera le his brother) will be the first to 
 
 premier k arriver t arrive 
 
 Lui ou moi ferons cela He or I will do that 
 
 Tu ne seras pas le premier Neither you nor I will be the first 
 
 ni moi non plus 
 
 Le premier, ce sera toi ou lui You or he will be the first 
 
 b. When a compound subject is sumrned up by a word in the singular, 
 the singular of the verb is used. 
 
 Les maisons, les rues, les ha- Houses, streets, inhabitants, 
 bitants, tout avait change everything had changed 
 
 c. Singular abstract subjects of kindred meaning, with no conjunction 
 between them, may have a verb in the singular. 
 
 Une fatigue immense, im im- An immense fatigue, an immense 
 mense dSgoflt 1 ' e n v a h i t disgust assail him 
 
 * Subjects of different persons are usually repeated by the plural of the con- 
 junctive pronoun that sums up these persons. 
 
 t Or Le premier k arriver, ce sera lui ou son frere. 
 
26 INDICATIVE MOOD [24-26 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD 
 
 34. The indicative mood represents the predicate as being 
 a reality. The speaker assumes that the statement is true. This 
 may simply mean that he has no desire to raise the question 
 whether it is true or not. Si vous v e n e z demain, vous me verrez 
 means: Taking for granted that you will be here to-morrow, you 
 will see me. The indicative occurs in declarations, exclamations, 
 and questions, and in principal and subordinate clauses. 
 
 a. The use of the indicative in conditions contrary to fact or stressing 
 uncertainty (S'U etait ici, il me verrait, // he were here, he would see me, 
 etc.; see § 62) arose by the influence of the other types of conditional sen- 
 tences. 
 
 Tenses of the Indicative 
 
 PRESENT 
 
 25. Ordinary Use. The present tense (le present) pla.ces the 
 activity in present time, and, like the English present, includes 
 statements expressing general truths, and statements appl3Tng 
 to a period of time extending over the present. 
 
 II est huit lieures It is eight o'clock 
 
 La nuit torn be Night is falling 
 
 n fait froid en hirer It is cold in winter 
 
 Les bateaux partent trois The boats leave three times a week 
 fois par semaine 
 
 36. Special Required Uses. The present must also be used: 
 
 I. For Past Activity continuing into the Present 
 
 The present is used for past activity continuing into the 
 
 present; for what has been and still is. (The English here uses 
 
 the present perfect tense.) This occurs chiefly with depuis, des,* 
 
 11 y a . . . que, void . . , que, voila . . . que. 
 
 * Des, less frequent than depuis, emphasizes that the action began straightway 
 at the time indicated. It is akin in meaning to a partir de. 
 
26] 
 
 PRESENT 
 
 27 
 
 Depuis quand, monsieur, 
 
 etes-vous ici? 
 Je suis ici depuis mardi, 
 
 madame 
 Depuis quelque temps il y va 
 
 tous les soils 
 n y a un mois que je voy- 
 age 
 Voila quinze jours que je 
 
 I'attends, et il n'est pas 
 
 encore venu 
 Voici trois ans qu'elle n'ha- 
 
 bite plus la ville 
 
 How long have you been here? 
 
 I have been here since Tuesday 
 
 For some time he has been going 
 
 there every evening 
 I have been traveling for a month 
 
 Here I have been waiting for him 
 two weeks, and he has not come 
 yet 
 
 For three years now she has no 
 longer been living in the'city 
 
 a. In cases where there is diflBculty in deciding whether an English 
 present perfect accompanied by a negative belongs to this category, it is 
 often helpful to translate into French the corresponding affirmative state- 
 ment. He has not been long in America, II n'est pas depuis longtemps en 
 Amerique (Compare: He has been in America for a long time, H est depuis 
 longtemps en Amerique). / have not seen him since his arrival, Je ne I'ai 
 pas vu depuis son arrivee (Compare: / have seen him since his arrival, Je 
 I'ai vu depuis son arrivee). 
 
 2. For the Future after si in Neutral Conditional Clauses 
 
 As in English, the present is used instead of the future, after 
 si in neutral conditional clauses (see § 62, >i). 
 
 Si je vous vois demain, je If I see you to-morrow, I shall give 
 vous donnerai son adresse you his address 
 
 a. After si meaning whether, the usual laws of tense hold. 
 
 Je me demande si elle nous I wonder whether she will write us 
 e cr it a 
 
 b. The English pften uses the present for the future in other types of 
 subordinate clauses. This is not permissible in French (see § 28, a). 
 
28 INDICATIVE MOOD [27 
 
 37. Special Permissible Uses. The present may be used: 
 I. In Place of a Past 
 
 The historical present, or lively representation of a past by 
 means of the present tense, is used far more than in English, and 
 is a characteristic of French style, especially in narration. There 
 often occurs, in the midst of a narrative, a shift from past to his- 
 torical present, or vice versa, so that a monotonous recurrence 
 of the same tense endings is obviated. The historical present is 
 also frequently used throughout a whole piece of narration. It 
 is common in both literature and conversation. In the main, in 
 translating into English from the French, it should be avoided. 
 
 Mais sur la place le tumulte augmente. Des coups de feu soul: 
 tires sans qu'on sache bien d'oiji ils partent. A la faveur du 
 trouble, nombre de gardes nationauz forceat les portes de I'h6te1 
 de ville et se r€pandent dans les salles. La manifestation 
 tourne en revolution. 
 
 a. When the historical present is used in the principal clause, 
 other tenses in the sentence are usually made to correspond. ' 
 
 Les Prussiens venaient de prendre Longwy; le bruit se repand qu'ils 
 sont dans Verdun. On propose dans I'Assemblee de se retirer 
 au del^ de la Loire. Danton demontre que livrer Paris, c'est 
 livrer la France. 
 
 Imperfects and pluperfects are, however, often retained, espe- 
 cially in clauses which depend on some other part of the sentence 
 than the verb. 
 
 Sit6t que le marechal de Tallard apprend que Marlborough attaque 
 son aile, il y court: il trouve une action furieuse engagee, la 
 cavalerie franjaise trois fois ralliee, et trois fois poussee. II v a vers 
 le village de Blenheim, oh. il avait poste vingt-sept bataillons et 
 douze escadrons. C'etait une petite arm^e separee: elle faisait 
 un feu continuel sur ceUe de Marlborough. De ce village, oft il 
 donne ses ordres, il revole h. I'endroit oii Marlborough, avec de 
 la cavalerie et des bataillons entre les escadrons, poussait la cava- 
 lerie franfaise. 
 
27-28] FUTURE 
 
 29 
 
 2. In Place of a Near Future 
 
 Not infrequently, as in English, the present is used in the place 
 of a near future. 
 
 Je reviens dans deux I return (=shall return) in two 
 jours days 
 
 FUTURE 
 28. Ordinary Use. The future tense (le futur) places the 
 activity in future time. 
 
 Kous le verrons dans We shall see him in a week 
 
 huit jours 
 J'espfere que vous viendrez, I hope you will come 
 
 mademoiselle 
 Dites-moi si vous irez Tell me whether you will go 
 
 a. In subordinate clauses with the indicative, the French, 
 unlike the English, demands the future tense for future time. 
 (Clauses of condition form an exception; see § 26, 2.) 
 
 Quand vous y arriverez, il When you arrive, he will be gone 
 
 sera parti 
 Je I'aimerai tant que je vi - I shall love him as long as I live 
 
 vrai 
 Le mois prochain, pendant Next month, while you are in the 
 
 que vous serez k la cam- country, I shall have to work 
 
 pagne, je devrai travailler 
 Elle parlera comme elle vou- She will talk as she wants to 
 
 dra 
 Vous icniez ce qu'il vous You will write what you please 
 
 plaira 
 II trouvera des amis dans He will find friends in all the cities 
 
 toutes les villes qu'il visi- l-'c visits 
 
 tera 
 
 b. English ' will ' may denote futurity or volition. When 
 denoting volition, it is not to be translated by the French future. 
 
 He will not obey II n'obeira pas 
 
 He 2w// not obey H ne veut pas obeir 
 
3° 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD 
 
 [28-29 
 
 c. As in English, future time is often expressed by the verb 
 to go +infinitive. This construction, and the present tense (see 
 § 27, 2), have, especially in conversation, ahnost driven out the 
 future tense for the expression of an immediate future. 
 
 We are going to read it presently 
 
 Nous aliens le lire tout 
 
 k I'heure 
 Vous allez voir ce qu'il 
 
 dira 
 Quand il partira I'annee pro- 
 
 chaine, je vais I'accom- 
 
 pagner 
 
 You are going to see what he will 
 
 say 
 When he starts next year, I am 
 
 going to go with him 
 
 d. The future tense may have shades of meaning resembling 
 devoir, vouloir, pouvoir-|- infinitive (see § 14). The English has 
 some similar constructions. 
 
 J'avouerai (or Je dois 
 
 avouer) que j 'avals peur 
 Quel nom est-ce que j'an- 
 
 noncerai {or je dois an- 
 
 noncer) ? 
 Ainsi vous laisserez {or vous 
 
 voulez laisser) €chapper 
 
 cette occasion 
 Vous c r o i r e z (or Vous pouvez 
 
 croire) ce que vous voudrez 
 
 I must confess I was afraid 
 What name must I announce? 
 
 So you will let this opportunity es- 
 cape 
 
 You may believe what you will 
 
 39. Special Permissible Uses. The future may be used: 
 
 I. With Imperative Valtie 
 As in English, the future occurs rather frequently with the 
 
 value of an imperative. 
 
 Tu ne tueras point 
 
 Vous n'irez pas 
 
 Vous demanderez k le voir 
 
 Thou shalt not kill 
 You shall not go 
 Ask to see him 
 
 2. For a Supposition referring to Present Time 
 
 Occasionally, the future occurs for a supposition referring to 
 present time. Such a future is found only with the verbs Stre 
 
29-30] rUXXniE PERFECT 3 1 
 
 and avoir, to express an inference drawn from a preceding state- 
 ment, and is rare even with them. (For a similar, and less infre- 
 quent, use of the future perfect, see § 30, b.) 
 
 S'il n'est pas parti, c'est qu'il If he has not started, it must be 
 
 sera malade that he is sick 
 
 It is more customary to say: c'est qu'il doit fitre malade, or c'est sans 
 doute qu'il est malade, or il faut qu'il' soit malade. 
 
 3. For the Future from a Past Standpoint 
 
 Occasionally, the future occurs for the future from a past 
 standpoint. (Prophetic future.) This occurs chiefly in historical 
 writings, in places where we might have the conditional tense 
 (see § 46) or a past tense. The speaker for the moment places 
 himself at the standpoint of the events he is narrating, and from 
 that standpoint all subsequent events are still in the future. Or- 
 dinarily, however, this construction is replaced by some one of 
 several others. 
 
 A cette 6poque il travaillait k At that epoch he was working to 
 
 faire voter une loi dont have a law passed, the applica- 
 
 plus tard il sera (o;" serait, tion of which he was {or was 
 
 or allait 6tre, or devait Stre, going to be, or was destined to 
 
 or fut) le premier k con- be) the first to condemn 
 damner I'application 
 
 FUTURE PERFECT 
 
 30. Ordinary Use. The future perfect tense (le futur ante- 
 rieur) is used to indicate that the activity will be complete at some 
 time in the future. 
 
 Dans dix minutes il aura In ten minutes he will have fin- 
 
 fini de manger ished eating 
 
 n travaillera mieux quand ses He will work better when his 
 
 compagnons seront ar- companions have come 
 
 rives 
 
 n saura ce que vous aurez He will know what you (will) have 
 
 fait done 
 
32 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD [30-3I 
 
 a. The English uses the present perfect for the future perfect 
 in subordinate clauses. The French does not, except in clauses 
 of condition (see § 26, 2 ; § 28, a). 
 
 Quand vous aurez dormi, When you have slept, you will 
 
 vous irez mieux feel better 
 
 Vous pouvez y aller di- You can go there Sunday, if you 
 
 manche, si vous ne 1 ' a v e z have not done so previously 
 
 pas fait auparavant 
 
 b. The future perfect may be used for a supposition referring 
 to past time. (For a similar use of the future, see § 29, 2.) 
 
 Regardez conune I'herbe s'est See how the grass has dried; the 
 
 dessech6e; le jardinier gardener must have forgotten 
 
 aura oublie de I'arroser to water it 
 
 Tiens! il n'est pas chez lui? What, he is not at home? Then 
 
 Alors il sera parti pour he must have started for the 
 
 le bord de la mer seashore 
 
 IMPERFECT 
 
 3 1. Ordinary Use. The imperfect tense (I'lmparfait) indicates 
 that at a time in the past an action or state existed: the activity, 
 viewed from a standpoint in the past, was going on.* Thus the 
 duration is undetermined, is unmarked by definite limits. 
 
 The imperfect may also indicate that the activity was going on, 
 not merely at one time in the past, but at a series of times (Imper- 
 fect of repeated action). Here it is the number of members of the 
 series that is undetermined. 
 
 In consequence of its character, the imperfect is especially suited 
 to descriptions and to portrayals of custom, and may quite prop- 
 erly be called the descriptive past. Frequently it may 
 be translated by the English periphrases used to stress continu- 
 
 * Thus the imperfect may be termed a present in the past. Instead of look- 
 ing backward to the past occurrences, the speaker moves himself in thought to the 
 time when they were occurring, and takes the standpoint of a contemporary spec- 
 tator, of an on-looker. 
 
3l] IMPERFECT 33 
 
 ance or repetition or customary action in the past. II mangeait 
 is equal to he ate in. the sense he was eating] or he was accustomed 
 to eat, he used to eat. 
 
 Action going on without a set limit: 
 
 Quand tous les autres avaient When all the others had finished, 
 
 fiai, il mangeait encore he was still eating 
 
 n arriva pendant que je par- He arrived while I was talking 
 
 lais 
 
 Pendant que je parlais, il While I was talking, he was 
 
 ecrivait writing 
 
 Je pensais qu'elle lisait I thought she was reading 
 
 Un moment je cms qu'elle For a moment I believed that she 
 
 songeait was dreaming 
 
 Les Grecs aimaient la The Greeks loved music 
 
 musique 
 
 Action repeated without a set limit to the number of repetitions: 
 
 H mangeait du poisson He was accustomed to eat fish 
 
 tous les vendredis every Friday 
 
 Les bateaux partaient The boats left three times a week 
 trois fois par semaine 
 
 De temps en temps il vena it He would come to see us occa- 
 
 nous voir et restait des sionally and would stay for 
 
 Iieures entieres whole hours at a time 
 
 a. When the imperfect is used, it is not indicated when or 
 whether the activity came to an end. This fact furnishes a con- 
 venient test as to whether the imperfect is the proper tense. Some 
 other tense than the imperfect must be used if it is the intention 
 of the speaker to indicate that the activity came to an end at some 
 time in the past, or if something in the same clause ac- 
 tually indicates this. Similarly, in the case of repeated action, 
 the imperfect is not permissible when it is indicated that the series 
 of repetitions came to an end. 
 
 Le lundi suivant, a deux The following Monday, at exactly 
 
 heures precises, il en- two o'clock, he was entering his 
 
 trait bhez son ami friend's house 
 
34 INDICATIVE MOOD [31 
 
 (There is no indication in this statement whether or not he completed the 
 entering. II entra would mean he entered, he went into.) 
 
 n s'avansait quand il He was advancing when he per- 
 
 m'aperfut ceived me 
 
 (No indication whether he ceased advancing after perceiving me. H 
 s'avan$a would mean he advanced, he moved forward.) 
 
 Autrefois il m'aimait He loved me formerly 
 
 (There is no indication in this statement as to whether or not he later 
 ceased to love me. Autrefois il m'aima, Formerly he loved me, would imply 
 that his love has now ceased.) 
 
 II m'aimait alors comme He used to love me then like a 
 un frere, mais maintenant brother, but now he detests me 
 
 il me deteste 
 
 (It is only by the additional statement in the new clause that 
 we learn his sentiments have changed. In II m'aima longtemps comme 
 un frere, For a long time he loved me like a brother, the imperfect would be 
 incorrect, because the word longtemps, occurring in the same clause, shows 
 that the love ceased when a certain period had expired.) 
 
 II mangeait du poisson tous He ate fish every Friday 
 les vendredis 
 (The imperfect would be incorrect in Pendant deux mois il mangea du 
 poisson tous les vendredis; see § 38, a.) 
 
 b. In certain instances the imperfect occurs where normally, according 
 to the ordinary rules, the past definite might be expected. The past definite 
 is the narrative tense, the imperfect the descriptive tense, and the use of the 
 latter, when the former might be expected, immobilizes the action and brings 
 it before the hearer's eyes as in a picture. This pictorial imperfect is some- 
 times employed when a series of verbs names a succession of activities, and 
 then has the striking result of hastening instead of retarding the action; for, in 
 order that all the activities may be represented in a single picture, they must 
 follow each other with such rapidity that they shall seem to be simultaneous. 
 
 Sufflt! s'gcria Sturel, qui ras- "Enough!" cried out Sturel, who 
 
 semblait son chapeau, sa picked up his hat, cane, gloves, 
 
 canne, ses gants, payait, paid, got up, got out 
 se levait, decampait 
 
3I-33J IMPERFECT 35 
 
 II n'avait pas fait dix pas, He had not gone ten steps, when he 
 
 qu'U s'arr^tait, battait stopped, beat the air with his 
 
 Pair de ses deux bras, et arms, and fell suddenly to the 
 
 tombait d'un seul coup ground 
 par terra 
 
 32. Special Required Use. The imperfect must also be used : 
 For a Previous Activity continuing into a Time in the Past 
 
 The imperfect is used for a previous activity continuing into 
 a time in the past; for what had been and still was. (The 
 English here uses the pluperfect.) This is exactly parallel to 
 the use of the present tense for what has been and still is (see 
 § 26, i), and occurs with the same expressions. 
 
 Depuis quand 6tiez-vous ici? How long had you been here? 
 
 H y avait un mois que je I had been traveling for a month 
 
 voyageais 
 
 Voiia quinze jours que jel' at- I had been waiting for him two 
 
 tendais whole weeks 
 
 a. Further special required use. For the imperfect in conditional or 
 concessive clauses introduced by si and contrary to fact or stressing uncer- 
 tainty, see § 62, 2 and 3. 
 
 33. Special Permissible Use. The imperfect may be used: 
 
 For the Perfect Conditional 
 
 The imperfect is occasionally used for the perfect conditional, 
 in the conclusion of a past condition contrary to fact, or after 
 sans (see § 62, 2b, (2)).* The pluperfect in the clause of condi- 
 tion may remain, or it too may be changed to the imperfect. 
 Similar substitutions sometimes occur in English. 
 
 Si j 'avals dit un mot {or Si If I had said a word, I was done for 
 
 je disais un mot), j'etais 
 
 perdu 
 
 Sans moi, il s'echappait But for me he would have escaped 
 
 * Since with the imperfect the speaker assumes the attitude of a spectator, 
 
 the imperfect is the more vivid construction, and serves to stress the belief 
 
 in the absolijte certainty of the event named, save for the interruption as given- 
 
36 INDICATIVE MOOD [34 
 
 PAST INDEFINITE 
 
 34. Ordinary Use. The past indefinite tense (le passe compose, 
 le passe indefini) is employed of a past action, but stresses that 
 the action is complete at the present time. 
 
 Les autres travaillent encore, The others are still at work, but we 
 
 mais nous avons fini have finished 
 
 J'ai vu votre ami, monsieur, I have seen your friend, but I do 
 
 mais je ne le connais pas not know him 
 
 a. The past indefinite is especially apt to be employed when 
 an expression of time which names a period that belongs to or 
 includes the present day unites the past action with the present 
 time (to-day, this morning, last night, when it can be translated 
 by cette nuit, this week, this year, the present century, etc.). 
 
 J'y suis all€ ce matin I went there this morning 
 
 J'ai peu dormi cette nuit I slept little last night 
 
 II a plu beaucoup cette ann€e It has rained a great deal this year 
 
 Le sigcle actual a commence The present century began the first 
 
 le premier joiu: de I'annle day of the year 1901 
 
 1901 
 
 b. The past indefinite must be used when completion at the present 
 time is stressed, but its use is often extended to cases in which completion in 
 the present exists, but is not stressed. Literary French limits this extension to 
 an assertion made, not as one of a series of events, but as a detached statement. 
 
 Alexandre a conquis le Alexander conquered the world. 
 
 monde. Comment peut-on How can his greatness be denied? 
 
 nier sa grandeur? 
 
 (Compare: Alexandre conquit le monde, mais aprSs sa mort son empire 
 
 ne dura pas, Alexander conquered the world, hut after his death his empire 
 
 did not last.) 
 
 Le premier c4ble tfl^gra- The first submarine cable was laid 
 phique sous-marin a 6t6 in 1851 
 
 posS en 1851 
 
34-35] PAST INDEFINITE 37 
 
 (Compare: Le premier c^ble sous-marin fut pos6 en 1851, mais ce 
 n'est qu'en 1858 que Von etablit la communication telegraphique entre 
 I'Europe et I'Amerique, The first submarine cable was laid in i8§i, but it 
 was only in 1858 that telegraphic communication was established between 
 Europe and America.) 
 
 c. Just as the present is sometimes- used for the future (see § 27, 2), so 
 the past indefinite sometimes occurs for the future perfect. (This is always 
 the case in neutral conditions and concessions introduced by si; see § 62, i.) 
 
 Attendez; j'ai fini dans un Wait; I shall have finished in a 
 moment moment 
 
 35. Special Required Use. The past indefinite must also 
 be used: 
 
 In Conversational Style, for the Past Definite 
 
 The past indefinite is used, in conversation and letter-writing, 
 instead of the past definite (see § 39), which should not be em- 
 ployed except when literary style is demanded. Thus, in con- 
 versation, the past indefinite is the tense for all assertions refer- 
 ring to the past except those where the imperfect is demanded 
 by the rules given above (§§ 31-33), or a pluperfect tense by the 
 rules given below (§§ 41-43). 
 
 L'annee demiSre men fils e st Last year my son fell ill. The doc- 
 tomb emalade. Lesmede- tors sent him to Switzerland, 
 cins I'ont envoye en where he spent two months be- 
 Suisse, o& il a passe deux fore recovering 
 mois avant de se retablir 
 
 a. It should not be forgotten that in conversation the historical 
 present (§ 27, i) serves almost as frequently as the past indef- 
 inite to take the place of the past definite; and that it is also 
 quite common in literary style. 
 
38 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD 
 
 [36-37 
 
 PAST DEFINITE 
 
 36. Ordinary Use. The past definite tense (le passe simple, 
 le passe defini) indicates that the action or state lies wholly in 
 the past. It is the true past tense, and represents a looking back- 
 ward. Tending to sum up and to give a comprehensive view, it 
 impUes that the action was completed, came to an end. The im- 
 perfect, on the other hand, leaves unsettled the question of when 
 and whether the activity was completed. The speaker takes the 
 attitude of an on-looker, so that instead of a looking backward, 
 the imperfect represents a looking on. 
 
 The above is the law for literary French. For the absence 
 of the past definite from French conversation, see § 39. 
 
 37. Various Values of the Past Definite. The past definite, 
 which is the true past tense, lends itself to a variety of uses. 
 Chief among these are the following: 
 
 I. The past definite is well adapted to the narration of a 
 series of past events. Thus the past definite is much employed in 
 historical narrative. A series of past definites indicates that the 
 events followed one after the other, unless there is something in 
 the context to show they were contemporaneous. 
 
 AussitSt qu'il m'apersut, 
 il vint a moi et me ten- 
 dit la main 
 
 Alors Us quitterent la salle 
 et se rendirent sur le 
 quai, oft leurs amis les at- 
 tendaient. Apres avoir ad- 
 resse au marquis quelques 
 lignes pour lui expliquer 
 leur voyage imprevu, ils 
 s'embarquSrent ensem- 
 ble et aussitdt le navire 
 partit 
 
 As soon as he noticed me, he came 
 to me and held out his hand 
 
 Then they left the hall and re- 
 paired to the quay, where their 
 friends were waiting for them. 
 After sending a line to the 
 marquis to explain their unex- 
 pected voyage, they embarked 
 together, and the ship started 
 at once 
 
371 PAST DEFINITE 39 
 
 Bonaparte partagea ses sol- Bonaparte divided his soldiers into 
 dats en trois colonnes: Bon, three columns: Bon marched on 
 
 avec la premifere, marcha the right with the first; Kleber 
 
 k droite; Klfiber, avec la se- marched in the center with the 
 
 conde, marcha au centre; second; Menou advanced on the 
 
 Menou, avec la troisi&me, left with the third 
 
 s'avanga a gaucbe 
 (In this sentence the opening statement indicates that the action of the 
 verbs which follow is contemporaneous.) 
 
 2. Naturally, the past definite is used if it is desired to bring 
 out the non-duration, or if the non-duration is evident. 
 
 D6s qu'il entendit ce cri, il As soon as he heard this cry, he 
 
 s'arrfeta stopped 
 
 La bombe eclat a The bomb exploded 
 
 (La bombe eclatait would mean: The bomb was on the point of exploding.) 
 
 3. The past definite is well adapted to express the carrying of 
 an action through to completion. 
 
 Petit a petit les ateliers se Little by little the workshops be- 
 viderent came empty 
 
 (Se vidaient would mean: were becoming empty.) 
 
 a. From this power to stress completion, the past definite of devoir, 
 falloir, pouvoir, vouloir takes on a special meaning. Je dns — it was my 
 duty {and I did it); il fallut = j7 was necessary {and was done); je pus = / 
 was able {and I did it); je voulus, / insisted on {and I won my point). 
 
 n dut aller He had to go; He was forced to go 
 
 (He actually went. H devait aller means: It was his duty to go; he may 
 may not have gone.) 
 
 4. Some verbs by the side of their usual meaning can, wrhen 
 the context, favors it, assume an inchoative meaning, marking 
 the beginning of the action. This meaning is rare outside of the 
 past definite, but is not infrequent there. (Preceding action, if 
 interrupted by such a past definite, is expressed by the imperfect.) 
 
 or 
 
40 INDICATIVE MOOD [37 
 
 At first sight, this usage may seem to break the rule that the past def- 
 inite marks completion, but it is to be noticed that when used in this way 
 these verbs have a meaning different from their usual significance, and 
 that, in this meaning, the action noted is completed action.* 
 
 Nous attendions sa reponse, We were waiting for his answer, 
 
 mais a se taisait. Tout a but he was silent. Suddenly he 
 
 coup il parla spoke ( = began to speak, broke 
 
 the silence) 
 
 a. In a number of cases this inchoative meaning is translated in Eng- 
 lish by a different verb. Thus the past definite of avoir, savoir, connaitre, 
 etre may mean: ye:us = I received; je sus = / learned; je connus = / realized; 
 je fus = I became. 
 
 Les biens du meunier furent The miller's property was divided 
 partages entre ses fils. among his sons. The eldest re- 
 L'ain€ eut le moulin, la ceived the mill, the second the 
 second eut I'Sne, et le donkey, and the youngest re- 
 plus jeune n'eut que le ceived only the cat 
 chat 
 
 5. The past definite may be used to sum up a number of ac- 
 tions that have been mentioned. When one brother after the 
 other had tried to break a bundle of sticks, La Fontaine says: 
 
 Tous perdirent leur temps; All Ipst their time; the bundle re- 
 
 le faisceau resist a sisted 
 
 * This special meaning is always one already contained in the verb. An action 
 may be looked on as complete when either one of two conditions is met: (i) when it 
 has come into being, run its course, and stopped (temporal completion); (2) when 
 it has come fully into being, has taken its complete form (modal completion). 
 J'eus = / obtained full possession of; je sus = / acquired complete knowledge; je 
 connus=/ reached a convincing conception; je fus = my slate took definite form. See 
 G. G. Laubscher, The Past Tenses in French, Baltimore, 1909, pp. 16-40. 
 
37-38] PAST DEFINITE 41 
 
 6. The past definite may simply serve to bring out that an 
 activity lies wholly in the past. It is then usually contrasted 
 with an activity that is present or future. 
 
 II f ut tout-puissant; personne He was (once) all-powerful; no one 
 ne le craint plus fears him any longer 
 
 (n a 6te tout-puissant means nearly the same thing, but in literary usage 
 stresses the present termination rather than the past existence of his power.) 
 
 7. When the past definite is used for two contemporaneous 
 actions, it is because they are conceived of as simply two points 
 of time exactly coinciding. 
 
 L'horloge senna cinq hetures The clock struck five just as he got 
 quand il se leva up 
 
 The meaning is different if you say: L'horloge sonnait (was striking) 
 cinq heures quand il se leva, or: L'horloge senna cinq heures pendant qu'il 
 se levait (was getting up), or: L'horloge sonnait (was striking) cinq heures 
 pendant qu'U se levait (was getting up). 
 
 38. Remarks on the Past Definite. 
 
 a. AVhen a hmit is set to the time an action was continued, 
 the past definite is used, no matter how great the duration. 
 Further, if an action was repeated, the past definite is used, pro- 
 vided a hmit is set to the times it was repeated (see § 31, a). 
 
 Action continued up to a set limit: 
 
 Lundi il travailla jusqu'I Monday, he worked until midnight 
 minuit 
 (But: Lundi il travaillait quand j'arrivai, Monday, he was working when 
 I arrived.) 
 
 Pendant cinquante ans il ha- During fifty years he lived in the 
 
 bit a la mSme maisen same house 
 
 Je I'attendis longtemps I waited a long time for him 
 
 Elle n'eut jamais de rgponse She never received an answer 
 
 Action repeated, with a set limit to the number of repetitions: 
 
 Pendant le mois de Janvier il During the month of January, he 
 travailla chaque jour jus- worked every day until midnight 
 
 qu'i minuit 
 
42 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD [38-39 
 
 (But: Iltravaillait tous les jours jusqu'a minuit, He worked every day 
 uvtil midnight; imperfect, because a limit is not set to the number of days the 
 action was repeated.) 
 
 Plusieurs fois il sort it sans Several times he went out without 
 parapluie an umbrella 
 
 b. Notice that verbs whose meaning in itself implies continua- 
 tion, such as durer, last, rester, remain, can be used in the past 
 definite. 
 
 Elle resta trois jours She stayed three days 
 
 Je partis, mais ils reste- I left, but they remained (stayed 
 
 rent it out, stopped behind) 
 
 Ce surnom Ixxi resta This nickname stuck to him 
 
 Son voyage dura huit jours His trip lasted a week 
 
 Malgre les soins des mfide- In spite of the doctors' care, his 
 
 cins, son mal dura disease persisted (held out) 
 
 c. Notice that in some cases the choice of the tense depends on the point 
 of view of the speaker. 
 
 Napoleon fut im grand geng- Napoleon was a great general 
 ral 
 (Sums up the verdict of history. The speaker is looking back on Na- 
 poleon's life as a completed whole.) 
 
 L'histoire de ses guerres de- The history of his wars proves that 
 montre que Napoleon fit ait Napoleon was a great general 
 
 un grand gfinfiral 
 (The thought is directed to the series of events which gave proof of his 
 greatness.) 
 
 Napolfion fit ait corse Napoleon was a Corsican 
 
 39. Disappearance of the Past Definite. The past definite 
 has become a dead form in actual speech. In the written language, 
 it is still entirely common, and in formal addresses an orator will 
 employ it, but elsewhere, in the spoken language and in familiar 
 writing, such as letters, it is almost entirely replaced by the past 
 indefinite (§ 35) or by the historical present (§ 27, i). The latter 
 
39-40] 
 
 PAST DEFESriTE 
 
 43 
 
 also often replaces it in the written language. French pupils are 
 always taught at school the use of the past definite. Since it is 
 absent from all forms of familiar speech, they would not spontane- 
 ously employ it, and they need to command it for use in literary 
 composition. Foreign students, whose practical needs are limited 
 to conversation and letter-writing, should avoid it in speaking, 
 and even in writing, except as an exercise in French literary style. 
 
 40. Illustrative Example. The following passage will serve 
 to illustrate the use of the narrative tenses. 
 
 
 Literary Style 
 
 Conversational Style 
 
 Literary and Conversational Style 
 
 Only 
 
 Only 
 
 (Historical Present) 
 
 (Past Definite) 
 
 (Past Indefinite) 
 
 11 y a cinq ans, j'arrivais d'lta- 
 
 a, arrivais 
 
 a, arrivais 
 
 lie; j'etais veuve depuis trois mois. 
 
 €tais 
 
 €tais 
 
 J'habitais rh6tel Maurice. Un jour, 
 
 habitais 
 
 habitais 
 
 j'etais allge rue de Lille, et j'avais 
 
 etais allge, avais 
 
 €tais all€e, avais 
 
 renvoyfi ma voiture. Je revenais 
 
 renvoyfi, revenais 
 
 renvoyg, revenais 
 
 k pied, pour faire plaisir h. mon 
 
 
 
 mddecin, qui me dit toujours de 
 
 dit 
 
 dit 
 
 marcher. J'arrive au pont des 
 
 arrival 
 
 suis arrivfie 
 
 Saints-Pferes; je ne savais pas qu'il 
 
 savais 
 
 savais 
 
 fallait payer im sou pour passer 
 
 fallait 
 
 fallait 
 
 dessus; un invalide court aprfes moi 
 
 courut 
 
 a couru 
 
 et me demands mon sou. Je fouille 
 
 demanda, fouillai 
 
 a demand^, ai fouill^ 
 
 dans ma poche; selon ma coutume, 
 
 
 
 je n'avais pas d'argent sur moi. Je 
 
 avais 
 
 avais 
 
 me mets &, rire, 1' invalide croit que 
 
 mis, crut 
 
 suis mise, a cru 
 
 je me moque de lui et m'enjoint 
 
 moquais, enjoignit 
 
 moquais, a enjoint 
 
 de revenir sur mes pas. En ce 
 
 
 
 moment passe k c6t6 de moi un 
 
 passa 
 
 a passg 
 
 monsieur qui avait paye son sou. 
 
 avait payfi 
 
 avait pay6 
 
 lui, qui fitait dans son droit, et qui, 
 
 6tait 
 
 €tait 
 
 voyant mon embarras, a dit k I'in- 
 
 dit 
 
 adit 
 
 valide avec un geste magnifique: 
 
 
 
 "Tenez, voilS, votre sou, laissez 
 
 
 
 passer mademoiselle." 
 
 
 
44 
 
 ■INDICATIVE MOOD [41-42 
 
 PLUPERFECT TENSES 
 
 41. Classification. Pluperfect tenses are those which mark 
 that an activity was already past at a point in the past. The 
 French has three forms which take the place of the English pluper- 
 fect: the pluperfect (le plus-que-parfait), the past anterior (le 
 passe anterieur), and the compound past anterior* (le passe an- 
 terieur surcompose) . They are formed with the past participle of 
 the verb, preceded by the 
 
 im'perfect 1 [ avoir = pluperfect (j'avais parle, j'etais sorti, etc.) 
 
 past definite of or = past anterior (j'eus parle, je fus sorti, etc.) 
 past indefinite Stre = compound past anterior (j'ai eu parle, j'ai ete 
 
 sorti, etc.) 
 
 All three denote that the activity was already completed at 
 some point in the past. From a standpoint in the past, the ac- 
 tivity was already past. 
 
 43. Pluperfect and Past Anterior. The pluperfect tense places 
 the activity in a period for which no definite concluding time 
 limit is indicated ; the past anterior tense places it in a period for 
 which such a limit is indicated. The following are specimens of 
 the pluperfect: 
 
 II avait parle mais son He had spoken, but his friend had 
 
 ami n'avait pas re- not answered 
 pondu 
 
 On disait qu'elle fitait partie It was reported that she had left 
 
 Je crois qu'il avait refu I believe that he had received the 
 
 la lettre avant son depart f letter before leaving 
 
 Like the past definite, the past anterior is used only in literary 
 style. Even there is it less frequent than the pluperfect, and is 
 rarely found outside of the following cases: 
 
 * Strictly speaking, the. double-compound past anterior. The French has, 
 further, certain other double-compound forms of the verb, but they are of such 
 rare occurrence that they need not be discussed here. 
 
 t Here the reception of the letter is merely placed at some indefinite time pre- 
 vious to the departure, and so the time limit given is not looked on as definite. 
 
42] 
 
 PLUPERFECT TENSES 
 
 45 
 
 I. After aussitot que, sitot que, des que, as soon as; lorsque, alors 
 que, quand, when; apr^s que, after; jusqu'a ce que,* until. (Past 
 anterior; for repeated action, pluperfect. f) 
 
 As soon as he had finished his 
 
 Aussitdt qu'il eut fini son 
 travail, ses amis arriverent 
 
 Souvent, quand vous etiez 
 parti, ils parlaient en- 
 semble 
 
 Quand vous fiites parti, 
 ils parlerent ensemble 
 
 n resta chez moi jusqu'a ce 
 que mon medecin I'eut 
 gueri 
 
 Chaque matin, aussitdt qu'il 
 avait fini son travail, 
 ses amis arrivaient 
 
 work, his friends arrived 
 Often, when you were gone, they 
 talked together 
 
 When you had left, they talked 
 
 together 
 He stayed at my home until my 
 
 doctor had cured him 
 
 Every morning, as soon as he had 
 finished his work, his friends 
 arrived 
 
 2. After a peine . . . que, scarcely . . . when; ne . . . pas plus 
 
 tot . . . que, no sooner . . . than. 
 for repeated action, pluperfect.) 
 
 A peine avait-il (or eut-il) 
 
 parle, que je lui repondis 
 n n' avait {or n'eut) pas plus 
 
 tot parle, qu'il s'en re- 
 
 pentit 
 A peine avait-il parle, 
 
 que je lui repondais 
 
 (Pluperfect or past anterior; 
 
 Scarcely had he spoken, when I 
 
 answered him 
 He had no sooner spoken than he 
 
 repented of it 
 
 Scarcely had he spoken, when I 
 would answer him 
 
 3. When the time consumed in completing the action is 
 named. (Past anterior or pluperfect; for repeated action, plu- 
 perfect.) 
 
 In three days he had finished his 
 
 work 
 He had soon read the letter 
 Whenever a box came, I had it 
 
 quickly unpacked 
 
 * i. e., when it takes the indicative; see § 56, 5. 
 
 t This rule is subject to exception for quand, lorsque, and apres que, after 
 which some cases occur of the pluperfect in place of the past anterior. 
 
 En trois. jours il eut {or 
 
 avait) fini son travail 
 II eut bientot lu la lettre 
 Si une caisse arrivait, je 
 I'avais vite deballee 
 
46 CONDITIONAL [43-45 
 
 43. Compound Past Anterior. The compound past anterior 
 is almost exclusively restricted to conversational French, where it 
 may take the place of the past anterior, which is not used in conver- 
 sation. Frenchmen, however, cast their spoken sentences in such 
 a form that it comes up less frequently than might be anticipated. 
 
 AussitSt qu'U a eu fini son As soon as he had finished his 
 travail, ses amis sont ar- work, his friends arrived 
 
 rives {or Aussitot son travail 
 fini, ses Eimis sont arrives) 
 
 Quand vous avez ete When you had left, they talked 
 
 parti, ils ont parle en- together 
 
 semble {or lis ont parle en- 
 semble apres votre depart) 
 
 CONDITIONAL 
 
 44. Simple and Perfect Conditional. The conditional has 
 two forms: the simple conditional, usually called the conditional 
 (le conditionnel: je parlerais, je partirais, etc.), and the perfect 
 conditional (le conditionnel pass@: j'aurais parle, je serais parti, 
 etc.). The perfect conditional stands in the same relation to the 
 conditional as the future perfect stands to the future.* The 
 simple conditional denotes an uncompleted activity; the perfect 
 conditional, a completed activity. The conditional occurs in both 
 principal and subordinate clauses. 
 
 a. In principal clauses, the completion indicated by the per- 
 fect conditional is completion in the present, or at a time named 
 or implied. In subordinate clauses, it is completion in the present, 
 or at a time named, or at the time of the principal verb. 
 
 45. The Conditional both a Mood and a Tense. The condi- 
 tional was originally a tense, and indicated chiefly time relations. 
 It can still be employed as a tense, but in most of its present uses 
 it has become a mood, and indicates the manner of the assertion. 
 
 * Or as the pluperfect to the past tenses, or as the past indefinite, in its present 
 perfect meaning, to the present. » 
 
46-471 CONDITIONAL MOOD 47 
 
 46. Conditional Tense, or Future of the Past. As a tense, 
 the conditional is used for an activity which, viewed from a stand- 
 point in the past, still belonged to the future. This use occurs 
 in subordinate clauses dependent on a verb in a past tense.* 
 Change this verb to a present, and the conditional becomes a 
 future. 
 
 Je savais qu'U partirait I knew he would start 
 
 (Cf. Je sais qu'U partira, I know he will start) 
 
 Conune je savais qu'U se- As I knew he would have startedj 
 rait parti, je ne lui ai pas I did not telephone him 
 
 telephone 
 
 a. The simple conditional is often replaced by the imperfect of aller-[- 
 infinitive, just as a future can be replaced by the present of aller-|- infinitive 
 (see § 28, c). 
 
 47. Conditional Mood. As a mood, the conditional makes 
 an assertion as a possibility. The realization of this possibility 
 depends on something else expressed or implied. 
 
 The conditional mood is used : 
 
 i. Jn the Conclusion of Conditional Sentences contrary to Fact or 
 stressing Uncertainty 
 
 The conditional is used in the conclusion of conditional sen- 
 tences contrary to fact or stressing uncertainty. (The condition 
 is put in the imperfect or pluperfect; see § 62, 2-3.) The simple 
 conditional is used for present or future time; the perfect condi- 
 tional for past time. 
 
 * Occasionally it depends on an unexpressed verb of saying, and so seems to 
 be in a principal clause. Son depart ne m'a pas attriste: dans quinze jours il 
 aurait fini son voyage, et alors il reviendrait chez moi, His departure 
 did not make me sad: (/ said to myself that) in two weeks he would have finished 
 his trip, and then he would come back to me. 
 
48 
 
 CONDITIONAL MOOD 
 
 l47 
 
 Si j'avais le livre, je le lirais 
 
 maintenant 
 Si j'avais eu le livre, je I'au- 
 
 rais lu 
 
 If I had the book, I should read it 
 
 now 
 If I had had the book, I should 
 
 have read it 
 
 Si voire boidanger devenait If your baker should become king, 
 roi, il vous f e r a i t ministre _ he would make you minister 
 
 a. The condition may be represented, not only by a si clause, but by 
 some other form of clause, or may be replaced by a phrase, or it may even 
 be left entirely to be supplied (see § 63). 
 
 £t quand cela serait 
 vrai, je nliesiterais pas 
 
 Celui qui le croirait 
 serait lui-meme coupable 
 
 En cherchant bien, il 
 aurait pu me trouver 
 
 On dirait qu'il est americain 
 
 n aurait vouln le fairs 
 
 And even if that should be true, I 
 
 should not hesitate 
 Any one who believed it would be 
 
 guilty himself 
 If he had hunted well, he could 
 
 have found me 
 (If called on for an opinion,) one 
 
 would say he is an American 
 He would have liked to do it (if 
 
 the occasion had offered) 
 
 b. Sentences occasionally ocour *ith two clauses in the conditional mood 
 joined by que, the principal clause appearing to represent a concession or 
 condition, and the que clause the conclusion.* 
 
 [donnerais 1 
 Jeluii . J ,f cent francs 
 
 qu 
 
 [aurais donne 
 
 fn'irait pas 
 ne ser 
 
 erait pas alle 
 
 J'aurais un secret que je 
 vous le confierais sans 
 hesiter 
 
 Even if I 1 . J . f him a 
 
 I had given J 
 
 hundred francs, he would not 
 
 (go 
 
 1 have gone J 
 If I should have a secret, I should 
 confide it to you without hesi- 
 tating 
 
 * In such sentences, the principal clause is in reality the conclusion of an unex- 
 pressed condition, and the que clause modifies the principal verb and denotes 
 manner or attendant circumstance. Analyzed syntactically, the first sentence 
 means {Even if I should give him a hundred francs,) I should give it with the attend- 
 ant circumstance that he would not go. 
 
47) CONDITIONAL MOOD 49 
 
 c. For an occasional use of the imperfect in the conclusion of past con- 
 ditions contrary to fact, and for the substitution, permissible in literary 
 French, of the pluperfect subjunctive for the perfect conditional in condi- 
 tional sentences, see § 62, 2b. 
 
 2. In Modest Assertion 
 
 The conditional is used to give a less imperative tone to a 
 command, a desire, or a necessity. (Conditional of modest as- 
 sertion.) 
 
 Je voudrais que vous y I should like you to go 
 
 alliez 
 
 J'aurais aime a le voir I should have liked to see him 
 
 Auriez-vous I'obligeance de Would you be kind enough to give 
 
 me doimer du feu? me a light? 
 
 n aurait fallu le faire It ought to have been done 
 
 a. The explanation of the origin of this and of the following construction 
 is furnished by § 47, la. 
 
 3. In Dubious Assertion 
 
 The conditional is used to make an assertion as only a pos- 
 sibility or as the opinion of some one else than the speaker. (Con- 
 ditional of dubious assertion.) In the latter sense, the newspapers 
 make especially frequent use of the conditional in reporting 
 rumors. 
 
 Cela serait-il vrai? Can that be true ? 
 
 On pretend que I'ennemi se- It is claimed that the enemy is 
 
 rait en fuite fleeing 
 
 A I'entendre, il serait le According to his account, he is the 
 
 plus capable de tous most capable one of all 
 
 D'apres une depeche rejue & According to a telegram received 
 
 la demiSre heure, un grave as the paper was going to press, 
 
 incendie se serait de- a serious fire broke out in Bor- 
 
 claie & Bordeaux ce deaux this morning 
 matin 
 
50 IMPERATIVE MOOD [47-48 
 
 4. To Present an Action as the Condition of Another Action 
 
 The conditional is used to present an action as the condition 
 of another action; but only in conditions or concessions contrary 
 to fact or stressing uncertainty, and not introduced by si (see 
 § 62, 2a, 3a, 3b). 
 
 Dans le cas oft il se decide- In case he should decide, I should 
 
 rait, je vous en avertirais inform you of it 
 
 Et quand cela aurait ete And even if that had been true, I 
 
 vrai, je ne I'aurais pas dit should not have said it 
 
 Celui qui le croirait se- Any one who would believe it 
 
 rait lui-meme coupable would himself be guilty 
 
 (The relative clause in this sentence is equivalent to a conditional clause: 
 Si quelqu'un le croyait, 11 seiait, etc.) 
 
 Je suis affame comme un I am as hungry as a wolf that has 
 
 loup qui n' aurait pas had nothing to eat for a week 
 
 mange depuis huit jours 
 
 (The relative clause is equivalent to a conditional clause depending on 
 an unexpressed serait affame after comme.) 
 
 a. Concessive clauses of this type may be represented by an inversion 
 with the conditional mood retained (see § 63). 
 
 J'irai jusqti'au bout, d evrais- I shall go to the very end, even if I 
 je y perdre tout men temps should waste all my time at it 
 
 b. For the conditional mood in si clauses which are equivalent to 
 declarative statements, see § 62, 4. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD 
 
 48. The imperative mood indicates that the activity denoted 
 by the verb is the will of the speaker. 
 
 Va done te coucher, men en- Be off now to bed 
 
 fant 
 
 Marchons plus vite Let us walk faster 
 
 Regardez-moi, je vous prie Look at me, please 
 
 Ne le croyez pas Do not believe it 
 
48-49] ■ SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 5 1 
 
 a. The time of the performance of the activity lies necessarily in the 
 future. It may be indicated that it is before some point in the future, 
 
 Ayez abandonne la villa quand I'ennemi y entrera, literally: Have 
 abandoned the city when the enemy enters it; translate: Abandon the city 
 before the enemy enters it. 
 
 b. A number of imperatives are used as exclamations: tiens, tenez, va, 
 allons, allez, voyons, etc. 
 
 c. For the use of the future indicative as imperative, see § 29, i ; for the 
 infinitive as imperative, see § 66, 6a; for the imperative =^^ clause of con- 
 dition, see § 63. 
 
 d. An emphatic negative imperative circumlocution, formed with the 
 imperative of aller and the infinitive, is not infrequent. 
 
 N'allez pas croire ce Don't go and believe what he tells 
 qu'il vous dit you 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 
 
 49. The subjunctive mood indicates that the assertion is not 
 made as a fact, but as something conceived in the mind of the 
 speaker. The assertion may or may not happen to be a fact, 
 but the speaker treats it, when he employs the subjunctive, as 
 something of which he forms a picture in his mind. The subjunc- 
 tive occurs chiefly in subordinate clauses, but may also be used in 
 principal clauses. 
 
 a. It is frequently possible to look on the assertion of a fact 
 from the standpoint of its being a fact, or from the standpoint of 
 its being a conception in the mind of the speaker. In such cases, 
 the indicative or subjunctive is used according to the standpoint 
 chosen. The same translation will serve for: Je suis content de 
 ce que vous etes venu, and for: Je suis content que vous soyez 
 venu; but in the one case the standpoint is: I am glad of the fact 
 that you are here, and in the other: / am glad at the thought of 
 your presence. 
 
52 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 
 
 [SO 
 
 Subjunctive in Principal Clauses 
 
 50. The subjunctive is used in principal clauses to denote 
 awishoranorder. Generally it is introduced by que, but 
 in a number of set phrases it is used without que. The imper- 
 fect subjunctive denotes that a wish is unrealized. 
 
 Blessed be his name! 
 
 Let that be a lesson to you 
 
 Have them come in 
 
 Long live the king! 
 
 God bless you! 
 
 May it not please God! 
 
 Heaven save me from, it! 
 
 Que son nom soit bSnil 
 
 Que cela vous serve da lejon 
 
 Qu'ils entrant 
 
 Vive la roil 
 
 Dieu vous bfinisse! 
 
 A Dieu ne plaisa I 
 
 Le del m'en preserval 
 
 Puissa-t-il rSussir 
 
 Ainsi soit-il 
 
 Soit! 
 
 Grand bian vous f assa ! 
 
 Ne vous deplaisa 
 
 Qui m'aime ma suive 
 Sauve qui paut! 
 
 Plflt a Diau! 
 
 Fussions-nous hors da dan- 
 ger! 
 
 May he succeed 
 
 So be it 
 
 So be it; All right 
 
 Much good may it do you! 
 
 Let it not displease you; By your 
 
 leave 
 Let him who loves me follow me 
 Everybody get away who can; Run 
 
 for your lives ! 
 Would to God it were so! 
 Would we were out of danger! 
 
 a. The subjunctive is also used in the expression Qui vive ? Who goes 
 •there? and in the. (bookish) expression Je na sache pas que . . ., I do not 
 believe I know, I am not aware that .... 
 
 Qui vive? — ^Ami Who goes there ? — A friend 
 
 Je- ne sache pas qu'elle ait I am not aware of her having 
 pense k nous thought of us 
 
 b. When soit is repeated it takes on the meaning whether . . . or. 
 Soit qu'il parle, soit qu'il . Whether he talks or keeps quiet, 
 
 se taise, il est toujours dis- he is always discreet 
 
 cret 
 
50-52] NOtJN CLAUSES 53 
 
 c. Principal clauses with the subjunctive may take on a conditional, 
 concessive, or temporal meaning. 
 
 Vienne encore un procSs, et If another law-suit comes, I am 
 
 je suis achevfi done for 
 
 Que ce mot ait ete dit ou Whether or not this word was said, 
 
 non, il peut servir de legon it can serve for a lesson 
 
 Elle aura dix ans vienne la She will be ten years old when AU- 
 
 Toussaint Saints' day comes 
 
 d. The pluperfect subjunctive is allowed, in literary style, in the place 
 of the perfect conditional (see § 62, 2b). 
 
 Subjunctive in Subordinate Clauses 
 a. noun clauses 
 
 51. Tendency toward Subjunctive. When a noun clause can 
 be interpreted either as a statement of fact or as a mere con- 
 ception of the speaker, the French tends to the latter of these 
 standpoints, and so inclines toward the subjunctive, especially 
 in subject clauses. 
 
 a. Que, introducing noun clauses, cannot, like English that, 
 be omitted. I am afraid he is sick=3'a,i peur qu'il ne soit 
 malade. 
 
 b. Many clauses that, historically considered, are noun clauses, will be 
 foimd treated under adverb clauses; for example: Restez ici jusqu'i ce que 
 je vienne (§ 56, 5). On the other hand, some few clauses that may be 
 looked on as adverbial are, for the sake of convenience, treated along with 
 noun clauses. This is true, for example, of the clauses following some of the 
 verbs given in § 52, 3. 
 
 53. Subjunctive in Notm Clauses. The subjunctive is em- 
 ployed in noun clauses: 
 
 I. After Verbs expressing an Action of the Will 
 
 The subjunctive is used after verbs or verb phrases ex- 
 pressing an action of the will (requirement, command and 
 request, permission, intention, effort for or against). 
 
54 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD [$2 
 
 Je ne veux pas qu'U y aille I do not want him to go there 
 
 II exige que toutes les portes He demands that all the doors be 
 
 soient fermees closed 
 
 Je permets qu'on le lixi dise I permit that it be said to him 
 
 II propose que nous y res- He proposes that we remain there 
 
 tions 
 
 Prenez garde qu'il ne vous Take care that he does not see you 
 
 voie 
 
 Evitez qu'il ne vous pour- Avoid his pursuing you 
 
 suive 
 
 Among the verbs of this class are: entendre (when = be determined), 
 pretendre (when = require, insist on), vouloir, falloir; * commander, con- 
 jurer, defendre, demander, exiger, ordonner, preserve, recommander; 
 consentir (i ce) que, permettre, se preter i ce que, souffrir; proposer; 
 faire attention (when = to^e care), empecher, eviter, prendre garde (when = 
 take care . . . not), s'opposer 3 ce que, tenir k ce que, veiller a ce que. 
 Further 11 est temps que, it is time that (it is such a time as demands that, 
 see § 20, la). 
 
 a. Certain verbs of saying (see Class 3, § 52, 3) are used also 
 at times as verbs of commanding, and as such take the subjimctive: 
 dire, ecrire, arertir, crier, notifier, prevenir, repondre, signifier. 
 
 Dites-lui que je suis malade Say to him that I am sick, and (tell 
 
 et qu'il revienne demain him) to come back tomorrow 
 
 b. When ordonner is used of an edict issued by some one in author- 
 ity, whose will is therefore law, it is frequently followed by the indicative. 
 
 Le roi ordonne que tout traitre The king ordains that every traitor 
 sera puni de mort shall receive the death penalty 
 
 c. Arreter, decider, decreter,t stipulerf indicate assertion (Class 3, 
 § 52, 3) rather than command, and are followed by the indicative. 
 
 d. In the imperative mood, faire {make, cause, bring to pass) and obtenir 
 {obtain) are verbs of effort, and take the subjunctive; elsewhere they are 
 verbs of accomplishment, and are followed by the indicative.! 
 
 Faites qu'ils y aillent Cause them to go there 
 
 * See § 20, foot-note. 
 
 t Decreter, stipuler occasionally occur with the subjunctive. 
 i With obtenir the subjunctive sometimes occurs even when obtenir is not in 
 the imperative. 
 
Sa] NOUN CLAUSES 55 
 
 C'est cela qui fait que les That is what makes matters go 
 choses vont mal wrong 
 
 e. Faire attention may mean notice, and then takes the indicative. 
 
 Faites attention que cela est Notice that that is impossible 
 impossible 
 
 f. Cela n'emp^che pas que, ce qui n'empSche pas que, n'emptehe que 
 usually take the indicative. 
 
 H a dfijS. mang€, ce qui He has already eaten, which does 
 n'emplche pas qu'il a en- not [however] prevent him from 
 
 core faim still being hungry 
 
 g. After empfecher, fiviter, the subjunctive in the subordinate clause 
 usually has an expletive ne, unless the principal verb is negative or interroga- 
 tive. After prendre garde, take care, the subjunctive always has a negative 
 force, and is accompanied by ne, not, without pas. 
 
 Evitez qu'il (ne) vous suive Avoid his following you 
 
 Prenez garde qu'il ne vous Take care that he does not see you 
 voie 
 
 2. After Verbs of Emotion 
 
 The subjunctive is used after verbs or verb phrases expressing 
 an emotion or an opinion involving an emotion (desire, approval, 
 pleasure, wonder, sorrow, regret, fear, anger, etc.). 
 
 H aime qu'on lui dise tou- He likes to be always told the truth 
 
 joiurs la vfiriti 
 
 Nous ne trouvons pas mau- We do not consider it bad that he 
 
 vais qu'il attende im peu should wait a while 
 
 Elle regrette que vous ayez She regrets that you have acted in 
 
 agi ainsi this way 
 
 Among the verbs of this class are: aimer, aimer mieux, d^sirer, avoir 
 envie, avoir int&4t (k ce) que, prfiffirer, souhaiter, vouloir bien; agrfier, 
 
 fitre d'avis (when = advise), trouver bon, juger convenable, trouver mauvais, 
 m€riter juger k propos; fibre enchsmt^, se f€liciter, 6tre heureuz; 
 
 s'fitonner; etre desole, regretter; craindre, avoir peur; etre fache. 
 
 a. After verbs of emotion, que and the subjunctive is used, 
 even when the clause clearly asserts a fact. But, when a fact 
 
56 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 52] 
 
 is involved, it is also permissible to use de ce que + the indica- 
 tive, provided that the principal verb or verb phrase is one that 
 can be followed by de + a substantive.* 
 
 Je suis content que vous 
 
 soyez venu, or 
 Je suis content de ce que 
 
 vous §tes venu 
 
 I am glad you came 
 
 b. Expletive ne is usually inserted in an affirmative clause after an 
 affirmative verb of fearing. 
 
 J'ai peur qu'il ne vienne I am afraid he will come 
 It is not inserted if the existence of the fear is denied or called in question. 
 
 Je n'ai pas peur qu'il vienne I am not afraid he will come 
 
 Avez-vous peur qu'il vienne? Are you afraid he will come? 
 
 Je partirai sans craindre qu'il I shall start without fear of his com- 
 
 vienne ing 
 
 In negative clauses after verbs of fearing there is nothing exceptional. 
 J'ai 
 Je n'ai pas 
 
 Avez-vous 
 
 ... I am 
 
 peiur qu'il ne 
 
 I am not 
 
 vienne pas 
 
 Are you 
 
 afraid he will not come 
 
 c. Souhaiter, desire, is a verb of emotion, and is followed by the sub- 
 jimctive; esperer, hope, is treated as a verb of thinking, and follows the rules 
 governing Class 3 (§ 52, 3). 
 
 d. Se plaindre, complain, is treated as either a verb of saying or as a 
 verb of emotion, and is followed by que + indicative, or que -I- subjunctive, 
 or de ce que + indicative. 
 
 e. Verbs of expectation hesitate between this class and Class 3 (§ 52, 3). 
 S'attendre que, expect, can take the subjunctive, but can also follow the rules 
 governing Class 3, while s'attendre a ce que, expect, takes the subjunctive.f 
 
 f. Noun clauses that follow phrases expressing an emotion are treated 
 like clauses after verbs of emotion. 
 
 Fermez la porte de peur que Shut the door for fear of taking 
 
 vous ne preniez froid cold 
 
 *The following verbs out of the list given above can have this construction: 
 s'aflliger, s'etonner, se feliciter; etre content, desole, enchante, fiche, heureux. 
 
 t Further, attendre que can be used in the sense expect, count, and follows 
 Class 3 (§ 52, 3). For attendre que, wait until, see § 66, 5a. 
 
52] NOUN CLAUSES 57 
 
 3. After Verbs of Knowing, if the Knowledge is denied or 
 
 questioned 
 
 The subjunctive is used after verbs or verb phrases which 
 imply knowledge or certainty, but only if they are qualified in 
 such a way that the assertion in the noun clause is rendered 
 doubtful or unreal. 
 
 Verbs of knowledge or certainty employed affirmatively are 
 followed by the indicative, because, from the standpoint of the 
 person represented by the subject of the verb, the noun clause 
 asserts a reality. When, however, the clause containing the 
 verb of knowledge or certainty is negative, interrogative, 
 or a clause of condition, doubt is frequently thrown on 
 the reality of the assertion in the noun clause, and in literary 
 French it is then generally put in the subjunctive, while, if the reality 
 of the assertion is still evident, the indicative is generally retained. 
 
 Conversational French leans strongly to the use of the indica- 
 tive in this class; so strongly, in fact, that in no case is the indica- 
 tive absolutely wrong. 
 
 To the class of knowledge or certainty belong verbs of perceiving, 
 knowing, thinking, deciding, asserting, informing, acknowledging. 
 
 Examples of the use of the indicative and of the subjimctive: 
 Affirmation 
 Je sais qu'U est malade I know that he is sick 
 
 H se souviendra qu'on lui a dit cela He will remember he has been told 
 
 that 
 Elle m'avait fait savoir qu'elle She had notified me that she would 
 
 vlendrait come 
 
 On m'a dit qu'il me cherchait I have been told that he was look- 
 ing for me 
 D croyait que I'enfant le suivrait He believed that the child would 
 
 foUow him 
 Je vous confesse que son projet me I confess to you that his plan 
 
 plait pleases me „ 
 
 Nous sommes sflrs que vous allez We are sure that you are going to 
 
 reussir 
 
 succeed 
 
58 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 
 
 [52 
 
 Negation 
 
 n ne croit pas que je so is malade, 
 He does not believe that I am sick. 
 
 n ne se souvient pas qu'on lui ait 
 dit cela, He does not remember 
 having been told that. 
 
 n ne sait pas que je suis malade, 
 He does not know of my sickness. 
 
 n ne se souvient pas qu'on lui a dejd 
 dit cela. He does not remember 
 that he has already been told that. 
 
 Interrogation 
 
 Croyez-vous qu'il soit malade? Do 
 you believe that he is sick ? 
 
 Pensez-vous qu'il pleuve de- 
 main? Do you think it will rain 
 tomorrow ? {More literary form.) 
 
 Est-ce qu'il sait que je suis malade? 
 Does he know of my sickness ? 
 
 Pensez-vous qu'il pleuvra demain? 
 Do you think it will rain tomor- 
 row? {More popular form.) 
 
 Condition 
 
 Si je croyais. qu'il fut malade, j'irais 
 le voir. If I believed him to be 
 sick, I should go to see him. 
 
 Si vous croyez qu'il soit votre ami, 
 suivez ses conseils. If you be- 
 lieve that he is your friend, follow 
 his advice. {The speaker does 
 not know whether the hearer be- 
 lieves it.) * 
 
 S'il sait que je suis malade, il 
 viendra me voir. If he knows of my 
 sickness, he will come to see me. 
 
 Si vous croyez qu'il est votre ami, 
 suivez ses conseils. If you be- 
 lieve that he is your friend, fol- 
 low his advice. {The speaker as- 
 sumes that the hearer believes it.) * 
 
 a. Negations, questions, or conditions in the main clause are the most 
 frequent, but not the only elements which may cause the use of the sub- 
 junctive; any element in the main clause which throws doubt on the reality 
 of the assertion in the noun clause may produce the same result; for ex- 
 ample, loin de, difficilement, c'est une erreur de croire (dire, etc.) que . . . 
 
 * In cases where the distinction is as slight as this, indicative and subjunctive 
 are often used with no difference in meaning, even in literary French; and, in con- 
 versational style, the indicative would almost invariably be employed. 
 
sal 
 
 NOUN CLAUSES 
 
 S9 
 
 I am far from admitting that you 
 
 are right 
 You will find it hard to prove that I 
 
 was mistaken 
 It is an error to believe that the rich 
 
 are always happy 
 
 Je suis loin d'admettre que 
 
 vous ayez raison 
 Vous prouverez difficilement 
 
 que je me sols trompg 
 C'est une erreur de croire que 
 
 les riches soient toujours 
 
 heureux 
 
 b. Pressentir, have a presentiment, se douter and soupsonner, suspect, 
 are treated as verbs of knowing, for they mean that the person represented 
 by the subject has reason to believe. 
 
 Je soupsomie qu'il est I'au- I suspect that he is the author of 
 teur de ces vers these verses 
 
 c. Comprendre, concevoir, understand, and expliquer, explain, are verbs 
 of knowing, and follow the rules for Class 3 (§ 52, 3). Comprendre, conce- 
 voir, and s'expliquer may also have the meaning find natural; they are then 
 verbs of approval (Class 2, § 62, 2) and nearly always take the subjunctive. 
 
 Je comprends maintenant que I now understand that it was my 
 
 c'€tait men devoir 
 Je comprends que vous soyez 
 fatigu€, mais ce n'est pas 
 une raison de me gronder 
 
 duty 
 
 I find it natural that you should be 
 tired, but that is no reason for 
 scolding me 
 
 d. Prfitendre, when = maintain, is a verb of assertion and belongs to Class 3 
 (§ 62, 3). When = require, insist on, prgtendre belongs to Class i (§ 62, i). 
 
 II pr€tend que vous avez tort He maintains that you are wrong 
 Je pretends que vous le fas- I insist that you do it 
 siez 
 
 e. Supposer, suppose, in the sense take for granted, belongs to Class 3 
 (§ 62, 3). In the imperative,* it means suppose in the sense make a supposi- 
 tion, and is usually followed by the subjunctive. So also the imperative of 
 poser, and, in colloquial use, of prendre and mettre, can have the meaning sup- 
 pose, usually followed by the subjunctive. 
 
 n suppose que vous serez He supposes that you will soon be 
 
 bientdt fatigu€ 
 Supposons que I'or so it aussi 
 
 commun que le fer 
 Prenez que nous n'ayons 
 
 (fir n'avons) rien dit 
 
 * Occasionally also in the first person present indicative. 
 
 tired 
 Let us suppose gold to be as common 
 
 as iron 
 Assume that we have said nothing 
 
6o SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD [52 
 
 f . Accorder, admettre usually mean admit {as a fact), and belong to Class 3. 
 They may also take the meaning admit {as a possibility), and are then fol- 
 lowed by the subjunctive.* 
 
 J'admets que votre proposi- I admit that your proposition pleases 
 
 tion me platt me 
 
 Puisque vous y insistez, ad- Since you insist on it, let us grant 
 mettons qu'il a i t raison that he is right 
 
 4. After Verbs of Denial, Despair, Doubt; sometimes after 
 Verbs of Ignorance 
 
 The subjunctive is used after verbs or verb phrases which 
 denote denial, despair, doubt, and sometimes after verbs which 
 denote ignorance. These verbs are the opposite of verbs of 
 affirming, hoping, beheving, knowing (Class 3, § 52, 3). They 
 are really by their nature negations, and so may render the noun 
 clause doubtful or unreal. 
 
 Je conteste qu'il ait eu du I dispute that he has had success 
 
 succSs 
 Je nie qu'on puisse vous I deny that you can be understood 
 
 comprendre 
 Je dSsespfere que ce projet I despair of this plan's succeeding 
 
 reussisse 
 Je doute qu'il le f asse I doubt that he will do it 
 
 Nous ignorons qu'elle so it We do not know that she has started 
 
 partie 
 
 Among the verbs of this class are: contester, d&avouer, disconvenir, dis- 
 simuler, nier, dfisesp&er, douter, mettre en doute, ignorer. 
 
 a. Instead of a noun clause with the subjunctive after ignorer 
 and douter, a clause with the indicative introduced by si, whether, 
 can be used. (See Indirect Questions, § 54.) 
 
 Nous ignorons si elle est We do not know whether she has 
 partie started 
 
 * Accorder sometimes means consent and then belongs to Class i (§ 52, i). 
 Puisque vous le voulez, j'accorde qu'il le fasse, Since you so desire, I consent 
 that he do it. 
 
52] NOUN CLAUSES 6l 
 
 When ignorer or nier merely assert the subject's ignorance or 
 denial of something that is clearly a fact, they are followed by the 
 indicative. 
 
 H ignore que vous fetes chez He does not know you are at my 
 
 moi house 
 
 II nierait que deixx at deux He would deny that two and two 
 
 font quatre make four 
 
 b. Just as verbs of certainty, when used with a negative, 
 may express a doubt and be followed by the subjunctive (see 
 Class 3, § 52, 3), so verbs of denial and doubt, when used with 
 a negative, may express certainty and be followed by the indica- 
 tive. Frequently the French here permits either subjunctive or 
 indicative. The subjunctive after negated verbs of denial, doubt, 
 and despair is often accompanied by an expletive ne, which is 
 omitted in the English translation. The indicative is always 
 employed after sans doute que {there is no doubt that) and after 
 ne pas ignorer (not to he ignorant, know). 
 
 Je ne nie pas, messieurs, que I do not deny that my sentiments 
 
 mes sentiments] ^ ,^ . . [ have greatly changed 
 
 beaucoup change 
 Je ne doute pas qu'il I do not doubt that he will come 
 ( viendra 1 
 
 ( (ne) vienne ) 
 On ne saurait douter que les It cannot be doubted that the Greeks 
 
 Grecs aimaient la poesie loved poetry 
 
 Je n'ignore pas qu'il le veut I am not ignorant of the fact that he 
 
 wishes it 
 
 5. In Most Subject Clauses 
 
 The subjunctive is used in a subject clause whenever the 
 principal verb or verb phrase does not by its meaning imply 
 certainty or stress probability, or whenever a verb of certainty or 
 strong probability, by reason of being in a negative, interrogative. 
 
62 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 
 
 [52 
 
 or conditional clause, loses its affirmative character * The ten- 
 dency of subject clauses toward the subjunctive is so strong that, 
 when the meaning of the verb in the principal clause does not of 
 itself indicate the certainty or the probability, the subjunctive 
 is employed even if the assertion in the noun clause is a positive 
 fact. 
 
 Subjunctive 
 
 II est possible qu'elle parte, It is 
 
 possible that she will start. 
 C'estheureux que nous I'ayons vu 
 
 hier, It is fortunate that we saw 
 
 him yesterday. 
 D est rare que je le dise, It is rare 
 
 that I say it. 
 H n'est pas sflr que cette nouvelle 
 
 so it vraie, It is not certain that 
 
 this news is true. 
 Est-il probable qu'elle me haisse? 
 
 Is it probable that she hates me? 
 S'il est vrai qu'ils soient arrives, 
 
 vous les verrez, If it is true that 
 
 they have arrived, you will see 
 
 them. 
 
 Indicative 
 
 H est evident qu'elle partira, 
 
 It is evident that she will start. 
 H est certain que nous I'avons vu 
 
 hier. It is certain that we saw him 
 
 yesterday. 
 11 arrive souvent que je le dis, 
 
 It often happens that I say it. 
 n est sfir que cette nouvelle est 
 
 vraie, It is certain that this news 
 
 is true. 
 n est probable qu'elle me halt. It 
 
 is probable that she hates me. 
 H est vrai qu'ils sent arrives, 
 
 It is true that they have arrived. 
 
 To the class of verbs or verb phrases indicating certainty or stressing 
 probability belong: 
 
 II est + certain, indubitable, sflr, Evident, clair, visible, probable, vrai, 
 vraisemblable ; il y a a parier {you can wager), il parait, il y a apparence {it 
 appears), il s'ensuit {it results), il suit {it follows), il en restate, il arrive f 
 {it comes to pass), il se fait {it comes to pass). 
 
 a. Notice that an anticipatory ce or 11 usually precedes a sub- 
 ject clause. 
 
 b. II semble {ii seems) indicates less definite probabiKty than 
 il parait {it seems, it appears), and is generally followed by the 
 
 * After a negation, question, or condition, conversational French leans to the 
 indicative with verbs of certainty, just as it does after verbs of knowing; see § 62, 3. 
 t II arrive is sometimes followed by the subjunctive. 
 
52-S31 NOUN CLAUSES 63 
 
 subjunctive; but when accompanied by a dative object, it usually 
 expresses personal conviction, and then takes the indicative. 
 
 II semble que cela soit facile It seems that that is easy 
 n me semble que cela est fa- It seems to me that that is easy 
 cile 
 
 c. Peut-ltre que, perhaps, is treated as stressing probability and takes the 
 indicative. 
 
 Peut-6tre qu'il viendra Perhaps he will come 
 
 6. In Clauses which precede the Principal Verb 
 
 The subjunctive is used in subject or object clauses which 
 precede the principal verb. This is true, even though the same 
 clause placed after the verb would be in the indicative, the sub- 
 junctive being used because the clause retains a certain unreality 
 imtil its relation to the main assertion is shown by what follows. 
 
 Qu'il soitvenu, qu'il ne vous That he has come, that he has not 
 
 ait pas trouvfi, qu'il soit found you, that he has set out 
 
 reparti, tout cela est Svi- again, all this is evident 
 dent 
 
 Que ce ne soit pas mon avis, That this is not my opinion, I have 
 
 je vo»is I'ai dfija dit, madame already said to you 
 
 53. Infinitive in Place of a Noun Clause. In the place of 
 the noim clauses described in the preceding paragraph, an infini- 
 tive phrase may be used in the following cases: 
 
 I. Usage in Classes i, 2, and 5 
 
 In Classes i, 2, 5 the noim clause is almost always re- 
 placed by an infinitive phrase under the following circumstances: 
 
 In Class I (Will), when the subject, direct object, or indirect 
 object in the main clause would be the subject in the noun clause. 
 
 Je veux dormir {instead of Je I want to sleep 
 veux que je donne) * 
 
 * But Je veux qu'il donne, / want him to sleep, vouloir not being a verb that 
 can take an indirect object and an infinitive at the same time. 
 
64 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD [53 
 
 n defend aux ouvriers d e He prohibits the workmen from 
 
 travailler {instead of working 
 
 . . . qu'Us travaillent) 
 
 Je lui permets deparler I permit him to speak 
 
 Prenez garde de tomber Take care not to fall 
 
 Je les ai emp6ch6s de le I have prevented their doing it 
 
 faire 
 
 Faites-la partir Make her leave 
 
 On lui disait* de s' appro- He was told to approach 
 
 cher 
 
 In Class 2 (Emotion), when the subject in the main clause 
 would be the subject in the noun clause. 
 
 Je desire vous voir I desire to see you 
 
 II merite d'etre pendu He deserves to be hanged 
 
 Nous sommes enchant€s de We are charmed to make your ac 
 
 faire votre connaissance quaintance 
 
 II a peur desetromper He is afraid of being mistaken 
 
 In Class 5 (Subject Clauses), when the indirect object in the 
 main clause would be the subject in the noun clause, or when th(; 
 subject in the noun clause would be indefinite. 
 
 II m'importe de faire ce It is important for me to make thia 
 
 voyage trip 
 
 II est impossible de vous con- It is impossible [for any one] to con- 
 
 tenter tent you 
 
 a. II fautf can be followed by the infinitive in the cases named for Class 5. 
 It is not, however, very common to express the indirect object of il faut when 
 an infinitive follows. 
 
 II faut le dire It is necessary to say it 
 
 II faudra y aller It will be necessary to go there 
 
 11 faut par let It is necessary to 'speak 
 
 II leur faut parler It is necessary for them to speak; 
 
 They must speak 
 
 If the subject of the infinitive can be readily gathered from the context, 
 the indirect object is generally omitted. 
 
 * See § 52, la. t See § 20, 2, second foot-note. 
 
S3] NOUN CLAUSES 65 
 
 n faut parler I (we, you, one) must speak * 
 
 D faut me (vous, etc.) soigner I (you, etc.) must take care of 
 
 myself (yourself, etc.) 
 
 If the speaker wishes to indicate the subject, a clause generally 
 takes the place of the infinitive. 
 
 n faut que je parle I must speak 
 
 n faut qu'ils en parlent They must speak of it 
 
 n faut que vous vous soigniez You must take care of yourself 
 n faut qu'on le dise Some one must say it 
 
 (Rather than: H me faut parler; 11 leur faut en parler; II vous faut vous 
 soigner.) 
 
 A clause almost invariably takes the place of the infinitive 
 if the speaker wishes to indicate the subject, and if, at the same time, the 
 infinitive has a personal pronoun as direct or indirect object. 
 
 n faut que je vous parle I must speak to you 
 
 n faut que vous le soigniez You must take care of him 
 
 H faut que nous le disions We must say it 
 
 (Rather than: II me faut vous parler; n vous faut le soigner; D nous faut 
 le dire.) 
 
 b. Notice that some verbs of Class i may, in the passive, become mem- 
 bers of Class 5, and so be followed by the infinitive with an indefinite subject. 
 
 n n'est pas permis de se It is not permitted to avenge one's 
 
 venger soi-meme self 
 
 2. Usage in Classes 3 and 4 
 
 After most verbs of Class 3 (Knowledge) and Class 4 (Denial, 
 etc.), the notin clause may be replaced by an infinitive phrase if 
 the subject in the main clause would be subject in the noun clause. 
 In literary style, the infinitive is frequent; in conversation, the 
 noun clause is the usual construction. 
 
 n ne pensait pas gtre ob- He did not think he was observed 
 
 serve (Conversation: qu'il 
 
 etait observe) 
 Je lui ai promis d'y as sis- I have promised him to be present 
 
 ter (que j'y assisterais) at it. 
 
 * See § 20, 2, first foot-note. 
 
66 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD [S3-SS 
 
 Je ne nie pas vous avoir I do not deny that I said that to 
 
 dit cela (que je vous ai dit you 
 
 cela) 
 Je desespere de reussir I despair of succeeding 
 
 (que je reussisse, rare) 
 
 a. Repondre, repliquer, repartir, to reply, are not followed by an infinitive. 
 
 n m'a repondu qu'il ne He has answered me that he can 
 
 p o u V a i t pas accepter mon not accept my invitation 
 
 invitation 
 
 54. Indirect Questions. Indirect questions in French have 
 the mood of direct questions: the indicative. 
 
 Je me demande quels livres il I ask myself what books he reads 
 
 lit 
 
 D ne dit pas ofl elle est He does not say where she is 
 
 Dites-moi pourquoi vous etes Tell me why you have come 
 
 venu 
 
 Nous voudrions savoir si la We should like to know whether 
 
 seance est tenninee the sitting is over 
 
 Savez-vous s'il est malade? Do you know whether he is sick ? 
 
 a. Do not confuse si (whether), introducing indirect questions, 
 with si {if), introducmg clauses of condition (see § 61). 
 
 B. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES 
 
 55. Subjunctive in Adjective Clauses. The subjunctive is 
 employed in adjective clauses: 
 
 I. In Clauses of Characteristic 
 
 The subjunctive is used in clauses of characteristic; that is, in 
 restrictive relative clauses that indicate a quality sought for, but 
 not asserted as being attained. 
 
 The antecedent of a characteristic relative clause is always 
 indefinite in character, and so can be accompanied by the definite 
 article only when the article has not its definite value. In the 
 second of the examples which follow, des remedes means medicines. 
 
ssl 
 
 ADJECTIVE CLAUSES 
 
 67 
 
 Characteristic relative clauses always have an indefinite ante- 
 cedent, and even then, as a rule, occur only: 
 
 (i) After verbs of willing, wishing, or striving, 11 faut, or a 
 
 verb in the imperative mood. 
 (2) After negative assertions, questions, and aflSrmative 
 conditions. 
 
 Je veux une robe que je 
 
 puisse porter en voyage 
 Je cherche des remedes qui 
 
 vous soient agreables 
 n lui faut un domestique 
 
 qu'on ne puisse pas cor- 
 
 rompre 
 Choisissons un endroit oft il 
 
 y ait de I'ombre 
 Je ne trouve pas' d'ami qui 
 
 me dise ce qu'il pense 
 Je ne connais personne qui ne 
 
 les craigne 
 £st-ce qu'il y a encore ici 
 
 quelqu'un qui veuille 
 
 me parler? 
 S'il existe im homme qui ne 
 
 puisse (pas) comprendre 
 
 cela, je voudrais le trouver 
 
 I want a dress that I can wear for 
 
 traveling 
 I am looking for medicines which 
 
 will be agreeable to you 
 He needs a servant who can not be 
 
 bribed 
 
 Let us choose a place where there 
 
 will be shade 
 I find no friend who says to me 
 
 what he thinks 
 I know no one who does not fear 
 
 them 
 Is there still some one here who 
 
 wants to speak to me? 
 
 If the man exists who can not 
 understand that, I should like 
 to find him 
 
 a. After negative assertions, questions, and af&rmative con- 
 ditions, a subjunctive in the relative clause is usually negated by 
 simple ne instead of by ne . . . pas. 
 
 b. The following are not characteristic relative clauses, and 
 so the indicative is used. Notice that these clauses make a posi- 
 tive assertion, while characteristic clauses do not. 
 
 Envoyez-moi les livres que 
 vous m'avez promis 
 
 Je cherche un livre que j'ai 
 perdu 
 
 Send me the books that you 
 
 promised me 
 I am looking for a book I have lost 
 
68 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 
 
 [55 
 
 Si vous connaissez ce mon- 
 sieur qui vient d'arriver, 
 dites-moi son nom 
 
 Voila un homme qui me 
 plait 
 
 II etait si occupe qu'il n'a 
 pas vu une dame qui pas- 
 sait tout pres 
 
 Ne doit-on pas admirer un 
 homme qui est fidele i ses 
 principes ? 
 
 If you know that gentleman who 
 has just come, tell me his name 
 
 There is a man who pleases me 
 
 He was so much occupied that he 
 did not see a lady who was pass- 
 ing quite near him 
 
 Ought we not admire a man who 
 is faithful to his principles? 
 
 c. The test given above applies to relative clauses following ne . . . 
 que, not . . . except, only; that is, they follow a negative assertion and 
 so will have the subjunctive if the antecedent is not specific* 
 
 Je ne vois que deux personnes 
 qui puissent m'aider 
 
 Je ne vois que les deux per- 
 sonnes qui sont venues 
 potir m'aider 
 
 Elle ne lit que des livres qui 
 aient I'approbation de son 
 pere 
 
 Elle ne lit que les livres qui 
 sont dans la bibliotheque 
 de son pere 
 
 H n'y a que vous qui me 
 compreniezf 
 
 I see only two persons who can 
 
 help me 
 I see only the two persons who 
 
 have come to help me 
 
 She reads only books which have 
 her father's approval 
 
 She reads only the books which 
 are in her father's library 
 
 There is no one except you who 
 understands me 
 
 d. The parenthetical relative clause without antecedent, que je sache, 
 so far as I know (compare the Latin guod sciam), is a clause of characteristic, 
 and can be used only after a negation.} 
 
 * Occasionally this rule is violated, the indicative occurring where the sub- 
 junctive would be expected. 
 
 t The verb agrees by attraction with vous, though vous is not really the ante- 
 cedent. 
 
 % Que nous sachions is sometimes used in a similar way. After affirmative 
 assertions, so far as I know is autant que je puis dire. Autant que je puis dire, 
 il est tr6s capable, So far as I know, he is very capable. 
 
55] ADJECTIVE CLAUSES 69 
 
 Je ne lui ai jamais parl€, que I have never spoken to him, so far 
 je sache as I know 
 
 e. A characteristic subjunctive occurs occasionally after other construc- 
 tions than those given above. 
 
 On voit peu d'hommes riches We see few rich men who are happy 
 
 qui soient heureux 
 J'irai dans une maison o& je I shall go to a house where I can 
 
 puisse {or pourrai) me re- rest 
 
 poser 
 
 2. After a Superlative 
 
 Frequently, the subjunctive is used when the antecedent con- 
 tains a superlative, or the adjectives premier, dernier, seul, unique. 
 
 C'est I'homme le plus intelli- He is the most intelligent man I 
 
 gent que je connaisse know 
 
 C'est le moins que vous puis- It is the least you can do 
 
 siez faire 
 
 De tous mes amis, il est le Of all my friends, he is the first who 
 
 premier qui m'ait fait du has done me harm 
 
 mal 
 
 C'est le dernier service que je It is the last service I can render 
 
 puisse vous- rendre you 
 
 Vous etes le seul homme qui You are the only man who lives in 
 
 vive de la sorte that way 
 
 a. In this class, the indicative can also be used. It often 
 gives a more positive tone to the assertion made by the relative 
 clause. 
 
 C'est le dernier service que je It is the last service I can render you 
 pourrai vous rendre (but I can render it) 
 
 C'est le dernier service que je It is the last service (of such a kind 
 puisse vous rendre as) I can render you 
 
 In many cases, however, it is difficult to make any distinction 
 in meaning between the indicative and the subjunctive. The 
 subjunctive is more frequent than the indicative after a super- 
 lative; the indicative is rather more frequent than the subjunctive 
 after premier, dernier, seul, imique. 
 
70 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD ISS 
 
 b. When the relative clause is explanatory, so that it could be omitted with- 
 out altering the meaning of what remains, the indicative alone is permissible. 
 
 Les derniers arrivfe, qui vou- The last comers, who wished to see 
 laient tout voir, passaient everything, kept passing in front 
 
 devant les autres of the others 
 
 c. Do not confuse with this construction the cases in which the super- 
 lative is not part of the antecedent. The subjunctive would be incorrect in: 
 
 VoUa le meilleur des livres que There is the best one of the books 
 j'ai achates ce matin I bought this morning 
 
 3. With the Indefinite Relative Pronouns 
 
 Clauses introduced by an indefinite relative pronoun have a 
 concessive value, and the subjunctive is always used. The in- 
 definite relatives are: 
 
 (i) Qui que, whoever. Qui que is usually paraphrased by 
 qui que ce soit ■ 
 
 (qui. 
 
 (.que. 
 
 Qui que vous soyez, n'avan- Whoever you are, do not advance 
 
 cez pas 
 
 Qui que ce soit qxii dise Whoever it is that says that, he is 
 
 cela, il se trompe mistaken 
 
 Qui que ce soit que vous Whoever it is that you accuse, do 
 
 accusiez, ne le faites pas not do it thoughtlessly 
 
 etourdiment 
 
 A qui que ce soit que nous Whoever it is that we speak to, we 
 
 parlions, nous devons 6tre ought to be polite 
 
 polls 
 
 (2) ftuoi que (substantive), whatever, ftuoi que may be 
 
 paraphrased by quoi que ce soit s ^^^" 
 
 ( que. 
 Quoi (que ce soit) que f asse Whatever my brother does, I shall 
 mon fr6re, je I'aimerai tou- keep on loving him 
 
 jours 
 Quoi qu'il en soit, du Whatever the case may be (What- 
 moins je repondrai ft ses ever maybe in regard to it), I 
 
 questions shall at least answer his questions 
 
5S] ADJECTIVE CLAUSES T^ 
 
 Quoi qu'il arrive,* je ferai Whatever happens, I shall do my 
 mon devoir duty 
 
 (3) ftuel que (adjective), whatever; occurs only as 
 
 predicate nominative with etre. 
 
 Quelles que soient vos rai- Whatever your reasons may be, you 
 sons,f vous avez mal agi have done wrong 
 
 (4) Ou que, wherever. 
 
 Oil que vous alliez,| on vous Wherever you go, you will be dis- 
 
 trouvera ' covered 
 
 n sera le bienvenu, d'oft qu'il He will be welcome, wherever he 
 
 vienne || comes from 
 
 (5) Si . . . que, however. % 
 
 Si commode que soit sa mai- However convenient his house may 
 son, la mienne I'est davan- be, mine is more so 
 
 tage 
 
 a. Qui que ce soit and quoi que ce soit often mean any one at 
 all and anything at all. 
 
 n croit qu'il pent dire quoi He believes that he can say aftything 
 
 que ce soit k. qui que ce soit at all to any one at all 
 
 Je ne crains qui que ce soit I do not fear any one at all 
 (=personne) 
 
 b. Whoever meaning 'all those who' is expressed by (tous) ceux qui, or 
 celui qui, or quicon^ue + indicative. 
 
 Ceux qui ont peur peuvent Whoever is afraid may stay behind 
 
 tester en arrifere 
 
 n n'h&ite pas k flatter qui- He does not hesitate to flatter who- 
 
 conque peut lui etre utile ever can be of use to him 
 
 * Or: Quelque chose qui arrive. 
 t Or: Quelques raisons que vous ayez. 
 % Or: En quelque lieu que vous alliez. 
 II Or: de quelque part qu'il vienne. 
 
 I It would be more accurate to treat the clause after si as comparative 
 rather than relative. 
 
72 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD [S5-S6 
 
 c. Si . . . que is often replaced by tout . . . que, which is followed 
 by indicative or subjunctive and tends to indicate more clearly than si . . . 
 que the actual existence of the quality named.* 
 
 [est, 1 However young he may be {or 
 
 Tout jeuue qu'U | ^^.^_ | il re- Young as he is), he will succeed 
 
 ussira 
 
 d. Si . . . que may also be replaced by quelque . . . que, or occasionally 
 by pour . . que. 
 
 Quelque commode que soit sa However convenient his house may 
 
 maison, la mienne I'est da- be, mine is more so 
 vantage 
 
 Vous trouverez I'explication, You will find the explanation, how- 
 pour peu que vous cherchiez ever little you hunt 
 
 e. The que of si, tout, quelque, pour . . que + subjunctive may, in cer- 
 tain cases, be omitted, and the subject is then inverted. 
 
 Sa maison, si commode soit- His house, however convenient it 
 elle, ne me conviendra pas may be, will not suit me 
 
 C. ADVERB CLAUSES 
 
 56. Subjtinctive in Adverb Clauses. The subjunctive is em- 
 ployed in all clauses of purpose, and in certain clauses of result, 
 condition, concession, time, cause, and manner. 
 
 I. Clauses of Purpose 
 
 The subjunctive is always employed in clauses of purpose. 
 The clause is introduced by pour que, afin que, or que, all mean- 
 ing in order that. 
 
 Je resterai ici pour {or afin) I shall remain here, in order that 
 
 qu'ils puissentme trouver they may be able to find me 
 
 Faitei semblant d'etre con- Pretend to be satisfied, in order that 
 
 tent, pour {or afin) que les the others may not be frightened 
 autres n'aient pas peur 
 
 Approchez, que je vous voie Come near, in order that I may see 
 
 you 
 
 a. Pour que is rather more frequent than afin que- ftue is 
 the form usually employed after the imperative of a verb of 
 * It is therefore similar in meaning to the construction described in § 56, 4(1). 
 
56] 
 
 ADVERB CLAUSES 
 
 73 
 
 motion. It is not allowed elsewhere, except after expressions 
 equivalent to such an imperative. 
 
 Peux-tu me prendre avec toi, 
 que nous causions? 
 
 Can you take me (=Take me) with 
 you, in order that we may talk 
 
 2. Clauses of Result 
 
 The indicative is employed in clauses of result when the result 
 is looked on as something which actually happens; the subjunc- 
 tive, when it is looked on as something which tends to happen. 
 
 The principal expressions introducing clauses of result are: de sorte que, 
 en sorte que, in such a way that, so tJiat; si . . . que, so . . . that; tant . . . 
 que, so much, so many . . . that; tel . . . que, such . . . that; tellement . . . 
 
 que, so, so much . . . lliat; 
 
 Indicative 
 
 trop 
 
 pour que, 
 
 J'ai agi de sorte qu'il n'a pas droit 
 de se plaindre, I have so acted 
 that he has no right to complain. 
 
 n est si (or tellement) fatigue qu'il 
 ne veut pas m'accompagner. He 
 is so tired that he does not want 
 to go with me. 
 
 n va tellement mieuz qu'il peut 
 recevoir des visites. He is so much 
 better that he can have visitors. 
 
 La foret est si grande que nous 
 pouvons nous y cacher facile- 
 ment. The forest is so large that 
 we can easily hide there. 
 
 Vous m'avez rendu tant de services 
 que je ne peuz pas douter de 
 votre amitie, You have rendered 
 me so many services that I can- 
 not doubt your friendship. 
 
 ( enough . . .far. 
 
 \ too (much, many) . . . for. 
 
 Subjunctive 
 
 J'agirai en sorte qu'il n'ait pas 
 droit de se plaindre, I wiU so act 
 that he can have no right to com- 
 plain. 
 Etes-vous si (or tellement) fatigue 
 que vous ne vouliez pas m'accom- 
 pagner? Are you so tired that you 
 do not want to go with me? 
 
 S'il va tellement mieuz qu'il puisse 
 recevoir des visites, demandez a le 
 voir, If he is so much better that 
 he can have visitors, ask to see 
 him. 
 
 La foret est assez gfande pour que 
 I'on puisse s'y cacher facile- 
 ment, The forest is large enough 
 for a person easily to hide there. 
 
 Vous m'avez rendu trop de services 
 pour que je puisse douter de 
 votre amitie. You have rendered 
 me too many services for me to 
 doubt your friendship. 
 
^4 SXJBJUNCTIVE MOOD 
 
 [56 
 
 a. After negative assertions, a subjunctive in the clause of result is 
 sometimes negated by simple ne instead of by ne . . . pas. 
 
 b. Introducing clauses of result, si can modify adjectives or adverbs; 
 tant can modify verbs or be used as a substantive; tel can modify nouns; 
 tenement can modify adjectives, adverbs, or verbs. Notice that only teUe- 
 ment can be used to modify the comparative degreeof an adjective or adverb.* 
 
 c. Pour que always takes the subjunctive. After assez and trop, it 
 introduces clauses of result; in most other cases, it introduces clauses of 
 purpose. 
 
 d. De manifere (3. ce) que, de fajon (i ce) que, in such a way thai, so that, 
 also introduce clauses of result. When a ce is inserted, they are always fol- 
 lowed by the subjunctive; when it is omitted, they are followed by indicative 
 or subjunctive. 
 
 3. Clauses of Condition 
 
 Clauses of condition express an assumption or supposition, 
 and indicate that, if the assumption is a fact, the conclusion 
 is true. 
 
 Si, the most frequent conjunction of condition, takes the in- 
 dicative. (Si clauses are treated in §§ 61-63.) The other expres- 
 sions introducing clauses of condition are nearly all followed by 
 the subjunctive. 
 
 These expressions are: pourvu que, provided; k moins que ... ne, 
 unless, if not; suppose que, en supposant que, and k supposer que, sup- 
 posing; au cas que and en cas que, in case; k condition que, on condition 
 that. 
 
 Elle nous accompagnera, pour- She will go with us, provided we 
 
 vu que nous partions start at once 
 tout de suite 
 
 lis n'iront pas, k moins que They will not go, imless you insist 
 
 vous n'insistiez on it 
 
 * The expressions tant mieuz, tant pis constitute exceptions. 
 
S6] ADVERB CLAUSES 75 
 
 a. A condition que may be followed by the subjunctive, but more fre- 
 quently it is followed by the indicative. 
 
 Je feral ce voyage, k condi- I will make this trip, on condition 
 tion quevous viendrez {or that you come with me 
 veniez) avec moi 
 
 b. Au cas que, en cas que are replaced in conversation by dans le cas 
 oil, au cas o4i+the conditional mood. 
 
 Dans le cas o& il le dirait. In case he should say it, what 
 qu'est-ce qu'on lui r€pon- answer would be given him? 
 
 drait? 
 
 c. When a condition introduced by si is followed immediately by an- 
 other condition, the second is frequently introduced by que, and the que 
 clause then takes the subjunctive. 
 
 Si' vous avez penr et qu'il If you are afraid and he learns it, 
 I'apprenne, vous Stes you are lost 
 
 perdu 
 
 4. Clauses of Concession 
 
 Concessive clauses express an assumption or a supposition 
 which seems an obstacle to the conclusion's being true, but 
 indicate that, even granting the assumption or the supposition, 
 the conclusion is still true. The mood employed depends on 
 whether it is implied that the statement made in the concessive 
 clause is a fact. 
 
 (i) It is implied that the concession is a fact. 
 
 A concession which is implied to be a fact is expressed by 
 the subjunctive with quoique, bien que, or, more rarely, encore 
 que, nonobstant que, all meaning although. 
 
 Bien qu'il soit riche, il n'est Although he is rich, he is not happy 
 
 pas hetureuz 
 
 II mangea trte peu, quoiqu'il He ate very little, although he was 
 
 e4t faim hungry 
 
 a. The subjunctive ip this case does not throw doubt on the assertion, 
 but has been preserved from a time when the construction had a different 
 meaning. Quoiqu'il soit riche, il n'est pas heureux originally meant: Let him 
 be rich to whatever extent, he is not happy. 
 
76 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD [56 
 
 b. Malgrfi que is sometimes Used with the same meaning and construction 
 as quoique. Further, in hterary French, malgre que occurs in a special mean- 
 ing with the subjunctive of avoir. Malgrg qu'ils en aient (Whatever s pile 
 they may have about it = in spite of them; in conversational French, malgre 
 eux), nous savons leur secret. 
 
 q. Si, t/, + indicative can also express the concession of a fact (see 
 § 62, 4). 
 
 (2) It is not implied that the concession is a fact. 
 
 A concession is frequently offered as a mere supposition, 
 which may happen to be a fact or may be contrary to proba- 
 bility or to fact. Such a concession is expressed by m6me si or 
 quand mSme, even if, followed by the indicative or the condi- 
 tional. For details, see § 62, la, 2a, 3a. 
 
 a. The indefinite relatives (qui que, quoi que, etc.) are followed by the sub- 
 junctive and have a concessive value (see § 56, 3). The conjunction quoi- 
 que itself was originally quoi que, an indefinite relative pronoun. 
 
 5. Clauses of Time 
 
 Temporal clauses may express the time: 
 
 (i) After which the action in the principal clause takes 
 place. 
 
 J'irai chez mon oncle quand I shall go to my uncle's when 
 vous serez parti (= after) you have started 
 
 (2) At or during which the action takes place. 
 
 J'irai chez lui quand je pour- I shall go to his house when (=at 
 
 rai the time when) I can 
 
 J'irai chez lui pendant que I shall go to his house while (=dur- 
 
 vous travaillerez ing the time when) you are at work 
 
 (3) Before which the action takes place. 
 
 J'irai chez lui avant que I shall go to his house before you 
 vous partiez start 
 
 The subjunctive is used only in the third type of clauses; 
 namely, in those which mark the time before which the action 
 
56] ADVERB CLAUSES 77 
 
 in the principal clause takes place. Such clauses are introduced 
 by avant que, before; en attendant que, until; jusqu'a ce que, 
 until. These are all construed with the subjunctive, but jusqu'a 
 ce que usually has the indicative when the action is in past time 
 and is represented as a fact. 
 
 Cachez-vous avant qu'il (ne) Hide before he sees you 
 
 vous voie 
 J'irai le voir avant qu'il (ne) I shall go to see him before he starts 
 
 parte 
 En attendant qu'on serve le While waiting for the coffee to be 
 
 cafe, mangeons des cerises served, let us eat some cherries 
 
 Je garderai sa lettre jusqu'i I shall keep his letter until he comes 
 
 ce qu'il soit venu 
 II voulait rester chez moi He wished to stay at my house until 
 
 jusqu'^ ce que men mfide- my doctor should have cured him 
 
 cin I'eflt gufiri 
 II resta chez moi jusqu'i ce He stayed at my house until my 
 
 que mon m6decin I'eut doctor had cured him 
 
 gueri 
 
 a. After attendre, wait {until), simple que takes the place of jusqu'i ce 
 que. It is always followed by the subjunctive. 
 
 II attendra que vous soyez de He will wait until you are back 
 
 retour 
 Attendez que j'aie f ini cette Wait until I have finished this letter 
 
 lettre 
 
 b. When the principal clause is affirmative, it is permissible to insert an 
 expletive ne with the verb after avant que. 
 
 c. En attendant que is often best translated by while waiting for + a.r> 
 infinitive phrase. 
 
 En attendant qu'il vienne, je While waiting for him to come, I 
 
 lis le journal am reading the paper 
 
 6. Clauses of Cause 
 
 The subjunctive is used in causal clauses only when, by a 
 negation in the principal clause, the reality of the assertion in the 
 causal clause is denied. (Clauses of rejected reason). This occurs 
 
^8 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD feS 
 
 with the phrase ce n'est pas que, it is not because, it is not that. 
 When the que clause is also negative, the second negation is ex- 
 pressed by simple ne instead of by ne . . . pas. 
 
 Si je m'en vais, ce n'est pas If I am going away, it is not that I 
 
 que je sois presse de am eager to leave you 
 vous quitter 
 
 Ce n'est pas qu'il ne parle It is not that he does not talk well, 
 
 bien, mais il parle trop but he talks too much 
 
 a. The indicative may be used after ce n'est pas que, but this 
 indicates that the assertion in the que clause is a fact. 
 
 Je I'admire; ce n'est pas qu'il I admire him; it is not because he 
 est riche, c'est qu'il de- is rich, [but] because he spends 
 
 pense son argent en oeuvres his money in charitable works 
 
 de charite 
 
 b. Non (pas) que, not that, is also followed by the subjunctive, but 
 occurs only in literary style. In conversation, its place is taken by ce 
 n'est pas que. 
 
 7. Clauses of Manner 
 
 The subjunctive is used in clauses of manner only when the 
 introductory phrase implies a denial of the reality of the asser- 
 tion. This occurs in clauses with sans que (Clauses of rejection). 
 The English has no corresponding conjimction, and these clauses 
 are translated by without, far from, .SloA the infinitive in -ing. 
 
 n I'a fait sans qu'on le lui He has done it without any one's 
 ait dit having told him to 
 
 a. The subjunctive is also used after obsolescent loin que, far from. 
 
 Loin que ces raisonnements Far from being silenced by these 
 
 me f assent taire, je nie arguments, I deny that they 
 
 qu'ils aient de I'importance have"any importJuice ^ 
 
S6-58] TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE 79 
 
 ' b. When the principal clause is negative, sans que is often replaced in 
 literary French by que . . . ne. 
 
 Je ne fais point de voyage I never make a trip without some 
 
 qu'il ne m'arrive quel- accident's happening to me 
 
 que accident 
 
 57. Infinitive in Place of an Adverb Clause. 
 
 In the case of many adverb clauses, there are infinitive phrases 
 with the same meaning, and when such an infinitive phrase exists, 
 it generally replaces the adverb clause, if the subject is the same 
 as the subject of the principal verb. See §§ 72-73, where ex- 
 amples occur of phrases taking the place of clauses of purpose, 
 result, time, cause, and manner. 
 
 II I'a fait pour {or afin de) He did it to please you 
 
 vous plaire {not afin qu'il 
 vous plaise) 
 
 Tenses of the Subjunctive 
 
 58. Sequence of Tense in the Subjunctive. The subjunctive 
 has only four tenses: the present, the perfect, the imperfect, and 
 the pluperfect (le pr6sent, le passe, I'lmparf ait, le plus-que-parfait) . 
 The present subjunctive is used for what is going on or is still 
 to come; the perfect for what is complete; the imperfect for what 
 was going on or was still to come; the pluperfect for what was 
 complete. But the time of a verb in the subjunctive is usually 
 dependent on the time of the principal verb, and in consequence, 
 as a rule, the following sequence holds: 
 
 I. If the principal verb is in a present or a future tense, the 
 dependent subjunctive is in the present or the perfect. 
 
 Je ne crois pas 
 
 Si je crois f wiU do it 
 
 Croyez-vous qu'il le fasse, that he I is doing it 
 
 Ne croyons pas [ does it 
 
 Quoique je ne croie pas ... „ ... . . ^, , , f has done it 
 ^ ^ . . qu'il I'ait fait, that he] ,., ., 
 
 Je ne croirai pas L aid tt 
 
 Je n'aurai pas cru 
 
8o 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 
 
 [S8 
 
 2. If the principal verb is in a past tense, the dependent 
 subjunctive is in the imperfect or the pluperfect. 
 
 Je ne croyais pas 
 
 Si j 'avals cm 
 
 Croyiez-vous 
 
 Quoique je ne crusse pas 
 
 Je ne crus pas 
 
 Je n'ai jamais cm 
 
 Je n'avais pas cm 
 
 II disait que je ne croirais pas 
 
 Je n'aurais pas cm 
 
 , f would do it 
 qu'il le fit, that he\ , . ., 
 
 ^ ' L was doing tt 
 
 would have done it 
 
 qu'il I'efit fait, that he \ would do it* 
 
 had done it 
 
 Examples of Subjunctive Tense-sequence 
 
 Pensiez-vous qu'il vint? Did you 
 think he would come? 
 
 Je cherchais un endroit o& il y e<it 
 de I'ombre, I was hunting a place 
 where there would be shade. 
 
 J'avais peur qu'ils ne fussent dfiji 
 venus, I was afraid they had al- 
 ready come. 
 
 J'avais peur qu'il n'eiit pas fini 
 avant le lendemain, I was afraid 
 he would not have finished before 
 the next day. 
 
 Je refusal de croire qu'il efit vole 
 I'argentjf I refused to believe hi; 
 had stolen the money. 
 
 II n'a jamais pense que je fusse 
 malade, He has never thought I 
 was sick. 
 
 J'etais sflr qu'il voudrait que je 
 partisse, I was sure he would 
 wish me to start. 
 
 * In English would do it is more frequent than would have done it; e.g., 
 Je ne croyais pas qu'il I'eflt fait avant son depart, I did not believe he 
 would do it before leaving. 
 
 t Or qu'il avait voW I'argent. Croire is affirmative and would naturally be 
 followed by the indicative; but Je refusal de croire, being equivalent to a nega- 
 tion (=je ne cms pas), can also be followed by the subjunctive; see § 52, 3a. 
 
 Pensez-vous qu'il vienne? Do you 
 think he will come? 
 
 Je cherche un endroit oxl 11 y ait 
 de I'ombre, I am hunting a place 
 where there will be shade. 
 
 J'ai peur qu'ils ne soient venus 
 hier, I am afraid they came yes- 
 terday. 
 
 J'ai peur qu'il n'ait pas fini avant 
 demaln, I am afraid he will not 
 have finished before to-morrow. 
 
 Je ne crois pas qu'il ait vol€ I'ar- 
 gent, I do not believe he stole the 
 money. 
 
 II ne pense pas que je so is malade. 
 He does not think I am sick. 
 
 Je suis s<ir qu'il veut que je parte, 
 
 I am sure he wishes me to start. 
 
58] 
 
 TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE 
 
 Je veux qu'il vienne, I want him 
 to come.. 
 
 II s'Stoimera que je sois venu, He 
 
 will be astonished that I have 
 
 come. 
 II ira a moins qu'il n'ait perdu 
 
 I'adresse, He will go unless he has 
 
 lost the address. 
 
 II ne dira pas que je sois son ami, 
 
 He will not say that I am his 
 
 friend. 
 Je serai parti avant qu'il vienne, 
 
 I shall have started before he 
 
 comes. 
 
 J'aurais voulu qu'il vint, I should 
 have liked him to come (=1 wish 
 he had come, or I wish he was 
 coming). 
 
 II s'fitait ^tonnS que je f usse venu, 
 He had been astonished that I had 
 come. 
 
 11 annon^a qu'il irait a moins qu'il 
 n'eiit perdu I'adresse, He an- 
 nounced that he would go unless 
 he had lost the address. 
 
 II n'aurait pas dit que je f usse son 
 ami. He would not have' said that 
 I was his friend. 
 
 Je disais que je serais parti avant 
 qu'il vint, I was saying that I 
 should have started before he came. 
 
 a. Notice that the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive are 
 sometimes translated by the English past or past perfect indica- 
 tive, and at other times by would or should. 
 
 b. The imperfect in clauses of condition contrary to fact or 
 stressing uncertainty (see § 62, 2 and 3), and the simple condi- 
 tional mood (but not the simple conditional tense; see §§ 46-47) 
 have a present or future value, and so take the present sequence. 
 Since, in form, they are past tenses, they can also take the past 
 sequence, at least in literary style. 
 
 Ce serait dommage s'il fallait 
 
 que nous nous arrStions 
 
 (or arretassions) 
 Je voudrais qu'il vienne 
 n me serait agreable que cela 
 
 se fasse 
 Serait-il possible que je me 
 
 sois trompi? 
 S'il Itait ici, il demanderait 
 
 que vous I'aidiez 
 
 It would be a pity if it should be 
 necessary that we stop 
 
 I should like him to come 
 
 It would be agreeable to me if that 
 
 should be done 
 Can it be possible that I have made 
 
 a mistake? 
 If he were here, he would ask you 
 
 to help him 
 
82 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD [58 
 
 e. The past indefinite, which marks past action completed in 
 present time, tends to be followed by the past sequence. After 
 a past indefinite, however, the subordinate clause not infrequently 
 refers to what is going on in the present or is complete in the 
 present, and then, of course, has the present sequence. 
 
 Je n'ai jamais cm qu'il le I have never believed he would 
 (fit doit 
 
 [f erait 
 Je n'ai pas remarque qu'il I have not noticed that he is lazy 
 
 soit paresseux 
 n he m'a pas ecrit qu'il He has not written me that' he 
 Vienna will come 
 
 viendra 
 
 d. As said above, the tense of the principal verb, while usually 
 a convenient help, is not an absolute guide in choosing the tense 
 of the subjunctive. The real test is the time of the action repre- 
 sented by the subjunctive. (See the statement at the beginning 
 of this paragraph about the time represented by the tenses of the 
 subjunctive.) In cases of hesitation, this can be determined by 
 constructing a parallel sentence with the indicative and fixing the 
 time by means of it. The tenses of the subjunctive correspond 
 to the tenses of the indicative as follows: 
 
 (i) Present subjunctive = present or future indicative. 
 
 (2) Imperfect subjunctive = imperfect indicative or simple 
 
 conditional. 
 
 (3) Perfect subjunctive = past indefinite, past definite, or 
 
 future perfect indicative. 
 
 (4) Pluperfect subjunctive = pluperfect indicative or per- 
 
 fect conditional. 
 
 The following sentences, for example, do not follow the se- 
 quence of the principal verb, because in them the time of the 
 action is not dependent on that of the principal verb. 
 
58 sq] tenses of the subjunctive 83 
 
 II lui donna la seule bague He gave her the only ring she has 
 
 qu'elle \ 
 
 la 
 
 Je ne' connais pas de difflcul- I know of no difficulties which he 
 
 tes qu'il n'efit pu vaincre could not have overcome 
 (Cf. Je connais des difficultes qu'il n'aurait pas pu vaincre.) 
 
 Mime s'il voulait le faire, Even if he wanted to do it, I do 
 
 je ne crois pas qu'il le not believe he would be able to 
 
 jpftt 
 
 Ipourrait 
 
 Je doute qu'il I'efit fait, s'il I doubt whether he would have 
 
 avait lu la lettre done it if he had read the letter 
 
 (Cf. Je crois qu'il I'aurait fait s'il avait lu la lettre.) 
 
 59. Avoidance of the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive. 
 
 The imperfect and the pluperfect subjunctive, like the past def- 
 inite, have ceased to be used in conversation. This is rigorously 
 true of five of the six forms of the imperfect subjunctive of the 
 first conjugation (-asse, -asses, -assions, -assiez, -assent), and 
 is almost as true of all other imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive 
 forms. Compare with this the English, which has gone even 
 farther, for the whole of the subjunctive, present and past tenses 
 alike, has almost disappeared from spoken EngHsh. One of the 
 perplexing problems for a foreigner in speaking French is how to 
 avoid the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive, and what to use 
 in their place. In cases where, in literary style, present or past se- 
 quence is allowed (see § 58, b), the present sequence is naturally 
 chosen in conversation. Further, there are a number of cases 
 where a choice exists between subjunctive and indicative (After cer- 
 tain verbs of emotion, see § 52, 2a; after negated verbs of know- 
 ing, see § 52, 3; after verbs of doubt and ignorance, see § 52, 4a; 
 subject clauses of certainty after a negation, see § 52, 5, note; 
 certain adjective clauses, see § 55, 2a). In such instances it is 
 natural that the indicative or conditional, according to circum- 
 stances, be substituted foj past tenses of the subjunctive. For 
 
84 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 
 
 [S9-6o 
 
 the methods of deahng in conversation with the remaining im- 
 perfect and pluperfect subjunctives, see the following paragraph. 
 
 60. Substitutes for the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive. 
 
 I. Differently Constructed Sentences 
 
 In cases where an imperfect or a pluperfect subjunctive would 
 occur, a Frenchman, when talking, is apt to cast his sentences 
 in such a way that constructions demanding these tenses are 
 avoided. The following are examples of some of the ways in 
 which this may be done: 
 
 Literary Form 
 
 Plflt a Dieu que vous fussiez venu! 
 
 Would to God you had come! 
 Nous voulions qu'U res tat a Paris, 
 
 We wanted him to remain in Paris. 
 J'aurais voulu qu'il vint hier, I 
 
 should have hked him to come 
 
 yesterday. 
 J'aurais voulu qu'il vint demain, 
 
 I should have liked him to come 
 
 to-morrow. 
 J'avais permis qu'ils parlassent, 
 
 I had permitted them to speak. 
 n craignait que nous ne le vis- 
 
 sions, He was afraid that we 
 
 would see him. 
 J'avais peur qu'ils ne fussent deja 
 
 venus, I was afraid that they 
 
 had already come, 
 n etait content que je I'eusse 
 
 fait, He was gratified that I had 
 
 done it. 
 n n'aurait pas dit que je fusse son 
 
 ami, He would not have said that 
 
 I was his friend. 
 
 Conversational Form 
 
 Quel malheuT que vous ne soyez pas 
 venu! 
 
 Nous voulions le faire {or voir) raster 
 a Paris. 
 
 J'aurais ete content s'il etait venu 
 hier, or Je regrette qu'il ne soit pas 
 venu hier. 
 
 J'aurais ete content s'il venait de- 
 main, or Je regrette qu'U ne vienne 
 pas demain. 
 
 Je leur avals permis de parler. 
 
 H craignait d'etre vu.* 
 
 J'avais peur d'apprendre qu'ils 
 etaient dej& venus. 
 
 II etait content de savoir que je 
 
 I'avais fait, or II etait content de 
 
 ce que je I'avais fait. 
 II n'aurait pas dit que j'etais son ami, 
 
 or n ne m'aurait pas appele son 
 
 ami. 
 
 ■ Par nous may be added, but is usually left to be inferred from the context. 
 
6o] 
 
 TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE 
 
 85 
 
 Literary Form 
 
 n n'a jamais pense que je fusse 
 malade, He has never thought 
 that I was sick. 
 
 Je ne croyais pas qu'il eflt vole 
 I'argent, I did not believe that he 
 had stolen the money. 
 
 D ne se souvenait pas qu'on I'efit 
 dit, He did not remember that 
 it had been said. 
 
 Nous doutions qu'ils le voulussent, 
 We doubt ed that theywould wish it . 
 
 II etait rare que je le disse, It was 
 rare that I said it. 
 
 n fallait que mon fils I'accom- 
 pagndt, It was necessary that 
 my son accompany him. 
 
 Je cherchais des remedes qui vous 
 f us sent agreables, I was look- 
 ing for medicines which would be 
 agreeable to you. 
 
 n y resta afin que nous pussions 
 le trouver f acilement, He remained 
 there in order that we might be 
 able to find him easily. 
 
 C'etait le moins que je pusse 
 faire, It was the least I could do. 
 
 Vous m'aviez rendu trop de services 
 pour que je pusse douter de 
 votre amitie, You had rendered 
 me too many services for me to 
 be able to doubt your friendship. 
 
 Quoiqu'il ttt riche, il n'etait pas 
 heureux, Although he was rich, he 
 was not happy. 
 
 J'allai les voir avant qu'ils partis- 
 sent, I went to see them before 
 they started. 
 
 Conversational Form 
 
 II n'a jamais pense que j'etais ma- 
 lade, or n ne m'a jamais cm ma- 
 lade. 
 
 Je ne croyais pas qu'il avait vole I'ar- 
 gent, or Je ne le croyais pas cou- 
 pable du vol de I'argent. 
 
 n ne se souvenait pas qu'on I'avait 
 dit, or n ne se souvenait pas de 
 I'avoir entendu dire. 
 
 Nous ne croyions pas qu'ils le vou- 
 draient. 
 
 n m'arrivait rarement de le dire. 
 
 Mon fils a d& l'acc6mpagner. 
 
 Je vous cherchais des remedes 
 agreables. 
 
 n y est reste afin d'etre trouve fa- 
 cilement.* 
 
 C'etait le moins que je pouvais faire. 
 
 Vous m'aviez rendu tant de services 
 que je ne pouvais pas douter de 
 votre amitie. 
 
 Quoique riche (or Malgre sa ri- 
 chesse), il n'etait pas heureuz. 
 
 Je suis alle les voir avant leur de- 
 part. 
 
 * See foot-note to preceding page. 
 
86 CLAUSES WITH SI [60-62 
 
 a. The frequent use of the historical present in place of a past 
 tense (see § 27, i) eliminates many cases where an imperfect or 
 pluperfect subjunctive would tend to come up. Instead of : II ne 
 se souvint pas qu'on eut dit cela, He did not remember that 
 this had been said, or of: H y resta afin que nous pussions 
 le trouver, He remained there in order that we might he able to 
 find him, a French narrator often says: II ne se sou vie nt pas 
 qu'on ait dit cela; H y reste afin que nous puissions le 
 trouver. 
 
 2. Present or Perfect Subjunctive 
 
 It is by no means rare to hear in conversation the present sub- 
 junctive where, by the rules of grammar, the imperfect should 
 be used, and the perfect where the pluperfect should be used. 
 This is especially frequent after the conversational past indefi- 
 nite, n ne s'est pas souvenu qu'on ait dit cela. H y est 
 rests afin que nous puissions le trouver. Careful Frenchmen, 
 however, are still inclined to avoid this. A foreigner should follow 
 rather the methods described in section i of this paragraph. 
 
 CLAUSES OF CONDITION AND CONCESSION WITH SI 
 
 61. The Conjunction. s/. Si, if, is used to introduce: (i) con- 
 ditional clauses (except those described in § 56, 3) ; (2) concessive 
 clauses implying that the concession is a fact. (For the more usual 
 way of expressing this, see § 66, 4.) Meme si, even if, is used to 
 introduce concessive clauses which do not imply that the conces- 
 sion is a fact. Si and mime si can in every instance be foUoweH 
 by the indicative. 
 
 63. Types of Conditional Sentences. Conditional sentences 
 with si can be arranged in three classes: neutral conditions and 
 concessions; conditions and concessions contrary to fact; condi- 
 tions and concessions stressing uncertainty. In addition, there 
 
62] 
 
 CLAUSES WITH SI 
 
 87 
 
 is a fourth class where it is implied that the assumption in the 
 si clause is not a mere supposition, but really a fact. 
 
 I. Neutral Conditions 
 
 Neutral conditions, also called logical conditions, state a past, 
 present, or future condition, but give, by their form, no indication 
 about the probability or improbability of its fulfilment. The 
 present, with the value of a present or of a future (see § 26, 2), 
 the past indefinite, with the value of a past indefinite or of a 
 future perfect (see § 34, c), and the imperfect and pluperfect are 
 the only tenses employed in the si clause. There are no especial 
 laws restricting the tense or mood of the conclusion. 
 
 S'U a le livre, il le lit 
 S'il vient, U me verra 
 S'il est veau, il me verra 
 S'il est venu, il nous a vus 
 Si dans une heure il n'a pas 
 
 avoue la verite, je le ren- 
 
 verrai 
 S'il etait k la fenetre, il m'a 
 
 Tu passer 
 Us allaient bientdt perdre 
 
 leurs doutes, s'ils en 
 
 avaient eu 
 S'il est ici, dites-lui d'at- 
 
 tendre 
 S'il a faim, qu'il le dise 
 S'il vient, je voudrais que 
 
 tu viennes aussi 
 
 If he has the book, he is reading it 
 If he comes, he will see me 
 If he has come, he will see me 
 If he has come, he has seen us 
 If within an hour he has not ac- 
 knowledged the truth, I shall 
 dismiss him 
 If he was at the window, he has 
 
 seen me go by 
 They were soon going to lose their 
 doubts, if they had had any 
 
 If he is here, teU him to wait 
 
 If he is hungry, let him say so 
 If he comes, I should like you to 
 come too 
 
 a. Neutral concessions. Neutral concessions are introduced 
 by meme si and have the same form as neutral conditions. 
 If they refer to future time, quand meme + future may be used 
 in place of meme si + present. 
 
88 CLAUSES WITH SI ^^ 
 
 M6me s'U e s t malade, il p e u t Even if he is sick, he can see you 
 
 vous voir 
 
 Meme s'il vient (or Quand Even if he comes, he will not see 
 
 meme il viendra), il ne me 
 
 me verra pas 
 
 Meme s'il est venu, il ne Even if he has come, he has not 
 
 nous a pas v u s seen us 
 
 b. The past definite, the future, the conditional, and their compounds 
 {i.e., the past anterior, the future perfect, and the perfect conditional) do 
 not occur in si clauses, except when it is imphed that the statement in the 
 si clause is a fact (see § 62, 4). 
 
 2. Conditions contrary to Fact 
 
 Conditions contrary to fact, also called unreal conditions, 
 indicate by their form that a present or past condition has failed 
 of fulfilment. They have the following constructions: 
 
 (i) Referring to present time. 
 
 When they refer to present time, conditions contrary to fact 
 have the imperfect indicative in the condition, and the condi- 
 tional in the conclusion (see § 47, i). 
 
 C'est dommage que le livre It is a pity that the book is lost; 
 
 soit perdu; si je 1 'avals, if I had it, I should read it 
 
 je le lirais 
 
 Si votre boulanger 6tait roi, If your baker were king, he would 
 
 ilvousferait ministre make you minister 
 
 Si ce n'etait la crainte de If it were not for the fear of dis- 
 
 vous deplaire, je lui parle- pleasing you, I should speak to 
 
 rais him 
 
 (2) Referring to past time. 
 
 When they refer to past time, conditions contrary to fact 
 have the pluperfect indicative in the condition, and the per- 
 fect conditional in the conclusion. 
 
 Si j'avais eu le livre, je If I had had the book, I should 
 
 I'aurais lu have read it 
 
 S'il etait venu, il m'au- If he had come, he would have 
 
 rait vu seen me 
 
<52] CLAUSES WITH 5/ 89 
 
 a. Concessions contrary to fact. Concessions contrary to fact 
 are introduced by mgme si and have the same form as the cor- 
 responding conditions; or they may be introduced by quand mSme 
 and be followed by the conditional or perfect conditional. The 
 meme of quand mgme is often omitted in literary French. 
 
 Meme s'U avait le livre, il Even if he had the book, he would 
 
 ne le lirait pas not read it 
 
 M6me s'il 6tait venu (or Even if he had come, he would not 
 
 Quand mime il serait have seen me 
 
 venu), il ne m'aurait pas 
 
 vu 
 
 b. In conditions or concessions referring to past time, two other con- 
 structions occur: 
 
 (i) Literary French permits the pluperfect subjunctive in the place 
 of the perfect conditional or of the pluperfect indicative. 
 
 {€tait ) ( aurait ) 
 
 ■ Wenu, il m'j > If he had come, he would have seen 
 
 vu me 
 
 I venu, Even if he had come, he would not 
 
 ., , ( aurait ) , 
 
 il ne m' ^ \ pas vu have seen me 
 
 (2) The imperfect indicative is sometimes used in the conclusion, or 
 in both condition and conclusion (see § 33). 
 
 Si ■! . , . . } tm mot, j'e- If I had said a word, I was done for 
 t je disais ) 
 
 tais perdu 
 
 c. Occasionally a sentence shows a mixing of types. 
 
 Si j'avais le livre, je I'au- If I had the book, I should already 
 
 rais deja lu have read it 
 
 Si j'avais eu le livre, je If I had had the book, I should 
 
 pourrais vous en nommer be able to tell you its author 
 
 I'auteur 
 
 Meme s'il Stait venu, je Even if he had come, I should not 
 
 ne le verrais pas see him 
 
90 CLAUSES WITH SI [62 
 
 3. Conditions stressing Uncertainty 
 
 Conditions stressing uncertainty, also called ideal conditions, 
 state a future condition, but indicate by their form that there is no 
 ground for counting upon its fulfilment. They have the imperfect 
 indicative in the condition, and the conditional in the conclusion. 
 
 Si votre boulanger devenait If your baker should become king, 
 
 roi, il vous f erait ministre he would make you minister 
 
 S'U commensait demain, If he should begin to-morrow, he 
 
 il pourrait finir jeudi would be able to finish Thursday 
 
 S'il venait, je iui parte- If he should come, I should speak 
 
 rais to him 
 
 Si elle voulait voyager, If she should wish to travel, she 
 
 elle le pourrait could do so 
 
 a. Concessions stressing uncertainty. Concessions stressing 
 imcertainty are introduced by meme si and have the same form 
 as the corresponding conditions; or they may be introduced by 
 quand. meme followed by the conditional. The meme of quand 
 meme is often omitted in literary French. 
 
 Meme s'il venait {or Quand Even if he should come, I should 
 meme il viendrait), je ne not speak to him 
 
 Iui parlerais pas 
 
 b. Notice that conditions and concessions stressing uncertainty can 
 not by their form be distinguished from conditions and concessions con- 
 trary to present fact. The French interpret a condition expressed in this 
 form as being future — and so belonging here — , save where the context 
 indicates that present time is meant. There is, moreover, a way to show 
 that present time is not meant. If the speaker desires to indicate clearly 
 by the form of the sentence that the condition or concession has not yet 
 failed of fulfilment but is simply of uncertain fulfilment, he can use dans 
 le cas oft, au cas ofl, meme dans le cas ot, meme au casoii + the conditional 
 mood. 
 
 Dans le cas oiiilviendrait, In case he should come, I should 
 
 je Iui parlerais speak to him 
 
 Meme dans le cas oft il vien- Even in case he should come, I 
 
 drait, je ne Iui par- should not speak to him 
 lerais pas 
 
62] CLAUSES WITH SI ' 9 1 
 
 c. Some si clauses having the form of neutral conditions and conces- 
 sions may seem to the hearer to be uncertain of fulfilment. The use of the 
 neutral form then indicates simply that the speaker is not stressing the 
 uncertainty. This may often be the only difference between S'il de ve- 
 na it roi, il vous f erait ministre, If he should become king, he would make 
 you minister, and S'il devient roi,,il vous fera ministre, // he becomes 
 king, he will make you minister. 
 
 4. Si Clauses equivalent to Declarative Statements ' 
 
 Si clauses sometimes clearly imply that the statement made 
 in them is a fact. They are then equivalent to declarative state- 
 ments, and the tense is used which would be employed in a prin- 
 cipal clause stating the same fact. Thus, in them, the verb may 
 be in the past definite, the future, the conditional, or their com- 
 pounds. (None of these can be used in other si clauses; see § 62, 
 lb.) In most instances, but not always, these clauses have a 
 concessive value, and the si can be translated while or although. 
 This construction is avoided in cases where it would tend to be 
 mistaken for a neutral condition. Notice that there is another 
 and more frequent way of expressing the concession of a fact 
 (quoiqtie, etc., + subjimctive; see § 56, 4). 
 
 S'il est pauvre, il est hon- If (or While, or Although) he is 
 
 nete poor, he is honest 
 
 S'il a vieilli, son coeur est If he has grown old, his heart has 
 
 reste jeune kept young 
 
 Si j'ai pu reussir, c'est If I have been able to succeed, it 
 
 grelce k votre conseil is thanks to your advice 
 
 S'il gagna la premiere ba- If he did win the first battle, it 
 
 taille, ce fut sa seule vie- was his only victory 
 
 toire 
 
 Voiia un honnete homme, s'il There'sanhonest man if there ever 
 
 en fut (jamais) , was one (=if there have been 
 
 any — and there siurely have) 
 
92 
 
 CLAUSES WITH SI 
 
 [62-63 
 
 Si votre chef de bureau au- 
 rait de la peine k vous 
 remplacer, vous n'en auriez 
 pas moins k trouver un 
 autre poste* 
 
 If the head of your department would 
 have trouble in filling your place, 
 you would have no less in finding 
 another position 
 
 a. Similarly, in compoimd sentences conditional in form, but equivalent 
 to simple declarative sentences, the tense used in the si clause is the same 
 as would be used in a simple sentence. 
 
 Je veux 6tre pendu si j'au- I'll be hanged if I'd ever have be- 
 lieved that (=1 should never have 
 believed that) 
 
 If we are to have two months' vaca- 
 tion, it is only just that much 
 (=We shall have just barely two 
 months' vacation) 
 
 He would scarcely be able to give 
 four examples of this use 
 
 rais cru cela 
 
 C'est tout juste si nous au- 
 rons deux mois de va- 
 cances 
 
 C'est i peine s'il pourrait 
 donner quatre examples de 
 cet usage 
 
 63. Substitutes for s/ Clauses. Si clauses are often replaced 
 by other forms of expression : 
 
 I. An inverted clause, an imperative, or a subjunctive prin- 
 cipal clause (see § 50, c) . 
 
 Pleure-t-on, 11 rit; rit-on, 
 
 il pleure 
 Avouez la verite, at je vous 
 
 pardonne 
 Qu'il hesite, et il est perdu 
 
 . A phrase. 
 
 En ecoutant bien, vous 
 entendrez un petit bruit 
 
 A vous croire, ce livre est 
 absolument mauvais 
 
 Sans moi, il serait tombe 
 
 Weep, and he laughs; laugh, and 
 
 he weeps 
 Confess the truth, and I forgive 
 
 you 
 Let him hesitate, and he is lost 
 
 If you listen carefully, you will 
 
 hear a slight noise 
 If we are to beUeve you, this book 
 
 is absolutely bad 
 If I had not been there, he would 
 have fallen 
 . * Where the conditional, or especially where the future, would occur, this con- 
 struction is rare, the sentence being cast in some other way. In the above ex- 
 ample, for instance, you might say: D est vrai que votre chef aurait de la peine 
 I vous remplacer, mais vous, etc. 
 
63 6sl INFINITIVE 93 
 
 a. The condition may even be left entirely unexpressed (see § 47, la). 
 
 C'est un homme qiii volerait He is a man who would rob his 
 son propre pere own father (if the occasion 
 
 should offer) 
 H aurait pu le faire He would have been able to do it 
 
 (if he had wished) 
 
 INFnnTIVE 
 
 64. Nature of the Infinitive. The infinitive is a noxrn, but a 
 noun formed on the verb stem, and it keeps some characteristics 
 of a verb. Like the verb, it can express voice and time, may take 
 an object, ajid is qualified, not by adjectives, but by adverbs. 
 
 Voir; avoir vu; voir un tableau; voir distinctement. 
 
 From some infinitives there have been formed pure substan- 
 tives with no verb characteristics; for example: dejeuner, lunch; 
 devoir, duty; etre, hdng; pouvoir, power; sourire, smile; savoir, 
 Uaming. 
 
 J'ai fait un bon dejeuner I have had a good lunch 
 Ses pouvoirs sont grands His powers are great 
 
 "Kiese same words are also used as infinitives. 
 
 n aime a bien dejeuner He hkes to lunch well 
 
 a. The French is more particular than the English to use the perfect form 
 of the infinitive when the action is antecedent to that of the principal verb. 
 
 On I'a accuse d'avoir He has been accused of writing 
 ecrit la lettre the letter 
 
 65. Pure and Prepositional Infinitive. The infinitive may be 
 used without a preposition, and is then called the pure infinitive. 
 (Compare the English he must go; I saw him fall) The infinitive 
 may also be accompanied by the prepositions de or a, and by 
 apres, par, pour, sans. The last four, when used with the infini- 
 tive, have their full prepositional value, and originally de and a 
 also had it. In many cases the value of de and a with the infini-. 
 tive is stiU clear. 
 
94 
 
 INFINITIVE [65-66 
 
 n vient de partir He has just started(=He comes 
 
 from starting) 
 La peur de mourlr The fear of dying 
 
 Aidez-moi k monter Help me to mount 
 
 n m'invite a raster He invites me to stay 
 
 Un penchant a croire An inclination to believe 
 
 In other cases, the value of the preposition has weakened or 
 entirely disappeared, and the preposition has become a mere 
 "sign," like English to. 
 
 n est difficile d e lui plaire It is difficult to please him 
 
 Je lui ai montre a monter k I showed him how to ride horse- 
 cheval back 
 
 66. Pure Infinitive. The pure iniinitive is used: 
 
 1. As Subject, before the Verb 
 
 The pure infinitive is used as subject, if it precedes the verb.* 
 (It is chiefly in epigrammatic style that a subject infinitive 
 precedes.) 
 
 Attendre est impossible; To wait is impossible; to act is no 
 
 agir ne I'est pas moins less so 
 
 2. As Predicate Nominative or Subject, after Certain Verbs 
 
 The pure infinitive is used as predicate nominative or sub- 
 ject, when it follows certain verbs. 
 
 C'est perdre son temps que To read such books means to 
 
 de lire de tels livres waste one's time 
 
 Voir c'est croire Seeing is believing, to see means 
 
 to believe 
 
 C'est beaucoup dire That's sa3dng a great deal 
 
 n me semble encore le voir It seems to me I still see him 
 
 Vous etes cense I'avoir fait You are supposed to have done it 
 
 nsse trouvaient Stre en retard They happened to be late 
 
 These verbs are: c'est {when = means, 01= that is), etre cense, etre repute, 
 Stre suppose; paraitre, sembler, se trouver {when = happen), valoir autant, 
 valoir mieux. 
 
 * Occasionally de may be found with such an infinitive. 
 
66] PURE INFINITIVE 95 
 
 3. In Apposition 
 The pure infinitive is used in apposition. 
 
 Le voila, mon devoir: pro- That is my duty: to protect his 
 
 teger ses interets interests 
 
 n n'a qu'un seiil but: de- He has but one aim: to outstrip 
 
 van car ses rivaux his rivals 
 
 4. As Object, after Certain Verbs 
 
 The pure infinitive is used as the object of certain verbs; 
 namely: 
 
 (i) Verbs of sense perception (such as see, hear, feel). 
 
 Je I'ai vu tomber I saw him fall 
 
 J'entends sonner I hear (some one) ringing 
 
 a. Similarly, void, voila are occasionally followed by the 
 infinitive. , 
 
 VoUa parler comme ii fauti That's proper talk for you! 
 
 (2) Most verbs of saying and thinking (see Kst, § 67). 
 
 Je crois avoir raison I believe I am right 
 
 Nous comptons partir demain We count on starting tomorrow 
 
 n jure I'avoir fait He swears that he has done it 
 
 a. Verbs of sayiag, when = verbs of commanding, take de. 
 Dites-lui de venir Tell him to come 
 
 b. Most of the verbs of saying and thinking tend rather to be followed 
 by a clause than by an infinitive (see § 53, 2). Some of them can be fol- 
 lowed by a past infinitive but take only rarely a present infinitive; others 
 still are hardly found with an infinitive save in relative clauses in which 
 que is subject of the infinitive; see § 67, a. 
 
 (3) Some verbs of will, desire, hope (see list, § 67). 
 
 Je vetjx revenir I wish to come back 
 
 Je desire vous aider I desire to help you 
 
 J'espere trouver ici des amis I hope to find friends here 
 
96 INFINITIVE [66 
 
 (4) The verbs devoir, pouvoir, savoir, oser, laisser (when = let, 
 allow), faire, faillir. 
 
 ' :)' 
 
 \ 
 
 Je dois lui repondre I ought to answer him 
 
 n n'a pas ose venir He has not dared to come 
 
 Je le laisserai partir I shalllet him start 
 
 Vous me faites rire, men You make me laugh 
 ^ cher ami 
 
 a. When devoir takes an indirect object, the infinitive has de. 
 
 On lui devait au moins de They at least owed it to him to 
 
 I'entendre give him a hearing 
 
 b. Ne faire que, in its ordinary meaning, has the pure infinitive. 
 
 n ne fait que s'amuser Hedoesnothftig but amuse himself 
 
 When ne faire que means venir de, the infinitive has de. 
 H ne fait que d e sortir He has just gone out 
 
 c. n fait, impersonal, is followed by the pure infinitive in a few expres- 
 sions. In all of them the infinitive is preceded by an Adjective (cher, beau, 
 bon, or mauvais). 
 
 n fait cher vivre k Paris It comes high to live in Paris 
 
 n y fait bon vivre It's good to live there 
 
 ^Similarly, avoir may be followed by a pure infinitive, if the infinitive is 
 preceded by the adjective beau. Avoir beau+ infinitive has come to mean" 
 gain nothing by. 
 
 II a beau parler He gains nothing by talking 
 
 d. Faillir means just miss. It is now usually replaced by manquer, 
 which with the pure infinitive or with de has the same meaning. Penser 
 with the pure infinitive in the same meaning is archaic. 
 
 n a manque (de) tomber He has just missed falhng 
 J'ai failli manquer men I just missed losing my train, I 
 train all but missed my train 
 
 5. After Verbs of Motion, to express Purpose 
 
 The pure infinitive is used as an adverbial complement after 
 verbs of motion, to express purpose. 
 
66] PURE INFINITIVE 97 
 
 Allez voir Go see 
 
 Je vais partir I am going to start • 
 
 n viendra me parler He will come and talk with me 
 
 Je suis revenu demander I have come back to ask pardon 
 
 pardon 
 
 Je I'enverrai chercher I shall send to hunt for him 
 
 a. Etre may take the place of the past tenses (except the imperfect) 
 of aller, go, and is then followed by the pure infinitive. 
 
 J'ai deja ete le voir I have already been to see him 
 
 H fut s'asseoir {rare and He went and sat down 
 literary) 
 
 b. To emphasize the idea of purpose, or when the infinitive is separated 
 from the verb, pour may be used. 
 
 Je suis revenu pour de- I have come back to ask pardon 
 
 mander pardon 
 
 n viendra chez moi pour me He will come to my house to talk 
 
 parler with me 
 
 6. In Certain Elliptical Expressions 
 
 The pure infinitive is frequently used in elliptical expressions, 
 chiefly exclamations or questions. 
 
 Lui vous faire peur! He frighten you ! 
 
 Penser qu'il est parti! To think that he has gone ! 
 
 Pourquoi hesiter? Why hesitate ? 
 
 Pourquoi ne pas attendre? Why not wait? 
 
 A quoi bon le lui d i r e ? What is the use of saying it to him? 
 
 a. The infinitive is often used instead of an unperative in brief notices, 
 directions, and cross-references. 
 
 Agiter le flacon Shake well before using 
 
 S'adresser au concierge Apply to the concierge 
 
 Ne pas frapper Enter without knocking 
 
 Voir page 6 See page s 
 
 b. De quoi, in the sense "what is suflScient or necessary for," is fol- 
 lowed by the infinitive. 
 
 Elle a de quoi vivre She has enough to live on 
 
 Donnez-moi de quoi ecrire Give me writing materials 
 
98 
 
 INFINITIVE 
 
 [67 
 
 67. List of the Verbs which may be followed by the Pure In- 
 finitive. In this list and in the list of verbs taking an infinitive with 
 a (§ 69), the English equivalent of the verbs is given when the same 
 verb in other meanings has a different infinitive sequence. When 
 the figure referring to a note is placed after the English transla- 
 tion, it indicates that the note refers to that meaning of the verb. 
 Reflexive forms are given a separate place in the Ksts when the 
 simple verb has a different infinitive sequence or can not be fol- 
 lowed by the infinitive. Note that the verbs of motion given in 
 this list may be followed by pour and the infinitive (see § 66, 5b) 
 as well as by the pure infinitive. 
 
 accourir 
 
 affirmer 
 
 aimer ' 
 
 aimer autant 
 
 aimer mieux 
 
 aller 
 
 amener,^ conduct 
 
 appeler,'' pronounce ^ 
 
 arriver,2 come 
 
 avoir beau ^ 
 
 avouer 
 
 etre cense ' 
 
 compter 
 
 conduire ^ {in literal 
 
 meaning) 
 confesser 
 courir 
 croire 
 daigner 
 declarer 
 deposer 
 
 descendre," go down 
 desirer 
 detester * 
 devoir ^ 
 dire" 
 ficouter 
 
 ecrire " pouvoir 
 
 emmener preferer 
 
 entendie,' hear; bedetermined pTetendTe,^daim,purpose 
 
 envoyer 
 
 esperer ' 
 
 etre, 2 go " 
 
 c'est," means ' 
 
 c'est," that is ' 
 
 ia.\]lix,^^just miss 
 
 faire i« 
 
 il fait+adjective ' 
 
 falloir 
 
 se figurer 
 
 s'imaginer 
 
 jurer," declare on oath 
 
 laisser,^ let, allow 
 
 manquer,2y«5< miss*' ^^ 
 
 mener 
 
 mtttxe,^ set '* 
 
 monter 
 
 nier < 
 
 oser 
 
 paraitre ' 
 
 partir,^ set out 
 
 passer, 2 stop in 
 
 penser,' believe; just miss 
 
 se persuader '« 
 
 raconter 
 
 se rappeler ' 
 
 reconnaltre 
 
 regarder 
 
 rentrer 
 
 rester,2 stay " 
 
 retoumer 
 
 revenir,2 come back 
 
 savoir 
 
 sembler ' 
 
 sentir '* 
 
 souhaiter * 
 
 soutenir 
 
 supposer 
 
 Stre suppose ' 
 
 temoigner 
 
 se trouver,^ happen 
 
 valoir autant ' 
 
 valoir mieux ' 
 
 venir, 21 w come 
 
 voici, voila 
 
 voir, 2 see 
 
 voler (fly) 
 
 vouloir 
 
67 68] INFINITIVE WITH A 99 
 
 » Sometimes a. ' See verbs taking a (§ 69). ' Sometimes de. * Also de. 
 s n appelait cela vivre, etc. « See § 66, 4(4)c. ' See § 66, 2. « See § 66, 4(4)3. 
 ' See § 66, 4(2)3. i» See § 66, sa. " For the infinitive with a after c'est, see 
 §69;fortheinfinitive withde, §70, 1. '^ gge § 66, 4(4)d. "Nefaireque = 
 venir de takes de, see § 66, 4(4). " Jurer, promise, takes de. (The infinitive 
 with de after jurer refers always to future time; the pure infinitive never does so.) 
 " Mettre chauffer de I'eau, etc. '« See § 66, 4(2). " Nous sommes testes 
 consoler notre ami, etc. ^' Se sentir, feel the results of, takes de. " Venir, have 
 just, takes de. • 
 
 a. Occasionally a verb of saying or thinking not included in the above 
 list, such as assurer, presumer, is followed by a pure infinitive when a rel- 
 ative pronoun is subject of the infinitive. 
 
 Un homme qu'il m'assure A man who he assures me was a 
 avoir ete un ami de mon friend of my father's 
 
 pere 
 
 68. Infinitive with a. The infinitive with a is used to in- 
 dicate end, destination, purpose. With some one of these values 
 appearing more or less clearly, it is used : 
 
 I. After Substantives, in Certain Values 
 
 The infinitive with a is used after substantives; as follows: 
 
 (i) A with the infinitive may be joined to substantives to 
 name an activity that is a characteristic mark of the substantive. 
 
 Du bois 3. brfiler Wood destined for burning, wood 
 
 for burning, fire-wood 
 Une salle & manger A room for eating, a dining-room 
 
 Les siecles a venir The centuries to come, the coming 
 
 centuries 
 Un danger k eviter A danger to avoid, a danger to be 
 
 avoided 
 Une chanson a boire A drinking song 
 
 Du tabac a fumer Smoking tobacco 
 
 Une bonne 3. tout f aire A maid for general housework, a 
 
 maid of all work 
 C'est un ouvrage k recom- That is a work which should all be 
 
 mencer done over again 
 
 Cela laisse beaucoup a desirer That leaves much to be desired 
 
lOO INFINITIVE [68 
 
 a. This a with the infinitive may be in the predicate, referring to the 
 subject. 
 
 Cette question est encore a This question is still to be treated 
 
 traiter 
 n est a. plaindre He is to be pitied 
 
 Sa maison est k vendre His house is for sale (=to be sold) 
 
 b. Some verbs which are followed directly by an object infinitive with 
 4 (§ 68, 3) can also take a substantive object with an infinitive depending 
 on it and giving a characteristic mark of the substantive. 
 
 J'ai une histoire k vous ra- I have a story to tell you 
 
 center 
 
 Cela n'a rien a voir avec vos That has nothing to do with your 
 
 interets concerns 
 
 (2) A with the infinitive may be joined to most abstract sub- 
 stantives derived from verbs or adjectives which take an infinitive 
 with a. 
 
 n a un penchant k mentir He has a bent to l)dng (pencher k) 
 
 n m'etonne par sa facilite k He astonishes me by his facility in 
 s'exprimer expressing himself (facile a) 
 
 a. Occasionally the infinitive with a is joined to other abstract substan- 
 tives when their meaning suggests fitness or tendency. 
 
 Nous vous assurons de notre We assure you of our zeal to serve 
 zele a vous servir you 
 
 b. Some of the substantives of this type, in a sUghtly different mean- 
 ing, can also take the infinitive with de. 
 
 Cela me donne la facilite de That gives me the means of going 
 sortir quand il me plait out when I want to 
 
 2. After Certain Adjectives 
 
 The infinitive with a is used after certain adjectives ;'namely: 
 
 (i) Dernier, seul, and the ordinal numerals. 
 
 n a ete le premier a arriver, He was the first to arrive, the 
 le troisieme k partir, et le third to leave, and the only one 
 
 seul k echapper to escape 
 
68] ^^^■^^^^^■mnmniB^^^ a ioi 
 
 a. Similarly, after the cardinal numerals and unanime. 
 
 Nous serons deux k vous soi- There will be two of us to take care 
 
 gner of you 
 
 lis etaient unanimes k me They were unanimous in blaming 
 
 blSmer me 
 
 (2) A number of adjectives when they denote fitness, unfit- 
 ness, tendency. 
 
 Cet homme est sujet k se This man is liable to make a mis- 
 
 tromper take 
 
 Habile a manier la plume Skilful at handling the pen 
 
 Pret 3. partir Ready to start 
 
 Affreuz a voir Frightful to see 
 
 Difficile a comprendre Hard to understand 
 
 Facile k faire Easy to do 
 
 Among these adjectives are: adroit, affreux, agreable, assidu, beau, bon, 
 curieuz,* dangereux, desagreable, difficile, enclin, facile, habile, interessant, 
 joli, lent, long, mauvais, pret, prompt, propre, sujet, etc., etc. 
 
 a. Distinguish from this class the cases where the infinitive does not 
 depend on the adjective, but is logical subject of the verb, and so has de. 
 Cela est facile k faire That is easy to do 
 
 n est facile d e le faire To do it is easy 
 
 3. After Certain Verbs 
 
 The infinitive with a is used after certain transitive and in- 
 transitive verbs (see list, § 69). 
 
 n se met k travailler He sets to work 
 
 Cela servira k vous consoler That will serve to console you 
 
 n apprend k lire He is learning to read 
 
 J'arrive a le comprendre I succeed in understanding him 
 
 a. Distinguish from this the cases where the infinitive is logical subject 
 of the verb and so has de. 
 
 n m'arrive de le comprendre I happen to understand him (It hap- 
 
 pens to me to understand him) 
 * When curieux means interesting, it naturally takes k; when it means inter- 
 ested it takes de. Cela est curieux k voir. Je suis curieux de voir cela. (For 
 n est curieux de voir cela, It is curious to see that, see § 70, i.) • 
 
I02 
 
 INFINITIVE 
 
 [68 
 
 b. A with the infinitive sometimes forms a phrase equivalent to a noun, 
 and is then found after some transitive verbs which are otherwise seldom 
 or never followed by the infinitive with k. 
 
 Je lui ai paye k dejetmer 
 On verse a boire 
 Donnez-moi a boire, or simply 
 A boire 
 Nous leur porterons a manger 
 
 I have paid for lunch for him 
 They pour out drinks 
 
 Give me [something to] drink 
 
 We shall carry them food 
 
 4. In Certain Adverbial Uses 
 
 The infinitive with a occurs in certain adverbial uses; namely: 
 (i) Equivalent to an adverb of manner or degree. 
 
 n est malade k en mourir 
 Une femme laide a faire peur 
 Una histoire triste k dechirer 
 
 le coeur 
 Elle danse k ravir 
 n chante k faire pitie 
 Je le sais a n'en pas douter 
 Ce garfon tous ressemble k 
 
 s'y tromper 
 
 He is mortally sick 
 
 A fearfully ugly woman 
 
 A heart-rending story 
 
 She dances ravishingly 
 He sings pitifully, wretchedly 
 I know it beyond a doubt 
 This boy resembles you to a dot 
 (to the point that one could 
 make a mistake about it) 
 
 (2) Equivalent to a conditional clause (see § 63). 
 
 A vous croire, ce livre est ab- 
 
 solument mauvais 
 A tout prendre 
 
 A vrai dire 
 
 If we are to believe you, this book 
 is absolutely bad 
 
 On the whole (If we take every- 
 thing into consideration) 
 
 To tell the truth (If the truth be 
 told) 
 
 (3) Equivalent to an adverbial phrase expressing purpose, 
 means, or a temporal-causal idea. Here the infinitive may be 
 translated by a phrase with to, at, by, in, or on, or by a participle. 
 In some of these uses the infinitive approaches the gerund (see 
 § 76) in meaning. 
 
68-691 
 
 INFINITIVE WITH A 
 
 103 
 
 J'y etais assis k vous attendre 
 n se rompt la tSte i resoudre 
 
 des problemes 
 Vous vous tuez a mener une 
 
 pareille vie 
 Je me suis essouffle a monter 
 
 cet escalier 
 L'enfant s'efirayait a voir le 
 
 chien 
 A I'entendre parler ainsi, je 
 
 reprends courage 
 
 I was sitting there to wait for you 
 He racks his brain (at) solving 
 
 problems 
 You are killing yourself by leading 
 
 such a life 
 I got out of breath (in) climbing 
 
 these stairs 
 The child was frightened at the 
 
 sight of the dog 
 On hearing him speak in this way, 
 
 I take courage again 
 
 a. In some cases, the infinitive with 4 is equivalent to an adverbial clause 
 depending on the verb, but the verb is so closely united to a noun object that 
 the two form a fixed phrase to which the infinitive seems to belong; for ex- 
 ample, prendre plaisir k, avoir de la peine k. 
 
 n prend plaisir a m'agacer 
 n a de la peine a gagner sa 
 vie 
 
 He takes pleasure in irritating me 
 He has difficulty in earning a 
 living 
 
 69. List of the Verbs which may be followed by the Infin- 
 itive with a (see explanations at the beginning of § 67). 
 
 s'abaisser 
 
 appliquer 
 
 avoir 
 
 abandonner 
 
 apprendre 
 
 ilyai» 
 
 aboutir 
 
 s'apprSter 
 
 balancer 
 
 s'absorber 
 
 s'arrSter,' pause 
 
 se borner 
 
 s'accorder' 
 
 arriver,2 succeed 
 
 chercher 
 
 accoutumer 
 
 aspirer 
 
 citer 
 
 s'acharner 
 
 assigner '■ 
 
 commencer ^ 
 
 admettre '■ 
 
 assujettir 
 
 se complaire 
 
 s'adonner 
 
 astreindre 
 
 conclure * 
 
 aider 
 
 s'attacher 
 
 concourir 
 
 aimer') " 
 
 s'attarder 
 
 condamner 
 
 ajourner ' 
 
 s'attendre 
 
 condescendre 
 
 nmener,^ induce 
 
 autoriser 
 
 conduire ^ (figurative) 
 
 s'amuser 
 
 s'aventurer ' 
 
 consacrer 
 
 animer 
 
 s'avilir 
 
 consentir 
 
 appeler,* summon 
 
 aviser ' 
 
 consister 
 
I04 
 
 INFINITIVE 
 
 [69 
 
 conspirer^ 
 
 consumer 
 
 continuer * 
 
 contraindre ' 
 
 contribuer 
 
 convier ' 
 
 couter 
 
 decider," induce 
 
 se decider 
 
 Stre decide 
 
 defier,i2 challenge 
 
 se delecter ' 
 
 demander " 
 
 demeurer 
 
 depenser 
 
 desapprendre 
 
 descendre," condescend 
 
 destiner 
 
 determiner," induce 
 
 se determiner 
 
 Stre d6termin6 
 
 devouer 
 
 differer ^ 
 
 disposer 
 
 se divertir 
 
 donner 
 
 dresser 
 
 s'ecouler 
 
 s'efforcer * 
 
 s'emanciper 
 
 employer 
 
 emporter (figurative)'' 
 
 s'empresser* 
 
 encourager 
 
 engager ' 
 
 enhardir 
 
 s'ennuyer ' 
 
 enseigner 
 
 entendre, 2 understand 
 
 s'entendre,'* understand 
 
 s'enteter' 
 entrainer 
 s'^puiser 
 equivaloir 
 s'escrimer 
 s'essayer 
 
 etre,2 be=be engaged in^^ 
 etre, 6e, + inf. with pas- 
 sive value ^ 
 
 he engaged in, 
 not yet reach 
 the point " 
 c'e&tjit is enough tomake^' 
 
 en 6tre, 
 
 c'est a 
 
 f dire, 1 that is 
 
 Isavoir^ I to say^^ 
 c'est a moi (a vous, etc.), it 
 
 is my {your, etc.) turn * 
 c'est a moi (a vous, etc.), 
 
 it is my {your, etc.) 
 
 s'etudier 
 
 s'6vertuer^ 
 
 exceller 
 
 exciter 
 
 exercer 
 
 exhorter 
 
 exposer 
 
 se tatiguer' 
 
 finir* (with neg.), never 
 
 finish 
 forcer * 
 habiliter' 
 habituer ^ 
 s'habituer 
 hair " 
 
 se hasarder ' 
 hdsiter ' 
 inciter 
 incliner 
 induire 
 
 insister 
 
 instruire 
 
 interesser 
 
 inviter 
 
 jouer 
 
 laisser,'/eoDe23 
 
 se lasser,2< lire one's self 
 
 by 
 manquer,2/oj7* 
 mettre * 
 montrer 
 obliger « 
 s'obliger ' 
 s'obstiner 
 
 s'occuper,25 jg jj^^y y^HI^ 
 s'off rir ' 
 opiner 
 s'opiniatrer 
 s'opposer 
 partir,^ burst out 
 parvenir 
 passer, 26 employ 
 peiner 
 ' pencher 
 penser,^ intend 
 perdre 
 perseverer 
 persister 
 se plaire 
 se plier 
 porter 
 pousser 
 predestiner ^ 
 prendre {detect) 
 se prendre, begin 
 preparer 
 se preparer ^ 
 pretendre,'' aspire 
 se preter 
 prier," invite (to a meal) 
 
69l 
 
 INFINITIVE WITH A 
 
 lOS 
 
 provoquei 
 etre reju ' 
 recommencer ' 
 reculer 
 reduire 
 refuser ^s 
 se refuser 
 renoncer 
 repugner 
 se resigner 
 resoudre," induce 
 se resoudre ' 
 Stre resolu ' 
 
 rester,2 he left ^ 
 reussir 
 reveiiir,^ he i 
 Se risquer 
 servir 
 solliciter * 
 songer 
 souffrir^''" 
 se soumettre 
 stimuler 
 suffire ^ 
 surprendre 
 tacher ^ 
 
 tarder 
 
 tendre 
 
 tenir 
 
 se tenir," limil one's self 
 
 6tre tenu, he hound, have to * 
 
 travailler 
 
 trembler, '2 tremble 
 
 trouver ' 
 
 se tuer ' 
 
 veiller 
 
 venir,2 happen, end hy 
 
 viser 
 
 voir, 2 see ahout, arrange 
 
 vouer 
 
 • These verbs occur with the infinitive in legal terminology. ^ See verbs 
 with pure infinitive (§ 67). ' Sometimes de. ■* Also de. * More frequently 
 da. ' Also pour. ' Also jusqu'a. 
 
 * Aimer+pure inf. is colloquial; but even in literary style it is fairly frequent 
 when aimer is in the conditional mood, or is qualified by a negative or other ad- 
 verb (ne, assez, bien, etc.) . For aimer autant, aimer mieuz, see § 67. For an oc- 
 casional use of de after aimer, see § 70, 4b. ' S'arrSter, cease {from), takes de. 
 " e. g., n y a a parier qu'il viendra. It can be wagered that he will come. '' De- 
 cider, determiner, resoudre, \i = resohe, take de. '^Defier, defy, takes de. 
 1' Demander usually takes de when the subject of the infinitive is not the same as 
 the subject of demander. Je vous demande d e m'ecouter. " S'entendre, be in 
 collusion, takes de. ^^ e. g., II est longtemps 4 revenir. He is a long time in coming 
 back, n est encore 3. se plaindre, He is still engaged in pitying himself. '* See 
 § 68, i(i)a. " e. g., J'en suis encore a chercher sa maison, / am still engaged in 
 hunting for his house. D en est encore 4 s'apercevoir qu'on le trompe. He has not 
 yet perceived thai he is being deceived. '* e. g., C'est a devenir fou. It is enough to 
 make one go mad. C'est 4 en crever de rire, It is enough to make one split his sides 
 with laughter. " See § 68, i(i)a. ™ e. g., C'est a vous a jouer. " g g^ (;;>est 
 au juge a (d e) decider. ^^ Hair, negative, takes a or de. ^^ e. g., Je vous laisse 
 a deviner sa decision. Ne pas laisser, when = »oi to cease, not to fail, takes de. 
 Cette idee ne laissait pas (que) d e m'inquieter. " Se lasser, grow weary of, 
 takes de. '^ e. g., Ce matin je me suis occupe k ecrire des lettres. S'occuper 
 much more frequently means interest one's self in, and then takes de. Je m'occupe 
 de lui etre utile. ^ Se passer, do without, takes de. Cf. also § 67 and § 73, 3a. 
 " Prier, invite (in general), beg, takes de. ^ A is used when the infinitive phrase is 
 translated by a noun. H lui refuse a m a n g e r {food) , 3 d t n e r (dinner) , a b i r e 
 (drink), a coucher (lodging), etc.; see §68, 3b. Refuser, not reflexive, in all 
 other cases takes de. ^ e. g., Je sais ce qu'il me reste a faire. "• After souffrir, 
 
Io6 INFINITIVE [65^-70 
 
 a is used when the suffering is physical (II souffre a marcher, He sufers when he 
 walks) ; de or ^ when it is mental (D souffre d e me voir malade, He sufers at the 
 sight of my illness). Souffrir, allow, takes de. " Se tenir, keep from, takes de. 
 Je n'ai pas pu me tenir de le lui dire. '^ Trembler, /eor, takes de. Je tremble 
 d e le voir, / fear to see him. Je tremble a le voir, / tremble at the sight of him 
 (or: when I see him). See § 68, 4 (3). 
 
 10- Infinitive with de. In a large majority of cases the infini- 
 tive is accompanied by de. The infinitive with de is used : 
 
 J. As Logical Subject or Predicate Nominative 
 
 The infinitive with de is used as logical subject or predicate 
 nominative, except in the cases noted in § 66, i and 2. 
 
 II est difficile d e vous com- It is hard to understand you 
 
 prendre 
 C'est aimable a vous d e It is kind of you to come to see me 
 
 venir me voir 
 C'est un vrai plaisir (que) de It is a real pleasure to hear you 
 
 vous entendre 
 Son seul defaut c'est de trop His only defect is his talking too 
 
 parler much 
 
 a. When ce is the grammatical subject, an infinitive as logical 
 subject may be preceded by the relative pronoun que, which does 
 not affect the meaning, and is omitted in translation. (See the 
 next to the last sentence above.) 
 
 2. After que = than, as 
 The infinitive with de is used after que = than, as.* 
 
 portanc 
 
 * Except when I is demanded by the rules in § 68. J'attache plus d'im< 
 :ance k le voir qu'a lui ecrire (§ 68, 4a). 
 
70] INFINITIVE WITH DE I07 
 
 J'aime mieux me reposer que I had rather rest than read the 
 
 de lire les joumauz papers 
 
 Autant vaut moiirir que As well die as be a slave 
 
 d'etre esclave 
 
 Rien n'est aussi dangereux Nothing is so dangerous as to hesi- 
 
 que d'Wsiter tate 
 
 a. Especially in short phrases, this rule is sometimes violated, and the 
 de omitted. 
 
 3. After Substantives and Adjectives, in Certain Values 
 
 The infinitive with de is used after substantives and adjec- 
 tives, with de in its prepositional value. 
 
 La peur de mourir The fear of dying 
 
 Le secret d e lui plaire The secret of pleasing her 
 
 n a envie d e voyager He is desirous of traveling 
 
 L'intention de parler The intention of speaking 
 
 Je n'ai pas le temps de vous I have not the time to listen to 
 
 ecouter you 
 
 L'art d'ecrire* The art of writing 
 
 n a regu I'ordre de partir* He has received the order to start 
 
 Je suis curieux-j- de savoir sa I am curious to know his answer 
 
 reponse 
 
 lis sont capables de resister They .are capable of resisting 
 
 Vous 6tes digne d' 6tre aim€ You are worthy of being loved 
 
 Vous etes libre de ne pas You are free not to come 
 
 venir 
 
 a. The substantive, when it is object of a verb, sometimes joins with the 
 verb to form a fixed phrase: avoir peur de, to fear; avoir envie de, to desire; 
 avoir soin de, to take care; faire semblant de, lo pretend. 
 
 II a peur d e parler He has fear of speaking, is afraid to 
 
 speak, fears to speak 
 
 b. De+the infinitive, after a predicate adjective, often gives the reason 
 for the assertion. 
 
 Que vous Stes aimable de How kind you are to come! 
 venir! 
 
 * Apj)ositional de. t See § 68, 2(2), foot-note. 
 
I08 INFINITIVE [70 
 
 4. After Many Verbs 
 
 The infinitive with de is used after many verbs (see § 71). 
 
 II a ngglige de rgpondre He has neglected to answer 
 
 On le dissuade d'essayer They are dissuading him from trying 
 
 II accuse son domestique de He accuses his servant of having 
 
 I'avoir volfi robbed him 
 
 Je m'gtonne de vous avoir I am astonished at having under- 
 
 compris stood you 
 
 Elle vous pardonne d' avoir She forgives you for having forgotten 
 
 oubIi€ 
 
 Cela I'a d6go<itg d'aller k la That has disgusted him with going 
 
 guerre to war 
 
 Vous lui conseillerez d e se You will advise him to keep quiet 
 
 taire 
 
 a. The infinitive with de after verbs is much more frequent than the 
 pure infinitive or the infinitive with 3.. It is employed: 
 
 (i) As direct object (after all verbs taking an infinitive object except 
 those given in the lists, §§ 67, 69); e.g., after achever, entre- 
 prendre, m&iter, nfigliger, regretter. 
 
 (2) In cases where the value of the de is clear (the de may be translated 
 
 from or of); e.g., after s'abstenir, cesser, dissuader; accuser, 
 desesp&er, priver.. 
 
 (3) In many cases where the value of the de is more or less obscured 
 
 (the de is here translated at, for, with, to); e.g., after s'attrister, 
 s'etonner; bl^mer, remercier; degofiter, s'occuper; conseiller, se 
 depScher. 
 
 b. A causal infinitive with de is frequent, and occasionally occurs after 
 verbs that otherwise take an object infinitive without a preposition or with 4. 
 
 Je vous aime de m'avoir I love you for having spoken so to 
 parl€ ainsi me 
 
 (But: II aime k parler, He loves to talk.) 
 
 5. Instead of an Indicative 
 
 Sometimes, in literary French, the infinitive with de is used, 
 in lively narration, instead of an indicative. It is found only 
 when a new subject accompanies it, and when the act indicated 
 
70-73] INFINITIVE IO9 
 
 by the infinitive is a sudden consequence of what precedes. This 
 is termed the historical infinitive. 
 
 n s'aoigna tout honteux, et He moved off greatly ashamed, and 
 nous de rire we broke out laughing 
 
 71. Directions for using the Infin'tive with de. A list of 
 the verbs followed by de and the infinitive is not given. In all 
 cases' of hesitation between a + infinitive, pure infinitive, and de + 
 infinitive after a verb, use de if the verb is not included in the 
 lists, §§ 67, 69. 
 
 73. Infinitive after Phrases formed with a or de. In com- 
 bination with other words, a or de frequently form phrases used 
 with an infinitive; for example: 
 
 De fason &, de mani&re k, in such a way as to; jusqu'jl, so far as to, so rmich 
 as to; afin de, in order to; avant de, before; faute de, for want of; a force de, 
 by dinP of; k moins de, without. 
 
 Conduisez-vous de fafon k Conduct yourself in such a way ?s 
 
 vous faire aimer to make yourself loved 
 
 n est alle j u s q u ' a m'insulter He went so far as to- insult me 
 
 J'ai pris ce livre afin"de le I have taken this book in order to 
 
 consulter consult it 
 
 J'irai le voir avant de vous I shall go to see him before writing 
 
 ecrire you 
 
 n a perdu, faute de faire He has lost, for want of paying at- 
 
 attention tentiori 
 
 A force d'insister, il a By dint of insisting, he has worn 
 
 ennuye tout le monde out everybody 
 
 A moins d'etre fou, il n'est It is not possible to reason this 
 
 pas possible de raisonner way without being crazy 
 
 ainsi 
 
 73. Infinitive with Other Prepositions. In addition to % and 
 de, the infinitive occvirs after certain other prepositions; as follows: 
 
 I. Aprgs 
 Apres, after, is used only with the perfect infinitive. 
 
 AprSs avoir vu ses amis, il After having seen his friends, he 
 
 -will start 
 
no PRESENT PARTICIPLE, GERUND, VERBAL ADJECTIVE [73-74 
 
 2. Par 
 
 Par, by, is used with the infinitive after commencer and finir. 
 
 II a commence par refuser, He began by refusing, but he finally 
 mais il a fini par le fairs did it 
 
 3. Pour 
 
 Pour, for (gives the cause), to (generally gives the purpose or 
 the result). For pour after verbs of motion, see § 66, 5. 
 
 On I'a renvoye pour avoir He has been discharged for talking 
 
 trop parle too much 
 
 Je I'ai dit pour vous avertir I said it to warn you 
 
 Pour vous dire le vrai,* je (In order) to tell you the truth, (I 
 
 ne vous crois pas tell you) I do not believe you 
 
 II y a ici pour contenter tous There is (enough) here to satisfy 
 
 les gofits all tastes 
 
 II est trop franc pour vous He is too frank to deceive you 
 
 tromper 
 
 II est bien grand pour 6tre si He is very tall to be so young 
 
 jeune 
 
 a. Passer, when = pass for, takes poiur. 
 
 S'il n'est pas savant, il passe If he is not learned, he passes for it 
 
 pour I'etre 
 II passe pour I'avoir fait He passes for having done it 
 
 4. Sans 
 Sans, without. 
 
 II repond sans penser He answers without thinking 
 
 PRESENT PARTICIPLE, GERUND, AND VERBAL ADJECTIVE 
 
 74. Classification. The form in -ant derived from the verb 
 has three uses: as adjective, as participle, and as gerund. 
 
 a. The form in -ant takes the place of the Latin participle, 
 *More emphatic than k vrai dire; 68, 4(2). 
 
74-76] VERBAL ADJECTIVE III 
 
 which is an adjective, and of the Latin gerund, which is a noun; 
 so that it is sometimes adjective, sometimes noun. 
 
 75. Verbal Adjective. The verbal adjective is simply an 
 adjective which has the form of a present participle. It indicates 
 a quality, a continuous state, and, Uke other adjectives, agrees 
 with its noun in number and gender. 
 
 Elle a des yeux parlants She has expressive eyes 
 
 Ces nouvelles attristantes This sad news frightens me 
 
 me font peur 
 Ce sont des enfants ob€is- They are obedient children 
 
 sants 
 
 a. Verbal adjectives in -ant may be formed from many verbs, but by 
 no means from all. Ayant and fitant, for example, are never verbal adjectives. 
 
 b. A verbal adjective cannot have an object; does not often have a prepo- 
 sitional phrase as a modifier; cannot have a modifying adverb after it; and 
 cannot be accompanied by the negative adverb ne. A present participle, 
 on the other hand, can have any of the modifiers of a verb. 
 
 c. The following verbal adjectives differ in spelling from the correspond- 
 ing present participles: extravagant, fatigant, intrigant; convaincant, 
 provocant, suffocant, vacant; adhfirent, affluent, coincident, diff&ent, 
 divergent, Equivalent, excellent, expedient, influent, negligent, pr£c€dent. (The 
 corresponding participles are: extravaguant, fatiguant, intriguant; con- 
 vainquant, provoquant, suffoquant, vaquant; adta€rant, af3uant, coinci- 
 dant, difi€rant, divergeant, Equivalant, excellant, expfidiant, influant, nigligeant, 
 pr£c€dant.) 
 
 C'a 6t6 unejoumfie f atigante It was a wearisome day 
 
 lis ont fait le voyage lente- They have made the trip slowlyi 
 
 ment, ne se fatiguant que fatiguing themselves only a very 
 
 tris peu littie 
 
 76. Participle and Genind. 
 
 The participle in -ant indicates an action or a state of being, 
 and does not change its form for number and gender.* 
 
 The gerund, Uke the English infinitive in -ing, is a verbal 
 
 * In this it differs from the Latin participle. 
 
112 PRESENT PARTICIPLE, GERUND, VERBAL ADJECTIVE 
 
 [75 
 
 noun. 
 
 It is used only to modify verbs, and is preceded by the 
 preposition en. 
 
 In every instance, participial or gerundial phrases can be trans- 
 posed into clauses, and translating them by clauses is often an 
 aid to understanding their exact meaning. 
 
 The following are the values of the participle and the gerund: 
 
 Participle 
 
 1. Time: normally, antecedent; ex- 
 ceptionally, contemporaneous. 
 Levant la tete, elle me vit. Raising 
 
 her head, she saw me. 
 Ayant fini* son travail, il se leva. 
 
 Having finished his work, he got up. 
 Un ami lui ayant donng* mon 
 
 adresse,f il vint me voir, A friend 
 
 having given him my address, he 
 
 came to see me. 
 Ainsi parlant, il marchait dans la 
 
 chambre. While speaking thus, he 
 
 kept walking about the room. 
 
 2. Cause, when it can be trans- 
 lated by a coordinate clause with /or. 
 H attendra, ne pouvant pas faire 
 
 autrement, He will wait, not being 
 
 able to do otherwise {or He will 
 
 wait, for he- is not, etc.). 
 Etant forte at bardie, elle nage trSs 
 
 loin. She swims a long way, for 
 
 she is strong and daring. 
 Le travail manquant tout k iait,^ 
 
 * See § 77, d. 
 
 t The participle (but not the gerund) may be joined with a noun or 
 pronoun in a construction like the English nominative absolute or the Latin 
 ablative absolute. 
 
 % Or, rather, seemingly antecedent. The gerund indicates antecedent 
 action only in forms like en partant, en quittant, en sortant, where the action 
 indicated by the gerund can be considered as the beginning of the action 
 indicated by the second verb. 
 
 Gerund 
 
 I. Time: normally, contempora- 
 neous; exceptionally, antecedent. J 
 Cast k vous qu'il pensait en regar- 
 dant votra fr6re. He was thinking 
 of you while he was looking at 
 your brother. 
 En parlant ainsi, il marchait dans 
 la chambre. While speaking thus, 
 he kept walking about the room. 
 En sortant da chez lui, je suis 
 allg voir un voisin. On leaving his 
 house, I went to see a neighbor. 
 
 2. Time, with a causal shading. 
 
 Envoyant ca spectacle, il a souri. 
 On seeing this sight, he smiled. 
 
 n s'ast fait mal an tombant, He 
 hurt himself when he fell. 
 
76] 
 
 PARTICIPLE AND GERUND 
 
 113 
 
 Participle 
 
 les ouvriers s'en vont, The work- 
 men are going away, for work has 
 entirely failed. 
 
 3. Motive. (Can be translated by a 
 coordinate clause with /or.) 
 
 Je prot&ge cet homme, nele croyant 
 pas coupable, I am protecting this 
 man, not believing him guilty {or for 
 I do not believe him guilty). 
 
 Voyant im ami dans la voiture, il 
 y monta. Seeing a friend in the 
 carriage, he got in {or He got into 
 the carriage, for he saw a friend 
 in it). 
 
 4. An attendant circimistance which 
 could be expressed by a relative 
 clause. 
 
 Una femme sort, portant un pa- 
 rapluie, A woman comes out (who 
 is) carrying an umbrella. 
 
 II m'a envoy§ una depSche annon- 
 f ant son arrivee. He has sent me 
 a telegram announcing his arrival. 
 
 5. An additional circumstance 
 which can be translated by a coordi- 
 nate clause with and. 
 
 n dta son chapeau, d€couvrant un 
 front large, He took off his hat, 
 disclosing {or and disclosed) a 
 broad brow. 
 
 Partant hier, elle est aniv^e ce ma- 
 
 Gerund 
 
 3. Means. 
 
 Commencez tout de suite & m'oblir 
 en m'gcoutant. Begin at once 
 to obey me by listening to me. 
 
 On apprend bien des choses en 
 voyageant. You learn many 
 things by traveling. 
 
 Participle or Gerund 
 
 1. Manner. 
 
 Elle est revenue (en) pleurant. 
 She came back crying. 
 
 Sa rage allait toujours (en) crois- 
 sant, His rage kept all the time 
 increasing.* 
 
 2. Condition. 
 
 (En) partant k deux heures, vous 
 arriverez ce soir, If you start at 
 two, you will arrive this evening. 
 
 L'occasion se presentant,t j'ac- 
 cepterais, If the occasion offered, I 
 should accept. 
 
 * Notice that aller, joined to the gerund or participle, gives to the action 
 a progressive, a cumulative value. 
 
 ■(■ See the second foot-note to page 112. 
 
114 PRESENT PARTICIPLE, GERUND, VERBAL ADJECTIVE [76-77 
 
 Participle 
 
 tin, Starting yesterday, she {or She 
 started yesterday and) arrived this 
 morning. 
 Cachant sa figure, elle se mit 3. 
 pleurer. Hiding her face, she {or 
 She hid her face and) began to cry. 
 
 Participle or Gerund 
 3. Concession. 
 Comment 1 lis ont achetS le cheval, 
 sachant {or tout en sachant) 
 qu'il est mauvais? What! They 
 have bought the horse, althou^ 
 they know it is poor? 
 
 77. Remarks on the Participle and the Gerund. 
 
 a. The present participle may be used after verbs of sense perception 
 (voir, entendre, etc.) as a complement of the object. An infinitive or a rela- 
 tive clause very frequently replaces it. In conversational style the relative 
 clause is the commonest of the three constructions and the participle is 
 almost never used. 
 
 Je les ai vus traversant I saw them crossing {or cross) the 
 {or traverser, or qui street 
 
 traversaient) la rue 
 
 b. When there is any opportunity for hesitation, the gerund always refers 
 to the subject of the sentence. 
 
 Je I'ai rencontrg enallant^ I met him while I was going to 
 I'eglise church 
 
 When there is no opportunity for a misunderstanding, this is not always 
 the case. 
 
 J'entendis une phrase dite en I heard a phrase said offhand by 
 
 passant par un de mes one of my friends 
 amis 
 
 L'amour vient en en parlant Love is bred by talking of it 
 
 L'appStit vient en mangeant Appetite is fostered by eating 
 
 c. Tout is often placed before the en of a temporal or a concessive gerund. 
 The tout emphasizes, in the one case, the continuousness of the principal 
 action; in the other case, the concession. 
 
 Tout en causant, il s'appro- All the time he was talking, he kept 
 
 chait de la porte getting nearer the door 
 
 Tout en riant, il disait des For all that he laughed, he was say- 
 
 choses s€rieuses ing serious things 
 
 d. In the place of the present participle, the perfect participle, that is, 
 the compound form of the participle (ayant aim6, having loved; fitant parti, 
 
77-78] 
 
 PAST PARTICIPLE 
 
 "S 
 
 having started, etc.) can occur. It always marks an antecedent activity, while 
 the present participle can mark a contemporaneous or an antecedent activity. 
 Compare the examples in § 76. 
 
 . e. The participle can usually be rendered in English by a participle. 
 The gerund is variously rendered by on, in, by, from + the infinitive in -4ng; 
 by a participle; by a clause. 
 
 f. For an English infinitive in -4ng which cannot be translated by the 
 gerund, the French usually employs the infinitive. 
 
 Seeing is believing 
 
 Prevent his leaving 
 
 I occupied myself with writing 
 letters 
 
 He always begins by refusing 
 
 He has been discharged for 
 talking too much 
 
 He answers without hesitating 
 
 Come to see me before start- 
 ing 
 
 Voir, c'est croire 
 
 Emp6chez-le de partir 
 
 Je me suis occupe el €crire des 
 
 lettres 
 li commence toujours par refuser 
 On I'a renvoye pour avoir trop 
 
 parle 
 n repond sans hesiter 
 Venez me voir avant de partir ' 
 
 For the English infinitive in -ing, the French is sometimes obliged to 
 employ a noun or a clause. 
 
 Reading trains the mmd La lecture forme I'esprit 
 
 I am pleased at his inviting Je suis content qu'il vous ait 
 you invito (or de ce qu'il vous a in- 
 
 vite; see § 52, 2a) 
 
 PAST PARTICIPLE 
 
 78. Agreement of Past Participle: General Rule. The past 
 participle agrees in gender and number with the noun or pronoun 
 to which it belongs. This rule does not always apply to the past 
 participle when it is used after avoir to form compound tenses, 
 or after gtre to form compound tenses of reflexive verbs. For 
 these, see the next paragraph. 
 
 Elle est partie 
 
 Ces precautions prises, il n'y 
 
 aura plus de danger 
 Mes mains gtant liSes, il a pu 
 
 m'gchapper 
 
 She has started 
 
 These precautions taken, there will 
 
 be no more danger 
 My hands being tied, he was able to 
 
 escape me 
 
Il6 PAST I'AKilUlJr-l-j:. L»" /» 
 
 EUes etaient assises devant They were seated before a table 
 
 une table couverte de pa- covered with papers 
 
 piers 
 II avait les yeux mouilles* His eyes were wet with tears 
 
 de lannes 
 Toutes les precautions ont All precautions have been taken 
 
 ete prisesl. 
 
 a. Certain past participles, when they precede their noun, 
 are invariable, as if they had become prepositions. 
 
 Toute la famille etait malade, excepts sa m6re (except his mother; but 
 you can also say : sa m6re exceptee, his mother excepted) . J'ai Scrit cinq lettres, 
 y compris une que je n'ai pas mise k la poste (including one that I did not 
 mail; but: J'ai ecrit cinq lettres, celle-ci comprise, this one included). 
 
 The chief participles which may be so used are: 
 
 y compris, including. etant donne, given. passe, after. 
 
 non compris, exclusive of. excepte, except. vu, in view of 
 
 Ci-inclus (inclosed), ci-joint (accompanying), when they precede their 
 noun, are uninflected (i) if they stand at the beginning; (2) if the article 
 or possessive adjective belonging with the noun is omitted. 
 
 Ci-joint vous trouverez la Accompanying this you will find 
 
 copie de sa lettre the copy of his letter 
 
 Vous trouverez ci-joint co- Accompanying this you will find a 
 
 pie de sa lettre copy of his letter 
 
 Vous trouverez ci'jointe Accompanjdng this you will find a 
 
 une (or la, or sa) lettre (or the, or his) letter 
 
 La copie ci-jointe The accompan3dng copy 
 
 79. Agreement of Past Participle in Compound Tenses formed 
 with avoir, or with etre and the Reflexive Pronoun. The past 
 participle in compound tenses formed with avoir, or with 6tre 
 and the reflexive pronoun, agrees with the direct object if that 
 object precedes the participle; otherwise it is left uninflected. 
 
 * Note that mouill€s does not form a compound tense with avait in this 
 sentence. 
 
 t Note that prises does not foJm a compound tense with ont in this 
 sentence, but is used with ont fitfi, a tens» of etre. 
 
75^0] 
 
 AGREEMENT OF PAST PARTICIPLE 
 
 117 
 
 Monsieur, voiia cinq lettres. 
 
 C'est moi qui les ai ficrites 
 Quelle raison a-t-il donnge? 
 II cherchait la plume qu'il 
 
 avait mise sur la table 
 Elles se sont vues 
 Elle s'est couple k la main 
 Nous nous sommes moqu€s 
 
 de lui 
 Elle s'est enrichie k mes 
 
 depens 
 lis se sont tus 
 Nous nous en sommes all^s 
 Les oiseaux se sont envol€s 
 
 There are five letters. / wrote them 
 
 What reason has he given? 
 
 He was looking for the pen he had 
 
 put on the table 
 They have seen each other 
 She has cut her hand 
 We have made fun of him 
 
 She has enriched herself at my ex- 
 pense 
 They have kept quiet 
 We have gone away 
 The birds have flown away 
 
 J'ai ficrit cinq lettres 
 
 Elles se sont parl€ 
 
 Elle s'est coup€ la main 
 
 I ha.ve written five letters 
 They have spoken to-each other 
 She has cut off her hand, or She 
 has cut her hand 
 
 Nous nous sommes fait mal We have hurt ourselves 
 
 a. Care must be taken to distinguish direct and indirect 
 objects (of. §§ 2, 3, 18, 19). 
 
 Us se sont tus. (In se taire, se is direct object.) 
 
 Us se sont plu; Elles se sont parl€. (Se is indirect object; cf. plaire 
 
 k quelqu'im, parler k quelqu'un.) 
 Les coups qu'elle s'est donnas. (Que, referring to coups, and not se, 
 
 is the direct object.) 
 
 b. In determining the gender and number of a compound object, the 
 same rules apply as for a compound subject (cf. § 23). 
 
 80. Agreement of Past Participle in Compound Tenses : Special 
 Cases. 
 
 I. En is never considered direct object, and so the participle 
 does not agree with it. 
 
 Madame, voulez-vous des ce- Do you want some cherries?— I 
 
 rises? — J' en ai dejk pris have already taken some 
 
 Je les en ai blames I have blamed them for it 
 
ii8 
 
 PAST PARTICrrLE 
 
 [80 
 
 2. The past participle of impersonal verbs forms an exception 
 to the rule given in § 79. It is always invariable, even if the 
 direct object precedes. 
 
 Quelle chaleixr il a fait ce 
 matin! 
 
 What heat we have had this morn- 
 ing! 
 
 3. When the object precedes the past participle, and is a 
 word expressing number or quantity followed by de, the parti- 
 ciple usually agrees with the noun depending on de. 
 
 There is one of the reasons which 
 
 he has given 
 The little pity he has shown 
 
 Voiia une des raisons qu'il a 
 donates 
 
 Le peu de pitie qu'il a m en- 
 tree 
 
 Combien de fautes avez-vous 
 faites? 
 
 How many errors have you made? 
 
 a. If the de phrase follows the participle, the participle is uninflected. 
 Combien avez-vous fait de fautes? 
 
 4. When the past participle is followed by an infinitive, dis- 
 tinguish whether the direct object is object of the principal verb 
 or of the infinitive; if it is object of the infinitive, the participle 
 is not inflected. 
 
 Inflected Participle 
 
 II les a pries de venir, He begged 
 them to come. 
 
 Les dames que j'ai entendues 
 -chanter, The ladies I heard sing 
 ^que is the object of entendre). 
 
 La personne que j'ai vue peindre, 
 The person I saw painting. 
 
 La robe que je les ai envoy€s cher- 
 cher, The dress which I sent them 
 to get. 
 
 Uninflected Participle 
 
 La legon qu'il a promis d'etudier, 
 
 The lesson that he has promised 
 
 to study. 
 Les chansons que j'ai entendu 
 
 chanter. The songs I heard sung 
 
 (que is the object q/' chanter). 
 La personne que j'ai vu peindre, 
 
 The person I saw painted. 
 La robe que j'ai envoye chercher. 
 
 The dress which I have sent (some 
 
 one) to get. 
 
 a. Notice that, if the object belongs to the principal verb, 
 the infinitive can often be translated by an active infinitive or a 
 
8o] AGREEMENT OF PAST PARTICIPLE IIQ 
 
 present participle. If the object belongs to the infinitive, the 
 infinitive can often be translated by a past participle. 
 
 b. Frequently an uninflected participle occurs because the object de- 
 pends on an infinitive which is not expressed. 
 
 II a fait toutes las choses He has done all the things which he 
 qu'a a voulu wished (to do) 
 
 5. When the participle of faire is followed by the infinitive, 
 the fait is always invariable, faire + the infinitive being treated 
 as if it formed a single verb. 
 
 Je les ai fait entrer I have had them come in 
 
 6. When a noun is used adverbially to express time, distance, 
 weight, price, value (see § 4), the past participle is never varied 
 to agree with it, for it is not the direct object. 
 
 Les millions que cette guerre The millions that this war has cost 
 
 a cofite 
 Pendant les deux mois que During the two months you have 
 
 vous avez vecu dans cette lived in this city, I have not seen 
 
 ville, je ne vous ai pas vu you 
 
 Les deux jours qu'il a at- The two days that he has waited 
 
 tendu 
 Les cinq kilomStres qu'il a The five kilometers that he has run 
 
 couru 
 (But: Les deux hommes qu'il a attendus, The two men that he has 
 waited for. Les dangers qu'il a courus, The risks that he has run.) 
 
 a. Valoir usually takes an adverbial accusative of price or value, and 
 its past participle is then uninflected. Valoir when used figuratively means 
 earn, and may have an inflected past participle. 
 
 Les dix francs que cet article The ten francs that this article has 
 
 a valu been worth 
 
 La gloire que ses victoires lui The glory that his victories have 
 
 ont value earned forhim 
 
INDEX 
 
 The references are to the paragraphs 
 
 d + infin., see ' infinitive.' 
 
 Absolute construction, 6. 
 
 abuser, trans, and intrans., 6. 
 
 accorder, mood after — , 62, 3!. 
 
 i. condition que, 66, 3a. 
 
 Adjective, verbal, see 'verbal ad- 
 jective.' 
 
 Adjective clauses, 65. 
 
 admettre, mood after — , 62, 3!. 
 
 Adverb clauses, 66-57. 
 
 Adverbial accusative, agreement of 
 past participle after — , 80, 6. 
 
 Adverbial object, see 'object.' 
 
 afin que, 56, la. 
 
 agir; il s'agit de, 20, 2. 
 
 aller, indirect object of — , 3, nole; 
 il y va de, 20, 2. 
 
 aller + infin., = conditional tense, 46, 
 a; = future, 28, c. 
 
 d moins que, 56, 3. 
 
 apres + infin., 73, i. 
 
 arreter, mood after — , 62, ic. 
 
 assez . . . pour que, 66, z. 
 
 d supposer que, 66, 3. 
 
 atteindre, trans, and intrans., 6. 
 
 attendre, mood after — , 52, 2e, note; 
 temporal clause after — , 66, sa; 
 s'attendre, mood after — , 62, 2e. 
 
 au cas oft, 56, 3b; 62, 3b. 
 
 au cas que, 66, 3; 66, 3b. 
 
 avant que, 66, 5. 
 
 avoir, as auxiliary, 11-13; past defi- 
 nite of — , 37, 4a; il y a, 20, 2. 
 
 bien que, 66, 4. 
 
 Causal clauses, 56, 6. 
 
 ce; agreement of verb when ce is 
 
 subject, 22, :^. 
 ce n'est pas que, 66, 6. 
 changer, trans, and intrans., 6. 
 Characteristic relative clauses, 66, i. 
 ci-inclus, agreement of — , 78, a. 
 ci-joint, agreement of — , 78, a. 
 comme with object complement, 
 
 8,0. 
 Compound object, see 'object.' 
 Compound past anterior, see "past 
 
 anterior.' 
 comprendre, mood after — , 52, 3c. 
 compris, agreement of — , 78, a. 
 Concessive clauses, 56, 4; 61-63. 
 concevoir, mood after — , 52, 3c. 
 Conditional, perfect — , 44. 
 Conditional clauses, 56, 3; 61-63. 
 Conditional mood, 47; two verbs 
 
 in the conditional joined by que, 
 
 47, lb. 
 Conditional tense, 46. 
 connaitre, past definite of — , 37, 4a. 
 Consecutive clauses, see 'result.' 
 croire, trans, and intrans., 6. 
 dans le cas oQ, 66, 3b ; 62, 3b. 
 de after passive verbs, 16. 
 de -|- infin., see 'infinitive.' 
 decider, mood after — , 52, ic. 
 decreter, mood after — , 62, ic. 
 de fas on (i ce) que, 66, 2d. 
 de maniere (d ce) que, 56, 2d. 
 de sorte que, 56, 2. 
 
122 
 
 INDEX 
 
 devoir, as auxiliary verb, 14; past 
 definite of — , 37, 3a. 
 
 Direct object, see 'object.' 
 
 do, French translation of — , 1. 
 
 donne, agreement of etant — , 78, a. 
 
 Double compound past anterior, see 
 'past interior.' 
 
 douter; mood after se douter, 52, 3b. 
 
 empecher, expletive ne after — , 52, 
 ig; mood after — , 52, if. 
 
 en attendant que, 56, 5. 
 
 en cas que, 56, 3 ; 56, 3b. 
 
 encore que, 66, 4. 
 
 en sorte que, 56, 2. 
 
 en supposant que, 56, 3. 
 
 entendre + infin., object of — , 10. 
 
 esperer, mood after — , 62, 2c. 
 
 essayer, trans, and intrans., 6. 
 
 6tre, as auxiliary, 11-13; ■ — as aux- 
 iliary of reflexive verbs, 17, a; 
 as impersonal verb, 20, la; past 
 definite of — , 37, 4a; il est = 
 il y a, 20, 2c. 
 
 eviter, expletive ne after — , 52, ig. 
 
 ezceptg, agreement of — , 78, a. 
 
 expliquer, mood after — , 52, 3c. 
 
 faire, as impersonal verb, 20, la; 
 agreement of past participle of 
 — , 80, s; mood after — , 52, id. 
 
 faire + infin., object of — , 10. 
 
 faire attention, mood after — , 52, le. 
 
 falloir, as auxiliary verb, 14; past 
 definite of — , 37, 3a; il faut, 
 impersonal, 20, 2; il faut, infinitive 
 or object clause after — , 53, la. 
 
 Final clauses, see 'purpose.' 
 
 Future perfect tense, 30. 
 
 Future tense, 28-29; two verbs in the 
 future joined by que, 47, ib, note. 
 
 Gerund, 74, 76-77. 
 
 gofiter, trans, and intrans., 6. 
 
 ii, as anticipatory subject, 21; agree- 
 ment of verbs when il is subject, 
 22, 1. 
 
 Imperative mood, 48. 
 
 Imperfect tense, 31-33. 
 
 Impersonal verbs, 20; agreement of 
 the past participle of — , 80, z. 
 
 Indicative mood, function of — , 24. 
 
 Indirect object, see 'object.' 
 
 Indirect questions, 64. 
 
 Infinitive, 64-73; — after adjectives, 
 68, 2; 70, 3; — after phrases 
 formed with d or de, 72; — after 
 que = than, as, 70, 2; — after 
 substantives, 68, i; 70, 3; — 
 after verbs, 68, 3; 70, 4; — after 
 verbs of motion, 66, s; — as 
 object, 66, 4; 68, 3; 70, 4a; — as 
 predicate nominative, 66, 2; 68, 
 I (i) a; 70, i; — as subject, 66, i; 
 66, 2; 70, i;— for indicative, 70, 
 S; — in adverbial uses, 68, 4; — 
 in apposition, 66, 3; — in ellip- 
 tical expressions, 66, 6; — in place 
 of adverb clause, 67; -j in place 
 of noun clause, 63; — with d, 
 68-69; 72; — with apres, 73, i; 
 
 — with de, 70-71; 72; — with 
 par, 73, 2; — with pour, 73, 3; 
 
 — with sans, 73, 4; historical — , 
 70, 5; pure — , 66-67; directions 
 for using the infinitive with de, 
 71; list of verbs followed by the 
 infinitive with d, 69; list of verbs 
 followed by the pure infinitive, 67. 
 
 Intransitive verbs for Eng. trans., 7. 
 
 jouer, trans, and intrans., 6. 
 
 jusqu'd ce que, 56, 5. 
 
 laisser -|- infin., object of — , 10. 
 
 loin que, 66, 7a. 
 
 malgre que, 66, 4 (i) b. 
 
 Manner, clauses of — , 66, 7. 
 
 manquer, trans, and intrans., 6. 
 
 meme si, 61 ; 62. 
 
 mettre, mood after — , 62, $e. 
 
 Modal clauses, see 'manner.' 
 
 Moods, see 'indicative mood,' etc. 
 
INDEX 
 
 123 
 
 ne, expletive, 52, ig; 62, 2b; 52, 4b; 
 56, sb; — for ne . . . pas; 52, 
 Ig; 55, la; 56, 2a; 66, 6. 
 
 ne . . . que, only, characteristic rel- 
 ative clauses after — , 66, ic. 
 
 nonobstant que, 66, 4. 
 
 non (pas) que, 66, 6b. 
 
 Noun clauses, 61-64. 
 
 obeir, passive of — , 2, a. 
 
 Object, adverbial, 4; — , compound, 
 9; — , direct, 2; — , indirect, 3. 
 
 Object complement, 8. 
 
 obtenir, mood after — , 62, id. 
 
 ordonner, mood after — , 62, ib. 
 
 oii que, subjunctive with — ," 66, 3. 
 
 par after passive verbs, 16. 
 
 par + infin., 73, 2. 
 
 pardonner, passive of — , 2, a. 
 
 Participle; past participle used as 
 predicate adjective, 13; agreement ■ 
 of past participle, 78-80; perfect 
 participle, 77, d; present participle, 
 74; 76-77; .present participle re- 
 placed, after verbs of sense per- 
 ception, by infinitive or relative 
 clause, 77, a. 
 
 passe, agreement of — , 78, a. 
 
 Passive voice, 15-16; agent with ■ — , 
 16. 
 
 Past anterior tense, 42 ; compound — , 
 43. 
 
 Past definite tense, 36-40. 
 
 Past indefinite tense, 34-35. 
 
 Past participle, see 'participle.' 
 
 Perfect participle, see 'participle.' 
 
 Periphrastic conjugation, English, 1. 
 
 peut-etre que, mood after — , 52, 5c. 
 
 plaindre; se plaindre, mood after — , 
 52, 2d. 
 
 Pluperfect tense, 42. 
 
 Pluperfect tenses, 41-43. 
 
 poser, mood after — , 52, 30. 
 
 pour + infin., 73, 3. 
 
 pour with object complement, 8, c. 
 
 pour que, 56, la; 66, 2c. 
 
 pour . . . que, subjunctive with — , 
 
 66, 3d. 
 pourvu que, 56, 3. 
 pouvoir, as auxiliary verb, 14; past 
 
 definite of — , 37, 3a. 
 prendre, mood after, 62, 36. 
 prendre garde, mood after — , 52, le; 
 
 use of ne = not after — , 62, ig. 
 Present participle, see 'participle.' 
 Present tense, 26-27. 
 pressentir, mood after — , 52, 3b. 
 pretendre, mood after — ,. 52, 3d. 
 Principal clauses, subjunctive in — , 
 
 see 'subjunctive.' 
 Purpose, clauses of — , 56, i. 
 quand meme, 62, la, 2a, 3a. 
 que, before infinitive which is logical 
 
 subject, 70, la; — in clauses of 
 
 purpose, 56, la; — introducing a 
 
 second condition, 66, 3c. 
 que . . . ne for sans que, 56, 7b. 
 quel que, subjunctive with — , 56, 3. 
 quelque . . . que, subjunctive with 
 
 - 56, 3d. 
 qui que, subjunctive with — , 65, 3. 
 qui vive, 60, a. 
 quoi que, subjunctive with — , 66, 
 
 3- 
 
 quoique, 56, 4. 
 
 Reciprocal value of reflexive con- 
 struction, 18, a. 
 
 Reflexive instead of passive, 18, c. 
 
 Reflexive object of infinitive, omis- 
 sion of — , 10, 5. 
 
 Reflexive verbs, 17-19; past parti- 
 ciple of — , 19, a. 
 
 regler, mood after — , 52, ic. 
 
 Relative clauses, see 'adjective 
 clauses.' 
 
 repartir not followed by infinitive, 
 
 63, 28. 
 
 r6pliquer not followed by infinitive, 
 53, 2a. 
 
124 
 
 INDEX 
 
 repondre not followed by infinitive, 
 
 , 63, 2a. 
 
 resoudre, mood after — , 62, ic. 
 
 Result, clauses of — , 66, 2. 
 
 sans + infin., 73, 4. 
 
 sans que, 56, 7. 
 
 savoir, conditional of — , 14, c; past 
 definite of — , 37, 4a; je ne sache 
 pas, 60, a; que je sache, 56, id. 
 
 sembler, mood after — , 62, sb. 
 
 Sequence of tense in the subjunctive, 
 68. 
 
 servir, trans, and intrans., 6. 
 
 ^si, introducing clauses of condition 
 and concession, 61-63. 
 
 si, whether, 54, a; tense after — , see 
 'tense.' 
 
 si . . . que, with adjective clauses, 55, 3; 
 — -with clauses of result, 56, 2 ; 56, 2b. 
 
 soit . . . soit, 50, b. 
 
 souhaiter, mood after — , 62, 2c. 
 
 soupfonner, mood after — , 52, 3b. 
 
 stipuler, mood after ■ — , 62, ic. 
 
 Subject, agreement of verb with — , 
 22-23. 
 
 Subject clauses, 62, 5. 
 
 Subjunctive, after superlative, 55, 2; 
 — after verbs of denial, despair, 
 doubt, ignorance, 62, 4; — after 
 verbs of emotion, 52, 2; — after 
 verbs of knowing, 52, 3; — after 
 verbs of willing, 52, i; — in adjec- 
 tive clauses, 56; — in adverb 
 clauses, 56; — in causal clauses, 
 56, 6; — in clauses of characteris- 
 tic, 56, i; — in clauses of conces- 
 sion, 66, 4; — • in clauses of condi- 
 tion, 56, 3; — in clauses of manner, 
 66, 7; — in clauses of purpose, 56, i; 
 — ■ in clauses of result, 66, 2; — in 
 clauses of time, 56, 5; — in noun 
 clauses, 51-52; — in noun clauses 
 which precede the principal verb, 
 52, 6; — in principal clauses, 50; — 
 
 in subject clauses, 52, 5; — with 
 indefinite relative pronouns, 55, 3; 
 avoidance of and substitutes for im- 
 perfect and pluperfect — , 69-60. 
 
 Subjunctive mood, function of — , 49. 
 
 Substantive clauses, see ' noun 
 clauses.' 
 
 Superlative, subjunctive after, see 
 'subjunctive.' 
 
 suppose que, 56, 3. 
 
 supposer, mood after — , 62, 36. 
 
 tant . . . que with clauses of result, 
 66, 2; 66, 2b. 
 
 tel . . . que with clauses of result, 
 66, 2; 66, 2b. 
 
 tellement . . . que, with clauses of 
 result, 66, 2; 66, 2b. 
 
 tenir, trans, and intrans., 6. 
 
 Tense, after si, whether, 26, 2a; — in 
 conditions and concessions contrary 
 to fact or stressing uncertainty, 62, 
 2 and 3; — in neutral conditions and 
 concessions, 62, i; — in si clauses 
 which imply that the statement is 
 a fact, 62, 4. 
 
 Tenses, of the indicative, 25-47; — 
 of the subjunctive, 58-59. 
 
 Tenses, see 'present tense,' etc. 
 
 Time, clauses of — , 56, 5. 
 
 tout before gerund, 77, c. 
 
 tout . . . que, mood with — , 65, 3c, 
 
 Transitive verbs, for Eng. intrans., 
 7; — having secondarily an in- 
 transitive meaning, 6. 
 
 trop . . . pour que, 66, 2. 
 
 valoir, agreement of past participle 
 of — , 80, 6a. 
 
 venir, indirect object of ■^, 3, note. 
 
 Verbal adjective, 74-76. 
 
 vivre; qui viva, 50, a. 
 
 voir -f infin., object of — , 10. 
 
 vouloir, as auxiliary verb, 14; past 
 definite of — , 37, 3a. 
 
 vu, agreement of — , 78, a. 
 
EXERCISES 
 
 TO ACCOMPANY 
 
 ARMSTRONG'S 
 SYNTAX OF THE FRENCH VERB 
 
 BY 
 
 C. J. CIPRIANI 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 
 
 US 
 
Copyright, 1915, 
 
 BY 
 
 HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 
 
INTRODUCTORY NOTE 
 
 The following exercises are based upon French texts, chiefly selected 
 from current newspaper and magazine articles, but in some instances 
 from other sources. The notes, references, and vocabulary which 
 accompany them are not intended completely to take the place of 
 other aids: the student should have at hand in addition a grammar 
 and a dictionary — the latter preferably entirely in French. 
 
 As the book is not intended for first-year work, and those who use it 
 are expected to have already had at least an elementary course in 
 grammar, references to sections of the text not yet studied are freely 
 included; references to the sections already covered are given from 
 time to time, when there seems reason sufficient to demand them. 
 
 Words in the text inclosed in parentheses should be omitted from the 
 French translation: those inclosed in brackets should be inserted. 
 
Exercise i (§§ 1-5) 
 JIGO 
 
 The soil of [the] France produces many such men, and there is one 
 Uke that in every regiment. His name is Jigo,' he is forty years old. 
 With his ^ cap on his ear, his mouth full of oaths, his canteen full of 
 brandy, he incessantly dins his company with ^ his boastings. He uses 
 "thou" to* every one: to the captain, the major, the colonel. He is 
 continually grumbling about* the decisions of his superior oflScer, 
 (just) like the "old-time grumblers," * but the difference is' that the 
 "grumblers" followed, while he^ is always in the van.* (Being the) 
 right-hand man of the colonel, he is chosen for any mission ^^ in which 
 there is danger. 
 
 " Jigo, you will start with a patrol; I wish ^^ to know what I have in 
 front of me; but do take precautions, there is danger." 
 
 "What then? Do you wish me to go^^ (and) get ^' myself killed?" 
 
 "No, indeed, I do not [wish it], since I wish you to bring me back 
 information." 
 
 "All right," but, you know, it would not matter; '* I should have 
 gone " just the same! " Having said that, he goes his way. 
 
 Jigo is unwilling to be accompanied by any one in the unheard-of 
 explorations which he conducts into the very " trenches of the enemy. 
 Alone, (with) his rifie on his ^ shoulder, he starts out. At ^ night, he 
 goes to count the Germans in their trenches. He exterminates whole 
 patrols in order to '* drain the canteens of his victims while he rests 
 an instant. Sometimes he is welcomed by terrific fusillades. Jigo 
 shrugs his ^ shoulders, and shaking his ^ fist at the enemy's sharp- 
 shooters,^' he yells an oath. 
 
 ' See 8. — 2 Use definite article. — ' ne cesse de f aire retentir sa compagnie de. — 
 * Use thou to, tutoyer. The second person singular is naturally used by superiors 
 to Jigo, an inferior in a close relation; it is used by Jigo to his superiors, but only 
 because he is a man who infringes on all the proprieties. — * centre. — " legendaires 
 grognards (name given to the soldiers of the Old Guard of Napoleon I). — ' c'est. — 
 ' Use emphatic form: lui, il.— "toujours devant.— '°/<"' «'' 'A« missiotts. — " See 67. 
 — '2 Use clause, see 52,1. — "faire; see 10. — "Bon, bon. — "Use conditional of 
 cela ne fait rien; — " See 47, i and 47, la. — " jusque dans les.— " pour. — " Use 
 adjective instead of noun: inimical sharpshooters. 
 
6 EXERCISES ^-^ 
 
 Exercise 2 (§§ 6-9) 
 
 LIFE IN THE TRENCHES 
 
 I suspect that remoteness is casting around our life and our situ- 
 ation a halo' which changes a little their true character.^ I am 
 going therefore to try, without falling short in (our duty of) dis- 
 cretion, to describe our life for you'* as accurately as* possible. That 
 will serve to make you taste the life of soldiers (that are) exposed to 
 the fire of the enemy, for which I have exchanged the tranquillity of 
 civil life. 
 
 To begin with, we have not failed to make huge progress in the art 
 of digging holes, and if (during) the first days we remained buried, 
 listening ^ to the fusillades of the enemy, and waiting for the favor of 
 night ^ in order to change places and stretch our legs, now we have 
 remedied these drawbacks by organizing'' veritable underground cities 
 into which we can enter by day,* and (where we can) circulate, sheltered 
 from the bullets, enjoying ' complete safety. 
 
 We remain in the trench (for) eight or ten days at a stretch. The 
 trenches usually border on a small town, a village, or a few farms. 
 There kitchens are installed,' from which very hot meals are served ® 
 to us three times a '" day. 
 
 (During) the day a few men stand guard, admirably protected; 
 (during) the night the only difference is that the watch is increased." 
 The others sleep very conscientiously, save when an untimely fusillade 
 or bombardment comes ^^ to cut short their slumber. 
 
 After eight or ten days of this good regime, our place is taken'^ by 
 other details, and we return to a village beyond the enemy's range,'' 
 where we are quartered for a period pf equal length. We do not make 
 bad use of this period of rest; we clean ourselves from head to foot, 
 we change our underwear, and we go to drill, just " as (if we were) at 
 the barracks. 
 
 1 "Cast a halo around," 'aureoler de reflets.' — ^ which changes a little the true 
 
 character Cla belle realite) of them. — ' Indirect object. — * d'aussi pres que '■ a 
 
 ecouter, see 68, 4 (3). — "la nuit propice. — 'Use gerund; see 76 — « de io'ur — 
 » Use on; see 15, b.— 1» par.—" See 56, 3.— 12 we are replaced.—}^ hors des coun-? 
 ennemis.— " tout. vuuj/o 
 
3-4] EXERCISES 7 
 
 Exercise 3 (§§ 10-12) 
 
 LIFE IN THE TRENCHES (continued) 
 
 At the end of this time, we are sent back to^ the trenches. Such is 
 the regular schedule,^ which may not be modified ' in its details except 
 by sudden emergencies. Therefore you see that we lead ■* fifty per 
 cent of a normal life, and the other half does not fail to be quite as 
 agreeable. 
 
 I hear you make objections: rain, mud, snow, cold. I have often 
 heard those things repeated, but I regret not to ° be able to make you 
 see with ^ your (own) eyes how victoriously we struggle with ^ these 
 fearful enemies. And if you in ^ the rear admire the efforts that we are 
 making here, we are dumbfounded by ^ the enormous effort which we 
 see our country making for us. 
 
 Every day, so to say, we see immense parcels of warm clothing ar- 
 rive: shirts, drawers, flannels, bands, fur caps, which one causes* to 
 be distributed to the soldiers. Our rations' are beyond all praise as 
 regards '" both their abundance and their quality, and if anyone should 
 complain,'^ one would make him shut up very quickly. Wine and 
 brandy are distributed ^^ daily to the soldiers, and they are allowed ^^ 
 to take them in ^' grogs and mulled wine. 
 
 At the present moment we are off duty, after ^* ill luck had made us 
 pass our shift in the trenches,^* the first half in '^ snow and frost, with 
 a temperature" of ten degrees below zero; the second, in'^ a muddy 
 and filthy thaw. Just the same,'* out of ■'' one himdred and sixty men 
 
 I have under my orders, I have seen only five or six suffering from 
 heavy colds or bronchitis. 
 
 1 one makes us regain. — " c'est la le schema regulier. — ' which one does not let be 
 modified. — * you see us therefore lead. — ^ de.^-^ how (combien) we struggle victoriously 
 against. — ' you others of. — ' Use faire. — ' Notre ravitaillement en vivres. — >" par. — 
 
 II See 62, 3. — " Use on. — " en. — " apres que. — ^ notre periode de tranchee. — 
 16 sous. — " un froid. — ^ Eh bien. — ^ sva. 
 
 Exercise 4 (§§ 13-16) 
 LIFE IN THE TRENCHES (concluded) 
 
 Good heavens! ^ when we came back in (from the front), we were 
 bimdles of mud from head to foot. Today, not a trace of it shows: ^ 
 
8 EXERCISES [4-5 
 
 we are washed, brushed, scrubbed from top to bottom. But what 
 remains of this vigorous and healthy life is ' an enormous strength. 
 I am greatly changed, I have never been so fleshy, I even think that 
 I have grown handsomer. 
 
 My impressions of the (rifle and artillery) fire are very vivid. 
 Twice, I have reason to believe,^ I was made the target for bullets, one 
 of which ^ must have passed quite near my left ear, for, an hour after, 
 I was still deafened. Artillery fire hammers harder on your nerve,^ 
 but I must say that one accustoms one's self to it quickly. I have been 
 "fanned" ' by the wind of shells which passed * quite near and went* 
 to burst [at] four or five meters behind me? One has the impression 
 that it must be an express train passing at fuJl speed close to an im- 
 prudent traveler who has lost himself in thought at the edge of the 
 platform. And all of a sudden ^^ the shell has burst, the earth quivers, 
 the air is filled with splinters, you are spattered with dirt; thirty or 
 forty of them pass like that,^^ and all ends without harm, or nearly 
 (so). _ 
 
 I still must describe my last house for you.^^ The door is very 
 narrow, and hermetically closed by a screen of wood and platted straw. 
 I have been awakened in it because I was too warm, and have been 
 obliged to get up and open the door. 
 
 May^' the joyous confidence which we have here be communicated 
 to you by these bits of news," and may" they be a sincere thanks 
 for " all that is being done for us. You are all marching with us to- 
 ward victory, which must smile on us.^^ 
 
 ' Ah! dame. — ^ it there appears no more. — ' c'est. — * k ce que je crois. — ^ dont 
 une.— « sur le moral. — '' souffle. — ' passing . . . and going. — ' k I'arriere. — '» Et 
 voili que. — i' there pass of them thirty or forty like that. See 21. — •* Indirect object. — 
 " Use que; see go. — " ces quelques nouvelles. — •* de.— •« Indirect object. 
 
 Exercise 5 (§§ 17-19) 
 THE RECRUITS 
 
 " Goodbye, sir.* Make haste to join us. We * will keep the helmets 
 of the Boches for you! We shall get them all right! ^ Long live* the 
 25th (regiment)! " 
 
 And as if it were ^ simply a matter of a long hoped-for excursion, or 
 of a froUc of boy-scouts in the suburbs of Paris, caps are waved ^ at 
 
S-61 EXERCISES 9 
 
 the car-windows, voices are raised ® in roarching songs, while the train 
 starts, carrying away from the little Southern city, to which ^ in 
 troublous hours their post* had been transferred, four hundred re- 
 cruits who are dashing toward the front. 
 
 With a last handshake, a little nervous but very energetic, they 
 say to each other a final (word of) adieu. A whistle, a red signal- 
 lantern on ^ the horizon, and the recruits move off. 
 
 Grouped around our chief, who straightens up and bites his mous- 
 tache, less unmoved than he would like to show [himself], we follow 
 the light which is growing dim and vanishing in the distance. 
 
 Young recruits of France! How can we help feeling^" touched by ^^ 
 so much enthusiasm, simple valor, unlimited confidence in ultimate 
 victory! How, also, (can we) stem the crowd of memories which 
 surge up in our minds! 
 
 It seems to me that it was but yesterday that they arrived in this 
 town, where is to be found* a castle that belongs to History: the bar- 
 racks were crowded, two regiments of reserves had just been called 
 to the front: the newcomers attracted no attention yet. They loitered 
 in the yard of the barracks, swinging their arms,^^ not knowing where 
 to go, bullied here, jostled there. They kept getting all mixed up^' 
 in the numbers of the companies, and going astray into some indefinite 
 cantonment at the other end of the town. 
 
 ' A bientdt, mon lieutenant. — ^ Use on. — ' One mil have them, go! — * See 50 and 
 62, 2. — 5 See 62, 2. — ^ Use reflexive form of verb; 15, b. — '' ofl. — * depdt. — ' k. — 
 i» Comment ne pas se sentir. — " devant. — '^^ las bras ballants.— " s'embrouil- 
 laient. 
 
 Exercise 6 (§§ 20-23) 
 
 THE RECRUITS (concluded) 
 
 It would be impossible to describe with ^ what laughter, in spite of 
 the seriousness of the hour,^ the reserves that had arrived a week be- 
 fore — ^regular veterans' — welcomed the first steps of these recruits 
 in the career of arms. 
 
 It must be acknowledged * that at the end of four weeks our young 
 soldiers had acquired a different bearing; it may be that their military 
 education still left ^ much to be desired, but they had at least taken 
 all the habits of the soldier, as well as his familiar gestures, his char- 
 
lO 
 
 EXERCISES [6-7 
 
 acteristic slang, that good-natured chaff ^ which pierces through'^ 
 the rigid cloak of discipline and sums up in* a (single) word the tedium 
 or the pleasure of the (passing) moment. Then too, this crowd of 
 young men sang, and the songs which they had borrowed from their 
 elders were not the heavy canticles from across the Rhine,^ they were 
 the old Gallic refrains, most of which have no longer any age. 
 
 And it happened once that '" their singing was heroic. 
 
 It was " the beginning of September. In spite of the terseness of 
 the oflScial statements, every one was worried on account of the bad 
 news which was beginning to filter through ^^ (them). Refugees by 
 the hundred arrived '' in town. But one day, on our way back ^* from 
 a distant exercise ground, up came'^ an excited and haggard cyclist: X 
 (a village where we had maneuvred a few days before) is occupied by 
 the enemy, we are retreating everywhere. 
 
 (The) consternation (is) general: there comes'^ an unaccustomed 
 silence from one end of the column to the other, every one becomes 
 pensive, most heads are bowed. All of a sudden a volunteer raises his 
 head, and with ^ his twenty-year-old '^ voice, a fresh, melodious voice, 
 starts the first bars'* of the Farewell Song:'* 
 
 Mourir pour la patrie, c'est le sort le plus beau. 
 
 And that small band of recruits of the class of 1914 come back past ^ 
 the hamlets, which gather new hope at their sight,^' with their heads 
 held high,^^ proclaiming, with ' all the strength of their heart, with ' all 
 their soul, their will to' conquer or to die for their country. 
 
 ' de. — ^ of the serious hour. — ' des anciens. — '' Use active voice. — * See 52, 5. — 
 *cette malice bon enfant.— 'sous.— 'de.—'d'outre-Rhia. — ^'^, And there was one 
 time Ihat.—^^We were oi.- '^a psrcer. — " There arrived refugees by the hundred. — 
 " au retour.— « voaa.— '« Use se faire.— " de vingt ans.— « notes.— ^^ Chant du 
 Depart.— 'i" pres de.— "' oft leur vue rend le courage. — " the head high. 
 
 Exercise 7 (§§24-27) 
 
 LETTER FROM THE FRONT 
 
 For two days ' we have been at rest again, and we shall be quiet 
 for a short time still, before returning to the trenches. Our shifts 
 take place, as a matter of fact, according to a systematic rotation, so 
 as to secure for the men, after their stay on the firing line, a refreshing 
 rest. I do not know to what extent soldiers are allowed to give^ 
 
7-8] EXERCISES 
 
 II 
 
 in their correspondence specific information on this subject. So I 
 prefer to' refrain from (giving) details, and to tell you simply that 
 everything is planned so as not to demand too much from us terri- 
 torials. There is a pretty proverb that says: " God tempers the wind 
 to the shorn lamb." * Well, Joffre tempers fatigue to the baldheaded, 
 bay-windowed territorials, and, if it is possible, also danger. 
 
 In order to reassure you, I give you a little bulletin of my health: 
 it has never been so good since I was twenty years old.^ I have not 
 been long at the front, but I have felt marvelously well since my ar- 
 rival; I have never had a cold, a headache. 
 
 The night of the 26th to the 27th of November I witnessed a spec- 
 tacle of an inexpressible grandeur and weirdness: the moon was shining 
 bright ® and the atmosphere carried [the] sounds wonderfully well. 
 From our first-line' trenches we heard the calls, the cries, and the 
 orders in the German trenches. Toward eleven o'clock at night ^ 
 our .neighbors and friends of the regular regiments begin to salute each 
 other^ with '" cries of joy (a Russian victory had just been announced " 
 to them), and suddenly along all the French lines one hears the Mar- 
 seillaise, sung by thousands-'^ and thousands of young and ardent 
 throats.^' The Germans answer it with little derisive" cries which 
 sound very paltry. '^^ They begin to sing their Wacht am Rhein, but our. 
 batteries mingle their imperious voice with " the concert and, firing on 
 the trenches of the Boches, reduce them to silence. Our men sing on." 
 The shells keep on exploding with lightning flare,'^ and everywhere, 
 erect in the trenches, those silhouettes of heroic boys '^ sing the Mar- 
 seillaise, emphasizing each stanza by a volley of shots; but the roar 
 of the cannon was the most sublime strain of the orchestra. I do not 
 know wliether such a joyous and terrible scene will ever be seen again ^^ 
 under the bright and golden moon.^" 
 
 'Usevoici . . . que. — ' it is permitted to the soldiers (xtulitaires) to give; see '!0,i. 
 — ^ See 67. — * to a .shorn sheep God tempers the wind. — * depuis mes vingt ans. — 
 ' Use un beau clair de lune; 20, la. — ^ en premiere ligne. — ' du soir.^ — ' 18, a. 
 — '"par. — "Use on; 15, b. — '^ des milliers. — " poitrines. — "de derision. — 
 15 mesquiuement. — '* a. — " toujours. — '* en fulgurant. — " d'enf ants heioiques. — 
 ™ une lune claire et blonde. 
 
 Exercise 8 (§§28-30) 
 OUR FLAGS 
 After all these long days of waiting and of sacrifice, when our num- 
 
12 EXERCISES 
 
 [89 
 
 berless flags, worn out with glon, ,' shall return, carried higher aloft * 
 and outlining themselves more distinctly ' upon the sky of peace, in 
 what condition will they be? 
 
 After they have led the terrible campaign * life and faced the enemy 
 day after day,* fought and slept with the soldiers, waved in the fo^ 
 of Flanders and in the snow of the \osges, of what substance* will 
 they be [composed]? 
 
 And what wiU remain of them? I can picture them to myself in 
 advance, the most (of them) : those which will have suffered least, 
 unrecognizable, browned and blackened, or faded and discolored. 
 And then the others, the magnificent, the thrilling (ones), (those 
 that have) escaped, at the price of what efforts, from the most 
 terrible encounters. Some will have been picked up in the field, 
 some wiU have piassed from hand to hand, convej"ed by the heroic 
 and pure gesture of the wounded, the dying! 
 
 Shall those flags be replaced,' in accord with the oflidal rules? If 
 only a tatter of them remains,^ it must be because' one has fought 
 furiously around them, and they will be only (the) rarer and more 
 precious for it.'" And as long as there remains a scrap of white, red," 
 and blue, a twisted iron at the extremitj- of the shaft, the flag will 
 •live and shall not be put out of commission. 
 
 K, however, they are withdrawn" from us, this shall be, we hope, 
 because they will have ser\''ed to the point of becoming that holy 
 and frail thing" which we^ call a relic. Then we miist ^' cautiously 
 hang them imder the dome of the Invalids. But before we^ are con- 
 strained'* to this last measure, as long as it will be ptossible not to'* 
 have recourse to it, we ask that our flags of war be left ' to us. 
 
 • de gloire. — * pins en hant — ' mieui. — * de campagne. — * chaqne jonr. — * de 
 quoL — ' Use on. — ' // there remains to iliem (21) only a taUcr. — ' que. — ^ en. — 
 11 pourpre. — " cette "frag-Ute sainte. — " Use falloir; 20, 2. — " Use subjunctive; 
 see 56, 5. — '^ de; see 70, i. 
 
 Exercise 9 (§§31-33) 
 BEET-TOPS 
 
 That evening our pioupious who were in the trenches in * 
 Alsace were chatting gaily, for the lack of comfort in the abode in 
 which they had been for (some) days did not entice them to slumber. 
 
9] EXERCISES 13 
 
 And they were looking for some source of diversion in order to kill 
 time. Before them an immense field of sugar-beets stretched 
 its impressive verdure; beyond the far end of the field a wood 
 sheltered the Teuton hordes. They, our lads,^ were hiunming joyous 
 songs. 
 
 Suddenly a brilliant idea Ut up the brain of the sergeant, who im- 
 mediately communicated it to his companions. The shout of joy 
 which answered his proposal awakened the captain, who had just 
 gone to sleep. 
 
 "What is this untimely noise? " he grumbled in his shaggy beard. 
 
 The sergeant with ' the briUiant idea understood that he must * 
 make good. He advanced and gave the regulation salute: "It is 
 this, sir: ^ my comrades and I were saying that it would be a good idea 
 to* cover the beet-plants with ® our caps. (In) the morning the Boches 
 will shoot at both.^ As we* will answer only feebly, they will 
 approach without suspicion, and it may be ' that our company 
 wiE be mentioned ■"* in the ofBcial report for this unprecedented 
 exploit." 
 
 "And while you are waiting for something better,^^ I'll have you 
 decorated ^^ with* the Order of the Beet. Go, my boys, cap the sugar- 
 plants, but do not catch cold." The captain had scaTcely given 
 his consent before ^^ the pioupious jumped into the field and fixed 
 their caps on the moving leaves of the beets. 
 
 At daybreak, a gloomy day which pierced with difficulty the morn- 
 ing mist, the bugle sounded the reveille in the camp of the Boches, and 
 they rushed to^* their arms. Meanwhile their officers were looking 
 with surprise at the French ^e^j. 
 
 Suddenly there was a terrific noise. Shrapnels, machine-guns, 
 mausers joined in at one time: if the caps had been^^ on the heads of 
 the French soldiers, it would have been the end of that com- 
 pany.^* A few French rifles answered feebly while our soldiers saluted 
 the bursting of the shells with " side-splitting laughter. 
 
 Finally the colonel who commanded the detachment of the enemy 
 gave the signal to attack.'* It was what our men were hoping for. 
 When the German troops were well within range, a general fusillade 
 mowed down the first ranks. And the volleys followed one another 
 until all [those] who remained took (refuge in) a prudent flight. 
 
14 EXERCISES [9"^° 
 
 The beets of Alsace had bravely done their duty— and so had our 
 
 soldiers.^' 
 
 1 en.— 2 gars.—' a.—" 14, a.—* Voilk, mon capitaine,— ' de.— ' sur eux et sur 
 elles.— ' Use on.^' Use se pouvoir.— '" Subjunctive; see 52, $■—" En attendant 
 mieux.— 12 10, 2.— "que; see 42, 2.—" sur.— " See 62, 2.— i»<to company was 
 annihilated. — " par. — '* de I'attaque. — i' and our soldiers also. 
 
 Exercise 10 (§§34-37.i) 
 
 SULTANA 
 
 The Count of L., cavalry officer of the reserve,^ could feel only a 
 splendid enthusiasm at (th& news of) the general mobilization. He 
 hastily went to see his tenants, released them verbally from what 
 they owed him, and put his castle, its outbuildings, and its resources 
 at the disposal of all the needy. 
 
 Then he entered the stables in (the) company of his steward. In 
 a comfortable box-stall fitted up on the right, quite near the entrance, 
 a fine bay mare greeted them with ^ a joyous whinny. 
 
 "Poor Sultane!" sadly said the count, stroking' her on* the neck, 
 "we shall be obliged to part." Then he turned toward his steward: 
 "I cannot accustom myself to the idea that in a few hours I shall have 
 lost her forever. If I could fight ' upon her, I should be worth four 
 horsemen by myself alone.* Take * her yourself to the requisition 
 commissioners, and look after shipping her. " '^ 
 
 "Very well, my lord."* 
 
 As if she had understood^ the meaning of these words, Sultane 
 suddenly began to neigh plaintively. The coimt rested his head 
 lovingly on that of the animal, and took leave of her in^ a broken 
 voice: "Now then,^" [my] Sultane, farewell! May Providence lead^^ 
 you to a glorious fate!" 
 
 War is raging in Flanders. Cavaby charges follow one another 
 without intermission, with a ferocious intensity. In one single week, 
 the count has had three horses killed under him. At the fag-end of ^^ 
 a savage pursuit of the enemy, his fourth horse has plunged into a 
 ditch, hit in* the breast by the bullet of a fugitive who had turned 
 around. 
 
 The next day, at dawn, a man in the cavalry bureau " presents 
 himself before * the count, leading a horse." "Here, [my] Major, is 
 
lO-ll] EXERCISES IS 
 
 your new mount. I have been charged '^ to warn you that the animal 
 is spirited, and that you will have " to be on your guard against its 
 whims. At the time" of mobilization it was assigned to General M., 
 who considered it dangerous, and gave it to a colonel who was not able 
 to keep it either. For two days it has been at the depot." 
 
 But the man suddenly breaks off . . . a word burst out from the lips 
 of the major: "Sultane!" 
 
 A friendly whinny answered the cry of the officer,'^ and the animal, 
 
 quivering, excited, triumphant, moved forward, and rested her head 
 
 gently on the shoulder of her former master. 
 
 ' du cadre de la reserve. — ^ de.— ' Use gerund; see 76.— *a.— ^ k moi seul.— 
 "29. — 'son embarquement. — 'Bien, monsieur le comte. — 'See 62, 2. — i"Allons. 
 — "See 50. — '^4 I'issue de. — "du service de la remonte. — "un cheval k la 
 main. — " Use on. — ^^ Use falloir. — " au moment. — " du chef. 
 
 Exercise 11 (§§37>2-4o) 
 
 THE CID 
 
 The Cid of Comeille is based on a Spanish play in which ' Guillen 
 de Castro had dramatized one of the incidents of the youth of the 
 Cid, the epic hero of Spain. Its first representation was a splendid 
 s\u:prise for the audience; for the poet it opened the portals of fame.^ 
 For the first time one saw ' moral [beauty] and tragic beauty united ^ 
 in a thrilling drama, (composed) wholly of passion, of ardent youth, 
 of heroism. Paris was carried away with^ enthusiasm; "beautiful 
 as the Cid" was used to^ express a boundless admiration. This bril- 
 liant success did not run its course without set-backs; (no matter 
 whether they were) obscure or famous, almost all the dramatic authors 
 leagued themselves together against the victor, who, to tell the truth, 
 took pleasure in his triiunph without (an) excess of modesty. A quarrel 
 began, as violent as the one about ^ the unities. Comeille's rivals 
 reproached him with having plagiarized Guillen de Castro, of having 
 composed an irregular and immoral play. 
 
 Richelieu, who had just founded the French Academy, insisted on^ 
 submitting the question to it. The Academy censured the master- 
 piece; it declared that the poet not only had broken the rules, but had 
 glorified base foibles, and actions contrary to decency and virtue. 
 But they tried* in vain to reconcile the public to this verdict: Paris, 
 
1 6 EXERCISES 
 
 [II-I2 
 
 France, Europe persisted in thinking that the Cid was a unique play, 
 in which ^ one did not know what should ^ be admired the most, 
 the pathos of the situations or the beauty of the verse. 
 
 This first masterpiece of the classic drama determined the very type 
 of tragedy. Such was to be '" henceforward, in substance, the classic 
 tragedy. 
 
 ' oft.— 2 it became (37, 4a) the entrance into glory.— ^ Use imperfect, 31, b.— 
 * Use reflexive; 10, S-— * de.— « disait-on potxr.— '37, 3a.—* Use on.— » Use falloir. 
 — 1»29, 3. 
 
 Exercise 12 (§§ 41-46) 
 GRAY HAIR 
 
 One June morning I had remained alone with my two little girls. 
 Often, when mamma was out, I would find myself ^ only guardian of 
 the home and of my beloved little elves. 
 
 As the sun was shining in a cloudless sky, it was very quickly de- 
 cided that we^ should go to play in' the garden, and poor papa had 
 seen stars. He had been obliged to resume his youthful agility and 
 romp in the walks, to imitate the cries of strange animals, and to be- 
 come by turns (a) cat, (a) tiger, and (a) mouse. 
 
 When we had played enough, I sat down under the acacia, where I 
 was soon joined by my little girls. They understood that the races 
 were over, and that rest was going to begin, and they both seated 
 themselves on my knees, asking^ me for a story. Surely^ that would 
 not tire Daddy, they ^ loved him too much to' want to tire him. I was 
 listening to the prattle of my children, all (the time) hunting for* the 
 story I should tell them. 
 
 "How warm poor Papa is, we must '' take off his hat." 
 
 Suddenly I saw that one of my little daughters had become quite 
 sober. " Now what is the matter with * you? " I exclaimed, astonished 
 at' this sudden change of countenance. 
 
 "Look, look," she said to her sister without answering me, "Papa 
 has white hair!" And the two beaming faces took on a grieved ex- 
 pression. — ^Would I become white and bent like grandfather? Would 
 I die^" as he (had)? 
 
 I answered them srhilingly that such " had always been the com- 
 mon lot, but that I was still young, and that, probably, I should spend 
 many, many years with them. 
 
^2~^3] EXERCISES 1 7 
 
 [It was] in vain[ that] I tried to console them. The idea of old age and 
 of death had risen up in their mind and they were overwhelmed by it. 
 One of them particularly, the elder, could not control herself.— No, no, I 
 should not die!— and as I tried to reason with her and to quiet her, she 
 raised her eyes toward the sky: "O, God!" she exclaimed passionately, 
 "grant that Papa may not die'^ before us!" 
 
 I do not know what happened then. The flight of a bird must have 
 changed the trend of their thoughts, and an instant later their laughter 
 and romping were in full swing again. 
 
 As for me,^' I remained a long while seated on the bench: it seemed 
 to me that my heart had received a mortal wound: ^* a foreboding that 
 the child's prayer would be fulfilled. 
 
 '31.-2 Use on. — ' a.—* Use gerund, see 76.— * C'etait bien sflr que.— ^73, 3. 
 — ~ Use falloir; 20, la. — ' what have. — " de. — i" 46, a.^" cela.^'=^ 52, id. — " Mais 
 moi. — " that I had received a fatal wound at the heart. 
 
 Exercise 13 (§§47-48) 
 THE SOLDIER'S MOTHER 
 
 War, as an ancient philosopher has said, is the father of everything, 
 but one's ^ country is the mother. Therefore it should not have been 
 called ^ fatherland; if one had hunted * nard, one might have found 
 (something) better: one might at least have called it "motherland"; * 
 or, better stUl, one should ^ find a word that comes from "mamma," 
 for even "mother" might ^ not be a tender enough word. 
 
 If, during the long nights of guard-duty in the trenches, one should 
 approach one of the young soldiers of the regular army, with their 
 round, beardless, still bojnsh faces, how many times it would be only 
 to'' hear him speak of his "mamma." For it is as follows that their 
 musings, their remarks always end: "If I should have to^ pass in my 
 checks, it * would bother me on mamma's account." 
 
 "Mamma" is the word one would hear if one stooped ' over the 
 wounded fallen on the battle-field; it is the word one would gather 
 from^ the lips of the dying; it^" is the word that S3anbolizes one's ^ 
 country. In a^ just war, in a^ noble war, in a} holy war, the battle- 
 cry that should ^ be raised should not be a cry of hate, it should be a 
 cry that comforts and exalts; and what other word would suffice for 
 this except the cry of love of the wounded and the dying? 
 
l3 EXERCISES -13 -*4 
 
 TJstesi to one little stoiy aniOTig the many" that thae would be to ^ 
 ten. Imagme a scene in the trenches: the military maitcairia- anrwes; 
 thecn.isheaid:'' " The mail" the mail! " All hands are strrtchcd 
 out, all want " to gather thdr share of the dixine manna. One would 
 saj' (they were) 5iar\elings struggling over ^ the piece <rf bread that 
 is to^* save them from death. Even if " the unlucfcy carrier had his 
 bag fuU of letters, he would not be able to satisfy (them) aH, but te 
 has only <Hie envdt^je to ^ ddiver, <Hily one! At this moment the 
 little seedier to whom it is addressed would not change^ [^aces with 
 any one in ^ the world. His comrades bow their heads, they are think- 
 ing of those frcMn whom they would so much like to receive a letts* that 
 vrould q)eak to them of thdr native heath. The yom^ster. however, 
 has cqtened his (letter). " From whom is it? " they ask. " FitHn mam- 
 ma," answers the bey. "Oh, wdl then, if you would read your lettCT 
 out loud to us, that ^rould make i:s some news anyhow." And flras 
 the lad lent a Uttle of his motha's heart to all those hcsneack waniors. 
 
 Those who might think that the Frendi have degenerated should 
 pa^ a single ni^t with the little soldiers at the outposts, and such a 
 thou^t would never recur to them. 
 
 'la. — 'Use on.— 'Use gennid; 47, la. — * "la matrie." — * Use falloir.— *Use 
 pomnnr. — ' poor. — ■ fa. — • snr. — • ihil iDord. — " tontes n^tt^ — •* a. — ** tme c^.u. 
 — ''Use conditiaQaL — "47, 4- — ^ 14, a. — "47, 2 k — ^6. 
 
 Exercise 14 (§5 58-59) 
 THE .\M.\XtTXSIS 
 
 The War-Office has ordered that a beautiful 3?ellow f ram, half covered 
 with printed matter, be placed * at the disposal <rf the wounded, in 
 Older to avoid that families remain too long in uncertaintv and fear. 
 The intuition is good — granted! But the majority o: the wounded 
 are suq)icious of this cffidal chart. They fear least the sdoitific 
 jargon of the doctor disquiet the simple minds <rf their wives and 
 mothers. -And thai ora- sensitively toider Fraichniai prefer that 
 their expressions of affection- remain more private. To write' in 
 their name to their families is therefore one of the most ur^oit sov- 
 ices that can be* rendCTed the wounded: do not take it amis if* 
 I remind you <rf it. Write, therefore, for the invaKds and the illit- 
 erate, slq) in between the cots (withl your fountain-pen in vour hand: 
 
14-lSl EXERCISES I9 
 
 "Do you (not) wish me to write to your family, if you are not in a con- 
 dition to do so yourself?" 
 
 Nine times out of * ten the soldier will answer you courteously: 
 "Thank you, madam, I fear that it will give too much work. I hope 
 that I shall soon be able to do it myself, or else a comrade will do it 
 for me." 
 
 Do not let that discourage^ you. Insist; make [that] the patient 
 overcome his timidity; tell him that it is desirable to write ^ immedi- 
 ately if he desires that an answer be sent ^ to him promptly. May 
 you succeed in winning over with ^ a smile those artless heroes who go 
 to (face) the fire laughing,* and fear lest they be considered ^ trouble- 
 some. See, he has made up his mind! ' Quick, settle yourself down 
 near him. "To whom do you wish me to write? To your parents? 
 To your wife? " And if you do not wish the Httle missive to bring un- 
 easiness to the humble home ^'' where anxious women have been wait- 
 ing for long days, reassure them with ^^ the opening sentence: "If the 
 patient does not write himself, it is because '^ he has been forbidden ^ 
 to overdo; he is saving that ^' for the next time." "That's it," 
 approves the satisfied client, " that will prevent them from borrowing 
 trouble." 
 
 "All right. And what next?" 
 
 "Oh, next. . . ." 
 
 Do not grow impatient if they tell off the whole string of then: 
 
 friends' names; do not consider it childish that they inquire with 
 
 anxiety about ^ the farm-work m progress, about the details of their 
 
 laborious life. When all is^* recorded, dose the letter with" the 
 
 time-honored formula: "Your son for life." God grant that the hope 
 
 £ind comfort it bears to some remote nook of France may not be 
 
 beUed by the Oater) events. 
 
 ' Use on. — ' leurs expansions. — ' See 66, i. — * que. — ^ sur. — ^§50. — 'de. — 'Use 
 gerund; see 76. — » Le voM decide. — "> dans la maisonnette. — " par. — " que. — 
 " ce sera. — " Tout cela etant. 
 
 Exercise 15 (§§ 52,3-54; S8-6o) 
 PATIENCE 
 
 There can be no mistaking the fact that some impatience is felt.^ 
 People are surprised^ that our armies are not going any faster, and 
 
20 EXERCISES 
 
 [IS 
 
 they 2 ask almost imperiously that they make a more rapid progress. 
 However, it can not be denied ^ that we have again taken the offen- 
 sive, and that it has been crowned with ' success. Would you believe ^ 
 that people could lose patience in the midst of success? And yet they ^ 
 are losing patience, they are chafing. It is worth while to ' ask ourselves 
 what the reason is for it. The reason is ^ that it would have been neces- 
 sary to form^ a new habit, and it has not been formed,* because it is 
 very rare that a new habit is acquired ^ with ease. History had ac 
 customed us to a warfare of sweeping operations.* It was not known '^ 
 that it was possible to carry on siege operations in open country. 
 Granted! But a new habit must be formed, the habit of a ground- 
 nibbling warfare,® of the warfare to which those who are carrying it 
 on, our undaunted soldiers, have accustomed themselves. 
 
 . Is it possible that it is so hard to ' accept the new facts? It does 
 not seem that they are so disheartening. Should we like to be in* the 
 place of our opponents? Is it not true that, piece by piece, we have 
 won much ground, saved Paris, saved Calais and all the north coast? 
 Are our people * not aware that the enemy is pressed back much more 
 than (was the case) three months, three weeks ago? 
 
 Hence one can well ask oneself if it is reasonable that we * lose 
 patience, that we worry. Do you believe that serenity is less neces- 
 sary, less profitable, today than (it was) at the beginning? 
 
 I well understand: after the slow offensive you would like to see the 
 whirlwind offensive, the offensive of the entire front in a torrent-like 
 rush.' Without doubt this offensive will come, but I do not think that 
 we are the judges of the opportune moment. The judges are the su- 
 perior ofiScers ^^ who have in no way deserved that doubt be cast upon^ 
 the precision of their observation and their inspiration. Nothing 
 makes us doubt that the whirlwind offensive will come when it is 
 profitable, when it is timely. Personally I believe that this moment 
 is not distant; but let us even suppose that it be delayed, it would be 
 necessary nevertheless to have confidence in our chiefs' fitness to'^ 
 recognize the timely moment and to take advantage of it. Have they 
 not shown that they fully possess this fitness? 
 
 ' That there U some impatience, one can not be mistaken in it. — ' Use on. — ' de. 
 —* C'est— > a grands mouvements.— » de la guerre ronge-terrain.— ' See 70, 
 I.— »a.— »en ruee torrentielle.— '» Le juge c'est le haut commandement 
 —'1 See 68, 1(2). 
 
i6 »7J EXERCISES 21 
 
 Exercise i6 (§§ 52.3-55; 58-60) 
 
 PEACE 
 
 What we desire is a true peace, a profovmd and basal p)eace, a 
 peace that shall be rooted in the souls. In order that this peace be 
 established ^ it would amply be necessary that (the truth of) this 
 idea lay hold upon all: it is to' the interest of all that there be no 
 soverdgnty. 
 
 "Our CcmstituticHi," said Royer-Collard, "is: there is no sov- 
 erdgnty." 
 
 n we want a peace that is likely to Eve, we must have a European 
 Constitution, similar to the French Constitution, that shall say: 
 "There is no Eurc^iean sovereignty." For, whatever the peace is that 
 will be made,' it will not be of long duration unless the aUies estab- 
 lish * a European CtMistitution such as I have just mentioned [it]. If, 
 be it ever so Httfe,* the ambitious peoples take account of the hope- 
 ksaiess ci thdr ambition, that constitution will be established,^ what- 
 ever the difficulties are that seem to stand in the v.ay of it. However 
 painful it may be for these peoples to* confess themselves at fault, 
 let force be joined ' to reason in order to convince them <rf it, (and) 
 they will have *" to yield to the e\-idence. 
 
 It is necessary that the nations to whom the impotence of their 
 ambition has been proved ^^ rq)lace their evil will, which is the will 
 for'* power, by a good will, whidi shall be only the will to be free. 
 That is the tmly thing that can bring about the true peace, the basal 
 peace, the holy peace: "Peace on earth to men of good wilL" What- 
 e\-er those may think who have not yet recovered from their anti- 
 human error, there is no other peace [which is] possible, it is the only 
 
 peace for whidi we offer up prayers. 
 
 'See 56,1. — 'de.— 'Useon. — « See 56,3.— *U3e poor pen que.— » Use reflexire; 
 18, c.— ' a.—* See 70, I.— »U=e r^exive and rf. 50, c — ^Use falloir. — "See 
 310, a. — "de. 
 
 Exercise 17 (§§ 56-60) 
 THE itENT 
 
 When I arrived, Godard was waiting for me in a kind of smithy. 
 "Come in quickly," he said, "unless you want them to cast - before 
 you are there." 
 
22 
 
 EXERCISES [17 18 
 
 Although I was rather late, I could see two big fellows, black as 
 devils, armed with ^ large iron rods, pull from off the fire a kettle in 
 which silver was simmering, and pour it into a channeled mold, in 
 such fashion that almost instantly there fell from it a half dozen solid 
 bars. Although it was a heavy task, they acquitted themselves 
 so well that I was quite astonished by it. 
 
 "These ingots are made," Godard told me, "in order to manufacture 
 ten-cent pieces out of them. Let us enter this workshop in order that ' 
 you may see how they are flattened and lengthened ^ until they are 
 as thin as the ten-cent pieces." 
 
 In fact I saw the thick bars pass repeatedly * between iron rollers, 
 which are called ^ flatting-mills, until they were so completely * flattened 
 and lengthened that their extremities were no longer visible.* While 
 waiting for ' a bar to be reduced to this condition, one is obliged to 
 anneal it every second time* in order that it may not become brittle. 
 Silver is not beautiful during this process; it becomes black as ink, and 
 one would scarcely be tempted to ^ pick it up, even if one should find 
 it in the street. 
 
 When these long black strips have arrived at the desired thickness, 
 
 a little mechanism cuts them up so that they resemble small leather 
 
 discs. I do not go anywhere without' learning something: Godard 
 
 told me that these counters without impression are called planchets. 
 
 They are weighed ^ one by one, and those which have not the (right) 
 
 weight are discarded. [It is] not that they are good for ^^ nothing and 
 
 that one wants to get rid of them; it is (rather) that one lays them 
 
 aside in order to plane them by ^^ machinery or file them by '" hand 
 
 so that they may have the (proper) weight. 
 
 ' de. — " Use on. — ' 56, la. — * pass and repass. — ^ si bien. — ' that one no longer 
 saw the extremity of them. — "< Use en attendant que.—* de deux en deux fois. — 
 » S6> 7b.— •» a. 
 
 Exercise 18 (§§ 61-63) 
 
 ILLUSION 
 
 This is a Christmas tale for little children, but if grown-up folks 
 read it they will perhaps find charm and profit in it. 
 
 There were once two poor people, so poor that they had neither 
 bread, nor bread-box, nor house, nor field. Even if they had had a 
 
i81 EXERCISES 23 
 
 bread-box, it would have been of no use to them, since they had no 
 house in which to house it; but if they had had a field, they could have 
 earned the wherewithal to build a house in it; and if they had had a 
 house, they could have housed the bread-box in it; and if they had had 
 the bread-box, they would have been able, without doubt, to put bread 
 in it from time to time, for bread they did receive ^ as alms, and some- 
 times a Uttle bacon with (it). But they would have preferred to fast 
 forever, if by fasting ^ they could have had a house with a little fire. 
 
 And if they always were very poor, they felt themselves poorer than 
 ever on a sad Christmas eve,^ which was gay for all the others, who 
 had that evening a good fire on the hearth. Perhaps they would not 
 have complained, if they had not found themselves alone in the dark 
 night, on the highway, where they met only a poor cat. It was a very 
 poor cat, for it had only bones and skin, almost stripped of fur. If it 
 had had fur on the skin, without doubt its skin would have been in 
 (a) better condition; and if its skin had been in (a) better condition, 
 without doubt the cat would have been strong enough to^ catch mice, 
 and not remain so lean. 
 
 Poor people are kindly folks and when they can they help one 
 another. These (poor people) gave the cat a little of the bacon that 
 had been given ° them as alms, and the cat, having eaten, led them to 
 an abandoned hovel, where there were two stools and a fireplace, and. 
 disappeared. When they found themselves seated in the dark, they 
 said: "Oh, if we (only) had a few firebrands, we could warm ourselves! " 
 
 Suddenly two embers ignited at the back of the fireplace, and joyously 
 the poor people stretched out their open hands .in order to warm them. 
 
 "If you blow upon (them)," said the woman, " the embers will blaze." 
 
 "No," answered the man, " if they should blaze they would be used 
 up too quickly, but in this way they will last all night, if the Christ 
 Child, who has had pity on us, grants us this favor." 
 
 And all night the embers shone as if they had been louis d'or. When 
 morning came, the two poor people saw at the back of the fireplace 
 the poor cat: it was at the glow of its eyes that they had warmed them- 
 selves so well. For, even if they were very poor, the Christ Child 
 had given them the treasure of the poor, which is illusion. 
 
 1 Insert en with verb.— ^ Use gerund; see 76.—' par un triste soir de la veUle de 
 Noel.—* See 73, 3.—= Use on. 
 
24 EXERCISES [IQ 
 
 Exercise 19 (§§ 64-67) 
 
 THE AMANUENSIS (concluded) 
 
 As we have already said, to write in their name to their families 
 is one of the most urgent services that can be rendered ' the wounded. 
 It is putting one's time to good use to do this,^ but in certain hospi- 
 tal organizations ^ it is difficult for * the nurses to find ^ the time for 
 this minor duty. On the other hand, not only do our combatants, 
 returning from the front, seem to remain too long without news from 
 their households, but they would wish to send without delay, to the 
 corner of Languedoc or Brittany where some good souls are worrying, 
 the letter that will come to announce their ,^ safety and to keep up hope. 
 So you must ^ slip in between the cots (with) a fountain-pen in your 
 hand to ask the wounded if they do not wish to dictate a letter, since 
 they are riot able to write themselves. Do not ^ be discouraged by * 
 the first refusal; one must know how to induce the patient to take 
 courage; for if he declines, it is because he hardly dares to put you to 
 this trouble. He would rather wait than ^ be troublesome. Make 
 him* overcome his shyness. Why not write? Is it not better to send 
 a letter immediately, if he wishes to receive an answer as soon as pos- 
 sible? What's the use of waiting? In vain the patient will hesitate, 
 you will know how to persuade him. The first letter, the principal 
 letter, must be® for the family. But this fine (fellow), who has just 
 risked his life in order to defend you, is perhaps going to remain long 
 weeks on this bed, away from the familiar surroundings where he 
 would have found comfort and tenderness. It is therefore necessary to 
 put him in touch again with those he loves. (Any one) who has seen 
 the mail delivered *" in an ambulance ward knows the dull grief of 
 those who get nothing from the carrier, the joy of those who happen 
 to be more favored. 
 
 To^^ secure this comfort for your patient you must therefore return 
 to write, without being disheartened, without betraying fatigue, to 
 the grandfather who fought through the war of 1870, to the aunt- 
 godmother, to the uncle-parson, to the brother or the chum who 
 is in the service. 
 
 And if your client is not yet married, after having written to all his 
 friends there ^^ may remain a last task for you: to write to a little 
 
19-20] EXERCISES 
 
 25 
 
 sweetheart, a fiancee. If you ask him about it, you will almost al- 
 ways see the young manly face grow red, the eyes drop, then dart you 
 a grateful glance. Hasten to send "faithful thoughts," "sweet re- 
 membrances" to Rosalie, Marthe, Jeanne, Marguerite. Those few 
 lines will cause joy to spring up in poor worried hearts. 
 
 1 Use on. — * See 70, i. — ' en certaines fonnations sanitaires. — * a. — 
 ^ the.—' Use falloir.— ' See 70, 2.— « 10, 4 (a).—' 28, d.— "• 10, 2a.—" See 73, 3.— 
 
 21. 
 
 Exercise 20 (§§ 68-69) 
 THE MINT (concluded) 
 
 Then they^ began to wash the planchets in I do not know what 
 (kind of) acid; it was an endless (piece of) work, but they kept on 
 doing it until the planchets were of the fairest white, and nothing 
 remained ^ except to stamp them. The whole of that is done at one 
 time: the obverse, the reverse, the edge. Unless you ^ see it, you find 
 it hard to believe in this mechanical miracle. Formerly they ^ were 
 obUged to manufacture coins with an enormous lever-press. The 
 arms of thirteen men just sufficed to make a thirty-cent piece, and the 
 best workmen did not manage to coin more than twenty of them a 
 minute. A French mechanical engineer called Tonnelier was the first 
 to construct a little machine, a real toy steam-engine,' which can* 
 coin from fifty to sixty pieces a minute, and a single workman suffices 
 for ^ looking after the task. It is curious to see, this mill which does 
 not weary of grinding metal like grain, and of turning out coins in- 
 stead of flour. It * furnishes food for reflection that the great man who 
 invented this power-press did not succeed in making (his) fortune; 
 and one could even grow sad at the thought ' that he is not at all 
 famous. 
 
 I was inclined to think that the work was finished when the pieces 
 were coined: but no (such thing). "Now," said Godard to me, "the 
 contractor has finished what he had to do, and has earned his money; 
 and the State will set about verifying the impress, the weight, and 
 the standard. It is the affair of the State Commissioner to check 
 up the weight and impress, and the Laboratory of [the] Assays is 
 responsible for certif)dng the standard. Afterwards the Commission- 
 ers of [the] Currency will sit to * pass their judgment on the weight 
 
26 EXERCISES [20-31 
 
 and the standard. All that simply serves to guarantee that the coins 
 are above suspicion." 
 
 ^Use on. — "21. — 'joujou a vapeur. — ''arrive. — '69, note 6. — 'Cela.— '68, 
 4(3).— * 73. 3- 
 
 Exercise 21 (§§ 70-73) 
 ENGLISH SCHOOLS 
 
 On the whole,^ it is impossible not to admit that in the English 
 public schools human nature is more respected and more unimpaired. 
 It is a great advantage^ for the body, the imagination, the mind, and 
 the character to develop in an environment (that is) healthful, 
 tranquil, and in accordance with the demands of the instincts. With * 
 this education, English boys grow up so as to resemble the trees of 
 an English park; with ^ ours, (boys resemble) the cropped and recti- 
 linear arbors of Versailles. 
 
 The boys are required to be present at classes, coaching-lessons, and 
 dinner, and to be in the house in the evening at a set time, and nothing 
 more; the rest of the day belongs to them, it is their right to^ use it 
 as they see fit. The only obligation which is laid upon this free time ^ 
 is to prepare assigned school-work, (but) they are free to® do so 
 where they wish and when they wish. I was surprised to see some who 
 were studying in a book-store, others who were reading, seated on a 
 railing. They are accustomed to follow their fancies, to wander where 
 they please; it is a real pleasure to see them rove over the country- 
 side, fish, skate, and bathe. They are at liberty to dispose freely of 
 their money, they set themselves up to spreads, and buy things'' 
 to fit up their rooms. It appears that if they run up debts they are 
 compelled * to sell at auction their minor personal effects.' Initiative 
 and responsibility: it is curious to see twelve-year-old ^^ youngsters 
 raised to ^^ the dignity of men. 
 
 Eight hours of work a day as a maximum, often er six or seven: 
 with us (in France), eleven, which ^^ is nothing short of unreasonable. 
 The adolescent needs physical activity, it is unnatural to oblige him 
 to be a pure brain, a sedentary cripple. In England they* arrange 
 [so as] always to let a part of the day be occupied " in 1* athletic sports: 
 tennis, football, running, rowing, and above all cricket; besides, two 
 or three times a" week, classes stop at noon to make room for these 
 
21-22] EXERCISES 
 
 27 
 
 games. Since rivalry cannot keep from entering into them, each school 
 strives to surpass its rivals, and sends to the meets rowers and players 
 who have been carefully trained ^ and selected. 
 
 Today eleven of the biggest and most skilful (boys) are in the act of 
 defending the honor of the school against eleven players (who have) 
 come froip London. The undertaking is serious: the opponents be- 
 long to a famous cricket ^^ club. Young folks have the right to have 
 a passion for an exercise which mature men choose for (the) principal 
 object of their Ufe. 
 
 ' 68, 4 (2). — 2 point.—' sous.—'' 69, note 21.— ^ these free hours.— ^ {it is) free to 
 them to; 70, i. — ' de quoi. — * Use on. — ' petit mobilier prive. — '" de douze ans. — 
 11 jusqu'a. — 12 ce qui. — " 10, 2. — " par. — '* de cricketers. 
 
 Exercise 22 (§§ 74-77) 
 
 THE BIRD'S NEST 
 
 I remember that one day, during my childhood, being out for a 
 walk ^ with the boarding-pupils of the college of Sens, we all went into 
 a wood to hunt for birds' nests. We scattered, and, each one going his 
 own way, we began to himt eagerly, I especially, for I had never found 
 a single bird's nest nor a single nestling, so that on our way home^ 
 my companions always made fun of my astonishing awkwardness. 
 That day, having scoured the underbrush for* more than an hour, 
 suddenly, on the branch of a Uttle oak, [at] three feet from the ground, 
 I perceived a fine blackbird's nest. All quivering with * excitement, 
 I advance noiselessly, stretching out my neck and hands. The mother 
 (-bird) awaits me, all the while ^ looking at me with * her anxious and 
 shining eyes, and fliies off from the nest only when I have reached the 
 tree. There were three eggs, and I was making ready to take them, 
 but, turning around, I discover the mother, who, having alighted close 
 by, seems to implore me with * her eyes. On seeing that, my heart sank. 
 At this moment, hearing the signal for* the start (given) at the edge 
 of the wood, I moved off without touching the nest, saying to the 
 mother, as if she had been able to understand me: " Come back, come 
 back, I have left you your eggs, you will find your setting again." 
 
 Almost all my companions had nests and birds, and, seeing my 
 empty hands, they made fun of me as (they had done) the previous 
 times, saying: "Oh, we knew very well that he would not find any- 
 
28 EXERCISES ' [22-23 
 
 thing." Although I was very glad ^ of what I had done, a false shame 
 did not allow me to confess the compassionate impulse which had 
 kept me from taking possession of the' nest which I had found. It was 
 only the following day that I told my adventure to my good mother, 
 who kissed me with tears of joy.^ 
 
 1 k la promenade. — " while going home. — ' pendant. — * de. — ° 77, c. — ^ crying 
 
 with (,de)joy. 
 
 Exercise 23 (§§ 78-79) 
 
 SULTANA (concluded) 
 
 (Use the past indefinite in this exercise wherever it is permissible.) 
 
 A courier approached the major at this moment: " (An) order from 
 the general!" The major took the dispatch and glanced over it; 
 without doubt the order must have been momentous, for his brows 
 knit, and his eyes blazed. 
 
 "Sound the assembly!" 
 
 The notes of the bugler rang out merrily, the ranks formed, the 
 troopers sprang into the stirrups, the horses began to prance. The 
 joy the major felt when leaping into the saddle ^ was too marked to 
 escape the notice of his men. Before giving the order to start,^ the 
 major leaned (forward) on his mount, he gave it little friendly pats, 
 and he was heard to say, " Sultane, the most beautiful hour of my life 
 has come!" 
 
 At a galop, the squadron rushes forward on the tom-up road, which 
 mingles itself with the fields which shells have plowed up. Suddenly, 
 halt! ^ The division is massed behind a large wood; the major is 
 receiving the colonel's orders. In the course of the past night the 
 enemy has crossed the little river; in view of the strategic importance 
 of the ground, it is necessary to repulse him, to make him cross back to^ 
 the other side. Throughout the day impetuous charges follow one 
 another incessantly. The hostile forces met in monstrous shocks, 
 in terrific hand-to-hand encounters, they set madly upon each other, 
 they dealt each other terrible blows. 
 
 Mounted on Sultane, the major felt himself a superman, he fought 
 heroically at the head of his decimated squadron. He was not even 
 willing that the two wounds which he had received in ^ his arm he 
 
23-24] EXERCISES 
 
 29 
 
 dressed.^ Night (having) come, the breathless bugler is sounding 
 
 the last charge when, suddenly, (both) horse and rider ^ fall, mortally 
 
 wounded. A captain approaches in order to raise his wounded chief. 
 
 "Never mind,* captain," says the latter. "Charge on! ' Recollect, 
 
 to^" the last (man)." 
 
 The officer salutes and obeys; the squadron moves off. Our men's 
 
 shouts of victory are heard in the distance. Then the major collected 
 
 his energies, and, crawling (along), he approached his horse, laid 
 
 his head on its dainty neck, and murmured: "Goodbye, my Sultane, 
 
 this is the fortime that I have longed for, we, both die in ^ the service 
 
 of France." 
 
 ' en selle.— 2 du depart. — ' arrSt. — * de.— ^ a.— « Use on.—' the man and the 
 horse. — * Laissez. — ' toujours. — '" jusqu'i. 
 
 Exercise 24 (§ 80) 
 
 ENGLISH FARMS 
 (Use the past indefinite in this exercise wherever it is permissible^) 
 
 We went to see another English farm: six hundred acres, about 
 six hundred pounds of rent. We were ushered into a large drawing- 
 room, (which was) cool and simple, and, during the five minutes we 
 waited, we admired the large curtains hung on ^ gilded curtain-rods, 
 the elegant, well-framed mirrors, the tasteful arm-chairs, (and) in^ 
 the middle (of the room) , the table loaded with pretty books. In short, 
 it was the coimtry drawing-room of a Parisian who has an income of 
 twenty-five thousand francs,' and we wondered what sum all that had 
 cost. Adjoining, there was a kind of conservatory, a sun-parlor 
 stocked with flowers; nowhere have we seen better cared-for and pret- 
 tier ones. The farmer's wife came in, she excused herself for having 
 kept us waiting, she begged us to sit down. She was a handsome 
 woman, who seemed to me to be some thirty years old; she was full 
 of life and vim, and kept up the conversation very well. Later I 
 learned that she rode horseback, played the piano, and was none the 
 less a good housekeeper.* Our guide told us that once when she had 
 guests (for dinner) and ^ the cook was absent, he had eaten a very good 
 dinner that he had seen^ the farmer's wife prepare with^ her own hands. 
 
 The farmer, who had been forewarned of our visit, sent to fetch us 
 
30 EXERCISES [24-2S 
 
 in order to show us the farm. There was a group of low brick build- 
 ings, economically constructed. The purpose had been^ to make a 
 model (farm), and they had well accomplished the thing they had 
 wished: to^ set an example of economy. 
 
 We were taken into the well-ventilated and well-cleaned stables 
 where the cattle, hogs, and sheep were kept. What a quantity of 
 fatting stock '" we saw, which was kept stationed in stalls the floor 
 of which was under-drained. 
 
 They were fed with' chopped turnips, crushed beans, oil-cakes. 
 
 Agriculture, thus understood, is a complicated industry, based on 
 
 (both) theory and practice, unceasingly improved, and requiring 
 
 scientific ^' implements. 
 
 ' soutenus par. — ^ a. — ' twenty-five thousand francs of income. — ■* and was not 
 less from it (a) good housekeeper. — ' et que. — ' 10, 4. — '' de. — ' // was a question of 
 (use s'agir). — '66, 3. — ^'' Combien de bStes d I'engrais. — '' savant. 
 
 The following review exercises are based on the given sections of the 
 Syntax of the French Verb, on the examples under those sections, and on 
 the phraseology and vocabulary of the given exercises. 
 
 Exercise 25 
 
 (Based on §§ 1-16 and Exercises 1-4.) 
 
 I. The soldier who brought back information from the trenches of 
 the enemy was praised by his superior oflScer. 2. The colonel is re- 
 spected by all his soldiers because they know him to be an honest 
 man. 3. Warm clothing, shirts, and fur caps are distributed to the 
 soldiers every day. (translate two ways). 4. We should have re- 
 mained from eight to ten days in the trenches, but it was necessary to 
 leave them because the weather grew worse and the river overflowed. 
 (use past indef.). 5. During the night the watch is increased and 
 nothing the enemy does escapes our notice. 6. That oath sUpped 
 out (without his thinking about it), and he remained very, much 
 ashamed of what he had said. 7. We remained {me past indef.) a long 
 time in the trenches; we came out {use past indef.) of them because 
 it was necessary to rest. 8. The enemy has gone down the hill, has 
 entered the trenches, and has remained there. 9. We are listening to 
 the enemy's fusillade. 10. I do not wish to open the door; I can not 
 
25-26] EXERCISES 3 1 
 
 get up. II. When Jigo saw the colonel, he went to him and told 
 him what he had done. 12. That done, he went his way. 13. He 
 went to take the canteens, but he returned with empty hands. 14. We 
 can not enter that house because it is burning; I suspect that it 
 is the soldiers who have burned the house. 15. We have seen them 
 enter the trenches, but we will not let them come out of them. 
 
 16. I saw the shells fall, I saw the soldiers wounded, I saw the houses 
 burned. 17. I saw the wounded soldiers in the house which had been 
 burned. 18. The colonel made the soldiers construct a veritable 
 underground city; he made them begin again three times. 
 
 Exercise 26 
 
 (Based on §§ 17-30 and Exercises 5-8.) 
 
 I. Neither he nor his friend has been wounded. 2. He or his friend 
 will be the first to go to the front. 3. A crowd of recruits are looking 
 at the train which is disappearing in the distance. 4. Everybody is 
 anxious because there is much danger. 5. The recruits have been 
 here for a month. 6. It may be that our flags are in a bad condition, 
 but as long as there remains a scrap of thein, we do not want them to 
 be withdrawn from us. 7. The reserves that have arrived two weeks 
 ago make fun of the recruits that have been here only one week. 8. 
 They made fun of one another, but now that the reserves have gone 
 away, the recruits take pleasure in talking to one another of their 
 absent friends. 9. In ten days we shall be again at rest. 10. If our 
 chief is so anxious, it must be that the news he has received is bad. 
 You are going to see that he will tell us what it is. 11. Who will be 
 able to save France, if not her soldiers? It is they who will fight for 
 her, who expect to die for her. The common people know it. 12. It 
 has not snowed for many months, but it has been freezing for several 
 days. 13. If it is cold tomorrow, it will be necessary to distribute 
 warm clothing to the soldiers. 14. Many people think that most sol- 
 diers desire war, they are mistaken. 15. It was dark when there ar- 
 rived refugees by the hundred in our town. 16. It makes no difference 
 in what condition our flags happen to be, ask that they be left to you. 
 
 17. As long as I^live I shall remember the spectacle of inexpressible 
 grandeur and weirdness which I witnessed one night in the trenches. 
 
22 EXERCISES [26-28 
 
 18. At that epoch he condemned war and distrusted soldiers; later he 
 will be the first to rush to the front. 
 
 Exercise 27 
 
 (Based on §§31-46 and Exercises 9-12.) 
 
 I. Last night the French soldiers fixed their caps on the mov- 
 ing leaves of the beets; this morning the Germans saw them and 
 shot at them. 2. The soldiers had been in the trenches a long time 
 when the enemy attacked them. 3. If the pubhc had accepted this 
 verdict, the poet was done for. 4. Every morning, when papa had 
 gone out, mamma went into the garden with her two little girls, but 
 that day, as soon as he had gone, they went out too. 5. Scarcely had 
 the major looked at the horse, when the animal stepped forward and 
 laid its head on the shoulder of its former master. 6. The poet knew 
 that a brilliant success would not come to pass without set-backs. 
 7. Even if the Cid glorified base foibles and actions contrary to de- 
 cency and virtue, it would nevertheless be the first masterpiece of 
 the classical drama. 8. Every day the count was accustomed to go 
 into the stable to see his beautiful bay mare. 9. During the whole 
 summer the little girls played in the garden every day. 10. I have 
 read the Cid, but I have not seen it played. 11. The French 
 Academy was founded by Richelieu in 1634. 12. RicheHeu founded 
 the Frerich Academy in 1634, and a little later laid the matter 
 of the Cid before it. 13. Several times the count had his horse killed 
 under him, and he regretted Sultane. 14. It was the count's duty to 
 put Sultane at the disposal of the requisition commissioners, but he 
 insisted that his steward should look after shipping her. 15. Once the 
 soldier was all-powerful, now he is only the servant of the nation. 16. 
 When the major saw Sultane, a cry of joy burst out from his lips. 17. 
 During three years the poet worked at this play; when it was finished, 
 he wished to have it played, but he was not able to do so. 18. When 
 the poet realized it, he became qiute sad. 
 
 Exercise 28 
 (Based on §§ 47-60 and on Exercises 13-16.) 
 I. Do not grow impatient, do not demand that the armies advance 
 
28-29] EXERCISES 
 
 33 
 
 faster, do not worry; accept the new facts, and have faith in the supe- 
 rior officers. 2. The government orders that the soldiers shall receive 
 their letters every day; the government ordered that the soldiers should 
 receive their letters every day. 3. The wounded soldier does not wish 
 them to write to his family that his condition is serious. 4. The fear 
 that this news will fill with anxiety the hearts of his wife and mother 
 troubles him. Cause him to have faith in you and allow you to write. 
 5. It is important to write immediately (translate two ways) in order 
 that his family may answer promptly. 6. The wounded (man) is 
 so much better that he is in a condition to write himself. Does he 
 really feel so much better that he can write without overdoing? 7. 
 Although there is no one in France who does not want peace, the only 
 peace which we can accept is a peace that will last. 8. I do not fear 
 that the ambition of some peoples will hinder a profound and true 
 peace from being established. 9. Provided the impotence of their am- 
 bition be proven to these nations, it will be necessary for them to 
 recognize their mistake (translate two ways). 10. Is it possible that 
 this little soldier was the first who received a letter? While waiting 
 for the carrier to return, his comrades begged the soldier to read his 
 letter out loud. 11. If you think that the French have degenerated, 
 you must go to see them in the trenches (translate two ways), and I 
 do not believe that such a thought will ever come to you again. 13. I 
 deny that war is the father of all, I maintain that peace is the mother of 
 civilization; I do not doubt that there are many people who believe 
 that this is true. 14. That the enemy is pressed back much more than 
 (was the case) three months ago, that we have won much ground, that 
 we have saved Paris, Calais, and all the north coast, is not all this true? 
 15. Tell me why people should lose patience when the situation is 
 favorable. 16. Whatever you may do, do not doubt that the superior 
 officers know what they must do without being told. 17. While 
 waiting for the favorable moment to come, you must take a new habit. 
 18. However great the difficulty may have been, the soldiers have 
 accustomed themselves to the new kind of warfare. 
 
 Exercise 29 
 (Based on §§ 61-74 and Exercises 17-20.) 
 I. If you want to see (them) cast, you must come in quickly; 
 
34 
 
 EXERCISE5 l*>-3» 
 
 if you hasten to come in, you wiD see them pour the sQvct into a nwAL 
 2. Even if the cat 15 ver\- lean, it is stTMig enough to catch mice. 3. If 
 they had b^un by working, they might have finished by buildiog a 
 house. 4. K they woiked without stepping to the end of their lives, 
 th^ would not earn enough to bufld a house; and ev«i if they had 
 buflt a house, they would have no fire in it. 5. If I had a house, I 
 would want to have a dining-room in it with a large firejdace, and I 
 should like to have enough wood to warm me. 6. I would invite my 
 friends to come to see me when I desired to converse with than, and 
 I would ghre them lunch or dinner, if they were willii^ to stay. 7. In 
 case yoxu- dioit should not be married, you mig^t <^er to write to 
 his fiancee, if he has one. 8. Even if {trandate fc :• v:ays) he diould 
 heatate to accept your offer, uidst. since if he hesitates it is only 
 because he is aftaid of being troublesome. 9. The arms <rf thirteen 
 men would just suffice to coin a thirty-cent piece. 10. If yoa write 
 ftxo ways), it will be eas\- for you to secure this comfort for your 
 patioit. II. To see the dull grirf of those who have recei\-ed nothing 
 from the carrier is to understand why writing to their families is <me 
 of the most urgent services that can be rendered the wounded. 12. I 
 waited in vain, he did not dare to come to speak to me. 13. The poOT 
 people who had neither house nor bread were mudi to be pitied be- 
 cause such poverty is terrible to see, and it is veiy sad to think that 
 no one came to hdp them. 14. Poor pecqde are kindly folks, they are 
 the first to he^ each other when they can (do) ft- 15. Hiey would 
 rather have no bread than have no house, because they know 
 that it is not difficult to get bread as alms, but no one would 
 dream of giving them a house. 16. The great nan who has invented 
 this machine deserves to make (his) fortune, but I would advise him 
 not to be discouraged if he does not succeed immediateiy. 17. Before 
 coining them, they had washed the planchets in an add in order to 
 clean them. 18. After having coined them you still have to check 
 up the weight and the standard. 
 
 Ezeicise 30 
 
 (Based on §§ 74-80 and Exercises 21-24.) 
 
 I. The news which the courier brougjit was disheartening: the enemy 
 had come out of their trenches, had crossed the little stream, and had 
 
30] EXERaSES 35 
 
 established themselves on the other side. 2. The furniture in the 
 drawing-room was in good taste, but not at all expensive. 3. By 
 constructing these brick buildings economically, they have set a 
 striking example of economy, and by convincing the farmers that 
 economy is possible, they help to improve the farms. 4. The hundred 
 thousand francs that these buildings have cost have been well spent. 
 5. During the twenty years that I lived in the country, I was not able 
 to do all the things that I wished (to do). 6. The stock which we had 
 seen fattened with chopped turnips and crushed beans has been sold. 
 7. The fatting stock which I have seen eating in the stables is fed 
 economically. 8. All the time he was reading the dispatch the general 
 had sent him, he kept knitting his brows. 9. She keeps up a conversa- 
 tion very well, since she is full of life and ^^m. 10. All the stables, in- 
 cluding the one in which was kept the choice stock, were well ventilated 
 and well cleaned. 11. All my companions were canying the nests 
 and birds which they had found; I alone had not found any. 12. We 
 have met, but we do not like one another. 13. I did not touch the 
 nest, not wishing to frighten the mother. 14. I saw her looking at me 
 with brilliant and imploring eyes. 15. Her hand was wounded, but I 
 do not think that she had cut it herself. 16. How many books have jrou 
 bought? Most of the books that I wished (use past indef.) to buy had 
 been sold. 17. I bought as many as I wanted, and I had had them sent 
 home. 18. The rain we have had this morning will be good for the 
 flowers. 
 
VOCABULARY 
 
VOCABULARY 
 
 A 
 
 a, un; quelque; par. 
 
 abandon, abandonner. 
 
 able; be — , pouvoir. 
 
 abode, le gtte. 
 
 about, adv., k peu pres. 
 
 above, adv., au-dessus. 
 
 above, prep., au-dessus de; — all, sur- 
 
 tout. 
 absent, absent. 
 abundance, rabondance, /. 
 acacia, I'acada, m. 
 academy, I'academie, /. 
 accept, accepter. 
 accompany, accompagner. 
 accomplish, faire. 
 accord; in — with, salon. 
 according to, suivant. 
 account, le compte; take — , se rendre 
 
 compte; on — of, 3, cause de. 
 accustom, habituer; — one's self to, 
 
 se faire k. 
 acid, I'acide, m. 
 acknowledge, reconnaitre. 
 acquire, acqu6rir. 
 acquit one's self, s'en tirer. 
 acre, I'acre, m. 
 act, n., I'acte, m.; be in the — of, 
 
 etre en train de. 
 act, v., agir. 
 action. Taction, /. 
 activity, le mouvement. 
 address, v., adresser. 
 adieu, I'adieu, m. 
 adjoining, a c6te; tout 3, c6t6. 
 admirable, admirable. 
 admirably, admirablement. 
 admiration, I'admiration, /. 
 admire, admirer. 
 admit, admettre. 
 adolescent, adolescent. 
 advance, n., I'avance, /.; in — , k 
 
 I'avance. 
 advance, v. {trans.), avancer; {in- 
 
 trans.), s'avancer. 
 advantage, I'avantage, m.; take — ■ 
 
 of, saisir. 
 
 advantageous, avantageux; be — 
 
 that, y avoir interfit k ce que. 
 adventure, Taventure, /. 
 advise, conseiller. 
 affair; be the — of, etre k. 
 afraid; be — , avoir peur. 
 after (.prep.), apres; {conj.), aprSs que. 
 afterwards, ensuite; apres. 
 again, de nouveau; encore, 
 against, centre. 
 
 age, I'age, m.; old — , la vieillesse. 
 ago, il y a. 
 agreeable, agreable. 
 agriculture, la culture; I'agriculture, /. 
 air, Va.ir,,m. 
 alight, se percher. 
 all, tout; at — , du tout. 
 allow, laisser; permettre. 
 ally, Tallin, m. 
 almost, presque. 
 alms, I'aumdne, /.; as — , par au- 
 
 m6ne. 
 alone, seul. 
 along, sur. 
 Alsace, I'Alsace, /. 
 also, aussi. 
 
 although, quoique; bien que. 
 always, toujours. 
 amanuensis, le copiste; le r6dacteur 
 
 de lettres. 
 ambition, I'ambition, /. 
 ambitious, ambitieux. 
 ambulance, 1 'ambulance, /.; adj., 
 
 d'ambulance. 
 amiss; take — , trouver mauvais. 
 among, parmi. 
 ancient, ancien. 
 and, et. 
 
 animal, la b^te; I'animal, m. 
 anneal, recuire. 
 annihilate, an6antir. 
 annotmce, annoncer. 
 aimoy, ennuyer. 
 another, un autre, 
 answer, n., la rgponse. 
 answer, n., repondre k; — with, t6- 
 
 pondre par. 
 anti-human, anti-humain. 
 anxiety, la sollicitude; Tinquifitude, /. 
 
40 
 
 VOCABULARY 
 
 anxious, inquiet. 
 
 any; — body, — one, quelqu'un; 
 
 (not) —body, (not) — one, 
 
 (ne . . . ) personne; — one who, 
 
 celui qui; quiconque. 
 anyhow, tout de mSme. 
 anything, quelque chose; (not) — , 
 
 (ne . . . ) rien. 
 anywhere, partout; (not) — (ne . . . ) 
 
 nuUe part, 
 appear, parattre. 
 approach, s'approcher de. 
 approve, approuver. 
 arbor, la charmille. 
 ardent, ardent. 
 arm, n., le bras; I'arme, /. 
 ann,.»., armer. 
 arm-chair, le fauteuil. 
 army, I'arm^e, /. 
 around, autour; autour de. 
 arrange (trans.), arranger; (intrans.), 
 
 s'arranger. 
 arrival, Tarrivge, /. 
 arrive, arriver. 
 art, I'art, m. 
 artillery, n., I'artillerie, /.; adj., 
 
 d'artillerie. 
 artless, ingSnu. 
 as, comme; aussi; pendant que; as 
 
 ... as, aussi . . . que. 
 ashamed, honteux. 
 ask; — for, — about, demander. 
 aspect, I'aspect, m. 
 assay, I'essai, m. 
 assembly, le rassemblement; I'as- 
 
 semblle, /. 
 assign, affecter. 
 assigned, adj., prescrit. 
 astonish, 6tonner. 
 at, k; en; chez. 
 athletic, athl6tique. 
 atmosphere, TatmosphSre, /. 
 attack, n., I'attaque, /. 
 attack, II., attaquer. 
 attract attention, se faire remarquer. 
 auction, les ench6res, /. 
 audience, les auditeurs, m. 
 aunt, la tante. 
 author, I'auteur, m. 
 avoid, dviter. 
 await, attendre. 
 
 awaken^ i;. (trans.), rfiveiller; (in- 
 trans.), se r^veiller. 
 aware; not be — of, ignorer. 
 away from, hers de. 
 awkwardness, la maladresse. 
 
 B 
 
 back, le dos; le fond. 
 
 bacon, le lard. 
 
 bad, mauvais. 
 
 bag, le sac. 
 
 baldheaded, deplum€. . 
 
 ball, la balle. 
 
 band, la bande; ( = heU), la ceinture. 
 
 bar, la barre. 
 
 barracks, la caserne. 
 
 basal, essentiel. 
 
 base, adj., indigne. 
 
 base, v., fonder; — on, emprunter a; 
 fonder sur. 
 
 bathe, v. (trans.), baigner; (in- 
 trans.), se baigner. 
 
 battery, la batterie. 
 
 battle, la bataille; adj., de bataille. 
 
 bay, adj., bai. 
 
 bay-windowed, bedonnant. 
 
 be, etre; se trouver; (of health), se 
 
 porter, 
 beaming, rieur. 
 bean, la feve. 
 bear, apporter; porter, 
 beard, la barbe. 
 beardless, imberbe. 
 bearing, la tournure. 
 beautiful, beau, 
 beauty, la beaute. 
 
 because, parce que; it is — , c'est que. 
 become, devenir. 
 bed, le lit. 
 
 beet; — plant, la betterave. 
 before, conj., avant que; prep., avant; 
 avant de; devant; adv., il y a; 
 autrefois; d^jsl. 
 beg, prier. 
 
 begin, v., commencer (a); se mettre 
 (a) ; se prendre (k) ; ■ — again, re- 
 commencer; to — with, d'abord. 
 begiiming, n., le commencement. 
 behind, derrifere. 
 being, n., I'Stre, m. 
 belie, dementir. 
 believe (in), croire (3,). 
 belong, appartenir. 
 beloved, bien-aimfi. 
 below, au-dessous (de). 
 bench, le banc. 
 bent, courbe. 
 besides, en outre. 
 best, le meilleur. 
 betray, s'accuser de. 
 
VOCABULARY 
 
 41 
 
 better, adj., _ meilleur; adv., mieux; 
 
 be — , valoir mieux; find something 
 
 — , trouver mieux. 
 between, entre. 
 beyond, au delS, de; au-dessus do; — 
 
 the far end, tout au fond. 
 big, grand, 
 bird, I'oiseau, m. 
 bite, mordiller. 
 black, noir. 
 blackbird, le merle, 
 blacken, noircir. 
 blaze, flamber. 
 blood, le sang. 
 blow, 11., le coup, 
 blow, v., souffler. 
 blue, bleu. 
 
 boarding-pupil, le pensionnaire. 
 boasting, la fanfaronnade. 
 body, le corps. 
 
 bombardment, la canonnade. 
 bone, I'os, m. 
 book, le livre. 
 bookstore, la librairie; in a — , chez 
 
 le libraire. 
 border on, avoisiner. 
 borrow (from), emprunter (^); — 
 
 trouble, se faire des ideas. 
 both, tous deux; tous les deux; 
 
 — ... and, et . . . et. 
 bother, ennuyer. 
 boundless, sans bornes. 
 bow, pencher; baisser. 
 box-stall, le box. 
 
 boy, le garfon; I'enfant, «.; scout, 
 
 le boy-scout. 
 boyish, pu6ril. 
 brain, le cerveau. 
 branch, la brancbe. 
 brandy, I'eau-de-vie, /. 
 braveljij^bravement. 
 bread, le pain; — box, la huche. 
 break, briser; — off, s'interrompre; 
 
 — the rules, manquer aux regies. 
 breast, la poitrine; {of a horse), le 
 
 poitrail. 
 breathless, dpoumone. 
 brick, la brique; adj., en briques. 
 bridge, le pont. 
 brilliant, eclatant; brillant. 
 bring, apporter; — about, r^aliser; 
 
 — back, rapporter. 
 Brittany, la Bretagne. 
 brittle, cassant. 
 broken, adj., brisfi. 
 bronchitis, la bronchite. 
 
 brother, le frere. 
 
 brow, le sourcil. 
 
 brown, adj., brun. 
 
 brown, v., bistrer. 
 
 brush, brosser. 
 
 bugle, le clairon. 
 
 bugler, le trompette. 
 
 build, batir. 
 
 building, n., le batiment. 
 
 bullet, la balle. 
 
 bulletin, le bulletin. 
 
 bully, rudoyer. 
 
 bundle, le paquet. 
 
 bum, bruler. 
 
 burst, eclater; — out; jaillir. 
 
 bursting, n., I'Sclatement, m. 
 
 bury, enterrer. 
 
 but, mais; ne . . . que. 
 
 buy, acheter. 
 
 by, par; de; one — one, un a un. 
 
 Call, n., I'appel, m. 
 
 call, !)., appeler; nommer. 
 
 calm, calme. 
 
 camp, le camp. 
 
 can, pouvoir; savoir. 
 
 cannon, le canon. 
 
 canteen, le bidon. 
 
 canticle, le cantique. 
 
 cantonment, le cantonnement. 
 
 cap, n., le kepi; fur — , le passe- 
 montagne. 
 
 cap, v., coiffer. 
 
 captain, le capitalne. 
 
 care for, soigner. 
 
 career, la carriere; — of arms, la 
 carriere des armes. 
 
 carefully, soigneuseraent. 
 
 carrier, le porteur; (military mail-) — , 
 le vaguemestre. 
 
 carry, porter; — ■ away, emporter; 
 transporter; — on, faire. 
 
 car-window, la portiere. 
 
 case; in — , dans le cas oil. 
 
 cast, Jeter;- {of mrlals), couler; — ■ 
 doubt upon, mettre en doute. 
 
 castle, le chateau. 
 
 cat, le chat. 
 
 catch, attraper; — • cold, s'enrhumer. 
 
 cattle, les bojufs; les bestiaux, m. 
 
 cause, faire; causer. 
 
 cautiously, avec precaution. 
 
 cavalry, la cavalerie; adj., de ca Va- 
 lerie. 
 
42 
 
 VOCABULARY 
 
 censure, censurer. 
 
 cent, le sou; per — , pour cent. 
 
 certain, certain. 
 
 certify, constater. 
 
 chafe, s'irriter. 
 
 chance, se trouver. 
 
 change, »., le changement. 
 
 change, v., changer. 
 
 character, le caractere. 
 
 characteristic, particulier. 
 
 charge, »., la charge. 
 
 charge, v., charger. 
 
 charm, le charme. 
 
 chart, la carte. 
 
 chat, deviser. 
 
 check; pass in one's — s, y rester. 
 
 check up, verifier. 
 
 chief, le chef. 
 
 child, I'enfant, m., /. 
 
 childhood, I'entance, /. 
 
 childish, pueril. 
 
 choice, adj., choisi. 
 
 choose, choisir; prendre. 
 
 chop, hacher. 
 
 Christ; — child, le petit Noel. 
 
 Christmas, le Noel; adj., de Noel 
 
 chimi, le copain. 
 
 circulate, circuler. 
 
 city,. la ville. 
 
 civil, civil. 
 
 civilization, la "civilisation. 
 
 class, la classe; le cours. 
 
 classic, classique. 
 
 clean, adj., propre. 
 
 clean, v., nettoyer. 
 
 client, le client. 
 
 cloak, le manteau. 
 
 close, V. {shut), fermer; [jinish), 
 
 terminer, 
 close, adv., pres; — by, tout pres; — 
 
 to, pres de. 
 clothing, les veteraents, m. 
 cloud, le nuage. 
 cloudless, sans nuage. 
 club, le cercle. 
 
 coaching-lesson, la rdpetition. 
 coast, la c6te. 
 coin, 1}., frapper. 
 
 coins, »., la monnaie; les monnaies, /. 
 cold, le froid; (iiijluenza), le rhume; 
 
 be — , faire froid; avoir froid; catch 
 
 — , s'enrhumer. 
 collect, rassembler. 
 college, le college, 
 colonel, le colonel, 
 column, la colonne. 
 
 combatant, le combattant. 
 
 come, venir; arriver; — back, — 
 again, revenir; — back in, rentrer; 
 — in, entrer; — out of, sortir de. 
 
 comfort, »., le confortable; (consola- 
 tion), la consolation. 
 
 comfort, v., consoler. 
 
 comfortable, confortable. 
 
 command, «., le commandement; 
 supreme ■ — , le haut commande- 
 ment. 
 
 command, v., commander. 
 
 commission; put out of — , reformer. 
 
 commissioner, le commissaire; state 
 — , le commissaire du gouverne- 
 ment; — s, la commission. 
 
 common, commun. 
 
 commimicate, faire part de; com- 
 muniquer. 
 
 companion, le compagnon. 
 
 company, la compagnie. 
 
 compassionate, de compassion; com- 
 patissant. 
 
 compel, contraindre. 
 
 complain, se plaindre. 
 
 complete, complet. 
 
 complicate, compliquer. 
 
 compose, faire. 
 
 comrade, le camarade. 
 
 concert, le concert. 
 
 condemn, condamner. 
 
 condition, I'etat, m.; in a • — to, en 
 etat de. 
 
 conduct, conduire. 
 
 confess, avouer; — one's self at fault, 
 se reconnaJtre en faute. 
 
 confidence, la confiance; have — , 
 avoir confiance. 
 
 conquer, vaincre. 
 
 conscientiously, consciencieusemeht. 
 
 consent, le consentement. 
 
 conservatory, la serre. 
 
 consider, juger; estimer. 
 
 console, consoler. 
 
 consternation, la consternation. 
 
 constitution, la constitution. 
 
 constrain; be — ed to, en venir i. 
 
 construct, construire; fabriquer. 
 
 continually, tou jours; continuelle- 
 ment. 
 
 contractor, I'entrepreneur, m. 
 
 contrary to, contraire k. 
 
 control, calmer. 
 
 conversation, la conversation. 
 
 converse, s'entretenir. 
 
 convey, transmettre. 
 
VOCABULARY 
 
 43 
 
 convince, convaincre. 
 
 cook, la cuisinidre. 
 
 cool, frais. 
 
 comer, le coin. 
 
 correspondence, la cortespondance. 
 
 cost, colter. 
 
 cot, la couchette. 
 
 count, n., le comte. 
 
 count, v., compter. 
 
 countenance, la physionomie. 
 
 counter, le jeton. 
 
 country, le pays; la campagne; la 
 
 patrie; adj., de campagne; in the — , 
 
 k la campagne. 
 countryside, le pays. 
 courage, le courage; take — , se 
 
 rassurer. 
 courier, I'estafette,/.; le courrier. 
 course, le cours; in the — of, au cours 
 
 de. 
 courteously, honnetement. 
 cover, »., I'abri, m. 
 cover(with),!i.,couvrir (de) ; coiffer (de). 
 crawl. Tamper. 
 cricket, le cricket, 
 cripple, le cul-de-jatte. 
 crop, tondre. 
 
 cross, traverser; passer; — back, re- 
 passer. 
 crowd, n., la foule. 
 crowd, v., encombrer. 
 crown, couronner. 
 crush, concasser. 
 cry, n., le cri. 
 cry, ;;., crier; pleurer. 
 curious, curieux. 
 currency, la monnaie. 
 curtain, le rideau; rod, le porte- 
 
 rideau. 
 cut, couper; — short, couper court et; 
 
 — up, decouper. 
 cyclist, le cycliste. 
 
 daddy, petit p6re. 
 
 daily, tous les jours. 
 
 dainty, fin. 
 
 danger, le danger; le pdril. 
 
 dangerous, dangereux. 
 
 dare, oser. 
 
 dark, «., les t^nebres. 
 
 dark, adj., noir; sombre. 
 
 dart, envoyer. 
 
 dash, s'^lancer. 
 
 daughter, la fille; little — , la fiUette. 
 
 dawn, I'aube, /. 
 
 day, le jour; la journfie; next — , le 
 
 lendemain; — break, point (m.) du 
 
 jour. 
 deafen, assourdir. 
 deal (a blow), porter (un coup). 
 death, la mort. 
 debt, la dette. 
 decency, la d6cence. 
 decide, decider. 
 decimate, decimer. 
 decision, la decision. 
 declare, declarer, 
 decline, refuser. 
 decorate, dficorer. 
 defend, detendre; soutenir. 
 degenerate, dfigenerer. 
 degree, le degii. [attendre. 
 
 delay, le dyai; be — ed, se faire 
 deliver, remettre; distribuer. 
 demand (from), exiger (a). 
 deny, nier. 
 depot, le dfipdt. 
 describe, decrire. 
 deserve, meriter. 
 desirable ; be — , y avoir int^rSt. 
 desire, d6sirer; souhaiter. 
 desired, adj., voulu. 
 detachment, le detachement. 
 detail, le detail; {military), Tunitfi, /. 
 determine, fixer. 
 develop, {trans.), developper; {in- 
 
 trans.), se developper. 
 devil, le diable. 
 dictate, dieter. 
 die, mourir. 
 difference, la diflerence; it makes no 
 
 — , n'importe. 
 different, autre; different. 
 difficult, difficile. 
 difficulty, la difficulte; with — , 
 
 difficilement. 
 dig, creuser. 
 dignity, la dignity, 
 dine, diner. 
 
 dining-room, la salle a manger. 
 dinner, le diner. 
 dirt, la terre. 
 disappear, disparaltre. 
 disc, le disque; le rond; small — , 
 
 la rondelle. 
 discard, mettre au rebut. 
 discipline, la discipline. 
 discolored, dScolore. 
 discourage, decourager. 
 discover, denicher; decouvrir. 
 
44 
 
 VOCABULARY 
 
 discretion, la discretion. 
 dishiearten; be — ed, se rebuter. 
 disheartening, desesp6rant. 
 dispatch, la depeche. 
 disposal, la disposition. 
 dispose, disposer, 
 disquiet, jeter le trouble dans, 
 distance, I'dloignement, m.; in the — , 
 
 au loin; dans le lointain. 
 distant {adj.), lointain; (fldv.), loin. 
 distribute, distribuer. 
 distrust, se mefier de. 
 ditch, le foss6. 
 diversion, la distraction. 
 divine, divin. 
 division, la division.. 
 do, remplir; faire; he is done for, 
 
 e'en est fait de lui. 
 doctor, le docteur; le midecin. 
 dome, la voijte. 
 door, la porta, 
 doubt, H., le doute. 
 doubt, II., douter. 
 dozen, la douzaine. 
 drain, vider. 
 
 drama, le theatre; le drame. 
 dramatic, dramatique. 
 dramatize, dramatiser. 
 drawback, rinconvfinient, m. 
 drawers, les calegons, m. 
 drawing-room, le salon. 
 dream of, songer. 
 dress, panser, 
 drill, I'exercice, m.; go to ■ — , aller 3. 
 
 I'exercice. 
 drop, se baisser. 
 dull, morne. 
 dumbfounded, 6pate. 
 duration, la durfie. 
 during, pendant; dans, 
 duty, I'office, m.; le devoir; it is his — 
 
 to, c'est i. lui & {or de); off — , au 
 
 repos. 
 dying, mourant; agonisant. 
 
 £ 
 
 each, chaque; — one, chacun. 
 
 eagerly, avec ardeur. 
 
 ear, I'oreille,/. 
 
 earn, gagner. 
 
 earth, la terre. 
 
 ease, la facilit6. 
 
 easy, facile. 
 
 eat, manger. 
 
 economically, 6conomiquement, 
 
 economy, I'^conomie, /. 
 
 edge, le bord; {of a coin), la tranche; 
 
 {of a forest), la lisiSre. 
 education, I'education, /.; I'instruc- 
 
 tion, /. 
 effort, I'effort, m. 
 egg, I'oeuf, m. 
 eight, huit. 
 eitiier, adv., non plus, 
 elder, aine. 
 elegant, elegant, 
 eleven, onze. 
 elf, le lutin. 
 else; or — , ou bien. 
 embers, les braises, /. 
 emergency, le besoin; sudden — , 
 
 le besoin du moment. 
 emotion, I'eraotion,/. 
 emphasize (by), scander (de). 
 empty, vide, 
 encounter, la melee; hand-to-hand — , 
 
 le corps a corps, 
 end, 71., la fin; le bout, 
 end, V. {trans.), finir; {intrans.), 
 
 se terminer; se finir. 
 endless, k n'en plus finir. 
 enemy, I'ennemi, m. 
 energetic, 6nergique. 
 energy, la force. 
 
 engineer; mechanical — , mficanicien. 
 England, I'Angleterre, /. 
 English, anglais, 
 enjoy, jouir de. 
 enormous, enorme. 
 enough, assez (de). 
 enter {trans, and intrans.), entrer {in- 
 trans.); — into, se meler &. 
 enthusiasm, I'entrain, m.; I'en- 
 
 thousiasme, m. 
 entice (to), inciter (S.). 
 entire, tout, 
 entrance, I'entr^e, /. 
 envelope, I'enveloppe, / 
 environment, le milieu, 
 epic, epique. 
 epoch, I'epoque, /. 
 equal, 6gal. ^ 
 
 erect, debout {adv.). 
 error, I'erreur, /. 
 escape, echapper 3,. 
 especially, surtout. 
 establish, ^tablir; installer. 
 Europe, I'Europe, /. 
 European, europ6en. 
 even, m^me; — if, m^me si; quand 
 
 meme. 
 
VOCABULARY 
 
 45 
 
 evening, le soir; la soir6e; in the — , 
 
 le soir. 
 event, VfivSnement, m. 
 ever, jamais; if, be it — so little, 
 
 pour peu que. 
 every, chaque; tout; — body, — one, 
 
 tout le monde; tous; — ttung, tout; 
 
 — where, partout. 
 evidence, Vevidence, /. 
 evil, mauvais. 
 exalt, exalter. 
 example, I'exemple, m. 
 except, si ce n'est; except^; not . . . 
 
 — , ne . . . que. 
 excess, I'exces, m. 
 exchange, changer; echanger. 
 excite, bouleverser. 
 excited, boule verse; ^perdu. 
 excitement, l'6motion, /. 
 exclaim, s'ecrier. 
 excursion, la partie de plaisir. 
 excuse, pardonner; — one''s self for, 
 
 demander pardon de. 
 exercise, I'exercice, m. 
 expensive, cher. 
 explode, eclater. 
 exploit, I'exploit, m. 
 exploration, Texploration, /. 
 expose, exposer. 
 expression, I'expression, /. 
 extent, I'etendue, /.; to what — , 
 
 jusqu'3, quel point, 
 exterminate, exterminer. 
 extremity, le bout; I'extremitfi, /. 
 eye, I'ceil, m. 
 
 face, «., la figure; le visage. 
 
 face, v., faire face a. 
 
 fact, le fait; in — , as a matter of — , 
 en effet. 
 
 fade, p^lir. 
 
 fail (to), manquer (de); laisser (de). 
 
 fair, beau. 
 
 faith, la confiance; have — , avoir 
 confiance. 
 
 faithful, fidele. 
 
 fall, tomber; — short in, man- 
 quer a. 
 
 familiar, familier; habituel. 
 
 family, la famille. 
 
 famous, illustre; cfilebre. 
 
 fancy, le goflt. 
 
 farewell, adieu. 
 
 farm, la ferme. 
 
 farmer, le fermier; — 's wife, la 
 
 fermifire. 
 farm-work, les travaux. 
 fashion, la fafon; in such — that, 
 
 de fafon que. 
 fast, v., jeuner. 
 fast, adv., vite. 
 fatal, fatal. 
 
 fate, la destinee; le sort. 
 father, le pere; — in-law, le beau- 
 
 pere. 
 fatherland, la patrie. 
 fatigue, la fatigue, 
 fatten (with), engraisser (de). 
 favor, la grace; la faveur. 
 favorable, favorable; propice. 
 favored; more — , mieux partage. 
 fear, re., la crainte. 
 fear, v., craindre; avoir peur. 
 fearful, terrible, 
 feebly, faiblement. 
 feed, nourrir. 
 feel, sentir; ressentir; — sick, well, 
 
 marvelously well, se porter mal, 
 
 bien, k merveille. , 
 
 fellow, le garfon. 
 ferocious, f6roce. 
 fetch, chercher. 
 few, quelques; peu. 
 fiancee, la fiancee. 
 field, le champ, 
 fifty, cinquante. 
 fight, combattre; lutter; — through, 
 
 faire. 
 file, limer. 
 
 fill (with) remplir (de). 
 filthy, immonde. 
 final, definitif; final. 
 finally, enfin. 
 
 find, trouver; — again, retrouver. 
 fine, beau; (worthy), brave. 
 finish, finir; achever. 
 fire, re., le feu. 
 fire, v., tirer. 
 firebrand, le tison. 
 fireplace, la cheminfie; I'atre, m. 
 firing, adj., du feu. 
 first, adj., premier. 
 fish, pScher. [le poing. 
 
 fist, le poing; shake one's — , montrer 
 fit, adj.; as he sees — , de sa guise, 
 fit, II.; — up {decorate), orner; 
 
 am^nager. 
 fitness, I'aptitude, /. 
 five, cinq. 
 fix, assujettir. ; 
 
46 
 
 VOCABULARY 
 
 flag, le drapeau. 
 
 Flanders, la Flandre. 
 
 flannels, les flanelles, /. 
 
 flatten, aplatir. 
 
 flatting-mill, le laminoir. 
 
 fleshy, gras. 
 
 flight, la fuite; {of a bird), le vol. 
 
 floor, le plancher. 
 
 flour, la farine. 
 
 flower, »., la fleur. 
 
 fly, v., voler; — off, s'envoler. 
 
 fog, la brume; le brouillard. 
 
 foible, la faiblesse. 
 
 folks, les personnes, /.; young — , 
 
 les jeunes gens; kindly — , les bonnes 
 
 gens. 
 follow, suivre; succeder; as — s, ainsi. 
 foot, le pied. 
 football, le foot-ball. 
 for, prep., pour; centre; depuis; 
 
 pendant. 
 for, conj., car; puisque. 
 forbid (some one), d6fendre {k quel- 
 
 qu'un). 
 force, la force; hostile — , les ennemis. 
 foreboding, le pressentiment. 
 forever, pour toujours; toujours. 
 forewarn, pr6venir. 
 form, n., la carte. 
 form, V. (trans.), former; prendre; 
 
 (inirans.), se former. 
 former, ancien. 
 formerly, autrefois, 
 formula, la formule. 
 fortune, la fortune; la chance, 
 forty, quarante. 
 fotmd, fonder, 
 fountain-pen, le stylographe. 
 four, quatre. 
 fourth, quatrilme. 
 frame, encadrer. 
 franc, le franc. 
 France, la France, 
 free, libre. 
 freely, librement. 
 freeze, geler. 
 
 French, les Franfais; frangais. 
 Frenchman, le Franjais. 
 fresh, frais. 
 
 friend, I'ami, m.; I'amie, /. 
 friendly, amical. 
 frighten, effrayer. 
 frolic, I'escapade, /. 
 from, de. 
 front, le front; in — of, devant; at 
 
 the — , to the — , sur le front. 
 
 frost, la gel6e. 
 
 fugitive, le fuyard. 
 
 fulfil, r6aliser. 
 
 full, plein. 
 
 fully, pleinement. 
 
 fxm, la plaisanterie; make — of, 
 se moquer de. 
 
 fur, le poll; — cap, le passe-mon- 
 tagne. 
 
 furiously, furieusement. 
 
 furnish, fournir; — food for re- 
 flection, donner a penser. 
 
 furniture, les meubles, m. 
 
 fusillade, la fusillade; la mousque- 
 terie. 
 
 gaily, gaiement. 
 
 gain, gagner; conquerir. 
 
 Gallic, gaulois. 
 
 galop, le galop; at a — , au galop. 
 
 game, le jeu. 
 
 garden, le jardin. 
 
 gather, recueillir. 
 
 gay, gai. 
 
 general, n., le general. 
 
 general, adj., general. 
 
 gently, doucement. 
 
 German, I'Allemand; allemand. 
 
 gesture, le geste. 
 
 get, obtenir; se procurer; recevoir; 
 
 — up, se lever. 
 gild, dorer. 
 girl, la jeune fiUe; little — , la petite 
 
 fiUe; la fiUette. 
 give, donner; rendre. 
 glad (to), content (de). 
 glance, n., le regard. 
 glance, v.; — over, parcburir. 
 gloomy, blafard. 
 glorify, glorifier. 
 glorious, glorieux. 
 glory, la gloire. 
 glow, le reflet. 
 go, aller; se diriger; partir; — astray, 
 
 s'6garer; — away, s'en aller; — 
 
 down, descendre; — into, entrer 
 
 dans; — out, sortir. 
 God, Dieu. 
 
 godmother, la marraine. 
 good, bon. 
 good-bye, adieu. 
 government, le gouvernement. 
 grain, le bl6. 
 grandetu', la grandeur. 
 
VOCABULARY 
 
 47 
 
 grandfather, le grand-pere. 
 
 grant, faire; accorder; God — , 
 plaise a Dieu; — ed, soit. 
 
 grateful, reconnaissant; de recon- 
 naissance. 
 
 gray, gris; blanc. 
 
 great, grand. 
 
 greatly, bien. 
 
 greet, saluer. 
 
 grief, la desolation; le chagrin. 
 
 grieve, dfisoler. 
 
 grind, moudre. 
 
 grog, le grog. 
 
 ground, le terrain; la terre; exercise 
 — , le terrain de manoeuvre. 
 
 group, n., I'amas, m.; le groupe. 
 
 group, v., grouper. 
 
 grow, pousser; — dim, s'effacer; — 
 , handsomer, embellir; — up, croitre. 
 
 grown-up, adj., grand. 
 
 grumble, grogner. 
 
 grumbler, le grognard. 
 
 guarantee, garantir. 
 
 guard, la garde; — duty, la garde; 
 be on one's — against, se m6fier 
 de; stand — , veiller. 
 
 guardian, le gardlen. 
 
 guest, I'hdte, m. 
 
 guide, le conducteur; le guide. 
 
 H 
 
 habit, I'habitude, /. 
 
 haggard, hagard. 
 
 hair, les cheveux, m. 
 
 half, re., la moitiS. 
 
 half, adj., demi; adv., a demi. 
 
 hamlet, le haraeau. 
 
 hammer, re., le marteau. 
 
 hammer, v., taper. 
 
 hand, la main; by ■ — , 3, la main; 
 
 from — to — , de mains en mains; 
 
 on the other — , d'autre part. 
 handshake, la poign£e de main. 
 handsome, beau. 
 hang, suspendre. 
 happen, arriver; se passer; — to be, 
 
 se trouver; he — s to, il lui ar- 
 rive de. 
 hard, adj., difficile; dur; {adv.), fort; 
 
 bien; find it — to, avoir de la 
 
 peine k. 
 hardly, ne . . . guSre. 
 harm, le mal. 
 haste, la hate; make — , se dfpficher 
 
 (de). 
 
 hasten, se dfipecher (de); se h^ter 
 
 (de). 
 hastily, en h^te. 
 hat, le chapeau. 
 hate, la haine. 
 have, avoir; {cause), faire. 
 head, la tdte. 
 headache, la migraine, 
 health, la sant€. 
 healthful, sain. 
 healthy, sain. 
 hear, entendre. 
 heart, le coeur. 
 
 hearth, I'atre; on the — , dans I'atre. 
 heath; native — , le pays. 
 heavy, gros; lourd. 
 helmet, le casque. 
 help, aider. 
 hence, dds lors. 
 henceforward, d6sormais. 
 here, ici; — is, — are, voici. 
 hermetically, hermfitiquement. 
 hero, le heros. 
 heroic, heroique. 
 heroically, h^roiquement. 
 heroism, I'heroisme, m. 
 hesitate, h^siter. 
 high, haut. 
 
 highway, la grande route. 
 hill, la coUine. 
 hinder, empecher. 
 history, I'histoire, /. 
 hit, frapper. 
 hog, le pore. 
 
 hold, re.; lay — upon, s'imposer k. 
 hold, v., tenir. 
 hole, le trou. 
 holy, saint, 
 home, le logis; le pays; la maison; 
 
 go — , rentrer. 
 homesick, nostalgique. 
 honest, integre, probe. 
 honor, I'honneur, m. 
 hope, re., I'esp^rance, /.; I'espoir, m. 
 hope, v., — for, espfirer. 
 hopelessness, I'impossibilitfi,/. 
 horde, la horde, 
 horizon, I'horizon, m. 
 horse, le cheval. 
 horseman, le cavalier 
 hot, chaud. 
 hour, I'heure, /. 
 house, n., la maison; be in the — , 
 
 rentrer. 
 house, v., caser. 
 household; their — , les leurs, m. 
 
48 
 
 VOCABULARY 
 
 housekeeper, la m€nag£re. 
 
 hovel, la cahute. 
 
 how, comment; comme; que; combien; 
 
 — much, — many, combien (de). 
 however, cependant; en tout cas; 
 
 quelque . . .'que. 
 huge, gigantesque. 
 hum, fredonner. 
 human, humain. 
 hundred, cent; by the — , par cen- 
 
 taines. 
 hunt, — for, chercher. 
 
 idea, I'id^e, /.; brilliant — ,trait(m.)de 
 gfinie. 
 
 if, si. 
 
 ignite, s'allumer. 
 
 illiterate, illettrd. 
 
 illusion, I'illusion, /. 
 
 imagination, I'imagination, /. 
 
 imagine, imaginer; se figurer. 
 
 imitate, imiter. 
 
 immediately, aussitdt; tout de suite. 
 
 immense, immense; dnorme. 
 
 immoral, immoral. 
 
 impatience, I'impatience, /. 
 
 impatient, impatient; grow — , s'im- 
 patienter. 
 
 imperious, impgrieux. 
 
 imperiously, imp6rieusement. 
 
 impetuous, imp6tueux. 
 
 implements, routillage, m. 
 
 implore, supplier; implorer. 
 
 importance, I'importance, /. 
 
 important, important; be — , im- 
 porter. 
 
 impossible, impossible. 
 
 impotence, I'impuissance, /. 
 
 impress, I'empreinte, /. 
 
 impression, la marque; I'impression,/. 
 
 impressive, imposant. 
 
 improve, perfectionner. 
 
 imprudent, imprudent. 
 
 impulse, le mouvement. 
 
 in, dans; en; 2,; de; — it, — them, y. 
 
 incessantly, incessamment. 
 
 incident, l'6vSnement, m. 
 
 incline, disposer;' porter; be — d, 
 6tre portd. 
 
 including, y compris. 
 
 income, la rente. 
 
 increase, augmenter; croltre. 
 
 indeed, vraiment; bien; no — , mais 
 non. 
 
 indefinite, vague. 
 
 induce, porter. 
 
 industry, I'industrie,/. 
 
 inexpressible, indicible. 
 
 information, les renseignements; 
 specific — , les precisions,/. 
 
 ingot, la maquette. 
 
 inimicid, ennemi. 
 
 initiative, I'initiative, /. 
 
 ink, I'encre,/. 
 
 inquire, s'enqudrir; s'informer. 
 
 insist, insister; exiger; — that, insister 
 pour que. 
 
 inspiration, I'inspiration, /. 
 
 instal, installer. 
 
 instant, I'instant, m. 
 
 instantly, 4, I'instant; almost — , I'in- 
 stant aprfis. 
 
 instead of, au lieu de. 
 
 instinct, I'instinct, m. 
 
 intensity, r4pret6, /. 
 
 intention, I'intention,/. 
 
 interest, I'int^rSt, m. 
 
 intermission, le r^pit. 
 
 into, dans; en. 
 
 invalid, I'invalide, m. 
 
 invent, inventer. 
 
 iron, le fcr; {adj.), de far. 
 
 irregular, irr^gulier. 
 
 jargon, le grimoire. 
 
 join, rejoindre; — in, entrer en danse; 
 
 — to, ajouter k. 
 jostle, bousculer. 
 joy, la joie. 
 joyous, joyeux. 
 joyously, joyeusement. 
 judge, le juge. 
 judgment, le jugement; pass one's 
 
 — , prononcer son jugement. 
 jump, sauter. 
 
 June, juin, m.; (adj.), de juin. 
 just, adj., juste; (adv.), juste; tout 
 
 juste. 
 
 K 
 
 keep, garder; tenir; {prevent, trans.), 
 empficher (de); {iiilraiis.), s'em- 
 pdcher (de); — on, persister; — 
 up, entretcnir; tenir; — waiting, 
 faire attendre. 
 
 kettle, la marmite. 
 
 kill, tuer. 
 
VOCABULARY 
 
 49 
 
 kind, l'esp6ce, /. 
 
 kiss, embrasser. 
 
 kitchen, la cuisine. 
 
 knee, le genou. 
 
 knit {trans.), froncer; {intrans.), se 
 
 froncer. 
 know, — how, savoir; not to — , 
 
 ignorer. 
 
 laboratory, (e laboratoire. 
 
 laborious, laborieux. 
 
 lack, I'absence, /v le manque. 
 
 lad, le gosse. 
 
 Languedoc, le Languedoc. 
 
 large, grand. 
 
 last, adj., dernier; at — , enfin. 
 
 last, v., durer. 
 
 late, tard; be — , 6tre en retard. - 
 
 latter; the — , celui-ci. 
 
 laughter, les rires, m.; le rire; side- 
 splitting — , les fous rires. 
 
 lay, poser; mettre; — aside, mettre 
 de cote; — a matter before, def6rer 
 une question a; be laid, peser. 
 
 lead, mener; conduire; — a life, faire 
 une \'ie. 
 
 leaf, la feuille. 
 
 league together, liguer. 
 
 lean, adj., maigre. 
 
 lean, »., se pencher. 
 
 leap, sauter. 
 
 learn, apprendre. 
 
 least, adv., le moins; at — , du (au) 
 moins. 
 
 leather, le cuir; {adj.), de cuir. 
 
 leave, «., le conge; take — , prendre 
 conge. 
 
 leave, v. {let remain), laisser; {quit), 
 quitter; partir de. 
 
 left, gauche. 
 
 lend, preter. 
 
 length, la dur£e. 
 
 lengthen, allonger. 
 
 less, moins. 
 
 lest, que . . . (ne). 
 
 let, laisser. 
 
 letter, la lettre. 
 
 lever-press, le balancier. 
 
 liberty; be at — to, etre maitre de. 
 
 life, la vie. 
 
 light, n., la lueur; la lumiSre. 
 
 light, !).; — ■ up, illuminer. 
 
 l&e, v., vouloir; aimer. 
 
 like, prep., comme. 
 
 likely; — to live, viable. 
 
 line, la ligne. 
 
 lip, la I&vre. 
 
 listen, — to, Reenter. 
 
 little, »., adv., peu, m. 
 
 little, adj., petit. 
 
 live, vivre. 
 
 load, charger. 
 
 loiter, errer; flaner. 
 
 London, Londres. 
 
 long, adj., long; {adv.), longtemps; 
 
 depuis longtemps; as — as, tant 
 
 que; no — er, ne . . . plus. 
 long, v.; — for, souhaiter. 
 look, — at, regarder; — after, 
 
 veiller a; surveiller; — for, cher- 
 
 cher. 
 lose, perdre; — one's self in thought, 
 
 s'oublier; — patience, s'impatienter. 
 lot, le sort. 
 
 loud; out — , tout haut; k haute voix. 
 love, n., I'amour, m. 
 love, v., aimer. 
 lqvingly,» amicalement. 
 low, bas. 
 luck, la chance; ill — , la mauvaise 
 
 chance. 
 lunch, n., le dejeuner. - 
 lunch, v., dejeuner. 
 
 M 
 
 machine, la machine, 
 machine-gun, la mitrailleuse, 
 machinery; by • — , 3, la mecanique. 
 madam, madame. 
 madly; set — upon, s'acharner 
 
 contre. 
 magnificent, magnifique. 
 maU, le courrier; les lettres. 
 mail-carrier, le facteur; military — , le 
 
 vaguemestre. 
 maintain, soutenir; pretendre. 
 major, le commandant. 
 majority, la plupart. 
 make, faire; — good, payer de sa 
 
 personne. 
 mamma, la maman. 
 man, I'homme, m.; young men, les 
 
 jeunes gens, m.; our men, les 
 
 notres. 
 manage, parvenir. 
 manly, viril. 
 manna, la manne. 
 maneuver, manceuvrer. 
 manufacture, fabriquer. 
 
so 
 
 VOCABULARY 
 
 many, beaucoup; bien; — such, 
 beaucoup de ces . . . ; as — as, 
 autant que. 
 
 march, marcher. 
 
 marching, adj., de route. 
 
 mare, la jument. 
 
 marked, marqu6. 
 
 marry, marier; ^pouser. 
 
 mass, masser. 
 
 master, le maltre. 
 
 masterpiece, le chef-d'ceuvre. 
 
 matter; to be a — of, s'agir de. 
 
 mature; — man, Thomme fait. 
 
 mauser, le mauser. 
 
 maximum; as a — , au maximum. 
 
 may be; it — , il se peut. 
 
 meal, le repas. 
 
 meaning, le sens. 
 
 meanwhile, en attendant. 
 
 measure, le proc^dfi. 
 
 mechanical, de m6canique. 
 
 mechanism, la m^canique. 
 
 meet, »., le concours. [se rencontrer. 
 
 meet,!), (irows.), rencontrer; (intrans.), 
 
 melodious, bien timbr6. 
 
 memories, les souvenirs, m. 
 
 mention, nommer; — in the official 
 report, porter k I'ordre du jour. 
 
 merrily, allegrement. 
 
 metal, le m6tal. 
 
 meter, le metre. 
 
 middle, n., le milieu; le centre. 
 
 midst; in the — of, en plein; au mi- 
 military, militaire. [lieu de. 
 
 mill, le moulin. 
 
 mind, I'esprit, m. [(avec). 
 
 mingle, mfiler; — (with), confondre 
 
 minor, petit. 
 
 mint, la fabrique de la monnaie. 
 
 minute, la minute. 
 
 miracle, le miracle. 
 
 mirror, la glace; le miroir. 
 
 mission, la mission. 
 
 missive, la missive. 
 
 mist, la brume. 
 
 mistake, »., I'erreur, /. 
 
 mistake, v.; be — ^n, se tromper. 
 
 mobilization, la mobilisation. 
 
 model, le raodele. 
 
 modesty, la raodestie. 
 
 modify, modifier. 
 
 mold, le moule; channeled — , moule 
 k gaufres. 
 
 moment, le moment; at the present 
 — , en ce moment; at this — , a 
 (en) ce moment; k I'heure qu'il est. 
 
 momentous, grave. 
 
 money, I'argent, m. 
 
 monstrous, monstrueux. 
 
 month, le mois. 
 
 moral, moral. 
 
 more, plus; davantage; — than, plus 
 
 que; plus de; no — , ne . . . plus, 
 morning, »., le matin. 
 morning, adj., matinal; du matin, 
 mortally, a mort. 
 most, »., la plupart. 
 most, adv., plus; le plus, 
 mother, la mdrc. 
 mount, n., la monture. 
 mount, v., monter. 
 mouse, la souris. 
 moustache, la moustache. 
 mouth, la bouche. 
 move, mouvoir; — forward, s'avan- 
 
 cer; — off, s'^loigner. 
 moving, adj., mouvant. 
 mow; — down, coucher 4 terre. 
 much, beaucoup; tres; — to do, 
 
 beaucoup 3. faire; as — , autant; 
 
 so — , tant; tellement; too — , trop, 
 mud, la boue. 
 muddy, boueux. 
 mulled; — wine, le vin chaud. 
 murmur, murmurer. 
 musing, n., la r6flexion. 
 must, falloir. 
 
 N 
 
 name, le nom. 
 
 narrow, ^troit. 
 
 nation, la nation; le peuple. 
 
 nature, la nature. 
 
 near, pr6s; pr6s de. 
 
 nearly, presque. 
 
 necessary, n^cessaire; be — , falloir. 
 
 neck, le cou; {of a horse), I'encolure, /. 
 
 need, n., le besoin; have — , avoir 
 
 besoin (de). 
 need, v., avoir besoin (de); falloir. 
 needy, necessiteux. 
 neigh, hennir. 
 neighbor, le voisin. 
 neither . . . nor, ni . . . ni. 
 nervous, nerveux. 
 nest, le nid. 
 nestling, petit, 
 never, jamais. 
 
 nevertheless, neanmoins; pourtant. 
 new, nouveau. 
 newcomer, le nouveau arrivant; 
 
 le nouveau arrivfe. 
 
VOCABULARY 
 
 SI 
 
 news, la nouvellc; les nouvellcs. 
 
 next, adj., prochain; — day, le len- 
 demain. 
 
 next, adv., ensuite; what — ? ensuite? 
 
 night, la nuit. 
 
 nine, neut. 
 
 no, non; ne . . . pas de; nc . , , 
 aucun; ne . . . nul; — longer, — 
 more, ne . . . plus; — one, (ne) 
 . . . personne. 
 
 noble, noble. 
 
 noise, le bruit; le vacarme. 
 
 noiselessly, sans bruit. 
 
 nook, le coin. 
 
 noon, 1c midi. 
 
 nor, ni. 
 
 normal, normal. 
 
 north, »., le nord. 
 
 north, adj., du nord. 
 
 not, ne . . . pas; ne . . . point; 
 — only, non seulement. 
 
 note, la note. 
 
 nothing, ne . . . rien; rien; — more, 
 rien de plus. 
 
 notice; escape the — of, dchapper il. 
 
 November, novembre, m. 
 
 now, i, present; actucUement; main- 
 tenant; done. 
 
 nowhere, nuUe part. 
 
 number, le num£ro; le nombre. 
 
 numberless, innombrable. 
 
 nurse, I'infirmiire, /. 
 
 O 
 
 oak, le ch£ne. 
 
 oath, le juron. 
 
 obey, ob£ir. 
 
 object. I'objet, m. 
 
 obiectlon, robjection, /. 
 
 obligation, la charge; I'obligation,/. 
 
 oblige, obligor; be — d to, devoir; 
 
 £tre oblig£ de; falloir. 
 obscure, obscur. 
 observation, le coup d'oeil. 
 obverse, la face. 
 occupy, occuper. 
 of, de; sur; k. 
 
 offensive, n., I'offensive, /. 
 offer, «., I'offre, /. 
 offer, v., offrir; — up prayers, faire 
 
 des voeux. 
 officer, I'officier, m. 
 often, souvcnt. 
 oil-cake, le tourteau. 
 old, vicux; be . . . years — , avoir 
 
 . . . ans. 
 
 on, sur; &: dc; dans. 
 once, unc lois; autrefois. 
 one, un; I'uu; on; the ^, celui. 
 only, seul; unique; seulement; ne 
 
 . . . que; not — , non seulement. 
 open, adj., ouvert; in — country, 
 
 en rase campagne. 
 open, v., ouvrir. 
 opening, adj., de d£but. 
 operation, I'opfiration,/.; siege — s, la 
 
 guerre de si6ge. 
 opponent, I'adversaire, m. 
 opportune, favorable. 
 or, ou. 
 
 orchestra, Torchestre, m. 
 order, n., I'ordre, m.; have under 
 
 one's — s, commander; in — , in — 
 
 to, pour. 
 order, v., ordonner; commander, 
 organize, organiser. 
 other, autre. 
 our, notre; — s, le n6tre; — men, les 
 
 n6tres. 
 out; be — , fitre sorti. 
 outbuildings, les ddpendances, /. 
 outline, ddtacher. 
 outpost, I'avant-poste, m. 
 over, sur; be — , 6tre termind. 
 overcome, surmonter; vaincre. 
 overdo, se fatiguer. 
 overflow, ddborder. 
 overwhelm, accabler. 
 owe, devoir. 
 own, adj., propre. 
 own, v., possfder. 
 
 painful, p6nible. 
 
 papa, le pSre; le papa. 
 
 parcel, le lot. 
 
 parents, les parents. 
 
 Parisian, le Parisien; parisien. 
 
 park, le jardin. 
 
 parson, le cur£. 
 
 part, n., la partie. 
 
 part, II. (trans.), s6parer; (inirans.), 
 
 se s6parer. 
 particularly, surtout. 
 pass, passer; come to — , arriver. 
 passion, la passion; have a — , se 
 
 passionner. 
 passionately, avec passion. 
 past, pass£. 
 pat, la tape, 
 pathos, le pathdtique. 
 
52 
 
 VOCABULARY 
 
 patience, la patience; lose — , s'im- 
 
 patienter. 
 patient, le malade; le btess€. 
 patrol, la patrouille. 
 peace, la paix. 
 pensive, soucieux. 
 people, le peuple; les gens; on; 
 
 common — , le peuple. 
 per, par; au, k la. 
 perceive, apercevoir; s'apercevoir. 
 perhaps, jjeut-Stre. 
 period, la periode. 
 permit, permettre. 
 persist (in), persister (k). 
 personally, personnellement. 
 persuade, decider, 
 philosopher, le philosophe. 
 physical, physique. 
 pick up, ramasser. 
 picture, »., le tableau. 
 picture, v., figurer. 
 
 piece, n., le morceau; (coin), la piice. 
 pierce, percer. 
 pity, la pitie; have — on, avoir pitie 
 
 de. 
 place, »., la place; le lieu; take — , se 
 
 faire. 
 place, v., mettre; placer, 
 plagiarize, piller. 
 plaintively, plaintivement. 
 plan, calculer. 
 planchet, le flan. 
 plane, raboter. 
 plat, tresser. 
 platform, le guai. 
 play, »., la piJce. 
 play, li., jouer; jouer i; jouer de; 
 
 s'amuser. 
 player, le joueur. 
 please, plaire ^; if he — (to), s'il lui 
 
 plait (de). 
 pleasure, le plaisir; take — in, 
 
 savourer; prendre plaisir i. 
 plow, — up, labourer, 
 plunge, s'^crouler. 
 poet, le po&te. 
 point, le point, 
 poor, pauvre. 
 possess, avoir; poss£der. 
 possession; take — of, s'emparer de. 
 possible, possible; be — , pouvoir; 
 
 Stre possible, 
 post, le d£pdt; la poste. 
 pound, la livre. 
 pour, verser. 
 poverty, la misSre. 
 
 power, la puissance; le pouvoir 
 
 powerful, puissant. 
 
 power-press, la presse. 
 
 practice, I'exp^rience, /. 
 
 praise, »., I'^loge, m. 
 
 praise, v., louer. 
 
 prance, piaffer. 
 
 prattle, le babil. 
 
 prayer, la priSre. 
 
 precaution, la precaution. 
 
 precious, prgcieux. 
 
 precision, la s^iretS. 
 
 prefer, aimer mieux; pr6Krer. 
 
 prepare, preparer; faire. 
 
 present adj., present; be — , assister. 
 
 present, v., presenter. 
 
 press back, resserrer. 
 
 pretty, joli. 
 
 prevent, emp^cher. 
 
 previous, pr6c6dent. 
 
 price, le prix. 
 
 principal, principal. 
 
 printed-matter, rimprim6, m. 
 
 private, secret. 
 
 probably, probablement. 
 
 process, I'op^ration,/. 
 
 proclaim, proclamer. 
 
 produce, produire; foumir. 
 
 profit, le profit. 
 
 profitable, utile. 
 
 profound, profond. 
 
 progress, le progrfes; les progris; 
 
 in — , en cours. 
 promptly, vite. 
 proposal, la proposition, 
 protect, prot^ger; d^fendre. 
 prove, d^montrer. 
 proverb, le proverbe. 
 provided, pourvu que. 
 Providence, le del. 
 prudent, prudent. 
 public, public; le public, 
 pull off, tirer. 
 pure, pur. 
 
 pursuit, la poursuite. 
 put, mettre; — off, reculer; — again, 
 
 remettre; — to good use, bien 
 
 employer; — to trouble, donner 
 
 la peine. 
 
 quality, la quality, 
 quarrel, la querelle. 
 quarter, cantonner; be — ed, se can- 
 tonner. 
 
VOCABULARY 
 
 53 
 
 question, »., la question; be a — of, 
 
 s'ugir de. 
 quick, vite. 
 quicldy, vite. 
 quiet, adj., tranquille. 
 quiet, v., tranquilliser. 
 quite, tout. 
 quiver, vibrer; fr^mir; trembler. 
 
 R 
 
 race, la course. 
 
 rage, battre son plein; faire fureur. 
 
 rBllinK, la balustrade. 
 
 rain, la pluie. 
 
 raise, lever, relevcr; Clever; — (a cry), 
 
 pousser (un cri). 
 range; within — , i portfie. 
 rank, lo rang. 
 rapid, rapide. 
 
 rare, rare. [mieux. 
 
 ratlier, assez; plut6t; will — , aimer 
 reach, arriver &. 
 read, lire. 
 
 ready, prdt; make — , s'apprfiter. 
 real, vrai. 
 realize, se rcndre compte de; pcnser 
 
 bien. 
 really, vraiment. 
 rear, I'arriire, m. 
 reason, n., la raison. 
 reason, v.; — with, raisonner. 
 reasonable, raisonnable. 
 reassure, rassurer. 
 receive, recevoir. 
 recognize, reconnaltre. 
 recollect, se rappclcr. 
 reconcile, rallier. 
 record, enregistrcr. 
 recourse: have — (to), recourir (i). 
 recover (trans.), retrouver; (inlrans.), 
 
 revenir. 
 recruit, la recrue. 
 rectilinear, align£. 
 recur, revenir. 
 
 red, rouge; pourpre; grow — , rougir. 
 reduce, r£duire; — to silence, im- 
 
 poser silence il. 
 refrain, n., le refrain. 
 refrain (from), s'abstenir (de). 
 refreshing, r£parateur. 
 refugee, le r£rugi£. 
 refusal, le refus. 
 regain, regagner. 
 regime, le rigime. 
 regiment, le regiment, 
 regret, regrettcr. 
 
 regular, rdgulier; —army, I'active,/.; 
 
 — rep;iment, le regiment de ractivc, 
 regulation, n., le rSglcment, 
 regulation, adj., riglementaire. 
 release, donner quittance &.. 
 relic, la relique. 
 remain, rester. 
 remedy, rem6dier i. 
 remember, se souvenir de; se rappeler. 
 remembrance, le souvenir. 
 remind (some one of something), 
 
 rappeler (quelque chose 4 quel- 
 
 qu'un). 
 remote, perdu; cach€. 
 remoteness, I'^loignement, m. 
 rent, le loyer; {farm) — , le fermage. 
 repass, repasser. 
 repeat, r6p£ter. 
 replace, remplaccr. 
 representation, la representation. 
 reproach (with), reprochcr il (dc). 
 repulse, relouler. 
 require, demander; exiger; be — d to, 
 
 6tre tenu de. 
 requisition, requisition; adj., de re- 
 quisition. 
 resemble, ressembler 4; sembler. 
 reserve, la rdserve; — s, les rfiservistes; 
 
 la reserve. 
 resource, la ressource. 
 respect, respecter. 
 responsibility, la responsabilite. 
 responsible; be — , etre tenu. 
 rest, n., le repos; be at — , etre au 
 
 repos. 
 rest, V. (trans.), reposer; (inirans.), se 
 
 reposer. 
 resume, reprendre; — one's youthful 
 
 agility, retrouver scs jambes de 
 
 vingt ans. 
 retreat, battre en retraite. 
 return, revenir; retourner. 
 reveille, la diane. 
 reverse, le reyers. 
 rid; get — , se debarrasser. 
 ride horseback, monter d, cheval. 
 rider, le' cavalier. 
 rifle, le fusil. 
 right, »., le droit; [adj.), droit; all — , 
 
 bon; bien; be — , avoir raison; 
 
 on the — , i. droite. 
 right-hand, adj., de confiance. 
 rigid, rigide. 
 ring out, resonner. 
 rise, se lever; — up, surgir. 
 risk, risquer. 
 
54 
 
 VOCABULARY 
 
 rival, rival. 
 
 rivalry, la rivalitfi. 
 
 river, le fleuve. 
 
 road, la route; le chemin. 
 
 roar, le grondement. 
 
 rod, la perche. 
 
 roller, le cylindre. 
 
 romp, gambader. 
 
 romping, les gambades, /. 
 
 room, la chambre; make — for, {aire 
 place k. 
 
 root, enraciner. 
 
 rotation, le roulement. 
 
 round, rond. 
 
 rove; — over, courir dans. 
 
 rower, le rameur. 
 
 rowing, ;/., le canotage. 
 
 rule; official — s, le rgglement. 
 
 run, courir; — its course, aller; — up 
 (debts), se faire (des dettes). 
 
 running, ?^., la course. 
 
 rush, se prficipiter; s'flancer; — for- 
 ward, s'61ancer. 
 
 Russian, le Kusse; russe. 
 
 sacrifice, le sacrifice, les sacrifices. 
 
 sad, triste; grow — , s'attrister. 
 
 saddle, la selle. 
 
 sadly, tristement. 
 
 safety, le salut; la sficuritfi. 
 
 salute, n., le salut; give the — , 
 
 faire le salut. 
 salute, v., saluer. 
 same, mfeme; just the — , tout de 
 
 mSme; quand mfime. 
 satisfy, satisfaire. 
 savage, acharnfi. 
 save, sauver; prfiserver; 6conomiser; 
 
 — when, a moins que. 
 say, dire; so to — , pour ainsi dire, 
 scarcely, k peine; ne . . . gu6re. 
 scatter, se sfiparer. 
 scene, la scdne. 
 
 school, rScoIe, /.; — work, le devoir. 
 scientiiBc, scientifique. 
 scour, battre. 
 scrap, le morceau. 
 screen, la dale, 
 scrub, nettoyer. 
 seat, mettre. 
 seated, assis. 
 
 second, le deuxiSme; le second, 
 secure (for), assurer (4). 
 sedentary, s^dentaire. 
 
 see, voir; — again, revoir; — there, 
 voila. 
 
 seem, sembler. 
 
 select, choisir. 
 
 self, mgme; my — , moi-m6me. 
 
 sell, vendre. 
 
 send, envoyer; expfidier. 
 
 sensitively, dflicatement. 
 
 sentence, la phrase. 
 
 September, septembre, m. 
 
 serenity, le calme. 
 
 sergeant, le sergent. 
 
 serious, grave; sfirieux. 
 
 servant, le serviteur; le domestique. 
 
 serve, servir; — to, servir k. 
 
 service, le service; in the — , sous les 
 drapeaux; in the — of, au service 
 de. 
 set, offrir; donner; — about, s'at- 
 tacher; — one's self up to, se 
 donner. 
 set-back, le dfiboire. 
 setting, H., la couv^e. 
 settie; — down, s'installer. 
 seven, sept. 
 several, plusieurs. 
 shaft, la hampe. 
 shaggy, hirsute, 
 shame, la honte; false — , la raau- 
 
 vaise honte. 
 share, la part, 
 sharpshooter, le tirailleur. 
 shear, tondre. 
 
 sheep, la brebis; le mouton. 
 shell, I'obus, m. 
 
 shelter, abriter; -^ed from, k I'abri de. 
 shift, le dSplacement. 
 shine, briller. 
 shirt, la chemise. 
 shock, le choc, 
 shoot (at), tirer (sur). 
 short, court; bref; quelque; in — , 
 bref; be nothing — of, ne pas 
 laisser d'etre. 
 shot, le coup de fusil, 
 shoulder, I'epaule, /. 
 shout, le cri; la clameur. 
 show, montrer. 
 shrapnel, le shrapnell. 
 shrug, hausser. 
 
 shut, fermer; — up, se taire. 
 shyness, la timidit€. 
 side, le c6t6; on the other — , de 
 
 I'autre c6t6. 
 signal, le signal; — lantern, le falot. 
 silence, le silence. 
 
VOCABULARY 
 
 55 
 
 silhouette, la silhouette. 
 
 silver, I'argent, m. 
 
 similar, semblable. 
 
 simmer, cuire. 
 
 simple, simple. 
 
 simply, simplement; ne . . . que. 
 
 since, puisque; depuis que; depuis. 
 
 sincere, sincere. 
 
 sing, chanter. 
 
 singing, »., le chant. 
 
 single, seul. 
 
 sink, s'ficrouler; {of heart), se serrer. 
 
 sister, la soeur. 
 
 sit, se r^unir en stance; — down, 
 
 s'asseoir. 
 situation, la situation. 
 six, six. 
 
 sixty, soixante. 
 skate, patiner. 
 skilled, adroit, 
 skin, la peau. 
 sky, le del. 
 slang, I'argot, m. 
 
 sleep, dormir; go to — , s'endormir. 
 slip ; — in, se f aufiler; — out, 6chapper. 
 slow, leat. 
 
 slimiber, le sommeil. 
 small, petit, 
 smile, II., le sourire. 
 smile, v., sourire. 
 smilingly, en souriant. 
 smithy, la forge, 
 snow, n., la neige. 
 snow, v., neiger. 
 so, aussi; si; (therefore), done; (uiith 
 
 verb), le; — that, de sorte que; 
 
 afin que; pour que; que; — as to, 
 
 de fafon a; pour; — to say, pour 
 
 ainsi dire, 
 sober, serieux. 
 soil, le sol. 
 soldier, le soldat. 
 sole, seul. 
 solid, solide. 
 some,quelque;plusieurs; de + art.; en; 
 
 — ... — :, lesuns . . . lesautres; 
 
 — thirty, une trentaine; — ^thing, 
 quelque chose; — times, quel- 
 quefois; parfois; — where, quelque 
 part. 
 
 song, le chant, la chanson. 
 
 son, le fils. 
 
 soon, bient6t; as — as, aussi t6t que; 
 
 (amj.), aussi tdt que; d6s que. 
 soul, r&me, /.; good — s, les braves 
 
 gens, m. 
 
 sound, n., le son. 
 
 sound, v., sonner. 
 
 source, I'llfiment, »».; la source. 
 
 Southern, mfiridional. 
 
 sovereignty, la souverainete. 
 
 Spain, I'Espagne, /. 
 
 Spanish, espagnol. 
 
 spatter (with), ficlabousser (de). 
 
 speak, parler. 
 
 spectacle, le spectacle. 
 
 speed; at full — , a toute allure. 
 
 spend, dfipenser; {time), passer. 
 
 spirited; be — , avoir le sang vif. 
 
 spite; in — of, malgrfi; en d€pit de. 
 
 splendid, splendide. 
 
 splinter, I'^clat, m. 
 
 sport, le jeu. 
 
 spread, le goflter. 
 
 spring, sauter; — up, germer. 
 
 squadron, I'escadron, m. 
 
 stable {for horses), I'ficurie, /.; 
 
 (for stock), ratable, /. 
 stall, la stalle, /. 
 stamp, donner I'empremte. 
 stand; — in the way of, s'opposer (a). 
 standard, le litre. 
 
 stanza, la strophe. [couleurs. 
 
 star; see — s, en voir de toutes les 
 start, n., le d6paft. 
 start, V. {trans.), lancer; {inirans.), 
 
 partir; — out, partir. 
 starveling, I'affam^, m. 
 statement; official — , le communique, 
 station, v.; keep — ed, faire rester. 
 stay, «., le s6jour. 
 stay, v., rester. 
 stem, s'opposer k. 
 step, »., le pas. 
 
 step, v.; — forward, s'avancer. 
 steward, le rfigisseur. 
 still, encore. 
 stirrup, I'Strier, m.; spring into the 
 
 — , chausser les ^triers. 
 stock, »., le betail; les bestiaux; les 
 
 b^tes. 
 stock, v., gamir de. 
 stool, I'escabeau, m. 
 stoop, se pencher. 
 stop {trans.), arrSter; {intrans.), s'ar- 
 
 reter; cesser, 
 story, I'histoire, /.; le conte. 
 straighten, redresser; — up, se 
 
 redresser. 
 strain, le motif, 
 strange, 6trange._ 
 strategic, stratfigique. 
 
S6 
 
 VOCABULARY 
 
 straw, la piiille. 
 
 stream, lu cotirn d'eau. 
 
 street, In. rue, 
 
 strength, la force; Ic'h forccB. 
 
 stretch, dlmdrL-; allonger; tondrc; 
 — out, iivancer; tcndre on avant; 
 allongcr; — one's legs, we d<S«our- 
 dir Ia8 jambcs; at a ■— , conndtulif 
 
 iA^lj.). 
 
 strike, frapper. 
 
 string, le chapck'l. 
 
 strip, la banclcrolo. 
 
 stripped, adj., d£pourvu. 
 
 strive, n'clTorccr. 
 
 stroke, natter. 
 
 strong, fort. 
 
 struggle, »., la lutte. 
 
 struggle, !)., luUcr; — over, hc di»- 
 
 puter. 
 study, 6tudicr. 
 subject, lu Duiet. 
 sublime, »ublime. 
 submit, d£f£rcr. 
 
 substance; In — , quant au fond, 
 suburbs, la banlicuc. 
 succeed (In), rduHsir (&). 
 success, le ttuccin, 
 such, tcl; un telj — as, tcl que. 
 sudden, Bubit; all Of a — , tout d'un 
 
 coup. 
 suddenly, tout & coup; Houdain. 
 suffer, Bourtrir; — from, 4tre at- 
 
 tcint (le. 
 suffice (for), suffirc (&). 
 sugar-beet, la bettcravc 
 sugar-plant, la plantu h, sucre. 
 sum, n., la Hommc. 
 sum, v.; — up, rfinumer. 
 summer, l'£te, m. 
 sun, le Doleil; — parlor, le parloir 
 
 vUr6. 
 superior, supfiricur; — officer, Ic chef; 
 
 the — officers, us haut commande- 
 
 ment. 
 superman, le iturhomme. 
 suppose, HuppoBcr. 
 sure, Bdr. 
 
 surge; — up, a'cntre-choqucr. 
 surpass, I'emportcr »ur. 
 surprise, «., fa Burprise. 
 surprise, *., fitonncr: Burprcndrc. 
 surroundings, I'ambiancL-, /. 
 suspect, Bc douter. 
 suspicion, la mC:fi!i.nr(r; \r. BfjUIifon; 
 
 be above — , 6trc irrdproi halilr, 
 suspicious, m£fiant; be — , bc mC'fii^r. 
 
 sweet, (loux. 
 
 sweetheart. I'umle, /. 
 
 swing; be In full — again, reprendro 
 
 dc pluB belle. 
 Bymbolise, By m boil nor. 
 systematic, 8yBl£maliquc. 
 
 table, la tublu. 
 
 take, i^rundrc; condulrc; — <>»•>•••, 
 
 ruprendre; — Into, lalrc cntrcr 
 
 rliins; — on, prendre, 
 tale, le contc. 
 talk, purler, 
 
 target; be made a — for, 6trc vIb6 pur, 
 taSK, lii (llchc; la bcBognc. 
 taste, n,, le goOl ; in good — , dc bon 
 
 «oflt. 
 taste, v., KoCltcr A,, 
 tasteful, tic lion gofll. 
 tatter, le lam beau clY-loffe. 
 tear up, d^fonccr. 
 tedium, rcnniii. 
 tell, dire; raconlcr: — off. ^grencr; 
 
 to — the truth, i vrul dire, 
 temper, mcBurer. 
 tempt, li'titcr. 
 ten, dix. 
 
 tenant, le fcrmicr; le locataire. 
 tender, (cndre, 
 tenderness, la tondrcsBC. 
 tennis, Ic lawn-tennlB, 
 terrible, icrriblo. 
 terrific, I'lTroyiiblc; ellrayant. 
 territorial, fcrriloriul. 
 terseness, le laconiHme. 
 Teuton, teuton. 
 than, que; dc. 
 
 thank, rcmtrder; — you, mcrri. 
 thanks, Ic remcrcicrnent. 
 that, pron., cc; cela; cclui-lft: cclui; 
 
 cc(t) . . . -14; Ic; — 's it c c»t fa; 
 - is the book, c'cst li Ic llvrc; 
 
 voild le ilvr(^ 
 that, cnnj., que; afin que; pour que. 
 thaw, le (l<;gcl. 
 then, alorB; puin; cnBuitc; apr^B; done; 
 
 — too. cl puiB. 
 theory, fa thdorlc. 
 there, y; I&; — is, — are, il y a; 
 
 voil4, 
 therefore, done; au»sl. 
 thick, groB. 
 
 thickness, I'^paixBcur, /. 
 thin, minti'. 
 
VOCABULARY 
 
 57 
 
 thingi Ia chose. 
 
 think, penser; croirej songer; — about, 
 
 — M, petiser t\. 
 thirteen, treise. 
 thirty, trcnte. 
 
 this, re; occi; celui-ci; cc(t) . , . ci; 
 
 co(t); lo; — Is the book, c est iei 
 
 le livre; voici Ic livrej for — , y; 
 
 pour ceci. 
 thought, ridee, /.; la pens^e; lose 
 
 one's self in — , s'oublier. 
 thousand, »., le millier; {«<().), mille. 
 three, trois. 
 thrilling, poignant, 
 throughout, ue tout(«). 
 thus, itinsi, 
 tiger, le tigrt>. 
 time, le temps; k foisj honored, 
 
 sucrnmentivl; along — , lon^temps; 
 
 at one — , d'un seuTcoup; en m6me 
 
 lemps; from — to - , de temps en 
 
 temps; set --, I'heure tixe, /, 
 timely, indiquf; — moment, I'op- 
 
 portunitt. 
 tire UruMj-,), fatiguer; (inlniMs.), se 
 
 fati>!uer, 
 to, &; en; dans; povir; {until), jusqu'il; 
 
 — it, — tfaem, y, 
 
 today, aujourd'hui; de nos jours. 
 
 tomorrow, demain. 
 
 too, trop; {also), aussi. 
 
 top, le haut; la eime; le dessus; 
 
 from — to bottom, de fond en 
 
 comble. 
 torch, le falot. 
 
 touch, «,; in — , en rapport. 
 touch, v., toucher i\. 
 touched, o4}; £mu. 
 toward, vers, 
 
 town, la villej small — , le bourg. 
 tragedy, la trag£die. 
 tragic, tragique. 
 train, «., le train; express — , I'ex- 
 
 press, m. 
 train, v., exercer. 
 tranquil, calme. 
 tranquillity, la tranquillity, 
 transfer, transporter, 
 traveler, le voyageur. 
 treasure. le tr6sor. 
 tree, I'arore, m. 
 trench, la tntnch^e. 
 trend, le cours, 
 triimtphant, triomphol. 
 troop, la troupe, 
 trooper, le cavalier. 
 
 trouble, «., la peine; borrow — , se 
 
 faire des idfies. 
 trouble, i>., inqiu£ter. 
 troublesome, importun, 
 troublous, inquiet. 
 true, vrai. 
 
 try (to), essayer (de); s'efforcer (de), 
 tttta, II., le tour; by — , tour a tour. 
 turn, V. {trans,), tourner; (iiilruin-.), 
 
 sc tourner; — around, se retoiu:- 
 
 ner; — out, rendre. 
 turnip, le navet. 
 twenty, vingt. 
 twice, deux fois. 
 twist, tordrc. 
 two, deux. 
 type, le type. 
 
 ultimate, final. 
 
 unaccustomed, inaccoutum€, 
 
 unceasingly, incessumment. 
 
 imcertainty, I'incertitude, /. 
 
 uncle, I'oncle, m. 
 
 undaunted, indomptable. 
 
 under, sous. 
 
 underbrush, le taillis. 
 
 under-drained, iX claire-voie, 
 
 underground, souterrain. 
 
 understand, comprendre; entendre. 
 
 undertaking, I'aCfairc, /. 
 
 underwear, le linge. 
 
 uneasiness, le trouble. 
 
 unheard of, inoul. 
 
 unimpaired, intact. 
 
 unique, unique. 
 
 unity, runite, /. 
 
 unless, (I moins aue. 
 
 unlimited, ilUmitc; sans bornes. 
 
 unlucky, raalheureux. 
 
 unnatural, contre nature. 
 
 imprecedented, sans pr6c6dent. 
 
 unreasonable, d^raisonnable. 
 
 tmrecognisable, mdconnaissable. 
 
 until, jusqu'A ce que. 
 
 untimely, mtempestif. 
 
 unwilling; be — , ne pas \ouloir. 
 
 upon, sur; {as adv.), dessus. 
 
 urgent, urgent. 
 
 use, «., I'emploi, »».,• be of no — , ne 
 servir it rien; make — of, se ser- 
 vir de; make bad — of, abuser de; 
 what* s tte — of , il quoi bon. 
 
 use, v., employer; — up, user. 
 
 usher, introduire. 
 
 usually, genSralemcnt. 
 
58 
 
 VOCABULARY 
 
 vain, vain; in — , en vain; vainement; 
 
 do something in — , avoir beau 
 
 faire quelque cliose. 
 valor, la vaillance. 
 vanish, s'fivanouir. 
 ventilate, afirer. 
 verbally, verbalement. 
 verdict, le jugement. 
 verdure, la verdure, 
 verify, verifier, 
 veritable, veritable, 
 verse, les vers, m. 
 very, adj., meme (after the noun). 
 very, adv., tres bien; fort. 
 .victim, la victime. 
 victor, le triomphateur. 
 victoriously, victorieusement. 
 victory, la victoire. 
 view; in — of, vu. 
 vigorous, robuste. 
 village, le village, 
 vim, I'entrain, m. 
 violent, violent, 
 virtue, la vertu. 
 visit, la visite. 
 vivid, vif. 
 voice, la voix. 
 volley, la salve, 
 volunteer, le volontaire; l'engag6 
 
 volontaire, m. 
 Vosges, les Vosges, /. 
 
 W 
 
 wait, — for, attendre. 
 
 waiting, «., I'attente, /. 
 
 walk, n., I'allde, /. 
 
 wander, errer. 
 
 want, vouloir. 
 
 war, la guerre; (adj.), de guerre. 
 
 ward, la salle. 
 
 warfare, la guerre. 
 
 warm, adj., chaud; be — , avoir chaud; 
 
 faire chaud. 
 warm, v., chauffer; r^chauffer. 
 warn, prdvenir. 
 War-Office, le minist6re de la 
 
 guerre. 
 warrior, le guerrier. 
 wash, layer. 
 
 watch, la surveillance; la garde, 
 wave, V. (trans.), agiter; {intrans.), 
 
 s'agiter; Hotter, 
 way, le chemin; in no — , d'aucune 
 
 fafon; in this — , de cette fafon; 
 
 one's own — , de son c6t6. 
 weak, faible. 
 wealth, la richesse. 
 wear out (with), surmener (de). 
 weariness, la lassitude. 
 weary, v. (trans.), lasser; fatiguer; 
 
 (intrans.), se lasser; se fatiguer. 
 weather, le temps. 
 week, la semaine. 
 Weigh, peser. 
 weight, le poids. 
 weirdness, I'fitrangetfi, /. 
 welcome, accueillir. 
 well, bien, eh bien; as — as, aussi bien 
 
 que. 
 what, que; quoi; qu'est-ce qui, que; 
 
 qu'est-ce que c'est que; ce qui; ce 
 
 que; quel; comment!; — ever, 
 
 quoi . . . que; quel .... que; 
 
 quelque . . . que; quoi que ce 
 
 soit. 
 when, lorsque; quand; ofi; pendant 
 
 que. 
 where, ofi. 
 
 wherewithal; the — to, de quoi. 
 whether, si. 
 which, qui; que; lequel; from — , 
 
 d'oi;in — , ou;of — , dont. 
 while, pendant que; tandis que; 
 
 a long — , longtemps. 
 whim, le caprice. 
 whinny, le hennissement. 
 whirlwind, le tourbillon; (adj.), fou- 
 
 droyant. 
 whistle, n., le coup de sifflet. 
 white, blanc. 
 who, qui, lequel, qui que ce soit qui; 
 
 ceux qui; celui qui. 
 whoever, quiconque, 
 whole, entier; the — of, tout; on the 
 
 — , a tout prendre, 
 wholely, tout, 
 why, pourquoi. 
 wife, la femme; I'epouse, /. 
 will, «., la volontfi. 
 will, u., vouloir. 
 
 willing; be — , vouloir; vouloir bien. 
 win, conqufirir; — over, gagner. 
 wind, le vent. 
 
 wine, le vin; mulled — , vin chaud. 
 wish, vouloir; d6sirer; souhaiter. 
 with, avec; de; k. 
 withdraw (from), retirer (4). 
 without, sans. 
 witness, assister &. 
 
VOCABULARY 
 
 59 
 
 woman, la femme. 
 
 wonder, se demander. 
 
 wonderfully, admirablement. 
 
 wood, le bois. 
 
 word, le mot; la parole. 
 
 work, »., le travail. 
 
 work, v., travailler; — at, travailler k. 
 
 workman, I'ouvrier, m. 
 
 workshop, I'atelier, m. 
 
 world, le monde. 
 
 worried, inquiet; be — , etre inquiet; 
 
 s'inquieter. 
 worry (trans.), inquigter; {inirans.), 
 
 s'inquieter; s'6nerver. 
 worse; grow — , empirer. 
 worth; be — , valoir; be — while, 
 
 valoir la peine, 
 woimd, n., la blessure. 
 wound, v., blesser; — ed, blessfi, 
 
 frappS. 
 
 write, dcrire. 
 
 yard, la cour. 
 
 year, I'an, m.; I'annle, /.; to be . . . 
 
 years old, avoir . . . ans. 
 yell, hurler. 
 yellow, jaune. 
 yes, oui. 
 yesterday, hier. 
 yet, encore; cependant. 
 yield, se rendre. 
 young, jeune; petit, 
 youngster, le petit; le bambin. 
 youth, la jeunesse; les jeunes gens, m. 
 
 zero, le zero. 
 
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