W^i ^^ f,,,.^ * I, ^ -% % 1 \ t ^tate Q^ollege nf Agriculture ?it ((arnell HmversU)! Htbrarg Cornell University Library HF 1027.R69 The geography of commerce and industry 3 1924 013 803 816 The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924013803816 THE GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY BY W. F. ROCHELEAU Aathof of "Crtcat AmerJcan Indosteies" Formerly State Institute Conductor for Minnesota, later Department of Psychology anel Pedagogy, and Superintendent of Training School, Southern Illinois State Normal University REVISED EDITION EDUCATIONAL PUBLISHING CO. -Boston New York Chicago San Francisco CePYRiGHT, 1905, 1908, 1913, 1915 By W. F. ROCHELEAU Copyright, 1918 By W. F. ROCHELEAU o. 4 g iJ O K O a < as PREFACE Of the multitude of pupils in our public schools, only a few reach the eighth grade, and even a smaller number enter the high school, yet those who terminate their school career thus early become bread winners and home makers, and con- stitute a large proportion of our citizens. Many of these young people leave school ahnost totally ignorant of sources of supply, processes of manufacture, and cost of our most common commodities. That a knowledge of the world's great industries would give them additional power in solving the problems of life, and also make them more useful citizens, is the behef of the author of this work. The Geography of Commerce and Industry has been prepared to meet the needs of aU such pupils and those who enter high school. It recognizes the dearth of reference works on many of the subjects treated, and has given the leading industries such treatment as to make each chapter a unit. The dependence of industries upon geographical conditions, the relation of man to his environment, and the effect of commerce upon civilization are clearly shown. The industrial life of our own country is fully treated, and then the relation of the United States to other countries, and of these to each other, are shown. The illustrations are chosen for the purpose of adding information and interest, and each map is made for the express purpose of emphasizing the feature that it represents. The relief maps were modelled by Mr. Georg Thome-Thom- sen of the School of Education, University of Chicago, especially for this work. Many of the questions are designed to awaken thought and lead to further study, and cannot be answered directly. By assigning them to different pupils., so that each wUI have one or more to investigate and report upon, they can be made to add much to the interest of the work. The less important countries are so grouped in chapters that if desired, their study can be omitted without breaking the continuity of thought. I am under special obhgations to Mr. Frank W. Darling, formerly head of the Department of Geography, Chicago Normal School, for critically reading the manuscript and making many valuable suggestions. W. F. R. iii CONTENTS PART ONE CONDITIONS RELATING TO INDUSTRIES Chapter I Chapter III Climate . . . . 1 Why Man Engages in Trade . 17 Chapter II Chapter IV Soil and Plants . . .11 Transportation 23 PART TWO THE UNITED STATES Chapter I Position, Surface and Climate 33 Chapter X Mineral Fuels . 127 Chapter II Wiealt 47 Chapter XI Rock and Soil Products . 139 Chapter III Com 61 Chapter XII. Manufacturing Industries . 145 Chapter IV Live Stock .... 71 Chapter XIII Textile Fabrics . . 151 Chapter V Cotton .... 81 Chapter XIV Leather Products . . 159 Chapter VI Fisheries .... 89 Chapter XV Printing and Publishing . 165 Chapter VII Forest Products . 97 Chapter XVI Other Industries . . 171 Chapter VIII Mineral Industries 109 Chapter XVU^ Trade Routes . 179 Chapter IX Metals. .... iv 113 Chapter XVIII Great Cities . 199 CONTENTS Chapter XIX New York and Chicago 215 ■Chapter XX Exchange ... 231 Chapter XXI Trade between the States 241 Chapter XXII Alaska and our Island Posses- sions 247 Chapter XXIII Our Trade with Other Nations 257 Chapter XXIV Commercial Growth of the United States , 267 PART THREE COMMERCE OF FOREIGN NATIONS Chapter I Canada Chapter II Mexico and Central America Chapter III South America Chapter IV The West Indies . Chapter V Great Britain and Ireland Chapter VI Germany .... Chapter VII France Chapter VIII Belgium, Netherlands, Den- mark, Norway and Sweden Chapter IX Austria-Hungary and Switzer- land .... 273 283 287 329 333 343 349 355 363 Chapter X Spain and Portugal, and Italy 367 Chapter XI The Balkan Countries . . 373 Chapter XII Russia . . .381 Chapter XIII India, Ceylon and the Straits Settlements . . .389 Chapter XIV China 395 Chapter XV Japan .... 401 Chapter XVI Other Asiatic Countries . 407 Chapter XVII Austraha . . .411 Chapter XVIII Africa ..... 417 MAPS Canal Annual Rainfall of the World Relief Map, United States . Annual Rainfall in the United States Wheat Corn . Cotton Lumber Coal and Iron Railroads Canals Sault Ste. Marie ' Ocean Routes ...... Caribbean America ..... South America, Showing Steamship Routes Panama and Panama Canal Ecuador and Northern Part of Peru Brazil, Showing Location of the Principal Ports Brazil, Showing Products Argentina, Showing Products France ..... Holland and Belgium ..... Denmark ....... Norway and Sweden ..... Trans-Siberian Railway .... Relief Map, Eurasia Sketch Map — Trade Routes to India Japan, Korea and Northeast China and Australia Northwestern Africa and Lower Egypt Suez Canal . ..... Cape-to-Cairo Railway .... EECErVING ELEVATOR, WASHBUBN-CKOSBY MILLS (Courteey of 'Washburn-Crosby Co^ HhmeapoUs, Mlnp.) PAKT I. CONDITIONS THAT DETERMINE INDUSTRIES. Chapter I. CLIMATE. You have long since learned that the sur- LAND AND WATER ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ j^ composed of land and water and that there is practically three times as much water as land. Probably you have also learned that the land and water are very unequally distributed, the greater part of the land lying north of the Equator and the greater part of the water lying south of it ; but you may not have considered the relations which these condi- tions sustain to human life, occupations and commerce. „„„ «,„„„, Of the seventeen hundred million people liv- UNEQUAL DISTRI- . ,, .u u ^ u Jv ing upon the earth about one-halt live upon BUTION OF LIFE j^^^ ^^^^ one-seventh of its surface. The principal causes for this unequal distribution of life are climate and the condition of the earth's surface. Animals are compelled to live in the regions that produce their food. Man only can live away from the sources of his food supply, because he alone has ji^xised means for transporting what he needs to any locality in whi-ch he desires to dwell. Some animals feed upon plants, and some upon other animals. Those animals that furnish food for others, themselves feed upon plants ; therefore the animal life of a locality is determined by its plant life, and even man finds it to his advantage to dwell in those portions of the earth where his supply of food is abundant and easily obtained. 1 2 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY The most important features of climate are temper- CLIMATE ature and rainfall. As these are, so are the vegeta- tion, animal life and people. In general, the earth is divided climatically into the tropical, temperate and polar regions. The tropical regions are characterized by Tropical Regions j^j^j^ temperatures, and in some localities an abundance of rainfall, and in others almost an entire absence of rainfall. Where there is an abundance of rainfall we find the most luxuriant vegetation. The regions best illustrating these condi- tions of life are found in the valleys of the Amazon and Kongo Rivers. In the forests of the Amazon the trees grow to an enormous size, and twining and climbing plants and undergrowth form thickets' so dense that it is impossible to penetrate them. Here also are myriads of insects of the most gorgeous hues and birds of brilliant plumage. The inhabitants of this region need but little clothing, and that of the simplest sort. The only purpose of dwellings is to shelter them from the heavy rains and hot sun. Food is abundant and grows without cultivation. The climate is enervating, and there is nothing to lead man to exert himself beyond the little labor necessary to supply his daily wants. Consequently we find the inhabitants indolent and in a state bordering on savagery. They have made no progress since they were fii-st discovered by the Spaniards nearly four hundred years ago. In the valley of the Kongo we find conditions somewhat sim- ilar, but the elevation of the interior of Africa gives this region a lower average temperature than that of the valley of the Amazon. The people construct permanent dwellings which are grouped in villages, and though surrounded by a luxuriant vegetation, many of the tribes domesticate animals and till the ground in a rude fashion. They are further advanced towards civilization than the tribes of the Amaason, but are still indolent and unprogressive. COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 3 In sharp contrast with the climate and life of S^^^^ the tropics are those of the polar regions. These regions are characterized by long, cold winters, and short, hot summers. In the colder portions there are no forests, and vegetation consists almost entirely of a low order of plants, such as mosses and lichens, with which are mingled a few flower- ing plants that mature during the short summer. The soil thaws for only twelve or fifteen inches, aud below this the roots come in contact with a bed of frost. These conditions ai'C well illustrated in the tundra, a long belt of low and nearly level land in northern Siberia, containing many lakes and rivers. In winter the land is buried beneath a sheet of snow, but, with the coming of late spring, life wabens to great intensity. Groves of stunted trees occasion- ally occur around small streams, and serve to break the monotony of the scenery, and on the southern .border shi'ubs greatly increase in size until they reach the line of forests. In the most favorable localities the cranberry, crowberry and whortleberry grow abun- dantly. The lower areas are covered with bog moss, and the higher lands with reindeer moss, and in summer are brilliant with flowers of many hues. The lakes arid rivers teem with fish, and the reindeer, polar bear and Arctic fox are about the only animals found on the land. The reindeer is domesticated, and supplies the inhabitants with milk and meat, and from its horns and hides tools, moccasins, clothing and other useful articles are made. It lives upon the reindeer moss which it procures in winter by digging in the snow with its forefeet. It is indifierent to cold, is a swift traveler, and is easily domesticated, making it a most valuable servant for the people who inhabit these inhospitable regions. The inhabitants of the tundra are widely scattered, and belong to various races. They erect temporary dwellings, and during the winter follow the reiodeer from place to place as they wander in 4 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY search of food. In those portions of North America corresponding to the Siberian tundra, we find a few Indian tribes who exist by hunting and fishing. Ahiska and Greenland are inhabited by the Esquimaux, and the northern portions of Europe by the Lapps and Finns. In all these localities the entire strength and energy of the people are required to procure food, clothing and shelter necessary to a bare existence. There is, therefore, no opportunity for advancement beyond the occupation necessary for these pur- poses. The men are skilled hunters and fishermen, and display their ingenuity in fashioning such weapons and tools as they need, but they engage in no occupations save those directly connected with the procuring of materials for food, clothing and shelter. In the temperate regions we find condi- Temperate Regions ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^n marked temperature seasons which are comparable with the tundra conditions for part of the year and with tropical conditions during another part. During spring-time and summer plants grow and mature, while during the remainder of the year vegetation rests. This makes it necessary for the inhabitants of the temperate regions to produce and gather in summer most of the material which they will need for food during the winter. Hence the people must be industrious and saving, with always a plan for the future. In these regions are found the most valuable grains, fruits and other food products, such as wheat, corn, the potato, the apple, peach, plum and many small fruits. The temperate regions are also the home of the most valuable domestic animals such as the horse, ox, sheep, and swine. The inhabitants of the temperate regions have at their disposal a variety of resources. They live in a climate which stimulate* them to activity, and amid conditions that provide opportunities for a great variety of occupations. Consequently these regions have been the abode of the great nations of civilization from the COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 6 remotest time, and it is with the people of these regions that the greater part of this book has to do. iwnniFYTiar ^^^ there are regions within regions. Extend- INFLUENCES ^"" '"*" *® frozen, barren regions of the far j north we find some regions having a temperate climite, with its characteristic plants and animals, as in Alaska and Norway. Within the tropics we find high mountains, coverpd with perpetual snow. In shai'p contrast with the dense forests of the Amazon and the Kongo, are vast, barren areas like the Sahara, lying but a short distance away. Within the temperate regions we find a great variety of climatic conditions adapting different localities to different forms of life, and a variety of industries. The most important causes which produce these changes are rainfall, altitude, mountains and distance from the sea. ^ The amount of rainfall of any locality depends upon its distance from the sea, the direction of prevailing winds, and its location in reference to mountains. The air obtains its supi)ly of moisture from the constant evaporation from the surface of the land and sea ; hence the ocean is the great source of rain. In general, places situated near the sea receive a greater amount of rainfall than those far inland, unless the prevailing winds blow from the land to the sea. Europe, whose area is small, and the basins of the Amazon and Kongo have an abun- dance of rain ; but, with these exceptions, in the interiors of continents are found extensive arid regions and deserts. Winds carry water vapor a long distance. If the prevailing winds blow from the sea to the land, and do not rise over moun- tains near the coast, they carry the moisture far into the interior. Whenever winds are forced to rise they become cooled and cause rainfall. Winds are forced to rise under two conditions : (1) Whenever winds blow over mountains, as along the Pacific coast of the United States, they cause heavy rainfall over the land on COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 7 the windward side to a distance of several hundred miles. (2) Whenever the land becomes heated the atmosphere above it will become heated, expand, and rise. As it rises it cools, and the moisture is condensed and falls. This accounts for the heavy rainfall in those regions near the equator. The Great Central Plain, extending from north to south between the mountain systems of North America, enables the warm winds from the Gulf of Mexico to carry their moisture far to the northward and thus water the fertile prairies of the Mississippi Basin. But the western portion of the Great Plain is arid because the winds from the Gulf rarely reach the higher land to the west with any force, and the winds blowing over the Eockies become descending currents on the eastei'n slope, and as they fall they gradually grow warmer and their capacity for absorbing moisture constantly increases, thus drying the land. Whenever there is heavy rainfall it is because the winds are blowing in such a way as to be getting cooler. Deserts are places where the rainfall is less than ten inches a year, and hence they are unproductive. They are caused in one of three ways : (1) By air currents descending constantly over one region, as in southern California and Arizona. (2) By a region being so sur- rounded by mountains on every side that the moist winds cannot get to the region, as the Great Basin about Great Salt Lake and the plateau desert of Thibet. (3) By winds which blow from a cool to a warmer region and so take up moisture as they get warmer, as the Desert of Sahara. In general, winds blowing from the sea towards the land, and those blowing frOm a warmer to a cooler region, are winds containing enough water vapor to produce rain ; while winds blowing from the land to the sea and from a cool to a warm climate, have their capacity for moisture constantly increased, and produce clear skies and fair weather. Bainfall affects the character and amount of vegetation, and 8 COMMEECE AND INDUSTRY to a considerable extent the industries of a locality. Agriculture cannot be successfully followed without irrigation where the annual rainfall is less than twenty inches, and for the best results it should be from forty to fifty inches, and evenly distributed over the growing season. These requirements greatly restrict .the agricultural regions, and large areas whose soil is capable of producing abundant crops remain almost barren for lack of water. In comparatively small areas, as the Nile valley, the densely populated portions of China, and, in the United States, sections in Utah, Arizona, and the southern part of California, the nec- essary moisture is supplied by irrigation. Semi-arid regions, like the western portion of the Great Central Plain in the United States,. Arabia, portions of Mongolia, and the interior of South Africa, have sufficient rainfall to produce a good crop of grass, and are valuable for grazing purposes. Regions having a hundred inches or more of rain are usually covered with dense forests, and are sparsely populated. Next to latitude, altitude is the most important cause that affects climate. The average tempera- ture of a place falls one degree for every three hundred feet of elevation above sea level. By ascending a hill three hundred feet high, we should experience as great a change in temperature as in traveling from thirty to sixty miles north or south from the tropics. People who ascend high mountains in tropical regions pass through all the changes pf temperature that they would experience in going from the equatorial to the polar regions, but they do not encounter all the climatic changes found between the torrid and frigid zones on account of the local conditions which affect moisture and prevailing winds. High plateaus, even though located in the equatorial regions, have a cool climate, and the lofty peaks and high mountain ranges of these regions, like those of the Andes and the Himalayas, are covered with perpetual snow. COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 9 Mountain ranges have great influence on Mountain Ranges dilate ^^ account of both their elevation and their eflect on winds. In the Americas, the mountain ranges extend north and south. The Rocky Mountains prevent the winds from the Pacific from reaching the great plains in the interior of "^^^gMI li^^^HHH0HHHI^HHHMR^^j^^H il^H^HII^^I H A VIEW IN THE HIM A r. AY AS Though they are in tropical latitude these peaks are covered with perpetual snow. the United States, and, as will be more fully explained later, these plains have but little rainfall. However, these mountains do not form a barrier to the cold winds from the north, consequently the eastern portion of North America, including parts of Canada and the United States, have a mean temperature, lower than that of 10 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY portions of Western and Southern Europe in the same latitude. The Andes produce a similar effect upon the countries of South America. The great mountain ranges of Eurasia extend east and west. In Europe the Alps, and in Asia the Himalayas, protect the regions to the south of them from the cold north winds, and are the means of giving to these respective localities their salubrious ulimate. Were it not for the Alps and the Pyrenees, Italy would not have her sunny skies, nor would Spain supply our markets with raisins. Were it not for the Himalayas, India would lie deprived of her tropical forests, and of the rainfall which enables her soil to sustain millions of people. QUESTIONS. What advantages do the tropical regions have over the polar regions ? Do the polar regions have any advantages over the tropical? If so, what are they?' bo all. parts of your state have the same amount of rainfall? Ex- plain why in snmmer one portion of a locaUty may have a heavy fall of rain while an adjoining portion receives none. What is the difference between rain and dew? Between dew and LtOSt? Chapter 11. SOIL AND PLANTS, At the foot of a cliff or large rock, you find a pile of fragments grading in fineness from large pieces down to minute particles no larger than grains of sand. Usu- ally the largest pieces are near the foot of the cliff and on top of the pile, and the finest farther away and at the bottom, where they gradually mingle with the adjoining land so that it is diflScult to determine what part has been formed from the crum- bling of the rock and what from some other sources. These fine particles of rock formed from the decomposition of the cliff consti- tute a portion of the soil at its foot, while other portions have been formed by the decomposition of other rocks, either near by or at a distance. We usually apply the term soil to that portion What Soil Is p^ ^jjg gu^.fjjj.e of tjie ^.^^^ jijaj j^^s a depth of from six to ten inches. The greater part of the soil is formed by the decomposition of rock and a small portion by the decay of vege- table and animal substances, such as leaves, stems, roots and even whole plants, and the bodies of dead animals. The portion formed by the decay of these organic remains is called humus, and is very essential to the growth of plants. Rocks are decomposed by weathering, by the action of water, by the action of wind, and by plants. The repeated warming and cooling through successive changes of temperature in the air, causes rooks to alternately expand and contract to a slight degree. This produces minute cracks into which water runs. In winter the water freezes and makes the cracks larger, so that the next season U 12 COMMERCE AND INUUJilll they hold more water, which in its turn freezes and forces the pieces still farther apart. In this way, in the course of years, fragments are broken off, which in turn become reduced to small particles and form soil. The process is slow, but it is constantly going on. Heavy rains and melting snows wash the surface of the rocks and carry away small particles. Running water also continually wears away the rocks over which it moves. The particles are carried down stream and deposited at the mouth or along the banks, forming beds of deep, fertile soil, like those along the lower part of the Mississippi and other large rivers. It is esti- mated that the Mississippi deposits in this way one hundred and fifty million tons of fragmented rock each' year. In the arid regions, winds are constantly wearing away the rocks and depositing the particles in masses called dunes. In form and size these often resem- ble drifts of snow. Plants aid in the formation of soil by decom- posing the rocks with which they come in contact, and often by breaking them up by the roots growing into the crevices. The force of the growing roots is often sufficient to split the rock in pieces. Since soil is formed almost wholly of decom- inas 01 posed rocks, we should expect it to have the same composition as the rock in its locality, and such is the case, except where soil has been transported and deposited by water or ice, as along rivers and in beds of old lakes. According to its composition soil is known as sandy, clayey, limey and loamy. The soil is sandy when one-half, or more, of it is composed of sand, and clayey when it contains enough clay to make it hard and compact when dry, and plastic when moist. The limey soil is composed of about one-fifth lime and is usually formed from decomposed lime- stone. A loamy soil, or loam, is a happy mixture of these differ- ent kinds, so as to make it most suitable for cultivation. It may be known as sandy loam, clayey loam, or limey loam, according to the amount of sand, clay or lime that it contains. COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 18 A light soil is one that drains well, and is so porous that the roots of plants can penetrate it to a considerable depth. A heavy soil is usually compact, does not drain readily, and often contains so much water that it cannot be profitably cultivated until drained. A fertile soil is one in which plants grow and ' thrive. It contains a good proportion of substances upon which the plants feed, and which, taken together, are known as plant foods. The most important of these are nitro- gen, the most abundant ingredient of the air, and compounds containing potash, phosphorous, lime and sulphur. These sub- stances must not only be present in the soil, but they must be in such a form that the plants can obtain them. That is they must be dissolved by the water present so that they can be taken into the plant through its minute rootlets. For this reason, water is necessary to the productivity of the soil. For the best results, the amount of moisture must be such as will dissolve the required quantity of plant food, and also supply the plants with all the water that it is necessary for the roots to absorb. More than this is injurious, and if free water, that is, water that is not absorbed, is present, it prevents proper circula- tion of the air in the 'soil, and drowns the roots. The moisture most valuable to plant growth is that which surrounds each part- icle of soil with a thin film, similar to a film that sticks to a marble when it is dipped in water. The finer the soil, the greater the amount of surface it presents to the water, and consequently the more water it can contain without becoming saturated. If you do not have access to a field or garden , study the soil in your flower- pots, and notice that the plants having a fine soil with a good quantity of humus, and just enough water to keep it slightly damp, thrive the best. If too much water is present, the plants often fade and some of their leaves turn yellow and drop off. - By raising the same crop on a given field year after year. 14 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY most of the food which that particular kind of plant, as wheat, corn, or cotton, requires, becomes exhausted, and each successive year the yield is less. Good farmers prevent the exhaustion of the soil by what they call "rotation of crops," as raising wheat on a field one year, potatoes the next, corn the next, and following this by clover. They also increase the fertility by the use of manures and fertilizers. Green crops when plowed under increase the fertility of the soil. Plants which belong to the pea family, the legumes like clover, alfalfa, cowpeas, etc., actually increase the amount of nitrogen in the soil. Some fertilizers add plant food to the soil, while others increase the fertility by combining with sub- stances in the soil and setting free the plant food that it already contains. The same fertilizer is not equally valuable for all soils, and the successful farmer learns what sort of fertilizer is best suited to a given field before applying it. The most productive soils are found in the river basins, on the low slopes of hills, among the foothills of mountain ranges, in the beds of ancient lakes, and on the great plains, wherever there is sufficient rainfall for agriculture. Such regions sustain dense and prosperous populations, while those regions having poor soil, as those near the summit of mountains arid on the highlands in hilly country, are unable to produce large crops, consequently such regions are sparsely settled, and their people are usually poor. This is the reason why the most prosperous farming communities in our country are found in the prairie regions and river basins. THTT woRir Over some large sections of country the soil is much deeper than over others. This is largely due to the work of ice. In a past geological age, northern North America was covered with a great ice-sheet as far south as the Ohio and Missouri Rivers. This ice-sheet resembled, in structure and appearance, the glaciers now found in Switzer- land, Alaska, and other localities. This ice moved towards the COMMERCE AND INBUSTRY 15 south and southwest, very much as the glaciers move down the mountains. In many localities it pulverized the rock into soil, which, as the glacier melted, was deposited in its path; in other localities it levelled hills and filled up valleys and lake basins. From many of the elevated regions it carried the soil to the low- lands, and, in general, it moved the soil from north towards the south. For this reason, most of the New England and northern states in the region of the Appalachian Highlands have a thin and a comparatively poor soil, while in the lower land of the northern central states the ice-sheet deposited a deep, rich soil. In the southern states the soil has been made very largely from the decay of the limestone underneath. Plants, like animals, have a choice of food ; some PLANTS . . , ,.,. f , , ' requmng large quantities ot one substance and some of another. Wheat requires more nitrogen than oats, and bailey more potash than wheat. It is probably safe to say that no two kinds of plants take the same food in the same proportions. Some plants require much more moisture than others. Rice will succeed only where the ground can be covered with water after planting. The cactus will thrive on the dry plains of Arizona and New Mexico, where rain seldom falls ; while wheat, oats, and all the common farm plants require a medium amount of moisture. Corn thrives with less moisture than wheat or oats. The soil of lowlands usually contains more water than that of the highlands ; therefore, some crops are better adapted to the hills and others to the valleys. Farmers take this into account in selecting ground for their different crops. Some plants have much greater power Adaptation of Plants ^j^^^ ^^j^^^^ ^^ adapting themselves to different soils and localities. Rice can be successfully grown in the United States only on the lowlands of Louisiana, Texas, and the Carolinas, while wheat thrives from the Ohio River to 16 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY Hudson Bay. The sugar-maple grows to gigantic proportions among the granite hills of New England, but cannot live on the prairies of Illinois; while the willow thrives equally well in both localities. Many other similar illustrations can easily be found. . These peculiarities of plants and soils, combined Plant Regions ^^j^ temperature, produce many well defined regions in which certain plants thrive better than others. Fanners take advantage of this fact, and raise the largest crops of those plants which thrive best in their locality. Wheat is the principal crop in Minnesota and the Dakotas; corn in Illinois and Iowa; cot- ton in Georgia and South Carolina, and the chief crops of Cuba are tobacco and sugar cane. It is owing to these conditions that different agricultural regions are designated as wheat belts, com belts, cotton belts, and so on. A careful study of plants and soils teaches us that the industry of every locality is largely dependent upon the nature of its, soil, its temperature, its rainfall, and the adaptation of certain crops to these conditions. Providing mankind with food, clothing, and shelter consti- tutes the bulk of the world's business. The soil is the great storehouse from which most of the material for this provision is obtained, and for the purpose of fashioning this material into useful products machines are invented, factories are built, and men and women engage in toil. QUESTIONS. Are any farms in your locality more productive than others? How do you account for their being so? How can you tell clay soil from sandy soU? Why win some plants thrive on a hillside and not on low land? Why do others die when taken from comparatively dry to wet soil? Explain the relation of rainfall, temperature, and soil to the leading crops raised in the locahty in which you live. Note. — Collect samples of soil from different localities, such as the top of a hill, a valley near a. stream, the roadside, etc., and compare them as to color composition and texture. Try to name each sample. Chapter III. WHY MAN ENGAGES IN TRADE. ,„,,,„ .„^.^„ Uncivilized people have but few wants, PRIMITIVE TRADE , i ^.t. .n. ^u • i, j and supply these with their own hands. This is the condition in which our forefathers found the Indians. It is the condition of numerous tribes in the interior of Africa today. All trade is for the purpose of satisfying man's wants, and just as soon as a person discovers that another has some- thing that he himself does not possess, he attempts to give something of his own in exchange for it. If the second man wants what the first has to offer more than he does the articles in his possession, the exchange is made. In such an exchange, each has gained, for he believes that the article which he now possesses is of more use to him than the one that he gave in exchange for it. As soon as this discovery is made, trade springs up between in- dividuals and tribes. Commerce is so old that we cannot tell when it began. The records and relics of the oldest people about whom we have been able to learn, show that they engaged in commerce. The Indians, when first known to white men, carried on a rude commerce be- tween tribes situated some distance from each other, and as soon as these people and the Europeans became acquainted, they engaged in trade, showing that the red men knew something of the advantage to be gained in an exchange of products. From such small beginnings in the distant past, commerce has continued to increase from century to century, until now it is the greatest single industry in the world. The principal reasons for this growth are: 17 18 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY „__(. As soon as the average person learns of some- mcrnvcuTir*! ^^^^S "®^ h® wants it. When the Indians DISCOVERIES jg^^jjgj ^f ^jjg g^ggl ^.Qojg of ^^^ ^^ite men and saw what could be accomplished by their use, they were exceed- ingly anxious to supply themselves with these tools, and were willing to give, in exchange for them, furs that, to the French and English traders, were worth many times the value of the imple- ments. As these traders became acquainted with the character and wants of the Indians, they introduced other articles, and in this way built up a fur trade, which has continued even to the present day. This trade gave rise to great corporations, the chief of which was the Hudson Bay Company, one of the most powerful organizations that has ever existed in America. The fur trade also has made men wealthy, and led to the exploration, by white men, of that vast interior of the continent which now comprises the greater part of Canada and the United States. The introduction of American products into Europe was equally advantageous. New plants, such as the potato, tobacco, and cinchona, were early introduced into England and other countries of the old world. Their use soon became so general as to lead to great industries in the English colonies. The tobacco trade was the foundation of Virginia's prosperity, and the first step which led to the introduction of slavery into the United States. These are only a few instances which illustrate how each new discovery and each new invention has created new wants, and that the desire to satisfy these wants has led to the exchange of products. DIVISION -A^niong savage nations, partially civilized people, OF LABOR ^°*^ ^^^^ civilized people settling in a new coun- try, each family supplies nearly all its own wants. This makes it necessary for each one to engage in a variety of occupations. As a result, no one becomes skilful in any occupa- COMMERCE AND FNOCSTRY 19 tion. This was the case with the early settlers of New England. The men of the family tilled the land, made and repaired the farm implements, harvested and threshed the grain, and often ground it into flour in a rude mill of their own construction. The women of the household, in addition to caring for the house, spun the yarn, wove the cloth, and made the garments for the family. Every farmer had to keep on hand numerous topis that were only used occasionally, and every house contained a spinning-wheel and loom. Under these conditions, but little progress was made, since, from year to year, it was all that each family could do to supply its members with the necessaries of life. As communities became established, people learned that it was more economical for some to do one thing continually and others another. Some men in the old New England settlements soon showed greater skill than others in the making and repairing of farmers' implements, and farmers soon learned that it was better to engage such men to do this work and pay them in the produce of their farms, than it was to do the work themselves. They had better implements, and secured them at less expense. More- over, if they did not have to repair their own tools and imple- ments, they could dispense with a great many tools that before were necessary. This is a good illustration of how occupations arise in anj- community. Each occupation supplies some want, and if that want contributes to the welfare and true happiness of the people, it helps all other occupations. This is what we mean by division of labor. Under such a plan of work, each member of a com- munity engages in the occupation for which he is best fitted. Each workman becomes skilful in his work because he gives his entire attention to it. He can also produce more than he could if he were to engage in several occupations. Hence we have carpenters, blacksmiths, merchants, farmers and those engaged in numerous 20 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY other occupations. Of course all tradesmen supply their wants by an exchange of products. Look about you and see how many different occupations there are in your vicinity, and then try to find a good reason for each. By aptitude, we mean natural ability or inclination APTITUDE ^^ ^^ anything. As already stated, we find that some people like to do one thing better, and some another. Each naturally desires to follow the occupation that he likes. One wants to be a mechanic, another a farmer, and another a musician. Others want to be artists, and still others professional men, and so on. But each of these will try to find the opportunity to do what he likes, and out of these desires a variety of occupations arise. This is only another way of saying that we shall have divi- sion of labor within each community, which leads to the exchange of products ; but in this case the division of labor arises more from the desire of the individual than the interests of the community. Some localities are suited to one line of industry and others to another. We cannot raise wheat INDUbTKl£b ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ mountains, nor mine gold and silver on the prairies. It is economical for the inhabitants of mountain- ous regions to give their time to mining, quarrying and lumbering, exchanging their products with the people of the plains ; and it is just as economical for the people of the prairies to exchange their wheat and corn for the gold, silver, stone and lumber of the moun- tains. Each produce more than they could if they attempted to supply all their wants by their own labor. Manufacturing centers are built up on the same plan. In those localities where fuel and water are abundant, goods can be manufactured more cheaply, and usually to better advantage, than in mining or agricultural districts. ,„^,,x„«^^ -A-S men have become acquainted with different INFLUENCE , . , i ^u u f a t countries and peoples, they have lound some oi OF TRAVEL i r- > .7 the products of these lands and nations desirable. COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 21 Most of US would feel that we were deprived of a necessity if we could not get tea, coffee, or spices, and all of these are grown in tropical, or semi-tropical countries. Likewise, the people who raise tea, coffee and spices are glad to exchange them for wheat- flour, cotton goods, machinery, and other articles manufactured in the United States and European countries. „ Means of travel are now so perfect and ADVANCEMENT OF ^ . ^, ^ , . .,. . ^. , extensive, that each civilized nation has become acquainted with the whole world, and each nation is likewise making all parts of the world, whether civilized or uncivilized, acquainted with its industries. Asv^is acquaintance is extended, new articles are discovered and a deSire for them is created, and this leads to a further exchange of products. It has been said that raising the standard of civilization increases man's^ wants, and the extensive commerce carried on by the most enlightened nations would lead one to think this state- i^ent to be true. ^ QUESTIONS. i Why will a hoy trade a knife for a ball, or a pair of skates for a dog? I^d the Indians engage in trade before they became acquainted with the white men ? Why do you think so ? Can^ou think of any discovery or invention that has increased com- merce? H"so, name it. Wlm occupation would you like to follow?' Why? Show how the location of a factory in a town increases the trade. Why has commerce increased so rapidly in the last twenty years? C0NDUCT0B8 OF CARAVANS IN AFRICA Chapter IV. TKANSPORTATION. ..„^^w, ^^^..^...w,-..^.. As we have seen, every locality is UNEQUAL DISTRIBUTION , ^j^ . , ,. /. adapted to some special line oi in- OF COMMODITIES dustry, and each individual has his preference for some particular occupation. These conditions lay the foundations for commerce ; but without the necessary means of transportation trade between individuals or nations would be lim- ited to very narrow restrictions. The third great factor in com- merce, then, is transportation. The unequal distribution of commodities can be overcome only by carrying goods from the locality where thej are produced to those localities where they are consumed. The principal agents in transportation are animals, railways, and water. Among savage tribes all carrying of goods is ANTMAL TRANS- a a j o 6 by human labor, and in many ot them this PORTATION labor is performed by women, a custom which still exists in some portions of Africa and in some other legions far removed from civilization. In most parts of the world, however, beasts of burden have taken the place of men for trans- porting goods. However, there are some places where, because of the nature of the country, only men can be employed"!'] In the interior of Africa, the forests are so dense that paths for the passage of the animals have not been made, and in some portions of that continent, the tsetse fly, whose sting is fatal to horses and cattle, makes it impossible to employ these animals for any purpose. Human labor is also used in the dense thickets of the Amazon and over eome mountain trails where beasts of burden cannot travel. 28 24 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY This is the most expensive means of carrying goods. A man can carry but a few pounds — usually not more than sixty — and his progress is slow. When men are employed, they travel in ELEPHANTS USED FOK PACK ANIMALS, CEYLON large companies, called caravans ; but caravans are employed only when other means of transportation are not practicable. It would seem that animals have been used for carrying goods in all ages. The animal employed depends very much upon the COMI^IEKCB AND INDUSTRY 25 locality and the nature of the work. In the far north we find the esquimau using dogs to haul his sledge, while in Finland and Siberia the reindeer is used for the same purpose. The camel is especially suited to desert countries, because he can travel a long time without food or water. His feet are adapted to the sands and gravel over which he has to travel, and he is not affected by the intense heat ; hence we find the camel in general use in northern Africa, Arabia, and a few other portions of western Asia. In India the elephant has been domesticated, and is often used as a beast of burden. In the mountains of South America we find the llama used to climb the steep and narrow mountain paths, and on the plains of Thibet the yak is employed for a similar purpose. With these exceptions, the horse, the ass, the mule, and the ox, are the beasts of burden of the civilized world. These animals are especially adapted to a temperate climate, and are more generally used than any others. Formerly, all transportation was by means of fastening goods to the animal's back, but later the cart was added, and the animal hauled the load instead of carrying it. The use .of the cart necessitated the construction of roads, and as the vehicle improved in size and style, broader and better roads were required. Country roads are of two kinds, generally known as dirt roads and stone roads. The dirt road is made either by wearing a path over the land by continuous travel, or by plowing and scraping the soil into a rounded form for a roadbed. This is the fcind of road found over most of the United States. Dirt roads are very unsatisfactory ; in dry weather they are laden with dust, and in wet weather the depth of mud makes them almost impas- sable. Stone roads are usually called macadamized roads. They are made by treating the surface with crushed stone, which is rolled down and pressed into the earth by a heavy steel roller. These roads have a hard, even surface which is seldom affected by 26 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY frosts or rain, and remains in good condition for a long term of years. The British Isles and most of the other countries of Europe have roads of this sort. While transportation by animals is much cheaper than that by human labor, it is still very expensive. Good roads tend to lessen the expense to a consid- THE "E(5CKET," THE FIEST SUCCESSFUL LOCOMOTIVE From the photograph ot a model In the Field Columbian Museum, Chicago erable degree, and are of the greatest importance in agricultural districts. RAILROADS "^^^^^^^'^^ ^^® ^^^ outgrowth of the attempt to con- struct good roads, and were first designed for carriages hauled by horses. The first railroads in which we are COMMEECE AND INDUSTRY 27 interested were built in England early in the seventeenth century, for the purpose of hauling coal from the mines. They had wooden rails fastened to wooden sleepers. The first great improvement over this style of road was made by fastening a thin plate of iron to the upper surface of the rail, and in about 1790 iron rails came into use. In 1825, a railway was opened between Stockton and Darlington, England. This road was thirty-seven miles long, and it was the intention of the managers to haul the carriages with horses. In 1829, George Stephenson invented the first successful locomotive. This machine was able to travel at the rate of from sixteen to twenty miles an hour, and to haul a heavy load. Stephenson's invention marks a new era in the history of the world. It changed the method of transportation by land, and made the opening up of new counti-ies a possibility. The first railroad in the United States extended from the granite quarries in Quincy, Mass., to the coast. It was a road having wooden rails with iron straps. The first use of this road was to haul granite for the construction of Bunker Hill monument. In 1830, the Baltimore & Ohio Railway was opened for traffic, and this date also marks the beginning of the use of the locomotive in the United States. Railways are now found in nearly all civilized countries. Notwithstanding the fact that water tran spoliation is cheaper than transportation by rail, all of the countries of Western Europe, as well as the United States, have most of their goods carried over railways. Lines are constructed, not only between the great centers of trade like London and Liverpool, or New York and Boston, but also across vast stretches of country connecting ocean with ocean like the transcontinental lines in the United States and British America, and the Trans-Siberian Railway extending from Moscow to the Pacific coast. Up to the present time nearly all 28 COMMERCE AND IfJDUSTRY great trunk lines of railway run east and west, but the Cape-to- Cairo Railway now in the process of construction through Africa extends north and south. Railway transportation is economical because it is so much quicker than any other, and with many classes of freight, such as fruit, fresh meat, and other perishable material, time is an impor- tant factor. Railways seek centers of trade, and we find numerous lines meeting in all large cities. The present railway is as great an improvement over those first constructed as the original railway was over the dirt road of the coimtry. Forty years ago a good freight locomotive could haul a load of about four hundred tons on a level track, but since the invention of Bessemer steel, locomotives are constructed that can haul from four to five thousand tons more easily than the older ones could one-tenth of that amount. There has also been a great improvement in speed; through-freight trains now travel at a higher rate of speed than did the passenger trains at the close of the Civil War. Electpie Railways ^'^ addition to the steam railway, whose construction requires great expense and is confined to sections of the country over whose- surface the road- way can be graded, we now have the electric railway threading many agricultural communities and making transportation from the country to the town both cheap and easy. The electric rail- way uses lighter cars and motors, and can be operated over grades that are impracticable for steam railways. On this account it has become a very important factor in the transportation of pas- sengers and merchandise. The electric railway in the country is of great benefit to the farmer. It carries his produce to market and leaves him time to produce more — another illustration of the benefits derived from the division of labor. COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 29 m» .»,.»<„«,.. ...... Rivers are our most natural commercial TRANSPORTATION + rpu ^ ^u ^ vn, ^.u Dv n7ATi7D routes. They connect the coast with the UI WAlCiK ... » -I 1 1 ,. n . mtenor of the country, and by following them, communication along their course is made cheap and easy. The great rivers have ever been the natural highways of commerce. Even the uncivilized nations living along their banks always engaged in trade with tribes living farther up or down stream. The great commercial rivers of Europe are the Rhine, Rhone, Elbe, Oder, Vistula, Danube, and Volga, and it is next to impossible to find a time when these streams were not important channels of trade. The old rowboats of the ancients have now given place to those propelled by sail and steam. We find great cities at mouths of these rivers and on their banks. The value of many of them for transportation has been improved by removal of obstructions, such as blasting the rock from Iron Gate in the Danube, and also by deepening their channels through dredging. Streams that have been deepened in this way are often called canalized rivers. European countries, especially Russia, France, Germany, and Austria-Hungary, have developed many of their rivers into valuable waterways and connected them by systems of canals. In India the Ganges, in China the Yangtse, and other rivers are equally important for those countries; the Amazon, La Plata and their tributaries admit large boats for more than a thousand miles from the coast, while the St. Lawrence and Mississippi systems connect the vast interior of North America Avith the sea. Canals are constructed either to enable boats to pass GaurIs • around an obstruction, like falls or rapids in a nver, or for the purpose of shortening distances between points. The Welland Canal in Ontario is a good illustr tion of those constructed for the first purpose. This canal overcomes the difficulty presented b/ Niagara Falls, while the Kiel, or Kaiser Wilhelm Canal, con- 30 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY necting the Baltic and North Seas, is a good illustration of the second. The Suez Canal, the most important ship canal at the time of its completion, is 100 miles long, 400 feet wide at its surface, and 31 feet deep. Its construction completely changed the ocean routes between Europe and the East. By passing through the Suez Canal and the Red Sea, ships from European ports save over 4000, miles in going to Calcutta or ports in China and Japan. The Panama Canal, opened to traffic in August, 1914, is the most important ocean canal in the world. It has shortened the distance by water between New York and San Francisco 7800 miles and the distance between that port and the ports on the western coast of South America 4000 and 5000 miles. It has also cut 5000 miles from the distance between Liverpool and the Pacific ports of South America. Many ocean routes formerly passing through the Strait of Magellan now lead to the Panama Canal. Other important canals saving distances are the Caledonia, extending across the southern part of Scotland, and the Corinth Canal, crossing the peninsula of Greece. Numerous canals exist in the United States and European countries for the purpose of connecting lakes with rivers, or connecting rivers with each other. Ocean Routes "^^^ ^^^ ^ *^^ highway of nations. Upon it most of our international commerce is carried, and established ocean routes between all important countries and seaports have been in existence for centuries. Formerly, sailing vessels alone were used, but even before the application of steam power to the hauling of merchandise over the land, this power was applied to navigation. Of almost equal importance to the invention of the locomotive by Stephenson, was the invention of the steamboat by Robert Fulton, in 1807. The first steamboat crossed the Atlantic in 1819, and the trip required twenty-two days. The first ocean steamers were propelled by paddle-wheels, and were smaller than COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 31 many boats now found upon large lakes. They were slow and could carry only small cargoes. The first great improvement in ocean steamers was the intro- duction of the screw-propeller in place of the paddle-wheel. With this change of motor came the change in plan which has given us the ocean liners noted for their size, speed and safety. Some of the largest of these ships are more than 900 feet in length, and the swiftest of them can make the trip from New York to Liver- pool in less than five days, while the average freight steamers require about nine days. Some of these ships can carry a cargo of 40,000 tons, and as the result of the perfection in machinery and the increase in the size, expense of carrying freight has been greatly reduced. It is now possible to carry wheat from Dakota to Liverpool at a price not exceeding 21 cents per bushel, and the rates are proportionately low for other distances. At the outbreak of the European War in 1914, the merchant marine of the United States included about 26,000 viessels of all classes, and that of the British Empire about 40,000. France ranked third and Germany fourth in number of ships among the great commercial nations. National governments aid navigation by removing obstruc- tions to the entrances to harbors, constructing piers, building and maintaining lighthouses and buoys to mark dangerous shoals, or to guide vessels through the proper channels when entering or leaving harbors. They also establish rules for the management of ocean-going vessels, when within three miles of shore, so that no one shall trespass upon the rights of another, or place other vessels in danger by running at a high rate of speed in narrow and dan- gerous channels. All large vessels are taken into and out of port by pilots who, having thorough acquaintance with the harbor, are able to guide the ships through the most tortuous channels. Transportation by water is cheaper than by land, because most 32 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY of the waterways are natural, like seas, lakes, and rivers, while roads and railways must be constructed at great expense. Another reason is that the same quantity of freight can be carried oil ships at less actual expense of labor, fuel, and wear of machinery, than by rail. QUESTIONS. Why are not camels and elephants used as beasts of burden in the United States? What sort of wagon roads are found in your country? Can you tell how these roads might be improved? How is money for building and repairing roads obtained? Which would you prefer: a trip by rail or one by boat? Why? Why can electric railways be constructed where steam railways cannot? Of what advantage is the electric railway to those who live in the country? Why are locks placed in canals? How do they operate? Did you ever see any work that had been erected by the government to aid navigation? If so, what was it? 105, by Georg Thorne-ThomBen RELIEF MAP— UNITED STATIM PART TWO. THE UNITED STATES. Chapter I. POSITION, SURFACE AND CLIMATE. POSTTinN '^^^ United States occupies the central portion of North America, extending from the Atlantic Ocean on the east, to the Pacific Ocean on the west, and from the 49th parallel north latitude on the north, to nearly the 25th parallel on the south. Its greatest length from north to south is 1780 miles; its greatest breadth from east to west is 3100 miles, and its area, including Alaska, is 3,564,774 square miles. It is exceeded in area by the British Empire, the Russian Empire, and the Chinese Empire, but it excels each of these in the advantages of its geo- graphical position. PHYSTPAT "^^^ United States is naturally divided into five FEATURES regions: (1) The Atlantic Slope and Coastal Plain; (2) the Appalachian Highlands; (3) the Central Plain and Lake Regions; (4) the Rocky Mountain Pla- teau; (5) the Pacific Slope. Each of these regions contains numerous subdivisions which are distinguished by their character- istics of surface, climate and products. m. A 4.1 4.-„ oi „ In the northern section of this region, The Atlantic Slope .... .. . ■ i. t-^T ■ extendmg from the eastern pomt of Mame to Long Island, the mountains and hills approach near to the coast, the slope is steep, and the surface is very uneven and rocky. The soil is hard to till, but in many sections it is quite fertile while, 33 34 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY in others it is almost barren. The streams are shallow, clear and rapid, affording in many places excellent water power which is used to operate the numerous factories in this locality. Only a few of the streams are navigable, and these for but a short distance. That portion of the Atlantic Slope extending from Long Island southward is frequently called the Coastal Plain. The hills and mountains here are farther inland, and the slope to the shore- line is gradual, terminating in a plain which in some places is nearly level. This plain is narrowest at the north, and gradually broadens until it reaches its greatest width in North Carolina oppo- site Cape Hatteras. That portion of the plain next to the shore-line is low, level, and sandy, and the surface is po(jrly drained. This strip is about fifty miles wide, and rises inland from two to three feet to the mile. Adjoining this is a more fertile strip, whose slope is more rapid and drainage good. Large quantities of cotton are raised on this higher strip. Still farther inland, varying from fifty to one hundred miles, lie the low hilly uplands largely covered with forests of yellow pine. The cleared lands in this strip also raise excellent cotton and other crops. The lower plain contains exten- sive swamps and numerous lagoons. Here the rivers are sluggish, and many of them are navigable for steamers. At the point where the rivers descend from the higher to the lower plain, called the fall-line, good water power is afforded. Along this line, on most of the rivers, we find numerous ma.iufacturing towns. Some of these, notably Philadelphia, Trenton, Richmond, Raleigh, and Augusta, have become important cities. At the mouths of some of these rivers, seaports are located. These make commercial connection with the outer world, while at the fall-line there is usually an industrial and commercial center for each locality. VVhen, as in the case of Philadelphia, this center serves both pur- poses, it becomes a large city. COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 35 The Atlantic coast line is very irregular. In the north the highlands approach quite close to the shore, and the slopes are steep, giving to the shore waters sufficient depth to float the largest ships. The coast of Maine is dissected by numerous drowned valleys, and some of these, as Penobscot, Sheepscot and Casco Bays, form excellent harbors, and Portsmouth, N. H., is sittiated on a similar harbor. South of Cape Cod, we find the deeper indentations — Long Island Sound and New York Bay, Delaware Bay and Chesapeake Bay, on each of which are import- ant seaports. South of Chesapeake Bay, the shore line is more even, the slope gentler and the oifshoro waters are more shallow. In many places are sunken reefs that make navigation dangerous. On account of these conditions there are very few good harbors along this division of the coast. This region occupies a long, narrow Appalachian Higrhlands ^^rip of country, beginning with the Laurentian Highlands and extending almost to the Gulf of Mexico. It consists of parallel ranges of low mountains, separated by narrow valleys, through which flow rapid streams. From north to south, these highlands are naturally divided into three sections: the northern, including the mountains of Maine, the White Mountains in New Hampshire, the Green Mountains in Vermont and Massachusetts, and the Adirondacks and Catskills in New York. The ranges in this section are more broken than in the other. In the past ages, glaciers rounded and smoothed some of the summits and denuded them of their soil, and, in some instances, so cut their way across the ranges as to form cross valleys that leave here and there solitary peaks. The Hudson is the only large river in this section that has cut its way to the sea through the ranges. The middle section comprises the ranges extending from the southern part of Jfe^ York to the Cumberland Gap. The princi- 36 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY pal ranges of this section are the Blue Ridge, the Shenandoah, and the Alleghanies. These ranges are more nearly parallel than those of the northern section, and through them the Delaware, the Sus- quehanna, and the Potomac cut their way to the sea. The southern section extends from the middle section across Tennessee and North Carolina into Georgia and Alabama, the principal ranges being the Blue Ridge, Great Smoky, and Cum- berland. The division between the middle and southern sections is not distinctly marked, and the Potomac could be taken for the dividing line with equal propriety. The Appalachians reach their greatest altitude in the southern section, and here the ranges are almost uniformly parallel. In each section, the valleys, through which the larger rivers reach the sea, form the natural gateways to the vast interior of the country, and it was through these that the earliest emigration proceeded westward. Later, traffic that arose from this emigra- tion gave the towns, located on the lower course of the rivers, advantages which have made them great commercial centers. Originally, the Appalachian Highlands were covered with forests, but in the north most of the valuable timber has been cut, though in Maine lumbering is still quite an important indus- try. In the south the forests remain, and in North Carolina and Georgia lumbering and the manufacture of tar and turpentine give employment to a large number of people. Li the middle section, numerous transverse valleys divide the hi^lands into distinct plateaus. Some of l^ese valleys are so narrow as to resemble canyons, and streams flow through them all. Along the borders of these streams the soil is deep and fertile, and here we find many small but successful farms. The soil of the uplands, while admissible of cultivation, is not as fertile as that lot the valleys. The mineral resources of this region are almost boundless. COMMERCE AND INDUSTRV §? Granite, limestone, slate and marble are found in the northern division; slate, coal, petroleum, and iron in the middle; and marble, coal, and iron in the southern division. The development of these resources in Pennsylvania has been the chief cause of that state's prosperity, and the proximity of coal and iron to Pittsburgh has made that city the greatest iron manufacturing center in the world. . The Central Plain is naturally divided into three regions: the Prairie Region, the Lake Region, and the Great Plains. The prairie region ejctends from the western slope of Appala- chian Highlands to the eastern border of the Great Plain, and from the Great Lakes and the Canadian boundary to the Gulf of Mexico, and embraces all of the most fertile portion of the great Mississippi basin. The western slope of the Appalachian High- lands gradually merges into the rolling prairies of Ohio, which, in turn, blend with the great level prairies of Indiana, Illinois, and other states bordering on the Mississippi. Save where it is broken by the Ozark Mountains, this vast region is practically treeless and level or slightly rolling. It is free from stones, and has a deep and fertile soil. With their excellent climate and abundant rain- fall, the prairies are adapted to raising large crops, and they form the most important agricultural region of the world. It now sus- tains a population of over thirty millions, and besides, exports a large proportion of its products of com, wheat, beef, and pork to other parts of the Union, and to several of the countries of Europe. The oil fields of the Appalachian Highlands extend through Ohio, and cover portions of Indiana and Illinois. Considerable natural gas is also found in the same localities. Extensive beds of bituminous coal underlie Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, affording sufficient fuel to supply the entire country for centuries. The rivers all flow into the Ohio, Mississippi, or Missouri. Most of these tributaries are small and shallow, and have only a 38 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY modei-ate current. Soon after the country was settled, canals were constructed connecting Lake Erie with the Ohio, and Lake Michigan with the Illinois River, but the numerous railway lines have now taken the place of these canals, and they are but little used. The most important cities and towns are on the banks of the rivers or where a number of railways meet Some of these railway centers, like Indianapolis, Springfield and Topeka, are prairie towns. Chicago'is a combined lakeport and railway center. The basin of the Great Lakes touches the prairie region on the north, and blends with it so gradually that it is difficult to find the dividins: line. Thence it extends northward into Canada. The land bordering on the lakes and between them is more rolling than the prairies, and the northern portion was originally covered with dense forests. The lumber in many places has been cut off, but sufliciently large tracts of woodland still remain to admit of a thriving lumber trade in northern portions of Michigan and Wis- consin. The even climate of this region, resulting from the presence of such large bodies of water, makes Michigan an excel- lent fruit-growing state, and large crops of peaches, apples and small fruits are produced. Wisconsin is valuable for the growth of cereals and livestock, and also for its dairy products. The mineral resources of upper Michigan, and that portion of Minnesota bordering on Lake Superior, make this region one of the greatest copper and iron-ore producing sections of the world. The lake traffic is extensive, and many of the towns that were first started at convenient shipping points have grown into important cities that are now manufacturing as well as distributing centers ; but their influence is of such importance as to deserve special notice in another chapter. These include the western piedmont region, or Great Plains foothills of the Rocky Mountains. They slope from the mountains as great rolling lands extending to about COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 39 the 100th meridian, where there is a fall-line similar to that on the Atlantic Slope of the Appalachians, but it is not as distinctly marked. Northward the region extends far beyond the boundary of Canada, and southward as far as the Plains of Texas. The rivers have formed many bluff-like valleys, as they have cut their way down the slope to join the Mississippi or its tributaries. The rainfall is not sufficient to admit of raising crops, and tilling the soil is confined to the land bordering the streams and to those sections where irrigation can be practised. Most of this region is given over to grazing, and the raising of livestock is its principal industry. From here thousands of cattle are shipped annually to the stockyards in Omaha, St. Louis, Kansas City and Chicago. The Great Plains terminate on the Roeky Mountain Plateau ^^^^ -^ ^ p^^^^^^ ^^^.^^ ^„ ^^^^^^^ elevation of 5000 feet. Upon this as a foundation rise the numerous ranges that constitute the Rocky Mountains. Most of these ranges extend from tho northwest to the southeast. The plateau from which they rise attains its greatest breadth on the line that forms the boundary between Colorado and Wyoming, and its western slope is much more rapid than the eastern. A number of other mountain ranges extend across this plateau from east to west, and divide it into well defined regions ; the Columbian Plateau, the Colorado Plateau and the Great Basin. The Columbian Plateau includes most of Idaho, Washington and Oregon. With the exception of the eastern portion the region is well watered, and in some localities on the western slope of the Coast Range the rainfall exceeds sixty inches. Here the mountains are clothed with heavy forests, and over nearly the entire region the valleys contain fertile soil and afford excellent opportunities for agriculture. The Colorado Plateau includes a small corner of Nevada, most of Colorado, a portion of Utah, Arizona, New Mexico and South- 40 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY era California. The entire region is arid or semi-arid. It con- tains many lofty peaks, deep gorges, and rapid streams fed by melting snows. In portions of Arizona and New Mexico irrigation is practised and abundant crops are raised on small areas. The soil is fertile, and, with sufficient rainfall, this plateau would become one of the most productive regions of the country. The mountains abound in ore, and mining is an important industry of the region. The Colorado is the only river that has broken through the barriers of this basin to reach the ocean. Along its course are found those wonderful canyons which form some of the grandest scenery in the world. South of the Columbian Plateau and west of the Colorado Plateau is an extensive region known as the Great Basin, because its rivers nowhere drain out to the ocean. The Basin is a high plateau surroimded by mountains, and having a rough, uneven sur- face. It includes nearly all of Nevada and Utah, and a portion of Oregon and California. The Great Salt Lake fills a depression in its northeast corner, and near the head of the Gulf of California is Death Valley, also called Imperial Valley, a remarkable depression which drops 300 feet below the level of the sea. The great altitude of the Rocky Mountain region gives it a cool climate throughout the year, but the rainfall is not sufficient for agricultural purposes. In most of the valleys the soil is fertile, and where irrigation can be practised bountiful crops are raised, as in Utah, some portions of Colorado, and the southern part of California. Several valleys contain pine forests and the surface of the open land is covered with a heavy growth of grass. These are good grazing regions, and, were markets accessible, might also be used for raising crops. Some of these valleys, like the Yellow- stone and the Yosemite, have been reserved as national parks. There are also a number of transverse valleys, or mountain passes, through which the transcontinental railroads have found their way COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 41 to the Pacific coast. With the exception of the Canadian Pacific and the Grand Trunk Pacific, these lines are within the United States. The great wealth of this highland region lies in its mineral resources, of which gold, silver, and copper are the most import- ant. Since 1880, the gold and silver taken from these regions have amounted to more than $4,000,000,000, and the average annual output still exceeds $130,000,000. The location of the best of these mines has caused towns to spring up in their vicinity, some of which, like Leadville and Virginia City, for the time, be- came important industrial centers. Coal measures also extend along the eastern border of the Rocky Mountains, but they are still awaiting development. At no distant future, however, they will be the means of locating, in this region, numerous iron and steel mills and other industries. Th P -fi Qi West of the Rocky Mountains, and sepa- rated from them by the Columbian Plateau and the Great Basin, we find the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Mountains^ — two of the loftiest ranges on the continent. Many of their peaks attain an altitude of 12,000 to 15,000 feet, and are covered with snow throughout the year. Between these mountains and the sea are the parallel Coast Ranges. The intervening valleys constitute some of the most fertile farming country in the world. The most important of these are the Sacramento and the San Joaquin basins, which extend into the southern part of California; others extend northward into Oregon. Several streams have cut their way through these coast ranges to the Pacific, the most im- portant being the Columbia. The western slope of these moimtains is well watered, except in the south, and their sides are heavily timbered from far in the north to the dry region of southern California. In Oregon and Washington a thriving lumber business is carried on in the moun- tain regions, while the fertile soil of the valleys produces abundant COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 43 crbps of wheat, oats, corn and fruit. The valleys of California, in the northern and central portions of the state, grow excellent certeals and deciduous fruits ; while the southern portion has become the most important fruit region of the country. Most of the farms in Southern California are watered by irrigation. It was in one of these valleys in Central California that gold was discovered in 1848, and this discovery caused such a flood of immigration that California became a state in 1850, some years before the vast territory between the Mississippi and the Eocky Mountains was even open to settlement. Since the discovery of gold within her borders, California has been one of the leading gold-producing regions of the world. The Pacific coast line is much more regular than the Atlantic. San Francisco Bay and Puget Sound are the best harbors. On the first we find San Francisco, which is the commercial and finan- cial center of the Pacific States, while Seattle, Tacoma, and Port- land are important ports on the Sound and the Columbia River. San Pedro, in the southern part of California, is in the midst of tl^e fruit region, and is the seaport for Los Angeles. San Fran- cisco and the more northern ports have lines of steamers plying between them and the Hawaiian Islands, Australia, the Philippines and the leading ports of China and Japan. Steamers also ply between San Francisco and other Pacific ports of the United States and South America. The latitude of the United States is such as to give ^ the country a climate ranging in temperature from semi-tropical in the extreme south to cool temperate in the north. East of the Eocky Mountain Highlands the temperature is afi"ected but little by the altitude of the country, the low ranges of the Appalachian Mountains having only a local influence. The direc- tion of the mountain ranges allows north and south winds alternately to sweep over the vast interior, which subjects this l~ mm IThti. ^ ^ til 1 llik. .jilit ^ •■! ii^^ ID i" mf'f^ ,j~^i. ' ''' i li liiiii^ ce "j1 p^ T^Jfi^^ j^-yj>j>^ COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 45 region to sudden and sometimes extreme changes in temperature during the spring and autumn months. In the northern half of the country the winters are cold and the summers hot. The great altitude of the Rocky Mountain Plateau gives to the entire western highland region a cooler climate than it would otherwise have. The Pacific Slope is influenced by the warm winds blowing over the Pacific, and has a warmer climate than places of corresponding latitude on the Atlantic coast. This region also difi'ers from other portions of the country in having only two seasons, rainy and dry. The eastern half of the country has, without excep- tion, an annual rainfall of more than twenty inches, and the precipitation is quite evenly distributed throughout the year. Both of these conditions are of great advantage to agricul- ture. A glance at the map shows that the Appalachian Highlands and Coastal Plain receive an average of from fifty to sixty inches of rain, while two small areas, one on the Gulf of Mexico and the other in the mountainous regions of North Carolina and Tennessee, have more than sixty inches. The 100th meridian separates that portion of the Mississippi basin, which is suitable for agriculture, from the western portion which, on account of the lack of rainfall, is suitable for grazing only. A few narrow valleys among the Rocky Mountains receive a good supply of rain, but most of this region is dry because the altitude of the Sierra Nevada and Cas- cade Ranges is such that air currents on the eastern slope ai"e given a downward direction and are constantly growing warmer and having their capacity for moisture increased by dry winds blowing inland. The western slopes of these mountains and the intervening valleys ai"e well watered because the incoming winds from the ocean are forced to rise over the mountains, and, being cooled, they precipitate their moisture, consequently, a section along the coast in Washington, Oregon, and Northern California 46 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY receives more than sixty inches of rain annually. In general, the rainfall on the Pacific coast diminishes from Washington south- ward, and the southern part of California falls within the arid region. Here intensive farming is successfully followed by means of irrigation. This diversity of surface, soil, temperature, and rainfall, divides the United States naturally into well defined industrial regions, and the leading occupations in each have been determined by geographical conditions. QUESTIONS. What advantages do the United States derive from their geographi- cal position? Are any other countries similarly situated? How do you account for the numerous good harbors on the Atlantic coast ? What is the fall-line? Account for its location. What portions of the Appalachian Highlands are best suited to agriculture ? Why ? Over what routes did the people who first settled Ohio, Kentucky and Tennessee cross the mountains ? What are the boundaries of the prairie region in the United States? Why is this region so well adapted to agriculture ? Why are not the Great Plains as well suited to agriculture as the prairies ? Describe the chmate of the Eocky Mountain region. How do you account for it? How do you account for the heavy rainfall in some portions of Wash- ington, Oregon and in the northern part of California ? Chapter II. WHEAT. "Wheat is one of the most valuable cereals and has been knbWfi from the earliest history. It was' extensively cultivated by the Ancient Egyptians, and China knew it and used it more than 2000 years B. C. It also constituted an important article of food of other nations of antiquity. From that time to the present, wheat has been the principal food for civilized peoples. Its origin is not known, but its home is supposed to have been somewhere in Western Asia. Wheat is adapted to a great variety of soils and THE WHEAT ,. , , , ,, ■ ... •, % .. climates, but thrives best in a sou lormed trom PLANT the decomposition of different kinds of rock that have been thoroughly pulverized and contain a good amount of humus, or vegetable mold. Such soil is usually found in river basins, the beds of old lakes, and occasionally on the lower slopes in hilly regions. The plant requires a medium amount of rainfall, and the great wheat-growing regions are those that have from twenty to forty inches of rain annually, about thirty inches secur- ing the best results, provided the rain falls so as to supply the crop with water during the growing season. The plant should also secure its growth during cool weather either in early spring or late fall. Wherever these conditions of soil, rainfall and temperature exist, wheat can be successfully grown. These conditions are so varied over the wide range in which the plant is cultivated that a great many varieties have been produced, but these can all be grouped under two classes, winter wheat and spring wheat. 47 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 49 nri J. «»i- J. Winter wheat is so called because it is sown Winter Wheat • , , ^ , ■ • ^i. j in the autumn and remains m the ground until the next season. The time for sowing ranges from early in September to late in October, according to the locality and climatic conditions. In the warm portions of the wheat regions it is sown earlier than in the cooler portions. Winter wheat gets a good start in the fall months and matures in June or early in July of the following season. It is well suited to those localities that have a dry hot summer, as the conditions of climate necessary to its successful growth and maturity are met by sowing in the fall. Winter wheat is generally sown in the warm portions of the wheat belt, both in the United States and other countries. It jdelds well, and makes a good grade of flour. Spring wheat matures in less time than winter ^ ° wheat, and can be sown in the spring and har- vested in the following July or August, except in the coolest por- tions of the spring wheat belt, where it does not reach maturity imtil the first of September, It is sown as early in the spring as the groimd can be worked, and attains most of its growth during the hottest part of the season, maturing during the later summer months. There are numerous varieties of spring wheat, such as the red and the white, and the small berry and the large berry. In general, it furnishes a harder berry than winter wheat, and makes a flour of better quality. -This wheat is adapted to the cool tem- perate regions, and can be grown successfully as far north as Hudson's Bay, At the outbreak of the European War in 1914, rOTTNTRIES ^^® leading wheat-producing countries of the world were the United States, Russia, British India, Canada, Argentina, Austria-Hungary, Germany and Roumania. Russia, Canada, and Roumania are the only foreign coimtries that raise more than enough for their own consumption. COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 51 British India Bussia Each of these is an exporting country. Since the opening of the wheat fields in Siberia, Russia has become the fu-st nation in the production of wheat. THE UNITED ^^^^ culture in the United States began with STATES ^^^ earliest colonization. This cereal early became the staple of the New England and Southern colonists, and it was successfully grown by the PYench in the Mississippi valley many years before the war which gave that region to the English. Wheat culture in this country has always followed the tide of immigration, until now the grain is raised in forty-three states and territories. In twenty-five of these winter wheat is grown, and in nineteen spring wheat, while some pro- duce both varieties. The condi- tions favorable to the production of wheat in the United States '^^'^^'^ are found in the entire basin of the Red River of the North; the upper portion of the Mississippi basin as far south as the Des Moines River in Iowa, the Illinois River in Illinois, the flood plains of the Arkansas, and rivers of Kansas and Oklahoma; in Indiana as far south as the Wabash; all along the Lake Erie slope of Ohio and New York, and in the Columbian Plateau and Sacramento basin on the Pacific coast. The Spring Wheat Belt ^^^ ^^'"^ «* *^^ ^^^ ^^^^'' ^"*^ *^^* portion of the Mississippi basin as far south as the Des Moines, constitute the spring wheat region. Here the winter is long, the spring late, and the summer short. Wheat planted in the spring has opportunity to attain its growth before the hotter weather sets in. The period in which it ripens is usually free from rain, which assures the gradual maturing that secux^s the excellent grade of wheat for which the region is noted. United States 52 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY The Red River Basin The most important wheat region of the United States, and of the world, is in the basin of the Red River of the North and extending into Canada. Here are found the most extensive wheat farms in the world and here is raised the best quality of spring wheat. 1 . m i^^^^m^^iHHHHmHH ^'^'#^ W ' WHEAT HEADER AKD THEASHER These farms are managed in the most systematic manner possible and the greatest care is taken to avoid waste of both labor and material. Formerly horses or mules were used for plowing, but on many of the larger farms gasoline traction engines have taken their place, and plows turning from ten to twenty-five furrows at a time are used. These engines are also used for harvesting. The plowing is done in the fall, and the seed is sown as early in the spring as the thawing of the ground will permit. This work is done by seed- ers which plant the seed and cover it at the same time. Harvesting COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 53 takes place from the middle of August to the tenth of September, according to locality. The grain is cut and bound by self-binding harvesters. As harvesting must be accomplished within a short time after the grain is ripe, and a harvester can harvest only about ten acres a day, each farm requires a number of these machines. The modem harvesters carry the sheaves until a number arie col- lected, when they are dropped. Workmen follow the binders and stand the bundles in groups called stocks, or shocks, so that they will dry as soon as possible. In some sections the wheat is stacked before thrashing, but in most cases it goes directly from the stook to the thrasher. As soon as the wheat is dry, it is thrashed. This work is done by steam thrashers which clean the grain, and with but little assistance stack the straw. The machines are driven by twelve- horse power engines, and will thrash from 1200 to 1500 bushels in a day. As the grain comes from the thrasher it is hauled to the granaries, or if sold, to the nearest elevator. Instead of marketing his wheat at the time of thrashing, a farmer may hold it until late in the season. If the price is good, it is to his advantage to market it at once. In either case it is shipped from the local elevator to some of the large wheat centers. The most important of these are Minneapolis, Duluth, Chicago and Buffalo. In these cities are found elevators capable of con- taining from 500,000 to 6,000,000 bushels of grain each. These are used for storing the wheat until it goes to the mills. Some of these large elevators are made of wood, but the later patterns are of steel, tile, or concrete, and are in the shape of huge tanks. Concrete is used in the construction of the elevator shown in illustration facing page 1. The elevator's contain the most ingenious labor- saving devices for the handling of the grain; the labor expended upon it being confined to operating the machinery. This is well illustrated by an elevator at West Superior, Wis, $4 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY This building is 230 feet high, and 135 feet wide, and is built entirely of steel. It cost over two million dollars, and will con- tain more than three million bushels of wheat. The machinery is such that with the labor of a few men, 600 cars of grain can be unloaded in a day. This means the handling of 400,000 bushels. As the wheat leaves the car, it is dropped into the basement where it is caught up by a series of buckets on an endless chain and carried to the top of the building, and put into bins which hold from 7500 to 15,000 bushels. Before being placed in the bins the wheat is weighed so that the exact amount is known. From the bins it is loaded directly into boats for shipment to Buffalo. This includes that portion of Iowa The Winter Wheat Belt ^^^^j^ ^^^^^ j^^^ j^^i^^^ Eiver, and the wheat growing portion of Kansas, Nebraska, Oklahoma, Indiana, Illinois and Ohio. The climatic conditions here are quite different from those in the spring wheat belt. The summers are long and hot, and the winters mild. If wheat were planted in the spring, it would grow during the hot weather of June and July, and the plant would produce a large quantity of straw and very little grain and that of poor quality. Many of the wheat farms of Kansas are large, and in some years that state has even led North Dakota and Minnesota in her production of wheat. Each of the other states also produce several million bushels. In Illinois and Indiana the farms are smaller, and in Ohio the cultivation is on small farms, largely on the plan of intensive farming, which secures a large yield per acre. Considerable wheat is also grown in western New York on the same plan. D •« o ^^ account of the peculiar climatic condi- The Pacific States ^j^^^ ^^ California, Oregon and Washing- ton, this region furnishes a grade of wheat of high quality, but somewhat different from that grown in other portions of the country. Most of this is winter wheat, but on account of the OOMMEBCE AND INDUSTRY 55 dryness of the climate the berry becomes nearly as hard as that of some spring varieties. The harvesting here is somewhat different from that in the valley of the Red River of the North. The grain becomes thoroughly dry before cutting, and in many places the harvester used cuts only enough of the straw to secure all the heads. The thrasher is attached to the harvester, so that the harvesting and thrashing are done at the same time and by the same piece of machinery. One of these machines requires from twenty to twenty-four horses to operate it successfully. The grain from this region is all sacked before shipping, and this has given rise to a thriving industry in the manufacture of gunny sacks. Most of this wheat is ground in the states where it is grown, and the flour is exported to China and Japan. Wheat is transported l)y rail and by water. Transportation ^yj^j^ ^^^ exception of that on the Pacific coast, it is carried in bulk, being run directly from the elevators into the car or ship, as the case may be. The average freight car will contain 675 bushels, and the task of moving a large crop taxes the railways to their utmost capacity. Transportation by water is much cheaper than by rail, consequently, much of the wheat destined for European markets is shipped to Duluth or Chicago, and thence by water to Bufialo where it can be reloaded into canal boats and carried to New York via the Erie Canal and Hudson River. Many of the steamships on the Great Lakes can carry cargoes of more than 250,000 bushels. The wheat berry, or the kernel, as it is commonly FLOUR called, has a somewhat complex structure. If a kernel is carefully split through the middle, and the exposed surface examined by a powerful microscope, we find that the inside of the berry is filled with white granules of almost pure starch. Sur- rounding this is a coating which has a yellowish tint. This coating is nearly all gluten, the most nourishing and valuable part 56 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY of the berry. Outside of the gluten is a covering of bran. This is arranged in five coats, each differing from the other in structure and appearance, but all are made up of wood fiber, wholly worthless FLOUR MILL I S'-A-J=ER -.11 i. Z^rjTV ROLLS @i /Courtesy Washburn-Crosby Co., Minneapolis, Minn.) as an article of food. At the one end of the berry, and within the bran coats, we find the germ, which must be separated from the other parts in order to obtain flour of the best quality. COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 57 MUlin? into flour. The milling of wheat has for its purpose the crush- ing of the berry and converting the starch and gluten When the wheat enters the mill, it is first cleaned, during which process all imperfect kernels and seeds of other DISSECTED WHEAT KERNEL, MAGNIFIED (Courtesy Washbum-Crosby Co.) A Germ B Gluten cells predominate C Starch cells predominate D Interior coat o£ bran E Tester, coloring matter of bran F Endocarp G Epicarp H Epidermis ;>lant3 are removed. The dust is then removed by running the wheat through a series of rapidly revolving brushes, through which is passed a blast of air. In some of the best mills the wheat is 58 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY steamed a short time before grinding. This prevents the bran from breaking into such small particles that, when ground, it can- not be separated from the other parts of the berry. PACKING ROOM IN A LARGE FLOUR MILL The wheat is ground by passing through series of steel rollers, those in each set being closer together than in the one preceding. After being thoroughly ground in this manner, it passes through the separators which remove the bran and the germ. Several grindings and sittings still follow before the flour is perfected. It is then exposed to a blast of air to cool it, when it is ready to be COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 59 Rest of the Woric) packed for shipment. Flour is packed in barrels and sacks. A barrel of flour weighs 196 pounds; the sacks are of half -barrel, quarter-barrel, and eighth-barrel sizes. It usually requires four and a half bushels of wheat to make a barrel of flour. The large milling centers are naturally near or at the large shipping centers, but we find small mills located all over the wheat belt. To these mills many farmers sell their wheat, and from them flour is sent, not only to supply the local trade, but to many distant cities and states, and sometimes to foreign countries. The capacity of these small mills ranges all the way from 100 to 1000 barrels a day. Minneapolis is the greatest milling center of the world. In this city are found single mills capable of producing 15,000 or more barrels of flour in 24 hours, and the full capacity of this milling center is more than 60,000 barrels a day. The United States is the leading wheat-producing '""'^'' country of the world. It now raises one-fifth of the world's supply, and the tendency is to increase rather than to diminish this output. Our position as a wheat country is due, not only to the vast extent of our wheat lands, but to the ingenuity of American inventors in producing, and the intelligence of the American farmers in using, our agri- cultural machinery, without which the cultivation of the great farms would be an impossibility. The only other country that approaches the United States in this respect is Canada, where we find the same thrift, energy, and intelligence as in the United States. Our annual production of wheat is about 1,100,000,000 60 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY bushels. The value in 1915 was $912,887,793. Previous to 1915 the leading countries in this trade were Russia, Argentina, British North America, Africa and France; while the largest purchasers of flour are the United Kingdom, Holland, China, Cuba, and the West Indies. Small quantities also go to Brazil, Japan, and Africa. The average consumption of wheat in the United States is about four and a half bushels for each individual, and it requires about two square feet of land to raise enough wheat to make a loaf of bread weighing a pound. QUESTIONS. What are cereals? Why are they so called? Between what parallels of latitude are the great wheat countries of the world situated? Is wheat raised in your vicinity? If so, is it spring or winter wheat? What inventions have contributed to make the United States the greatest wheat-producing country in the world? i Why is wheat such a valuable article of food? Make a list of all the uses of wheat? Note. — ^The great European war created such a demand for wheat that American speculators bought large quantities to hold in storage for a raise in price. By this movement the price of wheat and flour to the consumer was raised to such a figure as to cause hardship to those with small incomes. In August, 1917, the President, exercising special authority conferred upon him by Congress, fixed the price of Number 1 Northern wheat in Chicago at $2,20 per bushel as the basic price to continue during the war. Chapter III. CORN. In its broadest meaning the word com applies to all cereal grains. The Scotch call oats com; to the Englishman an ear of corn signifies a head of wheat; while in some of the coimtries of Northern Europe, rice and com mean the same thing. But in the United States the word means Indian com, or maize. HISTORY Corn is the cereal of the New World. When America was discovered, the natives were found using various preparations of this grain, and it was from this be- ginning that the use of com was extended until it has reached its present limit. Com was originally a semi-tropical plant, but the rude method of cultivation by the Indians extended its area as far north as New York and the New England States, and now by far the greatest quantity is raised in the temperate regions of the Old and New Worlds. Besides the United States, we find the countries of Southern Europe and India now raising considerable quantities of corn, and its cultivation has been introduced into Argentina and other countries. Com is a tender plant, and at any period of its PT ANT growth it is easily damaged by frosts. The seed cannot be planted until the season is sufficiently far advanced to allow the growing com to escape late frosts, and the region in whicn it is grown must have a late warm autumn, almost without rainfall, otherv/ise the grain will not ripen. Corn thrives best on a rich loam, and most of it is raised on a heavy clay loam composed of finely ground rock from which the plant 61 1 X cu cu 1_ t^ J/^ =3 3 1 ■+-• -+-' =3 =3 -^ o o ■4-' 1— /■ IT) Q> O) = /' •oQ «3 / :z; ^ ^ cr: O O o to CO Q> CD o 1- < as well as our most valuable, industry. The successful raismg of this grain has given the states in the com belt most of their wealth and also led to the establishment, within their borders, of many of the great AN OLD STYLE ELEVATOEJ industries now found there. The farmers of the com belt are invariably prosperous, and most of them have acquired considerable fortunes by their industry. The people of foreign countries have not yet learned the value of com to any great extent, and in order to market the vast crop raised in the country, COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 69 the farmers have to convert a good part of it into beef and pork. The methods described for the marketing and transportation of wheat also apply to corn and need no further description. OTHFR '^^^ other cereals forming important crops in the CEREALS United States are rice, oats, barley, rye and buck- wheat. Rice is grown in the South, especially in Louisiana and Texas. It requires a warm climate and low ground that can be flooded after planting. It constitutes one of the most valuable food plants in the world, and its culture is rapidly increas- ing in Louisiana. Oats grow farther north than com or winter wheat, but thrive well in regions where spring wheat is raised. Barley has about the same range as wheat, and is extensively used in the manufacture of malt liquors. Buckwheat grows rapidly and matures early. It is valuable for fattening hogs, and the flour made from it is an important article of food. QUESTIONS. Of what use was com to the Indians before they became acquainted with the white men? How did the corn which the Indians raised compare in quality and quantity with that now raised in the best portions of the com belt? How can you accoimt for the difiference? Which is the more productive plant, wheat or corn? Which is the more useful? Why is wheat so much more extensively used in Europe than com? Name the most important purposes for which corn is used. What other cereals besides wheat and com constitute important crops in the United States? Chapter IV. LIVE STOCK. The raising of live stock is a valuable and important industry, and extends over nearly the entire agricultural portion of the country. Cattle are raised for beef and dairy products, horses for draft and driving, sheep for wool and mutton, and swine for pork. The important part of this industry naturally centers in those regions where conditions are especially adapted to its success. The principal grazing regions are found in the western portion of the Great Plains, including most of Montana, east of the moun- tains, portions of Wyoming, the Western part of Nebraska, Okla- homa and Texas. The region is semi-arid, having only sufficient rainfall to produce a good growth of grass. The climate is tem- perate, and remarkably well suited to stock raising. Late in the summer the grass dries and may be harvested and stacked like hay in other regions, or left standing for the stock to feed upon during the winter, as they feed upon the green grass in spring and summer. The grazing region is in marked contrast to the rich agricultural region to the east, and to which many of the cattle are sent for fattening before being marketed. Dairying is successful only in those regions where good crops of alfalfa, corn and grass can be grown, since the cows must have plenty of sweet, juicy feed in order to produce an abundance of milk of good quality. The best dairy conditions are found in the northern states bordering on the Missis- sippi. Of these Wisconsin and Iowa take the lead, producing a larger quantity of dairy products than any other states in the Union. They are followed by Minnesota and Illinois. Good dairy farms are 71 72 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY also found in the central part of Nebraska and Kansas, and in the northern portion of Indiana, in Ohio and New York. In the north- em New England States dairy husbandry has replaced the general farming that formerly characterized the agriculture of that region. The United States contains about 22,000,000 milch cows, and makes about 1,622,000,000 pounds of butter, 320,000,000 pounds of cheese and 500,000,000 pounds of condensed milk a year. Most of the butter and cheese marketed are made in factories. The butter factories are usually known as creameries. Each creamery receives the milk from the cows of quite a large re- united states Best ol the World gion, and makes butter on a large scale. The cream is sep- arated from the milk by a machine called the "cream sep- arator. The separator revolves at a very high speed, and since the cream is lighter than the ciTTLB milk, it is brought ta the top and flows out through a tube, while the milk flows from a similar tube below. When in opera- tion, a stream of milk flows into the separator, and streams of cream and skimmed milk flow out. Cheese factories also receive the milk from surrounding dairies, and operate on a large scale. Nevertheless, fully one half of the butter and cheese made in the country is made on small farms and wholly by hand labor. Most of this is consumed where it is made. Jerseys, Holsteins and Ayrshires are the best breeds of cattle for dairy purposes, since their cows yield an abundance of milk of good quality, and the steers are easily fattened for beef. But while these steers make excellent beef, they are small and not as profitable for marketing as those of the larger breeds. United States COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 73 The total value of the dairy products is about $2,768,000,000, which is greater than the value of the wheat, com, and cotton crops combined. About one-third of the dairy products is exported. BEEF I^^'^Ting and raising cattle for beef are two distinct branches of the livestock industry. Nevertheless, some states are noted for their dairy products and their beef. Formerly most of the beef cattle came from Texas and the states bordering on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains, because extensive grazing regions could be secured in these states at a nominal cost. But now that large portions of these grazing regions have been placed under cultivation, the number of beef cattle in them has diminished and more cat- tle are raised in the corn- growing states. The leading states in the production of beef cattle are Texas, Iowa, Hoas Nebraska, Kansas, California, Missouri, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Oklahoma, and Illinois. The Shorthorns, or Durhams, the Herefords, and the Galloways are the best beef breeds. The cattle are pastured on the ranches until they are three years old. Those that become sufficiently fat during the season of that year are shipped in the fall directly to the meat-packing centers. By far the greater part of our beef comes from these sources, but there are left on the ranches each year large numbers of steers that are not in condition for market. Many of these are purchased by farmers in the com belt, who call them feeders. During the winter they are fed on hay and com, then for a short time in the spring they are pastured on good grass, when they are ready for market» Best oi the World United States Best of tha Workt 74 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY PORK "^^^ raising of swine is another important branch of the live stock industry. The United States contains about 68,000,000 of hogs, valued at $571,890,000. They are raised most successfully where the grain upon which they are fattened is the most cheaply produced, con- sequently we find the largest num- ber of hogs in the corn region. TheBerkshires, Poland-China and Jersey Reds or Durocs are the most successful large breeds. The best animals from any of these breeds weigh from 500 to 600 poimds at the end of eighteen months. The Victorias, Essex, and Suffolks are the most common small varieties. They mature early, but seldom exceed 300 pounds. Sheep raising is profitable in dry, moimtainous WOOL ^ regions, where grazing is good, and we find these conditions among the foot-hills bordering the Great Plains, and in numerous valleys of the Rocky Mountains. The leading wool-producing states in the Rocky Mountain region are Wyoming, Montana, New Mexico, Idaho, California, and Utah. Texas, Ohio, Michigan, and New York are the leading states lying outside this region. While large portions of the former grazing regions have been placed under cultivation, the plan of leasing govern- ment lands for grazing purposes, under the supervision of the Bureau of Forestry, admit of large areas still being used for pasturage. There are about 50,000,000 sheep in the country and by far the larger num- ber of them will be found within the grazing regions of the Great Plains and the Rocky Mountains. Sheep are valuable for wool and mutton, but sheep-growing regions are ranked in accordance with the amount of wool they produce. Wherever we find conditions similar to those described COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 75 abovCj we find wool-growing countries. Besides the United States, Australia, New Zealand, and the provinces of Orange Free State and Transvaal of the Union of South Africa produce large quanti- ties of wool and mutton. Wool fiber is composed of small scales overlapping like the scales of a fish. The ease with which these move upon each other makes wool. and wool- South Africa United Kingdom United States Argentina en goods very soft. It also causes the thread to shorten when wet, so that great care. has 3 to be taken when washing woolen fab- rics to keep them from shrinking. Sheep are graded in accordance with the quality of wool they produce, coarse-wooled, medium-wooled, and fine-wooled. Cotswolds and Leicesters are the best coarse-wooled breeds; Southdowns the best medium grade, and the Merinos the best fine-wooled sheep. Southdowns are the best for mutton, and Merinos are the poorest. Large numbers of sheep are slaughtered each year for meat. In 1915 the wool crop of the United States amounted to 296,175,000 pounds, which is about one-sixth of the world's produc- tion. In addition to this amount 260,193,000 pounds were imported. The largest manufactories of woolen goods are in the New England and Eastern States. The great meat-packing centers are located at Chicago, Omaha, Kansas City, St. Joseph, Fort Worth, Cincinnati, Sioux City, and New York. Cattle are trans- ported to these centers in stock cars constructed especially for the purpose. The cars are provided with troughs for feed and water, MARKETING 76 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY anl the trains are run so as to cover the distance in the shortest possible time. At each one o' these centers are stockyards, into which the animals are unloaded immediately upon their arrival, Here they are sold to the packing-houses, and for export. _, ^^ . J „ , . The large slaughtering houses and Slauffhterinff and Paeking , . ^ f ,. i j. •+ ^ ^ rendermg establishments are situ- ated in the midst of the stockyards, and animals destined for slaughter are driven up an inclined viaduct to the top of the build- ing where they are killed. As the carcass of the animal passes from one process to another in the course of its preparation it descends, until finally the dressed sides are sent to the cold storage rooms on the ground floor. The system and despatch attending the work of slaughtering and meat packing are sedom equalled in any other line of industry. In some of the great packing-houses of Chicago, cattle are killed at the rate of eight a minute, which makes 4000 in a day. Within forty-five minutes from the time the animal is killed, the dressed sides of beef are hanging in the cold storage room, and they have passed through the hands of 150 workmen during the process of preparation. Hogs are killed at about the same rate, though the time required for dressing is much less. A single workman kills hogs at the rate of four a minute, and within twelve minutes after the pig is stuck his dressed sides are in the cooling room. Excepting a very small quantity which is sold as fresh meat, the pork is prepared for use before shipping. This preparation con- sists in making it into sausage, bacon, salt pork, and pickled hams. Most of the beef is shipped in sides or quarters, which are trans- ported in refrigerator cars. When exported to foreign countries, it is loaded from the cars into refrigerator ships so that it reaches its destination in as good a condition as though it had been killed at the market where it is offered for sale. In no industry is greater care taken to prevent waste. Every COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 77 part of the animal is worked up into some useful product, which can be exchanged for value. The most important of these by- products are hides and leather, lard, tallow, glue, soap, and fertil- izer. The horns and hoofs are made into combs and buttons, the bristles into brushes, and the hair into felt. The revenue derived from these sources is nearly sufficient to pay the expense of main- BEBF IN A COLD STORAGE ROOM IN A LARGE PACKING HOUSE taining the rendering establishments, and without this it would be impossible to place the beef, pork, and mutton which they produce upon the market at the prices for which these articles are sold. The United States produces more meat than any other ^^^^^ country. In 1916, 7,404,288 cattle, 40,982,800 hogs, and about 12,000,000 sheep were slaughtered under government o o M s o COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 79 inspection, and in addition to these large numbers of animals were slaughtered on farms and in small abattoirs. The value of the recorded output for the year was $266,795,608. Chicago is the largest meat-packing center in the world. The other important centers in the United States, in the order of their output, are Kansas City, Omaha, Saint Joseph, Fort Worth, Sioux City, Indianapolis, Oklahoma City, and Wichita. Owing to the increase of population in the United States and the placing of large areas of grazing land under cultivation, the export of meat products decreased rapidly between 1904 and 1914. In the latter year the European War began to change conditionSr and such large quantities were exported to meet the demands of England, France, and a number of neutral countries, that the prices of all meat products became unusually high. QUESTIONS. What states lead in raising cattle? In raising sheep? Why? How are great cities supplied with fresh milk? '! What localities supply our markets with the largest number of beef cattiei' With the largest number of hogs? What is the reason for this? , For what purposes are sheep valuable? Why are the meat-packing establishments located where they are? Whai are the most important by-products of the packing houses? How is dressed meat shipped to distant cities? To foreign ports ? o in and, from the foot of these, galleries are 109 ---^«r5?-^:— ,tfW :;°31 THE DOUBI^E IJ013T AT THE BUTTE MINES, MONTAUA OUAIMBHCE AND INDUSTRY 111 excavated. The galleries follow the vein of mineral and are often very irregular and winding.. The surrounding rock is kept from caving in by timbers which are put in place as the excavation proceeds. The ore is hoisted to the surface by elevators, operated by hoisting engines, or it is taken out by tram cars. Every mine is provided with ventilating shafts and with pumps for carrying oft' the water that is constantly running down. In many mines among the Rocky Mountains and in the coal regions" of Pennsylvania shafts are sunk to a great depth, and several galleries, called levels, are excavated, one above the other, the ore from all being brought to the surface from the same shaft. The aim, in all cases, is to secure the mineral with the least possible expense consistent with safety to the miners. When the ore, or metal, occurs on the surface, as in case of gold in the sand and gravel on the beach or along the bed of a stream, mining is a very simple process. The gravel is shovelled into a pan, or sluice, and washed. The gold is heavier than the pebbles and sinks to the bottom more quickly. When the wash- ing is in a sluiceway, slats are nailed across the bottom of the sluice every few feet. The water is turned on and the gravel shovelled in at the upper end. As the gold sinks, the slats keep it frofla running down the sluice, and, when the water is shut off, it is picked out. The great iron mines around the upper end of Lake Superior are also surface mines. But these are described on page 123. Towns usually spring up around the mines. Mimngr Towns rpj^^^ compri-se the dwellings of the miners and officers, a few stores, possibly one or two banks and hotels, and one or more places of amusement, with other public buildings. Most of these towns are of a temporary nature, and disappear when the mine becomes exhausted, and the miners remove to another locality. For this reason the buildings are usually plain 112 COMMEBCR AND INDUSTRY board structures of the simplest sort. They may be comfortable and reasonably convenient, but they are not ornamental. The mining industry is closely related to trans- Importanee poitation and manufactures. The carrying of ore, coal and stone constitutes the larger part of the business of those lines of railway which traverse the mining regions, and the prod- uct of the mines constitutes the fuel and raw material necessary to a number of lines of manufacture. In addition to this, the prod- ucts of the mills that work up this raw material are nfecessary to other factories engaged in the production of entirely dif- ferent lines of goods. The lumber of the sawmills enters into the manufacture of furniture, the construction of houses, and the making of many domestic utensils. Iron enters into the construc- tion of all machinery, and without machinery many of the products of the present day would be impossible. The mountainous regions, though rugged and barren on the surface, are valuable, for without the minerals which they contain, much of the business of the world, as now carried on, would be wholly impossible. All minerals can be divided into two great classes — metals and uon-metals. Gold, silver, iron, copper and lead are examples of our most common metals. Coal, marble, granite, sand and salt are examples of non-metals. This class is much larger than the metals, and many substances found in it diflTer widely from each other in appearance and properties. QUESTIONS. Are any important minerals found in your locality ? If so, for what are they used? What is an ore ? "What ores can you tell by their appearance ? "Why are mining towns usually so poorly built ? How many metals can you recognize ? Name them. How many different kinds of rock can you recognize ? "What is the difference between a rock and a metal ? Chapter IX. METALS. »» . ^ . ^^^^,^,^^^r. In general, metals have a bright lustre, are CHARACTERISTICS , °, , ' , a ^. t u *- \-i, >■ hard, and are good conductors oi heat; that is, they heat and cool quickly. They are also good conductors of electricity, and, with the exception of mercury, are solid at ordinary temperatures, but melt when heated to a high temperature. Many metals in their pure state are mere curiosities and only a few of the entire series enter extensively into the world's industries and commerce. The most important of these are gold, silver, copper, zinc, lead, tin, mercury, aluminum, and iron. Metals are found in a pure state scattered through veiiis of rocks, or combined with some substance in the form of rock. Gold and copper are good examples of metals occurring in the pure state in veins. Gold is usually found imbedded in veins of quartz, and copper may be in quartz or other rock. The veins fill crevices in the surrounding rock, which is of an entirely different sort. The veins are very irregular, may be from a few inches to several hundred feet in width, and frequently send off branches in various directions. The rock in the vein and sur- roxmding the metal is usually known as gangue. Ore in the form of rock is more liable to occior in masses. Then the rock is quarried and treated to the process necessary for extracting the metal. Gold has been one of the longest known of the metals. It is widely distributed over the earth, and occurs free, that is, in a pure state. Wherever it occurs it is readily recog- nized by its color, and with few exceptions is easily obtained. The U3 114 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY ancients used gold for the purpose of ornaments, jewels, and utensils in their sacred temples. Then, as now, a high value was placed upon it. p , .. The United States, South Africa, and Australia are the leading gold-producing coimtries of the world. The gold regions of the United States are confined to the Rocky Mountain Highlands, the Pacific Slope, and Alaska, where extensive placer, or surface, mines have been developed in Seward Peninsula and along the Yukon River. The aggregate production of gold in the world is some over $470,000,000 a year. Of this amount, the United States, including Alaska, produces about $101,000,000, or a little less than one-fourth. J, Gold is of great importance in commerce and in the arts. It will not tarnish and cannot be corroded by any sub- stance but a mixture of muriatic and nitric acids, and is the only metal that can be used for some forms of gilding, and in the manu- facture of the finest quality of jewelry and ornamental ware. On account of its steady value, it has become the standard for money in nearly all civilized nations. In the United States 25.8 grains of gold make a dollar, which gives the metal a value of $20,639 a troy oimce. In practice, a small quantity of copper and silver are mixed with the gold to harden it, so as to prevent loss by the wearing away of the coin. Silver has probably been known as long as gold. It is as widely distributed through the earth, and is even more abundant. Unlike gold, however, it is not found in a free state, but occurs combined with one or more substances in the form of ore. Most of the ore is a dark colored rock, in which we find the silver frequently combined with lead and copper, and it is from the reduction of ores of this sort that a large part of the silver produced in the United States is obtained. The processes are very complex, and consist in crushing the ore, washing it. COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 115 treating it with chemicals and smelting. Our annual production is about 73,000,000 ounces. The other leading silver-producing countries are Mexico, Canada, and Australasia. Silver is used to some extent in coinage, but largely in the manufacture of silverware and plate. Several of its compounds are also employed in photography. Gold and silver are considered CONCENTEATOHS IN A GOLD MILL Concentrators are tables having a vibratory motion, and when in nse water Is constantly running over them. They are used with ore containing gold or silver. The ore is crushed very flue, then the worthless parts are separated by running the crushed ore over the concentrator. The parts containing the metal are heavier than the others and settle While the running water washes the rock away. as the commercial metals, for the values of all commodities are measured by them, and for centuries they have constituted the medium of exchange for the world. Copper is one of the" most useful metals in the arts, COPPER and, like gold and silver, was known to the ancients, who used some of its ores in the manufacture of bronze. It was 116 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY with tools of bronze that the Egyptianfe cut and fashioned the stones for their temples and monuments, and the possession of large mines of copper made them the leading commercial nation of their time. While copper is found in all parts of the world, it occurs in large .quantities only in a few localities. The copper regions of the United States are along the south shore of Lake Superior, in and around Butte and Helena, Montana, and in several locMities in Arizona. The mines in the Lake Superior regions are on the small penin- sula known as Keweenaw Point, and are among the most interesting mines in the world. The copper in this region occurs as free metal, and-is fo^nd in veins in rock. It is obtained by crushing the rock, then separating the metal by washing. These mines have been worked continuously since 1847, and some of them now extend over a mile below the surface and are the deepest in the world. The ore in the Montana and A'-izona districts is in the form of a sulphide, from which the copper is obtained by roasting and then smelting. Arizona and Montana are the leading states in the production of copper. The Montana ore is a dark slate-colored rock bearing no resemblance to copper. The ore is crushed to a fineness of powder, then washed in water flowing over vibrating tables, which separates the worthless portions from those containing the copper. The particles containing the metal are heavier than the others and settle, while the lighter and worthless portions are carried away by the water. The crushed ore is then roasted in large fur- naces where it is brought to a red heat. This drives off the sulphur in the form of gas, and the roasted ore when smelted yields the copper. The gas driven off in roasting the ore destroys vegetation and scarcely a green thing can be seen in and about Butte or Ana- conda, where the furnaces are located. The Arizona mines have not yet been fully developed, but they rank first in the United COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 117 States, in the order of production, the Lake Superior mines being third, and Alaska fourth. The United States as a whole produces about one-half of the world's supply of copper, and the mines in the three regions named yield over two-thirds of this quantity. The exports of copper have increased rapidly since 1914, owing to the extraordinary demand for it by England, France, and' Russia for the manufacture of munitions. Copper is combined with zinc in the manufacture of brass, and with zinc and other metals for the making of various kinds of bronze. It is also used in sheets for making boilers, covering roofs, and steathing the hulls of ships, [but by far the most extensive use is in the manufacture of copper wire which is largely employed in the construction and operation of electrical machinery. Zinc occurs in ore commonly known as blende. The 7TNP most valuable mines are located in the vicinity of Joplin, Missouri, and Platteville, Wisconsin. Other mines of some import- ance are found in Illinois, Indiana, and New Jersey. The amount of zinc produced in the country is not large, but in considering our mineral industries, this metal deserves a notice on account of its relation to other metals with which it is combined in so many ways as to make it an important article of commerce. Lead is found more generally in the Rocky Mountain region and in the northwestern part of Illinois, where it occurs in a compound of lead and sulphur. As already stated, much of the lead ore, especially that in the Rocky Mountain region, is combined with silver and copper, so that on reduction the ore often yields the three metals. The most extensive uses of lead are for making lead pipe, and in the manufacture of a compound known as white lead, which forms the basis of our most valuable paints. 118 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY About five-sevenths of the mercury produced MERCURY .^ ^j^g United States comes from California. Mer- cury is about thirteen and a half times heavier than water and at ordinary temperatures is a liquid- These peculiarities make it valuable in the manufacture of thermometers and barometers. It readily dissolves gold, with which it forms an amalgam, and for this reason it is extensively employed in obtaining gold from ores in which the gold occurs in small quantities. It is also used in the manufac- ture of paint known as vermilion, and for silvering mirrors. ATTTiwTNTiiw ■^lu™™^^ is fouud in all clay compounds, and exists in abundance, but as yet we have not been able to extract it from but a few of its ores. The richest of these is the mineral known as bauxite, from which the aluminum is obtained by a powerful electric current. It is only since the con- struction of the large dynamos at Niagara, that the production of aluminum for commercial purposes has been possible, and nearly all the supply for the world is produced by the Pittsburgh Reduc- tion Company, which operates plants at Niagara Falls and Pitts- burgh in the United States, and in England. Aluminum is rapidly coming into use for various purposes. It is now employed in the construction of household utensils; it is taking the place of copper for wire in connection with electric machinery, and is used in place of stone in printing lithographs. IRON AND STEEL. IRON ^^^^ ^ *^^ "^°^^ useful and important of all the metals. It is distinctly the metal of civilization, and its extensive use characterizes the present as the Iron Age. On account' of the difiiculty in extracting iron from its ores, it was not known or used for several centuries after gold, silver, and copper were common. The Romans acquired the art of smelting the ore, and COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 119 it used iron at first for coins, then for tools and weapons. Other nations followed the example of the Romans and improved upon their" methods, and each century has seen the use of iron widely extended. Iron Ope ^^°^ '^ seldom found free in nature, but is extracted •from its ore, which occurs in the form of rock, and is very generally distributed over the earth. Its occurrence in com- mercia;! quantities in or near those localities where fuel is abundant is one of the principal factors in a TJnited SUtes Best ot the World L nation's prosperity. Sometimes water percolating through rock containing iron dissolves a por- tion of the metal, and brings it to the surface, where it is occa- sionally deposited in bogs and marshes. These deposits look like large lumps of rusty iron, IKON AND sTBBr. and are known as bog ore. It was from this ore that iron was first made in the United States. Iron Res'ions '^^^ important iron regions of the United States occur in the Appalachian Highlands, in the : Rocky Mountain Highlands, along the shores of Lake Superior, and in the Ozark Mountains, in Missouri. Of these, the Rocky Moimtain deposits and those in the Ozark Mountains have not yet been developed. The iron industry began in those portions of the country that were first settled, consequently the mines in the Appalachian Highlands have been worked for a long period, and in the northern portion of this region, among the Adirondack Mountains, some have become nearly exhausted. t The' most prolific sources of iron at the present time are in the Lake Superior region where large deposits of red hematite are found in the Mesaba Range in Minnesota and the Gogebic COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 121 Range in Michigan, just south of the lake. In both these regions the ore occurs in the form of decomposed rock or gravel, and is in such a state that it can be loaded on to the cars by the use of steam shovels. One of these shovels will scoop up several tons of ore at a time, and it requires but a few minutes to load the car. This ore is loaded on cars specially constructed for the purpose. These cars are then run upon elevated tracks at the ore docks, where they are unloaded by dumping the ore into chutes. These chutes are of sufficient height to allow the ore to slide from them into the holds of the ships, which transport it to the iron manufacturing centers on Lakes Erie and Michigan. So perfect is the arrangement of all these appliances that a large ship can be loaded with ore in from one to three hours, and smaller ships in less than an hour. The ore is so easily mined, and water transportation is so cheap, that the ore from this region is often delivered at Cleveland, Ohio, or Erie, Pennsylvania, at an expense not exceeding 85 cents per ton. The great iron mills are located where the ore and the fuel required to smelt it can be the most cheaply brought together. These localities are in Western Pennsylvania, Southeastern Ohio, around the southern end of Lake Michigan, and near Birmingham, Alabama; consequently we find Cleveland, Ohio, Erie and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Chicago, Illinois, and Birmingham and Bessemer, Alabama, to be our most important cities in the production of iron and steel. Since it requires about two and one-third tons of coal to smelt a ton of ore, it is much cheaper to transport the ore into the locality where the fuel is obtained, and, in addition to this, the boats which take the ore from the Lake Superior region to the ports on the lower lakes can return laden with coal, so that with the transportation of both commodities the traffic for these lines of steamers is very profitable. Moreover, this method of transporta- 122 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY tion enables the people of the West and the Northwest to obtain their coal at a much lower rate than they could if it were trans- ported all the way from the mines by rail. Much of the coal used in Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, and even in Illinois, is brought by boats to some lake port, and from there shipped to its destination. Stnplf a- ^^°^ °^^ ^^ smelted by crushing the ore and mixing it with the proper proportions of coke and limestone, The limestone does not affect the quality of the iron, but at a high temperature it fuses with the silica in the ore and forms the slag, thus setting the iron free. The smelting is done in .blast furnaces which are from 90 to 100 feet in height, and cylindrical in form. The furnace is charged from the top, and the intense heat required is produced by forcing a blast of hot air through the mass after the coke has been ignited. As the iron melts it settles at the bottom of the furnace, and is drawn off through an opening made for that purpose. The slag is lighter than the iron and is drawn off through another opening above that through which the iron flows. As the charge in the furnace settles more is added at the top and the process is continued for weeks, and often for months, without ceasing. Uses ^^^^ '^^ ^^^^ ^^ three forms: cast iron, wrought iron and steel. When the melted iron comes from the furnace, it is either run into steel molds or into channels in sand; in either case, it is cast into bars known as pig-iron. This is the crudest form of cast iron and is used directly in making articles, such as stoves, and some ordinary utensils where great strength is not required. These articles are cast by simply re-melting the iron and pouring it into the molds. When pig iron is melted in a furnace in which it can be stirred or puddled, the quality of the iron is greatly improved. It loses its brittleness and can be rolled out into bars, or sheets, withoui COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 123 difficulty, and can be bent without breaking. This product is called wrought iron, and is used in the manufacture of rods and' many- articles where toughness and strength are required, though the present method in the manufacture of steel has somewhat restricted its use. A STEEL MILL STEEL Steel is a form of iron which contains a certain amount of carbon. This increases the hardness of the metal and also its strength. Steel is made by three methods. The old method is to pack bars of wrought iron in iron boxes with charcoal and keep them at a red heat for several days. This method is still used in the manufacture of steel of a very fine quality. Bessemer Steel ^°'* "^^^^ P"^°'^' ^°^ ^^^^^ "^^^^ !' used, it is now manufactured by what is known as the Bessemer process, which takes its name from Sir Henry Bessemer, its discoverer. Cast iron contains too much 124 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY carbon, and wrought iron does not contain enough. By the old method of making steel the carbon was burned into the wrought iron. By the Bessemer process it is burned out of the cast iron. FIB CINT PBODUCTION OF IBON OBB, BT ST^TZS; 1909 The Bessemer process of making steel was one of the most valuable discoveries of the nineteenth century. By this process the cost of manufacture was so reduced that steel became avail- able for many purposes for which its expense had hitherto rendered it impracticable. The modem railway, with its ponderous locomo- tives and steel freight and passenger cars, became practicable. The employment of steel in shipbuilding made possible the great ocean liners now used in both freight and passenger traffic, and its use for frames of buildings led to the modem city skyscraper, often ex- tending upward for twenty or more stories. But, notwithstanding the position held by Bessemer steel for the COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 125 first quarter of a century after its discovery, it has been replaced for many piuposes by what is known as open-hearth steel, so called because it is made by removing the impurities from molten iron by spreading it on the bottom or hearth of a furnace and exposing it to a flame of intense heat. pnnnnrTinM ^^^ United States is the leading nation in the world in the production of iron and steel. She is followed by Germany, which in turn, is followed by Great Britain. The iron industry is one of the most important in the country. While a large amount of the product is usfed at home, a great quan- tity of it is also exported to the countries of Europe, Asia, and Africa. These exports are not in the form of iron and steel as they come from the smelting furnace, but in manufactured products such as bridges, rails, and machinery. Minnesota and Michigan lead in the production of iron ore, while Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Illinois, in the order named, lead in the production of manufactured iron and steel. QUESTIONS. What is a vein of ore? Did you ever see a rock with veins in it? How can you tell them? What is placer mining? By what other methods is gold mined? Which is the more useful metal, gold or iron? What reasons can you give for your opinion? What makes copper so valuable? What metal has been the most recently introduced into the arts? Where are the great iron and steel mills of the country located? What are the reasons for their location? What is steel? In what respects is it superior to iron? Name some of the uses for which iron is employed. What has made the United States the leading nation in the production of iron and steel? Chaptee X. MINERAL FUELS. A number of ininerals are valuable on account of their use as fuel. The most important of these found in the United States are coal, petroleum and natural gas. Coal is found in seams, or veins, buried in the earth. It is widely distributed, and is found in many countries of the north temperate zone and in some portions of the north frigid zone, particularly Alaska. South of the Equator it is known to exist in Australia and South Africa.' In the lowlandl, in coolj temperate climates, we frequently find swamps in Which, for many years, mosses, several varieties of ferns, rushes and reeds hav6 been growing. From year to year, these partially decay at the bottom and the new growth of the succeeding seasons springs from the bed formed by their decaying vegetation. From two to four feet below the surface a formation is found that closely resembles the vegetable mold of soils. When dried, this forms excellent fuel, and is known as peat. Were peat subjected to great pressure and heat, under such conditions that the air could not reach it, it would be changed to coal. ' Coal has been formed from the vegetation of the past ages by processes similar to those described in the formation of peat. This vegetation grew many centuries before any animal lite 'existed upon the earth, and was much more luxuriant than vegetation that we find at the present day, even in tropical regions. The evidences found in coal mines tend to prove that, in the period in which these plants thrived, ferns and club-mosses grew to the size 127 ;28 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY of trees, and that these forms were interspersed with several species of large trees entirely different from anything that now exists upon the earth. These luxuriant growths of vegetation were, by movement of the earth's crust, sunk beneath the sea and covered with mud, which in time became hardened into rock. The heat produced by the pressure and movement of the rocks in the course of ages changed this vegetation into coal. The plants were so completely excluded from the air, and were subjected to such great pressure, that the coal is harder and much more perfect than charcoal, which we obtain by burning wood, or other sub- stances, in closed vessels. Some time after the first growth of vegetation, the land again rose above the surface of the sea, and another growth appeared, which, in its turn, was also buried and changed to coal. In some localities this process was repeated a number of times, each repeti- tion being marked by a vein of coal. Consequently, we find the veins separated from each other by layers of rock varying in thick- ness from a few inches to hundreds of feet. As a general thing the coal in the lowest veins is the hardest and of the best quality, but in the mountainous regions of Pennsylvania, and some other portions of the world, the veins have been tilted so that they are now found in an oblique position, and it is not always the lowest vein that is the oldest. In the more level regions of Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, the veins are found in much the same posi- tion as they were when formed, and extend in a horizontal direction. Some of the veins are only a few inches thick, while others attain a thickness of from ten to twelve feet. If a vein is less than three feet thick, it can not be profitably worked on account of the expense of excavating the amount of rock necessary to secure the coal. There are a number of varieties of coal, indicated by their composition and degrees of hardness. Those of the latest COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 129 formation are the softest and least valuable. The varieties gener- ally known are lignite, bituminous, cannel and anthracite. Lignite is a variety of soft coal that is less valuable ° than those that follow. In formation it is between peat and soft coal ; it still retains the reddish hue, like peat, and crumbles readily. Lignite is found in a number of states west of the Mississippi, and is mined to some extent in Colorado, the Dakotas, Montana, Wyoming and Oklahoma. Since these states are located a long distance from the bituminous coal fields, lignite constitutes a valuable and convenient source of fuel. It has never been used in engines, or for manufacturing purposes on a large scale, but it is successful as a heating fuel. Lignite mines have not yet been developed to any extent, but as the demand for fuel in states west of the Missis:- sippi increases, these mines will grow in importance and lignite will supply most of the local needs for domestic and other heating purposes. Bituminous coal is much softer than anthracite, and contains more oil and vegetable matter than carbon. When broken, the best quality leaves a glossy or jet-like surface. It burns with a bright flame and dense, black smoke, and gives off an intense heat. Bituminous coal is much more generally distributed than anthracite. In the United States it is found in Western Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Southern Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa and Missouri. It also constitutes a great part of the coal mined in England and on the continent of Europe. This is the coal generally used in making coke, for smelting iron and for other manufacturing purposes. Cannel coal is a variety of bituminous which occurs Cannel ^^^^ jjj ^maW quantities. It is sometimes used for making ornaments, because, when polished, it very closely resembles jet. It is also highly prized for burning in open grates, 130 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY as it burns with a bright flame and with little smoke. When a piece is ignited at tlie end, it continues to burn like a candle until entirely consumed — a peculiarity from which this variety of coal lakes its name. Cannel coal has passed through the bituminous stage and is nearly as hard as anthracite. Anthracite is the hardest and the most valuable Anthracite ^^^^ found, either in America or England. Nature has made it by causing soft coal to be subjected to such heat and pressure that most of the oils and gases have been driven oS, leav- ing the almost pure carbon. It has a black, glossy appearance, and burns with but little flame but with intense heat. On account of its hardness and its appearance it is often known as hard coal, and sometimes as stone coal. The largest mines of anthracite now worked are found in the eastern portion of Pennsylvania ; sma.ll quantities ar§ obtained in Nova Scotia and England. The layers of rock in which coal is found are Coal Measures Jju^^q ^g coal measures. The important coal measures in the United States are found in Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and Alaska. There are also measures of lignite, or soft coal, found in nearly all of the states west of the Mississippi, in small patches or large areas. Taken together, these coal measures have an area exceeding four times that of the state of New York, and a depth which has not yet been ascertained, as the veins near the surface will, with but few exceptions, be the only ones worked for years to come. This shows us that our country has a sufficient supply of coal to last its people for many generations and for all purposes. This is one of the greatest sources of our prosperity, for without coal it would be impossible to supply fuel to many portions of the country, and without fuel these regions could not be inhabited. Also, as already noted in the chapter on iron, coal is necessary for most manufacturing purposes, and were it not for the extensive supply Unlled States COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 131 of this commodity many of the manufacturing industries would be impracticable, if not entirely impossible. Minins' ^°^ ^ mined by sinking a shaft into the earth until it cuts the. vein. This shaft is a rectangular excavation, usually about thirty feet long and twelve or fourteen feet wide. It is divided into four compartments by vertical partitions. In two of these the hoisting cages, which are nothing more than freight elevators, operate; another is used for ventilating the mine; and the fourth for pipes used in pumping out water, for electric wires and other appliances that may be needed to make connec- tion between the mine, and the works above. From the foot of the shaft, galleries are excavated in all di- rections. These galleries are in- tersected at frequent intervals by cross galleries, so that in a coAi, mine which has been worked to any extent, they resemble quite closely, in their arrangement, the streets of a city. Tramways are laid in the main galleries, and upon these cars are run, either hauled by mules or electric locomotives. As the coal is broken from the veins, it is loaded upon the cars, which are hauled to the foot of the shaft and run upon the hoisting cages. As the cars reach the surface, they are run from the hoisting cages to a platform, where they are unloaded by being dumped into a chute, where the coal is separated into various sizes. Each size is loaded separately, either upon the car or into the boat, as the location of the mines requires, and sold as nut, egg, etc., according to its size. TransDortation ^^®'^^"^®'' possible, coal is transported from the mines by boat, but in all other cases by Beat o( (he World 132 COMMERCE Am) INDUSTRY railway, and is taken to all cities and towns in the country. Very much of the local expense of this fuel comes from the freight, and localities far from the coal mines pay much higher prices than those near by. We have already seen, in our description of iron, that the transportation of coal from the lower to the u^er lakes constitutes an important factor in the traffic of the ore boats. Besides these lines of steamers, there are nmnerous others that are engaged in carrying coal from Cleveland, Erie, and other large cities, to the Great Lake ports. Most of this coal has to be hauled to the wharf by train, where it is loaded upon the boa£, from which it is again transferred to the docks, to be taken by train to its final destina- tion. Yet, notwithstand- ing all of this handling, the freight by water is much cheaper than it would be were the coal hauled to the Northwest by railway. n FVance Austria Germany United Kingdom United States Coke A great deal of coal in West Virginia, Western Pennsyl- vania and Ohio is manufactured into coke. This is done by burning the coal in kilns, called ovens. The air is partially excluded so that only the gaseous matter is burned, leaving a kind of charcoal, which constitutes the coke. Coke is used in smelting iron ore, and for some other manufacturing purposes, and to some extent for heating. The coal cannot be used in smelting iron because it contains sulphur, which is injurious to the metal. The uses of coal are so numerous that it would be difficult to enumerate them all. It is the source of all our steam power; we depend upon it for nearly all transportation, both by land and water, in the manufacture of iron and steel, and of other Uses COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 133 metals; for warming om* houses and places of business, and for the manufacture of illuminating gas. The use of coal is so thor- oughly identified with our life and industries that, were its supply to cease, the business of the country would be demoralized. No more impressive lesson of the relation of this mineral to our indus- trial life could well be given than that resulting from the shortage of coal in the winter of 1902-03, caused by the great coal strike in the anthracite mines in Pennsylvania. New York, Boston, and many other large cities in the Eastern states, which depended almost entirely on this source of supply for their coal, were obliged to close manufactories, to reduce the number of trains upon their railways, and in many other ways change the ordinary run of business, while man,y people were deprived of their usual supply of fuel for domestic purposes. t-; The annual output of coal in the United States is about 531,000,000 tons of 2000 pounds. Eighty-nine million tons of this are anthracite and the balance bituminous. The United States produces the largest amount of coal of any country in the world. It is closely followed by the United Kingdom, which, until within a few years, was the leading producer. Germany produces about 150,000,000 tons, and other countries only small quantities. The three greatest coal producing countries are also the three greatest manufacturing countries. „ , , Next to coal, petroleum is our most important PETROLEUM . , . ^ %. • r ■, . • • ..i, mmeral fuel. It is found m reservou^ m the earth, and is obtained by boring wells. The name, which means rock oil, was given it because the oil was obtained by boring into soft layers of rock, which are saturated with oil. So far as known, petroleum is not very generally distributed over the earth. The regions in which it is found are known as the oil fields, or oil regions. In the United States these are located in western Pennsylvania, West Virginia, the southern part of Ohio, portions of Indiana, 134 COMMERCE AND mDUSTRY the southwestern part of Illinois, in Colorado, southern California, Texas, Kansas, and Oklahoma. The most important foreign fields are around the Caspiian Sea in Russia and in the Island of Java. Tj. . Petroleum has come into use within the last half cen- tury. While the existence of this, oil was known to the' Indians for hundreds of years, and it was used by them as a medicinej it was not discovered in large quantities until 1859. In that year Col. E. L. Drake of Titusville, Pa., bored a well in search for oil which he expected to use in the manufacture of a remedy for rheumatism "that was placed upon the market as "Seneca Oil." His experiment was the first act in the development of an industry that has become one of great importance. After sinking the well sixty feet, Colonel Drake struck a flow of oil which immediately rose to the surface. The first year, this well yielded 2000 barrels. The year following two other wells were sunk in the immediate vicinity, and the ehtire yield amounted to 500,000 barrels. It was at once seen that there was an abundance of oil, and that it could be supplied in such quantities as to make it available for light and fuel. Com- panies immediately sprang up, and within the next five years, what is known as the oil region of Pennsylvania became dotted with derricks and perforated with wells. The industry continued to increase until now the annual output of the United States amounts to over 290,000,000 barrels. Reflnins- "^^ ^^ comes from the well, the oil is known as crude petroleum. It is usually of a dark brown color, some- times almost black. It emits a very disagreeable odor, and contains a number of exceedingly volatile liquids. In this condition it can be used only for fuel. Since its most extensive use is for illu- minating purposes, most of the crude petroleum is refined before being placed on the market. Refining consists of distilling the oil at a very low temperature with sulphuric acid, and other COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 135 chemicals, so as to separate these volatile Hquids from each other and from the heavier liquids used only for illuminating purposes. The crude oil is run into steel tanks having a capacity of 1000 to 1200 barrels, and allowed to distil over a slow fire. The most volatile liquids, naphtha, gasolene, and benzine, pass off first, and are followed by kerosene. This is often further purified by being re-distilled and washed, to remove whatever volatile substances OIL WELL AND STORAGE TANKS escaped the first distillation. After the kerosene has all been drawn off a dark colored liquid remains in the tank. By further distillation this yields paraffin, which resembles a white wax, and a lubricating oil. The refuse of the tank contains more or less coal tar, from which some of our most beautiful dyes are obtained. The uses of most of the petroleum products are very familiar. The growth of the automobile industry has created such a demand 136 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY for gasoline that the refineries can scarcely fill their orders, and since 1910 the price of gasoline has rapidly advanced. Benzine and naphtha are used for dissolving gums in the manufacture of varnish, in mixing paints, and for laboratory purposes. The in- vention of a mantle for kerosene lamps, similar to that used on gas jets, has greatly increased the illuminating power of kerosene; nevertheless, electricity and acetylene gas have almost entirely displaced this illuminant, except in rural districts. Crude petroleum is used as a fuel in localities where coal and wood do not occur. For this reason the discovery of oil in Cali- fornia and Texas has been of great advanatge to the people of those regions. The oil from these fields is not suitable for refining, and is extensively used, not only for heating and cooking pur- poses, but also as a fuel in locomotives and for driving stationary engines. This use of petroleum has greatly facilitated transpor- tation on several lines of railway in Arizona^ ' New Mexico, and southern California. Transportation ^^^ growth of the oil industry has led to many new developments in the methods of transportation. At first it was carried from the wells in -barrels, which were hauled on wagons to the nearest railway station or refinery, but the poor roads made this method almost impracticable. Whenever possible, the oil was loaded onto boats, some of which had tanks constructed for the purpose, while others received the oil in barrels. These were floated down the rivers to the point of destination or of trans-shipment, but the railway soon became the most important factor in the transportation. At first the barrels, were loaded on the cars, but in a short time tank cars, constructed especially for the purpose, came into ue. These cars are now familiar in all parts of the country. The tanks resemble a huge steam boiler with a dome, and have a capacity of several hundred barrels. Oil receiving stations are now established in every large COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 137 town. These stations contain large steel tanks into which the oil is unloaded from the cars, and from which it is distributed to merchants in tank wagons. From the merchants it reaches the consumer. But in the large oil centers, pipe lines have since taken the place of cars. These lines are laid similar to gas or water pipe systems. Small pipes run from each well to large mains which finally unite into one large line that leads from the oil fields to the refinery. The pipes are made of steel and are of great strength. By their use, oil can be conveyed hundreds of miles without handling. Pipe lines extend from the oil fields in Pennsylvania to Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Cleveland, Baltimore, and New York City. Another long line is one reaching from Kokomo, Indiana, to Chicago. Pump- ing stations are established at frequent intervals, by the use of which the oil is forced along on its journey. The total output of the world's petroleum in 1915 was over 427,000,000 barrels, of which the United States produced 281,000,000 and Russia about 68,500,000. These two coimtries produce over eighty per cent of the world's product, but the United States exceeds all other countries in its manufacture of petroleum products. In addition to those consumed at home, it exports large quantities to the countries of Europe. Another important mineral fuel is natural gas. This is usually found in the same localities as petroleiun. The portions of the United States which have been able to make profitable use of this fuel are Western Pennsylvania, especially in the vicinity of Pittsburgh, some localities in Southern Ohio, and in the central part of Inidana. The gas is obtained by sinking wells, the same as for petroleum. In some instances, it is found confined under very great pressure, which, when piped, furnishes a steady fiow that, when ignited, gives a great heat, though it is not very good for illuminating purposes. 138 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY Natural gas is an ideal fuel for the manufacture of glass or the smelting of iron or steel, as it contains no sulphur or other impurities that will injure the product. For this reason, many glass factories and iron works moved into the natural gas belt. But the extensive use of the gas caused the pressure to decrease rapidly after the first few years, and in some localities the gas has become exhausted. The gas has been piped, in a manner similar to petroleum, as far as Chicago, where it is used for heating purposes. Natural gas differs commercially from almost every other commodity in that it is not transported any distance from the locality in which it is found. QUESTIONS. Examine a piece of charcoal. How does it differ in stru(;ture and hardness from anthracite? From bituminous coal? From what region is the coal used in your locality obtained? Why is coal more expensive in Minnesota than in Illinois? Where are the great coal docks of' the United States located? Give the reason for their location. What products are obtained from petroleum? Which of these is the most valuable? What is meant by "refining" petroleum? Where are the great refineries located? How can you accoimt for the rapid growth of the petroleum industry? Chapter XI. ROCK AND SOIL PRODUCTS. A number of minerals on or near the surface of the land are important on account of their use as constructive material. The most valuable of these are stone, clay, sand, and cement. The term building stone may be applied to any STONF stone that can be used in the erection of buildings or other structures. The most important varieties are limestone, marble, granite, sandstone and slate. , . fa Limestone is one of the most common rocks, and occurs in a number of forms. It is hard and strong, and on account of its wide distribution, can usually be obtained near the place where it is wanted, thus saving great expense in transportation. It is not a decorative stone, and can only be used for rough work, such as basement walls and the outside walls of some large buildings. Some varieties are extensively used in the manu- facture of quicklime, which in turn is used for making mortar and other kinds of cement. „ , , Marble is a crystallized limestone which has been changed and purified by heat after the rock was formed. It is found in large quantities in Vermont, Georgia, Tennessee, Alaska, and Colorado. There are many varieties of marble, each of which has its peculiar color and degree of hardness. These adapt marble to a great variety of purposes. The stone is easily -worked, takes a high polish, apd when pro- tected from the weather is very durable. Its former vise in this , country was confined almost exclusively to headstones and statuary, but since it has been quarried on such a large scale as it now is, 139 MABBLtE QUABBY KUTLAITD, VT. COMMEKCE AND INDUSTRY 141 the uses have been widely extended. We now find marble employed for the walls of buildings, and specially for finishing interiors of public buildings, hotels and large city blocks. Granite is the hardest and strongest of all the building stones. It varies in color from nearly white to a very dark gray, which is almost a black. Some of the best granite has a reddish color. This rock occurs in many places but is extensively worked in the New England states and Minnesota. It takes a high polish, and withstands the action of the weather better than marble. For this reason it is now quite extensively used for head- stones and statuary that is to be placed in public parks. Granite is especially valuable as a building stone where great strength is required, as in the piers of railway bridges, and for the foundations and walls of large buildings. As its name implies, this rock consists of sand, cemented together by some other material. As a building stone, its use is confined almost entirely to the walls of dwellings and some other small structures in which artistic appear- ance is desirable. It is not a strong rock, and can not be suc- cessfully used in many places where granite and limestone are employed. ^" ■ Slate is a clay rock, which occurs in thin layers. On account of its structure, it is easily, split into very thin slabs. The most extensive quarries are in Pennsylvania and Vermont. Slate is used for covering roofs, for finishing interiors and for making laundry-tubs, sinks and blackboards. Clay is a very common mineral and is found in almost y every locality. When dry; it is quite hard, but when moist it becomes plastic and can be easily worked, either with tools or with the hand. It is not used alone as a building mate- rial, but, when combined with a certain proportion of sand, it constitutes the material from which brick and tile are made. 142 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY In the manufacture of brick, the clay and sand are ground with water to make the mixture plastic. It is then pressed into molds, which form the brick. From the molds, these are carried to the drying-shed, where they- remain for a short time to become hardened. They are then placed in large kilns, where the layers of brick are so arranged that the fire can pass between them in such % ■ -u . ^^.^mmt w.r-.K^"' ^— 1 MJk:\.. ^^^^^ P , m. ' ' ' '^'^^^^^^^'^^^^ ^i^^^^^^M^N^ '% 'fa VA '■'Ji^'S^ .d --'/' ''^ ^;^^^'l| ^- ■ " tfS Wh^ F^ ^ Wm ^ k i^^^B mSmt J tw^S^A ,■-^^ /■ '■■^'S #=-....„ ■"''''■.■:■*'■*"-. -.' - ■ .J ^ --^mk ^'■.r - . W'^^^L. A GEANITE QUAEET (Oonrtesy ol MoDonneU & Sons, Inc., ol Buffalo, N. T., and Barre, Vt.) a way as to heat all the brick evenly. The brick is then burned for two or three days, being heated to redness. By this process, the sand and clay are hardened, so that when cold the brick is as hard and strong as many varieties of building stone. The largest brick works in the United States are along the Hudson River; but the industry is very generally scattered over the Central COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 143 and Western States, where brick is especially valuable because of the lack of suitable building stone. The entire industry in the United States amounts to about $95,500,000 a year. Other clay products of importance are tile, terra-cotta — used for ornamental work in buildings — and pottery, which is manu- factured from a fine variety of clay, but cannot be considered as building material. The pottery industry in the United States amounts to about $17,000,000 a year. Sand ^^^^ i^ composed almost entirely of grains of quartz, which, by the action of wind and water, have been sepa- rated from solid rock. It is particularly valuable for the nianu- factiu-e of brick, tile, mortar, and cement. Numerous kinds of cement are on the market. Nearly all of them are made by the grinding of some variety of limestone with another rock and burning the mixture. Hydrau- lic cements will harden under water and are used in cementing cisterns and stones in the piers of bridges and other structures exposed to water. When mixed with crushed stone and sand, cement forms concrete, which is extensively used for foundations of heavy buildings and bridges, for surfacing roads and laying sidewalks. The industries arising from the use of these materials are extensive and important. From the nature of the material they are also decidedly local in character. All of this raw material, on account of the expense of transportation, must be worked in its immediate locality; therefore, we find brick yards where clay is abundant, and works for cutting and finishing stone at, or near, the quarries, as the finished product can be transported at much less expense than the raw material. Salt is especially important, because it is the only min- eral used as an article of food. It is obtained by evaporating the water of the sea or salt lakes, or from salt springs and wells, and by mining, when it occurs in deposits in the earth. 144 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY Most of the salt maniifactured in the United States is obtained from salt wells. These wells may be natiiral or artificial. They are natural when the salt water is found in the earth and can be obtained simply by pumping. They are artificial when the salt water is procured by pouring fresh water into the well and allowing it to dissolve the salt from the vein in the earth and then pumping it out. Salt works in the United States are found at Syracuse, N. Y., and at numerous places in Michigan and Ohio. Nearly all the salt manufactured at these places is of a high grade and is used for table and 'dairy purposes. Salt is also used in the manufacture of various compounds of soda and for glazing a cheap quality of pottery ware. Graphite, or black lead, is a variety of carbon. GRAPHITE ,j,j^g largest deposits in the United States are in the vicinity of Ticonderoga, N. Y., where it is quite extensively mined. Graphite is a very valuable mineral and is used in the manufacture of lead pencils and crucibles, for lubricating machinery and for various kinds of polish. The combined mineral industries of the coimtry rank, in importance, next to those of agriculture. As we have seen, they are widely distributed and give rise to a large number of occupa- tions. On this account, it is impossible to separate some of them from manufacturing industries. QUESTIONS. What rocks in your vicinity are used for building or other purposes? Make a collection of specimens of the different minerals in your town or county. What are some of the articles made from day? Why are bricks and pottery "burned"? Name the different purposes for which you have seen marble employed. Why does the United States quarry so much more marble than Italy? What are the different purposes for which salt is used? Chapter XII. MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES. TwiPOBTAKPi? Next to agriculture, manufactures are the most essential condition to a country's prosperity, and the position of a nation in the scale of civilization is closely related to the extent and variety, of its manufacturing industries. These industries make use of the natural products of a country. Before these materials are manxifactured, they are known as raw material. Timber, iron-ore, com, and stone are good illustrations. Manufactures increase the wealth of a country by turning out products that are far more valuable than the raw material. This value is added almost entirely by the labor expended in trans- forming this material into the manufactured product. The goods of the factory are also sold at a much greater profit than the prod- ucts of nature. In addition to this, manufactures give rise to a great many occupations, and among these each one can find an opportunity to do that for which he is best suited. This enables men to produce more than they could if all had to work at the same occupation, for each succeeds best by following the vocation suited to his tastes. Manufactures also increase the demand for goods. The great number of callings in a manufacturing com- munity multiplies wants. The blacksmith needs tools and raw material of one sort; the carpenter those which are not suited to the blacksmith, and the weaver still others, so that in order to supply the needs of all, a great variety of commodities becomes necessary. The location of manufacturing industries is deter- mined quite largely by geographical conditions. The most important of these are the presence or proximity of raw J45 146 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY material, available power, good transportation facilities and an accessible market for the manufactured articles. The first cause is of such nature that it can be, and often is, overlooked, as raw material is frequently transported a long distance before it is con- verted into the manufactured product. In the early history of the country water power was ower universally employed for propelling machinery, and we find the manufacturing industries located in New England and the North Atlantic States, where the numerous small mountain streams furnished an abundance of power. Here were erected the first cotton mills, and cotton was brought to them from the South. Here also were established the first smelting furnaces for the reduction of iron-ore, but both the ore and the fuel were found near at hand. The advent of the steam engine removed in a am ower j^gasure the necessity of locating factories where water power could be obtained. The only disadvantage in the use of steam is that it is more expensive than water, yet it often happens that the expense of fuel is less than the difference in the cost of the transportation of the raw material and the manufactured product. For this reason we find steam sawmills erected in or near the lumber camps, and flour mills on the prairies of the wheat growing states. The use of steam power has also made it possible to locate manufactories in and near the great centers of trade, where they can secure the advantage of the means of transportation which are found in such centers. The effect ot steam as a motive power has been to establish large factories through the Central and Western States which by their output now have a strong influence upon the manufactures of the older states. While these states are still the leading manufacturing centers of the country their relative importance is very much less than it was a decade or more ago. COMMERCE AND iNCtJSTRIf 14? The application of electricity to the operation ja ecimc ower ^^ machinery has greatly extended the possi- bility of placing factories wherever their location would be most advantageous. It has also brought- into use the water power of hundreds of streams that before we.re entirely useless, because their location was such that no factories could be erected on or near them. Now, by means of electric cables power generated by mountain streams may be applied to the operation of motors scores, and even hundreds, of miles away. The most noted illustration of such application of power transmitted over a long distance is found in the works of the Bay County Power Company of California. This company placed a dam across the Uba River in the Sierra Nevada Mountains and secured a fall of 715 feet. The current furnished by their dynamos is used in Oakland, 142 miles distant, and in Stockton, which is' 218 miles away; while still another line reaches San Francisco, after traversing a route 222 miles in length. In each of these cities the electric current is applied to operate the street cars and for driving the electric motors in numerous factories. The best example of the transmission of power on a large scale is that at Niagara, where the powerful current is used to manufacture electricity, which furnishes electric light and motor power in Buffalo and a number of other cities in New York State. Transportation is a very important factor in Transportation determining the location of the manufactory, as the expense of freight greatly reduces profits. Transportation by water is cheaper than that by railway ; therefore, the manufac- turers of heavy wares endeavor, as far as possible, to locate where they can ship their products by water routes ; hence, we find that many ports on sea, lake and river have become important manufac- turing centers. The railways have made inland transportation com- paratively cheap, and many factories are established in a locality us COMMEECfi AND INDUSTRY where their product is used. The great agricultural implement factories of Chicago, and the furniture and piano factories found in numerous western states, are good examples of such location. The rapid extension of electric railways is also advantageous to small factories in country towns, since these railways afford a cheap and convenient means of transportation of both the raw material and the manufactured product. These roads seem des- tined in the near future to exert considerable influence in locating manufactories. The most important economic reasons in determining a loca- tion are an early beginning and a local demand for the product. The New England factories obtained their hold upon the country largely because they were the first of their kind. While, in the beginning, their output supplied only the local demand, yet, in a short time, they were enabled to supply the demands of a much larger territory, and by being in condition to take advantage of these demands they obtained a hold upon the country, which has made it impossible for later establishments of the same sort to displace their goods. The local demand for boots and shoes, flour, furniture and many other common articles, is the principal cause for the erection of so many factories in the West and Northwest, and most of these are doing a thriving business. Most cities have been built up around man- ufacturing industries, or have had manufac- tories added after they were established. The beginning of Minneapolis was in the erection of sawmills and grist-mills. At the time the first mills were erected, the lumber and the water power were near each other. As the Northwest became settled, the demand for manufactured products increased, and the city added steam power to her water power and continued to increase her mills until she became the largest flour producing MANUFACTURING CENTERS United States COMMEECE AND INDUSTRY 149' city of the world. The importance of Lowell, Fall River, and New Bedford, Mass., is due almost entirely to their cotton mills. This is equally true of many other towns in New England and New York; while Birmmgham, Ala., has been developed into a thriving city within the last few years on account of its favorable location for the manufacture of iron and steel. The United States is the largest manufacturing country of the world. The value of her manufactured products exceeds $24,000,- 000,000 a year, which is more than twice the value of the manu- factures of the United Kingdom. The country is also noted for the variety of its manufactures. This is caused by our great extent of territory, difference in climate and the diverse local con- ditions which adapt so many local- ities to special lines of manufac- ture. In addition to this, the inventive genius of the American people, and their high standard of livinsc have created demands for a great variety of products. About seven-tenths of our manu- factures are consumed at home, MANurACTVBEs Icaviug ouly a small portion for export. With the increase in population it is probable that a still larger proportion of our manufactures will be required for home consumption. If this should be the case, our exports would fall off. However, this condition of affairs would not necessarily indicate a lack of national prosperity. Every country makes such uses of its products as are best suited to its economic conditions, and the amount of exports is not always a true indication of a country'^ prosperity, Best of the World 150 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY QUESTIONS. Show how manufactures increase the wealth of a country. What effect has the development of electric power had upon the looe tion of manuf acturies ? Is this beneficial? 'Why'i Why were the first manufacturing centers located in the New England and the Eastern States ? ' Why was the erection of cotton nulls in the Southern States so long delayed ? What causes make the cities located on the G-reat Lakes important manufacturing centers ? What causes have combined to make the United States such aa important manufacturing country? Chapter XIII. TEXTILE FABRICS. Clothing is necessary to life and comfort, and the farther a people are removed from the equator, the more indispensable it becomes. We use clothing for three purposes : decency, comfort and ornament, and because they are so intimately associated with our welfare, the products of the textile industry maintain an espe- cially intimate relation to us. The manufacture of textiles is one of the most important industries of the country and the world, and it seems eminently fitting that the people who make the wisest use of the textile fabrics should become the most skilful in their production. These are the people of the temperate zones, and the nations of the north temperate zone now practically supply the fabrics for the world. There are various branches of the textile industry, such as the manufacture of yarns, knit goods and woven goods; and to these must be added the art of dyeing, which is a feature of each branch. The fibers used in the United States arei, in the order of their importance: cotton, wool, silk, flax and hemp. In some fabrics we find two or more of these fibers mixed. The most common mixture is that of cotton with wool. Silk is also mixed with wool, and with cotton, and, occasionally, with linen. These mixtures enable the manufacturer to produce a much larger variety of fabrics than he could by using only one kind of fiber. This variety is also increased by the degree of fineness of the work and by various methods of weaving and finishing the cloth. 161 152 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY The manufacture of textile fabrics in America began HISTORY with the settlement of the colonies. Every household had its spinning-wheel and hand-loom, and nearly every farmer raised sheep and flax, and it was a part of the work of the women in each family to manufacture the cloth required for clothing and bedding. Since all this work had to be performed by hand labor, and with the crudest machinery, the task was no light one. When the population had increased to such an extent as to cause numer- ous towns to spring into existence, small factories were erected, which, in a measure, relieved the women from manufacturing cloth, though, in the farming communities, this practice continued for many years after the Eevolutionary War. While in the beginning simple machinery operated by hand power made it possible for any one to engage in the manufacture of yarn or clothing, with the advent of the factory more complex machinery was introduced. This required an investment of capi- tal, and as the industry grew we find that factories increased in size and capital became more and more concentrated, until the textile industry was located in a few large centers of the New England States, the most important being Lowell, Fall River, and New Bedford, Massachusetts; Nashua and Manchester, New Hampshire, and some towns in Rhode Island and Connecticut. During the last quarter of a century the United States has made much greater progress than other countries in the manufac- ture of textiles, though she does not lead the world in her output of this product. Some of the most delicate and ingenious machinery employed in the production of the finest and most beautiful fabrics is the product of American ingenuity, while American methods of management have made it possible to operate the large factories in this country on such plans as to produce better results than have been secured in the countries of Europe. The development of the textile industry is due to four inven- COMMEECE AND INDUSTRY 153 kions : The spinning-jenny by Hargreaves , the water frame by Arkwright ; the mule-jenny, which was a combination of the spinning-jenny and the water frame, by Eichard Compton ; and the power-loom by Edmund Cartwright. All of these inventions originated in England and were produced by English workmen. Each made it possible for one operator to do the work that it would require scores of persons to perform by hand labor. The first of these inventions came into use in 1767, and the last in 1785. Thus within a period of eighteen years the textile industry of England was revolutionized by the ingenuity of her workmen. The increase in cotton manufacture, resulting from these inven- tions, created such a demand for cotton that it was impossible for the planters to raise and prepare a sufficient quantity to supply the market. This difficulty was met by the American invention of the cotton-gin, by Eli Whitney, in 1792. This has already been described in the chapter on cotton. Historians are agreed that no other inventions ever did so much for a people as have the inven- tions named for the English-speaking nations, and it is in these nations that the manufacture of textile fabrics has reached its highest development. Factories seldom deal with retail merchants or customers. When the goods are finished they are put up in bales of from twenty to fifty yards each, and the most expensive qualities are carefully wrapped in paper before boxing. The goods are shipped from the factory in large boxes or cases, and are sold directly to the wholesale merchant, through whom they reach the retail trade which disposes of them to the individual customers. Besides the goods manufactured in this country, large quantities of woolens and silks are imported, though American goods are sometimes placed upon the market as imported, and the product of the American mills is of such quality that it is often difficult to dis- tinguish between the finest fabrics made at home and those of 154 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY France, Gennany, or England. Japanese and Chinese silks can easily be distinguished because of their peculiar fiber. No mills of America or Europe manufacture a fabric of this type. The cotton is received in the bale. It is first cleaned, COTTONS then carded suitable for spinning. The fiber is spun by twisting it on a spindle. Each spinning-mule, or mule-jenny, contains a large number of spindles, each of which twists a thread when the machinery is in operation. One operative can tend two of these machines, and is enabled to spin several hundred threads at once. As the yam is spun, it is woimd upon bobbins, from whence it is taken to the looms. All weaving is done by power-looms, which are so nearly auto- miatic in their action that a good weaver will tend four or more. In large factories several hundred looms are generally placed on the same floor. Each loom is constructed especially for the kind of cloth that it is to weave, so that we find webs as wide as the widest sheeting and as narrow as the narrowest ribbon, but the ribbon looms are usually so constructed that the same loom weaves a num- ber of ribbons at once. In every case the greatest economy of con- struction is observed, so that the mill will produce the largest quantity of cloth at the least possible expense. It is only by the practice of this economy that it has been possible for the manufac- turers to place cotton goods on the market at such prices as to enable Qloth of a good quality to be purchased for a few cents a yard. Calicoes have received the commercial name of prints, because the colors are stamped upon them by a printing machine con- structed especially for the purpose. This machine quite closely resembles the ordinary printing-press, only it has more cylinders, and on this account is somewhat larger. Each cylinder contains etched figures of the whole, or a part, of the pattern, as the case requires. If the calico is printed in only one color, the en- tire pattern is found on one cylinder. If the pattern is to be COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 155 printed in several colors, each cylinder contains only that portion of the pattern that is produced by a single color. As the cloth passes over these cylinders, each in its turn stamps its part of the figure on the calico, and the cylinders are so nicely adjusted that the parts of each figure fit into each other, enabling the last cylinder to complete the design. For ginghams the yam is dyed before weaving, and the pattern is produced in the loom, which is so constructed as to weave the desired pattern automatically. Fabrics of a coarse and medium grade are those in most demand in our markets. Sheetings, , shirtings, ginghams, and calicoes constitute the bulk of the American output, though small quantities of very delicate fabrics are made. As already noted, the earliest development of cotton manufac- turing was in the New England States, and Massachusetts still leads in this industry, but since 1890 Georgia has made great progress in the erection of cotton factories. Here the immediate presence of raw material and the abundance of cheap labor make such a combination of circumstances as will enable the Southern States to become sharp competitors of New England in the near future. The United States is the second country in the world in the manufacture of cotton fabrics, being exceeded only by England. If we should attempt to measure, in square yards, the amount of cotton cloth produced in the country[in one year, the number would be so large that we could not comprehend it. If this cloth were spread out in one place, it would cover an area of 4915 acres, or somewhat more than eight square miles. The value of all textile products manufactured in the United States in 1914 exceeded $3,444,600,000. Woolens were the first textile fabrics manufactured in Ainerica. The fiber of wool is much more easily worked than that of tiie cotton plant. Woolen fabrics are 166 COMMEBCE AND INDUSTRY especially suited for clothing of people following the vocation of agriculture, and living in a cool climate. The fiber can be spun and woven by the use of the most simple machinery, and is par- ticularly suited to the conditions which are always found in a newly settled country. We have already noted how cloth was manufactured in the homes of our forefathers. The advent of machinery caused this industry gradually to change from the homes to the manufacturing centers, until now spinning-wheels and hand- looms are so rare that they have become curiosities. What is true of the machinery for the manufacture of woolens by hand is equally true of their manufacture in large factories. The machinery required is less complex and somewhat less expensive than that found in cotton mills. For this reason, small woolen mills can be operated at a profit, and we find them very generally scattered throughout the New England and Eastern States, where the manufacture of woolens is located. As in the case of cotton, Massachusetts leads in this industry. The small mills produce goods of as fine a quality and finish as the great factories and furnish opportunities for employment to a large number of people living in villages or rural communities. There is a great variety of woolen fabrics, ranging from the finest grade of dress goods to heavy beavers, felts and carpets. Fabrics of a medium grade of fineness are in the greatest demand and constitute the largest part of the output. The style of the cloth depends upon the method of spinning and the finish after the fabric is woven. Worsteds are made from yarn that is hard twisted, while cashmeres and other soft fabrics come from yarn that is loosely twisted. The finest fabrics are made from wool having the finest fiber. Such fabrics as delaine are made from wool of a long, fine fiber, while those woolens used in the manu- facture of men's clothing are made from a medium grade of wool. The coarse fabrics come from a cheap grade of coarse wool. COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 157 In extent, the woolen industry does not equal that of cotton, yet, owing to the greater value placed upon woolens, the value of the yearly output in 1915 was $435,978,000, an increase of 75.2 per cent in ten years. As in the manufacture of cotton, the United States is also exceeded by England in the manufacture of woolen goods. The people of the United States are the largest users of silk in the world. Much of this is imported, but a large quantity is also woven in this country. Several attempts at grow- ing silk have been made in the United States, but they have never succeeded because it requires so much labor to raise the silk worms that the United States can not afford to compete with other coim- tries in this industry, and our silk mills are obliged to obtain their raw product from France, Italy, Japan, and China. The silk usually reaches the American manufacturer in skeins, just as it is wound from the cocoons. It is then ready for the process known as throwing, which is the silk manufacturer's term for spinning, or twisting. After throwing, the silk is ready for weaving and is passed to the looms. The great silk mills are nearly all located in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Connecticut. Probably nine-tenths of the silk manufactured in the country is made in these states. An important feature of this industry is the manufacture of sewing silk, to which entire mills are devoted. The value of silk manufactured in 1914 was about $197,000,000. This industry has the peculiar feature of importing its raw material from a great distance, for the purpose of manufacturing it at home. Aided by government protection, the manufacture of silk, which started in a very small way, has now become an industry of con- siderable importance and one of great value to the people, because goods of the same quality can be manufactured in the United States and placed upon the market at a lower price than they can be imported from either Europe or China. 158 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY The manufacture of linen is carried on in the United states to only a limited extent, and is confined almost entirely to the coarser fabrics, such as crashes and towels. All the finer grades are imported from Ireland, Holland, and Belgium. The principal reason for this is that the farmers can receive much better returns for their labor by employing it in other ways than preparing flax for market, and the manufa,cturers are unable to find suitable localities for bleaching in the open air, the climate of the United States not being well suited to this purpose. Large quan-, tities of flax are raised in the country for the seed, which sells for a good price, often as high as a dollar a bushel. The manufacture of hemp and jute is confined -.._,„ almost entirely to making binding-twines and other cordage. The binding-twine industry is one of considerable importance because of the great quantity used in the grain-producing states. In some states this twine is manufactured in the penitentiaries, but the greater part of that placed upon the market is produced by the great harvester works in Chicago and other liarge cities. It is shipped from these factories in car-loads, and sold to farmers through dealers in agricultural implements. Some jute is used in the manufacture of sacking and other coarse fabrics employed by carpet manufacturers, but the industry is so comparatively small, that it needs only passing mention. QUESTIONS. Why were woolen and linen fabrics made in the United States so long before the manufacture of cotton was introduced? Why has the manufacture of textiles in England and the United States reached its present development? Why are cotton goods so much less expensive than woolens? Why are caUcoes called "prints"? Which are the more durable, cotton or linen goods? Why is the manufacture of silk goods so extensive in the United States, when all the raw material has to be imported? Why is so little linen manufactured in the United States? Chapter XIV. LEATHER PRODUCTS. The skins of animals have been used for clothing: in all FURS ages. When preserved with the hair on, they are known as furs, and in this form the skins of some animals, particujarly the otter, the sable and the fur-seal, constitute some of the most beautiful and expensive material from which wearing apparel is made. Most of the fur-bearing animals live in a cold climate and in regions sparsely populated. Only a few are now found in the United States, and the taking of animals for their furs is no longer an important industry of the country. When the skins of animals are dressed without the hair, they form leather. Raw skins from cattle and horses are known to the trade as hides, while those from small animals are designated as skins ; as sheepskins, calfskins and goat- skins. Leather has become such a necessity that none of the leather manufacturing countries produce enough hides from the animals killed to supply themselves with shoes, so in many of the grazing regions of the troplv^s and the south temperate climate thousands of animals are killed just for their hides, to ship to the United States and some countries of Europe, the carcasses of these animals being left as useless. Hides are made into leather by tanning. When ° taken from the animals at the slaughter-house, the hides are salted to preserve them. If they are to be shipped a long distance, they are also dried. When they are received at the tannery, they are soaked to soften them, and to dissolve the salt. After this has been accomplished, the hides are treated with lime, 169 160 COMMEECE AND INDUSTRY which loosens the hair so that it can be removed. When free from the hair, the skins are ready for tanning. Tanning consists of soaking the raw skins in a liquid made by steeping hemlock or oak bark, or by mixing certain chemicals which have the same properties as these barks, with water. The liquid is placed in a large vat or tank, and the hides are suspended in it. At first they are placed in a weak solution, and as the process continues they are moved from this to successive stronger solutions as they become prepared for the change. The time required for turning raw skins into leather varies according to th6 kind of skin and the quality of leather desired. Thick, heavy hides of cattle and horses, from which sole leather is made, require a much longer time for tanning than sheepskins or calfskins. The best quality of leather is also made by a slow process which requires several months, and in some cases, even a year, before it is completed. The varieties of leather are due to the skin from which they are made, the method of tanning and the style of finish. The thick portions of the hides, which are along the sides and back, are used for sole leather which requires no further finish after it is tanned, but the leather used for the uppers of shoes and for various other purposes is usually colored. The coloring is put on after the process of tanning is finished. Most leather used for boots and shoes is colored black, though various shades of brown, and even red, are occasionally found. Morocco, cordovan, Eussia and other fancy varieties are usually all made from sheepskin, and take their names from the difierent styles of finish. The most extensive use of leather is for the manufacture Usfis of boots and shoes. The uppers of men's shoes are made from calfskin and goatskin, also other leather obtained from the hides of young cattle. The uppers of women's shoes are usually goatskin or sheepskin, according to the grade of shoe. Other COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 161 important uses of leather are for harness, belting for machinery, upholstering furniture, the manufacture of gloves and mittens, and book-binding. The United States is the leading country of the world in the manufacture of leather, both in quantity and the quality of its product. Its tanneries produce enough to supply all home markets, and also to enable them to export large quantities. This requires more hides than can be obtained from the meat-packing industry in our own country, and the balance is supplied from the countries of South America, mostly from the Argentine Eepublic. Our annual output of leather exceeds $500,000,000 in value. BOOTS AND SHOES Formerly all boots and shoes were made by hand. HISTORY Each shoemaker performed all the labor necessary to complete the shoes, and this method of manufacture continued until long after the Revolutionary War. For years it was custom- ary for the shoemaker to travel from house to house with his kit of tools and make up the leather into such footwear as the family needed. When the country became more densely populated, the shoemaker found it to his advantage to remain in one location and have bis customers come to him. So the shoemakers built small ihops, in each of which one or possibly two men worked. The development of the boot and shoe industry, from these early stages to its present condition, is of great interest because it shows more clearly than the growth of any other industry, what has been accomplished through the division of labor and specializ- ing the occupations pf workmen. It is considered that the boot and shoe industry is the most perfectly organized of any manufac- turing industry in the country. This evolution had its beginning in the city of Lynn, Mass., which, with Brockton, are the most important centers of the industry. There are many small shcs 162 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY shops in Lynn in each of which all the processes necessary tp the manufacture of boots and shoes were carried on. Several of the proprietors of these shops decided that it would be to their advan- tage to combine and divide the different processes among their workmen so that each man should give his attention to only one of the various processes. Some workmen were set to cutting the patterns from the stock, others to sewing these together, and still others to fastening the uppers to the soles. The result of this venture was so satisfactory that large shops soon took the place of the small ones. .. „,.«„ The modem shoe factory is the result of the MODERN SHOE ,. ,. . u- 4- 4-u f 4- -- application of machinery to the manufacture of boots and shoes. As soon as the sewing machine was adapted to this work, it greatly increased the- possi- bilities of the shoe shops, and this machine has now been adapted to all of the different uses to which a sewing machine can be put in the manufacture of boots and shoes. Some machines sew on the buttons, others make the button-holes, and others sew on soles. The invention of other machines has kept pace with the modifica- tions of the sewing machines, so that now almost every process required to produce a shoe is performed by machinery. The only work done by hand is cutting the patterns and fastening the uppers to the lasts. The rapidity of the work is surprising to one not acquainted with a highly specialized industry. Each operative in the factory does but one thing and, consequently, acquires great skill and dexterity. Following the processes, as the parts of the shoe leave the cutting room, one needs to give very close attention to the changes which these parts undergo as they move from one machine to another and from one room to another. So quickly can the work be done that it has been proven that a pair of shoes can be cut, made and finished, ready for wear, in less than twenty minutes. COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 163 When finished, the cheaper grades of shoes are packed in large wooden boxes called cases, while the better grades are wrapped in tissue paper and packed in small boxes, a pair to a box. These are then placed in large wooden cases for shipping. Factories usually deal with wholesale merchants only, and the boots and shoes reach the trade by passing from the wholesale dealer to the retail mer- chant, and from him to the customers. Shoe factories turn out all the way from 1000 to 10,000 pairs of shoes a day, according to their size and the style of shoes made. Factories which make women's shoes do not usually make shoes for men, as special machin- ery is necessary for each kind. Along with the advent of machinery has come a remarkable improvement in styles as well as in manufacture. The hand-made boots and shoes of former days were heavy and often clumsy. Possibly they were more durable than those now placed on the market, but they were also more uncomfortable. The modem shoe is light and artistic in both form and color. New styles are constantly being invented, and they call for new styles in leather and for more machinery; a good illustration that progress in one industry leads to progress in others. Massachusetts is the leading state in the manufacture of boots and shoes, but the industry is more generally scattered over the country than the textile industry. Large factories are now found in nearly all the important cities of the Union, and through the Central and Western States occasional factories are seen in small towns. St. Louis and Cincinnati are the leading centers for the West and their production is rapidly increasing each year. As in the manufactm-e of leather, the United States leads the world in its pro- duction of boots and shoes, both as to quantity and quality. Our annual output exceeds 590,000,000 pairs, and the value in 1914 was $501,760,586. This has been increased since the outbreak of the war in Europe, 164 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY QUESTIONS. Why are so few fur-bearing animals found in this country? Name those which are the most valuable. How are so many different varieties of leather made from the same kind of skins, as sheepskin ? What has driven the old-style shoe-shop out of existence ? Where are the most important centers of shoe manufacturing? Why do the United States manufacture so many more boots and shoes than any other country? Chapter XV. PRINTING AND PUBLISHING. Printing has, more than any other industry, contributed to human advancement. It has been the means of preserving the wis- dom of the past, and scattering it abroad in the present. At the same time it has kept mankind informed of the world's progress from day to day. Printing is related to every other industry, and without it, business methods now in general use would have to be abandoned. The merchant could not advertise his wares, the farmer his produce, nor the manufacturer his goods. Without printing, business men could not read of the state of the markets on their way to the oflSce in the morning, nor learn of the day's transactions as they return from their labors. Printing also increases the general intelligence of a people, and this leads to a multiplicity of needs that continually create demands for new prod- ucts. From every point of view, we find printing to be the hand- maid of all industries, and no account of our industrial and com- mercial life is complete without a sketch of the publishing business. Printing and publishing are directly connected with the manu- facture of paper, the making of printing-presses, of type and type-setting machines, and the manufacture of printers' supplies. While each of these industries is in itself of considerable impor- tance, those connected with the manufacture of paper and printing machinery are the most extensive. Paper was originally made from rags, and all the labor rArhK ^^^ performed by hand. The rags were reduced to a pulp by pounding and grinding them in water. Then the pulp was dipped from tanks with a mold which had a wire screen in its 166 166 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY bottom, and a low rim around the edges. This mold was square and just the size of the sheet of paper. As the workman dipped up the pulp, he gently shook the mold and distributed it evenly over the wire. The water was drained out and a piece of felt was laid over the pulp, and the mold was turned over so that the pulp came out on the upturned surface of the felt. It was then pressed and dried imtil it became a sheet of paper. The paper made in this way was uneven and rough, but it was the only kind made in the American colonies for many years, and however elaborate the machinery of the present paper-mill may be, the work which it does is in all respects similar to that performed in the old-style mill by hand labor. Paper can be made -from almost any fibrous material except wool. The very finest qualities are made from linen and cotton rags. The larger the proportion of rags, the better the quality of the paper, but most of that now in general use contains only a small proportion of rags, the balance of the material being wood. Newspaper is made entirely of wood, the best quality of the book paper contains only a small proportion of wood, and the higher grades of stationery none at all. Wrapping paper is made of jute, hemp, and old rope, but may contain wood pulp and rags. The paper industry of the United States is one of great im- portance, and the amount of paper used is almost beyond com- prehension. If the wood used, in one year, for the manufacture of pulp were placed together in the form of a cube, it would make a pile 634 feet high, which is more than twice the height of some of the business structures in our great cities. The length and breadth of this pile are such as would make it exceed in area the largest city block, while if to this were added the bales of rags, rope, and other materials used, they would make another cube nearly as large. If we could combine into one all the rolls of paper used in COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 167 printing newspaper for a year, the roll would be 450 feet long and 225 feet in diameter. This would be twice the size of some of the large grain elevators. The newspaper used in the form of sheets, if piled together, would exceed in size the largest city block. Even the stationery used in the country for a year would make a block 427 feet long, 267 feet wide and 56 feet high; while if to this were added the wrapping paper, we would increase the amount by a roll 475 feet long and 237 feet in diameter. The United States consumes every year nearly two million cords of wood in the manu- facture of paper pulp. All paper is now made by machinery, and from the time the raw material goes to the mill, until the finished product is placed upon the market, the hand labor which it requires is only such as may be necessary in adjusting machinery, and in the occasional transfer of the material from one place to another in the factory. The largest paper mills in the country are at Holyoke, Mass.; other large mills are found in New York and the Eastern States; These mills, however, are more generally given to the manufacture of high grades of paper. The mills which manufacture paper from wood pulp are located near the sources of raw material, and we find very large establishments in the vicinity of the pineries in Michigan and Wisconsin. These mills are given almost entirely to the manufacture of newspaper and book paper. THTT PRTNTTur "^^^^^ ^^^ heeu as great development in printing, p„_,„„ as in the manufacturing of paper. The first print- ing-press in the United States was set up in Har- vard University at Cambridge, in 1639. This was a primitive machine, and had but very few improvements over the press upon which Guttenberg, the inventor of printing, performed his first work, two centuries before. The growth of the printing industry in the country is well illustrated by the development that has followed the introduction of this small press into Cambridge. 168 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY This press was the beginning of what is now known as the Univer- sity Press, one of the largest and best equipped printing and book- making establishments in America, if not in the world. The first cylinder printing-press was used in London in 1814, for printing the London Times, but the greatest development of this useful machine was made by Mr. Richard Hoe of New York City, who in 1840 invented the press which was the original pattern of those now in use for printing the large daily papers. - Mr. Hoe's press put the type on the cylinder, and was so arranged that it printed Several sheets at once. Stereotyped plates are now used on these presses, in place of the type, and are so made that each plate covers half a cylinder. By means of these plates the presses can be operated with great speed, and print both sides of the paper at once. Patterns of this press now in use have been brought to such a degree of perfection that a single machine will print, cut, and fold 150,000 copies of a sixteen-page paper an hour. The paper is run from the roll, and passes through the press at the rate of about thirty-five miles an hour. morr^T. o^™mx»,^ Thcrc faas been as great a development in type- TYPE SETTING , ,. r_. . . ^. -,\\., settmg, or composition, as m printing. Until a few years ago all type was set by' hand, but now in all large es- tablishments most of it is set by machinery. Tjrpe-setting ma- chines enable one operator to do what it would require five or six compositors to accomplish in the same time. By their use the cost of printing has been greatly reduced, and the present daily V aper has been made possible. The rapidity with which this work can be done enables the publishers of large dailies to delay com- position until a much later hour than was possible when all type had to be set by hand. As a result of this the papers contain later information than would formerly be possible. The latest market reports and other important commercial information are now found in every daily paper gf value. COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 169 T/»r ATTON ^^^1^ ^'^ o^ ^^6 large printing and publishing estab- lishments are found in our largest cities, every small city and town of importance has one or more printing offices. In fact, there is scarcely a spot in the entire country that does not have its local press. Perhaps printing is more generally distributed over the country than any other industry except agricultiu-e. The printing and publishing interests of our country involve a great amount of capital, and give employment to thousands of men and women. The value of combined annual output is about $1,456,000. To get the entire value of this industry we would have to add to this amount the cost of the printing-presses, type-setting machines, and printers' supplies used each year. When all these things are taken into consideration, we find that printing and publishing constitute one of the great industries of the country. While many of the commercial methods connected with this indus- try are somewhat different from those of the other manufactures we have mentioned, yet the intimate relation which the printing- press bears to all phases of American life makes it one of the most important factors in our country's prosperity. QUESTIONS. Show how printing has contributed so much to the progress of civilization. Why are books and newspapers so much cheaper now than they were fifty years ago? How are the great city dailies printed? How do you account for the location of a printing-press in almost every srnaU town in the country? o (S ■< o s o u Chapter XVT. OTHER INDUSTRIES. To describe all the manfactures of our country would require many volumes the size of this. While those already mentioned are among the largest and most important, there are scores of others of such magnitude that they could not be removed from our industrial or commercial life without causing a business stagnation. Some of these deal with large articles and require extensive estab- lishments and much capital, such as the manufacture of agricultural implements and electrical appliances ; while " others deal with, smaller articles and are conducted on a much smaller scale. The most important agricultural implements are those for preparing the soil for the seed, AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS such as plows and harrows ; those for plant- ing, like planters and seeders ; those for tilling the. soil, such as the various patterns of hoes and cultivators ; those used for har- vesting, such as the mowing-machine, hayrake and tedder, the harvester and binder and the corn-cutter ; and those used for preparing the crops for market, such as the threshing-machine, the corn-sheller or corn-thresher and the cotton-gin. To these must be added the innumerable hand tools, each of which is manufac- tured in large numbei's. The income from the manufacture of agricultural implements exceeds $168,000,000 yearly. Illinois is the leading state and Chicago the leading city in the industry. Here are located the works of the International Harvester Company, which supplies most of the country with harvesters and mowers. On account of its lightness, durability and convenience, American agricultural 171 172 COMMEBCB AND INDUSTRY machinery is in demand in all of the agricultural countries of Europe and also in South America and Australia. It is estimated by the Department of Agriculture that the in- ventions and improvements of agricultural machinery since 1860 have caused the following^ reduction in the cost of producing crops : corn, from 34S cents to lOi cents per bushel ; wheat, from 17i cents to 3J cents per bushel; hay, from $3.06 to $1.29 per ton. At the present time the amount of human labor, on an average, required to produce a bushel of corn is 41 minutes, and for a bushel of wheat, 10 minutes. This great saving in the cost of production has made it pos- sible to sell the most important food products at such reduced prices as to bring them within the reach of all of our people. Agricultural implements touch the life of all classes and, directly or indirectly, affect the prosperity of all industries on account of the relation of these industries to agriculture. Electricity has become a common agent in our industrial and commercial life. In addition to APPLIANCES .^g oldest uses in the telegraph and telephone and electric light, it is now employed to propel cars and machin- ery, to separate metals from their ores and in the manufacture of numerous chemical products extensively used in the arts. The demand for electrical appliances has become so general that their manufacture has created an extensive and important business. Factories for the manufacture of electrical machinery are found in. all large cities. New York leads in the industry and Chicago is second , but smaller cities contain factories equally eflS- cient, though operated on a less extensive scale. While the United States is the land of great achievements, and the twentieth century is the day ARTICLES e ■ .■ \ . * ^ j • +u or gigantic enterprises, we must not despise the small things which enter into our daily life. The country contains COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 173 numerous industries, which, when compared in value with those already described, are small, yet, on account of their relation to other industries and to commerce, are of such importance that, should any one of them be destroyed, its loss would cause serious inconvenience, both in the United States and several of the coun- tries with which we are carrying on an extensive commerce. „ Gloves and mittens are necessary for com- Gloves and Mittens f i. ^ x c^ ^i tort and ornament. Every year there are manufactured in the country nearly 3,000,000 dozen pairs of leather gloves and mittens, to say nothing of those made of yarn and other material. The largest number is made in the state of New York, which has more factories than all of the other states combined. Illinois, Wisconsin and California are also prominent in the manufacture of these articles. Most of the leather used is kid, sheepskin and dogskin. The adaptation of the gum of the Rubber Boots and Shoes uu ^ * x- i • j 4. rubber tree to practical use is due to the inventive genius of an American, Mr. Charles Goodyear. After a number of years of trial it is said that Mr. Goodyear made his discovery by accident. The story is, that, after spending sev- eral years of his time and all of his property in trying to discover some means of hardening rubber so that it would not be sticky, he was one day engaged in an animated conversation with some friends who were in his shop. Upon a stove near which he stood was a kettle containing some rubber in a melted state, and with which he had mixed some sulphur. In the course of his conver- sation he upset the kettle and spilled the contents upon the hot stove. When the rubber and sulphur were raised to the required temperature, they united and formed the long sought compound. Mr. Goodyear obtained a patent upon his process in 1844, and the successful manufacture of rubber goods began that year. Rubber boots and shoes have become a household necessity, and 174 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRTt their use saves thousands of people from exposure and discomfort. Most of the factories are located in Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. Chicago has a number, and there are a few others in different cities. But the rubber tires for automobiles far exceed in value the rubber boots and shoes manuafctured in the coimtry. The total output of rubber goods for 1916 was valued at $550,000,000. o . . „ There are over 240 button factories in the country. Buttons , , , , p , . , . 1 1 . and the yearly value of their combmed product is some over $20,290,000, which is quite a fortune to be expended on the production of so small an article. Buttons are made from more than a dozen different materials. The most important of these are agate, bone, glass, horn, vegetable ivory, pearl or shell, and metal, including nickel, steel, and brass. What are known as fresh water pearl buttons are made from the shell of a clam which is found extensively in the Mississippi River and some of its tributaries. In 1890, this industry was unknown in the United States, but now it gives emplojrment to several thousand people, and it has given value to a shell that before was considered worthless. The largest quantity of . fresh water pearl buttons is made in the state of Iowa, where the industry started. Needles and Pins ^"*^^ *^^ invention of the sewing machine but few needles were made in this coimtry, but the necessity for machine needles led to their manufacture by sewing machine companies, and in time this manufacture was extended to include common needles. England leads the world in the manufacture of needles, and those of the best quality are still imported from that country. Simple as this little implement is, the process of its manufac- ture is quite complicated. Even with all of the machinery now in use in their manufacture, every needle passes through the hands of seventy workmen before it is completed. COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 175 The pin also is an insignificant article, but one upon whose manufacture a great deal of forethought has been expended. Pins are made by machinery from coils of brass wire. The work is done so rapidly that a continuous stream of pins falls from the machine. Over 30,000,000 are made in the United States in every working day of the year. Before this work was done by machinery, each pin passed, in the course of its manufacture, through the hands of fourteen workmen. Centuries ago, pins were so scarce and so expensive that they were used only by the most wealthy people. Pencils and Pens Although the use of the typewriter has become almost universal, millions of pencils and pens are used in the country every year. The ^eat factories in which these are produced are in New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. The graphite, from which the lead of the pencil is made, is taken from mines near Ticonderoga, N. Y., and the wood for the cases comes from the swamps of Florida. The United States manufactures about one-half a million gross a year. Steel pens are made from cast steel of the best quality. Most of it is imported from England and Sweden. Some over a million gross are manufactured yearly, and to this mxist be added the gold pens and the various kinds of fountain pens. While England still leads in the manufacture of steel pens, the American factories now .nearly supply the needs of our own <;ountry. Time Pieces ^^^^ ^^ *^® clocks of the country are made in Connecticut, and watches in Massachusetts, lUi- ,8ois-, and New Jersey. Accuracy and cheapness characterize the iAmerican watch. This is because the works are made entirely by -machinery and are always exact. The largest watch factory in the world is at Waltham, Massachusetts, and the second in Elgin, Illinois. The Waltham factory alone manufactures more watches 176 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY in a year than any other foreign country except Switzerland, its output being 600,000. Time-pieces are now so common that we scarcely think of their value until deprived of them, but this is because their manu- facture has been made so cheap that almost anyone who desires may possess a clock or a watch. Before the manufacture of watches by machinery, their expense was so great that but few people could afford to own them. „, . D J „4. Some of our most common articles in Waste By-proauets j j. ii. j. daily use are made from products that were formerly thrown away as worthless. Soap is made from the waste tissue and fat from the great meat packing houses. Glue comes from the heads and feet of slaughtered animals, and some of the most valuable fertilizers are. made from the blood and offal. Formerly, the slag formed in smelting iron was removed from the smelting works at considerable expense and destroyed; but now it is extensively used in making a valuable cement and in the production of paving stones. This industry is much more exten- sive in Europe than in the United States. The cities of Brussels, Metz, and Paris now contain a great deal of pavement made from slag. In England it is manufactured into bricks of a superior quality. Sawdust has now become an article of value, when only a few years ago it was burned in the rubbish heap, or allowed to float down stream. By a process, discovered by a French cabinet- maker, the sawdust is made into an artificial wood by the use of cement, great pressure, and intense heat. The value of this wood is far greater than that of the natural timber. It is hard, strong, and capable of taking a high polish, so that the articles made from it are often more beautiful than those made from rosewood or mahogany. The paper industry originally depended upon rags and waste COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 177 rope for its raw material, and it still consumes all of these that can be procured, but the source will not supply the present demand for paper, so that wood pulp and other material have to be added. But the use of these substances should not blind us to the fact that large quantities of rags and waste rope are used by the paper mills of the country. The iron from old tin cans is fused into steel of good quality. The food waste and garbage of great cities, and even the grease obtained in cleaning wool, are all worked into something of use and value, and the fact that science and invention have made it possible to turn so many of these substances to practical use is one of the greatest importance in our industrial life. In all occu- pations economy and frugality are necessary to success, and nowhere do we find these virtues practised to a greater degree than in oiir great industrial enterprises, and this practice is one of the principal reasons for our success as a manufacturing nation. Automobiles Steam carriages were known in England and France before the Revolutionary War, but the development of the automobile in its present form dates from 1884, when the perfection of the gasoline engine made such a vehicle possible. Since 1900, the use of automobiles has increased very rapidly. From a mere pleasure carriage the automobile has be- come a business necessity in both city and country, and in cities the auto truck is fast replacing the dray hauled by horses. The manufacture of automobiles has become one of our important in- dustries. In 1915, the value of the entire output was $691,779,000, and there were over three hundred establishments engaged in their manufacture. J./\.C SP i r- =L«--J? ■ 3/- r L Chapter XVII. TRADE ROUTES. When the country was new, all nrerchandise trans- ROADS ported overland was carried on the backs of men or animals, and by boat whenever possible. The old overland trade route, in many instances, followed the most important Indian trails. These were located with reference to the ease and safety with which they could be traversed, or to their convenience in leading from one place to another. The Indian trails became bridle paths, which joined neighbor- ing settlements, and, as the country developed, these routes broadened into wagon roads. Previous to the Revolution, roads, over which stage wagons made regular trips, connected New York and Philadelphia ; others connected Boston with some of the more important towns jn Connecticut, and these towns with New York. However, but little attention was given to road making until after the war for independence. Road making in the United States has not kept pace with the commercial development of the country on account of the vast extent of our territory and the rapid settlement of new states. In the older states the principal roads are fairly good, but in those west of New York and south of the Ohio River the roads are entirely inadequate to the demands made upon them. In all of these states there are but a few miles of stone road, and in certain seasons the dirt roads are well nigh impassable on account of mud. The wrowth of the country and the rapid development of our com- mercial interests make good roads a necessity to all agricultural communities, and both the national and state governments are now 179 s c o ij O < o COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 181 making efforts I to improve the public highways. In the present condition of the roads it often costs the farmer more to haul his produce to the railway than it does to ship it from the nearest station in the interior to the coast. Railroads are the greatest overland trade routes of the country. Beginning with the construction of the Baltimore & Ohio and the Delaware & Hudson Canal Roads in 1830 and 1832, they have gradually extended their lines until now railways are found in nearly every habitable portion of the land. The first railway lines followed the river valleys, and for many years it was not thought possible to construct a railroad through mountainous, or even hilly regions, but the science of engineering has now overcome all difficulties ; impassable moun- tains are tunnelled, rivers and lakes are bridged, and a railroad can be constructed wherever it is desired, provided the company is willing to pay the cost. We should notice here that tunnelling a mountain or bridging a stream has the same eflfect as removing these obstructions, as far as transportation is concerned. The most important tunnel of this sort is the Hoosac Tunnel in Massachusetts, which is some over four miles in length. Numerous others of greater or less length are found in the Appalachian and Rocky Mountains. The great rivers of the United States and Canada are now bridged in numer- ous places. Some of the most noted - ^^^^Hk^J^^HtmE Si^^HI^H m S ' '^l^^^Ev^'^^^nEl HguHB^p E f £ i.< ~il^^^n ■ '^^IkI SJI^^EyB f^f ** ^ -ffr^^^^^^V 'i '9^^Be ^BSff' j mI ammj ^^^9RH IBflr 'f ^^^fiiilwi WKffif •M/i IM^H MSB^tL ifi'' ^^hIwI ^^^^1^* MS * ^ ^Bi ^^^^9 ^HhBI^ J^ a I^^^^H ^^^^Vrr< "■ r t^l ePI^I^I ^^H^Pl s s '^^B ^^■1 R-r / M ^I^^^H ^Hk f f *iP MtWf' \ ^m ■^^1 ■^^1 H»/ / #^ "*Tra ^B^^^l ^B/£ f /f * s ^ 'B vi^H ^Rs f jF < -^8 yH M./^ iirfii Iw K6j1W :l IHmff^iTTt rmVirill O fA CD CQ t EH o o 33 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 183 impracticable, ferry boats are employed to transport trains across. These ferries are large steamboats constructed especially for this purpose, and most of them are capable of carrying from ten to twenty-four cars at once. Some of the most important railway ICE-CUTTING RAILWAY PERRY This ferry is 302 feet long and can carry 18 freight cars at a load. It plies between St. Ignace and Mackinaw City, Micb. A special device for cutting the ice enables It to keep the channel open the entire winter. ferries are those crossing the East River at New York, the Detroit River at Detroit, and Port Huron ; those crossing the Ohio River at Cairo, 111. ; those crossing the Straits of Mackinaw between St. Ignace and Mackinaw City, Mich. ; and those crossing the bay at San Francisco. The boats crossing the Straits of Mackinaw are 184 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY of a peculiar style and are so constructed that they can cut their way through the ice during the winter. These boats are among the largest railway ferries in the world. There are also a number of ferries plying between Milwaukee and ports on the eastern shore. The most important lines of railway extend east and west, or nearly so. There are, however, a few exceptions to this general rule. The lines in the northern New England States, and many of those in the Southern States, extend north and south, while the Illinois Central extends from Chicago to New Orleans and forms an important north and south trunk line. This railway has numerous branches extending from Chicago to St. Paul, from Chicago to St. Louis, and numerous shorter lines which connect the main line with other important towns on the Mississippi. The railways of the United States are naturally grouped according to the extent of their lines and their connections, as follows: The New England Group ^he railways of the New England States belong almost entirely to the Boston and Maine, the New York, New Haven and Hartford, the Maine Central, and the Grand Trunk Systems. The main lines and branches of these combined systems touch* alnjpst every town of importance in the states through which they pass. Their princi- pal connections with western lines are made at Albany, N. Y., New York City, and Montreal. The important railway centers in the New England States are Portland, Maine, Boston and Springfield, Mass., and New London and Hartford, Conn. The Central Group "^^^ railroads in this group are arranged in two divisions: those running from eastern points to Chicago, and those running from Chicago westward. The important lines of the first division are the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad running from New York to Buffalo, and its extensions, the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern and the Michigan COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 185 Central, both of which reach from Buffalo to Chicago; the Pennsyl- vania System, also extending from New York to Chicago, by way of Philadelphia, and having many important branch lines leading to Colimibvis, Cincinnati, Fort Wajnie, and numerous other important towns in Ohio and Indiana; the Baltimore and Ohio, extending from New York to Baltimore and Washington, thence westward by the Potomac and Ohio Rivers as far as St. Louis, with a northern line by way of Harrisburg to Chicago. Other important lines in this group are the Wabash and Pacific, the Lake Erie and Western, the Chicago, Cleveland, Cincinnati and St. Louis, usually known as the Big Four. The important lines of the second division are, the Chicago and Northwestern, with lines extending from Chicago to St. Paul and Minneapolis, from Chicago to Duluth, Chicago to Omaha, and branch lines extending into Iowa and South Dakota; the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul, extending from Chicago to St. Paul by way of Milwaukee, and with important branches running through Northern Illinois, Iowa, and Southern Minnesota; also the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, usually known as the Burlington System. This system has important lines extending from Chicago to St. Paul, and St. Paul to St. Louis, with a line to Denver by way of Kansas City. It will be noticed the roads leading out of Chicago in many instances extend beyond the Mississippi. They form the connection between the roads of the first division in this group and the great tnmk lines which extend from the Mississippi aijd Missouri River points to the Pacific coast. The most important railway centers in the central group are New York, Albany, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Pittsburgh, Buffalo, Cincinnati, Fort Wayne, South Bend, Chicago, and St. Louis. Th w t r "^^^ group contains those systems which form the great transcontinental lines, so called because they make connections which reach across the coun- 186 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY try, though no one road or single system of roads in the United States has a continuous line from the Atlantic to the Pacific. These lines are, taking them in their order from north to south, the Great Northern and Northern Pacific, extending from St. Paul and Duluth through Minnesota, North Dakota, Montana, and Idaho to points in Washington and Oregon; the Chicago, St. Paul and Puget Sound; the Union Pacific, extending from Omaha, through Nebraska, Wyoming, Utah, and Nevada, to California points; the Atchison, Topeka and Santa F(5, extending from Chicago to San Francisco by way of Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona; and the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific, which also is a route extending westward from Chicago through Colorado and Arizona to California. Of these, the Union Pacific, now generally known as the Southern jpacific, was the first line constructed, and its completion in 1869 marked the beginning of a new industrial era in the country. All of these great lines have received government aid in their construc- tion, in most cases by large grants of land which the roads have sold to settlers, but in some cases, particularly that of the Union Pacific, by the government guaranteeing the bonds issued for the con- struction of the road. _ The great railway centers connecting with this group of roads are Chicago, St. Louis, St. Paul, and Minneapolis, Omaha, Kansas City, Denver, San Francisco, Portland, and Seattle. It will be noticed that Chicago is in the territory of the central group, but it is practically the center from which all these great lines radiate and properly belongs with them on account of this relation. The Southern Group '^^^ ^°^^^ °^ *^® southern group are less extensive than those of the others, but most of them are now combined into systems. Among these worthy of mention are the Chesapeake and Ohio, the Queen and Cres- cent, the Atlantic Coast system, the Louisville and South^n, the Georgia Central, and the Illinois Central. The most important of COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 187 these lines have direct connections with the lines of the Central Group at Cincinnati, Cairo, and St. Louis. The important rail- way centers are Louisville, Nashville, Atlanta, New Orleans, and Jacksonville. The United States has some over 264,000 miles of railways, which is over one-third the mileage of the world. Most of the lines are combined into great systems, each of which is under a single management. The largest of these is the Pennsylvania, which includes some over 11,200 miles of track. Others of impor- tance are the New York Central, the Chicago and Northwestern, the Santa F6, the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul, the Burlington, and each of the great Pacific lines. The combined roads have over 65,000 locomotives, 53,000 passenger cars, and about 2,325,000 freight cars. They carry yearly nearly a billion passengers, and about two bilhon tons of freight, and employ over a milUon men. The capacity of the freight cars ranges from thirty to forty tons. The speed of the passenger trains is from forty to fifty miles, with a speed of from sixty to sixty-five miles per hour for some of the fastest express trains. Through freight trains average about thirty miles an hour, except in mountainous regions. The average tariff per mile for passengers is a little over two cents, and the freight rates are about seventy cents per ton for each hundred miles. TNT ANT1 '^^^ inland waterways of the United States have WATERWAYS ^^ extent of about 26,000 miles, as follows: navi- gable rivers, 14,000 miles; canals, 4000 miles; lakes, 8000 miles. Rivers '^^® '^^^^ important navigable rivers belong to the Mississippi system, and are the Mississippi, the Ohio, the Missouri, the Arkansas, and the Red, with a few smaller tribu- taries. The Mississippi is navigable as far as St. Paul, and between St. Louis and the Gulf has numerous lines of steamers making 66mMerce and industry 189 regular trips throughout the year. The Ohio is navigable as far as Pittsburgh, and furnishes a very important outlet for the coal, iron and other heavy products of that part of the country. The Missouri is navigable as far as Fort Benton during high water, and to the mouth of the Yellowstone at other times, but the con-, struction of the western trunk lines of railway has made the navi- gation of this stream of less importance than formerly. Most of the rivers of the Atlantic Slope are navigable to the fall line, and steam- ers ascend the Hudson as far as Albany. Navigable rivers afford convenient transportation at lower rates than those charged by the railways and those of the Mississippi system are of special value because of their length and the means they afford of reaching points far removed from the sea coast. Lakes '^^^ most important lake routes are those connected with the Great Lakes. They include routes from Duluth to Lake Huron points, such as Port Huron and Detroit, and to Cleve- land and Buffalo, and other ports on Lake Erie; also routes from Chicago, Milwaukee, and several Michigan points, through the Straits of Mackinaw to the ports of Lake Huron and Erie. The railroads of this section have some advantage over the lake routes, because the latter are open to navigation only 225 days in the year, while the railroads are open the year round; but the cheap transportation offered by the lines of steamers plying over these waters gives them an abundance of traffic during the open season. During the season, lake steamers, drawing 20 feet of water, and as large as many ocean steamers, make regular trips between Duluth and Chicago. The best of these boats can make 14 to 20 round trips from the first of May to the first of December. On their downward trips, boats, from Duluth and Lake Superior points, carry cargoes of grain, copper, flour, and iron-ore; from Chicago and Lake Michigan points, grain and merchandise; on their return trips about one-fourth of all boats are usually loaded with coal or COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 191 merchandise. Some lines carry both freight and passengers and two hnes are devoted entirely to passenger traffic. The trip is one of the most delightful in the world. THE "SOUTH AMERICAN." COne of the Steamers ol the Chicago, Duluth and Georgian Bay Steamship Company"). Canals Lake and river routes are greatly extended by sys- tems of canals. The Erie Canal, extending from Buffalo to Albany, N. Y., and connecting the Great Lakes with the Hudson River, was completed in 1825. It was the first great public work undertaken by the United States and its opening marked a new era in the industrial and commercial progress of the country. In 1913, the legislature of New York voted to combine the Erie 192 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY Canal with the Champlain, the Oswego, and the Cayuga and Seneca Canals and give the system the name, New York State Barge Canal; $100,000,000 was appropriated for enlarging the entire system, and the work was nearly completed in 1916. This canal provides the state with 790 miles of waterway broad enough and deep enough to carry 1500-ton barges. The construction of the Erie Canal gave New York its supremacy as a commercial center. The St. Mary's Canal at Sault Ste. Marie, Mich., is the most important short canal in the world. It is about a mile long and pro- vides for a drop of about 20 feet, to enable vessels to pass around the rapids in the St. Mary's. River. The American locks are foiu" in number, and are situated side by side. The two largest are 1350 feet long, 80 feet wide and have 341/^ feet of water over the sill. The Poe lock, next in size, is 1000 feet long and 100 feet wide and has 21 feet of water over the sill. The fourth lock is used for small boats. The lock on the Canadian side is a little larger than the Poe lock. About 25,000 vessels pass through these locks during a season, which is more than six times the number passing through the Suez Canal. The other canals connected with the lake routes are in Canada, but are so closely associated with the traffic of the United States, that they really belong to this system of water routes. These are the Welland Canal, which connects Lake Erie with Lake Ontario and passes around the falls in the Niagara River, and the system of canals around the rapids in the St. Lawrence, The COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 193 combined length of these canals in the St. Lawrence is about 44 miles, while the total length of the canals between Lake Superior and Montreal is about 70 miles. By their means ocean-going ships of small size and draft can pass from the lake ports [to the Atlantic and return without difficulty. ■WHALEBA.CK COMING OUT OF THE POB LOCK AT SAULT STB. MAEIB The power-house, containing the machinery for operating the iocks. is on the left. A number of canals were constructed, connecting Lake Erie with the Wabash and Ohio Rivers, passing across the state of Ohio by way of Columbus and Cincinnati; but the numerous lines of rail- way now traversing that state have rendered them almost useless, except for the carrying of coal and ore. A canal around the falls in the Ohio at Louisville enables boats to pass around this obstruc- tion so that freight can be carried from Pittsburgh to the Mississippi without reloading. COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY - 195 Another canal of some importance is that connecting Lake Champlain with the Hudson River. There are a few small canals in Pennsylvania, and the old Chesapeake and.Ohio Canal in Maryland is still used for carrying coal, but aside from the Erie Canal, and those connected with the navigation of the St. Lawrence, most of these waterways have fallen into disuse. The Chicago Drainage Canal, extending from Chicago to the Illinois River at Joliet, though originally constructed for drainage purposes, is of such dimensions as to make it navigable for the largest lake steamers. By deepening the Illinois River at various points, and making the proper connection between it and the canal, a direct water route from Lake Michigan to the Gull' of Mexico can be secured, and it is probable that the government will undertake this work in the near future. OCEAN ROUTES '^^^ ^^^^ important Atlantic routes extend from New York, Boston, and Philadelphia to the ports of Europe, and southward along the coast to some of the gulf ports, the West Indies and Central America. .Vessels formerly going around Cape Horn to reach ports in the Pacific Ocean now go via the Panama Canal. These routes are marked on the map, and each should be carefully traced. Vessels going eastward take a northerly route and avail themselves of the Gulf Stream, escaping the trade wiilds which blow towards the west; while those vessels going westward, especially sailing vessels, follow the route which is in the path of the trade winds and receive what benefit they can from them on their voyage. However, the great ocean liners which make the highest speed between American and European ports, pay but little* attention to either winds or currents, but follow the route which covers the' shortest distance between ports. The Pacific routes lead from San Francisco and Seattle to the westward. These extend to the Hawaiian Islands, the Philippine Islands, and the ports of China and Japan, while the coastwise 196 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY routes extend northward to Alaska and southeast to the ports on the Isthmus of Panama, and the coast of South America. The annexation of the Hawaiian Islands, the development of the Philippines, and our increasing trade with China and Japan are making the Pacific routes more important every year. (See page 290.) One who has not crossed the Atlantic has AN OCEAN LINER j.^^^^ conception of the size and conven- iences of one of the great steamships that ply between European and American ports. For a number of years builders have been constructing very large ships for the steamship companies. One of these, the Mauretania, of the Cunard Line, is about 790 feet long. Were seven ships of this length placed end to end they would extend over a mile. The smokestacks are taller than the spires of many churches, and if laid in a horizontal position two railway trains could pass through them abreast on double tracks. When fully loaded the Mauretania displaces 46,000 tons of water, a quantity sufficient to fill a channel 30 feet wide, 6 feet deep and one and one-half miles long. She makes the trip between New York and Queenstown in a little less than five days. The three largest ships completed previous to 1916 were the Imperator, 909 feet long; the Vaterland, 950 feet; and the Bismarck, all belonging to the Hamburg-American Line. The Vaterland is 100 feet wide, has a hold 65 feet deep, and engines of 80,000 horse- power. Her speed is 24 knots an hour, two knots less than that of the Mauretania of the Cunard Line. Over 1000 tons of coal are consumed daily in driving the engines of one of these great ships. These great ocean liners are in every respect floating palaces. They contain electric passenger and freight elevators, play-rooms for children, swimming-pools, and every luxury found in the finest hotels of Europe and the United States. COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 197 «««™tt«»/^ . mT«« Of almost equal importance with the lines COMMUNICATION . , ... ^ , , . of transportation are the means of commu- nication by which business men are kept constantly informed of the industrial conditions and the state of the markets of the entire world. Without the telegraph and the telephone it would be impossible to operate our great railway and steamship lines upon present plans Telegraph lines now traverse the entire country in all directions, and there is scarcely a hamlet which is not within . easy reach of a telegraph office. In addition to this, ocean cables now cross the Atlantic and Pacific, so that it is possible to send a dispatch to any part of the world and receive a reply within a few hours' time, and wireless messages across oceans and continents are now common. Telephone lines extend from large cities to sur- rounding towns, and even to many rural communities, so that these places have a cheap and easy means of communication with the great centers of trade. In addition to these means of- communication, the mails trans- mit promptly and cheaply letters, bills, receip'ts, drafts, and money orders, and what is of almost equal importance, numerous news- papers and trade journals, by means of which every business man can obtain reliable and very complete information of those lines of commerce in which he is interested. Besides, most localities are now favored with free rural delivery, by which means mail is brought daily to every resident along the route. QUESTIONS In what general direction did the earliest railroads' in the United States extend? In what direction do the longest trunk lines now extend? What has made Chicago the largest railroad center in the world? In what way has the government aided in the construction of railroads? Has this aid been beneficial to the country? Why did the completion of the Erie Canal form the beginning of a new era in the commercial history of the United States? In what way does the government aid in transportation? Chapter XVIII. GREAT CITIES. The early history of most of our large cities might LOCATION . lead one to think that their beginnings were acci- dental, and while it is difficult to say why some cities are located just where they are, it is, nevertheless, a well-recognized fact that the location of most was determined by geographical conditions. Some are dependent upon one set of conditions . and others upon another. Among the most important of these are the following : Transportation by water is successful only when °° r r yessels have safe and convenient anchorage ; consequently, those towns which were first built on enclosed arms of the sea, having a sufficient depth of water to admit the largest vessels, possessed great advantage in trade. Ships sought their fiorts and people from other towns and the surrounding country came to them to exchange commodities. This gave employment to a large number who must necessarily • live near their work, and thus the city was started. One line of business attracted another and the city continued to grow. On the Atlantic coast, Boston, New York, Philadelphia and Baltimore are the best illus- trations of cities built on good harbors, and San Francisco and Seattle, on the Pacific, owe their prosperity to a similar cause. Many country towns began from Convenient Meeting Places apparently trivial causes. They were convenient stopping places at the end of a day's journey, or where a road had to cross a river by a ford or a ferry. People could meet at such places more conveniently than at any other place in the vicinity, and trade sprang up. As the population 199 200 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRT increased, business was extended, requiring more people, and the settlement became a town. In certain localities, such towns often grew into cities. A number of our small inland cities staited in this way. Many of the cities of the New England and the Water Power -^^j.^^ Atlantic States are built on sites where water power is abundant. Such are Lowell and Fall Eiver in Massachusetts; Nashua, N. H., Troy, N. Y., and n number of towns on the fall line ; while Minneapolis illustrates the same principle of location in the Mississippi Valley. In our early history, many military posts Military Stations ^^^.^ established at junction points and portages. These were found to be safe and convenient places for trading stations, and business was drawn to the localities where they were established. When the military was removed, the trading post remained and grew into a town and then to a city. Detroit, Chicago and St. Louis are illustrations of cities that began as military posts. , Pittsburg owes its growth and prosperity to the pres- ° ence of coal and iron, which made it a convenient and cheap manufacturing center. Added to this was its advantage of being at the head of navigation on the Ohio, which, before the extension of railroads into the interior of the country, gave it prestige as a trading center. Many cities in the coal regions of Pennsylvania, Leadville, Colo., Butte, Mont., and a number of other thriving cities owe their growth to mining interests. » ^. T,, „,,,,„ A number of in- Meeting Places of Land and Water Routes i j -,■ , land cities have grown up at convenient meeting places of land and water routes. Duluth affords the best connection for the railroads of Northern Minnesota and North Dakota with the steamers on the Great Lakes. While Buffalo affords an equally convenient place for COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 201 such connection at the lower end of the lakes. Besides, the con- struction of the Erie Canal early gave this city an important position as a place of trans-shipment of cargoes from lake vessels to the canal boats. Cleveland, Detroit, Milwaukee and Chicago each owe much of their prosperity to similar causes. Numerous lines of railway meet in each of these cities, and the traffic between them and the lake steamers is extensive. New Orleans is an important port for the trans-shipment of cargoes from the Missis- sippi steamers to ocean-going vessels and from these vessels to the river steamers. Some inland cities owe their prosperity to RaUway Centers ^j^^ ^^^^ ^^,^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ located at a con- venient point for numerous railways to meet. Indianapolis, South Bend and Denver are good illustrations of such centers. There are a number of other causes which have led td the building of cities at numerous points. St. Paul is at the head of navigation on the Mississippi, and Albany is similarly situated on the Hudson. New Orleans occupies a good site for a river port near the sea. The building of the Eads Bridge transformed East St. Louis from a small town to an important city and railroad center. The construction of a bridge across the Missouri at Kansas City also contributed much to that city's growth. The consolidation of manufacturers and other industries under great corporations that erect .extensive factories also contributes to the growth of many cities, and causes the foundation of others. These plants require thousands of workmen, all of whom must live near their work, consequently houses are built near the factories, the wants of the people bring other industries and a town is soon established. While each city has its own peculiarities of PLAN OF A CITY structure which are determined by its loca- tion, in their general plan all American cities are similar. COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 203 Outline "^^^ outline of a city is determined almost entirely by its site. Boston occupies land surrounding a very irregular body of water, and has the most irregular outline of any large city in the country. New York originally occupied an island and conformed to its contour, and in its extension has kept its form intact, so that the city is an approximate rectangle, with its greatest length from north to south. Since the west side of the city is bounded by the Hudson, its outline is regular; but the exten- sion of the city eastward is greater in some places than in others and its eastern boundary is quite irregular. Philadelphia follows the Delaware and Schuylkill, which gives it quite a long extension on the west side. Chicago is a rectangle, with its greatest length on Lake Michigan, and inland cities, whose sites are not affected by bodies of water, are generally regular in outline. Plan ^^ ^ great measure the streets of a city must conform to the shape of the site. Cities built upon an irregular site cannot have streets as regularly laid out as others; new cities are more regular than old ones. Philadelphia was the first American city whose streets were properly planned. They run at right angles and are so numbered that the number of any building at once tells its location. This is the proper method of laying out the streets and numbering the lots, and is pursued in all the newer cities of the country. The modem method of laying out a city is to nm the streets at right angles, if possible; to name those running in one direction and number the cross streets. Usually an important street through the center of the city is taken as the line from which the numbers extend either north and south or east and west, as the case may be. The blocks are numbered by hundreds; all of the numbers in the first block running from one to one hundred; those in the second from two hundred to three hundred, and so on. By this method, one acquainted with the city can immediately tell the location of 204 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY the building. Formerly the lots were numbered in regular order, from end to end of the street, without regard to the number of blocks. Unfortunately in some cities both methods of number- ing are in use, which makes it impossible to determine location by number. Every city is divided into a number of well defined portions, each of which is distinguished by some leading feature. Except in mining towns, the shipping portion is first determined upon. If the city is on a navigable body of water, this is where the most convenient and commodious harbor can be made. In large sea and lake ports it often extends for a long distance along the water front and where the city is at the mouth of a navigable river, the ship- ping portion may also extend along both banks for several miles, as in Chicago. If the city is a railway center, the shipping portion is in the locality where commodious railroad yards and freight houses can be most conveniently and economically erected. In large cities the industries often exert a strong influence in locating shipping portions, and instead of one there may be several. The manufacturing portion is always situated as near the ship- ping portion as possible, in order to save imnecessary expense in transportation. Cities having an extensive shipping business may have more than one shipping portion, but in such cases, industries of the same sort have a tendency to seek the same locality, there- fore we find furniture factories in one locality, boot and shoe fac- tories in another, and iron foundries and machine shops in a third. As near as possible to the shipping and manufacturing por- tions is the exchange, or "downtown" portion. This is usually the most important part of the city, and is divided into wholesale and retail districts, the former being near the shipping portion. Here, in addition to the wholesale and retail stores, we find the large office buildings and most of the public edifices, as the post-oflice, city hall, court-house and such other similar institutions as the city COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 205 may contain. In some cities public libraries are located within the business portion while in others they are in more retired sections. Conveniently located to all business enterprises are found a number of banks, and sometimes a United States sub-treasury office. The buildings in the exchange portion are large, and, in such cities as New York and Chicago, very tall, some of them exceeding thirty stories in height. The streets are broad, and so paved as to enable them to withstand the heavy teaming. The residence portions are situated around the other portions of the city, and to be desirable should afford good drainage, plenty of sunlight and fresh air, and be interspersed with boulevards and parks. The portions vary widely in these respects, and each por- tion is sought by the class of people to whose means and tastes it is best suited. Some sections are occupied by those who have acquired great wealth. These sections are characterized by expen- sive residences, beaut ful streets, and numerous parks; other sec- tions are occupied by people who, though in good circumstances, do not care to live in so expensive a style. In these sections are many large apartment houses divided into "fiats." The portions occupied by the poorer classes are usually quite near, if not within, the manufacturing or exchange centers, and are densely crowded. In such cities as New York and Chicago various localities in the resi- dence portions are occupied wholly by people of foreign extraction who have emigrated to this country and still maintain the language and customs which they used in their fatherland. The transportation of the inhabitants to and from their places of business always has been a serious problem, and as the cities in- crease in size it becomes still more perplexing. All lines of rail- way which center in the large cities run local- trains at intervals of a few minutes from the suburbs to their central stations. Street car lines lead from all parts of the city, and from many suburbs of the busings portion, and in New York, Chicago, and a few other 'n R El I IE f I Pi IKIEP I Kl n IE I > Jl THE CUSTOM HOUSE, BOSTON (Photo copyright by H. A. Folaom) Commerce and iNDtrsxRY 207 cities, these are supplemented by several lines of elevated railway. But during the morning and evening hours all means of transporta- tion are taxed to their utmost. The streets in the business center of every large city become very much overcrowded, and, in order to avoid this, Boston and New York have constructed underground railways, known as subways, which pass under the streets of the most crowded portions. In New York a subway system which can transport over 300,000 passengers a day has been completed, and this to quite an extent relieves the overcrowding. Nearly every city has one or more parks open to the public as pleasure grounds. Such cities as New York, Chicago and St. Louis have several large parks located in different parts of the city and, in addition to these, numerous small ones so located that they enable the people of the most crowded portions to reach them with- out traveling a long distance. The schools and churches are usually distributed throughout the residence portions, so as to accommo- date the people to the best advantage. There are a number of cities on the Atlantic SEAPORTS and Pacific coasts that are important seaports. Among them are : Next to New York, Boston is our most important sea- OSton poi.t,_ jt; i^ag one of the best harbors in the country, though it is not as large as that of New York. Previous to the con- struction of the Erie Canul, Boston was the leading port of the coun- try, but the opening of that waterway gave New York an advantage because it brought to it a large trade that before the construction of railways Boston could not reach. Nearly all of the export and import trade of New England is carried on through Boston and in addition to this, it receives for export a large amount of produce from the west. A number of important lines of railway center in the city, and each has good western connections. Its ocean routes lead to Liverpool, Glasgow, Hamburg and important seaports on 210 •COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY without difficulty. The city is now developing an important trade with Mexico and the Central American states. San Franeisco '^^^^ ^^ ^°^^ heen the most important port on the Pacific coast. It is situated on one of the FBBET HOUSE, SAN FEANCISCO finest harbors in the world, which is deep enough to admit the largest vessels regardless of the ebb and flow of the tide. Its thriving commerce is carried on with the ports of China and Japan, and in addition to this it has a greatly increasing trade with Hawaii and the Philippine Islands. Its exports consist largely of wheat- flours, fruits, leather, wines, and meat products. Lines of steamers also connect it with most of the Pacific ports of South America, as well as all of the important coast towns of the Pacific States. COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 211 Oakland, across San Francisco Bay, is the meeting place of several transcontinental lines of railway. Seattle ^^^^^^®> situated on Puget Sound, has an exceptional harbor, and is the terminus of several transcontinental lines of railway. It is rapidly developing into an important sea- port, and has lines of steamers making direct connection with the important cities of China and Japan, and in its trans-Pacific trade reaches eastward as far as Liverpool and London. It is also the headquarters for all the lines of steamers for Alaskan ports. The rapid growth of the business interests of this city during the last decade, has been remarkable, and it bids fair to become the most important commercial port of the Pacific coast. (For a view of the harbor, see page 42.) TAK-p pnBTIDUSTRY Alaska abounds in mineral wealth. Gold was discovered near Nome City on Seward Peninsula in 1898, and since that date large gold fields have been developed along the Yukon River and in the southeastern part of the territory. The output for 1916 was valued at $17,050,000, and the value of all the gold mined in Alaska since its discovery there exceeds $261,000,000. Since 1915, the mining of copper has developed rapidly and the value of the output now exceeds that of gold, the copper mined in 1916 being valued at $26,400,000. Large coal fields have been discovered, and Alaska coal mines now supply local demands for this fuel. In 1904 marble quarries were opened near Prince of Wales Island, and they are furnishing some of the finest marble quarried in America. Salmon canning is carried on chiefly on and about Kadiac Island. The value of this industry is given on page 93. Regular lines of steamers ply between all Alaskan ports and Seattle and other cities on Puget Sound during the months when navigation is open, and the United States has established a regular mail service, so that, except during the most severe winter months, all citizens receive mail at regular intervals. Telegraphic communica- tion by way of Dawson is now open to nearly all points in the territory. The population is about 60,000, and the government is that of an organized territory, the governor and judges of the courts being appointed by the President of the United States, and the territorial oflBcers appointing the minor local officials. The United States mining and land laws have been extended to the territory, and there is every prospect of a rapid increase in settle- ment, and in the development of its industries. PORTO RICO "^^^ island, one of the most important of the West India group, was acquired from Spam in 1898. It is a little smaller than Connecticut, having an area of 3600 square miles, and a population of about 1,216,000. It is more densely populated than any state except Massachusetts and Rhode COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 249 Island. About one-third of the inhabitants are negroes and mu- lattoes. The better class are Spanish Creoles, who live in the towns and control the industries and business affairs of the island. About three quarters of the population is rural. Near the coast the land is low, but it rises as we go into the interior, where it becomes hilly and in places, even mountainous; The island is within the belt of the trade winds, and the northern part is abundantly watered, consequently the rivers in this part Of the island afford acceptable harbors, and render important assist- ance to commerce. Most of the island is divided into small farms, all of which are tilled by their owners On the low slopes and the plains fruit farming is the leading industry; but coffee, tobacco, corn, and mountain rice are grown, and coffee has become an important article of export. In the interior cattle are raised on the hill farms, and the largest tobacco plantations are found on the narrow alluvial plains. The principal cities are San Juan, the capital, having a population of 48,700; Ponce, 35,000, and Mayaguez, 17,000. San Juan is 1411. miles from New York, with which it maintains regular communication by steamer. Labor is cheap, and the establishment of manufacturing indus- tries would be a great benefit to the people, as it would enable them to obtain better support than is possible under present con- ditions. Many of the native plants are suitable for textiles and cordage, and these could be manufactured with profit. The annual trade with the United States amounts to about $97,000,000. Two-thirds of this amount consists in mports from this country and the balance in exports. The chief exports are sugar, coffee,' pineapples, and other fruits, tobacco, molasses, and straw hats. The imports are cotton goods, rice, and codfish. The fish comes mostly from Canada, and the trade with other countries amounts to about $2,000,000 per year. The roads on the island are poor 250 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY and the railroads few, but the United States Government has commenced the construction of roads between the most impor- tant trading centers, and American capital will undoubtedly extend the present railway lines. The government consists of an executive council composed of a cabinet, the members of which are Americans appointed by the President of the United States; and five Porto Ricans. There is also a lower house, of thirty-five members, who are citizens of the island, and are chosen by popular vote. The governor is a citizen of the United States, and is appointed by the President. WhUe the Porto Ricans are given a franchise and local and city govern- ment, they are not recognized as citizens of the United States. An excellent system of schools on the American plan is now in operation, and the number of pupils in attendance is increasing more rapidly than the school facilities will accomm.odate Under American rule all conditions on the island are improving. HAWAII '^^^ Hawaiian Islands lie at the crossroads of all great steamship lines of the Pacific. They are eight in number and are situated between 155° and 160° west longitude; have an area of 6740 square miles, a little more than three-fourths that of Massachusetts, and a population in 1916 exceeding 237,000. The climate is salubrious and equable, owing to the influence of the trade winds. The islands are of volcanic origin, and the soil, which has been formed by the disintegration of lava, is very fertile. It has accumulated in the valleys to a great thickness, and here most of the sugar-cane, which is the important crop of the islands, is grown. This industry employs nearly all of the capital and labor. The cane is cultivated on large estates which are owned by stock companies, but nearly all of the citizens of the island own stock in the corporation, so that their prosperity depends upon the condition of the sugar industry. Rice is the next most important crop, and is grown in swamps by Chinese who are not affected by COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 251 the malarial climate of these localities. Some coffee, pineapples, bananas, and vegetables are also grown, though only to supply local needs. The forests contain many useful trees, but have been nearly destroyed to secure land for sugar plantations. Cattle and sheep for home consumption are raised in the interior; corn, wheat, rubber, grapes, tobacco, and silk 'worms could be successfully cul- tivated, but as none of these are as profitable as sugar-cane, they all give way to the sugar industry. Honolulu, on Oahu Island, a city of 68,000 inhabitants, is the most important town. It has an excellent harbor, and is the port of call for the largest steamers crossing the Pacific. It is a thor- oughly modern city, having electric lights, street railways, fine buildings, and all the improvements found in the best of American cities. The business of the islands is almost wholly in the hands of Americans and Englishmen. The position of these islands is remarkably favorable for commerce, and this accounts for their rapid increase of trade, since more steamers have begun to ply between the United States and the Philippine Islands, and other eastern ports. The islands constitute an organized territory, and have the regular form of territorial government. These islands form an archipelago extending from „ the fourth degree to the twenty-first degree north latitude. Their greatest extent from north to south is about 1500 miles, and from east to west about 650 miles. They lie directly east of the China Sea and north of the Dutch East Indies. The total number of islands is between 1600 and 3000, and their combined area about 120,000 square miles, being equal to that of Michigan and Wisconsin combined. Mindanao and Luzon, the two largest, are each about the size of the state of New York, and are classed among the large islands of the world. The other islands of importance are Samar, Negros, Panay, Palawan, Mindoro, Leyte, Cebu, and Bohol. m > w Eh O EH m o Ja ■< n COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 258 The interior of the large islands is mountainous and heavily timbered. The forests contain mahogany, ebony, sandal-wood, and other valuable timber, and in extent are estimated to have an area of some over 40,000,000 acres. They are of great value, and in due time will become an important source of income to the islands. Fortunately, the forest areas are public land, and have already come under the protection of the national Government, so that the waste that the forests of the United States have been sub- jected to will be prevented here. The climate is tropical, with an abundance of rainfall. There are three seasons : the dry-temperate, running from November to February; the dry-hot, from March to May; and the rainy or wet-temperate, from June to October. The soil is fertile and capable of raising good crops of all products which are suited to the climate. The most important agricultural products at present are sugar, hemp, and tobacco, each of which is exported in considerable quantities. Rice, Indian corn, coffee, cacao and indigo are also raised to quite an extent. The most important article of export is manila hemp, which is the fiber obtained from the leaves of the native tree closely related to the banana and plantain. This is the most valuable fiber in the world for the manufacture of rope, cordage, and sacking, and thou- sands of tons are exported every year. CoCOanuts, pineapples, copra, which is the dried kernel of the cocoanut, and timber are also exported. Some coal is mined on the Island of Cebu and there are also deposits of iron ore, copper, and sulphur, but they have been worked only slightly by the natives in a very primitive manner. . The large islands are all connected by telegraph, and the com- pletion of the American-Pacific cable in 1903 placed Manila in direct communication with the United States over lines which are wholly under American control. There are also about seven hun- dred miles of railroads. The population is estimated at about nine millions, and is of mixed character. Most of the inhabitants have descended from the Negritos and the Malays. There are about o \ COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 255 25,000 whites and 50,000 Chinese on the islands. These are en- gaged in business and industrial enterprises. The Philippines contain a number of quite important towns, but Manila^ the capital, is the great commercial and financial center. It is situated on Manila Bay, on the east coast of Luzon, and has one of the finest harbors on the Pacific Ocean. The harbor now has a large anchorage, and is capable of considerable extension by improvement. The city has a population of about 267,000, and is divided into the old and the new town. The old town is enclosed within a wall, and contains a number of substantial public buildings. The principal manufactures are sugar, cigarettes, and textiles from the native fibers. Its geographical position is such as to make Manila an important distributing center, and is one of the great commercial ports of the East. The other important cities are, Iloilo, on Partay, with 60,000 inhabitants; Cebu, on Cebu, 60,000; Albay, 40,000; Laoag, 43,000; Nueva Causas, 40,000 — ^ all on Luzon. Zamboanga, with 24,000 inhabitants, is the chief city of Mindanao. All these cities have commercial relations with Manila. Iloilo is the second city in importance and has a profitable trade in hemp, sugar, and tobacco. By an act of Congress passed in 1916, the government of the islands was placed almost entirely in the hands of the Filipinos. The Governor-General and the Vice-Governor, who is also Secretary of the Department of Public Instruction, the Auditor and Deputy Auditor are appointed by the President of the United States. Both branches of the legislature — the Philippine Senate and the House of Representatives — are elective. The government is divided into six consecutive departments and the secretaries of these de- partments, with the exception of the Secretary of the Department of Public Instruction, are appointed by the Governor-General, with the consent of the Philippine Senate. Excellent public schools are maintained, and English, Spanish, and the native languages are taught in then;. Since these islands came into the possession of the 256 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY United States they have advanced rapidly in indiistrial and com- mercial importance. With few exceptions, the natives are indus- trious and law-abiding. Manufactures are being introduced and the prosperity of the Philippines seems to be assured. This is one of the Ladrone Islands, and was secured by treaty from Spain at the close of the Spanish-American War. It is held as a strategic point, port of call, and coaling station for American ships. A "^^^ ^ ^ small island of the Samoan group and was obtained through treaty with Germany and Great Britain. It is of value as a naval and coaling station. The princi- pal town, Pago-Pago, is situated on an excellent harbor. The commercial importance of this island, like that of Guam, is small, but the shipping interests of the United States in the Pacific make this port one of great convenience, and indirectly one of value. VIRGIN ISLANDS "^^^ Danish West Indies, comprising the islands of St. Croix, St. Thomas, and St. John, and. having a total area of 134 square miles, were purchased by the United States in 1917 for $25,000,000 and named the Virgin Islands. These islands are of great value for a naval station, but their com- mercial importance is comparatively insignificant. The combined commerce of our island possessions amounts to $242,000,000 per year. QUESTIONS. What has led to the recent development of Alaska? What American seaports are engaged in trade with Alaska? With Hawaii? With the Philippines? Of what conamercial advantage is Porto Rico to the United States? What is the most valuable product of Hawaii? What are the means of communication between Hawaii and the United States? Bewteen the Philippines and the United States? With what countries is most of the commerce of the Philippines carried on? What proportion of their trade is with the United States? What is the United States Government doing to improve the condition of these islands? Chapter XXIII. OUR TRADE WITH OTHER NATIONS. DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN '^^^ ^°™^"^^^ '^""^ .f^ J?^ COMMERCE COMPARED "^^^"^ ^ ^"^^'^ ^^t if commerce. As we have already seen, the United States, on account of her great extent of terri- tory, diversity of climate, and resources, has an unusually large domestic commerce; and were we compelled so to do, we could supply nearly all of our necessities from our own possessions. But in so doing we should not pursue a wise policy. It is to our advantage to trade wi,th foreign nations for the following reasons: First. Because many of these nations produce what we can- not, as coffee, cacao, and rubber; while others produce commodities more cheaply than we can, such as sugar and hemp. Second. Certain people are naturally better adapted to certain lines of work than others. The French excel in the manu- facture of small fancy articles, the Belgians in lace, the Italians in art work, and the Germans in toys and scientific apparatus. These people can produce such articles more cheaply than we, even though they did the work no better. Third. We can produce certain commodities that other nations cannot, such as cotton and copper, and we produce many commodities more cheaply or better than other nations can, espe- cially the great food staples, wheat, corn, and meat. Fourth. Interchange of commoditfes between nations stimu- lates thought and promotes industry. In all ages commerce has been the greatest promoter of civilization, and nations that refrain 257 L'liited States 258 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY from trading with other nations, or who, unneccessarily, restrict their foreign trade, never take a prominent place among thp "xreat powers of the world. The same principles govern foreign commerce as PRINCIPLES r- r- o o r apply to domestic commerce. In our trade" at home we patronize those who are most conveniently located, and who otherwise meet our demands most satisfactorily, so in trading with other nations, we have the largest proportion of trade with those who are most conveniently located, and with those with whom our exchange of commodities is best suited to our interests. The exports and imports between nations are seldom equal, and the difference in value between these is known as the balance in trade. The nation whose exports exceed in value its imports, has a baltoce of trade in its favor, but the nation whose imports exceed its exports has a balance of trade against it. In the first instancy the nation may be called a cred- coMMKKCE jtoj. . in the second it is a debtor. In our commerce with other nations, in late years, the balance of trade has usually been in our favor. Our exports are naturally from those commodities that we produce in the largest quantities. The first use of all products is that for home consumption, then the surplus, if any, is sent to foreign markets. For this reason we shall find nearly the same commodities fr.om the United States in all coun- tries with which we have trade, although they vary somewhat in relative proportion. The nations of Europe and Asia use more of our manufactuied iron and steel than do those of the tropical regions ; while the nations of the tropics use relatively larger Hest of the World COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 259 quantities of our cotton goods than the nations of Europe which do their own manufacturing. While our exports include between seventy and one hundred commodities, those having great value are comparatively few in number. In order of their importance they are, agricultural products, including food produce, raw material and domestic ani- mals ; manufactures, including iron and steel, cotton goods, forest products, leather and leather manufactures ; petroleum and other oils, and manufactured tobacco. The total value of our exports for the year ending June 30, 1915, was $4,483,699,93fi. Our imports for the same period were $2,726,047,186. Our agricultural implements tools, machinery and railway appliances are found in nearly every civilized country on the globe ; our cotton goods go to all coun- tries except those of Europe and British India, and our boots and shoes have an extensive sale. In relative importance our exports are as follows : TEH CENT Agricultural Products 62.73 Manufactures 29.28 Forest Products 4.16 Mining Products 2.81 Our imports are of a more varied character than our IMPORTS exports, since we obtain from each country its principal products which we can secure to our best advantage. From the tropical countries of South America and the West Indies we import coflFee, cacao, sugar, rice, tobacco, rubber, cinchona and various other drugs; and from other tropicar regions we obtain spices, gums and drugs. Most of our coffee comes from Brazil, and all of our rubber from South America, Central America and Mexico. Raw material in the shape of hides, wool and fiber is also imported from these countries. From Europe we obtain raw material for manufacturing, such 260 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY as iron, yarns and numerous other articles that are partially man- ufactured. We also import from European countries many manu- factured articles, such as woolen and silk goods, ribbons, gloves, scientific apparatus and numerous small articles, like steel pens and cutlery, from England, jewelry from France and art work from Italy. From China and Japan we obtain most of our tea and raw silk, and from India, tea, certain varieties of cotton goods, Indian rugs, and other manufactures peculiar to that country. From Australia we obtain wool and hides. Our trade with Africa is small, and while American machinery and a few other products are exported in considerable quantities to this continent, our imports from African countries are very light. The bulk of our foreign trade is carried on with the European nations; The United Kingdom, Germany, France, Belgium and Netherlands in the order named, being the most important. Europe takes about three-fourths of our exports, and furnishes us with about one-half of our imports. Many of the exports to European countries, especially to England, are not used there, but are sent on to Asiatic, African and even South American people. Of the other nations, Canada is the most important in North America, Brazil, Argentina and Chili in South America, and Japan and China in Asia. In the order of their value, our imports are sugar, coffee, chemicals and drugs, hides and skins, cotton goods, iron and steel manufactures, raw silk and silk goods. In their relative proportions they are as follows : PER CENT Raw Material 38 Food and Domestic Animals 21 Manufactures 16.79 Luxuries ... 14.47 TRANSPORTATION ^'' "? '^.''''Z'T" '^""' *^'* ^l"' '""t ing Atlantic ports have numerous hues of COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 261 steamers plying between them and Liverpool, Hamburg, Bor- deaux and other important European cities, and that San Francisco, Seattle, Portland and Tacoma have important lines of steamers con- necting them with the Hawaiian Islands, the ports of Japan and China, the Philippine Islands and Australia. Unfortunately for the interests of the country, only a small part of our foreign trade is carried in American ships ; English, French and German vessels do most of our carrying trade. The manufacturing capacity of the country is now able to produce much more than we can consume at home, and it is to our advantage to seek foreign markets. With an American merchant marine this could be done much more efficiently than is possible under the present conditions. Various measures, such as subsidies and bounties, have been suggested as a- means of building up the American merchant marine, but none has yet been adopted. The two principal reasons for the present conditions of Amei'ican shipping are : the Civil War occurred just at the time when steel ships were replacing those of wood, and all the attention of the country was directed to the war ; and since the war we have given so much thought to the development of our internal resources, that the building of ships for foreign trade has been neglected. The European nations were alive to their opportunity, and during these periods secured control of most of the ocean carrying trade. Our merchant marine on the Pacific is increasing since the great transcontinental railways are interested in maintaining lines of steamers between our Pacific ports and those of Asia. Two steamers recently built by the Great Northern Railway Company for this purpose were among the largest freight boats afloat, but one was wrecked. This line of traffic now controls its own railway and steamship lines from Chicago and St. Louis to the ports in China and Japan and the Philippine Islands, and its carrying trade reaches eastward as far as London and Liverpool. 262 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY QUESTIONS. Why should the domestic commerce of a nation exceed its foreign commerce ? Show how commerce promotes civilization. Why do we import iron and cotton and woolen goods, when we are constantly exporting these commodities? With what European ports does New York have direct steamer connec- tions ? Does Boston have connection with the same ports ? Why is such a large proportion of our foreign trade carried in the ships of other nations ? What has contributed to the rapid increase of our commerce with China and Japan ? COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 263 Value of Imports and Exports of Merchandise into and FROM THE United States During Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1913 COUNTRIES IMPORTS EXPORTS Austria-Hungary $19,192,414 $23,320,696 Belgium 41,941,014 66,845,462 Denmark 2,974,670 18,687,794 France 136,877,990 146,100,201 Germany 188,963,071 331,684,212 Italy 54,107,364 76,285,278 Netherlands 38,180,967 125,909,862 Russia in Europe 26,958,690 25,363,795 Switzerland 23,260,180 826,549 United Kingdom 295,564,940 597,149,059 Canada 120,571,180 415,449,457 Mexico 77,543,842 54,383,424 Cuba 126,088,173 70,581,154 Argentina 26,863,732 52,894,834 Brazil 120,155,855 42,638,467 China 39,755,757 22,439,594 British India 67,949,259 11,040,039 Straits Settlements 5 35,712,185 3,606,901 Japan 91,633,240 57,741,815 Australia and Tasmanij I 10,956,200 43,351,855 Philippine Islands 21,010,248 25,384,793 British South Africa Total, including other places ,3,305,552 14,488,501 not listed . . . : $l,«15i,yV8,'234 $2,465,884,149 264 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY THE FOREIGN TRADE OF THE UNITED STATES Our Exports and Imports as Shown by the Consular Reports OF the Last Decade CANADA Exports Machinery, Coal, Lumber, Copper, Cotton and Cotton Goods, Steel and Iron, Provisions, Mineral Oils Imports Lumber, Copper, Hides and Skins, Fish, Flax, Seed, Wood Pulp MEXICO Exports Machinery, Hardware, Copper, Boots and Shoes Imports Sisal, Coffee, Copper, Cattle, Rubber, Lead, Mineral Oils CENTRAL AMERICA Exports Cloth, Hardware Imports Coffee, Bananas, Rubber, Indigo WEST INDIES Exports Flour, Cotton, Provisions, Iron and Steel, Boots and Shoes Imports Fruits, Iron Ore, Sugar, Tobacco, Lumber VENEZUELA Exports Machinery Imports Asphalt, Coffee, Beef BRAZIL EXPORTS Iron and Steel, Machinery, Mineral Oil Imports Coffee, Rubber URUGUAY Exports Iron and Steel, Oil Imports Beef, Wool, Hides PERU Exports Hardware, Cotton Goods Imports Cocoa, Cinchona, Dye Stuffs, Rubber COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 265 ARGENTINA Exports Machinery, Binder Twine, Iron and Steel, Lumber Imports Wool, Hides and Skins, Beef and Mutton GREAT BRITAIN Exports Cotton, Lumber, Provisions, Copper, Wheat, Tobacco, Mineral Oils Imports Textiles, Iron and Steel, Diamonds, Rubber FRANCE Exports Cotton, Wheat, Provisions, Mineral Oils, Tobacco, Copper, Iron and Steel Imports > Silks, Woolens, Milinery Goods, Art Works, Hides and Skins, Wine and Champagne BELGIUM Exports Cotton, Wheat, Provisions, Mineral Oils, Limiber, Iron and Steel, Tobacco, Oil, Coke Imports Rubber, Furs, Linen, Diamonds HOLLAND Exports Copper, Wheat and Grain, Oil, Coke, Mineral Oils Imports Diamonds, Tobacco, Hides and Skins SWITZERLAND Exports Cotton Imports Laces, Silks, Watches, Cheese ITALY Exports Tobacco, Cotton, Copper, Wheat, Mineral Oil, Iron and Steel Imports Nuts, Raw Silk, Lemons, Wine, Oil, Cheese, Macaroni SPAIN Exports Hardware, Machinery, Scientific Instruments Imports Olives, Grapes and Nuts, Copper, Sulphur, Cork 266 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY RUSSIA Exports Cotton, Copper, Machinery, Iron and Steel, Binder twine Imports Wool, Hides and Skins JAPAN Exports Cotton, Iron and Steel, Wheat, Mineral Oils Imports Camphor, Silk, Tea, Hats and Hat Materials CHINA Exports Cotton Cloth, Copper, Mineral Oils Imports Wool, Tea, Silk, Rice, Hides and Skins STRAITS SETTLEMENTS Exports None of importance Imports Tin, Rubber, Spices and Gums DUTCH EAST INDIES Exports None of importance Imports Sugar, Coffee, Spices AUSTRALIA Exports Machinery, Mineral Oils, Lumber, Iron, Tobacco Imports Copper, Wool, Hides and Skins NEW ZEALAND Exports None of importance Imports Wool, Flax, Copal SOUTH AFRICA Exports ' Cloth Imports Feathers, Hjdes and Skin? Chapter XXIV. COMMERCIAL GROWTH OF THE -UNITED STATES. The first census of the United States was taken in 1790. At that time the western boundary of the country was at the Missis- sippi River, and the area was 892,135 square miles, only a small portion of which was settled, and this constituted a narrow strip of land extending from Maine to Georgia, and from the Atlantic coast to the Appalachian Mountains. Our population was only half a million more than the population of New York City in 1900, and was exceeded in our last census by the population of each of the following states: New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Ohio. In 1790 there were only three cities that, were worthy of the name: Philadelphia, New York, and Boston, and these were scarcely more than good-sized villages. There was no such thing in the world as a railroad, a steamboat, or a telegraph Even carriage roads were few, and so poor that they were impassable a good portion of the year. The country possessed only nine hundred postoflBices, and the annual receipts of the postal department were about $281,000. Less than fifty newspapers were published in the entire country. The nation was burdened with a debt that was. equal to $15.63 per capita. The total amount of coinage was a little over half a million dollars. There were no banks under national supervision, and the value of our manufactures was so small that it did not ap- pear in the census report. The annual revenue of the government was about $10,849,000. Our imports amounted to $91,250,000 and our exports to about $71,000,000, making our entire foreign trade about $162,250,000. Our industries had been ruined by a long war; our currency 267 268 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY was worthless, and our credit gone. The only industry at all comparable with those of foreign nations was our carrying trade. We had over 100,000 vessels and two-thirds of our tonnage was engaged in foreign trade. No patents were issued, no immigrants arrived, and the nations predicted the speedy downfall of the new republic. The condition of the nation at the census of 1910 shows a progress during the intervening period unequalled by that of any other nation in the world's history. From a little over three-fourths of a million square miles our territory increased to 3,025,600 square miles, or over three and a half times. From the narrow area occu- pied by our forefathers at the close of the Revolution, American settlement? and institutions have extended more than half the way round the world, and the extent of our Pacific coast line ex- ceeds the distance from New York to San Francisco. The last census shows that at the end of the first decade of the twentieth century the United States had over 1000 cities of 5000 or more inhabitants and that of these 225 had a population of 25,000 or over. The census of 1830 reported twenty-three miles of railway in operation, and that of 1910 reported 207,977 miles, which number has since been increased to over 264,000 miles. We now have over 59,500 postoffices, and the annual receipts of the postoffice department exceed $237,648,000. In 1790 there were less than fifty newspapers in the country, and in 1910 this number had increased to 22,725. Telegraph messages were not reported until 1870, when they exceeded 9,157,000, and in 1900 this number had increased to over 63,258,000; and in 1907 the number was 91,391,443, an increase of nearly tenfold in thirty years. The first telegraph line was completed in 1844, and extended between Washington and Baltimore, a distance of forty miles. In 1900 the country had over 933,000 miles of lines, and these have now COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 269 been extended to exceed 2,020,000 miles. The first public experi- ment with the telephone was made at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876. In 1916 there were in the country, 22,137,480 miles of telephone lines, 9,542,000 stations, and the daily exchanges exceeded 16,478,000. In 1916 the gold coined in the country exceeded $37,209,000, and the money in circulation amounted to over $3,241,162,000, or $41.18 for every man, woman, and child in the country. There were 7569 national banks, with a capital of $1,068,577,000 and the bank clearings amounted to $241,407,541,000. The ordinary re- ceipts of the government for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1916, were $799,664,552, and the expenditures were $724,492,998. The domestic animals in the United States January 1, 1916, were valued at $6,002,784,000. Om* agricultural products and our manufactures exceed in value those of any other country. Soon after the out- break of the great war in Europe, the United States became a creditor nation, and during the war she loaned billions of dollars to Great Britain, France, and Russia. The United States began the twentieth century under exceed- ingly favorable conditions. The period from 1870 to 1900 had wit- nessed remarkable progress running through all lines of industrial and commercial activity. Our industrial and commercial posi- tion in the world is shown by the following comparisons. We produce five-sixths of the cotton, one-sixth of the wool, three- fourths of the com; one-fifth of the wheat, one-third of the coal, one-fourth of the cattle, one-half of the hogs, a little more than one-third of the iron and steel, two-thirds of the copper, one-fifth of the silver, one-half of the gold, one-half of the tobacco, one- third of the lumber, one-third of the manufactures, and one-fourth of the commerce of the world. In manufactures we lead the world, and our manufactxires exceed those of the United Kingdom and Germany combined, tJnltcd States Best of the World 270 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY who stand next to us as the two greatest manufacturing nations. We own nearly one-half of the railway mileage and more than one-half of the telegraph and telephone lines of the world. Our total commerce is exceeded only by that of Great Britain, and our trade with foreign countries is steadily increasing. The geographical position of the United States is such that it is especially favorable for international trade. Situated between the two oceans we have equal facilities for trade with the coim- tries of both Europe and Asia, and our position in the Pacific Ocean gives us an excellent opportunity to increase our traf- fic with this part of the world. There is a widespread interest in industrial and commercial educa- ''°^^°°° tion, and the schools of the coun- try are each year sending out thousands of young men specially fitted for a business career. Our greatest hindrances are the lack of training among our consuls and commercial representatives abroad, the unwillingness of the great majority of American manufacturers to study intel- ligently the needs of foreign countries and to make such goods as the inhabitants of those countries desire. This is especially true of our inability to adapt our manufactures to the wants of the people in tropical countries. We also lack an efficient American merchant marinie. However, the restrictions placed upon European shipping in 1915 by the war awakened the American people to the impor- tance of possessing ships of their own, and conditions are improving. These conditions are not discouraging; for, since our acquisi- tion of the Hawaiian Islands, the Philippines, and Porto Rico, and our recent extended relations with other nations, we have begun to COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 271 make the necessary preparations for successfully maintaining the new conditions and responsibilities which these additions of teiTi- tory have forced upon the country; and we have every reason to believe that the United States will continue to maintain the national and commercial prestige with which she began the cen- tury. The statement on the following page, taken from the Monthly Summary of Commerce and Finance of the Department of Commerce, shows the progress of the United States in tabular form. Note — While the statistics on the foregoing pages are correct for the year in which they are given, it must be remembered that the amounts will vary shghtly from year to year. The chief purpose of these statistics, however, is to show the relative importance of the industries with which they are connected, and this relative position seldom changes. tTi. COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY DATE AND VAIUK DATB AND VALUK Area I'opalation Population per square mile Circulation of money per capita Farms and farm property Farm products Manufacturing establishments, No. Value of mannfactures Imports of merchandise Imports per capita Exports of merchandise Exports per capita Production of gold Silver Coal, tons Petrolenm, gals. Pig iron, tons Wool, lbs. Wheat, bu. Corn, bu. Cotton, bales Cotton exported, lbs. Railways operated, miles Post-offices, No. Newspapers, No. Immigrants arrived (1800) (1914) 892,135 3,026,789 5,308,483 98,646,491 6 41 33. IT #5.00 $34.53 ■ (1850) $3,967,343,580 $40,991,449,090 (1870) $1,968,030,927 $9,751,119,000 (1850) 123,025 268,491 $1,019,106,616 $20,672,052,000 (1800) $91,252,768 $1,893,929,667 $17.19 $18.92 $70,971,780 $2,364,579,148 $13.37 $23.27 (1810) $2,463 $88,301,023 (•1850) $150,000 $40,804,871 (1820) 365 477.,202,303 (1860) 21,000,000 10,434,741,660 (1820) 20,000 30,966,301 (1850) 35,802,114 296,175,300 (1840) 84,823,272 896,000,000 377.531,875 2,598,000,000 (1800) 155,556 13,98^,811 (1830) 298,459,102 4,760,940,538 (1830) 20 258,033 (.1800) 903 56,810 (1810) 359 22,977 (1820) 8,385 1,218,480 PART THREE. COMMERCE OF FOREIGN NATTOl^S. Foreign countries in their trade with the United States and with each other are governed by the principles laid down in the discussion of the commerce of our own country. They buy what they can not produce, or what other countries can produce better or more economically, and sell what they can produce in the largest quantity and to their greatest economical advantage. Chapter I. CANADA. The Dominion of Canada, the most important EXTENT AND gj.-j^gjj colony, occupies all of the mainland of SURFACE North America north of the United States, with the exception of Alaska. It is a little larger than the United States and a little smaller than Europe. The surface is divided into three great regions : the Eastern Highlands, the Great Central Plain and the Pacific Highlands and coast region. The Central Plain is divided by the V-shaped height of land that passes around Hudson's Bay and forms a low plateau. The Rocky Mountain system forms the natural boundary between Canada and Alaska, and contains some of the loftiest peaks in North America. The country between the two highlands is a vast extent of plains and prairies, and the Eastern Highland region is interspersed with low hills, fertile valleys and mountains which have an altitude some- what less than the average ranges of the Appalachian system. 27$ 274 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY Catikda lies in the cool temperate and the frigid zones. Llimate rpj^^ eastern peninsula and the southern portion of Quebec and Ontario have a climate similar to that of New England and New York. The Pacific Coast regions, owing to the warm ocean current, have a mild climate with an equable temperature and abundant rainfall. The Central Plain has a wide range of temperature and slight rainfall. The northern part of the Domin- ion is too cold to admit of successful agriculture, but the other portions have a favorable climate n.nd a fertile soil, and pro- duce excellent crops of all grains and vegetables adapted to cool temperate regions. Agriculture is the leading industry of Canada. ° About three-fourths of the people are farmers, and more than one-fourth of the land is suitable for tillage, but a large proportion of this in the interior is still undeveloped. The eastern part of Ontario, in the vicinity of the Great Lakes, is the most-fertile region and is called the "Garden of Canada." Cereals, live-stock and fruits are raised here in abundance. Manitoba, Alberta and Saskatchewan, occupying the fertile region east of the Rocky Mountains, constitute the great wheat belt. This is a prairie country, having a rich soil underlaid by a layer of clay that holds the water near enough to the surface to warrant a good supply for vegetation. As a spring wheat section, this region is even more important than that of Minnesota and the Dakotas, and is becoming one of the greatest wheat growing regions of the world. Since 1900 this portion of the country has been rapidly settled by emigrants from the United States, the eastern provinces and Europe. Quebec, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia are en- gaged in diversified farming and in dairying. Butter and cheese of excellent quality are made and Canada, has become the largest exporter of cheese in the world. The principal agricultural exports are wheat, flour, cheese, COMMERCE ANB INDUSTRY 275 butter, live-stock and poultry. Most of the perishable products are sent to England in refrigerator ships. The forest areas of Canada extend from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick in an unbroken belt across the country to Alaska, and in British Columbia to the coast and north- ward to the limit of the tree line. The belt is from two to three hundred miles wide, and is the largest forest area possessed by any lumber producing country. In the eastern section of this belt the principal trees are the red and black spruce, the red and white pine, the balsam fir, the tamarack and hemlock, and in British Columbia the Douglas fir is the chief source of lumber supply. Ottawa is the chief center of the lumber industry, and obtains its supply of timber from the pine forests to the north and northwest. Extensive mills are also found on Parry Sound and Georgian Baj"^. Most of the lumber of this region is exported to the United States by the way of the Great Lakes. The lumber manufactured in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia finds a market in the New Eng- land States. The forests of this region also supply considerable wood pulp and pulp wood. The lumber of Quebec and a portion of that of New Brunswick is exported to England, while the British Columbian mills find a market for their surplus product in trade with the Pacific towns of the United States. The mineral resources are only partially developed. Minerals ■ j t- j r Valuable anthracite coal mines are worked in Nova Scotia, and deposits of bituminous coal are found on both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, but gold is a leading mineral product, the annual output being about $17,400,000. Most of this comes from the mines in the Klondike region of the Yukon, and those in British Columbia along the Eraser and Columbia Rivers. Mines of less importance are also located in Ontario and Nova Scotia. Iron-ore is found in Belle Isle, Nova Scotia, in Newfoundland, and in several places in Quebec, but it has not yet been extensively COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 277 worked in any of these places. Nickel mines are located at Sud- bury, Ontario, and produce one-half of the world's supply of this metal. Native copper is found on the northern shore of Lake Superior, and copper-ore also occurs in Quebec and British Columbia, and has been worked successfully in all these places, but the entire output of copper, compared with that of the United States, is very small. Petroleum and asbestos are also valuable mineral products of these provinces. The fisheries are one of the most valuable assets of the Dominion. They give employment to about 85,000 men, and yield on an average, an annual income- of about $33,000,000. The most extensive part of this industry is along the Atlantic coast. Since foreign vessels are prohibited from fishing within three miles of the shore, in the strip of water inside this limit, the Canadian fishermen find an abundant supply of cod, herring, halibut, and lobsters. People of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick are very generally engaged in the taking and curing of fish. The product is exported to the United States, the West Indies, and Europe. British Columbia is the source of important salmon fisheries, and about one-fourth of the output of fisTi in the Dominion comes from this region. The Great Lakes supply white fish, trout, and stiirgeon. Most of the latter are taken from Lake Huron. „ Since the advent of the early French settlers, Canada "PTTRS has been one of the leading fur countries of the world, and the great forests of the interior still furnish a good supply, as nearly every animal of that locality is a fur-bearing animal. Edflionton, in Alberta, is the chief center of this traffic. Here the trappers bring the pelts and exchange them for food, clothing, and such other commodities as they may need. The cheaper skins are prepared in Canada or the United States, but the more expensive ones are exported to England. The fur trade is 278 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY controlled by the Hudson Bay Company, which, until recently, exercised political sway over much of the northern part of British America. Canada is not an important manufacturing MANUFACTURES country, though manufacturing industries are being slowly developed. There are two reasons for this ; one is that the wages paid in the United States are such as to draw many of the most skillful workmen away frdm the Dominion; and the other is, that Canada, notwithstanding the tariff, can purchase the same grade of manufactures from the United States cheaper than they can be made at home. Montreal is the leading manufacturing center, and has large sugar refineries, also iron foundries, cotton and shoe factories, and numerous other industries. Toronto also has several important manufactories, and Quebec has large tanner- ies. Windsor, opposite Detroit, and Hamilton, Ontario, are becoming manufacturing centers of local importance. Most of the manufactured product Js for home consumption, though agricul- tural implements, cheap cotton and woolen goods, cutlery, leather and shoes are exported to a limited extent. Quebec and Ontario are well supplied with TRANSPORTATION r^Hj^oads ; the former by the Grand Trunk, the Central Vermont and Boston & Maine Systems ; the latter by the Grand Trunk and Canadian Pacific lines. The Intercolonial Railway extends from New Brunswick to Montreal, and the Cana- dian Pacific from Montreal to British Columbia, having branch connections with Detroit, St. Paul and Minneapolis. This is the longest continuous line in North America. Branch connections of the Northern Pacific and the Great Northern extend to Winnipeg. The Grand Trunk Pacific and Ihe Canadian Northern, now completed, form an outlet for the great wheat region of the north. In all, the Dominion has over 30,000 miles of railway. The St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes furnish a waterway of COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 279 over 2400 miles inland. This has been greatly improved by canals, as described in Chapter XVII., Part II. The Saskatche- wan and McKenzie Rivers afford water routes to the great central interior during the summer. While the Atlantic ports of Canada are, on account of the form of the earth, nearer Liverpool than those of the United States, yet they have the disadvantage of being closed by ice dur- VICTOB[A BEIDGH, MnNTEEAL ing a portion of the year, so that the United States ports have to be used for the eastern outlets of the Dominion during the winter. Montreal, having a population of 500,000, is the com- mercial and financial center of the Dominion. It is the principal terminus of the Grand Trunk and the Canadian Pacific Railways, has large manufacturing industries, numerous banks, and during the summer is the terminus for trans-Atlantic lines of steamers. Toronto is the principal city of Ontario and ■ Cities 280 COMMERCE AND INBUSTRY second in importance in the Dominion. It has important manu- facturing industries and is the trading center for a large portion of well developed and wealthy country. It has good steamer con- nections on Lake Ontario, is an important railway center and carries on considerable trade with the United States. Quebec has a good harbor and some foreign commerce, but it is of more inter- est historically than commercially. Halifax is the most important ^^^^^^^^^^^H &-^^!lKjil^BsM!^HBIIPI^SSBI^gij§jwig^^(^iMi8i^^^f^!i^^ ■■^^' '^.f->'-':-y^^'-'''''' w& ?'^ 'X'^^:''r:m^?'^^»^^'mt&f*^.: ^^~:^--- ^ ...^^ ^^^^W^JI^^ >.-r.i%^ m:^:^i^^^'f^%:^ \ 1 ' ■''',,. ,-|4f;r- '"''" ■ / ' : ""^^ • THE HARBOR, QUEBEC seaport of the maritime provinces and has a good harbor. Winni- peg, with a population of 175, 000, is now an important railway and distributing center in Manitoba, and the districts to the west and northwest. It is in the center of the great Canadian wheat region and is destined to become a commercial city of considerable importance. Vancouver and Victoria, in British Columbia, are the important trading centers of these provinces. They have direct lines of steamers plying between them and Asiatic ports, and others connecting them with the Pacific ports of the United States. COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 281 The bulk of foreign trade is with Great Britain and the United States, between which it is about equally divided. England takes most of the surplus raw material and dairy products, while we take lumber, coal, fish and furs. Canada imports most of her manufactures from the United States and they consist of cotton goods, agricultural implements, carriages, machin- ery, clocks and watches, hardware and boots and shoes. Canada sells to Great Britain more than she buys of her, and buys of us more than she sells us. Her interna! commerce is greatly aided by the excellent waterway furnished by the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes and their connecting system of canals. Canada, like the United States, has developed rapidly during the last quarter of a century, in which time her trade has more than doubled. Since the opening of the rich lands to the north and west of Manitoba this region is being peopled by the most desirable class of immigrants, and the development of this vast country will create such a demand for manufactures, that undoubt- edly new industries which will be of great benefit to the country will be established. With abundant resources, an intelligent and progressive population and geographical advantages almost equal to those of the United States, Canada is the most important colonial possession of the British Empire. Politically Newfoundland is not a part of the NEWFOUNDLAND Dojni^jojj ^f Canada, but is governed as a distinct British Colonj^ Fishing constitutes the principal industry of the island. There are also many good farms, and agriculture is practised to a considerable extent. The fish are exported to the United States, the AVest Indian Islands and European countries. St. Johns, the capital, has a fine harbor and is wholly engaged in the fishing trade. There are no other towns of importance on the island. 282 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY QUESTIONS AVhat portions of the United States have a climate similar to that of most of the Canadian provinces? Why is agriculture the pr ncipal industry of Canada? In what products does Canada compete with the United States in the markets of the world? What portions of Canada are now being rapidly developed? What has led to their development? What has given Montreal and Toronto their importance as commercial centers? What are Canada's imports from the United States? What does she export to this country? Chapter II. MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA. MEXICO. pnQiTiniff ANn '^^^ Republic of Mexico extends from the thirty- second to the fifteenth degree of north latitude. EXTFNT In area it is some larger than that part of the United States east of the Mississippi River. It is a long and narrow mountainous plateau, rising abruptly from each coast to a height of from 4000 to 8000 feet, and formed by a continuation of the Rocky Mountains, which are here known as the Cordilleras. Some of the volcanic peaks have an altitude of nearly 20,000 feet. The location of Mexico would indicate a tropical climate, but this is greatly modified by the altitude. The inhabitants recognize three climatic zones; the hot zone, which thoy call Tierra Calienta, extending from sea level to an altitude of 3000 feet ; the temperate zone, Tierra Templada, extending from 3000 to 5000 feet; and the cold zone, Tierra Fria, having an altitude of from 5000 to 7000 feet and over. There are two seasons, the wet, extending from May to October, and the dry, during the remainder of the year. During the wet season, rain falls daily, but good drainage gives the temperate belt very healthful climate. The interior plateau and the northern portion of the western coast have but little rain. The agricultural products of the three zones are characteristic of their respective climates. Alonir the coast and in the lower altitudes coffee, rubber, sugar-cane and tropical fruits are the staple products ; in the temperate belt, cereals, especially corn, and fruits of the temperate climates are 289 O as 5 S < I CENTRAL AMERICA This is a narrow mounta nous stretch of country reaching from Mexico to Panama. It comprises five small individual states: Guatemala, San Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and the British Colony of Balize, sometimes called British Honduras. The entire area is about equal to that of the New England and Middle States. The country is low and unhealthful on the Caribbean Coast, but more elevated along the Pacific Coast. The elevated regions are comparatively healthful, and most of the people live among the highlands. The climate and products are wholly tropical. The inhabitants are Spaniards, native Indians, negroes and the descend- ants from these races. Most of the interior is unsettled. Owing chiefly to the extension of railway lines, the commerce of these states has improved since 1910. Central America now has over 1750 miles of railways, distributed as follows: Gautemala, 613 miles; Honduras, 240 miles; Nicaragua, 200 miles; Salvador, 264 miles. Costa Rica, 438 miles. In addition to this mileage Panama, which is not considered a Central American state, has 248 miles. Coffee, hides, mahogany and tropical fruits are the chief exports. About one-half the fruit trade is with the United States. We send them cotton goods, tools, hardware, flour, and wine. The entire trade with the United States amounts to about $78,338,000 a year, of which $44,752,000 consists in exports and the balance in imports. There is great wealth in these little domains, consisting chiefly of agricultural products, 287 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 289 SALVADOR "^^^ coffee industry is first among the business interests of Salvador. In this country alone there are 166,039 acres in coffee, and the annual production is around 75,000,000 pounds. Some efforts have been made to encourage the production of cotton, but with indifferent success. The trade of Salvador has been mostly with the United States, Germany, and France. There are many foreign investments in this country, mainly in timber, minerals, and railroads. HONDURAS '^^^^ ^^ distinctly a cattle country, though this industry has never been developed to anything like the degree to which it may be. It is also wealthy in minerals. There are rich deposits of gold, platinum, silver, and copper, and a large sum of foreign money is invested in these mines. Of course, the bulk of the export trade is in -fruit — bananas, cocoanuts, and so on. Social conditions in Honduras are well advanced. The systems of education and health are good. There are few children in Honduras of school age who have not had educational advantages. rn<5TA RTPA -^^i^ ^^^ coffee constitute the bulk of the trade of Costa Rica. The United Fruit Company, formerly under the British flag, but in recent years transferred to the United States flag, has proved a great power in the developnient of Costa Rica. The company has from 40 to 60 vessels in con- stant operation in the Cambbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, and by means of its wireless facilities keeps in touch with ^the whole fleet. There are railroads between the larger cities which pretty well traverse the entire country, one of them, 385 miles in length, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific sea-coasts of Costa Rica. SOUTH AMERICA, SHOWING THE PBHiTClPAL STEAMSHIP LINES CONNECTIKG THE CONTINENT WITH NORTH AMERICAN POETS Chapter III. SOUTH AMERICA pn^iTTON AKn ^^^^ *^® exception of a few extreme points _„„„_, South America extends from the tenth parallel of north latitude to the fiftieth parallel of south latitude. Nearly all of the continent is in the Torrid or South Temperate Zones and its latitude would give it a tropical or a semi- tropical climate, but in the western part this is greatly modified by the moimtains. In its general plan the surface of South America resembtes that of North America, the great Andean Mountain system extend- ing the entire length of the continent on the western side. The average height of these mountains is greater than that of the Rocky Mountains, the ranges are nearer together, and the intervening plateaus are narrow. The Andes are nearer to the coast than even the Coast Ranges in North America, and their western descent is very steep, consequently the rivers flowing into the Pacific are few, small, and rapid, and are of little or no aid to commerce. The eastern slope is long and more gradual, merging into the great plains that extend to the Atlantic Coast. The eastern highlands are divided into two groups, the Guiana Highlands, between the Amazon and the Orinoco, and the Brazilian Highlands, south of the Amazon. Both groups consist of old moun- tains that have been worn down, so that their rounded summits resemble those of the Appalachians. The Guiana Highland is loftiest in the west, where the high- est summits have an altitude of 8000 feet or more. These descend by terraced slopes, forming on the north one side of the Orinoco 291 292 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY basin, while the other side is formed by the southern and eastern slope of the Andes. The Brazilian Highland reaches its greatest altitude near the tropic, where it is 8500 feet, with an average of from 4000 to 5000 feet. The region is characterized by a large number of ranges of high hills and low mountains that have been worn down, the material thus removed forming the plateau at their base. The great Basin of the Amazon lies between the Guiana High- land on the north and the Brazilian Highland on the south, and ex- tends westward to the base of the Andes. The southern boundary is irregular, being formed by the divide which separates the tribu- taries flowing into the Parana and the La Plata. The tributaries of the Amazon from the south are all large, and nearly all have falls , at about the middle of their course, which obstruct navigation. The basin of the La Plata is long and narrow, and consists of the lowlands formed by the flood plains about the mouth of the river, and the highlands surrounding this region of lowland and extend- ing westward to the Andes. The Amazon and La Plata, with their tributaries, form extensive systems of waterways that are of the greatest value to the region through which they flow. Climate ^^^^ °^ South America has a tropical climate, with two seasons, the rainy and the dry. The great alti- tude gives those portions of the plateau between their northern ex- tremity and the vicinity of the Tropic of Capricorn, a temperate climate; while some of the highest peaks are capped with snow. Most of this portion of the plateau is also arid. The Guiana Highland and the Orinoco basin have a warm tem- perate climate, and the highest temperature is reached during the northern summer, when the heat is so intense that the people for- sake the lowlands for the mountains. An abundance of rain falls during the rainy season. The basin of the Amazon is characterized by intense heat and COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 293 heavy rainfall. These conditions account for the dense forests of the Amazon valley and other luxuriant vegetation of the region. The basin of the La Plata has a tropical and sub-tropical climate, with plenty of rain, until the extreme southern portion is reached. Here arid conditions are found, but there is sufficient moisture to afford excellent grazing regions. The southern portion of the continent has a temperate climate. The Peonle ^""^^^^ ^^^ settled by the Portuguese, but all of the other South American States are of Spanish origin. Portuguese is the language of Brazil, and Spanish that of the other countries. Aside from these two nationalities there are but few white people on the continent. These are mostly Germans and Englishmen. Indians make up a large part of the population. There is also a third class, which comprises the descendants of the native races mixed with the Spaniards. In the tropical regions the people lack ambition and enterprise, but the inhabitants of Chile and Argentina are energetic and progressive. Government With the exception of the Guianas, which are, respectively, British, French, and Dutch colo- nies, all of the South American States have a republican form of government, patterned quite closely after that of the United States. Ever since these countries became independent they have been distiirbed by political strife and frequent revolutions, and these conditions have prevented the development of their resources or the establishment of any important industries. The eastern coun- tries occupying the lowlands are much more important commer- cially and industrially than the others. Most of the foreign trade is carried on with Great Britain, France, Germany, and the United States, the countries ranking in importance in the order named. From an industrial point of view these countries can best be divided into two groups: the Andean countries and the countries of the lowlands. THE ANDEAN COUNTRIES. THE HARBOR, I'ANAMA PANAMA Panama is the most northerly country of South America, and one of the most recently formed republics of the world. It is a long, narrow strip of land, co-extensive with the Isthmus of Panama. Its length is about 460 miles, and its width varies from 31 to 70 miles. In area it is about equal to the State of Maine. The surface is high and rocky on the Pacific coast, and low and marshy on the Carribbean coast. The climate is tropical, damp, and unhealthful to all save the native people. The population is composed chiefly of mixed races which have descended from Spanish, Indian, and negro origin, and there are but few white people in the country. There are no manufactures, and the commerce, as far as the country itself is concerned, is of no importance. Panama, the capital, is the Pacific terminus of the Panama Railway, and has a population of about 25,000. It is the financial and commercial center of the country. The only other town worthy of mention is Colon at the 294 COMMERCE AND INDUSTKY 295 Caribbean terminus of the railway. This has a population of about 3000, and at present is of considerable importance on account of its relation to the Panama Canal. The Panama Canal, from deep water in one ocean to deep water in the other, is about 50 miles long, but the canal proper, from the beginning of excavations on one coast to the end on the other, is approximately 413^ miles long. Its highest point, 85 feet above sea level, is reached by a flight of three locks at Gatun on the Atlantic PANAMA AND THE PANAMA CANAL side, and by one lock at Pedro Miguel, and a flight of two locks at Miraflores on the Pacific side. Each lock is 1000 feet long and 110 feet wide. The canal varies in width at the surface from 300 to 1000 feet, according to sections. The minimum depth is 41 feet. The first vessel passed through on August 14, 1915. The completion of the canal has changed a number of important sea routes and shortened the distance from New York to San Francisco over 7800 miles. SCENE IV CARTAGENA COLOMBIA The United States of Colombia occupies the extreme north- western portion of the continent. It has an area of a little over 480,000 square miles, and the population is about three and one- third millions. On account of the various altitudes, a country like Colombia has three climate zones; the tropical region of the lower altitudes, the temperate of the medium, and the cool of the high altitudes. The east coast is low and unhealthful. It is valuable for grazing purposes, and large numbers of cattle and sheep are raised. The plains and the mountains produce wheat, domestic animals, and some other agricultural products common to temperate regions. The tropical products are coffee, cacao, tobacco, vege- table ivory, copaiba, tolu, and rubber, all of which are gathered by the Indians. The mountains contain large deposits of gold and silver, and valuable salt mines are worked near Bogota. These are a government monoply, and considerable revenue is derived from them. Transportation facilities are very poor. There are a few short lines of railway extending from the co^t towns inland, but the 399 NV300 O/J/OVd COMPdERCE AND INDUSTRY 297 interior is entirely lacking in carriage roads, and goods are trans- ported by pack trains. The Magdalena and its tributaries are navigable for 600 miles to La Dorado, and steamers can ascend the Orinoco as far as Cabugaro, which is within about 200 miles of Bogota. Bogota is the capital, and Medellin is another important city, but they are so situated that commercial relations between them are pratically impossible. Barranquilla and Sabanilla, at the ALONG THE WATEK PBONT NEAR THE MARKET, CARTAGENA mouth of the Magdalena, and Cartagena are the chief ports through which most of the foreign trade is carried on. This is of but little importance. The country exports hides, tallow, tobacco, and copaiba, and tolu to the United States; and gold and silver ore to Great Britain. The imports consist of textiles and other manufac- tures, most of which are obtained from Great Britain, while from the United States the country receives its supply of oils and petroleiun. g g <« !z I o n « o p •< i=> o N O ECUADOR Ecuador is a little smaller than New Mexico and has a popu- lation of about 2,000,000, most of whom are Indians. The export^ are cacao, coffee, sugar, Peruvian bark, ivory, nuts, and rubber, Cacao constitutes about three-fourths of the exports. The land is held in large estates and the laboring people are in a condition bordering on slavery. The most important article of manufacture is Panama hats. These are made from torquilla straw, which is the midrib of the leaf of the screw pine. The work is done almost wholly by Indians, and because dampness is essential to success most of the hats are made at night. The imports are food stuffs and manufactured textiles. The country has extensive mineral deposits, which, undoubtedly, are rich, but they have not yet been developed. The copper, gold and silver mines are worked to a limited extent. Transportation is exceedingly poor. Most of the goods are carried on pack ani- mals. A carriage road extends from Quito, the capital, to Guaya- quil, the leading seaport, a distance of 115 miles. Most of the foreign trade is with France and Great Britain. That with the United States amounts to about $5,000,000 a year. PERU Peru is situated south of Ecuador, and lies almost wholly among the mountains, with a long desert sea-coast on the Pacific. Peru has an area of 722,461 square miles and a population estimated at about 4,500,000, more than one-half of whom are native Indians. Most of the country has a high altitude and a cool temperate climate. In the northern part, the eastern slope of the mountains is heavily timbered. As a whole, the country has but little rainfall. The 299 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 301 leading agricultural products are cotton, sugar, coffee, cacao, and tobacco. The other products are cinchona, from which quinine is made; cacao and other medicinal plants, dye stuffs and rubber. The country has considerable good grazing land and many sheep. Llama and cattle are raised; from these wool, alpaca, and hides are ex- ported. Peru is rich in minerals, and mining is the leading industry. Gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, and mercury compose the metals, and coal, salt, borax, sulphur, and petroleum the non-metals which are exported. The manufactures are straw hats, woolen fabrics, sugar, candles, soap, shoes, and a few other small articles. All manufacturing is on a small scale and in a crude state. Its purpose is to supply the local demand only. The coimtry lacks capital, and means of transportation are still poor. There are about 1000 miles of railway in operation. The Amazon and its tributaries afford good water routes for the eastern portion of the country, and this is of great advantage, as most of the trade is on the eastern side of the mountains. Lima, the capital, and Callao, the principal seaport, are connected by railway. Most of the foreign trade is with Great Britain and France, the United States having only a small portion. The country also has considerable trade with the surrounding South American States. BOLIVIA Bolivia, has an area of about 514,000 square miles, being nearly equal to Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas combined. The population is only two and a half million. Bolivia is wholly an inland country, and its only outlet to the sea is through one of the surrounding states. The country is rich in resources, but in a very backward condition. Agriculture is the most important industry, and the chief crops are coffee, rubber, and sugar. Cereals and vege- tables are grown on the tablelands, knd cattle, sheep, and llamas BOLIVIAN ORE CAEEIEK (Photograph by ■William V. AUord) COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 303 are raised in large numbers. The lowlands and plains are fertile, and many of them contain dense forests, from which chinchona bark and other valuable medicinal products and dye stuffs are obtained. Transportation is exceedingly poor. The plains afford good location for highways leading down the eastern slope. Three railways leading to the sea in Chile have been completed. A rail- MINING TIN ORB IN BOLIVIA (Photo by George W. Deane. Illustration used by courtesy of Pan American Union) Stone quimbalates were formerly used by the natives In Bolivia for hand crushing or grlndlngtln ore. In nearly all the tin mines of the country the antiquated stone crusher has been supplanted by modern power nulls. way connects the country with the railway in Argentina, and La Paz, the chief city, is also connected with the seaport of Antofagasta in Chile. Sucre is the capital and city next in importance. Most of the trade is with the surrounding states. The exports are coffee, rubber, cacao, copper, silver, and tin, and the imports are manufactured clothing, textiles, food stuffs, hardware, and spirituous Uquors. SHEEP IN PUNT A ARENAS CHILE Chile is the most important mountain state. It is long and narrow and has a coast line of over 2500 miles, extending southward from the Tropic of Capricorn. Its area is 290,000 square miles and it has a population of 3,642,000. Though having but a small proportion of fertile land this is so well cultivated that the country produces abundant crops of wheat, barley, and various other food stuffs of the temperate regions, and fruits are grown in sufficient quantities to supply the home market and also to furnish exports for the neighboring states of Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador. A great deal of the cultivated land is under irrigation. The uplands furnish excellent grazing and large numbers of sheep and cattle are raised. These furnish merino wool and hides and leather for export. 304 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 305 The mineral resources are by far the most important. Al- though the northern part of the country is a desert, it contains ex- tensive deposits of nitrate, or Chile saltpetre, which occurs in the form of a soft crystalline rock that is mined and exported to Europe and the United States, where it is ground and used as a fertilizer, and in the manufacture of certain chemical products. The next most valuable mineral product is copper, nearly all of which is exported to Great Britain. Coal is mined in the southern part of the country, A GLAOIEES, PUNTA ARENAS but since it is not of suitable quality for smelting purposes, consider- able is imported from Australia. The country is well supplied with railways, most of which are built and operated by the government. Santiago is the capital and Valparaiso is the chief seaport, and also the business and finan- cial center of the Pacific coast of South America. Previous to the outbreak of the European war in 1914, most of the forwarding trade was in the hands of British and German merchants, but since that 306 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRIES date the trade with the United States has more than doubled. The transcontinental line of railway connecting Valparaiso with Buenos Aires saves shipping goods around Cape Horn. The other im- portant towns areConcepcion, Talca, Chilian, Iquique, and Copiapo. k^^oh - Jl^k^ r ^* - fW ,*3f^'' Wi. $ •^-\' /■"^'''^' ^**%i»ttr>' ■■ ^*|-' TBIEG INDIANS, PTJNTA. ARENAS Punta Arenas, on the Strait of Magellan, is the southerrimost town in America. The foreign trade is controlled by Great Britain, which has about two-thirds of it; Germany and France have most of the remainder. The United States supplies the country with a portion of its textiles, and also with lumber from Oregon and Washington, and with pe- troleum. Our imports are principally nitrate. THE LOWLAND COUNTRIES VENEZUELA Venezuela is the most northerly country bordering on the Atlantic. The area is 398,594 square miles. The most reliable estimates of the population placed the number of inhabitants in 1915 at about 2,250,000. One-seventh of these are Indians. The country has a tropical climate, and is unhealthful except in the mountainous regions. The lowlands have a tropical vegetation, but the higher altitudes produce the plants of the tempei'ate zone. The leading industries are agriculture, grazing, and the gathering of forest products. Coffee is the most important crop, and about 200,000 acres are devoted to its cultivation. Cacao and sugar are grown in the lowlands, and cereals in the mountainous districts. The llanos are great plains covered with grass, which furnish pas- turage for herds of cattle, sheep, horses, goats, and swine. The mineral resources are important, and consist of gold, silver, copper, 'ron, sulphur, petroleum, asphalt, coal, salt, and kaolin, from which porcelain is made. Asphalt is a mineral pitch, or solid form of bitumen, and is derived from sources similar to those from which coal and petroleum have been formed. The lake on Trinidad is from eighteen to seventy-eight feet in depth, and is estimated to contain 6,000,000 tons. A large lake of asphalt on the Island of Trinidad is under the management of American companies. Numerous large pools of 307 308 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY this mineral are also found along the neighboring coast. It is ex- tensively exported, and used in asphalt pavements. The country is poorly equipped with roads, and there are about 550 miles of railway consisting of certain short lines that extend from the agricultural districts to ports on the Caribbean. Nearly all goods are transported by pack animals, except in the region of the Orinoco, which furnishes a good waterway for that portion of THE CACAO TREE, PODS ON THE TREE AND IN SECTIONS, AND THE BLOSSOM the interior through which it flows. Caracas, the capital, and Valentia, on the Caribbean, are the most important cities and are situated in the midst of a fertile and productive agricultural dis- trict. Maracaibo, Puerto, and Cabello are the principal seaports. The country lacks capital, and frequent uprisings and revolutions have nearly ruined its industries. COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 309 The foreign trade is with the United States, Great Britain, France, (Germany, and Spain. We furnish the Venezuelans with one-half of their imports, consisting of cotton fabrics, ironware, flour, and canned goods; and receive from them coffee, hides, rubber, and asphalt. GUIANA Guiana is divided into three colonies known respectively as British, French, and Dutch Guiana; these constitute the only colonial possessions in South America. In area the country is about equal to California and Maine. Fully one-half of the territory belongs to Great Britain, and the remainder is about equally di- vided between France and Holland. The climate is tropical, and unhealthful along the coast. Only small tracts of land are under cultivation, and these consist of narrow strips along the coast region, which are protected by dykes. Sugar-cane is the chief agricultural product, but the manufacture of beet sugar in the northern countries has greatly crippled the sugar industry in this part of the world. The country is rich in gold and diamonds, but the mines have not been extensively worked. Georgetown in British Guiana, Cayenne in French Guiana, and Parimaribo in Dutch Guiana are the capitals of the colonies and the principal towns. The leading exports are sugar, cacao, coffee, molasses, and rum; and the imports are manu- factured articles and food products. The principal trade is that with the mother countries, the United States having a small portion of it. Compared with the commerce of other countries that of Guiana is unimportant. MAP OF BRAZIL SHOWING LOCATION OF THE TEINCIPAL POETS (1) Porto Velho, 1800 miles up the Amazon and Madeira rivers; (2) Manoas, Important rubber metropolis; (8) Para; (4) Recife; (S) B»W»; (6) Elo de Janeiro ; (7) Santos; (8) Corumba, 1800 miles Irom the sea at Montevideo. >>' i \ ■ < \ ' i -ow DEYING COFFEE BEEEIES BRAZIL The Republic of Brazil is nearly as large as the United States, including Alaska, and occupies about one-half of the continent. It extends from the fifth parallel of north latitude to the thirty-third parallel of south latitude. The Equator crosses the northern part, and with the exception of the extreme southern portion, which is in the temperate zone, the country has a tropical climate. The popu- lation in 1915 was estimated at twenty-six and a half millions. It consists of Portuguese, negroes, native Indians, and mixed races that have descended from these, together with a few Europeans and Americans. The country is naturally divided into three productive districts: the Amazon Basin, the Middle Coast Region, and the Southern Coas Region. Most of the interior is still a vast wilder- ness. 311 iZ! P O S. o <1 o o O u S3 ■< a o H O n O 03 & m IS COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 313 The Amazon Basin includes more than half the country, and supports the most dense and extensive tropical forests in the world. At present the great product of the forest is rubber, of which it supplies about one-sixth of the world's crop. This is gathered by the Indians, who live in a half civilized state, and whose crude ONE OP THE FLOATING DOCKS AT VAI, DE CAEN, PAEA methods have greatly damaged many of the rubber trees. The Amazon crop also includes much of that gathered from the neigh- boring states. Most of it is shipped from Para, which is the great- est rubber port in the world. These forests also contain an in- exhaustible supply of hard and soft woods suitable for all sorts 314 COMMERCE AJNJJ INJJUSIK of cabinet and building purposes, but the time for developing the lumbering industry is not yet ripe. The leading products of the middle coast region are cotton and sugar-cane, and of the southern coast region and interior, coffee. Rice, black beans, and manioc are the most important food i ^V^ \^ y \ ' r-~A'. jn^-K v^ ^np"^ " 1 f0U •^ <^*Btit-^ \ / V kMjtnnrvz ,& ^ ^^l ' (/^r»j l—^ . Jr-"' "v^.^ ^ 7 ■^""•t- / i>—l 1 j^*"^ ^ / ff { v,?«/l i / / / Pi\ ) ParahybsA S ^ # ?/ ^ .^ J \ ~) \ / f , ^^£?/\7 "^ 7 V \ A/ /¥, PRODUCTS ^ Y c y Csls(so^^ ■'""■^1 j Brazil ^uts K ^ \J \ /ifVictaria Coffee S Ak vJ Cacao. ■} / "■"-'. . Cotton 7 ( Hides ^ '\ C^^^aulo ■^*'..^ .Manganese ore / JU Rubber 4 f r" Sujrar '^ ZA ■L^ Tobacco / COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 317 dark red color. Each cell contains a seed which forms the coffee nib or bean. The orchards are kept well tilled and free from weeds. When the fruit is ripe, cloths are spread imder the trees and they are shaken, which causes the berries to fall. The berries are dried on mats in the open air, then crushed between rollers to free the seeds from the husk. After a second drying in the sun, the seeds are winnowed, then packed in sacks ready for shipping. The average AVENUES OF PALM TREES, AVENIDA DO MANGtJE, EIO JANEIRO yield is about a poimd to a tree, but the best trees often yield three 01' four poimds. The great mineral region extends along the Bolivian border to Matto Grosso, and eastward to the Rio Grande du Sul. Gold, silver, diamonds, and other precious stones, are found in this region. Before the discovery of the diamond mines in South Africa, those of Brazil were the richest in the world. Iron, copper, and coal are also found in pa3nng quantities, but they have not been worked. 318 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY Manufactures are still in a primitive state, but foreign capital, principally from Germany, is invading the country and establishing new industries. The resources of Brazil are more extensive than those of any other South American country, and these establish- ments will, undoubtedly, continue to increase in size and number. MUNICIPAL THEATRE OB 0PET4A HO0SE, ElO JANEIRO The Amazon and Parana, with their tributaries, furnish a series of waterways leading to all ports of the interior. These rivers are of the greatest commercial importance, since without them it would be impossible to transport the rubber and other forest products to the coast. The roads are generally poor, but there are over 16,000 miles of railway in operation, consisting principally of short lines extending from the plateau to the nearest COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 319 seaport. Most of the railways are owned by the government, and leased to private corporations. Rio Janeiro is the largest railway center. The transportation facilities are still entirely inadequate to the demands made upon them, and with the extension of railway lines and the construction of good roads, the interior of the country could be profitably developed, and this would lead lo gi-eat increase in production. Rio Janeiro is the capital and commercial center. It is the second largest city of the continent, having a population of about 962,000. It has an excellent harbor and steamer connec- tions with the leading ports of the United States and Europe. Para, at the mouth of the Amazon, has an extensive trade in rubber. Pemambuco is an important sugar, coffee, and cotton market. Porte Allegre is the seaport for the German colonists, and Bahia has a large trade in cotton, sugar, and tobacco. Santos is the sea- port of the State of Sao Paulo, and the largest coffee-exporting center in the world. The annual foreign commerce amounts to about $403,260,000, and it is divided between Great Britain, Germany, France, the United States, and a few other countries. The leading export is coffee, which is by far the most important product of the country, and the one from which the greatest amount of revenue is derived. The annual export is about 600,000,000 pounds and nearly the entire crop is taken by the United States. Rubber is second in importance, and in the production of this, Brazil formerly led the world. Other exports are hides, tallow, cotton, and Brazil nuts. Over one-half the foreign commerce is with the United States. The yearly exports to this country amount to about $132,600,000, and our exports to Brazil amount to about $41,200,000. They consist chiefly of flour, cotton goods, machinery, hardware, iron and steel goods, and petroleum. There are regular lines of steam- ers plying between the United States and the most important Brazilian ports. Beef Cattle Corn Flour, wheat Mutton, frozen Oxhides Quebracho Wheat Wool GOVliKN.MENT HOUSE, LA. PLATA, ARGENTINA ARGENTINA Argentina, or the Argentine Republic, occupies the southern half of the eastern part of South America. It is about one-half the size of the United States, and has a population of about 7,980,000. A small section in the northern part has a tropical climate, but with this exception the entire country lies within the south temperate zone. The plains in the north have a tropical climate and vegetation; those of the central portions have a warm and temperate climate, while the plains of the south have a colder 321 322 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY climate. The mountainous region, which extends along the entire western part of the country, is cooler than other portions in the same latitude. The climate varies here with the altitude and the season of the year. Argentina is almost entirely one vast fertile plain, and is especially adapted to stock raising and growing cereals. It has become one of the largest wool producing countries of the world, and is now competing in the markets of Europe, with Russia and the United States, in the sale of wheat and dressed meat. The annual yield of wheat is now about 180,000,000 bushels, and over two-thirds of it is exported. Flax, com, and sugar-cane are also successfully grown, as are various kinds of fruits suitable to the temperate and semi-tropical latitudes. Grape culture and the manufacture of wine are also becoming important industries. The country is well supplied with minerals. Gold, silver, and CDpper ores are abundant in the mountain districts and gold is also found along the coast as far south as Tierra del Fuego. Coal, principally lignite, petroleum, sulphur, borax, nitrates, salt, and iron are found in sufficient quantities to be profitably mined. The foot hills and lower portions of the mountains are covered with ex- tensive forests that yield timber and other valuable products. Manufacturing is not extensive. What there is consists of the manufacture of flour and wine and in distilling and brewing. Nearly all of the manufactured products are imported. Argentina is better supplied with railways than the other South American countries, and the system is being continually extended. The completion of ihe transcontinental railway, from Buenos Aires to Valparaiso in Chile, was one of the most important commercial enterprises of the entire continent, and is found to be of great value to both countries. Buenos Aires, on the right bank of the La Plata, is the capital, and financial and commercial center. It is the largest and most im- poitant city of South America. In its buildings, its streets, and its public utilities it is a thoroughly modern city, and far in advance CO'VDVIERCE AND INDUSTRY 323 of any other city of the continent. It has a large trade with European countries, and the United States. Other important cities are Rosario, Santa Fe, Parana, and Cordova, each of which has a good market for the surrounding farming regions. The country has a growing and valuable foreign trade. The most important exports are: wool, hides, skins, com, preserved meats, domestic animals, flax, tallow and fat, and wheat. Mutton is frozen and exported to Europe in refrigerator ships, while beef is jerked, or dried, and exported in this form. The imports are agri- cultural implements, textiles, boots and shoes, and clothing. The trade is carried on with Great Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, United States, and Italy. The exports to this country are confined almost entirely to cattle products and wool, while we send to them agricultural implements, iron and steel goods, oils, cotton goods, and wood and its manufactures. Our exports to Argentina amount to about $68,000,000, and our trade with Argentina as well as that with other South American countries is rapidly increasing. For the purpose of stimulating this trade several of the large banks in the United States have established branches in Buenos Aires and other South American cities. Argentina is the most progressive of the South American coun- tries. It has ample resources, a fertile soil, and a temperate climate. Its inhabitants are energetic and progressive, and the government is stable and well disposed towards all lines of industrj'^. During the last few years a large number of immigrants from Southern Europe have entered the country. With the addition of necessary capital to develop its resources, this Republic is in a fair way to become a strong rival of the United States in the markets of Europe. PLAZA. DE LA INDEPENDENCIA, MONTEVIDEO URUGUAY Uruguay is a small country situated on the opposite side of the La Plata from Argentina. It has a large foreign population, and is in excellent financial condition. The principal industry is stock raising, and much attention has been given to improved breeding, by the introduction of European stock. The scientific methods pursued have made this little state one of the foremost cattle and sheep countries^ of the world. The value of the animal products exported is about $70,000,000 a year. The soil is fertile; wheat and other cereals are raised, and some wheat is exported. Montevideo is the capital and most important city. The exports go to France and Argentina, and most of the imports are textiles and machinery, which are supplied by Great Britain and the United States. 325 o » a IS % o !Zi o Zi O la O o a H PARAGUAY Paraguay is a small interior state to the north of Argentina. Most of its surface is covered with dense forests. The soil is fertile, and the climate is suitable for the growth of wheat and other cereals, but owing to the lack of transportation facilities, scarcely any of the resources have been developed. Sugar and mat^, or Paraguay tea, are the only crops exported and these are of but little value. Asuncion is the capital and chief city. QUESTIONS What effect do the Andes have upon the products and industries of South America? What interests do the United States hold in Panama? What is the present condition of the Panama Canal? Why do the Andean countries have so httle commerce? What conditions have made Chile the most prominent of these countries? Which of the South American countries the most closely resembles the United States in climate and products? In what does this country compete with the United States in the markets of the world? With what South American country do we have the largest trade? Why? Why do European countries have a larger trade than the United States with South America? What has caused the United States to take so much interest in Venzuelan affairs? How do you account for the lack of manufactures in South America? 327 Chapter IV. THE WEST INDIES. Cuba and Hayti have independent governments, the latter being divided into the states of Hayti and San Domingo, but all the other islands are colonies of Europe. Cuba, the largest of the West Indies, has a length of CUBA rjQQ miles, and a breadth ranging from 25 to 130 miles. In area it is about equal to Pennsylvania, and has a population of about two and a half millions, nearly equally divided between whites and negroes. Most of the whites are Spaniards, and Spanish is the language of the island. The surface is divided into three distinct areas ; the mountainous region occupying the eastern part, a central plain with scattered hills, and the mountainous region in the western part, which has a mountain axis whose slopes descend to the valleys. The coast is irregular and furnishes numerous good harbors. There are a num- ber of rivers on the island, but they are short and of but little commercial value. The soil is fertile, and rainfall is abundant. Agriculture is the leading industry, and sugar ° constitutes the principal crop, Cuba leading the world in the out-put of cane-sugar. The next crop in impor- tance is tobacco, which is grown with a greater margin of profit than sugar, and is exported in large quantities. Cuban tobacco is of the best quality, and commands the highest prices in all markets. For this reason tobacco from other countries is frequently shipped to the island and reshipped as the Cuban product. The forests contain a large quantity of valu- * ° ^ ftble timber, andiron ore, copper, manga- 330 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY nese, asphalt and salt are found in suflBcient quantities to admit of profitable working. Considerable iron ore is now mined and shipped to the United States since it is especially valuable in the manufacture of steel. Manufactures are limited almost entirely to Manufactures ^^^^^.^ ^^^ q^,^^,. pj-^ducts of tobacco. The oppressive Spanish rule and the war for independence destroyed most of the plantations and ruined all the industries, but with the aid of this country a new beginning has been made. An independent government, republican in form, was organized in 1902, with Tomas Estrada Palma as president, but after four years the United States was obliged to intervene and settle internal stnfe. The foreign relations of the Republic are subject to the control of the United States. Provisions for paying up the national debt have been made, a good system of schools, estab- lished while under the control of the United States, is maintained, and railways and highways are being extended. Havana, the capital and chief city, is situated on the north coast, and is a convenient port of call for vessels crossing the Atlantic. It is the commercial and financial center of the West Indies, the largest sugar market in the world, and the third city in the Western Hemisphere in foreign commerce. Its population is 359,200. The other important cities are Cardenas and Matanzas on the northern coast, and Santiago de Cuba and Ciufuegos on the southern coast. All these are connected with Havana by railway and telegraph and Havana has cable connection with the United States. Nearly all the foreign trade is with the United States. Sugar and tobacco constitute the principal exports, but others of some importance are iron ore, honey, wax, hides and rum. The trade with the Uilited States amounts to about $311,000,000 a year, of which $206,000,000 is exports, COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 331 and the balance imports, consisting of agricultural implements, cotton goods, boots and shoes, hardware, machinery, and vehicles. ^.»T T>^i,>T»^o This island is divided between the negro re- SAN DOMINGO , ,. . tt .- •, o r, ■ rri, publics of Hayti and -San Dommgo. The former has been fairly prosperous, laut rebellions and revolutions in the latter have completely destroyed all industries and hindered civilization. In 1906 the finaaicial affairs were placed under con- trol of the United States until the foreign debt is paid. ^«xx^» ,^^ .,,„^ The most valuable of the other islands are OTHER ISLANDS j j 4.u t> t u ^u v, i Jamaica and the Baaamas, both belongmg to Great Britain. To the eastward of these lie the small group of the Danish West Indies purchased by the United States in 1917 and named the Virgin Islands, (see page 256), and the Virginian group; the Leeward Islands, the French Islands of Gaudeloupe and Mar- tinique; the Windward Islands, including St. Lucia, St. Vincent, and Grenada; and the Barbadoes. All raise pineapples and other tropical fruits, and have more or less trade with the United States, but the larger part of the trade is with the respective home coun- tries. Kingston on Jamaica is, next to Havana, the most important city of the West Indies. QUESTIONS What commercial advantage does Cuba have over the other West Indies? What are the most important products of Jamaica? Why have Hayti and San Domingo such a limited trade? How has annexation to the United States helped Porto Rico? Ss o p Iz o iz o m < Chapter V. THE UNITED KINGDOM. The United Kingdom embraces England, Scot- land, Ireland and Wales. The British Empire includes the United Kingdom and all of her colonies. The area of the United Kingdom is about 121,000 square miles, or a little more than three times that of the state of Ohio. Its popula- tion is 41,000,000, or about half that of the United States. The area of the British Empire extends over 11,500,000 square miles, and includes one-fifth of the land area and nearly one-fourth of the population of the globe. The important political divisions of the POLITICAL DIVISIONS „ .. /^. , ^ tt i ^ u- u United Kingdom are: England, which is a little larger than New York ; Wales, about the size of New Jersey ; Scotland, about the size of South Carolina ; and Ireland, which is but little smaller than Maine. England is the largest and contains three-fourths of the population of the Isles. The location of the British Isles is extremely AGRICULTURE f^^orabie for agriculture. Being in the path of the warm currents and warm winds of the North Atlan- tic, they have a temperate climate, with an abundance of rainfall, while their high latitude gives them long days dur- ing the summer season, and the large bodies of water sur- rounding them prevent sudden changes of temperature. All these conditions are favorable to the growing of crops. In the lowlands the soil is exceedingly fertile and it is remarkably well tilled. Hay, wheat and vegetatables are the leading crops. The yield per acre in each is about double that secured in the United 333 334 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY States. Much of the land is held in lai'ge estates, which are divided into small farms that are kept in a high state of cultivation by the method of intensive farming, similar to that used by the truck gardeners near large cities in the United States, and almost universally practised. On the highlands and among the mountains, cattle and sheep are raised in large numbers, sheep being of special importance in Scotland. Through years of careful breeding, the English farmers have attained the distinction of raising the finest cattle and sheep in the world. The cattle in the North are raised especially for beef, while those in the South are adapted to dairy purposes. Many of these breeds, such as Durhams or Short Horn, the Angus, the Ayrshires, Jerseys and Alderneys, have been imported to the United States, where they have supplanted nearly all of the older and less yaluable breeds. The sheep produce the best quality of coarse and medium wool. Some portions of the Islands, especially Ireland, are devoted to the growing of flax. All lines of agriculture are conducted on a scientific basis and the best possible results are obtained, but the agricultural products of the Kingdom fall far short of supplying the needs of the popula- tion and large quantities of food stuflfs and raw material have to be imported. The fisheries are of considerable importance and occupy a good proportion of the inhabitants living along the coast in the northern part of the islands. Large quan- tities of herring are salted and exported, and fish of every variety supply the home markets. The abundance of iron and coal in England Mineral Resources ^^^^^^ ^j^^^. ^^^^^^^.^ ^^ ^^^ manufacture of iron and steel products. Coal is found all the way from Southern Scotland to the Bristol Channel near the southern coast. Ex- tensive deposits of iron are also found in the old worn-down COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 335 mountains adjacent to the coal fields. Tin and copper occur in considerable quantities, but the manufacturing industries require more of these metals than can be supplied from the home mines, and large quantities of each are imported. The coal supply, however, exceeds the home demand, and some coal is exported to the other countries of Europe. The peculiar advantages afforded for the manu- Manufactures f^cture of iron and steel and all articles made from them, have, until within a few years, enabled England to lead the world in the manufacture of iron and steel goods. The damp climate is especially adapted to the manufacture of textiles, because most fibers are more successfully worked in a humid atmosphere. These conditions, combined with the intelligence and genius of the English people, have for many years made England one of the leading manufacturing countries of the world. Four inventions which have revolutionized the leading indus- tries of the world are due to the ingenuity of Englishmen. These are the power-loom by Edward Cartwright, the steam engine by James Watt, the locomotive by Stephenson and the Bessemer process of the making of steel by Sir Henry Bessemer. Stephen- son was not the original inventor of the locomotive, but he was the first to construct a practical road machine of this sort, and for this reason he is considered as the father of the steam railway. The great manufacturing region is in the northern and western part of England. In the northwestern section of this district, the great cotton and woolen factories are found. Manchester leads the world in the manufacture of cotton goods and Leeds is the most important center in the woolen industry. England manufactures more textiles than any other country ; her combined textile indus- tries give employment to more than 5,000,000 people, and the products of her mills are found in all countries of the world. The metal industries are next in importance to the manufacture o CHEAPSIDB, LONDON COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 337 of textiles. In these iron and steel lead. Birmingham is the center of the iron industry and Sheffield is noted for its cutlerj'^ and tools. The abundance of iron and coal has also made ship-building an important occupation and some of the largest ship-yards in the world are found at Glasgow, where the majority of steamships sailing under all flags except the American, are constructed. These are the great manufacturing industries, but nearly all others, to a greater or less extent, are represented in the English workshops, there being scarcely an article in use among civilized people that is not made in the country. For many years England was the leading manufacturing country of the world, but she is now sur- passed by the United States. Cities ^^^^P* ill *he northern part of Scotland, and some por- tions of Ireland, the country is densely populated. In England alone there are thirteen cities each having a population of more than 200,000. To this number must be added Glasgow and Edinburgh in Scotland, and Dublin and Belfast in Ireland. Most of the cities of the kingdom own their public utilities, such as lights, water-works, and street railways, and have attained a wide reputa- tion for the excellent management and sound financial condition of these enterprises. London, the capital, is the commercial and financial center of the empire and of the world. The area of Greater London is 693 square miles^ or over one-half the area of the state of Rhode Island.^ In 1914, the population, including the metropolitan and police districts, was 7,420,000, which was equal to about two- thirds the population of the state of New York, including New York City. The city has grown at almost the head of tide-water of the Thames, whose broad estuary opens towards the rich -lands of the continent. This location gives London great advantage as a "half. way" station for the exchange of the products of the nations, and for centuries it has-been the leading market of the world. o o m > ^ H ? COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 339 London is the center of the railway systems of the kingdom, as well as the focal point of many ocean routes, but the largest ocean liners anchor about twenty miles down the river on account of shallow water. Liverpool is one of the most important seaports of Europe. It is the port through which passes nearly all the trade between the United Kingdom and the United States, Canada and other Ameri- can countries. It has an extensive system of docks and is connected with Manchester by ship canal. The Cunard and White Star Steamship lines have their terminus here. Southampton is also an important port for American trade. Manchester has been made a seaport by the construction of its magnificent ship canal, which admits the largest vessels, and has its banks lined with wharves. Glasgow is noted for its great ship-building and iron and steel industries, and Queenstown is the port of call for many trans- Atlantic steamers. The transportation facilities of the Kingdom ^ are not surpassed by those of any other coun- try. Excellent carriage roads extend everywhere, and the numer- ous railways join all towns with important centers of trade, and these with the' great commercial and industrial centers. The rail- ways are of the highest order of excellence, the best of mail, tele- graph and telephone services are also maintained, and ocean cables extend to all parts of the world. The British Isles are situated in the center of the Commerce ^^^^ masses of the Northern Hemisphere. Com- mercially, this is a great advantage. Moreover, their small area places nearly every important manufacturing and commercial town within 50 miles of the sea. And, in addition to these local advan- tages, the British Empire has colonies in all parts of the world, with each of which most favorable trade relations are sustained. These conditions have made the United Kingdom the greatest com- 340 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY mercial and carrying nation of the world. The British merchant marine far exceeds that of any other country. It has nearly three times the tonnage of the merchant marine of the United States, and more than five times that of any other European nation. Her merchant-ships are a great source of wealth, as they enable her to do a large part of the carrying business of other nations, especially the United States, and from this carrying trade a valuable revenue is de- rived. English ships are found in every important port of the world. Map ot the World, staowiiig central poBition of British Isles and chief Trade Boutes Commerce is carried on with nearly all nations, but the United States, France, Germany, Netherlands, Belgium and Eussia, in the order named, have the largest trade. The imports are food stuffs and raw material for use in manufacturins. For this reason Great Britain has for many years been a free trade country, since, to place duties upon such imports would simply in- crease the cost of living, and cause hardship to the people. COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 341 The exports are manufactures and cokl. English textiles are found in all lands and English hardware, cutlery, and machinery are exported to the British colonies and many of the countries of Europe and Asia. In addition to this, innumerable small wares, such as scientific instruments, pens, needles and pins, and others, that in the aggregate amount to a large sum, are sent to nearly all countries with which trade relations are sustained. The whole amounts to about two and a half billion dollars, one-fourth of which comes from the colonies, one-fifth from the United States, about one-tenth from France and the balance from other countries. The imports from the United States are wheat, flour, preserved meat, beef cattle, cotton, and electrical machinery. The exports to this country consist of textiles and other manufactures. The annual trade with the United States amounts to $892,714,000, of which about $597,000,000 is in imports from this country, and the balance in exports. Note. The statistics for European countries are based upon conditions existing previous to the war. QUESTIONS. What made England for a long time the leading manufacturing country of the world? How do you account for the number of large cities in England and Scotland? Why is the northern portion of Scotland sparsely populated? What has given London its prominence as a financial and a commercial center? What city in the United States does it resemble in these respects? What conditions have made Liverpool such an important seaport? What natural advantages have aided in extending the commerce of the United Kingdom? Why is such a large proportion of the foreign commerce carried on with the United States? Chapter VI GERMANY Germany is the most centrally located country of Europe. It adjoins Poland on the east, Austria and. Switzerland on the south, France, Belgium and the Nether- lands on the west and Denmark on the north, and is within a day's sail of the British Isles and the Scandinavian Peninsula- Its area is about three-fourths that of Texas, and its popu- lation two-thirds that of the United States. In the south the land is high and often mountainous, and the hill country prevails until the plains of Prussia are reached. These occupy the entire northern half of the country. The country has a temperate climate and an abundant rainfall. . ,. Agriculture is second in importance to manu- ^ factures and is one of the leading industries, engaging the attention of two-fifths of the people. Though in many localities the soil is naturally poor, yet owing to the great care taken with every little patch of ground and the skill with which the Germans manage, abundant crops are raised. In the southern and central parts of the country, rye, hops, grapes, wheat, barley and tobacco are raised, and the Rhine "Valley is one of the largest wine- producing regions in the world. On the plains of Prussia, sugar- beets, rye, oats, and tobacco are raised. The sugar-beet is one of the most important crops and Germany was the leading coimtry in, the i^productidn of beet-sugar, its output being about one-fourth of lihe world'^ supply. Potatoes are also important. But none of these crops is sufficient to supply the country with food and the balance has to be imported. Cattle and hogs are raised in some • . '- ■ ' ■ .- - .34a COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 345 sections and where grazing is good, dairy products are of consider- able value. Forests cover one-fourth of the area of the country, and jield a good supply of timber and other useful products. All forests are under government supervision and their wise management prevents waste or destruction. A tree cannot be cut unless another is planted, so that the stipply of timber does not diminish. „ , „ ■ Germany is rich in minerals. Silver, lead Mmeral Resoupces , ^ j ■ ^i. u. ■ and copper ores are foimd m the mountains of Prussia, extending from Aachen on the west to upper Silesia on the east. Coal and iron occur in the Rhine Highlands, especially in the Ruhr Valley in the neighborhood of Aachen, where they be- come continuous with the coal fields of Belgium. Germany pro- duces more coal and iron than any other country on the continent. She also leads the European coimtries in her output of silver. Zinc occurs in large quantities, copper is mined to a limited extent and most of the lithograph stone comes from Bavaria. As a manufacturing country Germany ranked Manufactures ^y^^^ ^^^^^ exceeded by the United States and the United Kingdom. Textiles and iron and steel goods are the leading products. These industries are principally located in the iron and coal regions of the south and southwest. At Essen are the Krupp Iron Works. Here are cast most of the large cannon for Germany, and here also is made much of the machinery for the largest ocean steamers; other heavy iron and steel work is also turned out in abundance. All the important rivers are navigable, and Transportation ^^^ connected with each other by canals. Other canals also connect with the important rivers of France, Russia and Austria-Hungary, so that the inland water trans- portation is ample and cheap. Railways connect all towns of importance, and, in addition, important trunk lines lead to the COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 347 prominent trade centers of all surrounding countries. Over 32,000 miles of railway are in operation, and the railway system of Ger- many is second only to that of the United States. The Baltic and the North Seas have 700 miles of coast, and the construction of the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal (see page 29) across the Peninsula of Schleswig-Holstein is of great advantage to commerce on the Baltic, since it saves the long and stormy passage of the Straits between Denmark and Scandinavia. Berlin, the capital, is one of the few cities having over a million inhabitants. It is an important industrial center and the leading financial center of Germany. It was formerly one the most important financial centers of the world. Many of the leading railways converge here. Hamburg, at the mouth of the Elbe, has extensive docks, and was the most important seaport on the continent. It received all the American trade. Dresden is the center of the railway system of Saxony, and also had steamer connections with most Of the leading ports of Europe. It is like- wise an important manufacturing center. Konigsberg is an im- portant Baltic port. Breslau receives most of the raw material of Eastern Europe. Settin and Kiel have large shipyards where many of the finest German ships are built. The commerce of Germany ranked among European countries next to that of Great Britain. Her manu- factures found a market in all civilized countries, and her important exports, consisted of iron and steel goods, textiles, chemicals, beet sugar, dye stuffs, wine and scientific instruments. The leading imports are food stuffs, raw material, especially cotton, wool and raw silk. Germany was a heavy purchaser of American cotton, although she obtained considerable of her supply from other countries. Large quantities of her textiles go to South American countries and considerable wheat is imported from Argentina. The annual trade with foreign countries amounted in 1914 to 348 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY I about $2,500,000,000; about one-half of this was with Great Britain and United States; and Russia, the South American States, Nether- lands, France and Belgium were the other leading countries. The annual trade with the United States was about $520,000,000. The imports from this country exceeded the exports to us by about $140,000,000. We obtained from Germany chemicals, woolens and scientific instruments, and sent her dressed meat, boots and shoes, cotton goods, agricultural machinery, typewriters and a few other manufactured articles. QUESTIONS How does Germany compare with the United Kingdom in area? In natural resources? How do German manufactures compare with those of England^ in kind and quality? Along what lines do the Germans excel? The English? In what line of manufacture does Germany compete with the United States? How does Hamburg compare with Liverpool as a seaport? : Chapter VII. FRANCE inrATTON ^^'^P® is south of the British Isles and southwest of Germany. On the northeast it adjoins Belgium and on the southeast Italy. Its area is a little less than that of Germany, and its population a little less than half of the United States. The southern and eastern portions are mountainous, but the northern and northwestern portions are quite level, forming a part of the great plain that extends along the western coast of the continent. All the rivers have their source in the mountains. The climate is warm temperate, quite similar to that of the South Atlantic States. The country has a fertile soil, but the mineral resources are com- paratively small. 349 350 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY Four-fifths of the land is divided into small Agriculture ^^^^ ^^^^^ occupy one-half of the inhabitants. Though smaller than Texas, France has as many farms as the United States. They average in size from fifteen to seventeen acres and are cultivated on the plan of intensive farming, as in England. The most scientific methods are employed, and the land is in the highest state of fertility. Wheat is the most important cereal and the crop is of greater value than those of all the other cereals combined. Oats is the next cereal in importance, and rye and barley are grown to some extent. The sugar-beet is the most valuable agricultural product and is raised extensively on the plains in the north. France has over 500 sugar factories and produces about 833,000 tons of sugar annually. Tobacco is grown in some provinces, and is a government monopoly. France is the leading country of the world in the production of grapes and wine; the soil and climate of the southern and eastern portions of the coimtry being especially adapted to this industry. Grazing is the most important industry in the northern part of the country where cattle-breeding and dairying are a fruitful source of income to the farmers. Wool of excellent quality is also grown, and France is the original home of the Flemish and Percheron horses. -^: The fisheries are among tne first in Europe: large Fisheries j- 7 o quantities of cod are taken, and oyster culture is ex- tensive. Most of the Atlantic fisheries are around the mouth of the Gironde, and most of the oyster beds are on the Bay of Biscay off St. Malo and in the English Channel. French oysters are inferior to the American varieties, but they find ready market at home. , _ France produces considerable coal, but not Mineral Resources , , , , , , ' enough to supply her demands. Iron ore is also mined to some extent in Lorraine. The leading iron manu- factories are Lille, Nancy and St. Etienne. Salt mines occur near COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 351 Nancy, and large quantities are also obtained from the salt marshes along the Loire and Gironde. France is an important manufacturing country; Manufaetupes ixu u • j. u * j. j j although, m amount, her manuiactured prod- ucts fall far short of those of the United States, Great Britain or Germany, she excels in the quality of her goods. Shops and fac- tories are found throughout the country, but the most extensive manufactories of iron and steel are in the north, in the region of the coal fields. The manufacture of textiles is one of the most important industries, and occupies over a million people. The silk industry centers in the Rhone valley, and Lyons is the leading silk market and the largest producer of silk textiles in Europe. The silkworm has been cultivated in Southern France for several centuries, but nine-tenths of the raw material is imported from Italy, China and Japan. Rouen has large cotton mills and Lille and Roubaix are also important centers of this industry. Excellent woolens are made at Roubaix and Tuscany, and Rheims and Lyons manufacture shawls. French woolens are noted for their fine texture and superior quality. Ribbons, kid gloves, hats, millinery, perfumery and numerous small wares, for the making of which the French people have a special aptitude, also constitute an important part of the manufactures. France has an excellent railway system, of Transportation ^j^.^j^ p^^^.^^ ^ ^^ j^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^.^ pj-omhere, railways extend to all of the principal industrial and commercial centers in the northern part of the country, and important lines extend south to Lyons and Marseilles. In all, there are about 24,000 miles of railroad, and a trunk line through the Mount Cenis Tunnel makes direct connection with Italy. The navigable rivers have been canalized, thereby greatly extending their mile- age. Canals also connect these rivers with each other and with some of the rivers of Germany, forming a complete and extensive system of inland waterways. 352 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY Paris is the largest city on the continent, the commercial ^ and financial center of the coimtry and the focus of a vast trade with surroimding countries sis well. It has railway- connections with all the important cities of Europe, and, through the Seine, excellent water communication with Great Britain and the continental seaports. It is the center of art and fashion and has become the great center for the distribution of luxiiries of the A VIEW ON THE SEINE, PARIS civilized world. Paris is also famous for-, its manufacture of women's apparel, kid gloves, perfumery, porcelain and jewelry. Lille, on the northern plain, is an important textile center. . Rouen is the center of cotton manufactures and Lyons of the silk industry. The important seaports are Marseilles, Narbonne and Cette on the Mediterranean, Bordeaux on the Atlantic, and Havre, which is the seaport of Paris. Rouen, by the excavations in the COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 353 Seine, has also been made an important inland seaport. The importance of Marseilles has been lessened by the construction of the Moimt Cenis, Saint Gothard and other tunnels through the Alps, since these give the country to the north direct railway connection with Genoa and other Italian cities. Although a compact country, France presents a great variety of soil, climate and productions. The natural versatility of the French people enables them to adapt themselves to these conditions in a manner that assures success in whatever they attempt. They are full of life, open-hearted and honest, but withal energetic and earnest. Neatness and thrift characterize their every effort, and in France a larger proportion of homes is owned by their occu- pants, than in any other coimtry. The thrift of the French is also manifested in their use of raw material. Nothing is wasted, and what is often rejected by other nationalities as worthless is here worked up into valuable by-products. The country- has been burdened time and time again by heavy debts, yet the people are prosperous, hopeful and happy. The most important articles of commerce are wool- ens, silk and wine. Following these are numer- ous small articles, such as millinery, perfumery, porcelain and scientific instrimaents. The imports consist of bread stuffs, raw cotton, raw silk and wool. The greatest trade is with Great Britain and the United States. About one-ninth of the foreign trade is with this coimtry. The total value of the foreign commerce is about $1,325,000,000. The colonial possessions of France exceed the entire area of the United states and her possessions by more than a million of square miles and contain a popiilation of over 56,000,000, and they must be taken into account in considering the commerce of the nation. The most important colonies from a commercial point of view are Algeria and French Indo-China. The trade with Algeria 354 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY amounts to about $80,000,000, and that with the other colonial possessions to about $60,000,000 annually. With the exception of Algeria and Guiana, none of these colonies is at all developed, but all of them are susceptible of development, and some of them, such as French Kongo and Mad- agascar, contain abundant resources, while the agricultural possi- bilities in all are of importance, and others will in time furnish opportunities for the establishing of manufacturing enterprises. QUESTIONS. Why is France able to support so large a population? How do her methods of agriculture compare with those of England? How do the manufactures of France compare with those of other countries, as to kind, amount and quality? Why is so large a proportion of the foreign trade with Great Britain? What are the means of communication with the countries to the south? HOLLAND & BELGIUM ftailwaya - Canals LOCATION Chapter VIII. BELGIUM, HOLLAND, DENMARK, NORWAY AND SWEDEN Belgium, Netherlands or Holland, and Denmark occupy a section of the plains extending along the west coast of Europe, and a portion of Belgium and Holland is below the sea level. In Netherlands, considerable of this land has been reclaimed by building dykes and pumping out the water with windmills. On the low sand-barrens along the coast of Belgium, a similar work has been done by planting a grass that holds in place the sand which was formerly drifted by the wind. 365 356 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY BELGIUM Belgium is one of the smallest, most populous and most enterprising states in the world. With an area somewhat less than that of Maryland, the country supports a population of more than 6,000,000. The southern portion is high and broken, and the northern, low and nearly level. Though A VIEW AGK08S THE BASIN, ANTWERP naturally unproductive, by skilful tillage and the use of fertilizers, the soil has been made to yield abundant harvests. The sandy places along the coast have been transformed into excellent grazing lands and formerly supported large numbers of horses, cattle and sheep of the best breeds. This region is also the center COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 357 of an important dairy industry. Within this belt is one of more fertile soil, on which grains, the sugar-beet and flax are raised. The flax crop is very important since the fiber is of the best quality and is manufactured into textiles in the country. There is quite an extensive coal field in the southern part of the country, and deposits of iron are also found in the same locahty. Most of the coal mined is consumed by home manufac- tories, but a little is exported to France. Extensive zinc mines occur in Moresnet, and the production of metals and ores is an important industry. The southern part of the country is devoted to manufactures and is an important industrial center. The manu- facture of cotton, woolen and linen goods and lace are the leading industries. The hand-made lace of Belgium is famous for its fine- ness and beauty, and commands a high price in all civilized countries. Porcelain, art-tiles, glassware and cheaper grades of all crockery are also made in large quantities in the coal region, All of these constitute important articles of export. Brussels, the capital, is the most important city. Antwerp is the principal port and one of the chief seaports of Europe. Verviers, Liege and Seraing are important centers of the metal industry. Ghent is noted for its linens, and Mechlin and other towns in its vicinity for laces. The country is well supplied with railways which are under the control of the state. The Scheldt is navigable for ocean vessels as far as Antwerp, and is also con- nected by canals with the Rhine, which in turn is connected with the rivers of France. Most of the foreign commerce occupies the surrounding Euro- pean countries and the United States. The imports are food stuffs, and raw materials used in manufactures, especially cotton and wool, and the exports are manufactured goods, including iron and steel goods, zinc, textiles, porcelain, glassware and coal. The greater part of the commerce is with France, followed by the 358 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY United States and Great Britain. From the United States Bel- gium receives wheat, cotton, com and petroleimi. A large part of Holland is the delta of the Rhine. The comitry is a little larger than Maryland, and has a population of about 5,000,000. Agri- culture, dairying and stock-raising are the most important industries. The soil and climate make grazing profitable, and the country is celebrated for its excellent breeds of cattle, horses and sheep. Agriculture takes the form of truck-farm- ing and the growing of flowers, and the Dutch farmers supply vegetables, bulbs and cut flowers to many of the European cities. Manufacturing is next in importance and consists of the mak- ing of cotton, woolen and linen goods, sugar, chemicals, agricul- tural implements, metal work, brick and pottery. Sandstone is quarried, and iron ore and coal are mined in small quantities. The country is well supplied with canals, varying in size from those that will float large ships to mere ditches. These connect with the navigable rivers and with each other and furnish a com- plete system of waterways, which are supplemented by a railway system, having about half the mileage of the canals. Amsterdam is one of the leading financial centers of Europe, but the carrying trade centers about Rotterdam, which, by improvement of its canals and rivers, has been transformed into a commodious seaport. Delft has a world-wide reputation on account of the pottery made there. The trade is principally with the surrounding nations and the Dutch colonial possessions. The leading exports are butter, cheese, sugar, vegetables, flowers, margarine and flax. The imports are food stuffs, raw materials and manufactures. Most of the exports go to Great Britain, France and Belgium. The trade with the United States is small, amounting to about $163,600,000 a year. COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 359 more than three-fourths of which is imports. Like England, Netherlands has for centuries been a jobbing nation. The volume of trade handled by her people amounts to nearly $1,500,000,000 a year. The Dutch merchant marine is large for the nation, well equipped and frequents all ports of the world. Much of the carrjring trade is done for the Dutch East Indies, whose population and commerce exceed in value those of the mother country. ^>-^^ ../^ DENMARK Denmark occupies the peninsula of Jutland and a few adjoining islands. In area it is a little larger than Massachusetts, Connecticut and Rhode Island combined, and its population is about two and one-fourth millions, which is a little more than that of Chicago. Agriculture occupies about one-half of the people, manufacturing one-fourth, and fishing and trade the remainder. All available land is under cultivation, and excellent 360 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY crops of wheat and other cereals and roots are raised. Raising live- stock and dairying are also important industries. In the quality of her butter, Denmark excels all other countries. Manufactures are encouraged, but they are few and unimportant. The largest trade is with Great Britain and Germany. The exports are butter, eggs, lard and pork. The imports, food-stuffs and manufactured articles, principally textiles and* hardware. Considerable trade is carried on with Iceland, from which fish, whale and seal are imported. Copenhagen is the capital and commercial center. NORWAY AND SWEDEN Norway and Sweden occupy the Scandinavian Peninsula, the greatest part of which is a plateau, varying from 1000 to SOOO feet in altitude, being highest at the South. The combined area of these countries is 298,000 square miles, of which 125,000 belongs to Norway, and 173,000 to Sweden. Norway is a little larger than New Mexico, and Sweden is about the size of California and Maryland combined. The population of Norway is a littlQ papre than 2,250,000 and that of Sweden, is 5,000,000, COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 361 The coast of Norway is indented by numerous deep fiords, many forming good harbors^ The southern and eastern slopes con- tain considerable lowland and the streams are small and rapid, affording good water-power, but being of little assistance to navi- gation. One-half of Sweden, and over one-fifth of Norway are NORWEGIAN FISHERMEN DRYING FISH covered with forests. Spruce, fir and pine predominate. Their latitude would give these countries an extremely cold climate, but under the influence of the winds from the Atlantic, this is modified to a cool temperate over most of the peninsula. Until 1905 the two countries were under one government, but maintained separate legislative assemblies. Their industries are common, but Norway, being the more mountainous, gives less 362 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY attention to agriculture than Sweden. The leading agricultural products are oats, rye, barley and potatoes. Considerable stock is raised, and dairying is likewise important in the low lands of the south. Ores of copper, silver, lead, iron and zinc are found, and mining is an important industry in both countries. The iron is of superior quality, and is exported to all iron-manufacturing coun- tries. There is but little coal on the peninsula. Manufacturing industries are few. The most important is lumber and lumber products, the Scandinavian countries being the largest exporters of lumber in Europe. Matches and wood pulp are made and exported in large quantities. Iron manufactures are second in importance. The manufacture of textiles is limited. The trade is with Great Britain, Germany and Denmark. Only a small portion of the trade is with the United States. The exports are lumber, pig iron, dairy products, matches and v/ood pulp. The inhabitants of Norway are extensively engaged in fish- ing, and export cod and cod-liver oil. The imports are some food-stuffs and manufactured goods, principally textiles and machinery. The leading cities are all seaports. Christiania, the capital of Norway, is at the head of the Skager-Rack; Stavengar, Bergen, Tromso and Hammerfest, the most northerly town of Europe, are important trade centers of Norway. Stockholm, the capital of Sweden, has an excellent harbor on the Baltic, and is the commer- cial and financial center of the country. Goteborg and Halmstad on the Cattegat are also important ports. The leading cities of both countries are connected by railway, there being about 7000 miles on the Peninsula. Scandinavians are excellent sailors, and their ships are foimd in all the leading ports of the world, and, in proportion to its pop- ulation, Norway has the largest merchant marine of any nation. Chapter IX. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY AND SWITZERLAND. The combined area of Austria-Hungary is a little less than that of Texas, while its population is 45,400,000, or more than half that of the United States. Austria, which is the smaller of the two states, is moun- Jamous, and Hungary consists of broad grazing piams, or steppes, which are a continuation of those of Russia. Austria has a mild tiimate with abundant rainfall, but the climate of Hungary is sub- ject to extremes of heat and cold, and the rainfall is less than that of Austria. , . , , Agriculture is most extensively practised in Hun- Agrieulture * i j i- x i lu i j- a gary ; cereals and live-stock are the leading prod- ucts. The climate is well adapted to wheat, and large quantities of this grain of excellent quality are raised. Most modern methods of cultivation and improved agricultural machinery and imple- ments are in use in connection with this industry. The cultiva- tion of grapes and prunes is quite extensive in the highland region of Austria. Large quantities of sugar beets are also grown, from which sugar for export is manufactured. Forests cover a little more than one-fourth of the area, and yield a variety of good timber and other foi'est products of con- siderable value. „. , Coal and iron abound in the northwestern part of Iu.in6P9.lS Austria, but not in close proximity. Salt is mined in the Alpine provinces and in Transylvania. Austria is also one of the leading countries of Europe in the production of gold, and some silver and mercury are mined. 363 364 COMMERCE ANB INDUSTISY The manufacturing industries center around Manufactures ^^^ country of the Czeccho-Slovaks, Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia, where woolen, linen and cotton goods are made. The making of art-glassware, in which the Bohemians excel, is an industry of great importance and one which for centuries has fur- nished a large revenue. Porcelain is also manufactured. Sugar- refining and the manufacture of wheat-flour, in which Austria- Hungary rivals the United States, are among the important in- dustries. The present process of making wheat-flour by roller mills originated in Hungary. The Danube and Elbe are the great natural Transportation ^^terways to the Black and Baltic Seas. Canals unite these rivers, so that there is a continuous water passage between these seas. The Ludwig Canal in Germany also connects the Danube with a navigable tributary of the Rhine. There are 23,000 miles of railway in operation, most of which is under the management of the state. Transportation facilities are fairly good, but not equal to those of the United Kingdom, or of France and Germany, and rates are so high as to cripple industries. „ Vienna, the capital and financial center of Central Europe, is situated on the Danube, at a point where a series of passes in the Carpathian and Alpine Mountains gives it railway connection with the adjoining countries, Germany, Swit- zerland and Italy. It was one of the most important financial and industrial centers of Europe. Budapest, the capital of Hungary, is the commercial center of Himgarian trade, and next to Vienna, the largest city of Austria-Hungary. Most of the trade has been with Germany, Great Britain and Italy, and nearly all goods are transported by railway and canal, less than one-third passing through seaports. The exports are food stuffs, eggs, barley, malt, woolens, glassware, COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 365 timber and wood-work. The imports are cotton, wool, silk and " agricultural machinery. The United States buys of Austria- Hungary glassware and porcelain, and sells her cotton goods, pork, agricultural machinery and corn. The annual trade with this country is about $42,000,000, of which $23,000,000 are imports from us, and the remainder exports. Switzerland is an inland mountainous country SWITZERLAND , . , ,i .,,. , , . , t^ ■ lying wholly within the Alps. Its area is about twice that of Massachusetts, and its population is about 3,500,000. Seven-tenths of these are German, and less than one- fourth of them French. It is the land of lofty mountains, deep valleys and beautiful lakes and is famous the world over for the beauty and grandeur of its scenery. The valleys are fertile and wheat and other cereals and some vegetables are raised, but the supply is not sufficient to meet the needs of the people. The mountain farmers make excellent cheese, some of whiohisexpoi-ted. Switzerland is a manufacturing country, and most of its indus- tries are highly specialized. The making of watches is the leading industry. Most of the work is done by hand, and, until the advent of the American machine-made watch, the Swiss watchmakers sup- plied the trade for many countries. Cotton and silk fabrics, and buttons and embroidery are also made. Many of the Swiss are skilled in engraving on wood, and produce beautiful and val- uable specimens of art work. The exports are manufactured goods, and some condensed milk. The largest trade is with Ger- many, followed by Great Britain and France. Trade with the United States is inconsiderable. The Mount Cenis, Saint Gothard and the Simplon tunnels are of great advantage to the country be- cause they have made transportation much cheaper, and given direct railway connection with surrounding states. Geneva, at the head of the Ehine, is the chief trade center, and is noted for the manufacture of watches. Basel is the 366 COMMEBCE AND INDUSTRY center of the silk industry, and Zurich has important cotton factories. QUESTIONS. How does the wheat industry of Hungary compare in extent with that of the United States ? Which country excels in the manufacture of flour? "What has given Vienna its financial and commercial importance? How does it compare in wealth and influence with Berlin ? "With Paris ? "With New York? Why does Austria-Hungary have so small a trade with the United States ? What has made Switzerland so well known in the United States ? la this acquaintance of any commercial advantage to either country? Chapter X. SPAIN, PORTUGAL AND ITALY nr^.Y^T .»TT> These countries occupy the Iberian Peninsula SPAIN AND ^, . „ . , , PORTUGAL Their surface is rough and mountainous, and with the exception of small areas around the coast, the land is high. The climate is semi-tropical, except in the highest altitudes, and the rainfall is not sufficient for exten- sive agriculture. Spain is about the size of California and Ken- tucky, and has a population of about 19,000,000, while Portugal is a little smaller than Indiana and has a population of 3,500,000. Though politically separate, industrially and commercially these countries are one. The important agricultural products are merino wool, which is the finest in the world, and tropical fruits, including raisins, grapes, oranges, lemons, limes and olives, all of which are exported. Wine making is also an important industry, and a large share of the supply of cork comes from the interior. This is obtained from the bark of the cork oak, which grows nearly a foot thick. There are good supplies of minerals, and the mines have been worked for centuries. Silver, iron ore and coal are obtained in paying quantities, and about one-half of the world's supply of quicksilver comes from the mines of Almeda in Spain. In general, the crudest methods are followed in mining and the reduction of ores,, and the mineral resources are only partially developed. Manufactures are too limited to deserve any special notice. The leading exports are wine, fruits, iron ore, merino wool and Makga raisins, from Spain ; and the export for which Portugal is 367 368 COMMERCjs ANu ijNuusTBi the most celebrated is Port wine, which obtains its name from the city of Oporto. Barcelona is the financial and commercial center, Madrid is the capital of Spain, is of political significance, but has no commercial or financial importance, and the principal fruit poits are Malaga, Valentia and Carteo^ena. A good portion of Italy is formed by a spur of the Alps which extends into the Mediterranean, and is known as the Apennine Mountains. In area the country is about equal to Nevada, and it has a population of about 32,400,000, or more than one-third that of the United States. The northern part of the country forms the southern slope of the Alps which descend to the Plains of Lombardy, through which flows the Po. The basin of this river is alluvial land of remarkable fertility. The Apennines extend through the central part of the Peninsula, and slope on both sides to the sea. Italy has the same latitude as the New England States, but its climate is much warmer and somewhat more arid, Italy has at all times been distinctly an agricul- Agriculture ^^^.^^ country. The great Plain of Lombardy is the most important agricultural district. Its ranges of latitude and altitude enable the country to produce all of the crops of the tem- perate regit)ns, and many tropical products as well, and the seasons are such that t\vo, and even three, crops can be obtained during the year. Wheat is the most important cereal, but there is not enough produced to supply the needs of the population. Corn is raised in large quantities, and rice is grown in the irrigated regions. Olives constitute the most important of the agricultural products, and Italy leads the world in their production. Olive oil is extensively used by the inhabitants in place of butter, or other fats. Large quantities of the fruit and oil are also exported. Tropical fruits, oranges, lemons and grapes are extensively cultivated, and Italy ranks next to France in the production of wine. COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 369 The most important single industry is silk culture, in which Italy is one of the leading countries of the world, ranking next to China and Japan. The industry is located principally in the northern part, where the mulberry thrives and the climate is especially suited to the growth of silkworms. Notwithstanding the natural advantages of soil and climate, the Italian farmers are mostly poor, and receive but small returns for their arduous toil. Most of the land is owned by wealthy land- lords, who rent it on such terms that the tenants are continually at a disadvantage and the methods employed in working the land, as well as the implements used, are of the most primitive sort. The mineral industries are few. Carrara marble is the most choice stone for statuary purposes, and is ex- ported to all countries. Most of the world's supplj' of sulphur is also obtained from the Island of Sicily, and some other volcanic regions. Iron ore is found in some localities, and is now being successfully worked under the fostering care of the government. The absence of coal limits the manufactures to anuiactures textiles and straw goods, but the iron industry is being developed. The Italians have a special aptitude for the fine arts, and statuary, coral ornaments, mosaics and jewelry are the most important articles of manufacture. All these, on account of their excellence, command a high price in foreign markets. Much of this work is done in the homes of the workmen. There are but few large factories, or shops, even, employing any number of work- men. Macaroni, the most of which is consumed at home, is also produced in large quantities. Italy occupies a central position on the Medi- ranspoPiai o terranean. She has an abundance of sea coast and numerous good harbors. The other ports of the Mediter- ranean, as well as those of the East, are easily reached from her shores, and these advantages have given her a large carrying trade 370 COMMEECE AND INDUSTRY and a goodly number of Italians follow the sea. The country also has a good merchant marine. There are about 10,000 miles of railways, which are organized into trunk lines extending along either coast. By means of the Mt. Cenis, St. Gothard and Sim- plon tunnels, trunk lines also connect Italy with France, Switzer- DEYING MACABOXr land and the important centers (of Europe, such as Vienna, Berlin and Paris. On account of these advantages most of the export trade is by rail. Rome, the capital, contains the Vatican, which is the residence of the Pope, and is the center of the Eoman Catholic Church for the world as well as the center of government for the kingdom. It is more celebrated for its historic and artistic Cities COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 371 associations than for its commercial importance. Genoa and Venice are the most important seaports. In the fourteenth cen- tury Venice was the commercial center of the world, but with the change in commercial routes she lost her prestige. Milan, in the northern part of the kingdom, is the great inland commercial city and the largest railway center of the country. Florence is noted for its art. works. Palermo is the commercial center of Sicily, and Colonia, Brindisi, and Ancona are important ports on the Suez Canal route. Commerce '^^^ annual exports amount to about $284,000,000 and the imports to $342,000,000. The exports are raw silk, olives, sulphiir, marble, art works, and textiles. The silk and art goods go to France, the United States, and Switzerland and some of the cotton goods go to Turkey. The imports are cotton from Egypt and the United States, wheat from Hungary, manufactures and textiles from Great Britain and Germany. In the foreign trade Germany ranks first, followed in order by Switzer- land, France, Great Britain, and the United States. The exports to this country amount to about $54,333,000 a year, and the im- ports from us to about $76,000,000. We buy the Italians' ai-t goods and Carrara marble, olive oil and straw goods, and sell them cotton, agricultural implements, machinery, and hardware. COMMERCIAL ABBREVIATIONS IN ITALY The American Consul at Rome, in a late report, writes: There have come to the attention of this consulate several cases of misunderstanding between American exporters and Italian importers in which the use of commercial abbre- viations has led to serious complications. There are certain generally used abbre- viations known all over the world in commercial transactions which seem to be capable of different interpretations, to judge from -a recent controversy between an importer in this city and an American exporter. In telegraphic communications such abbreviations are widely used, and it is therefore of the greatest importance that their significance should be understood. While the following list, showing 372 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY what is meant by common abbreviations in Italy, may appear elementary, the need of explanation of these terms has been shown in actual transactions: F.o.b. — free on board — is invariably understood to mean free on board ship at seaport. In Italy it is never understood to mean free on board cars. For instance, f. o. b. New York means that freight from the inland place of manu- facture or shipment, insurance (if any) during the railroad transit in the United States, cartage from depot to dock, and loading charges at dock are aU paid by the exporter. F. a. s. — free alongside (ship) — means that railroad freight and insurance in the United States and aU cartage charges to the dock are paid by exporter. The loading charges from dock to ship in this case are paid by the purchaser. F. o. r. — free on rail — means loaded on raUroad cars at the point quoted: e. g., by f. o. r., Cincinnati, or f. o. r. New York, it is understood that the purchaser buys the goods on the railroad cars at Cincinnati or New York free of all charges. C. i. f. — cost (of goods), insurance, freight. Bythisterm it is understood that the exporter sells the goods with all charges paid to the point quoted. For example, a quotation of coal at 112.50 per ton c. i. f., Naples, would mean that the coal is sold by the exporter at that price on shipboard at Naples, the exporter having paid aU charges, including ocean freight and insurance. The Italian buyer would have to pay the cost of unloading from ship, customs duties, and handling charges in Italy. QUESTIONS. What is the difference between the agricultural methods employed in Spain and those in vogue in France and Germany? What is the cause of the difference? Why are there so few manufactures in Spain and Portugal? What effect has this condition upon the commercial interests of these countries? How do the agricultural methods employedin Italy compare with thosein the United States? Would the Italians be successful farmers in the United States? What commercial advantages does Italy derive from her geographical con- ditions? Chapter XI. THE BALKAN COUNTRIES. LOCATION '^^^^^ countries occupy the Balkan Peninsula and contiguous territoiy. They are Greece, Roumania, Servia, Montenegro, Bulgai-ia and Turkey in Europe. They are all commercially unimportant. Greece occupies the southern end of the Balkan Pen- GREECE insula. It is rugged and mountainous, with a deeply indented coast. The area is about the same as that of West Virginia, and its population is about equal to that of the city of Chicago. Agriculture occupies one-half of the population. Fruit is the most important crop and Greece is one of the largest producers of currants. Ores of lead and zinc are also exported. The manufactures are unimportant. The country does con- siderable of the carrying trade for the eastern Mediterranean. The Corinth ship canal, four miles long, shortens the route between Adriatic ports and Western Europe by several hundred miles. Most of the commerce is with Great Britain, France and Russia, that with the United States amounting to only $2,000,000 a year. These countries occupy the basin of the lower ROUMANIA T^ u A 4-u ,■ ■ A t Danube, and ai'e the great grain producers oi AND BULGARIA Europe. Wheat and corn are the principal crops. Roumania is a little smaller than Alabama, and has a population of nearly 6,000,000. Bulgaria is a little larger than Indiana, and has a population of a little less than three and one- third millions. Eoumania is one of the leading wheat producing countries of the continent. Besides cereals, sugar-beets, flax, 373 § g o O o COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 37E honey, tobacco, fruits and wine are produced, and coal, petroleum and salt are mined. The commerce of the countries finds its outlet through the Danube which is the international waterway. Eailways also con- nect the principal towns, and these with cities in adjoining countries. The chief export is grain, which goes to Great Britain, Austria and Germany. V — ,-iiv-..».:^ ■■■■■'■■' ■■-: ■'■^:-' ■'•■' - ;■ 1 ■-■>, ■^HHHHB^'^BS8HH''fliliHU "^'^MHsflKSfflll .,-1 1 J - — S',,/^, gg THE HAKBOR, CONSTANTINOPl,E SERVIA AND MONTENEGRO Servia is a small country in the valley of the Moravia Kiver. Its chief industry is growing corn and other grains, and fruit and live-stock, while orlBS of silver, lead, copper and iron, and some coal, are mined to a limited extent. The commerce is almost wholly with Austria. Montenegro is a small principality between Servia and the COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY m sea. It is mountainous, has no railways and its industries are of little importance. TURKEY OR THE '^^^ empire of Turkey extends from the OTTOMAN EMPIRE -^^^^^^ Peninsula through Asia Minor to Armenia. The entire country is in a back- ward condition, and but few of the industries are developed. Wheat, tobacco, cotton and roses, from which ottar of roses is made. A SCENE IN PALESTINE ' are the most important crops. Grazing is an important industry in some sections, and wool and mohair, the wool of the Angora goat, are exported. The leading manufactures are ottar of roses, rugs and carpets. The rugs are famous for their beauty, and command high prices in all civilized countries. Constantinople was the chief center of trade, as well as the capital of the empire. It is situated on the Bosporus and commands a strong strategic position, which gives it MAKING THE NATIVE BKEAD IS THE STREETS OF BEEKOVITSA, BULGARIA COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 379 an importance it could not have from its commerce and industries alone. It is connected with European cities by railway and with the East by caravan routes, and carries on a trade with nearly all the countries of the world. Smyrna, on the Mediterranean, is the most important seaport, and has direct communication with most of the European ports. It is also the terminus of many caravan routes from the East. SYRIA CITY OF JAFFA, THE ANCIENT PORT OF PALESTINE Damacus, the principal city of Syria, is the starting point for caravans to various sections of Asia, and Beirut is an important center for the manufacture of textiles. It is connected with Damascus by railway. Most of the trade is with European countries. The United States imports from Turkey opium, ottar of roses, rugs, wool, gums, hides, silk and Turkish tobacco. Our exports are very small, amounting to about $2,000,000 a year. Chapter XII. RUSSIA POSITION AND "^^^ country of Russia occupies one-half of EXTENT Europe and Asia, contains one-seventh oi the land of the globe and, in area, ranks next to the British Empire. With a few exceptions, it is a vast plain, extending from the Baltic Sea to the Pacific Ocean — a dis- tance of 6000 miles — and from the Black Sea, Persia, and Chinese Empire on the south to the Arctic Ocean on the north. Its terri- tory is compacted into one great land mass between the different parts of which there are no obstructive barriers. The area in square miles is 8,666,000 square miles, and the population is over 182,000,000. The entire region is in the cool temperate and frigid zones. The country comprises Russia in Europe, Siberia, Trans- Caucasia, and Trans-Caspia. This division comprises a little more than one-half FTIROPF °^ Europe, and includes about one-fourth of the . area of the Empire. It is a vast plain, extending from the Black Sea to the Arctic Ocean, and from the Baltic to the Ural Mountains. The northern third is too cold for agricul- tural purposes. The middle portion is covered with heavy forests of valuable hard and soft woods, and the southern part is the gi'anary of Europe. Rice, oats, wheat, and flax are raised in large quantities, and Russian wheat competes with that of the United States in the markets of Europe. The land is worked on the community plan; that is, the residents of a neighborhood, or a small village, work the land in common, and each family have their proportionate share of the crops. The methods employed are 381 .i82 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY primitive and the rate of production is low. Most of the Russian farmers, or peasants, are too ignorant to compete successfully with the farmers of Western Europe or the United States. The mineral resources are abundant. Coal is found in Minerals poiand and the basin of the Don. Iron ore occurs in Poland and various other localities, and gold and platinum are A FLOUR MILL ON THE TRANS-SIBERIAN RAILWAY found in the Ural Mountains, where nine-tenths of the world's supply of platinum is obtained. Manufactures are rapidly on the increase, and now most of the iron and steel goods and rail- way supplies are made within the country. There has also been a large advance in the manufacture of textiles, and Russia has become an exporter of the coarser grades of cotton and linen fabrics. Manufactures COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 383 Siberia is a vast plain which climatically can be divided into three sections. The agricultural section of the south, the forest and mineral belt occupying the middle por- tion, and the frozen tundras of the north. The agricultural district has a warm and somewhat arid climate, but is well suited to grow- ing cereals, and most other crops of the temperate latitude. For its adaptation to hard grained wheat it rivals Minnesota, Dakota and Manitoba. Some of the agricultural sections also produce oats and rice in abundance. The forest belt is a series of vast resoui'ces which have not yet been developed. In t^e near future this region will furnish the timber supply for Europe. In area, the forest belt is second only to that of North America. Gold and iron abound. Gold mines are also worked along the Amoor River in the northern division, which in other respects is a worthless waste of frozen tundra. This division of the Empire lies between TRANS-CAUCASIA ^^^ Caucasus Mountains and Persia. It contains numerous fertile valleys and is almost entirely devoted to agriculture. It is also rich in petroleum. Baku on the Caspian Sea is the center of the oil fields, the annual output of which is a little more than that of the United States. The oil is transported by rail, steamer and pipe lines. Copper, salt, iron, coal and manganese are also found in Trans-Caucasia, and are mined to a limited extent. This division embraces Tui'kestan, and the TRANS-CASPIA region to the north, ^iicludicg the basins of the Ann and Daria Elvers. Lack of inoisture renders a large part of the, region unproductive, and none of its resources have been well developed. The leading manufactures are cotton arid silk fabrics and leather goods. The many long and sluggish rivers of Euro- TranspoFtatlon ^^^^ Russia furnish an extensive system of TOWEE OP IVAN VELIKI, THB OKEAT BELL, AND THE KBEMLIN, MOSCOW COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 385 waterways, the Volga and its tributaries alone having over 7000 miles. These rivers have been extensively canalized, and also connected by an extensive system of canals, so that there are now almost 50,000 miles of inland waterways in the country. The ease with which canals could be constructed delayed the building of railways to a late date. Petrograd and Eiga on the Baltic, Archangel on the White, and Odessa on the Black Sea, are important ports, but the northern ports are closed the greater part of the year by ice, and Odessa has an outlet to the sea only through waters controlled by other governments. Previous to the war with Japan, Vladivostock and Port Arthur, which was leased from China, were the important ports on the Pacific. The railway system of the Empire embraces about 40,000 miles, all of which is under the control of the, state. All of the leading cities of European Russia are connected by rail, and a line has been built from Baku through the entire length of Trans- Caspia ; but the greatest achievement in railway building was in the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway from Petrograd to Vladivostock and Port Arthur, a distance of 6000 miles. The COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 387 completion of this road opens to settlement and usefulness ^ the vast Siberian territory with all of its agricultural, forest, and mineral resources, and places the ports of China and Japan within sixteen days' journey of Western Europe. If placed upon the map of North America, this road would extend from the extreme point of the Peninsula of Alaska to Nova Scotia. It is the longest com- pleted trunk line of railway in the world. Citie«5 ^^ addition to the seaports already mentioned, the following cities are of importance: Petrograd, the capital, in 1913, had a population of 2,329,000. It is situated on the Neva, and is the farthest north of any large city. The ship canal, completed in 1885, makes it a seaport, and it is also connected by canals with the large rivers of European Russia. Petrograd is an important railway center, and the commercial and finan- cial center for the northern part of the country. Important manufactures of cotton and linen goods, also of iron and steel, are located here. Moscow is the most important railway center, and one of the largest manufacturing and commercial cities of Russia. Astrakhan is the center of trade for the country to the southeast. Baku is the great petroleum market, and Warsaw ranks next to Moscow as a trade center. Nijni-Novgorod is the city in which the great annual fair is held. In July of each year, the merchants from Western Europe and from Asia gather at this city for the purpose of buying and sell- ing and exchanging goods. Nijni-Novgorod is located on the great trade route where the metals and other wares of the north meet the products of the south, fish from the Caspian Sea, and tea, cotton, silk, and other products from Persia, China, and Japan. This fair brings together about 200,000 people from all parts of the conti- nent, and almost everything in the line of merchajndise is offered for sale. The total value of the transactions reaches about $100,000,000. 388 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY Commepce ^o^* °^ *^® foreign trade is with Great Britain and Germany. The exports are cereals, furs, platinum, and petroleum, and the imports are raw textiles, coal, and man- factures. In her trade with the United States, Russia sells us wools, skins, and furs and buys of us raw cotton and agricultural machinery. Our trade with European Russia amounts to about $51,000,000 annually, about half of which is exports. Russia's trade with the United States is small, but there is greater oppor- timity for the extension of American trade within this country than with almost any other. Russia needs our manufactures. The completion of the Trans-Siberian Railway, connecting at Vladivostock and Port Arthur with American lines of Pacific steam- ers, makes transportation convenient and comparatively cheap, and the vast resources of Russia, second only to those of the United States and China, afford the basis of an extensive commerce. Note. In the spring of 1917, the government was overthrown, and a pro- visional republic was formed. The new government has met with many obstacles in the form of internal dissensions and counter revolutions, but it will probably succeed. QUESTIONS. How does Russia compare, in area and population, with the United States? How does it compare with the United States in its influence as a world power? In the extent and value of its products? What caused railroad construction to be so long delayed in Russia? What led to the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway? What makes Nijni-Novgorod an important commercial center? Name and locate the other important commercial centers of the Empire. Why is Russia's trade with Great Britain and Germany larger than that with the United States? What are Americans doing to increase their trade with Russia? Chapter XIII. INDIA, CEYLON AND THE STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. British India includes the peninsula between the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal,, and the province of Burmah extending to the east and north. Its total area is over one-half, and its population about three and one-half times that of the United States. It is the most densely populated possession of the British Empire. India is separated from the countries at the north by the great barrier of the Himalaya and the Hindu-Kush mountains. Thi'ough these extend the Khiabar and Bolan passes, affording communication with the interior. Its communication with other countries is almost entirely by sea. The moun- tains and the foot-hills slope down to the valley of the Ganges and Brahmapootra on the east, and to that of the Indus on the west side of the country. South of these valleys lies the Plateau of Deccan, forming the greater part of the peninsula. In latitude, the country corresponds with that part of America extending from New York City to the mouth of the Orinoco River. The climate is tropical, but the high altitude of the northern prov- inces gives them. a much lower mean annual temperature than the other portions of the country. The rainfall is abundant, but very unevenly distributed. Some districts among the Himalayas have the heaviest rainfall in the world, and in occasional localities more rain falls in a day than in the best watered portions of the United States in a year. On account of the monsoons, the country is subject to a wet and a dry season, and in many sections irrigation is necessary to the successful growing of crops. 389 390 COMMERCE ji.eiu iXNjJuo J.JSI India is pre-eminently an agricultural country, grieuiture ^^^ more than two-thirds of the inhabitants are engaged in tilling the soil. The land is divided into small hold- ings, and the most primitive methods are in vogue, consequently the people receive poor returns for the labor expended. Eice, wheat, sugar cane, millet and maize are the principal food prod- ucts. Jute, cotton, opium, tea and oil-seeds are grown for export. The tea is of excellent quality, and hjis now nearly dis- THE WATER FRONT, BOMDAY placed that of China and Japan in English markets. Silk is grown to some extent, and its culture is rapidly increasing. The coffee crop is also one of prime importance. Nearly all of the manufactures are in the nature of hand crafts. The Hindoos are re- markably skilful in the weaving of fine cotton fabrics, rugs, car- pets and shawls, and in the carving of wood and ivory. The products of their handiwork are sought by the wealthy of all lands, and some articles, like the Cashmere shawls, command fabulous SKETCH MAP Trade Routes to India. Present Route (via Suez Canal)- Former Route (via Cape of Good Hope).- ^Mauritiui '■ OCEAN COMMERCE AND INDTJSTEY 393 prices. Eecently the English factory system has been introduced, and now constitutes an important feature of the cotton industry on the west coast, and of the jute manufacture in and around Calcutta. The Ganges is navigable for about a thousand miles, the Brahmapootra is the important waterway for small vessels, and the Irrawaddy is navigable for seven hundred miles. There are upwards of 25,000 miles of Transportation STATION OF THE GREAT BENGAL RAILWAY, BENGAL railwaj^ connecting all the important towns of the interior with each other and with the nearest seaports. These facilities enable the provinces in the interior to dispose of their products at the coast at a reasonable profit. Mail and telegraph facilities are also adequate to the needs of the country. All these conditions are largely due to the administration of the British Government, which has taken great interest in the development of public works. 394 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY Calcutta, the capital, near the mouth of the Ganges, with over 1,000,000 inhabitants, is the largest city and the leading commercial and financial center. Bombay, on the west coast, is the leading port for commerce passing through the Suez Canal. Madras, on the eastern coast, has an important trade in cotton and hides. Mandalay and Rangoon are the most important commercial centers of Burma. The foreign commerce of India amounts to about Commerce $1^270,000,000 a year, which, considering its popu- lation, is small. This condition is largely due to the abject poverty of a large number of the people. The exports are cotton, wheat, rice, opium, timber and manufactured goods, consisting of textiles, rugs, carpets, shawls and carved wood and ivory. About seventy per cent of the trade is with Great Britain. China and Germany have the next largest shares. India imports kerosene from this country, and furnishes us with indigo, some textiles and opium. TUP CTDATTC ^hcse comprise several British colonies on and around the Straits of Malacca. The most impor- SETTLEMENTS ^^^^^ ^^.^ Singapore, Penang and Malacca. The cities in the Straits have a large transport trade, that of Singapore amounting to about $400,000,000 a year. The largest tin mines in the world are near this port, and most of their product is exported to the United States. Other important exports are rubber, gutta percha, spices, tapioca and rattan. The imports are cotton cloth, rice and opium. QUESTIONS. In what lines of manufacture are the Hindoos especially skilful? To what countries are most of their manufactured products sent? How do the buildings in the cities of India compare with those in the large cities of Europe and the United States? What commercial and industrial benefits has Great Britain conferred upon India? Chapter XIV. CHINA pnsTTTfiN ANn ^^™^ includes China proper, Manchuria, Mon- EXTENT golia. Eastern Turkestan, and Thibet. It is the largest country of Asia. Its area is 4,000,000 square miles, or one and one-third times that of the United States, and its population is about 400,000,000. China proper has about one-half of the area of the United States, and a population of about 245,220,000, being more densely populated than any other country in the world. Texas, if all of the inhabitants of the United States were crowded within her boundaries, would not contain as many people to the square mile. In latitude, surface and climate, China closely resembles the United States, but the influence of the mon- soons makes it possible to raise crops suited to both the temperate and tropical regions. Affrieulture ■'^S^ic^lture is the great industry of China and most of the inhabitants are engaged in it. Every foot of tillable soil is in a high state of cultivation. The land is divided into small tracts, of a few acres each, and the country has the appearance of a vast garden. All work is performed by hand labor and the most primitive methods and implements are em- ployed, yet abundant crops are raised. In many localities irriga- tion is practised, the water being raised by means of wheels turned by hand or by animal power. The first wheel raises the water to a tank from which it is lifted to the second by another wheel; and so, on until the highest level is reached. From here the water is distributed down the slope. Rice is grown on the lowlands of the coast, and wheat, peas, and millet wherever they can be cultivated. 395 396 COMMEKCE AND INDUSTRY Rice is the most important food crop, and China contributes one- half of the world's supply. Silk is also extensively raised and cotton is' quite generally raised in the southern part of the Empire along the low coast of the Yangtse. There are no large fields as :n the United States, but each garden contains a few plants, and \ihese, in the aggregate, constitute a considerable supply, all of -'hich is consumed in the country. Mineral Resourees PACKING BEICK TEA. The mineral resources are extensive and valuable, but they have not been developed. Bituminous and anthracite coal of excellent quality are found in all the provinces. The coal fields of the Empire are larger than those of Europe combined, and some authorities think they are the most extensive in the world. These great deposits of coal assure the development of extensive manufacturing industries when conditions for such enterprises are ripe. The country also contains large deposits of iron ore, some of which is near the coal. Foreign COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 397 capital is seeking to develop these resources, and in a few places has made a beginning. The Germans have a mining concession in Shantung Peninsula, and a London company has obtained the privilege of mining the coal in Shansi. Copper, tin, lead and silver are also found, and are mined to some extent, and the abundance of porcelain clay of the finest quality has made China one of the leading countries in the manufacture of porcelain ware. Most of the manufactures are home industries. Manufactures j ■ ^ i • i i i i i i and are carried on exclusively by hand labor. The silk and cotton fabrics are nearly all made in this way, but recently a few factories, under foreign management, have been established. These are for reeling silk and spinning cotton. China silks are noted for their fine texture and delicate finish. Porcelain, or chinaware, is also an important manufacture, and in many homes rhea, the fiber of Chinese grass, is woven into light fabrics for summer wear. Since the importation of firearms was prohibited by the Allied Powers in 1898, a number of manufactories have been established for the purpose of supplying these to the army. All of these fac- tories are government concessions, and are under the supervision of European mechanics. The large rivers constitute the important water- Transportation ^jjyg jjj^y ^jjg interior. The Yangtse is navi- gable for over a thousand miles, the Hoangho is obstructed by barki, but is navigable for small craft, and the Sikiang on the souvh furnishes the outlet for the country tributary to Canton and Hongkong. Canals are numerous, but when compared with thob^ of Europe or the United States are poor. The Grand Canal extends from Hangchow to Tientsin, a distance of 700 miles, and is still in a usable condition throughout most of its length, though it was constructed more than a thousand years ago. Eoads are so poor that transportation through the interior is well nigh impos- 398 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY sible, and there are less than 500 miles of railway in the entire country. The most important line — a branch of the Trans-Siberia Eailway — extends to Port Arthur. The innovations consequent upon the introduction of railways make their construction a slow process. Pekin, the capital, is significant only as a political center. Since the Boxer outbreak in 1898, the representatives of foreign governments have been granted special privileges for pro- tecting the quarter in which they reside, and have built a city, Cities CUSTOM HOUSE, TIENTSIN resembling in structure and plan, those found in Europe and America. Tientsin is the seaport of Pekin, and has a large trade. Shanghai is the most important center of trade with the United States and Japan, and Canton, the largest city of the Empire, has in connection with Hongkong, a large trade with Great Britain. The inland cities are of but little commercial importance. f. The trade of the inland provinces is small. The region is sparsely settled, the- inhabitants are poor, and the difficulty of transportation prevents extensive exportation or importation of merchandise. Skins, wool and musk are ob- COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 399 tained from Thibet. Mongolia is good grazing region, and sup- plies the camels required in caravan trade with Kussia. Manchuria is a good grazing and farming district, and exports millet and animal products to China proper. The great bulk of foreign commerce is carried on by China through open, or treaty, ports, of which Tientsin, Shanghai and Canton are the most important. The exports are tea, raw silk, porcelain, silk goods and such hand work as lacquer ware and carved wood and ivory, in which the Chinese are remarkably skilful. The leading imports are cotton goods, opium, rice, wheat flour, kerosene, silk, metals and machinery. Nearly one- fifth of the tea goes to the United States and about one-eleventh goes to Great Britain. Nearly half of the foreign trade is through Hongkong, and the largest share is with Great Britain. Most all of this is in the hands of European agents residing in Hongkong or Canton. A large carrying trade is maintained with Russia, and, pre- vious to the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway, caravans made overland trips as far as Morocco. The principal article of this trade is tea which is pressed into bricks for convenience in transportation, and also to meet the tastes of the Russians, who have been accustomed to obtaining it in this form for many years. The trade with the United States is steadily increasing. China imports from us kerosene, wheat flour, machinery and hard- ware, and exports to us tea, silk and wares peculiar to their manufacture. The American trade nearly all goes through the Piicific ports, Seattle and San Francisco, and lines of steamers are maintained between these cities and the Chinese ports. The Chinese belong to the yellow race. They are reople conservative, industrious and frugal. They work long hours and for low wages, and while some acquire means and a few become wealthy, the great mass of the people are in abject 4D0 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY poverty. Aside from the inherited right to the throne, any office in the Empire is open to the humblest citizen, if by ability in the execution of public trusts he can show himself worthy of it. Pro- motion in the Government service is by examination, and only the ablest scholars succeed in securing positions. The Chinese are the representatives of the oldest existing civilization. When the nations of the West were in a state of barbarism, these people were probably as far advanced as they are today, and for more than 2000 years they were considered the only civilized people of the Far East. They afford the only illus- tration of people who, for such a length of time, have neither advanced or gone backward. This remarkable characteristic is largely due to the element of ancestor worship in their religious belief. They adhere closely to the institutions and customs of their forefathers, and are not willing to introduce changes which will do away with, or modify, this ancient usage. Consequently they make no progress in civilization. This is a small island at the mouth of the Siking HONGKONG ^ , , , e i^ 4. ^.u- t. ■ near Canton, and has an area of about thirty-nine square miles. It is a British colony and is the most important commercial port of Asia. It is an important port of call, and has an extensive transient trade, as it is frequented by the ships of all nations. The commerce is in the hands of Englishmen, and Chinese who have become British subjects. QUESTIONS. Compare the Chinese Empire with the United States in area, climate, products and population. Considering the Chinese to be the oldest existing civilized nation, account for the backward state of the country, and the lack of progress. How do means of transportation in China compare with those in other civilized countries? What is the present prospect for commerce between the United States and China ? What reasons have you for your opinion ? POSITION AND EXTENT Chapter XV. JAPAN The empire of Japan extends along the coast, from the twenty-second to the fifty-first paral- lel of north latitude. The greater part of the empire comprises the islands of Formosa, Kiusiu, Hondo, Shi- koku, and Yezo. Formosa was obtained from China in the War of 1894 and 1895. Hondo is the largest and exceeds all the other islands in area. In all there are 487 islands worthy of notice. The area of the empire is about 260,700 square miles, or a little less than the combined areas of California and Colorado. The population is about 56,000,000, a little more than half that of the United States. The surface is mountainous, and Hondo is characterized by a main mountain range, extending the length of the island, and having upon either side lower parallel ranges. The rainfall is abundant, and the continual weathering of the rocks has covered the valleys with a deep and fertile soil. The climate in the extreme south is sub-tropical and temperate in the other portions of the empire. . . i*„„p The large population makes it necessary to bring the soil to the highest state of cultivation, and also to occupy every square foot of tillable land, which, owing to the mountains, does not exceed one-sixth of the area of the em- pire. Fish refuse is used for fertilizer and abundant crops are raised. Rice is the leading food crop, and is grown along the coast and in the lowlands of the west. The other important food crops in order are wheat, rye, barley, and beans. Tea is raised in the southern islands, and the lacquer tree, from the sap of which 401 402 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY the lacquer varnish is obtained, is extensively cultivated. The mulberry tree is cultivated throughout Hondo, except in the extreme northern part, and silk-raising is one of the most impor- tant industries. Formosa is the leading camphor-producing country and more than half of the world's supply comes from this island. WOMEN SPINNING AND WEAVING SILK Mineral Resources Coal, iron and copper ai'e the most impor- tant minerals. The out-put of coal and iron is steadily increasing and coal markets have been established in China, the Straits Settlements and the Philippines. The most important mines are in Yezo and Kiushiu. An excellent quality of copper is also found, and its mining has developed into quite an important industry. COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 403 Manufactures Textiles constitute the leading manufactures, and give employment to over 1,000,000 opera- tives. Seventy thousand of these are engaged in the cotton mills, of which there are now over seventy in operation. Large quanti- ties of silk are also made. The raw material is exported from India, and only coarser goods are made. Much of both the cotton and the silk, however, is woven in hand looms in the homes. The TFTE HARBOR, NAGASAKI best straw-matting in the world is made both for home consump- tion and for .export. Woolens are also manufactured to some extent. The Japanese are skilful in the manufacture of art goods, and in making wood, metal, pottery and small wares, but these are all home industries and are of minor importance in the commercial development of the country. Since the admission of foreigners to the country, the Japanese have made remarkable advancement in 404 COMMERCE AND INBUSTEY the adaptation of the methods and machinery of western nations. Their manufacturing industries are rapidly developing, and they now constitute' an important factor in the commercial and industrial life of the Empire. The carriage roads are in rather poor condi- ransportation tion for the transportation of merchandise, though the light jinrikishas, which are two-wheeled carts drawn by men, traverse them without difficulty. Most of the cities and productive valleys are within easy reach of the sea, where good harbors are numerous. There are about 4000 miles of railway in the Empire, connecting the most important towns. Telegraph, tel- ephone and mail services are also good. Tokio, the capital and largest city, has over a million inhabitants, and is an im- portant commercial port. Yoko- hama and Kobe are centers of the largest foreign trade. Nagasaki has a fine harbor and is an impoi'- tant coal market, and Hakodate on Yezo is the commercial center for the north, and has a flourish- ing trade in coal and fish. These and a number of small cities are treaty ports and are open to the vessels of all nations. Japan has an important trade with foreign nations and it is constantly increasing. The leading imports are raw cotton, iron and steel, wool, flax, hemp, jute, jute textiles, sugar, petroleum, machinery and firearms. The leading exports are silk, raw and manufactured, cotton yarn, tea, coal Cities RIVER FRONT, TOKIO Commeree COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 405 and copper. Rice, porcelain, straw goods, matting and small wares are also exported. Great Britain furnishes the largest part of the imports, with the United States standing second, British India third, Germany fourth, and China fifth. The United States takes most of the exports, of which tea constitutes the largest share. Most of the merchandise enters the country by San Fran- A VIEW IN YOKOHA.MA Cisco and Seattle. The yearly foreign trade amounts to about $590,000,000, about three-fifths of which is with the United States. The yearly exports to this country amount to about $204,000,000, and the imports from it $102,500,000. The Japanese, as do the Chinese, belong to the Mongohan or yellow race, but in nearly all respects they are the opposites of the Chinese. They are small of stature, wide awake, and aggressive. They are quick to see advantages The People 406 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY derived from the adoption of the customs and methods of western nations, and in the last few decades have made wonderful progress in government, education, industries and commerce. For this reason they have been styled "the Yankees of the East," and Japan is also called the " Asiatic Great Britain." There is a constantly increasing demand for American products in their country, and this demand the American merchants and manufacturers are striving to supply. Previous to the Chinese-Japanese War in 1895, KOREA Korea was a dependency of China, but at that time it became independent. It is often referred to as " the Hermit King- dom," and from an industrial and commercial point of view it is of little importance. Its area is about equal to that of Minnesota, and its population is about 10,000,000. It is an important strategic point and the attempt of Russia to secure a foothold in the country, together with her refusal to evacuate Manchuria, according to agree- ment, led to the Russo-Japanese War in 1904-05. As a result of that conflict Korea has become a Japanese dependency. The country is without any important citiesi Seoul is the capital, and Mushampo and Fusan are the most important seaports. QUESTIONS. Why is intensive farming so generally practised in Japan ? How do the mineral resources of Japan compare with those of China in extent and value? In regard to their development? Account for the rapid progress that Japan has made since 1850. In what respects do the Japanese differ from the Chinese? Why does the United States have so large a proportion of Japan's foreign trade? Chapter XVI. OTHER ASIATIC COUNTRIES. These occupy part of the Indo-China SIAM AND THE ^^ . , q.*^ . . , , ^ FRENCH POSSESSIONS P^^i"^"!^- Siam is an independent. kingdom, and the French colonies in- clude Tongking, Annam, Cambodia and Lower Cochin-China. The most important industry of the whole region is raising rice. In the deltas of Mekong, more than half a million tons are grown each year. This is exported to Hongkong and Singapore. Pepper, other spices, tropical fruits and teak timber are the other important exports. The imports are manufactures, especially textiles and machinery. These are two quasi-independent states, AFGHANISTAN ^. e n -^^ u r a- i i • i ^- AMTv T>ATTTr.iiTo>ii»« wcst 01 IJritish indiR, and Ivins: between AND BALUCHISTAN . p ", " Turkestan and the sea. Afghanistan con- tains some of the richest mineral deposits on the continent. Both countries are separated from India by mountain ranges which can be traversed only through passes. The climate is cool-temperate, and the leading products are cereals and peas and beans. Most of the inhabitants are wandering tribes, and there are no settled industries. These countries are important on account of their position, and have for years formed a "bone of contention" between Russia and Great Britain. The mountains are crossed through two important passes, the Khaibar, connecting Peshawur in India with Jalalabad and Kabul, and now traversed by a rail- road. The Bolan Pass also contains a branch of the same line of railway extending as far as Kandahar. Considei-able trade passes over these routes. Both countries are under the protectorate of Great Britain. 407 408 COMMEECE AND INDUSTET Persia occupies the greater part of the Plateau of Iran> PERSIA ^ijout one-third of the country is desert, but the valleys and lowlands receive enough moisture from the rains and the mountain streams to be productive and abundant crops of food- stuffs are raised. The country is also quite rich in minerals, and in past ages mines of tin, copper, lead and silver were worked with profit. Tobacco, small fruits, opium, wool and silk are the most important products for export. The Persians are noted for their skill in weaving rugs and carpets, which are sold in American and European markets at fabulous prices. There are also valuable pearl fisheries in the Persian Gulf. Generally the industries are unimportant as the country is in a backward condition. Tabriz is the center of the manufacture of rugs and shawls. Bushire and Bender-Abbas are the seaports and Trabizond is the center of Russian trade. The East Indies include nearly all the isl- THE EAST INDIES ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^.^^^^ Peninsula. Most of them are Dutch Colonies and they have an excellent administra,- tion. The most important islands are Java, Borneo, Sumatra and New Guinea. North Borneo belongs to the British Empire, West New Guinea is Dutch and the eastern half is divided between the British and the Germans. All of these islands produce tropical fruits and spices. Java and Sumatra lead in the production of coffee, sugar-cane, tobacco, rice, indigo and pepper. The coffee of this region is celebrated in both Europe and America. The trade of the islands is in the hands of middlemen, most of whom (ire Chinese. QUESTIONS. Of what commercial advantage are her Asiatic colonies to France? Of what value are the Dutch East Indies to Netherlands? Why is Great Britain especially interested in Afghanistan ? With what countries does Persia have the most extensive trade? JAPAN, KOREA. and NORTH EAST CHINA. . Milea ai^halien Chapter XVII. AUSTRALIA POSITION AND ■^^^^^'"^^^^ extends from the eleventh to the EXTENT fortieth parallel of south latitude and from the one hundred thirteenth to the one hundred fifty- fourth degree of west longitude. Its greatest length from east to west is 2360 miles, and from north to south 1600 miles. Its area is a little less than that of the United States, exclusive of Alaska, and the population in 1915 was estimated at 4,932,000. Australia is the highest portion of a partially submerged plateau, which, at an average depth of six hundred feet, extends around the continent for a considerable distance. The mountains are near the coast and from them the land slopes gradually to the great interior plain that constitutes the larger part of the continent. In the center of this plain there are some low ranges of hills, bu/ with this exception it is nearly level, and in the south it extends to the coast. The highest mountains are in the eastern part of the continent. In general appearance these moiuitains resemble the Appalachians, being the worn down remains of an ancient system. Some one has compared the continent to a huge plate, high around the edges and gradually sloping to the great flat interior. The comparison is a happy one. The streams flowing eastward into the Pacific are short and rapid, but those flowing south and west are longer and flow more quietly. Most of these lose themselves in the salt lakes and marshes of the interior. The Murray-Darling system, flowing into the sea on the south, is navigable for some distance. The rivers on the west are short and small. 411 412 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY The large body of water surrounding the continent tiimate exerts an equalizing influence over the temperature, yet the summers are extremely hot, owing to the vast expanse of land from east to west upon which the sun's rays fall vertically several hours in the day. During the winter the interior becomes quite cold, and the land winds are several degrees below the sur- rounding atmosphere over the sea. Frost seldom occurs between the coast and the mountains. The continent lies within the belt of the southeast trades, and the eastern coast secures an abundance of rain. On the inner slope of these mountains there is a narrow strip of country having an annual rainfall of about twenty inches. From this semi-arid belt the rain gradually diminishes until the great interior desert is reached. This great region is from five to seven degrees wide and occupies about one-half the continent. Its greatest elongation is from east to west, and it extends north- ward from the Great Australian Bight to the twentieth parallel. The southern coast east of the Bight and a small area in the extreme southwest are well watered, and the most northerly section east of the Gulf of Carpentaria has a heavy rainfall. The rainfall is very unevenly distributed, and at irregular intervals, sometimes extending over a period of several years — large areas suffer from disastrous droughts. Australia is so far removed from the other conti- esou s nents that its animal and vegetable life are unlike those of any other part of the world. Many of the plants bear close resemblance to those of past geologic ages, such as those of the coal period. Where the rainfall is abundant heavy forests are found. Some of the gum trees approach the Big Trees of Cali- fornia in size, growing to a height of nearly 400 feet. Mingled with these are smaller trees, tree ferns, and club mosses of gigantic size. Most of the foliage has a leathery structure ; the COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 413 leaves of some plants turn their edges instead of their surface towards the sun and earth. In the semi-arid and arid regions varieties of rapid growing grasses are found. Aorriculture ^^^ grasses form excellent fodder for sheep, and the climate of the semi-arid regions is well suited to the requirements of these animals; therefore, we find sheep- raising the most important agricultural industry in all the prov- inces. Most of the flocks are merinos, and Australia has become the largest wool-producing country of the world. The wool is of excellent quality and is exported to all the leading countries en- gaged in the manufacture of woolen goods. The annual out-put exceeds 500,000,000 pounds or nearly one-third the world's supply. Hides, tallow, and fresh meat are also important animal prod- ucts for export. The meat is frozen and transported in refriger- ator ships, reaching England in an excellent state of preservation. Grapes for raisins are raised in Victoria and New South Wales. Sugar cane is raised in Queensland and cereals for home use are grown in all the provinces. The forests supply a good quality of hard-wood lumber for export, and some gums and important drugs. „. , Gold is the most important mineral and, next to wool, constitutes the most valuable export. Before the discovery of the metal in South Africa, the Australian gold mines were the richest known. The most important mines are in Victoria. Copper, silver, and iron ore are also found, but the iron has not been worked to any extent. Coal is found in New South Wales and New Zealand and is exported to quite an extent. Aus- tralian coal was formerly in general use in the southern part, of California, but the discovery of petroleum in that locality has largely done away with the necessity for coal. p.. . Sydney, the capital of New South Wales, is the lai-gest city of Australia and has about 725,000 inhabitants. Melbourne, the capital of Victoria, has apopulation of over 650,000. Itcarriesonan 414 COMMEi CE AND INDUSTRY extensive foreign trade. Adelaide, in South Australia, Sidney, in New South Wales, and Brisbane, in Queensland, are the other important cities in the eastern portion of the continent. Hobart is the leading city of Tasmania, and Perth is the most important town on the western coast. All the eastern pi-ovinces and South Australia are well supplied with railways. They connect all the important towns on the coast and a number of lines extend inland from 300 to 500 miles. Tele- graph lines are also found in these provinces, and a line extends over the continent from Adelaide to Palmerston on the northern coast. Australia is one of the most valuable colonies of Commerce q^^^^ Britain and the leading trade is with that country, which has about three-fourths of the foreign commerce. The United States is second in importance. The exports are gold, wool and mutton. The imports are manufactured goods, hard- ware and machinery. The entire foreign trade amounts to about $650,000,000 a year, of which a little over 1300,000,000 are ex- ports. The annual trade with the United States is about $75, 000,- 000. Our exports to Australia consist of tobacco, lumber, leather, railway-supplies and coal-oil. Our principal import from there is wool. QUESTIONS. What portions of Australia are suited to agricultural purposes ? What portions have valuable mineral deposits ? What has made Australia the leading wool-producing country ? In what other industries does she excel ? By what people was Australia settled? How do they compare in habits and customs with the people of the United States ? What American ports are engaged in trade with Australia ? Is this trade increasing ? What effect will the completion of the Panama Canal have upon our trade with Australia ? R A.N^ ^;^S:^:_-s ^ a ^\ OROx ; Chapter XVIII. AFRICA. Africa extends from the thirty-seventh parallel of north latitude to the thirty-second parallel of south latitude, and is about one and one-third times as large as North America. The continent is broadest in the northern part, and it has a remarkably even coastline with few good harbors. The mountains are different from those of any other continent. In the interior is a vast plateau, with a rim of lov/ mountains around the edge, near the coast. The Atlas Range on thp north reaches an altitude of 14,000 feet, and the loftiest peaks are in the eastern and central parts of the continent, among the Ruwenzori and the Mountains of the Moon. The rivers all rise in the interior and have falls or rapids wherever they pass over the Fall line to the low land of the coast regions. For this reason they are not navigable for ocean going vessels, except for a few miles from the sea. This rim of highlands around the continent prevented the interior from being explored for many years after America was discovered and settled. The extreme northern and southern portions of the continent have a warm temperate or semi-tropical climate, but most of this vast area lies within the tropics. The high- lands in the interior of the equatorial regions give that part of the continent an abundance of rain, and the forests and other vegetation rival in luxuriance that of the Amazon valley. With a few excep- tions, the ijorthern and southern portions of the continent also have sufficient rainfall for agricultural purposes; but between these sec- tions, and the equatorial regions on the other side, ai'e the great arid regions forming the Sahara on the north and the Kalahari Desert on the south. 417 418 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY „,..,_. A political map of Africa shows that nearly Political Divisions ,, ,. j.- 4. • j- -j j 17 the entire continent is diviaea among Euro- pean powers. Morocco, Abyssinia and Liberia are the only inde- pendent states, and the Kongo Free State is a semi-dependency of Belgium. Of all the territory claimed by the different nations, PVance has the largest area, and some of the territory is valuable, but the British possessions are by far the most important, both on account of their resources and their strategic locations. For industrial and commercial purposes Africa can be consid- ered in three divisions: Northern Africa, which extends from the Mediterranean to the Soudan; Central Africa, from the Soudan to the Zambesi River, and Southern Africa, from the Zambesi to the Cape of Good Hope. NORTHERN AFRICA. rnA<5T "^^^ ^^^^ between the Mediterranean and the rOTINTRIES -^^^^ Mountains is fertile, and produces cereals, semi-tropical and tropical fruits, cotton, coffee, vegetables, cacao and spices. All the surplus of these crops is shipped to Southern Europe, where it finds ready sale. Morocco is poorly governed and all industries are in a backward condition, but Algeria and Tunis, which are French colonies, have, under the protecting care of home government, become fairly prosperous. Algeria exports large quantities of cork, and much of the so-called French wine is produced here. Besides their own exports, these countries handle a lucrative caravan trade from the regipn south of the Sahara. Caravans bring ostrich plumes, gums, ivory and other tropical products^ which are exchanged for cotton goods and other manufactures. The trade centers are Algiers, which is the financial center, COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 419 EGYPT Oran, the most important seaport, and Tripoli, the center of the caravan trade, which receives about 10,000 camel loads of mer- chandise annually. Trade is principally in the hands of Arabs, who make regular trips between Tripoli and Timbuctoo and Lake Chad. Egypt is the most important country in Northern Africa. The fertile portions are confined to a few miles each side of the Nile, from which water for irrigation is supplied. The land is so well tilled that abundant crops are grown. Wheat, millet and cotton are the most important crops, and cotton is the leading article of export. The long fiber of Egyptian cotton rivals in quality the famous "sea island" cotton of the United States, and for that reason large quantities of it are sent to this country each year for making thread. Rice is grown in large quantities, but not enough for the needs of the THE SDBZ CANAL peoplc. Wheat and beans are exported to Europe. Sugar-cane is raised, and considerable raw silk is produced. The cultivable area has recently been largely extended by the construction of two great dams across the NUe, one at Assuan, and the other at Assuit. The former is iDue of the finest pieces of engineering in the world, and will store sufficient water to irrigate 2500 square miles of land. There are no mining or manufacturing industries of note, and 420 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY cigarettes made from Turkish tobacco are the most important man- ufactured export. The leading trade is with Great Britain. The exports are agricultural products, and the imports manufactures, coal and lumber. Cairo is the largest city, and is at the head of the Nile Delta. Alexandria is the seaport through which the exports and imports pass. Port Said and Suez are at the opposite ends PORT SAID, THE NORTHERN ENTRANCE TO THE SUEZ CANAL of the Suez Canal. Khartum is the most important commercial center in the interior. A railway 1200 miles in length extends from Cairo to Khartum, and short branches have been constructed at frequent intervals to act as feeders of this line. About 4000 ships pass through the Suez Canal each year, and seven out of every ten of these are British. Egypt, politically, is a colony of Great Britain, which manages COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 421 all of its financial and commercial affairs and supervises its foreign relations, as well as the Suez Canal. As the mountainous regions in the north merge into the desert, so does the desert merge into the grassy plains of the Soudan. Commercially, this region is of but little SOUDAN A CARGO OP EARTHEN JARS, EGYPT importance. With the exception of Liberia on the western coast, the territory is divided between Great Britain and France, and in time portions of it will undoubtedly be developed, but the climate along the western coast is so unhealthful that white men can not live there. Most of the trade is from the interior and finds an outlet through the northern French colonies by means of caravans. 422 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY CENTRAL AFRICA. This mcludes a region considerably larger than the United States. It has a tropical' climate, abundant rainfall and, over much of its area, a luxuriant tropical vegetation. It has over 1,000,000 square miles of dense forests, rivalling in the extent and value of their products those of the Amazon, and it is destined to become one of the great sources of the world's timber supply. SCENE ON AN OSTRICH FARM As in the Soudan, the lowlands along the coast are unhealthful to white men, but in the interior the climate is more favorable and the development of the Kongo region shows that Europeans can live in the country with perfect safety. KONGO FREE '^^^ occupies a large portion of the basin of STATE *^® Kongo River and includes about 800,000 square miles. The Kongo and its tributaries furnish over 6000 miles of navigable waters, which enable the COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 423 most important sections of the country to be reached by steamer. The State has at present a population of about 30,000,000, most of whom are still in an uncivilized state. The most important prod- ucts are rubber, gums, ivory, and fibers from various plants. Since its organization in 1885, this state has been under the administra- tion of the International African Association, of which the King of Belgium is the head. ' Practically he has been both the legislator and executive officer for the country. The local government is administered by the governor-general residing at Boma. Regular lines of steamers ply on the Kongo and its most important tribu- taries, and a railway reaches from the coast to Leopoldville above the rapids, a distance of about 250 miles. The resources of this region are boundless. Besides vegetable products, there are large deposits of iron ore and other minerals, which have not yet been in the least developed, except as natives use the iron for tools and weapons. The people are amenable to civilization and in the course of time will undoubtedly be developed into a strong and productive nation. wpwNrH wnNm •^^'^'^'^ Kongo extends to the northeast from the Atlantic Coast and is bounded on the south by the Kongo River, and on the north by the colony of Kamaroon. Its climate and products are in every way similar to those of the Kongo Free State. RRTTTSH '^^^ ^ ^ ^arge productive area lying to the north EAST AFRICA ^^'^ ^^^ °^ ^^^ Kongo Free State. It does not have as abundant rainfall, and would seem in every way to be better adapted to general agriculture, since the land is free from dense forests and more easily cultivated. A rail- road has been completed through this territory from Monbasa on the coast to Port Florence on Victoria Nyanza, a distance of about 600 miles. This railway connects the British colony of Uganda with the coast. 424 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY PORTTTPTIFSF '^^^ Portuguese possessions lie south of the POSSESSIONS K^ongo Free State and British East Africa- They are the remnants of territory claimed imder explorations made a little before Columbus discovered Amer- ica. The country on the west coast has never yet been developed in the least, except in the vicinity of a few towns which have fairly good harbors, but the east coast has a number of good harbors which furnish the outlet for the trade fron the interior, and this section has been opened to civilization more fully than that on the west. SOUTH AFRICA. This re^on includes the country from the Zambezi River to the South, and the most valuable part of it belongs to Great Britain. On the east is the southern portion of Portuguese East Africa, or the old Mozambique country. The British possessions extend from the Kongo State on the north southward to the Cape, and include Rhodesia, Natal, Transvaal Colony, Orange River Colony, Cape Colony, and a few other small political divisions. The interior is too dry for successful agriculture, but it constitutes an excellent grazing country and sustains thou- ands of cattle, sheep and goats. South of the Orange River Colony there is more rainfall, and nearly all crops common to a temperate climate are raised. Fruits are grown profusely, and as they ripen during our winter months the grapes find a ready market in London and other English cities, to which they are sent in refrigerator ships. Wool, mohair, hides and leather are other agricultural exports. This is one of the richest mineral regions in the Miii6]?r1s world. The diamond mines in Kimberly supply ninety-eight per cent of all the diamonds used, and the gold mines COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 425 of the Transvaal, near Johannesburg, are the richest mines in the world, and their development is only just begun. Coal in abun- dance is also found in this region, but it has not yet been mined to any extent. AN OPEN DIAMOND MINE, KEMBERLY Cape Town, at the southern extremity of the continent, Cities ^gfQj.g ^^g construction of the Suez Canal, was one of the most important ports of call in the world and now receives several thousand vessels every year. Johannesburg, next to CAPK-TO-CAIRO RAtLWAY COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 427 Cairo, is the largest city of the continent. It has been built since the opening of the great mines in the Transvaal and is in every way a modem city of some over 100,000 inhabitants. Pretoria was the former capital of the Dutch Republic. Durban, Lourenco Marquez and Beira are important seaports on the eastern coast and each has a railway connection with the interior. Port Elizabeth, on the south coast, is the most important seaport. Zanzibar, on the island of the same name, opposite British East Africa, occupies a position in reference to this region some- what similar to that of Hongkong in reference to Asia. It is a British colony, but its government is administered by a sultan. The great island of Madagascar belongs to the French. Comparatively, the commerce of Africa is yet small. It is only within the last few years that by reason of its wonderful resources and possibilities the attention of the civilized nations has been turned to this continent. As these possi- bilities are becoming better known, the commerce is increasing, and the development in the near future will undoubtedly be much more rapid than it has been in any equal period in the past. The great trunk line, known as the Cape-to-Cairo Railroad, has been projected, and about 1800 miles of the southern portion and 1200 miles of the northern portion of it have already been constructed. Both in the South and in the North branches extend from this line to the coast towns, or into the fertile agricultural or mineral regions. An immense steel bridge has been completed across the gorge below Victoria Falls on the Zambesi. This bridge is one of the most remarkable feats of engineering in the world. It conducts one branch of this railway into a country rich in both agricultural and mineral resources. The Cape-to-Cairo telegraph is completed as far north as Lake Tanganjrika, and south beyond Khartum. All important cities are also connected by telegraphic lines. Most of the trade is with the 428 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY European countries, though the United States has exported to South Africa considerable quantities of railway supplies, hard- ware and electrical machinery. Africa has a vast population, which when once fully acquainted with the customs and usages of civilization, will create a demand for manufactures that cannot do otherwise than greatly stimulate the industries of all countries having commercial relations with the continent. QUESTIONS. ~ Which is the larger, Africa or North America? How do the climatic conditions in Africa compare with those in South America? Why was Africa so long neglected by the civilized nations? What nations now have a controlling influence in the affairs of the continent? With what European countries do the States of Northern Africa engage in trade? What commodities are exchanged? How do the products of the Kongo Free State compare with those of the Amazon Basin? In what portion of Africa do we find climatic and agricultural conditions resemblirg those on the Great Plains in the United States? What section of the continent is well supplied with railroads? What trunK line is now being constructed? How far is it completed? To what extent is the United States interested in commerce with African countries? INDEX. Atghanistan Resources and commerce of, 407 Afkica Gold found in, 114 Surface, 417 'Climate, 417 Political divisions, 418 Commerce of, 427 Agkicultural Implements Manufacture of, 171 Agriculturje Relation of rainfall to, 8 of Canada, 274 of Mexico, 283 of Colombia, 297 of Bolivia, 303 of CMe, 305 of Venezuela, 308 of Brazil, 319 of Argentina, 323 of the West Indies, 330 of the United Kingdom, 339 of the German Empirfi, 347 of France, 353 » of Belgium, 357 of the Netherlands, 358 of Denmark, 359 of Norway and Sweden, 360 •of Austria-Hungary, 364 of Spain and Portugal, 368 of Italy, 371 of Russia, 388 of British India, 394 of China, 398 of Japan, 404 of Australia, 414 Alaska Resources and commerce of, 247 Trade with, 248 Alps Effect of, upon the climate of Southern Europe, 10 Altitude Effect of, upon climate, 8 Aluminum Ores of, 118 Where produced, 118 Amazon Rainfall along, 2 Forests of the, 2 Andes Perpetual snow on, 8 Animals Use of, in transportation, 23 Anthracite Coal . Described, 130 Appalachian Highlands Described, 35 Argentina Resources and commerce of, 321- 323 Articles, Small Importance of, 172 Atlantic Slope Described, 33 Australia Important gold-producing country 114 Described, 411 Climate of, 412 Rainfall in, 412 ; Resources of, 412 Agriculture of, 413 Minerals of, 413 Cities of, 413 Commerce of, 414 Austria-Hungary Resources and commerce of, 363 Automobiles, 177 Banks Uses of, 232 Relations of, to clearing house, 234 Earnings of, 235 Baltimore An important railroad center, 185 An important commercial port,208 Baluchistan Resources and commerce of, 407 429 430 INDEX Beef Production of, in United States, 73 Slaughtering and packing of, 76 Quantity exported, 79 Belgium Resources and commerce 'o^ 355 Bituminous Coal 'Described, 129 Boards of Trade, 237-238 Bolivia Leading silver-producing country, 115 Resources and commerce of, 300 Boots and Shoes Manufacture of, 161-163 < Value of, in the United States, 163 Rubber boots and shoes, 173 Boston An important railroad center, 184 Pecuh'arity of site, 203 Described, 207-208 Brazil Resources and commerce of, 311 Brick Manufacture of, 142 Bridges , Effect of construction of, upon railroads, 181 British East Africa, 423 British Empire, Extent of, 333 Buffalo An important railroad center, 185 An important lake port, 212 Building Stone Varieties of, 139 Bulgaria Resources and commerce of, 373 Bureau of Forestry - Duties of, 107 Buttons Manufacture of, 174 By-Products Manufacture of, 176 Calicoes Printing of, 154 California Production of mercury in, 118 Canada Temperature of the interior of, 9 Described, 273 Climate of, 274 Agriculture of, 274 Lmnber in, 275 Mineral resources of, 275 Fisheries of, 277 Furs in, 277 Manufactures of, 278 Transportation in, 278 Cities of, 279 Commerce of, 281 Canals Number and location of, 29 Map of, 188 Location of, in United States, 191 Connecting Lake Erie with the Ohio River, 193 Cannel Coal, 129 Cape-to-Calro Railway, 427 Caravans Used for transportation, 24 Use of,, in Africa, 418 Cattle Breeds suitable for dairying, 72 Breeds suitable for beef, 73 Marketing of, 75 Number of, used by packing houses, 79 Number exported, 79 Cement, 143 Central America Resources and ccmmerce of, 287 Central Plain, 37 Cereals Grown in the United States, 69 Chicago Shipping point for wheat, 53 Meat packing in, 75-76 A lumber market, 103 Iron mills in, 121 Manufacture of agricultural im- plements in, 171 Manufacture of electrical appli- ances in, 172 An important railroad center, 185 INDEX 4S1 Chicago — continued Location and extent of, 223 Plan of, 225-227 Transportation in, 227 Manufactures in, 227 ^ Trade of, 228 Chile Resources and commerce of, 305 China Agriculture of, 395 Mineral resources of, 396 Manufactures of, 397 Transportation in, 397 Cities of, 398 People of, 399 Cincinnati An important railroad center, 185 Commercial importance of, 213 Cities Causes for location of, 199-201 Plan of, 201-207 Transportation in, 205 Clay, 141 Clearing House, 233-234 Cleveland An important lake port, 212 Climate Important features of, 2 Modifying influences of, 5 Coal Where found, 127 Formation of, 127 Varieties of, 129 Coal measures, 130 Mining of, 131 Transportation, of, 131 Uses of, 132 Output and production of, 133 Movement of, 243 Cod How caught, 90 Importance of, 90 Coffee Exported from Porto Rico, 249 Produced in Mexico, 283 Produced in Colombia, 296 Produced in Bolivia, 300 Coffee — continued Produced in Venezuela, 307 Culture of, described, 317 Importance of, in Brazil, 319 COJKE, 132 Colombia Resources and commerce of, 296 Colorado Plateau, 39 Columbian Plateau, 39 Commerce Beginnings of, 17 Reasons for growth of, 18 Domestic, described, 244-245 Value of, with island possessions, 25S Foreign and domestic, compared, 257 Principles goverm'ng, 258 (Also see United States, Com- merce of) Commodities Unequal distribution of, 23 Movement of, 242 Communication Means of, in United States, 197 Copper Ancient use of, 115 Mines, 116 Production of, in United States, 116 Corn History of, 61 Plant described, 61 Corn belt, 63 Harvesting, 65 Uses of, 65 Production of, in United States, 67 Production of, in Mexico, 284 Production of, in Argentina, 322 Production of, in Italy, 368 Corporations, 235 Cotton History of, 81 Plant described, 82 Cotton belt, 84 Cultivation of cotton plant, 84 Production of, in the United States, 85-87 432 INDEX Cotton — continued Marketing of, 87 Value of, 87 Manufacture of, in the United States, 154 Movement of, in United States,242 Manufacture of, in the United Kingdom, 335 Manufacture of, in France, 351 Manufacture of, in Russia, 382 Manufacture of, in China, 397 Manufacture of, in Japan, 403 Cotton Gin Invention of, 82 Cuba Resources and commerce of, 327 Dairying Suitable conditions for, ,71 Extent of, in United States, 72 Death Valley, 40 Denmark Resources and commerce of, 358 Detroit An important lake port, 212 Discoveries Effect of, upon commerce, 18 DULUTH Cause of development of, 200 Commercial importance of, 211 Eades, James B. Builder of Mississippi jetties, 209 East Indies Resources and commerce of, 408 Ecuador Resources and commerce of, 299 Egypt Resources and commerce of, 419 Electrical Appliances Manufacture of, 172 Electric Railways Uses of, 29 Elgin, III. Watch factory, in, 175 Erie Canal Described, 191 Effect of construction of, upon Boston, 207 Exports Value of, from the United States, 258-259 Proportion of, to other countries 236 Exports to different coimtries, 264 Ferri Use of, by railroads, 183 Location of, 183 Fisheries Fishing grounds, 89 The Atlantic Division, 89 The Pacific Division, 93 The Inland Division, 93 Government control of, 94 of Canada, 277 of the United Kingdom, 334 of France, 350 Flour (see Wheat) Forests Regions, 97 Use of, 98 Value of, 107 Retention of soil by, 107 Preservation of, 107 of the Philippines, 253 of Canada, 27 of Brazil, 313 of the German Empire, 344 of Siberia, 370 France Described, 347 Agriculture, 349 Fisheries of, 350 Mineral resources of, 350 Manufactures of, 350 Transportation in, 351 Cities of, 351 Commerce of, 353 Colonial possessions of, 353 French Kongo, 423 French Possessions Resources and commerce of, 407 Furs Found in the United States, 159 German East Aerica, 423 INDEX 433 German Empire Important coal-producing country, 133 Described, 343 Agriculture of, 343 Mineral resources of, 344 Manufactures of, 344 Transportation in, 345 Cities of, 345 Commerce of, 347 Gloucester Important fishing port, 91 Gloves and Mittens Manufacture of, 173 Gold Taken from the Rocky Mountain Region, 41 Discovered in California, 43 Mining of. 111 Production of, 114 Use of, 114 Value of, 114 Government, National Aids navigation, 31 Grain Movement of, 242 Grand Rapids Large furniture-manufacturing center, 103 Granite, 141 Graphite, 144 Great Basin, 40 Great Central Plain Rainfall in, 7 Described, 37 Great Lakes Commercial routes on, 189 Great Plains, 38 Grea: Salt Lake Location of, 40 Greece Resources and commerce of, 373 Guam, 256 Guiana Resources and commerce of, 309 Haddock, 91 Halibut, 92 Hamburg Connection with the Atlantic ports of the United States, 261 Harbors Means of locating cities, 199 Hawah Described, 250 Commercial importance of, 251 Hemp Manufacture of, in the United ' States, 158 Herring How caught, 91 Uses of, 92 Himalayas Perpetual snow on, 8 Hogs Production of, in the United States, 74 , Marketing of, 75 Number of, used by packing houses, 79 Hongkong Important cornmercial port, 400 Honolulu An important commercial cen- ter, 251 Hudson Bay Company Origin and growth of, 18 Ice, ^ Work of, in formation of soil, 14 Imports Character of, to the United States, 259-260 Proportion of, from other coun- tries, 263 India Resources and commerce of, 389 Agriculture cf, 390 Manufactures of, 390 Transportation in, 391 Cities of, 392 I>rDIANS Early trade among, 17 Industries Extent of local, in the United States, 241 434 Iron Importance of, 118 Ore, 119 Transportation of, 121 Mills, location of, 121 Uses of, 122 Smelting of, 122 Movement of, 244 Italy Resources and commerce of, 368 Japan Agriculture of, 401 Mineral resources of, 402 Manufactures of, 403 Transportation in, 404 Cities of, 404 Commerce of, 404 People of, 405 JOPLIN Important zinc mines of, 117 Jute Manufacture of, in the United States, 158 Kansas City Commercial importance of, 213 Kaiser Wilhelm Canal, 29 Kongo Free State, 422-423 Kongo River Rainfall in the valley of, 2 Korea, 378 Labor Effect of division of, upon com- merce, 18 Lake Ports, 211 Land Area of, in the world, 1 Proportion of, suitable for culti- vation, 1 Latjrentian Highlands, 35 Lead Where found, 117 Uses of, 117 Leather Described, 159 Tanning of, 159 Uses of, 160 Value of, in the United States, 161 Lignite, 129 Limestone, 131 Linen Manufacture of, in the United States, 168 Liverpool Important cotton market, 85 Connection with Atlantic ports of the United States, 261 Described, 339 Live Stock Grown in the United States, 71-73 Animals used by packing houses, 79 Movement of, 243 London, 337 Louisiana PuncaaASE Exposition Held m St. Louis, 213 Lumber Regions, 97-98 Kinds of, 99 Lumbering, 101 Suitable trees for, 101 Transportation of, 102 Sawmills, 102 Marketing of, 103 Uses of, 105 Output, 105 Production of, in Alaska, 247 Production of, in Canada, 275 Production of, in the German Empire, 344 Production of, in Norway and Sweden, 360 Lynn, Mass. Center of shoe industry, 162 Mackerel How caught, 91 Uses of, 92 Manchester Important cotton market, 85 A seaport, 339 Manxwactuhes Importance of, 145 Location of manufacturing indus- tries, 145 Transportation of, 147 Manufacturing centers, 148 INDEX 435 MANurACTTjRES — cmtiiMted Movement of, 242 Manufacturing portions of New York, 218 of New York, 221 Manufacturing centers of Chicago, 225 of Chicago, 227 of Canada, 278 of Brazil, 318 of Argentina, 322 of Cuba, 330 of the United Kingdom, 334 of Germany, 344 of France, 350 of Belgium, 356 of the Netherlands, 357 of Norway and Sweden, 360 of Austria -Hungary, 364 of Switzerland, 365 of Italy, 369 of Turkey, 377 of Russia, 382 of India, 390 of China, 397 of Japan, 403 Marble, 139 Meat Slaughtering and packing of, de- scribed, 76 Value of, 77 Menhaden, 92 Merchant Marine Condition of, in United States, 261 Mercury, 118 Metals, 113 Mexico Important silver country, 115 Described, 283 Climate of, 283 Resources of, 283 Inhabitants of, 284 Commerce of, 284 Transportation in, 285 Military Stations Cause of location of cities, 200 Milling (see Wheat) Milwaukee An important lake port, 211 Minerals Where found, 109 Classification of, 112 Mines Location of, 109 Mining Described, 109 Methods of, 109 Mining towns. 111 Means of locating cities, 200 Minneapolis An important milling center, 59 A lumber market, 103 Mittens (see Gloves and Mittens) Money Necessity for, 231 Materials used as, 231 Money of the United States, 232 Montenegro Resources and commerce of, 375 Mountains Effect of, on climate, 9 NATUR-4L Gas Where found, 137 Importance of, 138 Needles Manufacture of, 174 Netherlands Resources and commerce of, 357 Newfoundland Commeirce of, 281 New Orleans An important railroad center, 187 Described, 209 New York Location and extent of, 215 Plan of, 215 Transportation in, 219 Manufactures of, 220 Trade of, 221 Norway and Sweden Resources and commerce of, 359 Ocean Routes Located, 195 436 INDEX Ores Described, 113 Movement of, 244 Pacific Slope, 41 Panama, 294-295 Panama Canal Construction of, 30 Map of, 295 Paper Manufacture of, 165 Quantity used in printing, 167 Paraguay Resources and commerce of, 327 !Paeis, 351 Pencils Manufacture of, 175 Pens Manufacture of, 175 Persla Resources and commerce of, 408 Peru Resources and commerce of, 300 Petroleum Described, 133 Where found, 133 History of, 134 Refining of, 134 Products of, 135 Uses of, 136 Transportation of, 136 Movement of, 243 Philadelphia Located on the fall line, 34 An important railroad center, 185 Described, 209 Philippine Islands Described, 251 Resources of, 253 Cities of, 255 Government of, 255 Steamboat connections with the United States, 261 Pins, 174 Pittsburgh Iron mills in, 121 An important railroad center, 185 Commercial importance of, 241 Plants Adaptation of, to climate and soil, 15 Regions of, 16 Polar Regions Climate of, 3 Inhabitants of, 3 Porto Rico Described, 248 Products of, 249 Trade with, 249 Government of, 250 Portugal Resources and commerce of, 367 Portuguese Possessions, 424 Printing Relation of to commerce and in- dustry, 165 Developm ent of the printing press, 167 Typesetting, 168 Location of the printing and pub- lishing business, 169 Railroad Centers Cause of locating cities, 201 Railroads Origin of, 26 Construction of, in the United States, 27 Transportation by, economical, 28 Map of, in the United States, 178 Groups of, in the United States, . 184-187 Statistics of, 187 Rainfall Causes of, 5 Map of, 6 Effect of, upon vegetation, 7 Map of, in tie United States, 44 Red River of the North Production of wheat in tlie basin of, 52 Remittances Methods of making, 239 Resin Uses of, 106 INDEX 437 Rice Where grown in the United States, 15 Production of, in the Philippines, 253 Production of, in Brazil, 314 Production of, in Italy, 360 Production of, in China, 396 Production of, in Japan, 401 Production of, in Siam, 407 River Ports, 212 Rivers Used as commercial routes, 29 Important navigable, of the United States, 187 Roads Origin and construction of, 25 Condition of, in United States,179 Rocky Mountain Plateau Described, 39 Climate of, 40 Rocky Mountains Effect of, upon winds, 9 Roumania Resources and commerce of, 373 Rubber Manufacture of boots and shoes from, 173 Russia Navigable rivers in, 29 Petroleum found in, 137 Described, 381 In Europe, 381 Mineral resources of, 382 Manufactures of, 382 In Asia, 383 Transportation in, 383 Cities of, 387 Commerce of, 388 St. Lawrence River Canals on, 192-193 St. Louis Manufacture of boots and shoes in, 163 An important railroad center, 186-187 Commercial importance of, 212 St. Paul An important railroad center, 186 Cause of location of, 201 Commercial importance of, 213 Salmon Atlantic fisheries of, 92 Pacific fisheries of, 93 Output and value of, 93 Canning of, in Alaska, 248 Salt, 143 Sand, 143 San Domingo, 331 Sandstone, 141 San Francisco An important railroad center, 186 An important seaport, 210 Steamship connections of, 261 Sault Ste. IMaeie Canal Described, 192 Map of, 192 Sawmills Described, 102 Sea The highway of nations, 30 Seaports Cause of locaton of cities, 207 Seattle An important railroad center, 186 An important commercial center, 211 Connection with Pacific ports, 261 Semi-Arid Region Location of, 8 Servia Resources and commerce of, 375 Shad How caught, 92 Sheep Production of, in the United States, 74 Number of, used by packing houses, 79 Shoes (see Boots and Shoes) Siam Resources and commerce of, 407 438 ESTDEX Siberia Climate and surface of, 3 Described, 383 Silk Manufacture of, in the United States, 157 Manufacture of, in France, 350 Production of, in Italy, 369 Raised in China, 396 Manufacture of, in China, 397 Manufacture of, in Japan, 403 Silver Found in the Rocky Moimtain region, 41 Ores of, 114 Uses of, 115 Slate, 141 Son, Formation of, 11 Kinds of, 12 Fertility of, 13 Necessity for rotation of crops, 13 South America Position and surface of, 287-291 Climate, 292 People of, 293 Government of, 293 Spain Resources and commerce of, 367 Steamboat Invention of, 30 Development of, 31 Steel Described, 123 Bessemer steel, 123 Production of, 125 Stock Exchange Described, 237-238 Straits Settlements, The j Resources and commerce of, 394 J Suez Canal , Described, 30 Compared with the Sault Ste, Marie Canal, 192 Map of, 387 ^. Sugar Importance of, in Hawaii, 250 Produced in Mexico, 283 Produced in Venezuela, 307 Produced in Guiana, 309 Produced in Brazil, 314 Produced in the West Indies, 329 Produced in Egypt, 419 Sugar-Beet Grown in Germany, 341 Grown in France, 349 Sweden (see Norway and Sweden) Switzerland Resources and commerce of, 365 Tanning Described, 159-160 Tar How obtained, 106 Uses of, 106 Telegraph Extent of, in the United States, 196 Temperate Regions Climate of, 4 Textiles Manufacture of, 151 Various kinds of, 154-158 Time Pieces Manufacture of, 175 Value of, 176 Tobacco Grown in Porto Rico, 249 Importance of, in the PhUippine Islands, 253 Proportion of, raised in the United States, 269 Importance of, in Mexico, 284 An important crop in Cuba, 329 An important crop in Turkey, 377 Various kinds of, 154-157 Trade (see Commerce) Trans-Caspia, 383 Trans-Caucasia, 383 Transportation by animals, 23 by caravans, 24 by railroads, 27 M by electric railways, 28 INDEX 439 Transportation — continued by water, 29-32 FacOities for, in the United States, 242 Bulk of, in foreign ships, 260-261 in Canada, 278 in Mexico, 285 in Colombia, 296 in Ecuador, 299 in Peru, 300 in Bolivia, 303 in Chile, 305 in Venezuela, 308 in Brazil, 319 in Argentina, 322 in the United Kingdom, 339 in Germany, 345 in France, 351 in Belgium, 357 in the Netherlands, 358 in Austria-Hungary, 364 in Italy, 369 in Russia, 383 in British India, 393 in China, 397 in Japan, 404 in Australia, 414 in Northern Africa, 418 in Belgian Kongo, 422 in South Africa, 427 (See also Canals, Rivers, Roads, and Waterways) Trans-Siberian Railway Descnbed, 385 Map of, 385 Tropical Regions Climate of, 2 Inhabitants of, 2 Tundra Vegetation of, 3 Inhabitants of, 3 Animals of, 3 Tunnels Effect of construction of, upon railroads, 181 Location of important tunnels, 181 Turkey Resources and commerce of, 377 Turpentine How procured, 106 Uses of, 106 Tuituila A possession of the United States, 256 Type-setting Progress in, 168 United Kingdom Important coal producing coun- try, 133 Described, 333 Fisheries of, 334 Mineral resources of, 334 Manufactures of, 335 Cities of, 337 Transportation in, 339 Commerce of, 339 United States Temperature of the interior of, 9 Position and extent of, 33 Physical features of, 33 Climate of, 43 Rainfall of, 45 Production of wheat in, 51-59 Production of corn in, 67 Important gold-producing coun- try, 114 Leading silver-producing coun- try, 114 Important coal-producing coun- try, 133 Production of petroleimi in, 137 The largest manufacturing coun- try of the world, 149 Extent of local industries in, 241 Individuality of the inhabitants of, 241 Domestic commerce of, 244-245 Exports of, 258-266 Imports of, 259-260 Leading countries with which trade is carried on, 260 Commercial growth of, 267-271 Statistical table, 272 440 INDEX United States, Commerce of with Canada, 281 with Newfoundland, 281 with Mexico, 285 with Central America, 287 with Colombia, 297 with Ecuador, 299 with Peru, 300 with Chile, 306 with Venezuela, 309 with Guiana, 309 with Brazil, 319 with Argentina, 323 with Uruguay, 325 with the United Kingdom, 341 with the German Empire, 347 with France, 333 with Belgium, 357 with the Netherlands, 358 with Norway and Sweden, 360 with Austria-Hungary, 365 with Italy, 371 with Greece, 373 with Russia, 381 with China, 399 ndth Japan, 405 with Australia, 404 with Africa, 428 United States Mail As a means of communication, 196 Uruguay Resources and commerce of, 325 Venezuela Resources and commerce of, 308 Virgin Islands Purchased by the United States, 256 Watches Manufacture of, in the United States, 175 Water Power Cause of locating cities, 200 Waterways Inland, in the United States, 187 Rivers used as, 187 Lakes used as, 189 Canals used as, 191 Welland Canal Mentioned, 29 Described, 192 West Indies Resources and commerce of, 329- 331 Wheat Wheat plant described, 47 Varieties of, 49 Wheat countries, 49 Wheat belt of United States, 61 Planting and harvesting of, 52-53 Transportation of, 55 Manufacture of, into flour, 55 Statistics of, 59 Production of, in France, 349 Production of, in Austria-Hungary, 363 Production of, in Italy, 368 Production of, in Roumania, 373 Production of, in Russia, 381 Production of, in India, 390 Production of, in Egj^t, 419 Winds Effect of, upon rainfall, 5-7 Wine Production of, in France, 350 Production of, in Portugal, 368 Wool Production of, 75 Woolens Manufacture of, 155-156 Zanzibar, 395 Zinc Mines, 117 Production of, in the United States, 117