ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY New York State Colleges OF Agriculture and Home Economics AT Cornell University EVERETT FRANKLIN PHILLIPS BEEKEEPING LIBRARY The original of tliis book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003625393 ITALIAN BEES QUEES. WORKEK. DEONE. THE Bee- Keepers' Guide on MAOTAL OF THE APIAM, A. J. COOK, Professor of Entomology IN THE MICHIGM STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. SEVENTH EDITION, REVISED, ENLARGED, MOSTLY RE-WRITTEN AND BEAUTIFULLY ILLUSTRATED. isrnsTTH T:EiOTJS-A.3sriD. CHICAGO, ILL.: 1882. E 13*^9 Entered according to Act of CoupreBS. in the year 1878, by THOMAS G. NEWMAN, In the OfBce of the Lihraxian of Congress, at Wafihington, D. C. TO THE REVEEEND L. L. LANGSTROTH, THE INVENTOR OF THE MOVABLE FRAME HIVE, THE HtJBER OP AMERICA, AND ONE OP THE GREATEST MASTERS OP PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCE, AS RELATING TO APICULTURE, IN THE WORLD ; THIS MANUAL IS GRATEFULLY DEDICATED I!Y THE AUTHOR. PREFACE. In 1876, in response to a desire frequently expressed by Biy apiarian friends, principally my students, I published an edition of 3,000 copies of the little unpretending " Manual of the Apiary." This was little more than the course of lectures which I gave annually at the College. In less than two years this was exhausted, and the second edition, enlarged, revised, and much more fully illusisrated, was issued. So great was the sale that in less than a year this was followed by the third and fourth editions, and, in less than two years, the fifth edition (seventh thousand) was issued. Each edition has been enlarged and changed, to keep pace with our rapidly advancing art. It is the desire and determination of both publishers and author, to make this work the exponent of the most improved apiculture ; and no pains will be spared, that each succeeding edition may embody the latest improvements and discoveries wrought out by the practical man and the scientist, as gleaned from the excellent home and foreign apiarian and scientific periodicals. • A. J. COOK. State Agricultwal College, Lansing, Mich. CONTENTS INTEODUCTION. Who May Keep Bees 11 Specialists 11 Amateurs 11 Who are Specially Interdicted 12 Inducements to Bee-Keeping 12 Recreation 12 Profit 13 Excellence as an Amateur Pursuit.^ 15 Adaptation to Women 15 Improves the Mind and Observation 17 Yields Delicious Food 17 What Successful Bee-Keeping Requires 18 Mental Effort 18 Experience Necessary 18 Learn from Others 18 Aid from -Conventions 19 Aid from Bee Papers «. 19 American Bee Journal 19 Gleanings in Bee Cultvure 20 Bee-Keepers' Magazine 21 Books for the Apianst 21 Langstroth on the Honey-Bee 21 Quinby's Mysteries of Bee-Keeping 22 King's Text-Book 22 A, B, C of Bee Culture 22 Foreign Works 22 Promptitude 63 Enthusiasm 24 F-A.I^T I. Natural Histoet of the Honey Beb. ' CHAPTER I. The Bee's Place in the Animal Kingdom 27 The Branch of the Honey-Bee 27 The Class of the Honey-Bee 28 The Order of the Honey-Bee 30 The Sub-Order of the Honey-Bee 31 U. CONTENTS. The Pamily of the Honey-Bee 34 The Genua of the Hon^y-Bee 38 The Species of the Honey-Bee 41 The varieties of the Honey-Bee 41 German, or Black Bee 47 Italian, or Ligurian 41 Fasciata, or Egyptian 43 Other Varieties 43 Bibliography 44 Valuable Books on Entomology 47 CHAPTER n. Anatomy and Physiology 48 Anatomy of Insects 48 Organs of the Head 48 Appendages of the Thorax 55 Internal Anatomy 56 Secretory Organs 61 Sex Organs 62 Transf ormatipns 66 The Egg 67 The Larva 68 The Pupa 68 The Imago Stage 70 Incomplete Transformations. 70 Anatomy and Physiology of the Honey Bee 71 Three Kinds of Bees in Each Colcfny 71 The Queen 71 The Drone 86 The Neuters or "Workers 90 CHAPTER m. Swarming, or Natural Method of increase 101 CHAPTER IV. Products of Bees, their Origin and Function 104 Honey 104 "Wax 106 Pollen, or Bee-Bread Ill Propolis 112 Bibliography 113 IPA-I^T II- THE Apiaet, its Care and Management 115 INTRODUCTION. Preparation 117 Bead a Good Manual 117 "\risit some Apiarist 117 CONTENTS. iii. Take a College Course 118 Decide on a Plan 118 How to Procure our^ees .".'."!!.'!!.' lis Kind of Bees to Purchase 119 In What Kind of Hives 119 When to Purchase 119 How Much to Pay '.'. 120 Wiere to Locate ..........." 120 CHAPTEE V. Hives and Boxes 122 Box Hives .122 Movable Comb Hives 123 The Langstroth Hive 123 Character of the Hive 124 The Bottom Board 127 The Cover ,. .129 The Frames 132 How to Construct the Frames 133 A Block for making Frames 134 Cover for Frames 136 Division Board 137 The Huber Hive. 138 Apparatus for Securing Comb Honey 141 Boxes 142 Small Frames or Sections 144 Eequisites of Good Frames 144 Description : 144 How to Place Sections in Position 147 Sections in Frames 147 Sections in Backs 149 CHAPTER VI. Position and Arrangement of the Apiary 152 Position 152 Arrangement of Ground 152 Preparation for each Colony 153 CHAPTEE Vn. To Transfer Bees t 156 CHAPTEE VIII. Feeding and Feeders 159 How Much to Feed 159 How to Feed 160 CHAPTEE IX. Queen Bearing 163 How to Eear Queens 163 Nuclei L^---x 165 Shall we Clip the Queen's Wmg? 168 IV. CONTENTS. CHAPTER X. Increase of Colonies I'l Swarming'. ijl Hiving Swarms }lf To Prevent Second Swarms 175 To Prevent Swarming 176 How Best to Increase 177 Dividing 177 How to Divide 177 CHAPTER XI. Italians and Italianizing 180 All Should Keep only Italians 183 How to Italianize 183 How to Introduce a Queen 183 To Get Italian Queens 185 Rearing and Shipping Queens 186 To Ship Queens 186 To Move Colonies 187 CHAPTER XII. Extracting and the Extractors ■. 188 Honey Extractor 188 What Style to Buy 189 Use of the Extractor 191 "When to use the Extractor 192 How to Extract 194 CHAPTER Xni. Handling Bees 195 The Best Bee Veil 196 To Quiet Bees 197 Bellows Smoker 198 The Quinby Smoker 198 The Bingham Smoker 199 How to Smoke Bees 201 To Cure Stings 201 The Sweat Theory 201 CHAPTER XIV. Comb Foundation 203 History 203 American Foundation 204 How Foundation is Made 206 To Secure the Wax Sheets 206 Use of Foundation 207 To Fasten the Foundation 209 Save the Wax 211 Methods 211 CONTENTS. V. CHAPTER XV. Marketing Honey ." .> 213 How to Invigorate the Market 213 Extracted Honey .214 How to Tempt the Conaumer 214 Comb Honey 216 Eules to be Observed 215 CHAPTEE XVI. Ho ney Plants 218 What are the Valuable Honey Plants? 220 Description with Practical Eemarks 222 April Plants 223 May Plants 225 June Plants 228 July Plants 237 August and September Plants 242 Books on Botany 244 Practical Conclusions 244 CHAPTEE XVn. Wintering Bees 246 The Cause of Disastrous Wintering 246 Eequisite to Safe Wintering— Good Food 248 Secure Late Breeding 249 To Secure and Maintain Proper Temperatiu:e 249 Box for Packing 250 ChafE Hives 251 Wintering in Cellar or House 252 Burying Bees 254 Spring Dwindling 254 CHAPTEE XVin. The House Apiary 255 Description 255 Are they Desirable 256 The Case as it Kow Stands 256 CHAPTEE XIX. Evils that Confront the Apiarist 258 Eobbing 258 Disease 259 Foul Brood 259 Eemedies ; 260 Enemies of Bees 262 The Bee Moth 262 Histoiy 266 Eemedies 266 Bee Killer 267 VI. CONTENTS. Bee Louse 268 Important Suggestion 269 Bee Hawk 269 TachinaFly 270 Spiders 271 Ants 271 Wasps 271 The King Bird t 272 Toads 272 Mice 272 CHAPTEE XX. Calendar and Axioms , 274 Work for Different Months 274 January 274 February 274 March 274 April 275 May 275 Jime 275 July 275 August '. 275 September 276 October 276 November 276 December 276 Axioms 277 APPENDIX. History of Movable Frames 278 Lecanium Tulipiferse - 286 Natural History of 287 Motherwort as a Honey Plant • 289 Description 291 The Sour- Wood Tree 292 The Japan Medlar 293 The Stmging Bug 293 The Southern Bee-Killets 297 Honey-Comb Coral 301 ILLUSTRATIONS. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 4S. 46. 47. 48. 49. 60. 51. &2. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 61. 62. Bespiratory'ApparatfiiBof aBee! 29 Bee's Wings „38 Head of Drone '39 Head of Worker 39 Head of Bee 49 Tliorazof Bee 65 Nervous System ot Drone 58 Alimentary Canal 60 Male Oncans of Bee 63 Queen Organs 64 liarra of Bee 68 Pupa of. Bee 69 gueenBee 73 abium of Queen 73 Part of Queen's Leg 74 Drone 86 Part of Drone's Leg 87 Worker Bee 90 Tongue of Worker Bee facing 91 Jaw of Queen, Drone and Worker 92 Part of Leg of Worker— outside. . 93 Part of Legof Worker— inside 93 Anterior Leg of Worker 94 Sting of Worker, with Lancets 95 Egg and Brood 97 Bee, showing Wax Segments lOO Wax Scales 106 Honey-Comb 109 LangsttothHive 124 Body of Hive 125 Bevel Gauge 126 Bottom-Board 128 Two-Story Hive 130 Cover to Hive 131 Frame 133 with Cross-Section of Top-Bar .134 Block for making Frames 135 Division-Board 137 Part of Quinby Hive 139 Part of Bingham Hive 140 Glass Honey Box 142 Isham Honey Box 143 Harbison Section Frame 143 Chisel 144 Block for Section making 145 Hetherlngton Separator 146 Dovetailed Section 146 Phelps Section 147 Section Frame 148 Sections in Frame 149 Southard's Section Back 150 Wheeler's Section Rack 150 Hive in Shade of Evergreen 155 Feeder 160 Simplicity Feeder 161 Qneen-cell Inserted in Comb ISt Shipping Queen Cage 187 Peabody's Extractor 189 Small Piece Comb-holders 190 Kutf e for Uncapping 191 Knife with Curved Point 191 Bee- Veil 196 Quinby Smokers 199 Bingham Smoker 199 Comb Foundation 203 Comb Foundation Machine 205 67. Comb Foundation Cutter 306 Block for Fastening Foundation .210 Pressor for Block 211 Wax Extrabtor 212 Prize Crate 216 Heddon Crate 217 Maple US! Willow 223 Judas Tree :B4 American Wistaria 225 Chinese Wistaria 226 Barberry 226 White Sage 227 White or Dutch Clover 228 Alsike Clover 229 Melilot Clover 230 Borage 230 Mignonette 231 Okra 231 Mint 232 Pollen of Milkweed 233 Black Mustard 233 Eape 234 Tulip 235 Teasel 236 Cotton 236 Besswood 237 Flgwort 238 Button-Bush 240 Kooky Mountain Bee Plant 239 Boneset 241 Buckwheat 242 Golden Bod 243 Aster 243 Packing-Box for Winter 250 Gallery of Moth Larva 282 Loth Larva in Comb 263 Moth Larvae 264 Moth Cocoons 264 Moth with Wings Spread 264 Maleand Female Moths 265 Bee-Killer 268 Bee Louse 268 TachinaFly 270 Munn Hive 279 Munn's Triangular Hive 280 Lecanium Tulipif erse 288 Stem of Motherwort 289 Fruit and Leaf of Motherwort. . .290 Motherwort Bloom 291 Sour- Wood 292 Stinging-Bug— natural size 294 Magnified twice 294 Beak, magnified 294 Antenna, magnified 295 Anterior leg, exterior view — 295 " " interior view — 295 Claw, extended 296 Middle leg, magnified 2S6 Southern Bee-Killer 297 Wings extended 297 Head of 298 Wing of 299 Foot of 29S Wing of Asilus MissourlenslB 300 Honey-Comb Coral 301 Wasp-stone Coral 302 INTRODUCTION WHO MAY KEEP BEES. SPECIALISTS. Any person who is cautious, observing, and prompt to do whatever the needs of his "business require, with no thought of delay, may make apiculture a specialty, with almost cer- tain prospects of success. He must also be willing to work with Spartan energy during the busy season, and must persist, though sore discouragement, and even dire misfortune, essay to thwart his plans and rob him of his coveted gains. As in all other vocations, such are the men who succeed in apiculture. I make no mention of capital to begin with, or territory on which to locate ; for men of true metal — men whose energy of mind and body bespeak success in advance — ^will solve these questions long before their experience and knowledge warrant their assuming the charge of large apiaries. AMATEURS. Apiculture, as an avocation, may be safely recommended to those of any business or profession, who possess the above named qualities, and control a little space for their bees, a few rods from street and neighbor, or a flat roof whereupon hives may securely rest (C. F. Muth, of Cincinnati, keeps his bees very successfully on the top of his store, in the very heart of a large city), and who are able to devote' a little time, when required, to care for their bees. The amount of time will of course vary with the number of colonies kept, but with proper management this time may be, granted at any period of the day or week, and thus not interfere with the regular busi- ness. Thus residents of country, village, or city, male or female, who may wish to be associated with and study natural objects, and add to their income and pleasure, will find here an ever-waiting opportunity. To the ladies, shut out from fresh air and sunshine, till pallor and languor point sadly to 12 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. departing health and vigor, and to men the nature of whose business precludes air and exercise, apiculture cannot be too highly recommended as an avocation. WHO ARE SPECIALLY INTERDICTED. There are a few people, whose systems seem to be specially susceptible to the poison intruded with the bee's sting. Sometimes such persons, if even stung on the foot, will be so thoroughly poisoned that their eyes will swell so they cannot see, and will suffer with fever for days, and, very rarely, indi- viduals are so sensitive to this poison that a bee-sting proves fatal. I hardly need say, that such people should never keep bees. Many persons, among whom were the noted Klein and Gunther, are at first very susceptible to the poison, but spurred on by their enthusiasm, they persist, and soon be- come so innoculated that they experience no serious injury from the stings. It is a well-recognized fact, that each suc- cessive sting is less powerful to work harm. Every bee- keeper is almost sure to receive an occasional sting, though with the experienced these are very rare, and the occasion neither of fear nor anxiety. INDUCEMENTS TO BBB-KEEPIN&. EECREATION. Among the attractive features of apiculture, I mention the pleasure which it offers its votaries. There is a fascination about the apiary which is indescribable. Nature is always presenting the most pleasurable surprises to those on the alert to receive them. And among the insect hosts, especially bees, the instincts and habits are so inexplicable and marvel- ous, that the student of this department of nature never ceases to meet with exhibitions that move him, no less with wonder than with admiration. Thus, bee-keeping affords most wholesome recreation, especially to any who love to look in upon the book of nature, and study the marvelous pages she is ever waiting to present. To such, the very fascination of their pursuit is of itself a rich reward for the time and labor expended. I doubt if there is any other class of manual MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 13 laborers who engage in their business, and dwell upon it, with the same fondness as do bee-keepers. Indeed, to meet a scientific bee-keeper is to meet an enthusiast. A thorough study of the wonderful economy of the hive must, from its very nature, go hand-in-hand with delight and admiration. I once asked an extensive apiarist, who was also a farmer, why he kept bees. The answer was characteristic : " Even if I could not make a good deal the most money with my bees, I should still keep them for the real pleasure they bring me." But yesterday I asked the same question of Prof Daniels, President of the Grand Rapids schools, whose official duties are very severe. Said he : " For the restful pleasure which I receive in their management." I am very sure, that were there no other inducement than that of pleasure, I should be slow to part with these models of industry, whose marvelous instincts and wondrous life-habits are ever ministering to my delight and astonishment. A year ago, I received a visit from my old friend and Col- lege classmate, 0. Clute, of Keokuk, Iowa. Of course I took him to see our apiary, and as we looked at the bees and their handiwork, just as the neetar from golden-rod and asters was flooding the honey-cells ; he became enraptured, took my little " Manual of the Apiary" home with him, and at once subscribed for the old American Bee Journal. He very- soon purchased several colonies of bees, and has found so much of pleasure and recreation in the duties imposed by his new charge, that he has written me several times, expressing gratitude that I had led him into such a work of love and pleasure. PROFITS. The profits, too, of apiculture, urge its adoption as a pur- suit. When we consider the comparatively small amount of capital invested, the relatively small amount of labor and ex- pense attending its opperations, we are surprised at the abundant reward that is sure to wait upon its intelligent practice. 1 do not wish to be understood here as claiming that labor — ^yes, real hard, back-aching labor — is not required in the apiary. The specialist, with his hundred or more colo- nies, will have, at certain seasons, right hard and vigorous 14 MANUAL or THE APIARY. work; Yet this will be both pleasant and healthful, and will go hand-in-hand with thought, so that brain and muscle will work together. Yet this time of hard, physical labor will only continue for five or six months, and for the balance of the year the apiarist has or may have comparative leisure. Nor do I think that all will succeed. The fickle, careless, in- dolent, heedless man, will as surely fail in apiculture, as in any other calling. But I repeat, in the light of many years of experience, where accurate weight, measure, and counting of change has given no heed to conjecture, that there is no manual labor pursuit, where the returns are so large, when compared with the labor and expense. An intelligent apiarist may invest in bees any spring in Michigan, with the absolute certainty of more than doubling his investment the first season ; while a net gain of 400 per cent, brings no surprise to, the experienced apiarists of our State. This of course applies only to a limited number of colonies. Nor is Michigan superior to other States as a loca- tion for the apiarist. During the past season, the poorest I ever knew, our fifteen colonies of bees in the College apiary, have netted us over $200. In 1876, each colony gave a net return of $24.04, while in 1875, our bees gave a profit, above all expense, of over 400 per cent, of their entire value in the spring. Mr. Fisk Bangs, who graduated at our College one year since, purchased last spring seven colonies of bees. The proceeds of these seven colonies have more than paid all ex- penses, including first cost of bees, in honey sold, while there are now sixteen colonies, as clear gain, if we do not count the labor, and we hardly need do so, as it has in no wise interfered with the regular duties of the owner. Several farmers of our State who possess good apiaries and good improved farms, have told me that their apiaries were more profitable than all the remainder of their farms. Who will doubt the profits of apiculture in the face of friend Doolittle's experience ? He has realized $6,000, in five years, simply from the honey taken from fifty colonies. This $6,000 is in excess of all expenses except his own time. Add to this the increase of stocks, and then remember that one man can easily care for 100 colo- nies, and we have a graphic picture of apiarian profits. Bee- keeping made Adam Grrimm a wealthy man. It brought to MANtlAIi OP THE APIART. 15 Capt. Hetherington over $10,000 as the cash receipts of a single year's honey-crop. It enabled Mr. Harbison, so it is reported, to ship from his own apiary, eleven car-loads of comb-honey as the product of a single season. What greater recommendation has any pursuit ? Opportunity for money- making, even with hardships and privations, is attractive and seldom disregarded ; such opportunity with labor that brings, in itself, constant delight, is surely worthy of attention. EXCELLENCE AS AN AMATEUR PURSUIT. Again, there is no business, and I speak from experience, that serves so well as an avocation. It offers additional funds to the poorly paid, out-door air to the clerk and office-hand, healthful exercise to the person of sedentary habits, and su- perb recreation to the student or professional man, and especially to him whose life-work is of that dull, hum-drum, routine order that seems to rob life of all zest. The labor, too, required in keeping bees, can, with a little thought and management, be so planned, if but few colonies are kept, as not to infringe jipon the time demanded by the regular occu- pation. Indeed, I have never been more heartily thanked, than by such persons as named above, and that, too, because I called them to consider — which usually means to adopt — the pleasing duties of the apiary. ADAPTATION TO WOMEN. Apiculture may also bring succor to those whom society has not been over-ready to fkvor — our women. Widowed mothers, dependent girls, the weak and the feeble, all may find a blessing in the easy, pleasant, and profitable labors ot the apiary. Of course, women who lack vigor and health, can care for but very few colonies, and must have sufficient strength to bend over and lift the small-sized frames of comb when loaded with honey, and to carry empty hives. With the proper thought and management, full colonies need never be lifted, nor work done in the hot sunshine. Yet right here let me add, and emphasize the truth, that only those whq will let energetic thought and skillful plan, and above all promptitude and persistence, make up for physical weak- 16 MANUAL OP THE APIARY. ness, should enlist as apiarists. Usually a stronger body, and improved health, the results of pure air, sunshine, and exercise, will make each successive day's labor more easy, and will permit a corresponding growth in the size of the apiary for each successive season. One of the most noted apiarists, not only in America but in the world, sought in bee-keeping her lost health, and found not only health, but reputation and influence. Some ot the most successful apiarists in our country are women. Of these, many were led to adopt the pursuit because of waning health, grasping at this as the last and successful weapon with which to vanquish the, grim mon- ster. Said "Cyula Linswik" — whose excellent and beautifully written articles have so often charmed the readers of the bee publications, and who has had five years of successful experience as an apiarist — in a paper read before our Michigan Conven- tion of March, 1877: "I would gladly purchase exemption from in-door work, on washing-day, by two days' labor among the bees, and I find two hours' labor at the ironing-table more fatiguing than two hours of the severest toil the apiary can exact. * * * J repeat, that apiculture ofiers to many women not only pleasure but profit. * * * Though the care of a few colonies means only recreation, the woman who experiments in bee-keeping somewhat extensively, will find that it means, at some seasons, genuine hard work. * •* * There is risk in the business, I would not have you ignore this fact, but an experience of five years has led me to be- lieve that the risk is less than is generally supposed." Mrs. L. B. Baker, of Lansing, Michigan, who has kept bees very successfully for four, years, read an admirable paper before the same Convention, in which she said : " But I can say, having tried both," (keeping boarding-house and apiculture,) " I give bee-keeping the preference, as more profitable, health- ful, independent and enjoyable. * * * j find the labors of the apiary more endurable than working over a cook-stove in-doors, and more pleasant and conducive to health. * * * I believe that many of our delicate and invalid ladies would find renewed vigor of body and mind in the labors and recrea- tions of the apiary. * * * By beginning in the early spring, when the weather was cool and the work light, I be- came gradually accustomed to out-door labor, and by mid- MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 17 summer found myself as well able to endure the heat of the sun as my husband, who has been accustomed to it all his life. Previously, to attend an open-air picnic was to return with a head-ache. * * * My own experience in the apiary has been a source of interest and enjoyment far exceeding my anticipations." Although Mrs. Baker commenced with but two colonies of bees, her net profits the first season were over $100 ; the second year but a few cents less than $300 ; and the third year about $250. " The proof of the pudding is in the eating ;" so, too, such words as given above, show that apiculture offers special inducements to our sisters to become either amateur or professional apiarists. IMPROVES THE lUND AND THE OBSERVATION. Successful apiculture demands close and accurate* observa- tion, and hard, continuous thought and study, and this, too, in the wondrous realm of nature. In all this, the apiarist receives manifold and substantial advantages. In the culti- vation of the habit of observation, a person becomes constantly more able, useful and susceptible to pleasure, results which also follow as surely on the habit of thought and study. It is hardly conceivable that the wide-awake apiarist, who is so frequently busy witfe his wonder-working comrades of the hive, can ever be lonely, or feel time hanging heavily on his hands. The mind is occupied, and there is no chance for ennui. The whole tendency, too, of such thought and study, whete nature is the subject, is to refine -the taste, elevate the desires, and ennoble manhood. Once get our youth, with their susceptible natures, engaged in such wholesome study, and we shall have less reason to fear the vicious tendencies of the street, or the luring vices and damning influences of the saloon. Thus apiculture spreads an intellectual feast, that even the old philosophers would have coveted ; furnishes the rarest food for the observing faculties, and, best of all, by keeping its votaries face to face with the matchless creations of the A.U Father, must draw them toward Him "who went about doing good," and in " whom there was no guile." YIELDS DELICIOUS FOOD. A last inducement to apiculture, certainly not unworthy of mention, is the offerings it brings to our tables. Health, yea, 18 MANUAL OP THE APIARY. our very lives, demand that we should eat sweets. It is a truth that our sugars, and especially our commercial syrups, are so adulterated as to be often poisonous. The apiary, in . lieu of these, gives us one of the most delicious and whole- some of sweets, which has received merited praise, as food fit for the gods, from the most ancient time till the present day. To ever have within reach the beautiful, immaculate comb, or the equally grateful nectar, right from the extractor, is certainly a blessing of no mean order. We may thus supply our families and friends with a most necessary and desirable food element, and this with no cloud of fear from vile, poi- sonous adulterations. WHAT SUCCESSFUL BEB-KJEEPING REQUIEES. MENTAL EFFORT. No one should commence this business who is not willing to read, think and study. To be sure, the ignorant and un- thinking may stumble on success for a time, but sooner or later, failure will set her seal upon their ' efforts. Those of our apiarists who have studied the hardest, observed the closest, and thought the deepest, have even passed the late terrible winters with but slight loss. Of course the novice will ask, How and what shall I study ? EXPERIENCE NECESSARY. Nothing will take the place of real experience. Commence with a few colonies, even one or two is best, and make the bees your companions at every possible opportunity. Note every change, whether of the bees, their development, or work, and then by earnest thought strive to divine the cause. LEARN FROM OTHERS. Great good will also come from visiting other apiarists. Note their methods and apiarian apparatus. Strive by con- versation to gain new and valuable ideas, and gratefully adopt whatever is found, by comparison, to be an improvement upon your own past system and practice. MANUAL OF THE APIART. 19 AID FROM CONVENTIONS. Attend conventions whenever distance and means render this possible. Here you will not only be made better by social intercourse with those whose occupation and study make them sympathetic and congenial, but you will find a real conserva- tory of scientific truths, valuable hints, and improved instru- ments and methods. And the apt attention — rendered possible by your own experience — which you will give to essays, discussions and private conversations, will so enrich your mind, that you will return to your home encouraged, and able to do better work, and to achieve higher success. I have attended nearly all the meetings of the Michigan Convention, and never yet when I was not well paid for all trouble and expense by the many, often very valuable, suggestions which I received. These I would carry home, and test as com- manded by the Apostle : " Prove all things and hold fast that which is good." AID FROM BEE PUBLICATIONS. Every apiarist, too, should take and read at least one of Qie three excellent bee publications that are issued in our coun- try. It has been sugge^ed that Francis Huber's blindness was an advantage to him, as he thus had the assistance of two pairs of eyes, his wife's and servant's, instead of one. So, too, of the apiarist who reads the bee publications. He has the aid of the eyes, and the brains, too, of hundreds of intel- ligent and observing bee-keepers. Who is it that squanders his money on worse than useless patents and fixtures ? He who "cannot afford" to take a bee-journal. It would be invidious and uncalled for to recommend any one of these valuable papers to the exclusion of the others. Each has its peculiar excellences, and all who can, may well secure all of them to aid and direct their ways. AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL. This, the oldest bee publication, is not only peculiar for its age, but for the ability with which it has been managed, with scarce any exception, even from its first appearance. Samuel Wagner, its founder and long its editor, had few superiors in breadth of culture, strength of judgment, and practical and 2tO MANUAL OF THE APIART. historic knowledge of apiculture. With what pleasure we remember the elegant, really classic, diction of the editorials, the dignified bearing, and freedom from asperities which marked the old American Bee Journal as it made ii^ monthly visits fresh from the editorial supervision of Mr. Samuel Wagner. Some one has said that there is something in the very atmosphere of a scholarly gentleman, that impresses all who approach him. I have often thought, as memory reverted to the old American Bee Journal, or as I have re-read the numbers which bear the impress of Mr. Wagner's superior learning, that, though the man is gone, the stamp of his noble character and classical culture is still on these pages, aiding, instructing, elevating, all who are so fortunate as to possess the early volumes of this periodical. I am also happy to state that the American Bee Journal is again in good hands, and that its old prestige is fully restored. Mr. Newman is an experienced editor, a man of excellent judgment and ad- mirable balance, a man who demonstrates his dislike of crim- inations and recriminations by avoiding them ; who has no special inventions or pet theories to push, and is thus almost sure to be disinterested and unbiased in the advice he offers ; who lends his aid and favor to our Conventions, which do so much to spread apiarian knowledge. And when I add, that he brings to his editorial aid the most able, experienced and educated apiarists of the world, I surely have spoken high hut Just praise, of the American Bee Journal, whose enviable reputation extends even to distant lands. It is edited by Thomas G. Newman, at Chicago. GLEANINGS IN BEE CULTURE. This periodical makes up for its brief history of only five years, by the vigor and energy which has characterized it from the first. Its editor is an active apiarist, who is constantly experimenting ; a terse, able writer, and brimming-full of good nature and enthusiasm. I am free to say, that in practical apiculture I am more indebted to Mr. Root than to any other one person, except Rev. L. L. Langstroth. I also think that, with few exceptions, he has done more for the recent advance- ment of practical apiculture than any other person in our country. Yet I have often regretted that Mr. Root is so MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 21 inimical to conventions, and that he often so stoutly praises that with which he has had so brief an experience, and must consequently know so little. This trait makes it imperative that the apiarist read discriminately, and then decide for him- self. In case of an innovation, wait for Mr. Root's continued approval, else prove its value before general adoption. This sprightly little journal is edited by A. L Eoot, Medina, Ohio. bee-keeper's magazine. I have read this periodical less, and, of course know less of it than of the others. ' It is well edited, and certainly has many very able contributors. Both Mr. King and Mr. Root deal largely in their own wares, and, of course, give space to their advertisement, yet, in all my dealings with them, and I have dealt largely with Mr. Root, I have "ever found them prompt and reliable. The Magazine is edited by A. J. King, New York. BOOKS FOR THE APIARIST. Having read very many of the books treating of apiculture, both American and foreign, I can freely recommend such a course to others. Each book has peculiar excellences, and each one may be read with interest and profit. LANGSTROTH ON THE HONEY BEE. Of course, this treatise will ever remain a classic in bee- literature. I cannot over-estimate the benefits which I have received from the study of its pages. It was a high, btt de- served encomium, wluch J. Hunter, of England, in his " Manual of Bee-Keeping," paid to this work : " It is un- questionably the best bee-book in the English language." The style of this work is so admirable, the subject matter so replete with interest, and the entire book so entertaining, that it is a desirable addition to any library, and no thought- ful, studious apiarist can well be withojit it. It is especially iappy in detailing the methods of experimentation, and in showing with what caution the true scientist establishes prin- ciples or deduces conclusions. The work is wonderfully free from errors, and had the science and practice of apiculture remained stationary, there would have been little need of 22 MANUAL OF THE APIART. another work ; but as some of the most important improve- ments in apiculture are not mentioned, the book alone would be a very unsatisfactory guide to the apiarist of to-day. quinbt's mysteries ov bee-keeping. This is a plain, sensible treatise, written by one of America's most successful bee-keepers. The work has just been revised by L. C. Root, who has fully maintained its excellent charac- ter. The admirable style and eminent practicality of this work has lost nothing in the revision. Mr. Root is the son- in-law of the late Mr. Quinby, and- was fully advised of the latest views and discoveries of the great bee-keeper. To these he has added the rich results of his own experience, as well as the latest discoveries and methods of the most progress- ive apiarists. king's text-book. This is a compilation of the above works, and has recently been revised, so that it is abreast of the times. It is to be regretted that the publisher did not take more pains with his work, as the typography is very ^joor. A B C OF BEE-CULTURE. This work was issued in numbers, but is now complete. It is arranged in the convenient form of our cyclopaedias, is printed in fine style, on beautiful paper, and is well illustrated. I .need hardly say that the style is pleasing and vigorous. The subject matter is fresh, and embodies the most recent discoveries and inventions pertaining to bee-keeping. That it may be kept abreast of apiarian progress, the type is to be kept in position, so that each new discovery may be added as soon as made. foreign works. Sevan, revised by Munn, is exceedingly interesting, and shows by its able historical chapters, admirable scientific dis- quisitions, and frequent quotations and references to practical and scientific writers on bees and bee-keeping, both ancient and modern, that the writers were men of extensive reading MANUAL OF THE APIABY. 23 and great scientific ability. The book is of no practical value to us, but to the student it will be read with great interest. Next to Langstroth, I value this work most highly of any in my libraiy that treat of bees and bee-keeping, if I may ex- cept back volumes of the bee-publications. " The Apiary, or Bees, Bee-Hives and Bee Culture," by Alfred Neighbour, London, is a fresh, sprightly little work, and as the third edition has just appeared, is, of course, up with the times. The book is in nice dress, concise, and very readable, and I am- glad to commend it. A less interesting work, though by no means without merit, is the "Manual of Bee-Keeping," by John Hunter, London. This is also recent. I think these works would be received with little favor among American apiarists. They are exponents of English apiculture, which in method would seem clumsy to Americans. In fact, I think I may say that in implements and perhaps I may add methods, the English, French, Ger- mans and Italians, are behind our American apiarists, and hence their text-books and journals compare illy with ours. I believe the many intelligent foreign apiarists who have come to this country and are now honored members of our . own fraternity, will sustain this position. Foreign scientists are ahead of American, but wa glean and utilize their facts and discoveries as soon as made known. Salicylic acid is discov- ered by a German to be a remedy for foul brood, yet ten times as many American as foreign apiarists know of this and practice by the knowledge. In practical fields, on the other hand, as also in skill and delicacy of invention, we are, I think, in advance. So our apiarists have little need to -go abroad for either books or papers. PROMPTITUDE. Another absolute requirement of successful bee-keeping, is prompt attention to all its varied duties. Neglect is the rock on which many bee-keepers, especially farmers, find too often that they have wrecked their success. I have no doubt that more colonies die from starvation, than from all the bee maladies known to the bee-keeper. And why is this ? Neglect is the apicide. I feel sure that the loss each season by absconding colonies is almost incalculable, and whom must 24 MANUAL or THE APIARY: we blame ? Neglect. The loss every summer by enforced idleness of queen and workers, just because room is denied them, is very great. Who is the guilty party? Plainly, neglect. In these and in a hundred other ways, indifference to the needs of the bees, which require but a few moments, greatly lessen the profits of apiculture. If we would be suc- cessful, promptitude must be our motto. Each colony of bees requires but very little care and attention. Our every inter- est demands that this be not denied, nor even granted grudg- ingly. The very fact that this attention- is slight, renders it more liable to he neglected ; but this neglect always involves loss — often disaster. ENTHUSIASM. Enthusiasm, or an ardent love of its duties is very desira- ble, if not an absolute requisite, to successful apiculture. To be sure, this is a quality whose growth, with even slight op- portunity, is almost sure. It only demands perseverance. The beginner, without either experience or knowledge, may meet with discouragements — unquestionably will. Swarms will be lost, colonies will fail to winter, the young apiarist will become nervous, which fact will be noted by the bees with great disfavor, and if opportunity permits, will meet re- proof more sharp than pleasant. Yet, with persistence, all these difficulties quickly vanish. Every contingency will be foreseen and provided against, and the myriad of little workers will become as manageable and may be fondled as safely as a pet dog or cat, and the apiarist will minister to their needs with the same fearlessness and self-possession that he does to his gentlest cow or favorite horse. Persistence in the face of all those discouragements which are so sure to confront inexperience, will surely triumph. In-sooth, he who ap- preciates the beautiful and marvelous, will soon grow to love his companions of the hive, and the labor attendant upon their care and management. Nor will this love abate till it has kindled into enthusiasm. True, there may be successful apiarists who are impelled by no warmth of feeling, whose superior intelligence, sys- tem and promptitude, stand in lieu of and make amends for absence of enthusiasm. Yet I believe such are rare, and certainly they work at great disadvantage. NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HONEY BEE. NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HONEY-BEE. CHAPTER I. THE BEE'S PLACE IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. It is estimated by Heer and otter eminent naturalists, that there are more than 250,000 species of living animals. It will be both interesting and profitable to look in upon this vast host, that we may know the position and relationship of the bee to all this mighty concourse of life. BRANCH 0¥ THE HONEY-BEE. Tlie gre3,t French naturalist, Cuvier, a friend of Napoleon I., grouped all animals which exhibit a ring structure into one branch, appropriately named Articulates, as this term indi- cates the jointed or articulated structure which so obviously characterizes most of the members of this group. The terms joint and articulation, as used here, have a tech- nical meaning. They refer not only to the hinge or place of union of two parts, but also to the parts themselves. Thus, the parts of an insect's legs, as well as the surfaces of union, are styled joints or articulations. All apiarists who have examined carefully the structure of a bee, will at once pro-, nounce it an Articulate. Not only is its body, even from head to sting, composed of joints, but by close inspection we find the legs, the antennae, and even the mouth-parts, like- wise, jointed. In this branch, too, we place the Crustacea — ^which includes the rolipking cray-fish or lobster, so indifferent as to whether he moves forward, backward or sidewise, the shorter crab, the sow-bug, lively and plump, even in its dark, damp home under old boards, etc., and the barnacles, which fasten to the bot- tom of ships, so that vessels are often freighted with life within and without. The worms, too, are Articulates, though in some of these, as the leech, the joints are very obscure. The bee, then, which gives us food, is related to the dreaded tape-worm with its hundred of joints, which, mayhaps, robs us of the same 28 MANUAL OP THE APIART. food after we have eaten it, and the tetrible pork-worm or trichina, which may_consume the very muscles we have de- veloped in caring for our pets of the apiary. The body-rings of Articulates form a skeleton, firm as in the bee and lobster, or more or less soft as in the worms. This skeleton, unlike that of Vertebrates or back-bone ani- mals, to which we belong, is outside, and thus serves to pro- tect the inner, softer parts, as well as to give them attach- ment, and to give strength and solidity to the animal. This ring-structure, so beautifully marked in our golden- banded Italians, usually makes it easy to separate, at sight, animals of this branch from the Vertebrates, with their usually bony skeleton ; from the less active Molluscan branch, with their soft, sack-like bodies, familiar to us in the snail, the clam, the oyster, and the wonderful cuttle-fish — the devil-fish of Victor Hugo — with its long, clammy arms, strange ink- bag, and often prodigious size ; from the Radiate branch, with its elegant star-fish, delicate but gaudy jelly fish, and coral animals, the tiny architects of islands and even continents ; and from the lowest, simplest. Protozoan branch, which in- cludes animals so minute that we owe our very knowledge of them to the microscope, so simple that they have been regarded as the apron-strings which tie plants to animals. THE CLASS OP THE HONEY-BEE. Our subject belongs to the class Insecta, which is mainly characterized by breathing air usually through a very compli- cated system of air-tubes. These tubes (Fig. 1), which are con- FiG. 1. A Trachea, magnified. stantly branching, and almost infinite in number, are very peculiar in their structure. They are formed of a spiral MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 29 thread, and thus resemble a hollow cylinder formed by closely winding a fine wire spirally about a pipe-stem, so as to cover it, and then withdrawing the latter, leaving the wire un- moved. Nothing is more surprising and interesting, than this labyrinth of beautiful tubes, as seen in dissecting a bee under the microscope. I have frequently detected myself taking long pauses, in making dissections of the honey-bee, as my attention would be fixed in admiration of this beautiful breathing apparatus. In the bee these tubes expand into large Fig. 2. Bespiratory Apparatus of Bee, magnified. — After Duncan. luQg-like sacks (Fig. 2,/), one each side of the body. Doubtless some of my readers have associated the quick movements and surprising activity of birds and most mammals with their 30 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. well-developed lungs, so, too, in such animals as the bees, we see the relation between this intricate system of air-tubes — their lungs — and the quick, busy life which has been proverb- ial of them since the earliest time. The class Insecta also includes the spiders, scorpions, with their caudal sting so venomous, and mites, which have in lieu of the tubes, lung- like sacks, and the myriapods, or thousand-legged worms — those dreadful creatures, whose bite, in case of the tropical centipeds or flat species, have a well-earned reputation of being poisonous and^ieadly. The class Insecta does not include the water-breathing Crustacea, with their branchiae or gills, nor the worms, which have no lungs or gills but their skin, if we except some ma- rine forms, which havq simple dermal appendages, which answer to branchiae. ORDER OP THE HONEY-BEE. The honey-bee belongs to the order Hexapods, or true In- sects. The first term is appropriate, as all have in the imago or last stage, six legs. Nor is the second term less applica- ble, as the word insect comes from the Latin and means to cut in, and in no other articulates does the ring structure ap- pear so marked upon merely a superficial examination. More than this, the true insects when fully developed have, unlike all other articulates, three well-marked divisions of the body (Fig. 2), namely : the head (Pig. 2, a), which contains the antennae (Fig. 2, d), the horn-like appendages common to all insects ; eyes (Fig. 2, e) and mouth organs ; the thorax (Fig. 2, b), which bears the legs (Fig. 2, g), and wings, when they are present ; and lastly, the abdomen (Fig. 2, c), -which, though usually memberless, contains the ovipositor, and when present, the sting. Insects, too, undergo a more striking metamorphosis than do most animals. When first hatched they are worm-like and called larvae (Fig. 12), which means masked ; afterward they are frequently quiescent, and would *hardly be supposed to be animals at all. They are then known as pupae, or as in case of bees as nymphs (Fig. 13). At last there comes iorth the imago with compound eyes, an- tennae and wings. In some insects the transformations are said^ to be incomplete, that is the larva, pupa and imago differ MANUAL OF THE APrARY. 31 little except in size, and that the latter possesses wings. We see in our bugs, lice, locusts and grasshoppers, illustrations of insects with incomplete transformations. In such cases there is a marked resemblance from the egg to the adult. As will be seen by the above description the spiders, which have only two divisions to their bodies, only simple eyes, no antennae, eight legs, and no transformations (if we except the partial transformations of the mites), as also the myriapods, which have no marked divisions of the body, and no com- pound eyes — which are always present in the mature insect — many legs and no transformations, do not belong to the, order Insects. SUB-ORDER OF THE HONEY BEE. The honey bee belongs to the sub-order Hymenoptera (from two Greek words meaning membrane and wings), which also includes the wasps, ants, ichneumon-flies and saw-flies. This group contains insects which possess a tongue by which they may suck (Fig. 20, a), and strong jaws (Fig. 21) for biting. Thus the bees can sip the honeyed sweets of flowers, and also gnaw away mutilated comb. They have, besides, four wings, and undergo complete tranformations. There are among insects strange resemblances. Insects of one sub-order will show a marked likeness to those of another. This is known as mimicry, and sometimes is wonderfully striking between very distant groups. Darwin and Wallace suppose it is a developed peculiarity, not always possessed by the species, and comes through the laws of va,riation, and nat- ural selection to serve the purpose of protection. Now, right here we have a fine illustration of this mimicry. Just the other day I received through Mr. A. I. Root, an insect which he and the person sending it to him supposed to be a bee, and desired to know whether it was a mal-formed honey-bee or some other species. Now, this insect, though looking in a general way much like a bee, had only two wings, had no jaws, while its antennae were closer together in front and mere stubs. In fact, it was no bee at all, but belonged to the sub-6rder Diptera, or two-wingjies. I have received several similar insects, with like inquiries. Among Diptera there are several families, as the (Estridse or bot-flies, the Syrphidae — 32 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. a very useful family, as the Jarvse or maggots live on plant- lice — ^whose members are often seen sipping sweets from flowers, or trying to rob honey and other bees — the one re- ferred to above belonged to this family — and the Bombyliidae, which in color, form and hairy covering are strikingly like wild and domesticated bees. The maggots of these feed on the larvae of various of our wild bees, and of course the mother fly must steal into the nests of the latter to lay her eggs. So in these cases, there is seeming evidence that the mimicry may serve to protect these fly-tramps, as they steal in to pilfer the coveted sweets or lay the fatal eggs. Possi- bly, too, they may have a protective scent, as I have seen them enter a hive in safety, though a bumble-bee essaying to do the same, found the way barricaded with myriad cimeters each with a poisoned tip. Some authors have placed Coleoptera or beetles as the high- est of insects, others claim for Lepidoptera or butterflies and moths a first place, while others, and with the best of rea- sons, claim for Hymenoptera the highest position. The moth is admired for the glory of its coloring and elegance of its form, the beetle for the luster and brilliancy of its elytra or wing- covers ; but these insects only revel in nature's wealth, and live and die without labor or purpose. Hymenoptera usually less gaudy, generally quite plain and unattractive in color, are yet the most highly endowed among insects. They live with a purpose in view, and are the best models of industry to be found among animals. Our bees practice a division of labor ; the ants a,re still better political economists, as they have a specially endowed class in the community who are the sol- diers, and thus are the defenders of each ant-kingdom. Ants also conquer other communities, take their inhabitants cap- tive and reduce them to abject slavery — requiring them to perform a large portion, and sometimes the whole labor of the community. Ants tunnel streams, and in the tropics some leaf-eating species have been observed to show no mean order of intelligence, as some ascend trees to cut off the leafy twigs, while others remain below, and carry these branches through their tunnels to their under-ground homes. The parasitic Hymenoptera, are so called because they lay their eggs in other insects, that their offspring may have MANUAL OF THE APIABY. 33 fresh meat not only at birth, but so long as they need food, as the insect fed upon generally lives till the young parasite, which is working to disembowel it, is full-grown. Thus this steak is ever fresh as life itself. These parasitic insects show wondrous intelligence, or sense development, in discovering this prey. I have caught ichneumon-flies — a family of these parasites — boring through an eighth or quarter-inch of solid beech or maple wood, and upon examination I found the pros- pective victim further on in direct line with the insect auger, which was to intrude the fatal egg. I have also watched ich- neumon-flies depositing eggs in leaf-rolling caterpillars, so sur- rounded with tough hickory leaves that the fly had to pierce several thicknesses to place the egg in its snugly-ensconced victim. Upon putting these leaf-rolling caterpillars in a box, I reared, of course, the ichneumon-fly and not the moth. And is it instinct or reason that enables these flies to gauge the number of their eggs to the size of the larva which is to re- ceive them, so that there may be no danger of famine and starvation, for true it is that while small caterpillars will re- ceive but one egg, large ones may receive several. How strange, too, the habits of tfee saw-fly, with its wondrous in- struments more perfect than any saws of human workman- ship, and the gall-flies, whose poisonous sting as they fasten their eggs to the oak, willow or other leaves, causes the ab- normal growth of food for the still unhatehed young. The providing and caring for their young, which are at first help- less, is peculiar among insects, with slight exception, to the Hymenoptera, and among all animals is considered a mark of high rank. Such marvels of instinct, if we may not call it intelligence, such acumen of sense perception, such habits — that must go hand-in-hand with the most harmonious of communities known among animals, of whatever branch — all these, no less than the compact structure,, small size and specialized organs of nicest finish, more than warrant that grand trio of American naturalists, Agassiz, Dana and Pack- ard, in placing Hymenoptera as first in rank among insects. As we shall detail the structure and habits of the highest of the high — the bees — in the following pages, I am sure noone will think to degrade the rank of these wonders of the ani- mal kingdom. 34 MANUAL OF THE APIART. FAMILY OP THE HONEY-BEE. The honey-bee belongs to the family Apidse, of Leach, ■which includes not only the hive bee, but all insects which feed their helpless young, or larvje, entirely on pollen, or honey and pollen. The insects of this family have broad heads, elbowed anten- nae (Fig. 2, d) which are usually thirteen-jointed in the males, and only twelve-jointed in the females. The jaws or mandi- bles (Fig. 21) are very strong, and often toothed ; the tongue or ligula (Pig. 20, a), as also the second jaws or maxillae (Fig. 20, c), one each side the tongue, are long, though in some cas^s much shorter than in others, and frequently the tongue when not in use is folded back, once or more, under the head. All the insects of this family have a stiff spine on all four of the anterior legs, at the end of the tibia, or the third joint from the body, called the tibial spur, and all, ex- cept the genus Apis, which includes the honey-bee, in which the posterior legs have no tibial spurs, have two tibial spurs on the posterior legs. All of this family except one parasitic genus, have the first joint or^arsus of the posterior foot, much widened, and this together with the broad tibia (Fig. 2, h) is hollowed out (Fig. 22, p), forming quite a basin or basket on the outer side, in nearly all the species ; and gen- erally, thi? basket is made deeper by a rim of stiff hairs. These receptacles or pollen baskets are only found of course on such individuals of each community as gather pollen. A few of the ApidjB — thieves by nature — cuckoo-like, steal un- bidden into the nests of others, usually bumble-bees, and here lay their eggs. As their young are fed and fostered by another, they gather no pollen, and hence like drone bees need not, and have not pollen baskets. The young of these lazy tramps, starve out the real insect babies of these homes, by eating their food, and in some cases, it is said, being una- ble like the young cuckoos to hurl these rightful children from the nest, they show an equal if not greater depravity by eating them, not waiting for starvation to get them out of the way. These parasites illustrate mimicry, already described, as they look so like the foster mothers of their own young, that unscientific eyes would often fail to distinguish them. MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 35 Probably the bumble-bees are no sharper, or they would re- fuse ingress to these merciless vagrants. The larvae (Fig. 12) of all insects of this family are maggot-like — wrinkled, footless, tapering at both ends, and, as before stated, feed upon pollen and honey. They are helpless, and thus, all during their babyhood — the larvae state — the time when all insects are most ravenous, and the only time when many insects take food, the time when all growth in size, except such enlargement as is required by egg-development, occurs, these infant bees have to be fed by their mothers or elder sisters. They have a mouth with soft lips, and weak jaws, yet it is doubtful if all or much'of their food is taken in at this opening. There is some reason to believe that they, like many maggots — such as the Hessian-fly larvae — absorb much of their food' through the body walls. From the mouth leads the intestine, which has no anal opening. So there are no ex- creta other than gas and vapor. What commendation for their food, all capable of nourishment, and thus all as- similated. To this family belongs the genus of stingless bees, Melipo- na, of Mexico and South America, which store honey not only in the hexagonal brood-cells, but in great wax reservoirs. They, like the unkept hive-bee, build in hollow logs. They are exceedingly numerous in each colony, and it has thus been thought that there were more than one queen. They are also very prodigal of wax, and thus may possess a pros- pective commercial importance in these days of artificial comb-foundation. In this genus the basal joint of the tarsus is triangular, and they have two submarginal cells, not three, to the front wings. They are also smaller than our common bees, and have wings that do not reach to the tip of their abdomens. Another genus of stingless. bees, the genus Trigona, have the wings longer than the abdomens, and their jaws toothed. These, unlike the Melipona, are not confined to the New World, but are met in Africa, India and Australasia. These build ^eir combs in taU trees, fastening them to the branches much as does the Apis dorsata, soon to be mentioned. '. Of course insects of the genus Bombus — our common bumble-bees — ^belong to this family. Here the tongue is very 36 MANUAL OF THE APIART. long, the bee large, the sting curved, with the barbs very- short and few. Only the queen survives the winter. In spring she forms her nest under some sod or board, hollowing out a basin in the earth, and after storing a mass of bee- bread — probably a mixture of honey and pollen— she deposits several eggs in the mass. The larvae so soon as hatched out, eat out thimble-shaped spaces, which in time become even larger, and not uiflike in form the queen-cells of our hive-bees. When the bees issue from these cells the same are strength- ened by wax. Later in the season these coarse wax cells be- come very numerous. Some may be made as cells and not termed as above. The wax is dark, and doubtless contains much pol- len, as do the cappings and queen-cells of the honey-bees. At first the bees are all workers, later queens appear, and still later males. All, or nearly all, entomologists speak of two sizes of queen bumble-bees, the large and the small. The small appear early in the season, and the large late. A student of our College, Mr. N. P. Graham, who last year had a c.olony of bumble-bees in his room the whole season, thinks this an error. H^believes that the individuals of the Bombus nest exactly correspond with those of the Apis. The queens, like those of bees, are smaller before mating and active laying. May not this be another case like that of the two kinds of worker-bees which deceived even Huber, an error •onsequent upon lack of careful and prolonged observation ? In Xylocopa or the carpenter-bees, which much resemble the bumble-bees, we have a fine example of a boring insect. With its strong mandibles or jaws it cuts long tunnels, often one or two feet long in the hardest wood. These burrows are divided by chip partitions into cells, and in each cell is left the bee-bread and an egg. The mason-bee — well named — constructs cells of earth and gravel, which by ^id of its spittle it has power to cement, so that they are harder than brick. The tailor or leaf-cutting bees, of the genus Megachile, make wonderful cells from variously shaped pieces of leaves. These are always mathematical in form, usually circular and oblong, and are cut — ^by the insect's making scissor^ of its jaws — from various leaves, the rose being a favorite. I have found these cells made almost wholly of the petals or flower MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 37 leaves of the rose. The cells are made by gluing these leaf- sections in concentric layers, letting them over-lap. The ob- long sections form the walls of the cylinder, while the circular pieces are crowded as we press circular wads into our shot- guns, and are used at the ends or for partitions where several cells are placed together. When complete, the single cells axe in form and size much like a revolver cartridge. When several are placed together, which is usually the case, they are arranged end to end, and in size and form are quite like a small stick of candy, though not more than one-third as long. These cells I have found in the grass, partially buried in the earth, in crevices, and in one case knew of their being built in the folds of a partially-knit sock, which a good house-wife had chanced to leave stationary for some days. These leaf- cutters have rows of hairs underneath, with which they carry pollen. I have noticed them each summer for some years swarming on the Virginia creeper, often called woodbine, while in blossom, in quest of pollen, though I never saw a single hive-bee on these vines. The tailor-bees often cut the foliage of the same vines quite badly. I have often reared beautiful bees of the genus Osmia, which are also called mason-bees. Their glistening colors of blue and green possess a luster and reflection unsurpassed even by the metals themselves. These rear their young in cells of mud, in mud-cells lining hollow weeds and shrubsj- and in burrwws which they dig in the hard earth. In early summer, during warm days, these glistening gems of life are frequently seen in walks and drives intent on gathering earth for mortar, or digging holes, and will hardly escape identifica- tion by the observing apiarist, as their form is so much like that of our honey-bees. They are smaller ; yet their broad head, prominent eyes, and general form, are very like those of the equally quick and active, yet more soberly attired, work- ers of the apiary. Other bees — the numerous species of the genus Nomada, and of Apathus, are the black sheep in the family Apidae. These tramps, already referred to, like the English cuckoo and our American cow-blackbird, 'steal in upon the unwary, and, though all unbidden, lay their eggs ; in this way appro- priating food and lodgings for their own yet unborn. Thus 38 MANUAL OF THE APIART. these insect vagabonds impose upon the unsuspecting foster- mothers in these violated homes. And these same foster- mothers show by their tender care of these merciless intru- ders, that they are miserably fooled, for they carefully guard and feed infant bees, which with age will in turn practice this same nefarious trickery. I reluctantly withhold further particulars of this wonderful bee family. When first I visited Messrs. Townley and Davis, of this State, I was struck with the fine collection of wild bees which each had made. Yet, unknowingly, they had in- corporated many that were not bees. Of course, many apiarists will wish to make such collections and also to study our wild bees. I hope the above will prove efficient aid. I hope, too, that it will stimulate others, especially youth, to the val- uable and intensely interesting study of these wonders of na- ture. I am glad, too, to open to the reader a page from the book of nature so replete with attractions as is the above. Nor do I think I have taken too much space in revealing the strange and marvelous instincts, and wonderfully varied hab- its, of this highest of insect families, at the head of which stand our own fellow-laborers and companions of the apiary. THE GENUS OP THE HONEY-BEE. The genus Apis includes all bees that have no tibial spurs on the posterior legs. They have three cubital or sub-costal cells (1, 2, 3, Fig. 3) — the second row from the costdl or anterior Fig. 3. A.—Araerwr Wing of a Bee. 1, 2, 3.— Sub-costal or Cubital Cells. B.— Secondary or Posterior Wing, a hooks to attach to Primary Wing. edge — on the front or primary wings. On the inner side of the posterior basal tarsus, opposite the pollen baskets, in the neu- ters or workers, are rows of hairs (Pig. 23) which are proba- bly used in collecting pollen. In the males, which do no MANUAL OF THE APlART. 39 work except to fertilize the queens, the large compound eyes meet above, crowding the three simple eyes below (Fig. 4), Fig. 4. Head of Drone, magnified. Antennm. Com/pownA Eyes, Simple Eyes. while in the workers (Fig. 5) and queens these simple eyes, called ocelli (Fig. 5), are above, and the compound Fig. 5. Head of Worker, magnified. AntentuE. Compound Eyes. Simple Eyes. eyes (Fig. 5) wide apart. The queens and drones have weak jaws, with a rudimentary tooth (Fig. 21, b), short tongues, and no pollen baskets, though they have the broad tibia and wide basal tarsus (Fig. 16, p). There is some doubt as to the number of species of this genus, it is certain that the Apis Ligustica of Spinola, or 40 MANUAL OP THE APIAEY. Italian bee, the Apis fascial a of Latreille, or Egyptian bee, are only varieties of the Apis mellifica, which also includes the German or black bee. Mr. F. Smith, an able entomologist, considers Apis dorsata of India and the East Indies, Apis zonata of the same islands, Apis Indica of India and China, and Apis florea of India, Ceylon, China and Borneo, as distinct species. He thinks, also, that Apis Adansoni and Apis nigrocincta are distinct, but thinks they may be varieties of Apis Indica. Some regard. Apis unicolor as a distinct specie^ but it is probably a variety of Apis dorsata. As Apis mellifica has not been found in India, and is a native of Europe, Western Asia and Africa, it seems quite probable that several of the "above may turn out to be only varieties of Apis mellifica. If there are only color and size to distinguish them, and, indeed, one may add habits, then we may suspect, with i good reason, the validity of the above arrangement. If there is structural difierence, as Mr. Wallace says there is, in the male dorsata, then we may call them different species. The Italian certainly has a longer tongue than the German, yet that is not sufficient to separate them as species. Apis zonata and Apis unicolor, both of the East Indies are said to be very black. Apis dorsata is large, suspends its combs to the branches of trees — in rare cases our own bees have been known to do the same — is said to be cross, to have a very long tongue, to be larger than our common bee, and to make larger cells.* Apis florea is small, only half as large as Apis mellifica, of different form, while the posterior tarsus of the male is lobed. It would be very -interesting, and perhaps profitable, to im- port these various species, and see how marked is the differ- ence between them and ours. Such work can be best abcom- plished through our National Association. Very likely, as we come to know these far-off bees as we know the German and Italian, we shall find that their amiability, size, habits of comb-building, >nd lengthened organs, are only peculiarities developed by climate and surrounding conditions, and shall sweep them all into the one species. Apis mellifica, to be re- garded as we now regard the Italian and Egyptian, as only varieties. It seems strange that the genus Apis should not have been *A8 Mr. Frank Benton Is now en route to Import these bees Into America, we shaU soon know of their peculiarities, and can better Judge of their merits. MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 41 native to the American continent. Without douht there were no bees of this genus here till introduced by the Caucasian race. It seems more strange, as we find that all the conti- nents and islands of the Eastern hemisphere abound with representatives. It is one more illustration of the strange, inextricable puzzles connected with geographical distribution of animals. SPECIES OF OUR HONEY-BEES. The bees at present domesticated unquestionably belong to the Apis mellifica. The character of this species will appear in the next chapter, as we proceed with their anatomy and physiology. As before stated, this species is native exclu- sively to the Eastern hemisphere, though it has been intro- duaed wherever civilized man has taken up his abode. VARIETIES OF THE HONEY-BEE. GERMAN OR BLACK BE£. The German or black bee is the variety best known, as through all the ages it has been most widely distributed. The name German refers to locality, while the name black is a misnomer, as the bee is a gray-black. The queen, and in a less degree the drones, are darker, while the legs and under surface of the former are brown, or copper color, and of the latter light-gray. The tongue of the black worker I have found, by repeated dissections and comparisons made both by myself and by my pupils, is shorter than- that of the Italian worker, and generally less hairy. The black bees have been known no longer than the Italians, as we find the latter were known both to Aristotle, the fourth century B. C, and to Virgil, the great Roman poet, who sung of the variegated golden bee, the first century B. C. ; and we can only account for the wider distribution of the German bee by considering the more vig- orous pushing habits of the Germanic races, who not only over-ran and infused life into Southern Europe, but have vitalized all Christendom. LIOTTRIAN OB ITALIAN BEE. ' The Italian bee (see frontis-piece) is characterized as a variety, not only by difference of color, habits, and activity, but also by possessing a little longer tongue. These bees were first described as distinct from the German race by Spinbla, in 42 MANUAL OF THE APIART. 1805, who gave the name Ligurian bee, which name prevails in Europe. The name comes from a province of Northern Italy, north of the Ligurian G-ulf, or Gulf of Genoa. This region is shut off from Northern Europe by the Alps, and thus these bees were kept apart from the German bees, and in warmer, more genial Italy, was developed a distinct race, our beautifuV Italians. In 1843, Von Baldenstein procured a colony of these bees, which he had previously observed as peculiar, while stationed as a military captain in Italy. He published his experience in 1848,'which was read by Dzierzon, who became inter- ested, and through him the Italian became generally intro- duced into Germany. In 1859, six years after Dzierzon's first importation, the Italian variety was introduced into England by Neighbour, the author of the valuable treatise already- re- ferred to. The same year, Messrs Wagner and Colvin imported the Italians from Dzierzon's apiary into America ; and in 1860, Mr. S. P. Parsons brought the first colonies that were imported direct from Italy. The Italian worker (see frontis-piece) is quickly distin- guished by the bright-yellow rings at the base of the abdo- men. If the colony is pure, every bee will show three of these golden girdles. The two first segments or rings of the abdomen, except at their posterior border, and also the base or anterior border of the third, will be of this orange-yellow hue. The rest of the back or dorsal surface will be much as in the German race. Underneath, the abdomen, except for a greater or less distance at the tip, will also be yellow, while the same color appears more or Jess strongly marked on the legs. The workers, too, have longer ligulse or tongues (Fig. 20) than do the German race, and their tongues are also a little more hairy. They are also more active, and less inclined to sting. The queen has the entire base of her abdomen, and sometimes nearly the whole of it, orange yellow. The variation as to amount of color in the queens, is quite striking. Sometimes very dark queens are imported right from the Ligurian hills, yet all the workers will wear the badge of purity — the three golden bands. The drones, too, are quite variable. Sometimes the' rings and patches of yellow will be very prominent, then, again. MANUAL OF THE APIAllY. 43 quite indistinct. But the under side of the body is always, so far as I have observed, mainly yellow. THE SYRIAN AND CYERIAN RACES. Through the enterprise of Messrs. D. A. Jones and Frank Benton, we now have these races in our country, and have proved the truth of the assertion of noted European apiar- ists, that the Cyprian is a superior race of bees.* OTHER RACES. The Egyptian bees are very yellow, intensely cross, and frequently have fertile workers. These are probably the bees which are famous in history, as having been moved up and down the Nile, in rude boats or rafts, as the varying periods of nectar-secreting bloom seemed to demand. The heath bees of Northern Germany are much like the common Glerman bees, of which they are a variety, except they are far more inclined to swarm.f * Mr. Benton, who has given this subject much attention, thinks the Cyprian bees are the ofifepring of the Syrian, and from the similarity of the woriter bees of the two races, as weJl as the fact that migrations of all kinds have gone west- ward, Instead of eastward ; this view is very probably correct. A similar argu- ment would make it presumable that these Cyprians gave rise to the Italians. But from the long separation of the three races, they have - become distinct and well marked. The Syrian queens are very uniform. Their abdomens are beautifully banded with yellow and black. They are very quick and remarkably prolific. The work- ers closely resemble those of the Italian race, except they are more yellow be- neath. From their active habits, the admirable way tbat they defend their hives against robbers, and the remarkable fecundity of the queens, we can but con- clude that this race will prove a valuable acquisition to our apiaries. The Cyprians are even more like the Italians in appearance. The queens are much like those of the Italian race, while the workers have theyellow venters of the Syrians. Mr. Benton finds that all the praise given these bees by such disinterested observers as Mr. Cori, is well merited. Both the Syrians and the Cyprians are gentle and pleasant to handle. In this respect they are nearly equal to the very gentle Italians. fThe Carniolan bees of South-western Austria are like the heath variety, but are specially noted for their very gentle dispositions. Some European bee-keep- ers claim that this race or variety is much superior to the common race of bees. The Hungarian bees are longer than the typical German race, and are covered with gray hairs. During the poor season of 1875 in Europe, these bees, like the Camiolans, were found superior even to the Italians. The beautiful Dalniatian bees are slim, wasp-like and very black. The rings of their abdomens are banded with lightish-yellow. Their honey is even m.ore white and beautiful than that of the German race. Some of the best European bee-keepers claim that they are superior to the Italian bees. Akin to the Dalmatian bees are the Herzegovinian variety, which come from the mountainous region of European Turkey border- ing on the Adriatic Sea. A better marked variety— the Smyrnian bees— from Western Asia, are also much praised by some of the noted Austrian bee-keep- ers, as are also the Caucasian, from the Caucasus Mountains, which are said to be very active and very amiable. It is quite likely that some of these varieties might be found to endure our severe winters better than the pure German type or the Italians. 44 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. BIBLIOGRAPHY. It would be a pleasing duty, and not an unprofitable one, to give in this connection a complete history of entomology so far as it relates to Apis mellifica. Yet, this would take much space, and as there is quite a full history in books that I shall recommend to those who are eager to know more of this interesting department of natural history, I will not go into details. Aristotle wrote of bees more than three hundred years B. C. About three hundred years later, Virgil, in his fourth Georgia, gave to the world the views then extant on this sub- ject, gathered largely from the writings of Aristotle. The poetry will ever be remarkable for its beauty and elegance — would that as much could be said for the subject matter, which, though full of interest, is also full of errors. A little later Columella, though usually careful and accurate in his observations, still gave voice to the prevailing errors, though much that he wrote was valuable, and more was curious. Pliny, the Elder, who wrote in the first century A. D., helped to continue the erroneous opinions which previous authors had given, and not content with this, he added opinions of his own, which were not only without foundation, but were often the perfection of -absurdity. After this, nearly two thousand years passed with no pro- gress in natural history; even for two centuries after the revival of learning, we find nothing worthy of note. Swammerdam, a Dutch entomologist, in the middle of the 17th century, wrote a general history of insects, also, " The Natural History of Bees." He and his English cotemporary, Ray, showed their ability as naturalists by founding their systems on the insect transformations. They also revived the study .and practice of anatomy, which had slept since its first introduc- tion by Aristotle, as the great stepping-stone in zoological progress. Ray also gave special attention to Hymenoptera, and was much aided by Willoughby and Lister. At this time Harvey, so justly noted for his discovery of the circulation of the blood, announced his celebrated dictum, "Omnia ex ovo," — all life from eggs — which was completely established by the noted Italians, Redi and Malpighi. Toward the middle MANUAL or THE APIARY. 45 of the 18th century, the great Linnaeus — " the brilliant Star of the North" — published his " System Naturae," and threw a flood of light on the whole subject of natural history. His division of insects was founded upon presence, or absence, and characteristics, of wings. This, like Swammerdam's basis, was too narrow, yet his conclusions were remarkably correct. Linnaeus is noted for his accurate descriptions, and especially for his gift of the binomial method of naming plants and animals, giving in the name the genus and species, as. Apis mellifica. He was also the first to introduce classes and orders, as we now understand them. When yte consider the amount and character of the work of the great Swede, we can but place him among the first, if not as. the first, of naturalists. Cotemporary with Linnaeus (also written Linn6) was Gebfiroy, who did valuable work in defining new genera. In the last half of the century appeared the great work of a master in entomology, DeGreer,'who based Ms arrangement of insects on the character of wings and jaws, and thus discovered another of nature's keys to aid him in unlocking her myster- ies. Kirby well says ; " He united in himself the highest merit of almost every department of entomology." As a scientist, an anatomist, a physiologist, and as the observant his- torian of the habits and economy of insects, he is above all praise. What a spring of self-improvement, enjoyment and of public usefulness, is such an ability to observe, as was pos- sessed by the great DeGeer. Contemporary with Linnaeus and DeGeer was Eeaumur, of France, whose experiments and researches are of special in- terest to apiarists. Perhaps no entomologist has done more to reveal the natural history of bees. Especially to be com- mended are his method of experimenting, his patience in in- vestigation, the elegance and felicity of his word pictures, and, above all, his devotion to truth. We shall have occasion to speak of this conscientious and indefatigable worker in the great shop of insect-life frequently in the following pages. Bonnet, of Geneva, the able coiTespondent of Eeaumur, also did vajuable work, in which the lover of bees has a special interest. Bonnet is specially noted for his discovery and elucidation of parthenogenesis — that anomalous mode of re- production — as it occurs among the Aphides or plant-lice, 46 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. though he did not discover that our bees, in the production of drones, illustrate tie same doctrine. Though the author of no system, he gave much aid to R&umur in his systematic labors. At this same period systematic entomology received great aid from Lyonnet's valuable work. This author dissected and explained the development of a caterpillar. His descrip- tions and illustrations are wonderful, and will proclaim his ability as long as entomology is studied, and they, to quote Bonnet, " demonstrate the existence of Grod." We have next to speak of the great Dane, Fabricius — a student of Linnaeus — who published his works from 1775 to 1798, and thus was revolutionizing systematic entomology at the same time that we of America were revolutionizipg gov- ernment. He made the mouth organs the basis of his classi- fication, and thus followed in the path which DeGeer had marked out, though it was scarcely beaten by the latter ; while Fabricious left it wide and deep. His classes and or- ders are no improvement on, in fact, arc not nearly as correct, as were his old master's. In his description of genera — where he pretended to follow nature — he has rendered valuable service In leading scientists to study parts, before little re- garded, and thus to better establish affinities, he did a most valuable work. His work is a. standard, and should be thor- oughly studied by all entomologists. Just at the close of the last century, appeared the great- est " Roman of them all," the great Latreille, of France, whose name we have so frequently used in the classification of the honey-bee. His is called the Elective System, as he used wings, mouth-parts, transformations, in fact, all the or- gans — the entire structure. He gave us our Family Apidae, our genus Apis, and, as will be remembered, he described several of the species of this genus. In our study of this great man's work, we constantly marvel at his extensive researches and. remarkable talents. Lamark, of this time, ex- cept that he could see no God in nature, did very admirable work. So, too, did Cuvier, of Napoleon's time, and the learned Dr. Leach, of England. Since then we have had hosts of workers in this field, and many worthy of not only mention but praise ; yet the work has been to rub up and garnish. MA>njAL OF THE APIARY. 47 rather than to create. So I will close this brief history ■with a notice of authors who are very serviceable to such as may desire to glean farther of the treasures of systematic ento- mology ; only remarking that at the end of the next chapter I shall refer to those who have been particularly serviceable in developing the anatomy and physiology of insects, especially of bees. VALUABLE BOOKS FOR THE STUDENT OF ENTOMOLOGY. For mere classification, no work is equal to Westwood on Insects — two volumes. In this the descriptions and illustra- tions are very full and perfect, making it easy to study the families, and even genera, .of all the sub-orders. This work and the following are out of print, but can be got with little trouble at second-hand book-stores. Kirby and Spence — Introduction to Entomology — is, a very complete work. It treats of the classification, structure, habits, general economy of insects, and gives a history of the subject. It is an invaluable work, and a great acquisition to any library. Dr. Packard's Guide to the Study of insects is a valuable work, and being American,'is specially to be recommended. The Reports of Dr. T. Harris, Dr. A. Fitch, and of Prof. C. V. Riley, will also be found of great value and interest. 48 MANUAL OF THE APIABT. CHAPTER II. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOaY. In this chapter I shall give first the general anatomy of insects ; then the anatomy, and still more wonderful physiology of the honey-bee. ANATOMY OF INSECTS. In all insects the body is divided into three well-marked portions (Pig. 2) : the head fPigs. 4 and 5), which contains the mouth-organs, the eyes, both the compound and when present the simple, and the antennae ; the thorax, which is composed of three rings, and gives support to the one or two pairs of wings, and to the three pairs of legs ; and the abdo- men, which is composed of a variable number of rings, and gives support to the external sex-organs, and when present to the sting. Within the thorax there are little more than muscles, as the concentrated strength of insects, which ena- bles them to fly with such rapidity, dwells in this confined space. Within the abdomen, on the other hand, are the sex- organs, by far the greater and more important portions of the alimentary canal, and other important organs. ORGANS OF THE HEAD. Of these the mouth organs (Fig. 6) are most prominent. These consist of an upper lip — labrum — and under lip — labium — and two pairs of jaws which move sidewise ; the stronger, horny jaws, called mandibles, and the more membranous, but usually longer, maxillse. The labrum (Fig. 6, I) is well de- scribed in the name upper lip. It is attached, usually, by a movable joint to a similarly shaped piece above it, called cly- peus (Fig. 6, c), and this latter to the broad epicranium (Fig. 6, o), which contains the antennae, the compound, and, when present, the simple eyes. MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 49 The labium (Fig. 15) is not described by the name under lip, as its base forms the floor of the mouth, and its tip the tongue. The base is usually broad, and is called the men- tum, and from this extends the tongue (Fig. 15, a) or ligula. Tig. 6. Head of Bee much magnifled. o— Bplcranium. ^ ^ e 6— Compound eyesTS a a— Anteimse. c— Glypeus. J— Labrum. m — Jaws, m a;— 2d Jaws. 1c Jc— Labial palpL t— Ligula. On either side, near the junction of the ligula and mentum, arises a jointed organ rarely absent, called the labial palpus (Fig. 6, k7c), or, together, the labial palpi. Just within the angle formed by these latter and the ligula arise the para,- glosase (Fig. 15, d), one on either side. These are often wanting. 50 MANUAL OF THE APIAET. The jaws or mandibles (Fig. 6, m, m) arise one on either side just below and at the side of the labrum, or upper lip. These work sidewise instead of up and down as in higher an- imals, are frequently very hard and sharp, and sometimes armed with one or more teeth. A rudimentary tooth (Fig. 21, b) is visible on the jaws of drone and queen bees. Beneath the jaws or mandibles, and inserted a little far- ther back, are the second jaws or maxilla! (Fig. 6, mx), less dense and firm than the mandibles, but far more complex. They arise by a small joint, the cardo, next this is a larger joint, the stipes, from this extends on the inside the broad lacinia (Fig. 20.' c) or blade, usually fringed with hairs on its inner edge, towards the mouth ; while on the outside of the stipes are inserted the — from one to several jointed — maxil- lary palpi. In bees these are very small, and consist of two joints, and in some insects are wholly wanting. Sometimes, as in some of the beetles, there is a third member running from the stipes between the palpus and lacinia called the galea. The maxillae also move sidewise, and probably aid in holding and turning the food while it is crushed by the harder jaws, though in some cases they, too, aid in triturating the food. These mouth parts are very variable in form in dijGFerent in- sects. In butterflies and moths, two-wing flies and bugs, they are transformed into a tube, which in the last two groups forms a hard, strone beak or piercer, well exemplified in the mosquito and bed-bug. In all the other insects we find them much as in the bees, with the separate parts varying greatly in form, to agree with the habits and character of their pos- sessors. No wonder DeGreer and Fabrieius detected these varying forms as strongly indicative of the nature of the in- sect, and no wonder, too, that in their use they were so suc- cessful in forming a natural classification. Every apiarist will receive great benefit by dissecting these parts and studying their form and relations for himself. By getting his childreji interested in the, same, he will have con- ferred upon them one of the rarest of blessings. _ To dissect these parts, first remove the head and carefully pin it to a cork, passing the pin through, well back between the eyes. Now separate the parts by two needle points, made MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 51 by inserting a needle for half its length into a pine stick the shape of a pipe-stem, leaving' the point projecting for an inch or more. With one of these in each hand commence opera- tions. The head may be either side up. Much may be learned in dissecting large insects, even with no glass ; but in all cases, and especially in small insects, a good lens will be of great value. The best lens is one of ToUes', sold by Mr Stoddard, of the Boston optical works. These are very excellent and thus high priced, costing $14.00. Gray's trip- let hand-lenses are very good, are cheap, and can be procured for about $2.00 of any optician. The handle should have a hole through it to permit of mounting it above the object, so that it will hold itself. Tolles' lenses are easily mounted, in a stand which any one can contrive and make in twenty min- utes. I value my Tolles' lens even more highly than my large compound microscope, which cost $150. Were I obliged to part with either, the latter would go. I require my students to do a great deal of dissecting, which they enjoy very much and find very valuable. I would much rather that my boy would become interested in such study, than to have him possessor of infinite gold rings, or even a huge gold watch, with a tremendous charm. Let such pleasing recreation gain the attention of our boys, and they will ever contribute to our delight, and not sadden us with anxiety and fear. The antennae (Fig. 6, a. a) are the hom-Jike jointed organs sitiiated between or below and in front of the large compound eyes of al! insects. They are sometimes short, as in the house-fly, and sometimes very long, as in the grasshoppers. They are either straight, curved or elbowed (Fig. 6). In form, too, they are very various, as thread-like, tapering, toothed, knobbed, fringed, feathered, etc. It is known that a nerve passes into the antennae, but their exact function is little understood. That they serve as most delicate touch organs no apiarist can doubt. That they serve as organs of smell or hearing is not proved. That insects are conscious of sounds I think no observing person can doubt. It is proved by the call of the katy-did, the cicada and the cricket. What apia- rist too, has not noticed the ejBfect of various sounds made by the bees upon their comrades of the hive. How contagious 52 MANUAL OP THE APIARY. the sharp note of anger, the low hum of fear, and the pleas- ant tone of a new swarm as they commence to enter their new home. Now, whether insects take note of these vibrations, as we recognize pitch, or whether they just distinguish the tremor, I think no one knows. There is some reason to be- lieve that their delicate touch-organs may enable them to dis- criminate between vibrations, even more acutely, than can we by use of our ears. A slight jar will quickly awaken a colo- ny of hybrids, while a loud noise will pass unnoticed. If in- sects can appreciate with great delicacy the different vibratory conditions of the air by an excessive development of the sense of touch, then undoubtedly the antennae may be great aids. Dr. Clemens thought that insects could only detect at- mospheric vibrations. So, too, thought Linnaeus and Bonnet. Siebold thinks, as the antennae receive but one nerve, and are plainly touch-organs, they cannot be Tjrgans of hearing. Kirby has noticed that some moths turn their antennae towards the direction from which noise proceeds, and thus argues that an- tennse are organs of hearing. Grote, for a similar reason, thinks that the densely feathered antennae of the males of various night moths, serve both for smell and hearing. Prof A. M. Mayer and Mr. C. Johnson (see American Naturalist, vol. 8, p. 574) have by various ingenious experiments, proved conclusively, that the delicate, beautifully feathered antennae of the male mosquito are organs of hearing. That insects ha!Ve a very refined sense of smell is beyond question. How quickly the carrion-fly finds the carcass;' the scavenger the filth, and the bee the precious nectar. I have reared female moths in my study, and have been greatly surprised on the day of their leaving their cocoons, to find my room swarming with males. These bridegrooms en- tered an open window in the second-story of a brick building. How delicate must have been the sense by which they were led to make the visit, and thus made to grace my cabinet. Bees, too, have been known to dash against a shutter behind which were flowers, thus showing the superiority of their per- ception of odors, as also their poor vision. But odors are carried by the air, and must reach the insect through this me- dium.^ Is it not probable, that the various breathing mouths of insects are also so many noses, and that their delicate MANUAL OF THE APIAEY. 53 lining membranes abounding witb nerye filaments, are the great odor sentinels ? This view was maintained by both Lehman and Cuvier, and explains this delicate perception of scents, as the breathing mouths are large and numerous, and most so in insects like bees and moths, which are most sensi- tive to odors. How quickly the bees notice the scent of a strange bee or queen, or the peculiar odor of the venom. I have known a bee to sting a glove, and in a trice the glove would" be as a pin-cushion, with stings in lieu of pins. Some- times the bees will dart for many feet, guided by this odor. Yet the odor is very pungent, as I have frequently smelt the poison before I felt the sting. I have tried the experi- ments of Huber and Lubbock, and know that such insects as bees and ants will take no note of food after the loss of their antennae. But we must remember that this is a capital ope- ration. With loss of antennas, insects lose control of their motions, and in many ways show great disturbance. Is it not probable then that removing the antennae destroys the desire for food, as does amputation with ourselves ? Kirby believes with Huber, that there is a scent organ. Huber' s experi- ments on which he based this opinion are, as usual, very in- teresting. He presented a coarse hair dipped in oil of tur- pentine — a substance very repugnant to bees — to various parts of a bee engrossed in sipping honey. The bee made no ob- jection, even though it touched the ligula, until it approached the mouth above the mentum, when she -became much dis- turbed. He also filled a bee's mouth with paste, which soon har- dened, after which the bee paid no heed to honey placed near it. This was not so conclusive, as the bee may have been so disturbed as to lose its appetite. I have experimented a good deal, and am inclined to the following opinion : The antennae are very delicate touch-organs or feelers, and are so important in their function and connection that removal produces a se- vere shock, but further we know but little about their func- tion, if they have other, and from the very nature of the prob- lem we will find it very difficult of solution. The eyes are of two kinds, the compound, which are al- ways present in mature insects, and the ocelli or simple eyes, which may or may not be present. When present there are usually three, which if we join by lines, we will describe a 54 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. triangle, in the vertices of whose angles are the ocelli. Earely there are but two ocelli, and very rarely but one. The simple eyes (Fig. ^,fff.) are circular, and possess a cornea, lens and retina, which receives the nerve of sight. From the experiments of E6aumur and Swammerdam, which consisted in covering the eyes with varnish, they con- cluded that vision with these simple eyes is very indistinct, though by them the insect can distinguish light. Some have thought that these simple eyes were for vision at slight dis- tances. LarvEe, like spiders and myriapods, have only sim- ple eyes. The compound eyes (Fig. 2, e) are simply a cluster of sim- ple eyes, are situated one on either side of the head, and vary much in form and size. Between or below these are inserted the antennae. Sometimes these last are inserted in a notch of the eyes, and in a few cases actually divide each eye into two eyes. The eyes may meet above as in drones (Fig. 4), most two- wing flies and dragon-flies, or they may be considerably sepa- rated, as in the worker-bees (Fig. 5). The separate facets or simple eyes, of each compound eye, are hexagonal, or six- sided, and in the microscope look not unlike a section of honey-comb. The number of these is prodigious — Leeuwenhoek actually counted 12,000 in the eye of a dragon-fly — while some butterflies have over 17,000. The compound eyes are motionless, but from their size and sub-spherical shape, they give quite a range of vision. It is not likely that they are capable of adjustment to accord with different distances, and it has been supposed, from the direct darting flight of bees to their hives, and the awkward work they make in finding a hive when moved only for a short distance, that their eyes are best suited to long vision. Sir John Lubbock has proved, by some interesting experiments with strips of colored paper, that bees can distinguish colors. Honey was placed on a blue strip, beside several others of various colors. In the absence of the bees he changed the position of this strip, and upon their return the bees went to the blue strip rather than to the old position. Our practical apiarists have long been aware of this fact, and have con- formed their practice to the knowledge, in giving a variety of MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 55 colors to their hives. Apiarists have frequently noted that bees have a rare faculty of marking positions, but, for slight distances, their sense of color will correct mistakes which would occur if position alone was guide. APPENDAGES OF THE THORAX. The organs of flight are the most noticeable appendages of the thorax. The wings are usually four, though the Diptera have but two, and some insects — as the worker ants — have none. The front or primary wings (Fig. 3, A) are usually larger than the secondary or hind wings (Fig. 3, £), and thus the mesathoracic or middle ring of the thorax, to which they are attached, is usually larger than the mettathorax or third ring. The wings consist of a broad frame-work of veins (Fig. 3), covered by a thin, tough membrane. The main ribs or veins are variable in number, while towards the extremity of the wing are more or less cross-veins, dividing this portion of the wings into, more or less cells. In the higher groups these cells are few, and quite important in classifying. Es- pecially useful are the cells in the second row, from the frontal or costal edge of the front wings, called the sub-costal cells. Thus in the genus Apis there are three such cells (Fig. 3, A, 1, 2, 3), while in the Melipona there are only two. The ribs Fig. 7. Thorax of Bee magnijied three times. a, a, a— Muscles. b, 5— Crust. or veins consist of a tube within a tube. The inner one forming an air tube, the outer one carrying blood. On the costal edge of the secondary wings we often find hooks, to attach it to the front wings (Fig. 3, £, a). The wings are moved by powerful muscles, compactly loca- ted in the thorax (Fig. 7, a, a, a), whose strength, as well as the rapidity of the vibrations of the wings when flight is rapid, 56 MANtTAL OF THE APIARY. are really beyond computation. Thinlc of a tiuy fly outstrip- ping the fleetest horse in the chase, and then marvel at this wondrous mechanism. The legs (Fig. 2, (/, g, g) are six in number in all mature in- sects, two on the lower side of each ring of the thorax. These are long or short, weak or strong, according to the habit of the insect. Each leg consists of the following joints or parts : The coxae (Fig. 24), which move like a ball and socket joint in the close-fitting coxal cavities of the body-rings. Next to these follow in order the broad tracanter, the large, broad femur (Pig. 2, g', 1), the long, slim tibia (Fig. 2, g\ 2), frequently bearing strong spines at or near its end, called tibial spurs, and followed by the from one to five-jointed tarsi (Pig. 2, g', 3, 3, 3, 3, 3). All these parts move freely upon each other, and will vary in form to agree with their use. At the end of the last tarsal joint are two hooked claws (Pig. 2, g', 4), between which are the pulvilli, which are not air-pumps as usually described, but rather glands, which secrete a sticky substance which enables insects to stick to a smooth wall, even though it be above them. The legs, in fact the whole crust, is more or less dense and hard, owing to the deposit within the structure of a hard substance known as chitine. INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. The muscles of insects are usually whitish. Sometimes I have noticed quite a pinkish hue about the muscles of the thorax. They vary in form and position to accord with their use. The mechanism of contraction is the same as in higher animals. The ultimate fibers of the voluntary muscles, when highly magnified, show the striae or cross-lines the same as do the voluntary muscles of vertebrates, and are very beauti- ful as microscopic objects. The separate muscles are not bound together by a membrane as in higher animals. In in- sects the muscles are widely distributed, though, as we should expect, they are concentrated in the thorax and head. In in- sects of swiftest flight, like the bee, the thorax (Pig. 7, a, a, a) is almost entirely composed of muscles ; the oesophagus, which carries the food to the stomach, being very small. At the base of the jaws, too, the muscles are large and firm. MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 57 The number of muscles is astounding. Lyonnet counted over 3,000 in a single caterpillar, nearly eight times as many as are found in the human body. The strength, too, of in- sects is prodigious. There must be quality in muscles, for muscles as large as those of the elephant, and as strong as those of the flea, would not need the fulcrum which the old philosopher demanded, in order to move the world. Fleas "have, been made to draw miniature cannon, chains, and even wagons many hundred times heavier than themselves. The nerves of insects are in no wise peculiar so far as known, except in position. As in our bodies, some are knotted or have ganglia, and some are not. The main nervous cord runs along the under or ventral side of the body (Fig. 8), separates near the head, and after passing around the oesophagus, enlarges to form the largest of the ganglia, which serves as a brain. The minute nerves ex- tend everywhere, and in squeezing out the viscera of an in- sect are easily visible. The organs of circulation in insects are quite insignificant. The heart is a long tube situated along the back, and receives the blood at valvular openings along its sides which only permit the fluid to pass in, when by contraction it is forced towards the head and emptied into the. general cavity. Thus the heart only serves to keep the blood in motion. Ac- cording to the best authorities, there are no special vessels to carry the blood to various organs. Nor are they necessary, as this nutritive fluid everywhere bathes the alimentary canal, and thus easily receives nutriment, or gives waste by osmosis, everywhere surrounds the tracheae or air-tubes — the insect's lungs — and thus receives that most needful of all food, oxy- gen, and gives the baneful carbonic acid, everywhere touches the various organs, and gives and takes as the vital opera- tions of the animal require. The blood is light colored, and almost destitute of discs or corpuscles, which are so numerous in the blood of higher ani- mals, and which give our blood its red color. The function of these discs is to carry oxygen, and as oxygen is carried everywhere through the body by the ubiquitous air-tubes of insects, we see the discs are not needed. Except these semi- fluid discs, which are real organs, and nourished as are other 58 MANUAL OP THE APIARY. organs, the blood of higher animals is entirely fluid, in all normal conditions, and contains not the organs themselves or any part of them, but only the elements, which are absorbed Fig. 8. Nervous System of the Drone magnified four times. by the tissue and converted into the organs, or, to be scien- tific, are assimilated. As the blood of insects is nearly des- MANUAI, OF THE APIARY. 59 titute of these discs, it is almost wholly fluid, and is almost wholly made up of nutritious substance. The respiratory or breathing system of insects has already been referred to. Along the sides of the body are the spira- cles or breathing mouths, which vary in number. These are armed with a complex valvular arrangement which excludes dust or other noxious particles. These spiracles are lined with a delicate membrane which abounds with nerves, which were referred to in speaking of them as smelling organs. From these extend the labyrinth of air-tubes (Fig. 2, /,/'), which. breathe vitalizing oxygen into every part of the insect organism. In the more active insects — as in bees — the main tracheae, one on each side of the abdomen, are expanded into large air-sacks (Fig. 2, f). Insects often show a respiratory motion, which in bees is often very marked. Newport has shown that in bees the rapidity of the respiration gauges the heat in the hive, and thus we see why bees, in times of severe cold, which they essay to keep at bay by forced respiration, consume much food, exhale much foul air and moisture, and are liable to disease. Newport found that in cases of severe cold there would be quite a rise of mercury in a thermometer which he suspended in the hive amidst the cluster. In the larva state, many insects breathe by fringe-like gills. The larval mosquito has gills in form of hairy tufts, while in the larval dragon-fly the gills are inside the rectum, or last part of the intestine. This insect, by a muscular effort, draws the water slowly in at the anus, when it bathes these singularly- placed branchiae, and then makes it serve a further turn by forcibly expelling it, when the insect is sent darting ahead. Thus this curious apparatus not only furnishes oxygen, but also a mode of motion. In the pupse of insects there is little or no motion, yet important organic changes are taking place — the worm-like, ignoble, creeping, often repulsive larva, is soon to appear as the airy, beautiful, active, almost ethereal im^ago. So oxygen, the most essential — the sine qua non — ^of all animal food, is still needed. The bees are too wise to seal the brood-cell with impervious wax, but rather add the porous capping, made of wax and pollen. The pupse no less than the larvae of some two-wing flies, which live in water, have long tubes which reach far out for the 60 MANUAL OF THE APIAKT. vivifying air, and are thus called rat-tailed. Even the pupae of the mosquito, awaiting in its liquid home the glad time when it shall unfold its tiny wings and pipe its war-note, has a similar arrangement to secure the gaseous pabulum. The digestive apparatus of insects is very interesting, and, as in our own class of animals, varies very much in length and complexity, as the hosts of insects vary in their habits. As in mammals and birds, the length, with some striking excep- tions, varies with the food. Carnivorous or flesh-eating in- sects have a short alimentary canal, while in those that feed on vegetable food it is much longer. Fig. 9. Alimentary Canal. o— Honey Btomacb. c — Urinary tubes. &— True stomach.